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THE 



ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



FIRST 

SECOND 

THIRD 

FOURTH 

FIFTH 

SIXTH 

SEVENTH 

EIGHTH 

NINTH 

TENTH 

ELEVENTH 



edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771. 

ten 17771784. 

eighteen 1788 1797. 

twenty 1801 1810. 

twenty 1815 1817. 

twenty 1823 1824. 

twenty-one ' 1830 1842. 

twenty-two 1853 1860. 

twenty-five 1875 1889. 
ninth edition and eleven 

supplementary volumes, 1902 1903. 

published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911. 



COPYRIGHT 

in all countries subscribing to the 
Bern Convention 

by 
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS 

of the 
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THE 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL 

INFORMATION 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XIX 

MUN to ODDFELLOWS 




Cambridge, England: 
at the University Press 

New York, 35 West 32nd Street 
1911 



Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, 

by 
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company 



INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL 
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. 



A. A. W. H. AMBROSIUS ARNOLD WILLEM HUBRECHT, LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. 

Professor of Zoology, and Director of the Institute of Zoology in the University-^ Nemertina (in part). 
of Utrecht. Author of Nemertines. I 

A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. I Numbers, Partition of. 

See the biographical article : CAYLEY, ARTHUR. 

A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J JJematoda (in part); 

Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, i Nematomorpna; 

Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I- Nemertina (in part). 

A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f 

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Nicholas, Henry; 

College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- -j Northumberland, John Dudley, 

1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of duke of. 

England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I 

A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. \ 

See the biographical article : GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ 

r Mutian; 

A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J ,_. . 

Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. US ' 

1 Myconius, Oswald. 



Nnn n|ot nn icm a n 
M 80 ? 1 " 0111 l I* 



A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. 

See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \ 

A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINBLER, C.I.E. f W | eh ,. 

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ m 

A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Nestorians (f part); 

Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent) NestOHUS (in part); 
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of | New Jerusalem Church; 
Mysore Educational Service. [ Nicholas of Basel. 

A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Mytholop; 

See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. Name (Local and Personal 

Names). 
A. LI. D. ARTHUR LLEWELLYN DAVIES (d. 1907). 

Trinity College, Cambridge; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant -I Negligence. 

Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education. 

A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). (" 

Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of-{ Municipium. 
Roman History, 133-70 B.C. l_ 

( Nestor; 

Nidiflcation (in part); 

A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ., . Vn ^ . 

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. tmgaie, fi lay. 

Nutcracker; Nuthatch; 

[ Oeydrome. 

A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f 

President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ; 

&c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical I w a tal (in hn.rf) 

practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, ' 

and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 

1910. 

A. R. S. SIR ALEXANDER RUSSELL SIMPSON, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.). 

Emeritus Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. Dean of the Faculty of -I Obstetrics. 
Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905. 

A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S. f 

Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, \ Nebula. 
Cambridge. 

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributions, appears in the final volume. 

v 

1988 



all] 

n 



VI 

A. S. P.-P. 

A. Ts. 

A. W. H.* 
A. W. Hu. 

B. 

S. R 



B. S. P. 

B. W.* 

C. F. M. B. 

C. H. Ha. 
C. H. W. J. 

C. K. S. 
C. M. 

C. Mi. 

C.PL 
C. R. B. 

C. S. S. 

D. B. Ma. 
D. F. T. 
D. G. H. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. 

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Mysticism. 
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. 

ALBERT THOMAS. 

Member of the French Chamber of Deputies. Contributor to Vol. xi. of theH Napoleon III. 
Cambridge Modern History. Author of Le second Empire, &c. I 



ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. 

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. 



Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900 



I Nonjurors. 



'ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. f 

Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National J 
Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives 1 
of the English Saints ; &c. I 

-LORD BALCARRES, F.S.A., M.P. 

Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection 
of Ancient Buildings; Vice-Chairman of National Trust. Junior Lord of the' 
Treasury, 1903-1905. M.P. for Chorley division of Lanes from 1895. Son and 
heir of the 26th earl of Crawford. 



Museums of Art.. 



SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., ASSOC.INST.C.E., 

M.INST.M.E. 

Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of 
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical " 
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of 
Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and 
its Products; Chemical Technology; &c. 



Naphtha. 



BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). 

Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. 

BECKLES WILLSON. 

Author of The Hudson's Bay Company ; The Romance of Canada ; &c. 

CHARES FREDERIC MOBERLY BELL. 

Managing Director of The Times. Correspondent in Egypt, 1865-1890. Author of 
Khedives and Pashas; From Pharaoh to Fellah; &c. 



j Norway: Early History. 



Newfoundland. 



JJubar Pasha. 



Author of ) Nineveh. 



CARLTON HUNTLY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. r iis/.i.i., m ru 

Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City. Member J * las ' m " IV 
of the American Historical Association. [ (popes). 

REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D. 

Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. 
Assyrian Deeds and Documents. 

CLEMENT KING SHORTER. r 

Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes :J * 
Life and Letters ; &c. [ Illustrated Papers. 

CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. f 

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik < Nicaea, Council of. 
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstlhums ; &c. [ 

CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r 

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- 
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902- 
1903- 

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES L. f 

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Neustria. 
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. 

CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. 



Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow J . 

of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. ] Nlkltin; 

Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [ Norden, John. 

CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. r 

Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J Mnclim Ihn 
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of] 
the Nervous System. |_ 

DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r 

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of J mr.,-,1,. _ nl i 
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selec-} rauscle 
lions from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. [_ 

DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f 

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The 
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical 
works. 

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. 

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. 
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1899 and 
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at 
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



vn 



D. H. 
D. M. W. 

D. N. P. 

D. Wr. 

E. A. F. 
E. B. T. 
E. F. S. 

E.G. 

E. Gr. 
E.He. 

E. H. M. 
Ed. M. 

E. N.-R. 
E. Pr. 

E. P. C. 
E. R. L. 



E. S. G. 
E. Wa. 

E. W. H.* 

F. E. B. 

F. G. M. B. 
F. G. P. 



DAVID HANNAY. 

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. 
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. 



{Napoleonic Campaigns: 
Naval Operations; 
Navarino, Battle of; Navy; 
Nelson; Nile, Battle of the. 



SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I. E., K.C.V.O. 

Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart- 
ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumes (loth edition) of the { Nihilism. 
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question; 
The Web of Empire; &c. 

DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). 

Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- I 

intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. T Nutrition. 

Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human I 

Physiology; &c. 
DANIEL WRIGHT, M.D. 

Translated the History of Nepaul, from the Parbatiya, with an " Introductory -| Nepal (in part). 

Sketch of the Country and People of Nepaul." L 

EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. (" 

See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. \ Nobility; Normans. 



EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D. 

See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT. 

EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. 

Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. 
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects, 
of Bell's " Cathedral '' Series. 

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. 

See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. 



Oath. 



Member of n llt ,i,o,>*,, 
Joint-editor 1 lnk aesy. 



ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. 

See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. 



: Norton, Thomas; 
J Norway: Norwegian Literature; 
[ Novel. 

'. Mycenae; Naucratis. 



Librarian of the Royal 



Geographical -j Nyasa. 



Neuri. 



Nascimento. 



EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. 

Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 
Society, London. 

ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. 

University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian 
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. 

EDWARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D. 

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des 
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. 

EUSTACE NEVILLE-ROLFE, C.V.O. (1845-1908). -f Nanles 

Formerly H.M. Consul-General at Naples. Author of Naples in the 'Nineties; &c. \ ' 

EDGAR PRESTAGE. 

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. 
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- 
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters 
of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. 

E. P. CATHCART, M.D. 

Grieve Lecturer in Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow. 

SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f 

Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. 
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. 
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. 
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. 
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. 

EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S. 

Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of Com- 
parative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. 

REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. 

Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton 
College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. 



Narses (King of Persia). 



| Nutrition (in part). 



Mussel (in part). 



Myzostomida. 



Oar. 



SIR EDWARD WALTER HAMILTON, G.C.B., K.C.V.O. (1847-1908). r v .. . n 

Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury, 1902-1908. Author of National J " onal " 
Debt Conversion and Redemption. Conversions (in part). 



FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. 

Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at 
Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" Expedition Commission, 
1882-1884. Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Coloration; &c. 

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. 

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. 

FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. 

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on 
' 



... ,. -, 

lematooa (in part). 



r M uscu i ar system- 
" 



-, . 

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Nerve; 
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L Nervous System. 



viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f 

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of 
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor -i Numantia. 
and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, 1891-1907. Author of Monographs on 
Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. 

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. 

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J 
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial | 
German Archaeological Institute. L 

F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f Nassarawa; 

See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Nigeria. 

F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. (" jj aDO i eon i c 

Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the~{ f,... 
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign ; The Jena Campaign; &c. L ** 

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. ("Natal (in part); Niger; 

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Nile (in part). 

F. W. Ha. FREDERICK WILLIAM HASLUCK, M.A. r 

Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's^ Mysia. 
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. [_ 

F. W. Mo. FREDERICK WALKER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. f" 

Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to the London County J Neuralgia; Neurasthenia; 
Asylums. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution. Editor of Archives | Neuropathology. 
of Neurology. I 

G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f 

Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. University of Oxford. . 
Fellow of Oriel College; Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, 
Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. L 

G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. [ 

Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, 1884-1896. 4 Number. 
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L 

G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. 

Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and 

Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Com- -\ New South Wales: History. 

mission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the 

Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. 

G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. \ 

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J w ,, . , 
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the j letnerianos. 
British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundary Arbitrations. [ 

G. F. H.* GEORGE FRANCIS HILL, M.A. r 

Assistant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of I v um j sma tics 
the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient"] 
Sicily ; Historical Greek Coins ; Historical Roman Coins ; &c. L 

G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r 

Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Uni- J Nahum 
versity of Oxford. 1908-1909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature of the Old | 
Testament; &c. t 

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. (Lond.). f 

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Neuroptera. 
their Structure and Life. 

G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f 

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J. Northampton, Assize of. 
Society. [ 

G. K. G. GROVE KARL GILBERT, LL.D. r 

Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey. President of the American Geological Society, J wj aeara 
1892-1893 and 1909-1910. Formerly Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and 1 
Johns Hopkins Universities. Author of Glaciers and Glaciation ; &c. L 

G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r-vi j._ rn, u - - 

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J HaDl? 
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. ( Nawawl; Nosairis. 

H. A. G. HERBERT APPOLD GRUEBER, F.S.A. 

Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration I 

Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the'] Numismatics (in part). 

Roman Republic ; &c. 

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f National Debt <i 

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the llth edition of -| H 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. [ newspapers. 

H. D. T. H. DENNIS TAYLOR. / 

Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lenses. Author of A System of Applied Optics. \ Objective. 

H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., Pn.D. r 

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of J Nasir Khosrau; 
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 NizamL 
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix 

H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. fvMii.. HT / j i- i 

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author \ * 
of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. I tton. 

H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.L. f . 

See the biographical article : PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS. \ "' 

H. L. B. HANS LIEN BRAEKSTAD. f 

Vice-Consul for Norway in London. Author of The Constitution of the Kingdom of-< Norway: History, 1814-1007. 
Norway; &c. L 

H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. f 

Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in i Norns. 
Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. 

H, BI. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A> 

Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, j Necker (in -barf) 
University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution ; Modern ] 
European History ; &c. 

H. M. T. HENRY MARTYN TAYLOR, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f 

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lecturer. Smith's ^ Newton, Sir Isaac. 
Prizeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Press Euclid. L 

H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. f 

Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Morth Sea; 
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University, j Norwegian Sea. 
Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. L 

H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. 

Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal 
Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. 



Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St . 
Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the 
Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The 
Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of 
British Rainfall. 



Ocean and Oceanography. 



H. St. HENRY STURT. M.A. 



{ 



mj,,n 



Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. 
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. r 

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Murimuth* Nennius. 
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne. 

H. Wy. MAJOR-GENERAL HENRY WYLIE, C.S.I. f 

Officiating Agent to the Governor-General of India for Baluchistan, 1898-1900. < Nepal (in part). 
Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. I. 

H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. r 

Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J _. .. . ,. .. 

Oxford, 1901. Author of "Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop- 1 Oaoian (in part). 
ology," in Mansfield College Essays; &c. L 

L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. (" Nachmanides; 

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, I m a j ara . 
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \ " " 
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. {. "asi. 

J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /- u.,,, *-, c~ n ^\ 

See the biographical article : CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER. \ H( ' er ' V n f art >- 

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. (Lond.). f Mncphoiiraiir- 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -{ rau!>l ' ne *"* 
The Geology of Building Stones. I Neocomian. 

J. A. L. R. JOHN ATHELSTAN LAURIE RILEY, M.A. J .., / . .% 

Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks ; &c. \ Nl istonans ( P art >- 

J. A. P.* REV. JAMES .ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. f 

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Editor < Numbers, BOOK of. 
of Book of Numbers in the " Polychrome " Bible; &c. L 

J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f 

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Nicholas (King of Monte- 
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 neern) 
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [ 

J. F. -K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r 

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and_ Literature, Liverpool University. 
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. J Nunez de Arce. 
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of 
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L 

J. Hd. JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD (1827-1904). (* 

Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical Licensing Reform -| Music Halls. 
Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chronicles; &c. [ 

J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. [ Name: Gree * and &"*an 

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Names; 

I Noricum. 

J. H. H. JOHN HENRY Mn>DLET9N, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r 

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Mural TWoratinn fi -hurt)- 
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J " U6COra 
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; 
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 



x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f 

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Neville (Family). 
Pedigree. I 

J. Holl. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lixx.D. (" 

Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J M ann i onn i 
versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic \ * a P' eon 
Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. 

3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, Lrrr.D. 

Professor of English Literature in the New York Jewish Theological Seminary of I 
America. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corre- 1 Nethinim. 
spending Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of 
Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. 

3. J. Lr. JOSEPH JACKSON LISTER, M.A., F.R.S. f M yce tozoa. 

Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. 

J. L. E. D. JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER. 

Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to { Observatory. 
Kepler; &c. I 

J. M. By. J. M. BRYDON. f Nfisfl pi d 

Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic, &c. \ w 

J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. fNaucrarv 

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -! ^ , . N 

College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Neoplaionism (in part). 

J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. (" 

Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Nejef ; 
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, ] Nippur. 
1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I 

J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. I" 

Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J ___ ux 
gascar. Member de 1'Academie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; ] nossl " De> 
Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c. I 



J. S. Bl. REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. 

Assistant-editor of the o.th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of -< Nestorius (in part). 
the Encyclopaedia Biblica. [_ 

J.S.P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, DSc.F.G.S f Mylonite; Napoleonite; 

Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology ml M.-I.. Wan i,.]i n - c uon ;* . 

Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsbv 1 5C *' We P hell ne-Syenite, 

Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Nephehmtes; Obsidian. 

J. S. K. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). 

Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. 

Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical^ National Debt (in part). 

Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of I 

the Geographical Journal. 
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rNikolayev (in part); 

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical i Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part); 

Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [Novgorod (in part). 



J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. fiviiiccoi c A/, 

Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly) ?T~ 
Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in | Nautilus; 
The University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. [ Octopus. 



JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f M.-I,..,, / .,-,,1 

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ a 



J. T. S.* 

J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 

All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -J Navigation Laws. 
College. 

J. W.* JAMES WARD, LL.D. f . 

See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. >m - 

Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. 

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for 

United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Naturalization. 

1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict of 

Laws; Chapters on the Principles of International Law; part i. " Peace "; part ii. 

J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f 

Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I New South Wales: Geology; 

Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 "New Zealand: Geology, 
of Australia; &c. 

J. W. L. G. JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (~ 

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J H aD ; er John 
Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger ] 
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. {. 

K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f M u . sic * ! , Box; 

Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the'} Na " Violin; 
Orchestra. . L Nay; Oboe (in part). 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi 

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Muscovite* 

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j M . ,. 
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1 ne ' 

logical Magazine. [ Niccolite. 

L. R. F. LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D. f 

Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford University Lecturer in Classical J M f 
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member 1 y sl *ry. 
of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Evolution of Religion ; &c. I 

L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. r 

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I .. 

in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, ] "aples, Kingdom Of. 

and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. L 

L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A. t 

King's College, Cambridge. Assistant in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian j Mj nnllr . T/.. TV,;.,... v 
Antiquities, British Museum; Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College and London 1 
University. Author of The Seven Tablets of Creation ; &c. I 

M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. fltfohn- Nor<ral- Ninih- 

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion { * mD) 

of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L " usKu ; Oannes. 

M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. 

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Nauarchia. 
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. 

N. THE RT. HON. LORD NORTHCLIFFE. 

Founder of the Daily Mail; Chief Proprietor of The Times, and other papers and I Newspapers: Price of Ncws- 
periodicals. Chairman of the Associated Newspapers, Ltd., and the Amalgamated 1 papers. 
Press, Ltd. L 

N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f jj ew York (in 

Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. \ 

0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Nnrwav rw -/,*,.,, ,*,j 

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the 1 ao **' . wgrapny a 
British Association. I Statistics. 

Professor of Geography in the University of Kiel, and Lecturer in the Imperial \ Ocean and Oceanography (in 
Naval Academy. Author of Handbuch der Ozeanographie. part) . 

f New Siberia Archipelago; 
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. J Nikolayev (in part) ; 

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. j Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part); 

{ Novgorod (in part). 
P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., LITT.D., F.S.A. f" 

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. |_ Myron. 

P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. I" 

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I N. 
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 O. 
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. 

P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f 

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. ] Neer, Van der (in part). 
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. 

P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. 

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J , T>I. i r *; 

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 Morwa y* Physical Geography. 
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I 

R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. 

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De- 
limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary 
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c. 

R. C. T. SIR RICHARD CARNAC TEMPLE, BART., C.I.E. r 

Lieut.-Colonel. Formerly Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hon. -| Nicobar Islands. 
Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of Andamanese Language; &c. [ 

R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. f Newman, Francis William; 

See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \Newton, Sir C. T. 

R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MACNEILL, M.A. r 

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's < Murray Lord George 
Gazette, London. 

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Muntjac; 

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J M us ir Ox- 
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer\ , . ' 
of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. I Mylodon. 

R. La. ROBERT LATOUCHE. 

Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Author of Histoire du comte du -j Normandy. 
Maine au X. et au XI. siecle. 



R. S. P. 



xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f 

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the -aAHae^-u- Nonean uonc- 
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J "* en> Hans > 

1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 Nikon. 

to 1706; &c. 

i * 

R. S. B. SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL, F.R.S., LL.D. 

Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, University of Cambridge. I ij e i. u i ar Thpnrv 
Director of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal j neDUla neory. 
Astronomer of Ireland, 1874-1892. Author of The Story of the Heavens; &c. 

REGINALD STUART POOLE, LL.D. Jw,, m i.... / ,\ 

See the biographical article : POOLE, REGINALD STUART. \ Numismatics (in part) . 

R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMANN TARR. f 

Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the -j New York (in part). 
U.S. Geological Survey. Author of Physical Geography of New York State. [_ 

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. f 

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, 

Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Nabataeans (in part) ; 
Aramaic, London University, 19041908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904 ] Nazarite (in part) 
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of 
Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient [ 
Palestine; &c. 

St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f Nicole 

See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, ist Earl of. \ 

S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f 

Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J Naegeli. 
Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the University of 1 
London. Author of Student's Text Book of Botany; &c. 

S. K. STEN KONOW, PH.D. I" 

Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de 1'Academie J MundSs. 
Frangaise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana ; The Karpuramanjari ; Munda j 
and Dravidian. 

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. f __. - D , A 

See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Neptu 

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., LITT.D. f Nemorensis Lacus; Nepi; 

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Nola; Nomentana, Via; 
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the-| Nomentum; Nora; Norba; 
Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of Novara; Nuceria Alfaterna; 
the Roman Campagna. [ Nuoro 

T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. f M 

Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, J New South Wales: 
1886-1905. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account | Geography and Statistics, 
of Australia and New Zealand; &c. L 

T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J Name: Law; 

Trinity College, Dublin. I Octroi. 

T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. f 

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- -j Negro (in part). 
logical Society. (. 

T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r H.,,*--!-*,,. 

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of . 

the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of\ North Sea Fisheries Conven- 

International Practice and Diplomacy ; &c. M. P. for Blackburn, 1910. [ tion. 

T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. / 

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. \ NeO-Caesarea, Synod Of. 

T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., LITT.D. f , v r 

See the biographical article : HODGHN, THOMAS. \ NarS6S ^ Roman General >- 

T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. \ Muscat; 

Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier. Surveys, India, 1892-) North- West Frontier Pro- 
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1 ., 
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. L 

T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f 

Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. { Occam, William of. 
Author of Life of Luther ; &c. L 

T. W. R. D THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. r 

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali 

Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal -{ Nagarjuna; Nikaya. 
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; 
Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. L 

V. H. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. f 

Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the < Oboe (in part). 
Legion of Honour. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii 

W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern), r 
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's 
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of J Neuchatel. 
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in 
History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. L 

W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Murat- Nibeluneenlied- 

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, < 
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. L Nlcnol S I (of Russia). 

W. Bl. WILLIAM BLAIN, C.B. (d. 1908). f National Debt: Conversions 

Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Accounts, 1903-1908. \ (in part). 

W. Cr. WALTER CRANE. f Mnral narnratinn (in t>n.rt\ 

See the biographical article : CRANE, WALTER. \ M 

W. E. G. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f 

Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,-^ Nile (in part). 
Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L 

W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f ., 

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ f 4nce ' 

London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). |_ Obscenity. 

W. F. R. WILLIAM FIDDIAN REDDAWAY, M.A. r 

Censor of Non-Collegiate Students, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's J Norway: History 
College. Author of " Scandinavia," in Vol. xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. 1 

W. F. W. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., Pn.D. r 

Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and 

Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association ! Negro (United States). 
and Secretary of the American Economical Association. Author of The Divorce 
Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. I 

W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. I" 

H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; 4 Natal: Geology. 
Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining; &c. 



W. H. Be. REV^ WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT^M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. 

i.J 



Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Nimrod; 
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ; Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Noah 
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I 



W. H. F. SLR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f ,__.,", 

See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1 

W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. f 

Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author of -j Mussel, Alfred de. 
Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c. 

W. J. H. WILLIAM JACOB HOLLAND, A.M., D.D., LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. f 

Director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg. President of the American Association "j Museums of Science, 
of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annals and Memoirs of Carnegie Museum. I 

W. L. F. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. f 

Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary -| Nullification. 
History of Reconstruction ; &c. 

W. L. G. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r 

Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J W nw Rrnnciik 
Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 ' ew BrunswlcK 
Council (Canadian Series). L 

W. Mo. WILLIAM MORRIS. /M,,I T\- *-/ 

See the biographical article : MORRIS, WILLIAM. \ Mural Decoratl <" (* 

W. M. D. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. f 

Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical i North America. 
Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c. 

W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f ... 

See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. \ munu0t 

W. 0. M. WILLIAM O'CONNOR MORRIS (d. 1904). 

Formerly Judge of County Courts, Ireland; and Professor of Law to the King's J nTnnnnll Daniel 
Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commanders of Modern Times; Irish History] ' uallel ' 

Ireland, 1798-1898; &c. L 

W. P. R. THE HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. f 

Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner 
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and Justice, New-^ New Zealand. 
Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; 
&c. 

W. R. E. H. WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S. f 

Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Nitrnzlvpprin 
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- 1 
Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. L 



XIV 

iV . r\. I"l j 

W. R. M.* 
W. R. S. 

W. S. IVl. 

W. T. A. 
W. W. R.* 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). r 

Formerly Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages in the University of I ,,_*,.,. 

.Oxford. Author of Russia; Slavonic^ neslor - 



Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution 
Literature; &c. 

WILLIAM ROBERT MARTIN. 

Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author 
of Treatise on Navigation and Nautical Astronomy; &c. 

WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. 

See the biographical article : SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. 

WILLIAM SYMINGTON M'CORMICK, M.A., LL.D. 

Secretary to the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor 
of English, University College, Dundee. Author of Lectures on Literature; &c. 

WALKER TALLMADGE ARNDT, M.A. 

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D. PH. 

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. 



I 

t Navigation. 

f Nabataeans (in part) ; 
I Nazarite (in part) ; 
1 Numeral; 
I Obadiah (in part). 

I Occleve. 

| New York (in part). 
Nimes, Councils of. 



PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES 



Munich. 

Murad. 

Muratori. 

Mushroom. 

Mutilation. 

Mysore. 

Narcissus. 

Narcotics. 

Nashville. 

Nassau. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

New Caledonia. 



Newcastle, Dukes of. 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
New England. 
New Guinea. 
New Hampshire. 
New Hebrides. 
New Jersey. 
New Mexico. 
New Orleans. 
New York City. 
Ney. 

Niam-Niam. 
Nicaragua. 



Nice. 

Nickel. 

Nightingale, Florence. 

Nimes. 

Nitre-Compounds. 

Nitrogen. 

Norfolk, Earls and Dukes 

of. 

Norfolk. 
Northampton, Earls and 

Marquesses of. 
Northamptonshire. 
North Carolina. 



North Dakota. 
Northumberland, Earls and 

Dukes of. 
Northumberland. 
Norwich. 
Nottingham. 
Nottinghamshire. 
Novaya Zemlya. 
Nuremberg. 
Nursing. 
Nut. 
Oak. 
Oates, Titus. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XIX 



MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841- ), 
French politician, was born at Lumigny, in the department of 
Seine-et-Marne, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the 
army, saw much service in Algeria (1862), and took part in 
the fighting around Metz in 1870. On the surrender of Metz, 
he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-la-Chapelle, whence he 
returned in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the 
Commune. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself 
to advocating a patriarch type of Christian Socialism. His elo- 
quence made him the most prominent member of the Cercles 
Catholiques d'Ouvriers, and his attacks on Republican social 
policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war. 
He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the 
following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate 
for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure 
his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order 
of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared 
invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August, 
and for many years was the most conspicuous leader of the 
anti-Republican party. " We form," he said on one occasion, 
'' the irreconcilable Counter-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he 
had declared himself opposed to universal suffrage, a declaration 
that lost him his seat from 1879 to 1881. He spoke strongly 
against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chiefly 
through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was 
given to General Boulanger. But as a faithful Catholic he obeyed 
the encyclical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a 
Republican government, provided that it respected religion. 
In the following January he received from the pope a letter 
commending his action, and encouraging him in his social 
reforms. He was defeated at the general election of that 
year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In 
1897 he succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French 
Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style 
and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few 
pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Ma voca- 
tion sociale (1908) he wrote an explanation and justification of 
his career. 

MUN, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics, 
was the third son of John Mun, mercer, of London. He began 
by engaging in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled 
down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member 
of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing 
commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published 
A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies. But 
it is by his England's Treasure by Forraign Trade that he is 
nx. i 



remembered in his history of economics. Although written 
possibly about 1630, it was not given to the public until 1664, 
when it was " published for the Common good by his son John," 
and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high 
treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of 
the theory of the balance of trade. 

MUNCHAUSEN, BARON. This name is famous in literary 
history on account of the amusingly mendacious stories known as 
the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilling 
book of 49 pages was published in London (as we know from the 
Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen' s 
Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia. 
No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently 
identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher 
of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it 
to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out in 
1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in 
the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra- 
tions under the title of Gulliver Reviv'd: the Singular Travels, 
Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnik- 
houson, commonly pronounced Munchaitsen; as he relates them 
over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions 
rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet 
Gottfried August Burger, from the fifth edition, was printed 
at Gottingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793), 
which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title, Or the Vice of 
Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1 792 a 
Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller, 
whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity 
and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu- 
larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations 
were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T. 
Rowlandson, 1809; A. Crowquill, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the 
French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dore, 1862; W. Strang 
and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen, 
the " drawer of the long-bow " par excellence, has become part 
of the common stock of the world's story-telling. 

The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824 
he was generally identified with Burger, who made the .German 
translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein- 
hard, in the Berlin Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the 
matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich 
Raspe (q.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at 
Gottingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von 
Miinchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von 
Miinchhausen (1720-1797) had been in the Russian service and 



MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN MUNDAS 



served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on 
his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his 
friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by 
relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and 
sportsman. His stories became a byword among his circle, 
and Raspe, when hard up f^r a living in London, utilized the 
suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much 
also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Heinrich Bebel's 
Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. Lange's Ddiciae academicae 
(1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula, 
Castiglione's Cortcgiano (1528), the Travels of the Finkenritter, 
attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the i6th century, and 
other works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible 
for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book- 
sellers' hacks, from such sources as Lucian's Vera historia, or 
the Voyages imaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken 
from Baron de Toll's Memoirs (Eng. Irans. 1785), the conlem- 
porary aeronaulical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any 
topical " sensations " of the moment, such as Bruce's explora- 
tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have 
it, a classical instance of the fanlastical mendacious literary 
genre. 

See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's 
edition of 1895. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von 
Mtinchhausen in 1795 and found him very uncommunicative, brought 
out a German edition in 1849, with a valuable essay on pseudology 
in general. There is useful material in Carl Muller-Fraureuth's Die 
deutschenLugendichtungenaufMunchkausen(i88i)andinGriesbacYi's 
edition of Burger's translation (1890). 

MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH, 

FREIHERR VON (1806-1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who 
wrote under the pseudonym " Friedrich Halm >; ), was born al 
Cracow on Ihe 2nd of April 1806, the son of a districl judge. 
Educaled al firsl al a private school in Vienna, he afterwards 
altended lectures al Ihe university, and in 1826, at the early 
age of twenty, married and entered Ihe governmenl service. 
In 1840 he became Regierungsral, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian 
of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren- 
haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was inlendanl 
of the two court Iheatres in Vienna. He died at Hulteldorf 
near Vienna on the 2 2nd of May 1871. Miinch-Bellinghausen's 
dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth 
ed., 1896), Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der 
Sohn der WUdnis (1842; loth ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von 
Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6lh ed., 1894), are dislinguished by 
elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construc- 
tion, and were for a lime exceedingly popular. 

His poems, Gedichle, were published in Stuttgart, 1850 (new ed., 
Vienna. 1877). His works, Santliche Werke, were published in 
eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were 
added in 1872. Ausgewdhlte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols. 
(1904). See F. Pachler, Jugend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm 
(1877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblatter an F. Halm (1873). Halm's 
correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by 
R. Schachinger (1890). 

MUNCIE, a city and the county-seal of Delaware counly, 
Indiana, U.S.A., on Ihe West Fork of Ihe While river, about 
57 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1800), 11,345; 
(1900) 20,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 
24,005. It is served by the Cenlral Indiana, Ihe Chicago, 
Cincinnali & Louisville, Ihe Cleveland, Cincinnali, Chicago & 
Si Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, Ihe Forl 
Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Lake Erie & Western 
railways, and by Ihe Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton & 
Muncie Traction, and the Muncie & Portland Traction (eleclric 
inler-urban) railways. The cily is buill on level ground (allitude 
950 ft.), and has an altractive residential section. It is one 
of the principal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largely 
lo ils silualion in Ihe natural gas belt. In 1900 and in 1905 
it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in Ihe 
Uniled States, the value of its product in 1905 being $2,344,462. 
Muncie (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the Ihree 
principal divisions of Ihe Dela wares) was settled about 1833 
and was chartered as a city in 1865. 



MUNDAS. The Munda (Munda) family is the least numerous 
of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several dialects 
spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districls 
of Madras and Ihe Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills. 
The number of speakers of Ihe various dialects, according to 
the census of 1901, are as follow: Santali, 1,795,113; Mundari, 
460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birhar, 526; Koda, 23,873; Ho, 
371,860; Tun, 3880; Asuri, 4894; Korwa, 16,442; Korku, 87,675; 
Kharia, 82,506; Juang, 10,853; Savara, 157,136; Gadaba, 37,230; 
total, 3,164,036. Santali, Mundari, Bhumij, Birhar, Koda, Ho, 
Tun, Asuri and Korwa are only siighlly differing forms of one 
and Ihe same language, which can be called Kherwari, a name 
borrowed from Santali Iradition. Kherwari is the principal 
Munda language, and quite 88% of all Ihe speakers of Munda 
longues belong lo it. The Korwa dialect, spoken in the western 
part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwari with the remaining 
Munda languages. Of Ihese il is mosl closely relaled lo the 
Kurku language of the Mahadeo hills in Ihe Cenlral Provinces. 
Kurku, in ils lurn, in important poinls agrees with Kharia and 
Juang, and Kharia leads over to Savara and Gadaba. The 
Iwo lasl-menlioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the 
north-easl of Ihe Madras Presidency, have been much influenced 
by Dravidian languages. 

The Munda dialecls are nol in sole possession of Ihe lerrilory 
where Ihey are spoken. They are, as a rule, only found in Ihe 
hills and jungles, while Ihe plains and valleys are inhabiled by 
people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into 
close contacl with Aryan tongues the Munda forms of speech are 
apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been 
partly superseded by Aryan dialecls. There are accordingly 
some Aryanized Iribes in norlhern India who have formerly 
belonged lo Ihe Munda slock. Such are Ihe Cheros of Behar 
and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same 
localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly 
extended as far north as Shahabad, and others. It seems 
possible lo Irace an old Munda element in some Tibeto-Burman 
dialecls spoken in Ihe Himalayas from Bashahr easlwards. 

By race the Mundas are Dravidians, and their language was 
likewise long considered as a member of Ihe Dravidian family. 
Max Muller was the first to dislinguish the two families. He 
also coined the name Munda for the smaller of them, which has 
later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as 
Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally 
considered as the aboriginal population of soulhern India. The 
Mundas, who do nol appear lo have extended much farther 
towards the south than at presenl, must have mixed with 
the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nahali 
dialed of Ihe Mahadeo hills seems lo have been originally a 
Munda form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ- 
ence, and finally passed under Ihe spell of Aryan longues. The 
same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by 
Ihe Bhils. Al all evenls, Munda languages have apparently 
been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They 
were Ihen early superseded by Dravidian and Aryan dialecls, 
and al Ihe present day only scanty remnanls are found in the 
hills and jungles of Bengal and the Cenlral Provinces. 

Though Ihe Munda family is not connected wilh any olher 
languages in India proper, it does not form an isolaled group. It 
belongs to a widely spread family, which extends from India in 
the west to Easter Island in the easlern Pacific in Ihe easl. In 
Ihe first place, we find a connected language spoken by the 
Khasis of the Khasi hills in Assam. Then follow the Mon- 
Khmer languages of Farther India, Ihe dialecls spoken by Ihe 
aboriginal inhabilants of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry 
of Ihe Nicobars, and, finally, Ihe numerous dialecls of Auslro- 
nesia, viz. Indonesic, Melanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among 
Ihe various members of Ihis vast group the Munda languages 
are most closely related to the Mon-Khmer family of Farther 
India. Kurku, Kharia, Juang, Savara and Gadaba are more 
closely related lo lhal family lhan is Kherwari, the principal 
Munda form of speech. 

We do not know if the Mundas enlered India from wilhoul. 



MUNDAY 



If so, they can only have immigrated from the east. At all 
events they must have been settled in India from a very early 
period. The Sabaras, the ancestors of the Savaras, are already 
mentioned in old Vedic literature. The Munda languages 
seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms 
of speech. In most characteristics, however, they differ widely 
from the neighbouring tongues. 

The Munda languages abound in vowels, and also possess a richly 
developed system of consonants. Like the Dravidian languages, 
they avoid beginning a word with more than one consonant. While 
those latter forms of speech shrink from pronouncing a short conso- 
nant at the end of words, the Mundas have the opposite tendency, 
viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants 
viz. k, c (i.e. English ch), t and p are formed by stopping the 
current of breath at different points in the mouth, and then letting it 
pass out with a kind of explosion. In the Munda language this 
operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does 
not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The result is a sound 
that makes an abrupt impression on the ear, and has been described 
as an abrupt tone. Such sounds are common in the Munda languages. 
They are usually written k', c', t' and p'. Similar sounds are also 
found in the Mon-Khmer languages and in Indo-Chinese. 

The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach 
each other in sound. Thus in Kherwari the open sounds a (nearly 
English a in all) and a (the a in care) agree with each other and not 
with the corresponding close sounds o (the o in pole) and e (the e in 
pen). The Santali passive suffix ok' accordingly becomes dk' after 
a or d ; compare sdn-dk', go, but dal-ok', to be struck. 

Words are formed from monosyllabic bases by means of various 
additions, suffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (which 

Precede the base) and infixes (which are inserted into the base itself), 
uffixes play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and 
infixes are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare 
Kurku k-on, Savara on, son ; Kharia ro-mong, Kherwari mu, nose ; 
Santali bar, to fear; bo-to-r, fear; dal, to strike; da-pa-l, to strike each 
other. 

The various classes of words are not clearly distinguished. The 
same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The 
words simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like, 
but they do not tell us how they are conceived. 

Inflexion is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of 
additions which are " glued " or joined to the unchanged base. 
In many respects, however, Munda inflexion has struck out peculiar 
lines. Thus there is no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns 
can be divided into two classes, viz. those that denote animate 
beings and those that denote inanimate objects respectively. There 
are three numbers the singular, the dual and the plural. On the 
other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most typical 
Munda, languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated 
by means of certain additions to the verb. Certain relations in 
time and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which 
have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite 
meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective 
preceding the governing word, is often derived from such forms 
denoting locality. Compare Santali hdr-rd, in a man; Mr-ran, of 
a man. 

Higher numbers are counted in twenties, and not in tens as in the 
Dravidian languages. 

The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double 
sets of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one 
including and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev. 
A. Nottrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by 
remarking how it is necessary to use the exclusive form if telling the 
servant that " we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will 
invite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual 
personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and 
infixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive. 
There is a corresponding richness in the case of demonstrative 
pronouns. Thus the pronoun " that " in Santali has different forms 
to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some- 
thing heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no relative 
pronoun, the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the 
verbal bases, which can in this connexion be called relative participles. 

The most characteristic feature of Munda grammar is the verb, 
especially in Kherwari. Every independent word can perform the 
function of a verb, and every verbal form can, in its turn, be used as a 
noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there- 
fore be described as indifferent words which can be used as a noun, 
as an adjective, and as a verb, but which are in reality none of them. 
Each denotes simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus 
in Santali the base ddl-ket', struck, which is formed from the base 
dal, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun 
(compare dal-ket'-ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective 
(compare dal-ket'-hdr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a 
verb. In the last case it is necessary to add an a if the action really 
takes place; thus, dal-kef-a, somebody struck. 

It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and 
indirect object are indicated by adding forms of the personal 



pronouns to the verb. Such pronominal affixes are inserted before 
the assertive particle a. Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the 
third person singular is e, and by inserting it in dal-kef-a we arrive 
at a form dal-ked-e-a, somebody struck him. Similar affixes can be 
added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to 
somebody. Thus Santali hap&n-in-e dal-ket'-tako-tin-a, son-my-he 
struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs. 

In a sentence such as har kord-e dal-ked-e-a, man boy-he struck- 
him, the man struck the boy, the Santals first put together the ideas 
man, boy, and a striking in the past. Then the e tells us that the 
striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole 
action really takes place. It will be seen that a single verbal form 
in this way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen- 
tences in other languages. If we add that the most developed 
Munda languages possess different bases for the active, the middle 
and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro- 
cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of 
the subject is often indicated in the verb, it will be understood that 
Munda conjugation presents a somewhat bewildering aspect. It 
is, however, quite regular throughout, and once the mind becomes 
accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty 
to the understanding. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Max Muller, Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the 
Classification of the Turanian Languages. Reprint from Chr. K. J. 
Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. iii. (London, 1854), 
especially pp. 175 and sqq.; Friedrich Muller, Grundriss der Sprach- 
vnssenschaft, vol. iii. part i. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq., vol. iv. 
part i. (Wien, 1888), p. 229; Sten Konow, Munda and Dravidian 
Languages " in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, iv. i and teq. 
(Calcutta, 1906). (S. K.) 

MUNDAY (or MONDAY), ANTHONY (c. 1553-1633), English 
dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday, 
a London draper, was born in 1553-1554. He had already 
appeared on the stage when in 1576 he bound himself 
apprentice for eight years to John Allde, the stationer, an 
engagement from which he was speedily released, for in 
1578 he was in Rome. In the opening b'nes of his English 
Romayne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he 
was actuated solely by a desire to see strange countries and 
to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if 
not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in 
Rome, as a journalist who meant to make literary capital out of 
the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and 
Italy. He says that he and his companion, Thomas Nowell, 
were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to 
Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest, 
who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims. 
These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris, 
where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English 
Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured his 
reception at the English College in Rome. He was treated with 
special kindness by the rector, Dr Morris, for the sake of his 
supposed father. He gives a detailed account of the routine of 
the place, of the dispute between the English and Welsh students, 
of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard 
Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He returned to England in 1 578-1 579, and 
became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oxford's 
company between 1579 and 1584. In a Catholic tract entitled 

A True Reporte of the death of M. Campion (1581), Munday 

is accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which 
he refuted by publishing Allde's signed declaration to the con- 
trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage. He 
was one of the chief witnesses against Edmund Campion and 
his associates, and wrote about this time five anti-popish 
pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A 

Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates whereto 

is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and 
Alexander Brian, the first part of which was read aloud from 
the scaffold at Campion's death in December 1581. His political 
services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1584 by the post 
of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from this time he 
seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when 
he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low 
Countries, it was in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old 
plays. He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and 
the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de 
Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular 
airs. He was the chief pageant-writer for the City from 1605 



M UNDELL A M UNDT 



to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants 
between 1592 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been 
kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in 
success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his 
greatest fame; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent 
the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens, 
Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the loth of 
August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of 
London. In some of his pageants he signs himself " citizen and 
draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have 
followed his father's trade. 

Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1602 which 
are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael 
Dray ton, Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are extant. 
John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated 1595, is supposed to be the 
same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men 
at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 1 594. A ballad of British 
Sidanen, on which it may have been founded, was entered at 
Stationers' Ha'.l in 1579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon, 
afterwards called Re-bin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February 
! 599) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Death 
of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated 
with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a share with Michael Dray- 
ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the 
history of the life of Sir John Oldcastle (acted 1599), which was 
printed in 1600, with the name of William Shakespeare, which was 
speedily withdrawn, on the title page. William Webbe (Discourse 
of English Poetrie, 1586) praised him for his pastorals, of which there 
remains only the title, Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shep- 
herds and Nymphs; and Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) gives 
him among dramatic writers the exaggerated praise of being " our 
best plotter." Ben Jonson ridiculed him in The Case is Altered 
as Antonio Balladino, pageant poet. Munday's works usuaUy 
appeared under his own name, but he sometimes used the pseudonym 
of " Lazarus Piot." A. H. Bullen identifies him with the Shepherd 
Tony " who contributed " Beauty sat bathing by a spring " and six 
other lyrics to England's Helicon (ed. Bullen, 1899, p. 15). 

The completest account of Anthony Munday is T. Seccombe's 
article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life and bibliography are prefixed 
to the Shakespeare Society s reprint of John a Kent and John a 
Cumber (ed. J. P. Collier, 1851). His two " Robin Hood " plays 
were edited by J. P. Collier in Old Plays (1828), and his English 
Romayne Lyfe was printed in the Harleian Miscellany, vii. 136 seq. 
(ed. Park, 1811). For an account of his city pageants see F. W. 
Fairholt, Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc., No. 38, 1843). 

MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa- 
tional and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at 
Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary 
school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He 
afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled 
several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He 
was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the 
first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between 
masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to 
parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented 
that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned 
for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to 
represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880 
Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly after- 
wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England 
and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president 
of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn 
a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the 
Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed 
president of the board of trade, and he continued in this 
position until 1894, when he resigned office. His resignation 
was brought about by his connexion with a financial company 
which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the 
official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent 
his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in 
unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable. 
Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany 
and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory 
education in England. He rendered valuable service in con- 
nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the 
educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella 
Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public 
elementary schools and the conditions of the Government 



grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act 
of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and 
children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which 
removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he 
also who established the labour department of the board of 
trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and 
passed bills for the better protection of women and children in 
brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories; 
and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regula- 
tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation. 
In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm, 
subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and 
children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London 
on the 2ist of July 1897. 

MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor, 
was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home 
to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience 
as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in 
1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until 
1811, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he 
was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th 
of February 1832. 

MUNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda 
and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905), 
10,755. It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been 
granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive. 
The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-i5th centuries) 
contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg 
(d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured 
in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is 
a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619), 
and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and 
rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the 
latter is the municipal museum. There are various small 
industries and a trade in timber. Miinden,often called " Hanno- 
versch-Munden " (i.e. Hanoverian MUnden), to distinguish it 
from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of 
Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It 
was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Liineburg. 
In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly. 

See Willigerod, Geschichte von Miinden (Gottingen, 1808); and 
Henze, Fiihrer durch Miinden und Umgegend (Munden, 1900). 

MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the 
most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely 
defeated their ancient enemies the Murasi After 1803 they 
lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized. 

MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was born 
at Potsdam on the igth of September 1808. Having studied 
philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig, 
as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision. 
In 1839 he married Klara Mtiller (1814-1873), who under the 
name of Luise Miihlbach became a popular novelist, and he 
removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of 
entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted 
by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however, 
he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848 
he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau, 
and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he 
died on the 3oth of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively 
on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence 
in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der 
deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Liter atur der Gegerrwart 
(1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schonheit und des Kunstwerks im 
Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gotterwelt der 
alien Vdlker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several 
historical novels; Thomas Milnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Voter 
der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps 
Mundt's chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of 
women, a theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unter- 
haltungen mil einer Heiligen (1835). 



MUNICH 



MUNICH (Ger. Miinchen), a city of Germany, capital of 
the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the 
German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the 
river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway 
between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (1700 ft. 
above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is 
changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49 to 50 F., 
is little higher than that of many places much farther to the 
north. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at 
the centre of an important network of railways connecting 
it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin, 
Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner 
pass), which converge in a central station. 

Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine- 
teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the 
Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesing, 
Bogenhausen and Ramersdorf are on the opposite bank. The 
old town, containing many narrow and irregular streets, forms a 
semicircle with its diameter towards the river, while round 
its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modern Munich, 
including the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts. 
The walls with which Munich was formerly surrounded have 
been pulled down, but some of the gates have been left. The 
most interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in 
1835 and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of 
victory) is a modern imitation of the arch of Constantine at 
Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a 
reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis. 

Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I. 
of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors; 
while its collections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and 
Berlin. Most of the modern buildings have been erected after 
celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as 
has been said by Moriz Carriere, a walk through Munich affords 
a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years. 
In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect 
Leo von Klenze, while the external decorations of painting and 
sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm 
von Kaulbach and Schwanthaler. As opportunity offers, the 
narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight 
boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings. 
The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by 
a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality 
averages 40-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand 
in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1903-1904. The archi- 
tectural style which has been principally followed in the later 
public buildings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897, 
the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous 
private dwellings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais- 
sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the 
1 7th and i8th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable 
buildings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasse and 
the Maximilianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose 
names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long 
and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance 
style by Friedrich von Gartner. The most striking of these are 
the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpold; the Odeon, a 
large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble 
busts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial 
style; the Ludwigskirche, a successful reproduction of the 
Italian Romanesque style, built in 1829-1844, and containing 
a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind 
asylum; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street is 
terminated by the Siegestor, while at the other is the Feldher- 
renhalle (or hall of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dei Lanzi 
at Florence, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan- 
thaler. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing 
though somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian 
Rococo style; it contains the royal burial vault. In the Maxi- 
milianstrasse, which extends from Haidhausen on the right bank 
of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried 
to introduce an entirely novel style of domestic architecture, 



formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it 
is closed by the Maximilianeum, an extensive and imposing 
edifice, adorned externally with large sculptural groups and 
internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in 
the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the 
west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian 
national museum, the government buildings in which the Com- 
posite style of Maximilian has been most consistently carried 
out, and the mint. On the north side of the Max- Joseph Platz 
lies the royal palace, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the 
Konigsbau, and the Festsaalbau. The Alte Residenz dates 
from 1601 to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up 
in the Rococo style, and the private chapel and the treasury 
contain several crowns and many other interesting and valuable 
objects. The Festsaalbau, erected by Klenze in the Italian 
Renaissance style, is adorned with mural paintings and sculp- 
tures, while the Konigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace 
at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the 
Niebelungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Adjoining 
.the palace are two theatres, the Residenz or private theatre, 
and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators. 
The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or court-church, is in the Byzantine 
style, with a Romanesque facade. 

The Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse both end at 
no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old 
town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedral 
church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola 
capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from 
its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous 
Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town- 
hall, dating from the I4th century and restored in 1865, and 
the new town-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic 
erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained- 
glass windows, and enlarged in 1900-1905. The column in the 
centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the 
defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during 
the Thirty Years' War. 

Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to 
St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica. 
It is adorned with a cycle of religious paintings by Heinrich 
von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty- 
four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of 
Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass 
windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church 
of St John in Haidhausen is another fine Gothic structure. 
St Michael's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in 
1583-1595, contains the monument of Eugene Beauharnais by 
Thorwaldsen. The facade is divided into storeys, and the 
general effect is by no means ecclesiastical. St Peter's is inter- 
esting as the oldest church in Munich (i2th century), though no 
trace of the original basilica remains. Among newer churches 
the most noticeable are the Evangelical church of St Luke, a 
Transitional building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896, 
and the Gothic parochial church of the Giesing suburb, with a 
tower 312 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884). 

The valuable collections of art are enshrined in handsome 
buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side 
of the town. The old Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826- 
1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished 
externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty- 
four celebrated painters from sketches by Schwanthaler. It 
contains a valuable and extensive collection of pictures by the 
earlier masters, the chief treasures being the early German 
and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of 
Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000 
engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a large collection of 
vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853, 
the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of 
wind and weather. It is devoted to works by painters of the 
last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes 
are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by 
Klenze in the Ionic style, and adorned with several groups and 



MUNICH 



single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending 
from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by 
Thorwaldsen and other modern masters. The celebrated 
Aeginetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of 
Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition 
building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, and is 
used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum 
of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek 
and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek) 
and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical 
museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore- 
most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by 
the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William 
II. in 1894, rich in works by modern German masters, and the 
Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc- 
tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association ; 
the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance 
style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military 
museum. The Schwanthaler museum contains models of most 
of the great sculptor's works. 

The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national 
museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman 
period down tp the present day, compares in completeness 
with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Musee 
de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was 
erected in 1894-1900. On the walls is a series of well-executed 
frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of 
16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of 
coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical 
and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art 
union, the oldest and roost extensive in Germany, possesses a 
good collection of modern works. The chief place among the 
scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded 
in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed 
volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped 
with instruments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer. 

At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands 
the university, founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, removed to 
Landshut in 1800, and transferred thence to Mumch in 1826. 
In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth of political 
economy. In connexion with the university are medical and 
other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000 
volumes. The polytechnic institute (Technische Hochschule) in 
1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor 
of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or 
grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an 
agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and 
several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music. 
The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model 
of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among 
other public buildings, the crystal palace (Glas-palast), 765 ft. 
in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used, 
as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach 
palace, built in 1843-1850, in the Early English Pointed style, is 
one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous 
monuments with which the squares and streets are adorned, 
the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II. 
in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and 
the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30.000 
Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow, 
the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monument commemorative 
of -the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig, 
the chemist, set up in 1883. 

The English garden (Englischer Garten), to the north-east of 
the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count 
Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank 
of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the 
Gasteig promenades, commanding fine views of the town. To 
the south-west of the town is the Theresienwiese, a large common 
where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is 
situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade 
containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a 



colossal bronze statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by 
Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with its large palm-house, 
the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of 
Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to 
the east of the Isar, complete the list of public parks. 

The population of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per- 
manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population, 
84% are Roman Catholic, 14% Protestants, and 2% Jews. 

Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising 
and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About 
twenty newspapers are published here, including the Allgemeine 
Zeitung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele- 
brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to 
various national fetes, such as the Metzgersprung, the Schaffler- 
tanz, and the great October festival. 

Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts, 
such as bronze-founding, glass- staining, silversmith's work, and 
wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer 
and the mathematical instruments of Traugott Lieberecht von 
Ertel (1778-1858) are also widely known. Lithography, which 
was invented at Munich at the end of the i8th century, is 
extensively practised here. The other industrial products 
include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, gloves and 
artificial flowers. The most characteristic industry, however, 
is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich 
annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway 
system. 

History. The Villa Munichen or Forum ad monachos, so 
called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay, 
was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who 
established a mint here in 1158, and made it the emporium for 
the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian 
dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich, 
and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously 
surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost 
entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis 
the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens, 
rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning 
of the 1 9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did 
most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the 
foundation of schools and scientific institutions were Albert V., 
William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore. 
In 1632 Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in 
1705, and again in 1742, it was in possession of the Austrians. 
In 1791 the fortifications were razed. 

Munich's importance in the' history of art is entirely of modern 
growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginetan 
marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the 
eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less 
identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), 
Joseph Daniel Ohlmiiller (1791-1839), Friedrich von Gartner 
(1792-1847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (1800-1873), the 
architects; Peter von Cornelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul- 
bach (1804-1874), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872), 
and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler, 
the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in 
Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been 
abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character. 
Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long 
stood at the head of this school. 

See Mittheilungcn de.s statistischen Bureaus der Stadt Munchen (vols. 
i.-v., 1875-1882); Sold, Munchen mil seinen Umgebungen (1854); 
Reber, Bautechnischer Fiihrer durch die Stadt Munchen (1876) ; Daniel, 
Handbuch der Geographic (new ed., 1895); Prantl, Geschichte der 
Ludwig- Maximilians Universitat (Munich, 1872); Goering, 30 Jahre 
Munchen (Munich, 1904); von Ammon, Die Gegend von Munchen 

sologisch geschildert (Munich, 1895); Kronegg, Illustrierte Geschichte 
er Stadt Munchen (Munich, 1903); the Jahrbuch fur Munchener 
Geschichte, edited by Reinhardstottner and Trautmann (Munich, 
1887-1894); Aufleger and Trautmann, Alt-Miinchen in Bild und 
Wort (Munich, 1895) ; Rohmeder, Munchen als Handelsstadt (Munich, 
1905); H. Tinsch, Das Stadtrecht von Munchen (Bamberg, 1891); 
F. Pecht, Geschichte der munchener Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert (Munich, 
1888) ; and Trautwein, Fiihrer durch Munchen (2Othed., 1906). There 
is an English book on Munich by H..R. Wadleigh (1910). 



MUNICIPALITY MUNICIPIUM 



MUNICIPALITY, a modern term (derived from Lat. muni- 
cipium; see below), now used both for a city or town which 
is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation, 
and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation 
in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and 
of superior members, as aldermen and councillors, together with 
the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing 
body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetual 
succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions 
of the Mortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where 
necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power 
to make by-laws and to enforce them by penalties, provided they 
are not unjust or unreasonable or otherwise inconsistent with 
the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation. 

See BOROUGH, COMMUNE, CORPORATION, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, 
FINANCE, &c., and for details of the functions of the municipal 
government see the sections under the general headings of the 
different countries and the sections on the history of these countries. 

MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to 
take), in ancient Rome, the term applied primarily to a status, 
a certain relation between individuals or communities and the 
Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com- 
munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the 
name signifies the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of 
privileges is a disputed point. But as ancient authorities are 
unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of 
" duty " or " service," it is probable that the chief feature 
of municipality was the performance of certain services to 
Rome. 1 This view is confirmed by all that we know about 
the towns to which the name was applied in republican times. 
The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon 
Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 26; cf. Cic. pro Plane. 8, 19), 
and was widely extended in the settlement made by Rome at 
the close of the Latin War in 338 B.C. (see ROME, History). 
Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (i) Coloniae 
civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizen- 
ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) foeder- 
alae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which 
remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations 
with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by 
treaty (foedus). The munitipia stood in very different degrees 
of dependence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14; 
cf. ibid. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the 
matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43; 
Festus, de verb, signification, s.v. " municipium," p. 127, ed. 
Muller), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had 
certain features in common. Their citizens were called upon 
to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions 
as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges 
of citizenship, those of voting in the Comitia (jus suffragii), and 
of holding Roman magistracies (jus honorum). It would also 
appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefectura, p. 233) that juris- 
diction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri 
dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus. 2 
The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been 
regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the 
case of those cities which retained control of their own affairs. 
But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had 
become the chief power, not only in Italy, but in all the neigh- 
bouring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing 
tendency among the Italian cities to regard citizenship of this 
great state as a privilege, and to claim complete citizenship as 
a reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman 
power. During the 2nd century B.C. the jus suffragii and jus 
honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii. 
36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes. 
They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to 
their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C. Marius, 

1 For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverw. 
i. p. 26, n. 2 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited. 

1 For a different view see Willems, Droit public romain, p. 381 
(Louvain, 1874). 



a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.C.), and the 
strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the 
assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.C.) show what 
an important influence the members of these municipia could 
occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The cities thus 
privileged, however, though receiving complete Roman citizen- 
ship, were not, as the logic of public law might seem to demand, 
incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent 
urban units; and this anomaly survived in the municipal system 
which was developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen- 
ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps 
as at once a citizen of a self-governing city community, and 
a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated 
by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates 
and in the election of magistrates for his cwn town. 

The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.C. 
(see ROME: History) was the establishment of a new uniform 
municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any 
important distinction between the three classes established 
after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the 
Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made 
application in due form received the complete citizenship. 
The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular 
class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name 
for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy. The 
organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the 
governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define 
their relation to the Roman government, was probably the work 
of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation 
in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest 
municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the 
Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman 
municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul, 
and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region 
in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given 
a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But, 
excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still 
embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies. 
Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting 
to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship, 
or a partial ciiritas known as the jus Latii. This partial civitas 
does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by 
the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it, 
and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces 
between coloniae, municipia juris Romani, and municipia juris 
Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually 
adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely 
unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all 
alike. The incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman, 
in the uniform municipal system of the principate took place 
mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek civiliza- 
tion had long fostered urban life. In the west city commu- 
nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The 
development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where 
legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several 
of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this 
development became the rule wherever a body of Roman 
subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently 
occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the ist century 
of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as 
well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every- 
where centres of Roman influence. 

Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known 
before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however, 
we have two important sources of information. A series of 
municipal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution 
imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia; and a 
host of private inscriptions gives particulars of their social life. 

The municipal constitution of the ist century of the principate 
is based upon the type of government common to Greece and 
Rome from earliest times. , The government of each town 
consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely 



8 



MUNICIPIUM 



independent of the Roman government except in certain cases 
of higher civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog- 
nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand, 
each community is bound to perform certain services to the 
Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and 
horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial 
post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain- 
ment of Roman officials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens 
were of two classes: (i) cives, whether by birth, naturalization 
or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship 
based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were 
liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privi- 
leges of citizenship except a limited right of voting. The 
citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly 
the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa, 
sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers 
of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis- 
trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the 
senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the 
increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates 
for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere 
form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number 
of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia; 
and a Spanish municipal law of the ist century makes special 
provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of 
candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of 
popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The 
inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly 
contested elections in the 2nd century. The local senate, or 
curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal 
politics. Its members formed the local nobility, and at an 
early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials 
who were senators in their native towns. For the composition, 
powers, and history of the provincial senate see DECURIO. 
The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number, 
forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates 
were the Ilviri (Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had charge, as their 
name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the 
assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over 
25 years of age, to have held one of the minor magistracies, 
and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the 
local senate (see DECURIO). Next in dignity were the Hviri 
aediles, who had charge -of the roads and public buildings, the 
games and the corn-supply, and exercised police control through- 
out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub- 
ordinate colleagues (collegae minores) of the Hviri juri dicundo, 
and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene 
and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed 
many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quatluorviri) consisting of 
two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the 
majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and 
superior magistrates. The two quaestores, who appear to have 
controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be 
traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as 
at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose, 
to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other 
municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions 
are the quinquennales and praefecti. The quinquennales super- 
seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and 
differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other 
powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the 
censors. Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities 
under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from 
the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the 
Social War. The first class consists of those praefecti who were 
nominated as temporary delegates by the Ilviri, when through 
illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge 
the duties of their office. The second class, referred to in 
inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decurionibus creati 
lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate 
in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as 
would have led in Rome to the appointment of an interrex. 



From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire 
may be treated under three heads: (i) as centres of local self- 
government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres, (i) 
The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide- 
spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general 
conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome, 
provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest 

Eart of the population, and providing a supply of corn which could 
e bought Dy ordinary citizens at a moderate price. In Pliny's 
time there existed in many towns public schools controlled by the 
municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they 
were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times 
when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encouraged 
the establishment of another kind of municipal school at Como, 
where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of 
the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers, 
remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physicians seem to have 
been maintained in many towns at the public expense. The water- 
supply was also provided out of the municipal budget, and controlled 
by magistrates, appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the 
expense involved in all these undertakings, the local treasury was 
generally assisted by large benefactions, either in money or in works, 
from individual citizens; but direct taxation for municipal purposes 
was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the 

Eroceeds of the landed possessions of the community, especially such 
uitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import 
and export duties. It was occasionally subsidized by the emperor 
on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity. 

2. The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the 
important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the 
emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult developed sponta- 
neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus, 
and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting 
in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome 
and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's 
power. The order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the 
worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity 
and importance in provincial society. It was composed of the lead- 
ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula- 
tion. By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus 
secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the 
most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself 
and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which 
had its origin in the municipia of the Roman Empire, and has become 
the greatest political force in modern Europe. 

3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature 
of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft. 
The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last 
century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman 
principle that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of 
the governing class; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo- 
cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were 
only fit for slaves. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was 
rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in 
the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much 
later of the existence of a large and nourishing free industrial class, 
proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de 
corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency 
to bind themselves together in gilds (collegia, sodalitates) , and the 
existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the 
inscriptions. The formation of societies for religious and other 
purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes 
of the free population. After the time of Sulla these societies were 
regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on account of the 
political uses to which they were turned, and various measures were 
passed for their suppression in Rome and Italy. This policy was 
continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire, 
but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns grew and 
flourished. The ostensible objects of nearly all such collegia of which 
we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the 
worship of some god, and provision for the performance of proper 
funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main 
objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were 
allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The 
organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality. 
Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and 
every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond- 
ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magis- 
trates. It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize 
and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to show 
that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely 
of workers at a single craft. But there can be little doubt that the 
later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds 
of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman 
life. 

Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the 
municipia between the various classes of the population. This 
is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed 
a bond of unity stronger than most sources of friction, and 



MUNIMENT MUNKACS 



partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed 
any acute discontent. The wealthy citizen seems always to 
have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed 
in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which 
made the general character of municipal constitutions distinctly 
timocratic. 

The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging, 
within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and 
civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and 
4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru- 
ments of the imperial government, under the direct control of 
the emperor or his representatives in the provinces. This 
policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeling and 
municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un- 
willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local 
magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of 
the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government 
of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of 
the ist century of the Empire. Two centuries later local 
government was a mere form. And the self-governing com- 
munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a 
development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities 
of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors. 

AUTHORITIES. C. Bruns, Fontes juris romani, c. III., No. 18, 
and c. IV. (Freiburg, 1893), for Municipal Laws and references to 
Mommsen's commentary in C.I.L. ; E. Kuhn, Stadtische u. burgerliche 
Verfasxung des rom. Reichs (Leipzig, 1864): Marquardt, Romische 
Staatsverwaltung, I. i. (Leipzig, 1881); Toutain. in Daremberg- 
Saglio Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques el romaines, s.v. " Munici- 
pium "; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, c. 2 
and 3 (London, 1904). For the gilds see Mommsen, De collegiis el 
sodaliciis Romanorum (Keil, 1843); Liebenam, Geschichte u. Organi- 
sation des rom. Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). (A. M. CL.) 

MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective 
term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to 
the property, rights and privileges of a coiporation, such as a 
college, a family or private person, and kept as " evidences " 
for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word 
munimenlum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from 
munire, to defend. 

MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS, or SPANISH GUINEA, a Spanish 
protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular 
in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated 
population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about 
125 miles and is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German 
colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast- 
line, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in 
2 10' N. to the mouth of the Muni in i N., on the north arm 
of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco ((?..), Elobey 
Grande, Elobey Chico and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong 
to Spain. 

From the estuary of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in 
a series of shallow indentations, until at the bold bluff of Cape 
San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast 
plain, from 12 to 25 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of 
the Crystal Mountains, which traverse the country in a north 
to south direction. These are a table-land, from which rise 
granitic hills 700 to 1200 ft. above the geueral level, which is 
about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which 
extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many 
narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of 
the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising 
in French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the 
centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a 
course of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni 
estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo 
and the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form 
part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and 
Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading 
to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than 
double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that 
the country has been named after the Muni River. The course 
of all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from 



the table-land to the plain. The greater part of the country 
is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is 
due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Spanish 
Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing 
one of the heaviest rain records of the world. The humidity 
of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera- 
ture is 78 F.) makes the climate trying. In the eastern parts 
of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country. 
Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony 
and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of 
innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring. 
In the north-east of the country elephants are numerous. 

The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre- 
sented being the Fang (q.v.), called by the Spaniards Pamues. 
They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed 
before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy 
the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang are usually placed 
on the top of small hills. They cultivate the yam, banana and 
manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European 
settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations 
at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata, 
midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico. 
There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief 
trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels, 
and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports. 
Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The 
annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about 100,000. 

Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the 
i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established 
" factories " on the neighbouring coasts' of the mainland, but 
no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated. 
During the igth century a number of treaties were concluded 
betv/een Spanish naval officers and the chiefs of the lower 
Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress 
Spain laid claim to the territory between the Campo river and 
the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory, 
but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After 
protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty 
was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledged Spanish 
sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and 
Muni rivers and the hinterland as far east as 11 20' E. of 
Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the 
Sahara (see Rio DE ORC), and the right of pre-emption over 
Spain's West African possessions. In 1901-1902 the eastern 
frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with 
natural features. The newly acquired territories were placed 
under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando 
Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and 
Corisco. 

See R. Beltran y R6zpide, La Guinea espanola (Madrid, 1901), 
and Guinea continental espanola (Madrid, 1903); H. Lorin, "Lea 
colonies espagnoles du golfe de Guinee " in Quest, dip. et col., vol. 
xxi. (1906); E. L. Perea, " Estado actual de los territories espafioles 
de Guinea " in Revisia de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) ; J. B. 
Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled 
by E. d'Almonte on the scale of 1 :2oo,ooo was published in Madrid 
in 1903. Consult also the works cited under FERNANDO Po. 

MUNKACS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg, 
220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It 
is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the 
East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its 
most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral 
and the beautiful castle of Count Schonborn. In the vicinity, 
on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkacs, 
which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was 
especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife 
of Emeric Tokoli and mother of Francis Rakoczy II., for three 
years against the Austrians (1685-1688). It was afterwards 
used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and 
Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in 
it. According to tradition, it was near Munkacs that the 
Hungarians, towards the end of the gth century, entered the 
country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the " millennial 



10 



MUNKACSY MUNRO, R. 



monuments " established at seven different points of the 
kingdom. 

MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter, 
whose real name was MICHAEL (MISKA) LEO LIEB, was the third 
son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkacs, Hungary, 
and of Cacilia Rock. He was born in that town on the 2oth 
of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz 
for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly 
after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother, 
and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom 
an uncle, Rock, became mainly responsible for his maintenance 
and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in 
1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the 
painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad 
in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in 
art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and 
at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by 
which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning 
to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich, 
where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blatter. 
About the end of 1867 he was working at Dusseldorf, where he 
was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (1868- 
1869) his first picture of importance, " The Last Day of a 
Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon 
in 1870, and obtained for him a mMaille unique and a very 
considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to 
Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his 
permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the 
rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are 
" Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters " (Paris 
Exhibition, 1878), " Christ before Pilate " (1881), " Golgotha " 
(1883), " The Death of Mozart " (1884), " Arpad, chief of the 
Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new 
House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon 
in 1893, and " Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the 
latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he 
died on the 3Oth of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just 
before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of 
the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly 
characterization, force and power of dramatic composition 
secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if 
his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during 
his lifetime. " Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha " were sold 
for 32,000 and 35,000 respectively to an American buyer. 
Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited 
at Paris: Medal, 1870, Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour, 
1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand 
Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889. 

See F. Walther Ilges, " M. von Munkacsy," Kiinstler Mono- 
graphieji (1899); C. Sedelmeyer, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886); 
I. Beavington Atkinson, " Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art 
(1881). (E. F. S.) 

MtiNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, COUNT (1683-1767), 
Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in 
Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French 
service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of 
Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of 
general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of 
Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and 
president of the council of war. In this post he did good 
service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded 
the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future genera- 
tions of officers. In 1 734 he took Danzig, and with 1 736 began 
the Turkish campaigns which made Munnich's reputation as a 
soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the 
Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and 
in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or 
Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal 
Miinnich now began to take an active part in political affairs, 
the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron, 
or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to 
a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way 
to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for 



execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to 
Siberia, where he remained fcr several years, until the accession 
of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II., 
who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal 
as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld- 
marschall Miinnich was a fine soldier of the professional type, 
and many future commanders, notably Louden and Lacy, 
served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a 
statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism. 
He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The 
Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name. 

He wrote an bauche pour donner une idee de la forme de V empire 
"~e Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have appeared 
in various publications Herrmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte des russi- 
schen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Miinnichs (Bremen. 
1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Miinnich (Oldenburg^ 
1803 ; 2nd ed., 1838) ; Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Miinnich (Russische 
Geschichte inBiographien,v. 2). 

MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of 
Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and 
entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in 
command of the Sgth regiment, and in that year effected the 
surrender of Mahe from the French. Later, when in command of 
the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna, 
and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar 
against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir 
Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever 
fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P. 
for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in 
parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable 
portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned 
in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year 
he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated 
by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on 
St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command 
of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali 
at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right 
division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of 
the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on 
the 27th of December 1805. 

MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONS (1810-1885), British 
scholar, was born at Elgin on the igth of October 1819. He 
was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of 
Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840, 
second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and 
fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at 
Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded 
chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The 
great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his 
edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text 
only, i vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols., 
1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and 
his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological 
studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he 
published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and 
in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, 
illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King. 
His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his 
Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master 
of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri- 
butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae 
corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collec- 
tion. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately 
printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are 
characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease 
to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 3Oth of March 1885. 

See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans, of 
Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library " ('908). 

MUNRO, MONEO or MONROE, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots 
general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire, 
the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served 
in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he 



MUNRO, SIR T. MUNSTER 



ii 



appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have 
taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion 
against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as 
second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief 
command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels. 
After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec- 
tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded 
in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival 
of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the 
rebels (see O'NEILL), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with 
provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover, 
the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties 
in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with 
the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against 
the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant- 
general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation 
of hostilities with the Catholics on the isth of September 1643, 
and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England. 
Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish 
parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops 
accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were 
joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him. 
In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the 
command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots. 
He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and 
unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and 
Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending 
troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe 
O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and 
the pope. On the sth of June 1646 was fought the battle of 
Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but 
suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647 
Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English 
parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that 
year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick- 
fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return 
to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of 
Monk to the chief command in Ireknd. In September 1648 
Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and 
Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower 
of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In 
1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where 
he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount 
Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near 
Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there 
about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in 
Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose. 

See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde 
(6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of 
Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and 
History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols., 
Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in 
Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery 
MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter 
Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface. 

MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and 
statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the 
son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was 
at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he 
was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served 
with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder 
Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo 
(1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military 
officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory 
acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, 
learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which 
he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. 
After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time 
restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years 
(1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts 
" ceded " by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced 
the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough 
in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon 



matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter, 
he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform 
the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari 
War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command 
the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of 
the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning 
said in the House of Commons: " He went into the field with 
not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro- 
portion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him 
or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and 
scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything 
secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed 
governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue 
assessment and general administration which substantially 
remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by 
Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for 
the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827, 
while on tour in the " ceded " districts, where his name is preserved 
by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by 
Chantrey, stands in Madras city. 

See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881) 
and J. Bradshaw (1894). 

MUNSHI, or MOONSHI, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary, 
used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries 
employed by Europeans. 

MUNSTER, GEORG, COUNT zu (1776-1844), German palae- 
ontologist, was born on the i7th of February 1776. He formed 
a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the 
Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological 
museum at Munich. Count Miinster assisted Goldfuss in his 
great work Petrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the 
23rd of December 1844. 

MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer, 
mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the 
Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he 
entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther- 
anism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court 
preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and 
Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where 
he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where 
he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple 
of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew 
Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534-1535); this edition was accom- 
panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno- 
tations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and 
was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527). 
His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum 
(1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and 
Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo- 
graphia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung oiler 
Lander, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of 
the world in Munster's native language, as well as a supreme 
effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation 
period. In this Miinster was assisted by more than one hundred 
and twenty collaborators. 

The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung 
is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and 
costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may 
notice Munster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of 
1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaelia of 1538, his editions 
of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non- 

g:ographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see 
IAL), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and 
his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered 
142. 

See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Miinster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the 
Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical- 
Philological Section). 

MUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper 
Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges 
Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are 
spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin 
to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the yth century, 
and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its 



12 



MUNSTER MUNSTERBERG, H. 



neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Ministerial, 
or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous 
for its cheese. 

See Rathgeber, Milnster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and 
F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Miinster im St Gregoriental 
(Munster, 1890). 

MUNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro- 
vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important 
bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal, 
at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen 
on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468. 
The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the 
" Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled 
houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during 
the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome- 
nades. Of the many churches of Munster the most important 
is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although 
disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the i3th 
and I4th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque 
and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The 
beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (i4th century) was 
largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height, 
hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden 
and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of 
St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 1170, was 
extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a 
tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice, 
founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the igth century, and 
the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the i4th century. 
Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic 
building of the i4th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains 
a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town- 
hall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia 
was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas- 
sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The 
Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of 
Munster. The private houses, many of which were the winter 
residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples 
of German domestic architecture in the i6th, i7th and i8th 
centuries. The university of Munster, founded after the Seven 
Years' War and closed at the beginning of the igth century, 
was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the 
rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology, 
philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and 
zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of 
1 20,000 volumes. Munster is the seat of a Roman Catholic 
bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of 
Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The 
Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned 
bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include 
weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of 
furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain 
and other products of the neighbourhood. 

History. Munster is first mentioned about the year 800, 
when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newly- 
appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from 
any available river or important highway, the growth of the 
settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not 
until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Munster 
Having supplanted the original name of Mimegardevoord about 
a century earlier. During the I3th and I4th centuries the 
town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic 
League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were 
inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses 
of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of 
the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence 
from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which 
Munster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter- 
minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace 
of Munster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October 
1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at 
Munster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop 



Christoph Bernhard von Galen took the place by force, built a 
citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges. 
During the Seven Years' War Munster was occupied both 
by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the 
1 8th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual 
centres of Germany. 

The bishopric of Munster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m. 
and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who 
resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In 
the 1 7th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men. 
was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of 
England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was 
secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803. 

See Geisberg, Merkwiirdigkeiten der Stadt Munster (1877) ; Erhard, 
Geschichte Munslers (1837); A.Tibus, Die Stadt Miinster (Munster, 
1882); Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der 
Stadt Munster (Munster, 1898); Pieper, Die alte Universitiit Munster 
1773-1818 (Munster, 1902). See also Tucking, Geschichte des Stifts 
Munster unter C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1865). 

MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of 
the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick, 
Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After 
the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha) 
became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was 
divided between two families there was constant friction and 
it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king 
over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his 
two sons, giving Desmond (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and 
Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He 
also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong 
in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of 
Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond 
and Thomond down to the i6th century. Munster was originally 
of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it 
included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols 
and formed a part of the present King's County. During the 
1 6th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in 
Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare 
(q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included 
in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In 
1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught) 
was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first 
president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically 
new shiring was carried out. 

MUNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the 
Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 2^ m. S. of Kreuznach, 
on the railway from Bingerbriick to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 
915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein- 
grafenstein (i2th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine 
of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and 
those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords 
of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the 
famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten, 
to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins 
in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in 
cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients 
annually. 

See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz- 
nach, 1886) and Messer, Fiihrer durch Bad Kreuznach und Munster 
am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905). 

MUNSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- ) , German-American psycho- 
physiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary 
professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro- 
fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more 
important works are Beitriige zur experimentellen Psychologic 
(4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New 
York, 1899); Grundzuge der Psychologic (Leipzig, 1900); 
American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston, 
1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science 
and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophic der Werte (Leipzig, 
1908); Aus Deulsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and 
Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified 
with the modern developments of experimental psychology 



MUNSTERBERG MUNZER 



(see PSYCHOLOGY), and his sociological writings display the 
acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study 
of American life and manners. 

MUNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro- 
vince of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. 
(1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It 
has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are 
also sulphur springs. Miinsterberg was formerly the capital 
of the principality of the same name, which existed from the 
I4th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the 
Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey 
of Heinrichau. 

MUNTANER, RAMON '(1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was 
born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his 
career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de 
Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, 
served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, 
and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was 
appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of 
Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. 
On the isth of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he 
began his Chronica, o descripcio dels jets, e hazanas del inclyt 
rey Don laume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express 
command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's 
book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief 
authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though 
occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and 
vivid. He is said to have died in 1336. 

His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl 
Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844. 

MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the 
genus Cerndus, all the members of which are indigenous to the 
southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, 
and are separated by marked characters from all their allies. 
For the distinctive features of the genus see DEER. As regards 
general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with 
the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short 
limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple; 




The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac). 

the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in- 
clining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed, 
and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat down- 
wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon 
pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any 
other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards 
as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the 
eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been 
suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males 
are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and 
loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are 
much smaller. 



Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen 
together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, 
in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only 
coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to 
graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters 
high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant, 
somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no 
power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remark- 
able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through 
tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen 
is " barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry a kind of short 
shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by 
dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep 
and even dangerous wounds. 

In" the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 tc 22 in.; 
allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in 
Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the 
Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its 
large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans) , from Moupin 
in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than 
the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest 
member of the genus (C. reevest) occurs in southern China and has a 
reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black 
band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the 
size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted 
muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair 
on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft, 
small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers, 
connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted 
muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These 
last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light 
markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute 
antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face. 
They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and 
E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (R. L.*) 

MUNZER, THOMAS (c. 1480-1525), German religious enthu- 
siast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 1 5th 
century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating is 
theology. He held preaching appointments in various places, 
but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one 
position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher 
at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence, 
together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to 
influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the 
principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and 
claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy 
Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting 
out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing 
body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He 
then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad- 
herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion 
from this city also. At Easter 1523 Miinzer came to Allstedt, 
and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John, 
where he made extensive alterations in the services. His 
violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation 
for which Miinzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His 
preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding 
his own for some time he left the town and went to Miihlhausen, 
where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar 
to his own. The union of Miinzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturb- 
ance in this city and both were expelled. Miinzer went to 
Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had 
been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from 
Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent. 
He denounced established governments, and advocated common 
ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany 
he returned to Miihlhausen, overthrew the governing body of 
the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The 
Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of 
Germany; and as the peasantry around Miihlhausen were imbued 
with Miinzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to 
plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at 
Frankenhausen; but on the isth of May 1525 the peasants were 
dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Mtinzer 
and executed him on the 27th at Miihlhausen. Before his 



MUNZINGER MURAD 



death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of 
his sentence. 

His Aussgetriickte Emplossung des falschen Glaubens has been 
edited by R. Jordan (Muhlhausen, 1901), and a life of Munzer, 
Die Histori von Thome Muntzer des Anfengers der duringischen 
Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525). 
See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomd Miinlzers 
(Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Munzer (Leipzig, 
1842); O. Merx, Thomas Munzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Gottingen, 
1889) ; G. Wolfrau, Thomas Munzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852). 

MUNZINGER, WERNER (1832-1875), Swiss linguist and 
traveller, was born at Olten in Switzerland, on the 2ist of April 
1832. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and 
history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852 
and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering 
a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe- 
dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at 
Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed 
to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia, 
which country he explored during the next six years. In 1861 
he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa, 
but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia, 
proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum. Thence, 
having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition, 
he travelled in 1862 to Kordofan, failing, however, in his attempt 
to reach Darfur and Wadai. After a short stay in Europe in 
1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border- 
lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of 
Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town. 
He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of 
1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown 
Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the 
C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and 
in 1871 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town 
with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun- 
zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he 
annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamasen provinces of northern 
Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general 
of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his advice 
that Ismail sanctioned the Abyssinian enterprise, but on the war 
assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian 
troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was 
selected to command a small expedition intended to open up 
communication with Menelek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with 
the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt. 
Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger 
started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied 
by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed 
was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa 
the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallas Mun- 
zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being 
killed. 

Munzinger's contributions to the knowledge of the country, 
people and languages of north-eastern Africa are of solid value. 
See Proc. R.G.S., vol. xiii.; Journ. R.G.S., vols. xxxix., xli. and xlvi. 
(obituary notice); Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1858, 1867, 1872 
et seq. ; Dietschi and Weber, Werner Munzinger, ein Lebensbild 
(1875); J- v - Keller-Zschokke, Werner Munzinger Pasha (1890). 
Munzinger published the following works: Vber die Sitten und das 
Recht der Bogos (1859); Ostafrikanische Studien (1864; 2nd ed., 1883; 
his most valuable book) ; Die deutsche Expedition in Ostafrika (1865) ; 
Vocabulaire de la langue de Tigre (1865), besides papers in the geo- 
graphical serials referred to, and a memoir on the northern borders 
of Abyssinia in the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde, new series, 
vol. ih. 

MURAD, or AMURATH, the name of five Ottoman sultans. 

MURAD I., surnamed Khudavendighiar (1310-1389), was the 
son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded 
his father in 1359. He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain 
a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout 
his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey. 
The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the 
realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter 
more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia 
(1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken. 



The state of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: civil war and 
anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe, 
where the feudal system was at its last gasp ( and the small 
Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture 
of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a 
coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able 
lieutenant Lalashahin, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, defeated 
the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the 
king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay 
tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands, 
of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture 
of Sofia two years later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar, 
king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the 
Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad 
hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of 
Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the 
Turks. When the rout of the Christians was complete, a Servian 
named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated to Murad's tent on pretence 
of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed 
the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and 
remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury, 
cruel and cunning. Long relegated to the command of a distant 
province in Asia, while his brother Suleiman occupied an enviable 
post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great 
cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince Sauji, 
the first instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father. 
Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople, 
where he built a palace and added many embellishments to 
the town. The development of the feudal system of timars and 
ziamets and its extension to Europe was largely his work. 

MURAD II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed I. 
in 1421. The attempt of his uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp 
the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at 
the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of 
Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle 
against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course cf which 
Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour oi 
Janos Hunyadi. Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at 
Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia 
and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after 
this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince 
Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second 
son, then fourteen years of age. But the treacherous attack, in 
violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard 
a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned 
from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies 
at the battle of Varna (Novemebr 10, 1444), and again withdrew 
to Magnesia. A revolt of the janissaries induced him to return 
to power, and he spent the remaining six years of his life in 
warfare in Europe, defeating Hunyadi at Kossovo (October 
17-19, 1448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried 
at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by 
others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as 
kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of 
his country. 

MURAD III. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II., 
and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession marks the 
definite beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which 
had only been maintained under Selim II. by the genius of the 
all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though 
Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578, 
his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which 
with Murad III. were supreme. Of these the most powerful 
was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a 
beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father 
had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a 
child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady, 
in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily 
successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy 
over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a 
ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion: 
his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the 



MURAENA 



custom then established, of his five brothers. His will-power 
had early been undermined by the opium habit, and was further 
weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him. 
Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the society 
of musicians, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in 
verse-making of a mystic tendency. 

His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of 
intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the 
janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He 
was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the 
corruption which was undermining the state, realizing especially 
large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally 
apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by 
the confiscation of fiefs for the benefit of nominees of favourites 
of the harem, and by the intrusion, through the same influences 
of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which 
the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper 
increasingly turbulent. In view of this general demoralization 
not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia, 
the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (1578-1590) could 
prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening 
the Mussulman states, they hastened the process, since they 
facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the 
Caspian. 

Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor- 
tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries, 
whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant 
return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed 
them of part of their pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring 
for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbey of Rumelia, 
and of the defterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to 
them (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries 
had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed. 
The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan 
an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died 
in 1595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy. 

It was under Murad III. that England's relations with the 
Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen 
Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first 
Capitulations with England were signed; in 1583 William 
Harebone, the first British ambassador to the Porte, arrived 
at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were 
signed with England granting the same privileges as those 
enjoyed by the French. (See CAPITULATIONS.) 

MURAD IV. (1611-1640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I., 
and succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. in 1623. For the first nine 
years of his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than 
an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were 
sufficiently striking to mould his whole character and policy. 
The minority of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements 
in the state; the soldiery, spahis and janissaries, conscious of 
their power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt 
whenever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the 
heads of those who displeased them, not sparing even the 
sultan's favourites. In 1631 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in 
revolt, in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier 
Khosrev: their representatives crowded to Constantinople, 
stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace, 
and pursued the sultan himself into the inner apartments, 
clamouring for seventeen heads of his advisers and favourites, 
on penalty of his own deposition. Hafiz was surrendered, a 
voluntary martyr; other ministers were deposed; Mustafa 
Pasha, aga of the janissaries, was saved by his own troops. 
But Mura-d was now beginning to assert himself. Khosrev was 
executed in Asia Minor by his orders; a plot of the spahis to 
depose him was frustrated by the loyalty of Koes Mahommed, 
aga of the janissaries, and of the spahi Rum Mahommed 
(Mahommed the Greek); and on the 2gth of May 1632, by a 
successful personal appeal to the loyalty of the janissaries, 
Murad crushed the rebels, whom he surrounded in the Hippo- 
drome. At the age of twenty he found himself possessed of 
effective autocratic power. 



His severity has remained legendary. Death was the penalty 
for the least offence, and no past services as Koes Mahommed 
was to find to his cost were admitted in extenuation. The use 
of tobacco, coffee, opium and wine were forbidden on pain 
of death; eighteen persons are said to have been put to death in 
a single day for infringing this rule. During his whole reign, 
indeed, supposed offenders against the sultan's authority were 
done to death, singly or in thousands. The tale of his victims is 
said to have exceeded 100,000. 

But if he was the most cruel, Murad was also one of the most 
manly, of the later sultans. He was of gigantic strength, which 
he maintained by constant physical exercises. He was also 
fond of hunting, and for this reason usually lived at Adrianople. 
He broke through the alleged tradition, bequeathed by Suleiman 
the Magnificent to his successors, that the sultan should not 
command the troops in person, and took command in the 
Persian war which led to the capture of Bagdad (1638) and the 
conclusion of an honourable peace (May 7, 1639). Early in 1640 
he died, barely twenty-nine years of age. The cause of his death 
was acute gout brought on by excessive drinking. In spite of 
his drunkenness, however, Murad was a bigoted Sunni, and the 
main cause of his campaign against Persia was his desire to 
extirpate the Shia heresy. In the intervals of his campaignings 
and cruelties the sultan would amuse his entourage by exhibit- 
ing feats of strength, or compose verses, some of which were 
published under the pseudonym of Muradi. 

See, for details of the lives of the above, J. von Hammer-Purgstall, 
Geschichte des osmanischen Retches (Pest, 1840), where further 
authorities are cited. 

MURAD V. (1840-1904), eldest son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, 
was born on the 2ist of September 1840. On the accession of 
his uncle Abd-ul-Aziz, Prince Mahommed Murad Effendi 
as he was then called was deprived of all share in public 
affairs and imprisoned, owing to his opposition to the sultan's 
plan for altering the order of succession. On the deposition of 
Abd-ul-Aziz on the 3oth of May 1876, Murad was haled from his 
prison by a mob of softas and soldiers of the " Young Turkey " 
party under Suleiman Pasha, and proclaimed " emperor by the 
grace of God and the will of the people." Three months later, 
however, his health, undermined by his long confinement, gave 
way; and on the 313! of August he was deposed to make room 
for his younger brother, Abd-ul-Hamid II. He was kept in 
confinement in the Cheragan palace till his death on the zgth of 
August 1904. 

See Keratry, Mourad V., prince, sultan, prisonnier d'ftat 1840- 
1876 (Paris, 1878); Djemaleddin Bey, Sultan Murad V., the Turkish 
Dynasty Mystery, 1876-1895 (London, 1895). 

MURAENA, the name of an eel common in the Mediterranean, 
and highly esteemed by the ancient Romans; it was afterwards 




Muraena picta, from the Indo- Pacific. 

applied to the whole genus of fishes to which the Mediterranean 
species belongs, and which is abundantly represented in tropical 
and sub-tropical seas, especially in rocky parts or on coral reefs. 
Some ninety species are known. In the majority a long fin 
runs from the head along the back, round the tail to the vent, 



i6 



MURAL DECORATION 



but all are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is 
scaleless and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied 
and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken 
for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with 
formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the 
Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of 
other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger- 
ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach 
its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by 
fishermen. 

Some of the tropical Muraenas exceed a length of 10 ft., but 
most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species, 
attain to only half that length. The latter, the " morena " of 
the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was 
considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest 
delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not 
confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the 
Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia. 
Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yellowish 
spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots. 

MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament- 
ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous 
branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other 
been applied to this purpose. 1 For what may be called the 
practical or furnishing point of view, see WALL-COVERINGS. 
Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art. 

x. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. This is the oldest 
method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist. 
The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural 
ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years. 
These sculptures are, as a rule, carved in low relief; in many cases 
they are " counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of 
the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground. 
Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of 
Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work. 
The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a 
number of squares of equal size. The use of this was probably 
twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the design from a small 
drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the 
artist to draw his figures with just proportions, following the 
strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No 
excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful 
study of the life-model was permitted. 2 When the surface had 
been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush 
dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them 
with his chisel. 

When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted 
over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More 
rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble, 
and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of 
sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often 
to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective 
effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter 
of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of 
decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did 
not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part 
of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations 
of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature 
and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian, 
and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way, 
suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement 
which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less 
directly on the point being eliminated. 

The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost 
every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave 
is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tih at 
Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and earliest 
specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra- 

1 See also CERAMICS ; MOSAIC ; PAINTING ; SCULPTURE ; TAPESTRY ; 
TILES; also EGYPT; Art and Archaeology; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART; 
&c. 

1 During the earliest times more than 4000 years before our era 
there appear to have been exceptions to this rule. 



lions of the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians. 
The latter tombs, as a rule, have sculptures depicting the religious 
ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combine these 
hieratic subjects with the history of the reigns and victor'es of 
the Egyptian kings. 

The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may 
be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of 
Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip- 
tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana- 
palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with 
almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white 
marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king 
worshipping one of the numerous Assyrian gods, are mostly 
large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating 
the life and amusements of the king, his prowess in war or 
hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers 
coming to do him homage, are generally smaller and in some cases 
very minute in scale (fig. i). The arrangement of these reliefs 




FIG. i. -Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace 
of Sardanapalus at Nineveh. 

in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat- 
ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they 
show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater 
love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in 
the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater 
realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum, 
representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and 
dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example 
of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is 
shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors 
have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest 
possible amount of relief, in this respect calling strongly to mind 
a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine Donatello. 

The palace at Mashita on the hajj road in Moab, built by the 
Sasanian Chosroes II. (A.D. 614-627), is ornamented on the 
exterior with beautiful surface sculpture in stone. The designs 
are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and 
Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the 
decoration on Moslem buildings of comparatively modern 
date. 3 

Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment 

* Among the Mashita carvings occurs that oldest and most widely 
spread of all forms of Aryan ornament the sacred tree between two 
animals. The sculptured slab over the " lion-gate " at Mycenae 
has the other common variety of this motive^ the fire-altar between 
the beasts. These designs, occasionally varied by figures of human 
worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning 
had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently 
appear on carpets and other textiles of Oriental manufacture. 



MURAL DECORATION 



of marble in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration. 
The most notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the 
west front of Orvieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and 
his pupils in the early part of the i4th century. These are small 
reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments, of graceful 
design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage 
serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects. 

Of a widely different class, but of considerable importance in 
the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp- 
tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in 
many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly 
geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large 
surfaces, frequently broken up into panels by bands of more 
flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of 
Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of 
Spain are extremely rich in this method of decoration. In 
western Europe, especially during the isth century, stone 
panelled-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme 
of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this, 
though without actual relief, is the stone tracery inlaid flush 
into rough flint walls which was a mode of ornament largely 
used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of 
Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and 
is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval 
builders adapted their method of ornamentation to the materials 
in hand. 

2. Marble Veneer. Another widely used method of mural 
decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to 
wall-surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural 
beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of 
the oldest buildings in the world, the so-called " Temple of the 
Sphinx " among the Giza pyramids, is built of great blocks of 
granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi- 
transparent African alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen- 
tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used 
by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N. 
xxxvi. 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate 
invention in his time. Many examples exist at Pompeii and in 
other Roman buildings. Numerous Byzantine churches, such 
as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica, 
have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in 
this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part 
of the building being covered with mosaic. The cathedral of 
Monreale and other Siculo-Norman buildings owe a great deal 
of their splendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles. 
In most cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or 
alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being 
used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian- 
Gothic of northern and central Italy during the I4th and isth 
centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly 
for its effects on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice 
and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this 
work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest 
examples of Moslem architecture owe much to this method of 
decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in 
many cases completely lined with the most brilliant sorts of 
marble of contrasting tints. 

3. Wall-Linings of Glazed Bricks or Tiles. This is a very 
important class of decoration, and from its almost imperishable 
nature, its richness of colour, and its brilliance of surface is 
capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass 
mosaics. In the less important form that of bricks modelled 
or stamped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated 
with a brilliant colour in siliceous enamel it was largely used 
by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by the later 
Sasanians of Persia. In the nth and 1 2th centuries the Moslems 
of Persia brought this art to great perfection, and used it on a 
large scale, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls. 
The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles, 
overlaid with a white enamel. These were not rectangular, but 
of various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as to 
fit closely together. Delicate and minute patterns were then 



painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour 
with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of 
a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and 
friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in high relief, 
were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these, 
as a rule, the projecting letters were painted blue, and the flat 
ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour. 
This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces 
great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed 
in the mass or closely examined tile by tile. In the i5th century 
lustre-colours, though still largely employed for plates, vases and 
other vessels, especially in Spain, were little used for tiles; and 
another class of ware, rich in the variety and brilliance of its 
colours, was extensively used by Moslem builders all over the 
Mahommedan world. The most sumptuous sorts of tiles used 
for wall-coverings are those of the so-called " Rhodian " and 
Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places. 
Those made at Rhodes are coarsely executed in comparison with 
the produce of the older potteries at Isfahan and Damascus 
(see CERAMICS). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware, 
covered with a white " slip," and painted in brilliant colours with 
slight conventionalized representations of various flowers, 
especially the rose, the hyacinth and the carnation. The red 
used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight 
relief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming 
regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those 
in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the 
branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by 
hundreds of tiles without any repetition. One of the finest 
examples is the " Mecca wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha, 
Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way 
(fig. 2). Another variety, the special production of Damascus, 




FIG. 2. One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of Ibrahim 
Agha, Cairo. (10 in. square.) 

has the design almost entirely executed in blue. It was about 
A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas I., that this class of pottery 
was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the 
most magnificent examples are found, dating from the izth to 
the 1 7th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty 
and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by Ah' Khoja in the 
1 2th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend (A.D. 1303- 
1316) at Sultaniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb 
of Abbas II. (d. A.D. 1666) at Isfahan, all of which buildings are 
covered almost entirely inside and out. 

Another important class of wall-tiles are those manufactured 
by the Spanish Moors, called " azulejos," especially during the 
1 4th century. These are in a very different style, being designed 



i8 



MURAL DECORATION 



to suggest or imitate mosaic. They have intricate inter- 
lacing geometrical patterns marked out by lines in slight 
relief; brilliant enamel colours were then burned into the tile, 
the projecting lines forming boundaries for the pigments. A 
rich effect is produced by this combination of relief apd colour. 
They are mainly used for dadoes about 4 ft. high, often sur- 
mounted by a band of tiles with painted inscriptions. The 
Alhambra and Generalife Palaces at Granada, begun in the 
I3th century, but mainly built and decorated by Yusuf I. and 
Mahommed V. (A.D. 1333-1391), and the Alcazar at Seville have 
the most beautiful examples of these " azulejos." The latter 
building chiefly owes its decorations to Pedro the Cruel (A.D. 
1364), who employed Moorish workmen for its tile-coverings 
and other ornaments. Many other buildings in southern Spain 
are enriched in the same way, some as late as the i6th century. 

Almost peculiar to Spain are a variety of wall-tile the work of 
Italians in the i6th and I7th centuries. These are effective, 
though rather coarsely painted, and have a rich yellow as the 
predominant colour. The Casa de Pilatos and Isabel's Chapel 
in the Alcazar Palace, both at Seville, have the best specimens 
of these, dating about the year 1 500. In other Western countries 
tiles have been used more for pavements than for wall-decoration. 

4. Wall-Coverings of Hard Stucco, frequently enriched with 
Reliefs. The Greeks and Romans possessed the secret of making 
a hard kind of stucco, creamy in colour, and capable of receiving 
a polish like that of marble; it would stand exposure to the 
weather. Those of the early Greek temples which were built, 
not of marble, but of stone, such as the Doric temples at Aegina, 
Phigaleia, Paestum and Agrigentum, were all entirely coated 
inside and out with this material, an admirable surface for the 
further polychromatic decoration with which all Greek buildings 
seem to have been ornamented. Another highly artistic use 
of stucco among the Greeks and Romans, for the interiors of 
buildings, consisted in covering the walls and vaults with a 
smooth coat, on which while still wet the outlines of figures, 




FIG. 3. Modelled Stucco Wall-Relief, from a Tomb in Magna 
Graecia. (About half full size.) 

groups and other ornaments were sketched with a point; more 
stucco was then applied in lumps and rapidly modelled into 
delicate relief before it had time to set. Some tombs in Magna 
Graecia of the 4th century B.C. are decorated in this way with 



figures of nymphs, cupids, animals and wreaths, all of which are 
models of grace and elegance, and remarkable for the dexterous 
way in which a few rapid touches of the modelling tool or thumb 
have produced a work of the highest artistic beauty (fig. 3). 
Roman specimens of this sort of decoration are common, fine 
examples have been found in the baths of Titus and numerous 
tombs near Rome, as well as in many of the houses of Pompeii. 




FIG. 4. Stucco Wall-Relief, from the Alhambra. 

These are mostly executed with great skill and frequently 
with good taste, though in some cases, especially at Pompeii, 
elaborate architectural compositions with awkward attempts at 
effects of violent perspective, modelled in slight relief on flat 
wall-surfaces, produce an unpleasing effect. Other Pompeian 
examples, where the surface is divided into flat panels, each 
containing a figure or group, have great merit for their delicate 
richness, v/ithout offending against the canons of wall-decoration, 
one of the first conditions of which is that no attempt should be 
made to disguise the fact of its being a solid wall and a flat 
surface. 

The Moslem architects of the middle ages made great use of 
stucco ornament both for external and internal walls. The 
stucco is modelled in high or low relief in great variety of geo- 
metrical patterns, alternating with bands of more flowing 
ornament or long Arabic inscriptions. Many of their buildings, 
such as the mosque of Tulun at Cairo (A.D. 879), owe nearly all 
their beauty to this fine stucco work, the purely architectural 
shell of the structure being often simple and devoid of ornament. 
These stucco reliefs were, as a rule, further decorated with 
delicate painting in gold and colours. The Moorish tower at 
Segovia in Spain is a good example of this class of ornament used 
externally. With the exception of a few bands of brick and the 
stone quoins at the angles, the whole exterior of the tower is 
covered with a network of stucco reliefs in simple geometrical 
patterns. The Alhambra at Granada and the Alcazar at Seville 
have the richest examples of this work. The lower part of the 
walls is lined with marble or tiles to a height of about 4 ft. and 
above that in many cases the whole surface is encrusted with 
these reliefs, the varied surface of which, by producing endless 
gradations of shadow, takes away any possible harshness from 
the brilliance of the gold and colours (fig. 4). 

During the i6th century, and even earlier, stucco wall-reliefs 
were used with considerable skill and decorative effect in Italy, 
England and other Western countries. Perhaps the most graceful 



MURAL DECORATION 



examples are the reliefs with which Vasari in the i6th century 
encrusted pillars and other parts of the court in the Florentine 
Palazzo Vecchio, built of plain stone by Michelozzo in 1454. 
Some are of flowing vines and other plants winding spirally 
round the columns. The English examples of this work are 
effectively designed, though coarser in execution. The outside 
of a half-timbered house in the market-place at Newark-upon- 
Trent has high reliefs in stucco of canopied figures, dating from 
the end of the isth century. The counties of Essex and Suffolk 
are rich in examples of this work used externally; and many 
16th-century houses in England have fine internal stucco 
decoration, especially Hardwicke Hall (Derbyshire), one of the 
rooms of which has the upper part of the wall enriched with 
life-sized stucco figures in high relief, forming a deep frieze all 
round. 

5. Sgraffito. This is a variety of stucco work used chiefly in 
Italy from the i6th century downwards, and employed only for 
exteriors of buildings, especially the palaces of Tuscany and 
northern Italy. The wall is covered with a coat of stucco made 
black by an admixture of charcoal; over this a second thin coat 
of white stucco is laid. When it is all hard the design is produced 
by cutting and scratching away the white skin, so as to show the 
black under-coat. Thus the drawing appears in black on a white 
ground. This work is effective at a distance, as it requires a 
bold style of handling, in which the shadows are indicated by 
cross-hatched lines more or less near together. 1 Flowing ara- 
besques mixed with grotesque figures occur most frequently in 
sgraffito. In recent years the sgraffito method has been revived; 
and the result of Mr Moody's experiments may be seen on the 
east wall of the Royal College of Science in Exhibition Road, 
London. 

6. Stamped Leather. This was a magnificent and expensive 
form of wall-hanging, chiefly used during the i6th and lyth 
centuries. Skins, generally of goats or calves, were well tanned 
and cut into rectangular shapes. They were then covered with 




FIG. 5. Italian Stamped Leather; i6th century, 
silver leaf, which was varnished with a transparent yellow lacquer 
making the silver look like gold. The skins were then stamped 
or embossed with patterns in relief, formed by heavy pressure 
from metal dies, one in relief and the other sunk. The reliefs 
were then painted by hand in many colours, generally brilliant 
1 A good description of the process is given by Vasari, Tre arti del 
disegno, cap. xxvi. 



in tone. Italy and Spain (especially Cordova) were important 
seats of this manufacture; and in the 17th century a large 
quantity was produced in France. Fig. 5 gives a good example 
of Italian stamped leather of the i6th century. In England, 
chiefly at Norwich, this manufacture was carried on in the 
1 7th and i8th centuries. In durability and richness of effect 
stamped leather surpasses most other forms of movable wall- 
decoration. 

7. Painted Cloth. Another form of wall-hanging, used most 
largely during the isth and i6th centuries, and in a less extensive 
way a good deal earlier, is canvas painted to imitate tapestry. 
English medieval inventories both of ecclesiastical and domestic 
goods frequently contain items such as these: " stayned cloths 
for hangings," " paynted cloths with stories and batailes," or 
" paynted cloths of beyond sea work," or " of Flaunder's work." 
Many good artists working at Ghent and Bruges during the first 
half of the isth century produced fine work of this class, as well 
as designs for real tapestry. Several of the great Italian artists 
devoted their skill in composition and invention to the painting 
of these wall-hangings. The most important existing example 
is the series of paintings of the triumph of Julius Caesar executed 
by Andrea Mantegna (1485-1492) for Ludovico Gonzaga, duke 
of Mantua, and now at Hampton Court. These are usually, 
but wrongly, called " cartoons," as if they were designs meant 
to be executed in tapestry; this is not the case, as the paintings 
themselves were used as wall-hangings. They are nine in number 
and each compartment, 9 ft. square, was separated from the next 
by a pilaster. They form a continuous procession, with life- 
sized figures, remarkable for their composition, drawing and 
delicate colouring the latter unfortunately much disguised by 
" restoration." Like most of these painted wall-hangings, 
they are executed in tempera, and rather thinly painted, so 
that the pigment might not crack off through the cloth falling 
slightly into folds. Another remarkable series of painted cloth 
hangings are those at Reims Cathedral. In some cases dyes 
were used for this work. A MS. of the isth century gives 
receipts for " painted cloth," showing that sometimes they were 
dyed in a manner similar to those Indian stuffs which were 
afterwards printed, and are now called chintzes. These 
receipts are for real dyes, not for pigments, and among them 
is the earliest known description of the process called "setting" 
the woad or indigo vat, as well as a receipt for removing or 
" discharging " the colour from a cloth already dyed. Another 
method employed was a sort of " encaustic " process; the cloth 
was rubbed all over with wax, and then painted in tempera; 
heat was then applied so that the colours sank into the melting 
wax, and were thus firmly fixed upon the cloth. 

8. Printed Hangings and Wail-Papers. The printing of 
various textiles with dye-colours and mordants is probably one 
of the most ancient arts. Pliny (H. N. xxxv.) describes a 
dyeing process employed by the ancient Egyptians, in which 
the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks. 
Various methods have been used for this work wood blocks in 
relief, engraved metal plates, stencil plates and even hand- 
painting; frequently two or more of these methods have 
been employed for the same pattern. The use of printed stuffs 
is of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese, and 
was certainly practised in western Europe in the I3th century, 
and perhaps earlier. The Victoria and Albert Museum has 
13th-century specimens of block-printed silk made in Sicily, of 
beautiful design. Towards the end of the i4th century a 
great deal of block-printed linen was made in Flanders, and 
largely imported into England. 

Wall-papers did not come into common use in Europe till the 
1 8th century, though they appear to have been used much 
earlier by the Chinese. A few rare examples exist in England 
which may be as early as the i6th century; these are imitations, 
generally in flock, of the fine old Florentine and Genoese cut 
velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the 
date of the wall-paper, the same traditional patterns being 
reproduced for many years with little or no change. Machinery 
enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till 



20 



MURAL DECORATION 



the end of the i8th century, and up to that time wall-papers 
were printed on small square pieces of hand-made paper, difficult 
to hang, disfigured by numerous joints, and comparatively 
costly; on these accounts wall-papers were slow in superseding 
the older modes of mural decoration. A little work by Jackson 
of Battersea, printed in London in 1744, throws some light on 
the use of wall-papers at that time. He gives reduced copies 
of his designs, mostly taken from Italian pictures or antique 
sculpture during his residence in Venice. Instead of flowing 
patterns covering the wall, his designs are all pictures land- 
scapes, architectural scenes or statues treated as panels, with 
plain paper or painting between. They are all printed in oil, 
with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an 
invention of his own. They are all in the worst possible taste, 
and yet are offered as great improvements on the Chinese papers 
which he says were then in fashion. Fig. 6 is a good English 




FIG. 6. Early 18th-century Wail-Paper. (22 in. wide.) 
example of 18th-century wall-paper printed on squares of stout 
hand-made paper 22 in. wide. The design is apparently copied 
from an Indian chintz. 

In the iQth century in England, a great advance in the 
designing of wall-papers was made by William Morris and his 
school. 

9. Painting. This is naturally the most important and the 
most widely used of all forms of wall-decoration, as well as 
perhaps the earliest. 

Egypt (see EGYPT: Art and Archaeology) is the chief store- 
house of ancient specimens of this, as of almost all the arts. 
Owing to the intimate connexion between the 
platings, sculpture and painting of early times, the remarks 
above as to subjects and treatment under the head 
of Egyptian wall-sculpture will to a great extent apply also to 
the paintings. It is an important fact, which testifies to the 
antiquity of Egyptian civilization, that the earliest paintings, 
dating more than 4000 years before our era, are also the cleverest 
both in drawing and execution. In later times the influence of 
Egyptian art, especially in painting, was important even among 



distant nations. In the 6th century B.C. Egyptian colonists, 
introduced by Cambyses into Persepolis, influenced the painting 
and sculpture of the great Persian Empire and throughout the 
valley of the Euphrates. In a lesser degree the art of Babylon 
and Nineveh had felt considerable Egyptian influence several 
centuries earlier. The same influence affected the early art of 
the Greeks and the Etrurians, and it was not till the middle of 
the 5th century B.C. that the further development and perfecting 
of art in Greece obliterated the old traces of Egyptian mannerism. 
After the death of Alexander the Great, when Egypt came into 
the possession of the Lagidae (320 B.C.), the tide of influence 
flowed the other way, and Greek art modified though it did not 
seriously alter the characteristics of Egyptian painting and 
sculpture, which retained much of their early formalism and 
severity. Yet the increased sense of beauty, especially in the 
human face, derived from the Greeks was counterbalanced by 
loss of vigour; art under the Ptolemies became a dull copy ism 
of earlier traditions. 

The general scheme of mural painting in the buildings of 
ancient Egypt was complete and magnificent. Columns, 
mouldings and other architectural features were enriched with 
patterns in brilliant colours; the fiat wall -spaces were covered 
with figure-subjects, generally in horizontal bands, and the 
ceilings were ornamented with sacred symbols, such as the vulture 
or painted blue and studded with gold stars to symbolize the 
sky. The wall-paintings are executed in tempera on a thin skin 




(Taken from Lottie's Ride in Egypt.) 

FIG. 7. Egyptian Wall-Painting of the Ancient Empire 
in the Bulak Museum. 

of fine lime, laid over the brick, stone or marble to form a smooth 
and slightly absorbent coat to receive the pigments, which were 
most brilliant in tone and of great variety of tint. Not employing 
fresco, the Egyptian artists were not restricted to " earth colours," 
but occasionally used purples, pinks and greens which would 
have been destroyed by fresh lime. The blue used is very 
beautiful, and is generally laid on in considerable body it is 
frequently a " smalt " or deep-blue glass, coloured by copper 
oxide, finely powdered. Red and yellow ochre, carbon-black, 
and powdered chalk-white are most largely used. Though in 
the paintings of animals and birds considerable realism is often 
seen (fig. 7), yet for human figures certain conventional colours 
are employed, e.g. white for females' flesh, red for the males, or 
black to indicate people of negro race. Heads are painted in 
profile, and little or no shading is used. Considerable knowledge 
of harmony is shown in the arrangement of the colours; and 
otherwise harsh combinations of tints are softened and brought 
into keeping by thin separating lines of white or yellow. Though 
at first sight the general colouring, if seen in a museum, may 
appear crude, yet it should be remembered that the internal 
paintings were much softened by the dim light in Egyptian 
buildings, and those outside were subdued by contrast with the 
brilliant sunshine under which they were always seen. 

The rock-cut sepulchres of the Etrurians supply the only 
existing specimens of their mural painting; and, unlike the 
tombs of Egypt, only a small proportion appear to BtruKM 
have been decorated in this way. The actual dates p a i a ti ag . 
of these paintings are very uncertain, but they range 
possibly from about the 8th century B.C. down to almost the 
Christian era. The tombs which possess these paintings are 



MURAL DECORATION 



21 



mostly square-shaped rooms, with slightly-arched or gabled roofs, 
excavated in soft sandstone or tufa hillsides. The earlier ones 
show Egyptian influence in drawing and in composition : they 
are broadly designed with flat unshaded tints, the faces in profile, 
except the eyes, which are drawn as if seen in front. Colours, as 
in Egypt, are used conventionally male flesh red, white or 
pale yellow for the females, black for demons. In one respect 
these paintings differ from those of the Egyptians; few colours 
are used red, brown, and yellow ochres, carbon-black, lime or 
chalk-white, and occasionally blue are the only pigments. The 
rock-walls are prepared by being covered with a thin skin of 
lime stucco, and lime or chalk is mixed in small quantities with 
all the colours; hence the restriction to " earth pigments," made 
necessary by the dampness of these subterranean chambers. 
The process employed was in fact a kind of fresco, though the 
stucco ground was not applied in small patches only sufficient 
for the day's work; the dampness of the rock was enough to 
keep the stucco skin moist, and so allow the necessary infiltration 
of colour from the surface. Many of these paintings when first 
discovered were fresh in tint and uninjured by time, but they are 
soon dulled by exposure to light. In the course of centuries 
great changes of style naturally took place; the early Egyptian 
influence, probably brought to Etruria through the Phoenician 
traders, was succeeded by an even more strongly-marked Greek 
influence at first archaic and stiff, then developing into great 
beauty of drawing, and finally yielding to the Roman spirit, as 
the degradation of Greek art advanced under their powerful but 
inartistic Roman conquerors. 

Throughout this succession of styles Egyptian, Greek and 
Graeco-Roman there runs a distinct undercurrent of individu- 
ality due to the Etruscans themselves. This appears not only 
in the drawing but also in the choice of subjects. In addition 
to pictures of banquets with musicians and dancers, hunting 
and racing scenes, the workshops of different craftsmen and other 
domestic subjects, all thoroughly Hellenic in sentiment, other 
paintings occur which are very un-Greek in feeling. These 
represent the judgment and punishment of souls in a future life. 
Mantus, Charun and other infernal deities of the Rasena, 
hideous in aspect and armed with hammers, or furies depicted 
as black-bearded demons winged and brandishing live snakes, 
terrify or torture shrinking human souls. Others, not the earliest 
in date, represent human sacrifices, such as those at the tomb of 
Patroclus a class of subjects which, though Homeric, appears 
rarely to have been selected by Greek painters. The constant 
import into Etruria of large quantities of fine Greek painted 
vases appears to have contributed to keep up the supremacy of 
Hellenic influence during many centuries, and by their artistic 
superiority to have prevented the development of a more original 
and native school of art. Though we now know Etruscan 
painting only from the tombs, yet Pliny mentions (H . N. xxxv. 3) 
that fine wall-paintings existed in his time, with colours yet 
fresh, on the walls of ruined temples at Ardea and Lanuvium, 
executed, he says, before the founding of Rome. As before men- 
tioned, the actual dates of the existing paintings are uncertain. 
It cannot therefore be asserted that any existing specimens are 
much older than 600 B.C., though some, especially at Veii, 
certainly appear to have the characteristics of more remote 
antiquity. The most important of these paintings have been 
discovered in the cemeteries of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, Vulci, 
Cervetri and other Etruscan cities. 

Even in Egypt the use of colour does not appear to have been 
more universal than it was among the Greeks (see GREEK ART), 
Greek w ^ a PP ue d ' lt freely to their marble statues and 
Paiatiag. reliefs, the whole of their buildings inside and out, 
as well as for the decoration of flat wall-surfaces. 
They appear to have cared little for pure form, and not to have 
valued the delicate ivory-like tint and beautiful texture of their 
fine Pentelic and Parian marbles, except as a ground for coloured 
ornament. A whole class of artists, called A-yaX/jdmoi' tyKavarai, 
were occupied in colouring marble sculpture, and their services 
were very highly valued. 1 In seme cases, probably for the sake of 

1 This process, circumlitio, is mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 40). 



hiding the joints and getting a more absorbent surface, the 
marble, however pure and fine in texture, was covered with a 
thin skin of stucco made of mixed lime and powdered marble. 
An alabaster sarcophagus, found in a tomb near Corneto, and 
now in the Etruscan museum at Florence, is decorated outside 
with beautiful purely Greek paintings, executed on a stucco 
skin as hard and smooth as the alabaster. The pictures represent 
combats of the Greeks and Amazons. The colouring, though 
rather brilliant, is simply treated, and the figures are kept 
strictly to one plane without any attempt at complicated 
perspective. Other valuable specimens of Greek art, found at 
Herculaneum and now in the Naples Museum, are some small 
paintings, one of girls playing with dice, another of Theseus and 
the Minotaur. These are painted with miniature-like delicacy on 
the bare surface of marble slabs; they are almost monochromatic, 
and are of the highest beauty both in drawing and in gradations 
of shadow quite unlike any of the Greek vase-paintings. The 
first-mentioned painting is signed AAEEANAPOS A6HNAI02. 
It is probable that the strictly archaic paintings of the Greeks, 
such as those of Polygnotus in the 5th century B.C., executed 
with few and simple colours, had much resemblance to those on 
vases, but Pliny is wrong when he asserts that, till the time of 
Apelles (c. 350-310 B.C.), the Greek painters only used black, 
white, red and yellow. 2 Judging from the peculiar way in which 
the Greeks and their imitators the Romans used the names of 
colours, it appears that they paid more attention to tones and 
relations of colour than to actual hues. Thus most Greek and 
Latin colour-names are now untranslatable. Homer's " wine- 
like sea " (olvoi/), Sophocles's " wine-coloured ivy " ((Ed. Col.), 
and Horace's " purpureus olor " probably refer less to what we 
should call colour than to the chromatic strength of the various 
objects and their more or less strong powers of reflecting light, 
either in motion or when at rest. Nor have we any word like 
Virgil's " flavus," which could be applied both to a lady's hair 
and to the leaf of an olive-tree. 3 

During the best periods of Greek art the favourite classes of 
subjects were scenes from poetry, especially Homer and con- 
temporary history. The names TnvaKoOriia] and trroa iromXij 
were given to many public buildings from their walls being 
covered with paintings. Additional interest was given to the 
historical subjects by the introduction of portraits; e.g. in the 
great picture of the battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), on the walls of 
the errod irotKtXij in Athens, portraits were given of the Greek 
generals Miltiades, Callimachus, and others. This picture was 
painted about forty years after the battle by Polygnotus and 
Micon. One of the earliest pictures recorded by Pliny (xxxv. 8) 
represented a battle of the Magnesians (c. 716 B.C.); it was 
painted by Bularchus, a Lydian artist, and bought at a high 
price by King Candaules. Many other important Greek 
historical paintings are mentioned by Pausanias and earlier 
writers. The Pompeian mosaic of the defeat of the Persians by 
Alexander is probably a Romanized copy from some celebrated 
Greek painting; it obviously was not designed for mosaic 
work. 

Landscape painting appears to have been unknown among the 
Greeks, even as a background to figure-subjects. The poems 
especially of Homer and Sophocles show that this was not through 
want of appreciation of the beauties of nature, but partly, 
probably, because the main object of Greek painting was to tell 
some definite story, and also from their just sense of artistic 
fitness, which prevented them from attempting in their mural 
decorations to disguise the flat solidity of the walls by delusive 
effects of aerial perspective and distance. 

It is interesting to note that even in the time of Alexander 
the Great the somewhat archaic works of the earlier painters 
were still appreciated. In particular Aristotle praises Polygnotus, 

* Pliny's remarks on subjects such as this should be received with 
caution. He was neither a scientific archaeologist nor a practical 
artist. 

s So also a meaning unlike ours is attached to Greek technical 
words by rivm they meant, not " tone," but the gradations of 
light and shade, and by ApiMty/i the relations of colour. See Pliny, 
H. N. xxxv. 5 ; and Ruskin, Mod. Painters, pt. iv. cap. 13. 



22 



MURAL DECORATION 



both for his power of combining truth with idealization 
in his portraits and for his skill in depicting men's mental 
characteristics; on this account he calls him 6 i70o7P<i</>os. 
Lucian too praises Polygnotus alike for his grace, drawing and 
colouring. Later painters, such as Zeuxis and Apelles, appear 
to have produced easel pictures more than mural paintings, 
and these, being easy to move, were mostly carried off to Rome 
by the early emperors. Hence Pausanias, who visited Greece 
in the time of Hadrian, mentions but few works of the later 
artists. Owing to the lack of existing specimens of Greek 
painting it would be idle to attempt an account of their technical 
methods, but no doubt those employed by the Romans described 
below were derived with the rest of their art from the Greeks. 
Speaking of their stucco, Pliny refers its superiority over that 
made by the Romans to the fact that it was always made of 
lime at least three years old, and that it was well mixed and 
pounded in a mortar before being laid on the wall; he is here 
speaking of the thick stucco in many coats, not of the thin skin 
mentioned above as being laid on marble. Greek mural painting, 
like their sculpture, was chiefly used to decorate temples and 
public buildings, and comparatively rarely either for tombs 1 or 
private buildings at least in the days of their early republican 
simplicity. 

A large number of Roman mural paintings (see also ROMAN 
ART) now exist, of which many were discovered in the private 
houses and baths of Pompeii, nearly all dating 
Painting, between A.D. 63, when the city was ruined by an 
earthquake, and A.D. 79, when it was buried by 
Vesuvius. A catalogue of these and similar paintings from Hercu- 
laneum and Stabiae, compiled by Professor Helbig, comprises 1 966 
specimens. The excavations in the baths of Titus and other 
ancient buildings in Rome, made in the early part of the i6th 
century, excited the keenest interest and admiration among the 
painters of that time, and largely influenced the later art of the 
Renaissance. These paintings, especially the " grotesques " 
or fanciful patterns of scroll-work and pilasters mixed with 
semi-realistic foliage and figures of boys, animals and birds, 
designed with great freedom of touch and inventive power, seem 
to have fascinated Raphael during his later period, and many of 
his pupils and contemporaries. The " loggie " of the Vatican 
and of the Farnesina palace are full of carefully studied 
16th-century reproductions of these highly decorative paintings. 
The excavations in Rome have brought to light some mural 
paintings of the ist century A.D., perhaps superior in execution 
even to the best of the Pompeian series (see Plate). 

The range of subjects found in Roman mural paintings is large 
mythology, religious ceremonies, genre, still life and even 
landscape (the latter generally on a small scale, and treated in an 
artificial and purely decorative way), and lastly history. Pliny 
mentions several large and important historical paintings, such 
as those with which Valerius Maximus Messala decorated the 
walls of the Curia Hostilia, to commemorate his own victory over 
Hiero II. and the Carthaginians in Sicily in the 3rd century B.C. 
The earliest Roman painting recorded by Pliny was by Fabius, 
surnamed Pictor, on the walls of the temple of Salus, executed 
about 300 B.C. (H.N. xxxv. 4). 

Pliny (xxxv. i) laments the fact that the wealthy Romans 
of his time preferred the costly splendours of marble and por- 
phyry wall-linings to the more artistic decoration of paintings 
by good artists. Historical painting seems then to have gone 
out of fashion; among the numerous specimens now existing 
few from Pompeii represent historical subjects; one has the 
scene of Massinissa and Sophonisba before Scipio, and another 
of a riot between the people of Pompeii and Nocera, which 
happened 59 A.D. 

Mythological scenes, chiefly from Greek sources, occur most 
frequently: the myths of Eros and Dionysus are especial 
favourites. Only five or six relate to purely Roman mythology. 

1 One instance only of a tomb-painting is mentioned by Pausanias 
(vii. 22). Some fine specimens have been discovered in the Crimea, 
but not of a very early date; see Stephani, Compte rendu, &c., 
(St Petersburg, 1878), &c. 



We have reason to think that some at least of the Pompeian 
pictures are copies, probably at third or fourth hand, from 
celebrated Greek originals. The frequently repeated subjects 
of Medea meditating the murder of her children and Iphigenia 
at the shrine of the Tauric Artemis suggest that the motive 
and composition were taken from the originals of these subjects 
by Timanthes. Those of lo and Argus, the finest example of 
which is in the Palatine " villa of Livia " and of Andromeda 
and Perseus, often repeated on Pompeian walls, may be from 
the originals by Nicias. 

In many cases these mural paintings are of high artistic 
merit, though they are probably not the work of the most 
distinguished painters of the time, but rather of a humbler 
class of decorators, who reproduced, without much original 
invention, stock designs out of some pattern-book. They 
are, however, all remarkable for the rapid skill and extreme 
" verve " and freedom of hand with which the designs are, as 
it were, flung on to the walls with few but effective touches. 
Though in some cases the motive and composition are superior 
to the execution, yet many of the paintings are remarkable 
both for their realistic truth and technical skill. The great 
painting of Ceres from Pompeii, now in the Naples Museum, 
is a work of the highest merit. 

In the usual scheme of decoration the broad wall-surfaces are 
broken up into a series of panels by pilasters, columns, or other 
architectural forms. Some of the panels contain pictures with 
figure-subjects; others have conventional ornament, or hanging 
festoons of fruit and flowers. The lower part of the wall is 
painted one plain colour, forming a dado; the upper part some- 
times has a well-designed frieze of flowing ornaments. In the 
better class of painted walls the whole is kept flat in treatment, 
and is free from too great subdivision, but in many cases great 
want of taste is shown by the introduction of violent effects of 
architectural perspective, and the space is broken up by ccm- 
plicated schemes of design, studded with pictures in varying 
scales which have little relation to their surroundings. The 
colouring is on the whole pleasant and harmonious unlike the 
usual chromo-lithographic copies. Black, yellow, or a rich deep 
red are the favourite colours for the main ground of the walls, 
the pictures in the panels being treated separately, each with its 
own background. 

An interesting series of early Christian mural paintings exists 
in various catacombs, especially those of Rome and Naples. 
They are of value both as an important link in the Egrly 
history of art and also as throwing light on the Christian 
mental state of the early Christians, which was dis- Painting la 
tinctly influenced by the older faith. Thus in the ltaly ' 
earlier paintings of about the 4th century we find Christ repre- 
sented as a beardless youth, beautiful as the artist could make 
him, with a lingering tradition of Greek idealization, in no degree 
like the " Man of Sorrows " of medieval painters, but rather 
a kind of genius of Christianity in whose fair outward form 
the peace and purity of the new faith were visibly symbolized, 
just as certain distinct attributes were typified in the persons 
of the gods of ancient Greece. The favourite early subject, 
" Christ the Good Shepherd " (fig. 8), is represented as Orpheus 
playing on his lyre to a circle of beasts, the pagan origin of the 
picture being shown by the Phrygian cap and by the presence of 
lions, panthers and other incongruous animals among the listen- 
ing sheep. In other cases Christ is depicted standing with a sheep 
borne on His shoulders like Hermes Criophoros or Hermes 
Psychopompos favourite Greek subjects, especially the former, 
a statue of which Pausanias (ix. 22) mentions as existing at 
Tanagra in Boeotia. Here again the pagan origin of the type 
is shown by the presence in the catacomb paintings of the pan- 
pipes and pedum, special attributes of Hermes, but quite foreign 
to the notion of Christ. Though in a degraded form, a good 
deal survives in some of these paintings, especially in the earlier 
ones, of the old classical grace of composition and beauty of 
drawing, notably in the above-mentioned representations where 
old models were copied without any adaptation to their new 
meaning. Those of the sth and 6th centuries follow the classical 



MURAL DECORATION 




A WALL PAINTING IN THE MUSEO NAZIONALE. AT ROME, FROM A ROMAN VILLA DISCOVERED IN 1878, EARLY IMPERIAL STYLE 



MURAL DECORATION 



lines, though in a rapidly deteriorating style, until the introduc- 
tion of a foreign the Byzantine element, which created a 
fresh starting-point on different lines. The old naturalism and 
survival of classical freedom of drawing is replaced by stiff, 
conventionally hieratic types, superior in dignity and strength 
to the feeble compositions produced by the degradation into 
which the native art of Rome had fallen. The designs of this 
second period of Christian art are similar to those of the mosaics, 




FIG. 8. Painted Vault from the Catacombs of St.Callixtus, Rome. 
In the centre Orpheus, to represent Christ the Good Shepherd, 
and round are smaller paintings of various types of Christ. 

such as many at Ravenna, and also to the magnificently illumi- 
nated MSS. For some centuries there was little change or 
development in this Byzantine style of art, so that it is impossible 
in most cases to be sure from internal evidence of the date of 
any painting. This to some extent applies also to the works 
of the earlier or pagan school, though, roughly speaking, it may 
be said that the least meritorious pictures are the latest in 
date. 

These catacomb paintings range over a long space of time; 
some may possibly be of the ist or 2nd century, e.g. those 
in the cemetery of Domitilla, Rome; others are as late as the 
oth century, e.g. some full-length figures of St Cornelius and 
St Cyprian in the catacomb of St Callixtus, under which earlier 
paintings may be traced. In execution they somewhat resemble 
the Etruscan tomb-paintings; the walls of the catacomb passages 
and chambers, excavated in soft tufa, are covered with a thin 
skin of white stucco, and on that the mural and ceiling paintings 
are simply executed in earth colours. The favourite subjects 
of the earliest paintings are scenes from the Old Testament 
which were supposed to typify events in the life of Christ, such 
as the sacrifice of Isaac (Christ's death), Jonah and the whale 
(the Resurrection), Moses striking the rock, or pointing to the 
manna (Christ the water of life, and the Eucharist), and many 
others. The later paintings deal more with later subjects, 
either events in Christ's life or figures of saints and the miracles 
they performed. A fine series of these exists in the iower church 
of S. Clemente in Rome, apparently dating from the 6th to the 
loth centuries; among these are representations of the passion 
and death of Christ subjects never chosen by the earlier 
Christians, except as dimly foreshadowed by the Old Testament 
types. When Christ Himself is depicted in the early catacomb 
paintings it is in glory and power, not in His human weakness and 
suffering. 

Other early Italian paintings exist on the walls of the church 
of the Tre Fontane near Rome, and in the Capella di S. Urbano 
alia Caffarella, executed in the early part of the nth century. 
The atrium of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, Rome, and the church 
of the Quattro Santi Incoronati have mural paintings of the 



first half of the I3th century, which show no artistic improve- 
ment over those at S. Clemente four or five centuries older. 

It was not in fact till the second half cf the I3th century 
that stiff traditional Byzantine forms and colouring began 
to be superseded by the revival of native art in Italy by 
the painters of Florence, Pisa and Siena. During the fiist 
thirteen centuries of the Christian era mural painting appears 
to have been for the most part confined to the repre- 
sentation of sacred subjects. It is remarkable that during 
the earlier centuries council after council of the Christian 
Church forbade the painting of figure-subjects, and especially 
those of any Person of the Trinity; but in vain. In spite 
of the zeal of bishops and others, who sometimes with their 
own hands defaced the pictures of Christ on the walls of 
the churches, in spite of threats of excommunication, the for- 
bidden paintings by degrees became more numerous, till the walls 
of almost every church throughout Christendom were decorated 
with whole series of pictured stories. The useless prohibition 
was becoming obsolete when, towards the end of the 4th century, 
the learned Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered the two basilicas 
which he had built at Fondi and Nola to be adorned with wall- 
paintings of sacred subjects, with the special object, as he says, 
of instructing and refining the ignorant and drunken people. 
These painted histories were in fact the books of the unlearned, 
and we can now hardly realize their value as the chief mode of 
religious teaching in ages when none but the clergy could read 
or write. 

During the middle ages, just as long before among the ancient 
Greeks, coloured decoration was used in the widest possible 
manner not only for the adornment of flat walls, English 
but also for the enrichment of sculpture and all the Mural 
fittings and architectural features of buildings, P'fattag. 
whether the material to be painted was plaster, stone, marble 
or wood. It was only the damp and frosts of northern climates 
that to some extent limited the external use of colour to the less 
exposed parts of the outsides of buildings. The varying tints 
and texture of smoothly worked stone appear to have given no 
pleasure to the medieval eye; and in the rare cases in which the 
poverty of some country church prevented its walls from being 
adorned with painted ornaments or pictures the whole surface 
of the stonework inside, mouldings and carving as well as 
flat wall-spaces, was covered with a thin coat of whitewash. 
Internal rough stonework was invariably concealed by stucco, 
forming a smooth ground for possible future paintings. Un- 
happily a great proportion of mural paintings have been de- 
stroyed, though many in a more or less mutilated state still exist 
in England. It is difficult (and doubly so since the so-called 
" restoration " of most old buildings) to realize the splendour 
of effect once possessed by every important medieval church. 
From the tiled floor to the roof all was one mass of gold and 
colour. The brilliance of the mural paintings and richly 
coloured sculpture and mouldings was in harmony with the 
splendour of the oak-work screens, stalls, and roofs all 
decorated with gilding and painting, while the light, passing 
through stained glass, softened and helped to combine 
the whole into one mass of decorative effect. Colour was 
boldly applied everywhere, and thus the patchy effect was 
avoided which is so often the result of the modern timid and 
partial use of painted ornament. Even the figure-sculpture 
was painted in a strong and realistic manner, sometimes by a 
wax encaustic process, probably the same as the circumlitio 
of classical times. In the accounts for expenses in decorating 
Orvieto cathedral wax is a frequent item among the materials 
used for painting. In one place it is mentioned that wax was 
supplied to Andrea Pisano (in 1345) for the decoration of the 
beautiful reliefs in white marble on the lower part of the west 
front. 

From the nth to the i6th century the lower part of the walls, 
generally 6 to 8 ft. from the floor, was painted with a dado 
the favourite patterns till the I3th century being either a sort 
of sham masonry with a flower in each rectangular space 
(fig. 9), or a conventional representation of a curtain with 



24 

iegula.1 folds stiffly treated, 
pictures with figure-subjects 



MURAL DECORATION 




FIG. 9. Wall-Paintingof the I3th 
century. " Masonry pattern." 



Above this dado ranges of 
were painted in tiers one 
above the other, each picture 
frequently surrounded by a 
painted frame with arch and 
gable of architectural design. 
Painted bands of chevron or 
other geometrical ornament 
till the I3th century, and 
flowing ornament afterwards, 
usually divide the tiers of pic- 
tures horizontally and form the 
top and bottom boundaries of 
the dado. In the case of a 
church, the end walls usually 
have figures to a larger scale. 



On the east wall of the nave over the chancel arch there was 
generally a large painting of the " Doom " or Last Judgment. 
One of the commonest subjects is a colossal figure of St Chris- 
topher (fig. 10) usually on the nave wail opposite the principal 




FIG. 10. Wall-Painting of St Christopher. (Large life-size.) 

entrance selected because the sight of a picture of this saint 
was supposed to bring good luck for the rest of the day. Figures 
were also often painted on the jambs of the windows and on the 
piers and soffit of the arches, especially that opening into the 
chancel. 

The little Norman church at Kempley in Gloucestershire (date 
about noo) has perhaps the best-preserved specimen of the com- 
plete early decoration of a chancel. 1 The north and south walls 
are occupied by figures of the twelve apostles in architectural 
niches, six on each side. The east wall had single figures of saints 
at the sides of the central window, and the stone barrel vault is 
covered with a representation of St John's apocalyptic vision 
Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelistic beasts, the seven 
candlesticks and other figures. The chancel arch itself and the 
jambs and mouldings of the windows have stiff geometrical designs, 
and over the arch, towards the nave, is a large picture of the 
" Doom." The whole scheme is very complete, no part of the 
internal plaster or stonework being undecorated with colour. 
Though the drawing is rude, the figures and their drapery are 
treated broadly and with dignity. Simple earth colours are used, 
painted in tempera on a plain white ground, which covers alike 
both the plaster of the rough walls and the smooth stone of the 
arches and jambs. 

In the I3th century the painters of England reached a high 
point of artistic power and technical skill, so that paintings were 
produced by native artists equal, if not superior, to those of 
the same period anywhere on the Continent. The central 
paintings on the walls of the chapter-house and on the retable 
of the high altar of Westminster Abbey are not surpassed by 

1 See Archoeologia, vol. xlvi. (1880). 



any of the smaller works even of such men as Cimabue and Duccio 
di Buoninsegna, who were living when these Westminster 
paintings were executed. Unhappily, partly through the 
poverty and anarchy brought about by the French wars and 
the Wars of the Roses, the development of art in England made 
little progress after the beginning of the I4th century, and it 




FIG. 1 1 . i sth-century English Painting St John the Evangelist. 

was not till a time when the renaissance of art in Italy had fallen 
into decay that its influence reached the British shores. In 
the 1 5th century some beautiful work, somewhat affected by 
Flemish influence, was produced in England (fig. n), chiefly 
in the form of figures painted on the oak panels of chancel 
and chapel screens, especially in Norfolk and Suffolk; but these 
cannot be said to rival the works of the Van Eycks and other 
painters of that time in Flanders. To return to the i^th 
century, the culminating period of English art in painting and 
sculpture, much was owed to Henry III.'s love for and patronage 
of the fine arts; he employed a large number of painters to 
decorate his various castles and palaces, especially the palace of 
Westminster, one large hall of which was known as the " painted 



MURAL DECORATION 



chamber " from the rovvs of fine pictures with which its walls 
were covered. After the i3th century the " masonry pattern " 
was disused for the lower parts of walls, and the chevrony and 
other stiff patterns for the borders were replaced by more flowing 
designs. The character of the painted figures became less 
monumental in style; greater freedom of drawing and treatment 
was adopted, and they cease to recall the archaic majesty and 
grandeur of the Byzantine mosaics. 

It may be noted that during the I4th century wall-spaces 
unoccupied by figure-subjects were often covered by graceful 
flowing patterns, drawn with great 
freedom and rather avoiding geo- 
metrical repetition. Fig. 12, from 
the church of Stanley St Leonard's, 
Gloucestershire, is a good character- 
istic specimen of 14th-century decora- 
tion; it is on the walls of the chancel, 
filling up the spaces between the 
painted figures; the flowers are blue, 
and the lines red on a white ground. 
In some cases the motive of the 
design is taken from encaustic tiles, 
: * Bengeo Church, Herts, where 
tne wa U ls divided into squares, each 
containing an heraldic lion. This 
imitative notion occurs during all periods masonry, hanging 
curtains, tiles and architectural features such as niches and 
canopies being very frequently represented, though always 
in a simple decorative fashion with no attempt at actual 
deception not probably from any fixed principle that shams 
were wrong, but because the good taste of the medieval 
painters taught them that a flat unrealistic treatment gave 
the best and most decorative effect. Thus in the isth and 
1 6th centuries the commonest forms of unpictorial wall- 
decoration were various patterns taken from the beautiful 
damasks and cut velvets of Sicily, Florence, Genoa and other 
places in Italy, some form of the " pine-apple " or rather " arti- 
choke " pattern being the favourite (fig. 13), a design which, 




tury Wall-Painting. 




FIG. 13. 15th-century Wall-Painting, taken from a Genoese 

or Florentine velvet design. 

developed partly from Oriental sources, and coming to perfection 
at the end of the i$th century, was copied and reproduced in 
textiles, printed stuffs and wall-papers with but little change 
down to the present century a remarkable instance of survival 
in design. Fig. 14 is a specimen of isth-century English decora- 
tive painting, copied from a 14th-century Sicilian silk damask. 
Diapers, powderings with flowers, . sacred monograms and 
sprays of blossom were frequently used to ornament large 
surfaces in a simple way. Many of these are extremely beautiful 
(fig. IS)- 



Subjects of Medieval Wall- Paintings. In churches and domestic 
buildings alike the usual subjects represented on the walls were 
specially selected for their moral and religious teaching, either 




FIG. 14. 15th-century Wall-Painting, the design copied from 
a 13th-century Sicilian silk damask. 

stories from the Bible and Apocrypha, or from the lives of saints, 

or, lastly, symbolical representations setting forth some important 

theological truth, such as figures of virtues and vices, or the Scala 

humanae salyationis, showing the. perils and temptations of the 

human soul in its struggle to escape hell and gain paradise a rude 

foreshadowing of the great scheme worked out with such perfection 

by Dante in his Commedia. A fine example of this subject exists 

on the walls of Chaldon church, Surrey. 1 In the selection of saints 

for paintings in England, 

those of English origin are 

naturally most frequently 

represented, and different 

districts had certain local 

favourites. St Thomas of 

Canterbury was one of the 

most widely popular; but 

few examples now remain, 

owing to Henry VIII.'s 

special dislike to this saint 

and the strict orders that 

were issued for all pictures 

of him to be destroyed. 

For a similar reason most 

paintings of saintly popes 

were obliterated. 

Methods of Execution. 
Though Eraclius, who 
probably wrote before the 
loth century, mentions 
the use of an oil-medium, 
yet till about the I3th 
century mural paintings 
appear to have been exe- 
cuted in the most simple FlG i 5 ._p ow derings used in i 5 th- 
way, in tempera mainly century Wall Painting, 

with earth colours applied 

on dry stucco; even when a smooth stone surface was to be 
painted a thin coat of whitening or fine gesso was laid as a 
ground. In the 131(1 century, and perhaps earlier, oil was com- 
monly used both as a medium for the pigments and also to make 
a varnish to cover and fix tempera paintings. The Van Eycks 
introduced the use of dryers of a better kind than had yet been 
used, and so largely extended the application of oil-painting. 
Before their time it seems to have been the custom to dry wall- 
paintings laboriously by the use of charcoal braziers, if they were 
in a position where the sun could not shine upon them. This is 




'See Collections of Surrey Archaeol. Soc. vol. v. pt. ii. (1871). 



26 



MURANO 



specially recorded in the valuable series of accounts for the expenses 
of wall-paintings in the royal palace of Westminster during the 
reign of Henry III., printed in Vetusta monumenta, vol. vi. (1842). 
All the materials used, including charcoal to dry the paintings and 
the wages paid to the artists, are given. The materials mentioned 
are plumbum album el rubeum, viridus, vermilio, synople, acre, 
azura, aurum, argentum, collis, oleum, vernix. 

Two foreign painters were employed Peter of Spain and William 
of Florence at sixpence a day, but the English painters seem to 




FIG. 16. Pattern in Stamped and Moulded Plaster, decorated with 
gilding and transparent colours; 15th-century work. (Full size.) 

have done most of the work and received higher pay. William, 
an English monk in the adjoining Benedictine abbey of West- 
minster, received two shillings "a day. Walter of Durham and 
various members of the Otho family, royal goldsmiths and moneyers, 
worked for many years on the adornment of Henry III.'s palace 
and were well paid for their skill. Some fragments of paintings 
from the royal chapel of St Stephen are now in the British 
Museum. They are delicate and carefully painted subjects from 
the Old Testament, in rich colours, each with explanatory inscrip- 
tion underneath. The scale is small, the figures being scarcely 
a foot high. Their method of execution is curious. First the 
smooth stone wall was covered with a coat of red, painted in oil, 
probably to keep back the damp; on that a thin skin of fine gesso 
(stucco) has been applied, and the outlines of the figures marked 
with a point; the whole of the background, crowns, borders of 
dresses, and other ornamental parts have then been modelled and 
stamped with very minute patterns in slight relief, impressed on 
the surface of the gesso while it was yet soft. The figures have then 
been painted, apparently in tempera, gold leaf has been applied 
to the stamped reliefs, and the whole has been covered with an oil 
varnish. It is difficult to realize the labour required to cover large 
halls such as the above chapel and the " painted chamber," the 
latter about 83 ft. by 27 ft., with this style of decoration. 

In many cases the grounds were entirely covered with shining 
.metal leaf, over which the paintings were executed; those parts, 
such as the draperies, where the metallic lustre was wanted, were 
painted in oil with transparent colours, while the flesh was painted 
in opaque tempera. The effect of the bright metal shining through 
the rich colouring is magnificent. This minuteness of much of the 
medieval wall-decoration is remarkable. Large wall-surfaces and 
intricate mouldings were often completely covered by elaborate 
gesso patterns in relief of almost microscopic delicacy (fig. 1 6). 
The cost of stamps for this is among the items in the Westminster 
accounts. These patterns when set and dry were further adorned 
with gold and colours. So also with the architectural painting; 
the artist was not content simply to pick out the various members 
of the mouldings in different colours, but he also frequently covered 
each bead or fillet with painted flowers and other patterns, as 
delicate as those in an illuminated MS. so minute and highly- 
finished that they are almost invisible at a little distance, but yet 
add greatly to the general richness of effect. All this is neglected 
in modern reproductions of medieval painting, in which both 
touch and colour are coarse and harsh caricatures of the old 
work, such as disfigure the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and many 
cathedrals in France, Germany and England. Gold was never 
used in large quantities without the ground on which it was laid 



being broken up by some such delicate reliefs as that shown in 
fig. 16, so its effect was never dazzling, (W. Mo.; J. H. M.) 

Mural painting in England fell into disuse in the i6th century, 
until attempts to revive it were made in the igth century. 
For domestic purposes wood panelling, stamped leather, and 
tapestry were chiefly used as wall-coverings. In the reign of 
Henry VIII., probably in part through Holbein's influence, a 
rather coarse tempera wall-painting, German in style, appears 
to have been common. 1 A good example of arabesque painting 
of this period in black and white, rudely though boldly drawn 
and Holbeinesquein character, was discovered in 1881 behind the 
panelling in one of the canons' houses at Westminster. Other 
examples exist at Haddon Hall (Derbyshire) and elsewhere. 

Many efforts have been made in England to revive fresco 
painting. The Houses of Parliament bear witness to this, the 
principal works there being those of William Dyce and Daniel 
Maclise. That of G. F. Watts, whose easel work also is generally 
distinguished by its mural feeling, is full of serious purpose and 
dignity of conception. " Buono fresco " (the painting in tempera 
upon a freshly laid ground of plaster while wet), " spirit fresco " 
or Gambier-Parry method (the painting with a spirit medium 
upon a specially prepared plaster or canvas ground 2 ) , and "water- 
glass " painting (wherein the method is similar to water-colour 
painting on a prepared plastered wall, the painting when finished 
being covered with a chemical solution which hardens and 
protects the surface), have all been tried. Other processes are 
also in the experimental stage, such as that known as Keim's, 
which has been successfully tried by Mrs Merritt in a series of 
mural paintings in a church at Chilworth. Unless, however, 
some means can be found of enabling the actual painted wall 
to resist the natural dampness of the English climate, it does not 
seem likely that true fresco painting can ever be naturalized in 
Great Britain. Of two of the few modern artists entrusted 
with important mural work in England, Ford Madox Brown 
and Frederick J. Shields, the former distinguished especially for 
his fine series of mural paintings in the Manchester town-hall, in 
the later paintings there adopted the modern method of painting 
the design upon canvas in flat oil colour, using a wax medium, 
and afterwards affixing the canvas to the wall by means of white 
lead. This is a usual method with modern decorators. Mr 
Shields has painted the panels of his scheme of mural decoration 
in the chapel of the Ascension at Bayswater, London, also 
upon canvas in oils, and has adopted the method of fixing them 
to slabs of slate facing the waD so as to avoid the risk of damp 
from the wall itself. Friezes and frieze panels or ceilings in 
private houses are usually painted upon canvas in oil and affixed 
to the wall or inserted upon their strainers, like pictures in a 
frame. (Walter Crane has used fibrous plaster panels, painting in 
ordinary oil colours with turpentine as a medium, as in Redcross 
Hall.) Recently there has been a revival of tempera painting, 
and a group of painters are producing works on panel and canvas 
painted in tempera or fresco secco, with yolk of egg as a medium, 
according to the practice of the early Italian painters and the 
directions of Cennino Cennini. A pure luminous quality of 
colour is produced, valuable in mural decoration and also- 
durable, especially under varnish. (W. CR.) 

MURANO (anc. Ammariuno), an island in the Venetian lagoon 
abouj i m. north of Venice. It is 5 m. in circumference, 
and a large part of it is occupied by gardens. It contained 5436 
inhabitants in 1901, but was once much more populous than 
it is at present, its inhabitants numbering 30,000. It was a 
favourite resort of the Venetian nobility before they began to 
build their villas on the mainland; land in the isth and i6th 
centuries its gardens and casinos, of which some traces remain, 
were famous. It was here that the literary clubs of the Vigilanti, 
the Studiosi and the Occulti, used to meet. 

'Shakespeare, Henry IV., Part. II. act n. sc. i: " Falstaff. And 
for thy walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal, 
or the German hunting in waterwork, is worth a thousand of these 
bed-hangings and these fly-bitten tapestries." 

1 It was in this method that the lunettes by Lord Leighton at the 
Victoria and Albert Museum were painted on the plaster wall. The 
same painter produced a fresco at Lyndhurst Church, Hants. 



MURAS MURAT 



27 



The town is built upon one broad main canal, where the 
tidal current runs with great force, and upon several smaller 
ones. The cathedral, S. Donato, is a fine basilica, of the izth 
century. The pavement (of mi) is as richly inlaid as that of 
St Mark's, and the mosaics cf the tribune are remarkable. The 
exterior of the tribune is beautiful, and has been successfully 
restored. The church of St Peter the Martyr (1509) contains a 
fine picture by Gentile Bellini and other works, and S. Maria degli 
Angeli also contains several interesting pictures. Murano has 
from ancient times been celebrated for its glass manufactories. 
When and how the art was introduced is obscure, but there 
are notices of it as early as the nth century; and in 1250 Christo- 
foro Briani attempted the imitation of agate and chalcedony. 
From the labours of his pupil Miotto sprang that branch of 
the glass trade which is concerned with the imitation of gems. 
In the 1 5th century the first crystals were made, and in the 
1 7th the various gradations of coloured and iridescent glass 
were invented, together with the composition called " aventu- 
rine "; the manufacture of beads is now a main branch of the 
trade. The art of the glass-workers was taken under the 
protection of the Government in 1275, and regulated by a special 
code of laws and privileges; two fairs were held annually, and 
the export of all materials, such as alum and sand, which enter 
into the composition of glass was absolutely forbidden. With 
the decay of Venice the importance of the Murano glass-works 
declined; but A. Salviati (1816-1890) rediscovered many of the 
old processes, and eight firms are engaged in the trade, the 
most renewed being the Venezia Murano Company and Salviati. 
The municipal museum contains a collection of glass illustrating 
the history and progress of the art. 

The island of Murano was first peopled by the inhabitants 
of Altino. It originally enjoyed independence under the rule 
of its tribunes and judges, and was one of the twelve confederate 
islands of the lagoons. In the i2th century the doge Vital 
Micheli II. incorporated Murano in Venice and attached it to 
the Sestiere of S. Croce. From that date it was governed by 
a Venetian nobleman with the title of podesta whose office 
lasted sixteen months. Murano, however, retained its original 
constitution of a greater and a lesser council for the transaction 
of municipal business, and also the right to coin gold and silver 
as well as its judicial powers. The interests of the town 
were watched at the ducal palace by a nuncio and a solicitor; 
and this constitution remained in force till the fall of the 
republic. 

See Venezia e le sue Lagune; Paoletti, II Fiore di Venezia; Bus- 
solin, Guida alle fabbriche vetrarie di Murano; Romania, Storia 
documentata di Venezia, i. 41. 

MURAS, a tribe of South-American Indians living on the 
Amazon, from the Madeira to the Purus. Formerly a powerful 
people, they were defeated by their neighbours the Mundrucus 
in 1788. They are now partly civilized. Each village has 
a chief whose office is hereditary, but he has little power. The 
Muras are among the lowest of all Amazonian tribes. 

MURAT, JOACHIM (1767-1815), king of Naples, younger 
son of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortuniere in the department 
of Lot, France, was born on the 25th of March 1767. Destined 
for the priesthood, he obtained a bursary at the college of Cahors, 
proceeding afterwards to the university of Toulouse, Tjhere 
he studied canon law. His vocation, however, was certainly 
not sacerdotal, and after dissipating his money he enlisted in a 
cavalry regiment. In 1789 he had attained the rank of martchal 
des logis, but in 1790 he was dismissed the regiment for in- 
subordination. After a period of idleness, he was enrolled, 
through the good offices of J. B. Cavaignac, in the new Constitu- 
tional Guard of Louis XVI. (1791). In Paris he gained a reputa- 
tion for his good looks, his swaggering attitude, and the violence 
of his revolutionary sentiments. On the 3Oth of May 1792, the 
guard having been disbanded, he was appointed sub-lieutenant 
in the 2ist Chasseurs a cheval, with which regiment he served 
in the Argonne and the Pyrenees, obtaining in the latter campaign 
the command of a squadron. After the gth Thermidor, however, 
and the proscription of the Jacobins, with whom he had 



conspicuously identified himself, he fell under suspicion and 
was recalled from the front. 

Returning to Paris (1795), he made the acquaintance of 
Napoleon Bonaparte, another young officer out of employment, 
who soon gained a complete ascendancy over his vain, ambitious 
and unstable nature. On the I3th Vendemiaire, when Bonaparte, 
commissioned by Barras, beat down with cannon the armed 
insurrection of the Paris sections against the Convention, Murat 
was his most active and courageous lieutenant, and was rewarded 
by the lieutenant-colonelcy of the 2 ist Chasseurs and the appoint- 
ment of first aide de camp to General Bonaparte in Italy. In 
the first battles of the famous campaign of 1796 Murat so 
distinguished himself that he was chosen to carry the captured 
flags to Paris. He was promoted to be general of brigade, and 
returned to Italy in time to be of essential service to Bonaparte 
at Bassano, Corona and Fort St Giorgio, where he was wounded. 
He was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Genoa, but returned 
in time to be present at Rivoli. In the advance into Tirol in 
the summer of 1797 he commanded the vanguard, and by his 
passage of the Tagliamento hurried on the preliminaries of 
Leoben. In 1798 he was for a short time commandant at Rome, 
and then accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. At the battle 
of the Pyramids he led his first famous cavalry charge, and so 
distinguished himself in Syria that he was made general of 
division (October, 1 799). He returned to France with Bonaparte, 
and on the i8th Brumaire led into the orangery of Saint Cloud 
the sixty grenadiers whose appearance broke up the Council 
of Five Hundred. After the success of the coup d'ttat he was 
made commandant of the consular guard, and on the 2oth of 
January 1800 he married Caroline Bonaparte, youngest sister 
of the first consul. He commanded the French cavalry at 
the battle of Marengo, and was afterwards made governor in 
the Cisalpine Republic. As commander of the army of observa- 
tion in Tuscany he forced the Neapolitans to evacuate the Papal 
States and to accept the treaty of Florence (March 28, 1801). 
In January 1804 he was given the post of governor of Paris, 
and in this capacity appointed the military commission by which 
the due d'Enghien was tried and shot (March 20); in May he was 
made marshal of the empire; in February 1805 he was made 
grand admiral, with the title of prince, and invested with the 
grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. He commanded the 
cavalry of the Grand Army in the German campaign of 1805, 
and was sc conspicuous at Austerlitz that Napoleon made him 
grand duke of Berg and Cleves (March 15, 1806). He com- 
manded the cavalry at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and in 
1808 was made general-in-chief of the French aimies in Spain. 
He entered Madrid on the 25th of March, and on the 2nd of 
May suppressed an insurrection in the city. He did much to 
prepare the events which ended in the abdication of Charles IV. 
and Ferdinand VII. at Bayonne; but the hopes he had cherished 
of himself receiving the crown of Spain were disappointed. On 
the ist of August, however, he was appointed by Napoleon to 
the throne of Naples, vacated by the transference of Joseph 
Bonaparte to Spain. 

King Joachim Napoleon, as he styled himself, entered Naples 
in September, his handsome presence and open manner gaining 
him instantaneous popularity. Almost his first act as king 
was to attack Capri, which he wrested from the British; but, 
this done, he returned to Naples and devoted himself to establish- 
ing his kingship according to his ideas, a characteristic blend 
of the vulgarity of a fdnenu with the essential principles of 
the Revolution. He dazzled the lazzaroni with' the extravagant 
splendour of his costumes; he set up a sumptuous court, created 
a new nobility, nominated marshals. With an eye to the over- 
throw of his legitimate rival in Sicily, he organized a large army 
and even a fleet; but he also swept away the last relics of the 
effete feudal system and took efficient measures for suppressing 
brigandage. From the first his relations with Napoleon were 
strained. The emperor upbraided him sarcastically for his 
" monkey tricks " (singeries); Murat ascribed to the deliberate 
ill-will of the French generals who served with him, and even to 
Napoleon, the failure of his attack on Sicily in 1810. He resented 



MURAT 



his subordination to the emperor, and early began his pose as an 
Italian king by demanding the withdrawal of the French troops 
from Naples and naturalization as Neapolitans of all Frenchmen 
in the service of the state (1811). Napoleon, of course, met this 
demand with a curt refusal. A breach between the brothers- 
in-law was only averted by the Russian campaign of 1812 and 
Napoleon's invitation to Murat to take command of the cavalry 
in the Grand Army. This was a call which appealed to all 
his strongest military instincts, and he obeyed it. During the 
disastrous retreat he showed his usual headstrong courage; but 
in the middle of December he suddenly threw up his command 
and returned to Naples. The reason of this was the suspicion, 
which had been growing on him for two years past, that Napoleon 
was preparing for him the fate of the king of Holland, and that 
his own wife, Queen Caroline, was plotting with the emperor 
for his dethronement. To Marshal Davout, who pointed out to 
him that he was only king of Naples " by grace of the emperor 
and the blood of Frenchmen," he replied that he was king of 
Naples as the emperor of. Austria was emperor of Austria, and 
that he could do as he liked. He was, in fact, already dreaming 
of exchanging his position of a vassal king of the French Empire 
for that of a national Italian king. In the enthusiastic reception 
that awaited him on his return to Naples on the 4th of February 
there was nothing to dispel these illusions. All the Italian 
parties flocked round him, flattering and cajoling him: the 
patriots, because he seemed to them loyal and glorious enough 
to assume the task of Italian unification; the partisans of the dis- 
possessed princes, because they looked upon him as a convenient 
instrument and as simple enough to be made an easy dupe. 

From this moment dates the importance of Murat in the 
history of Europe during the next few years. He at once, 
without consulting his minister of foreign affairs, despatched 
Prince Cariati on a confidential mission to Vienna; if Austria 
would secure the renunciation of his rights by King Ferdinand 
and guarantee the possession of the kingdom of Naples to himself, 
he would place his army at her disposal and give up his claims 
to Sicily. Austria herself, however, had not as yet broken 
definitively with Napoleon, and before she openly joined the 
Grand Alliance, after the illusory congress of Prague, many 
things had happened to make Murat change his mind. He was 
offended by Napoleon's bitter letters and by tales of his slighting 
comments on himself; he was alarmed by the emperor's scarcely 
veiled threats; but after all he was a child of the Revolution 
and a born soldier, with all the soldier's instinct of loyalty to 
a great leader, and he grasped eagerly at any excuse for believing 
that Napoleon, in the event of victory, would maintain him 
on his throne. Then came the emperor's advance into Germany, 
supported as yet by his allies of the Rhenish Confederation. 
On the fatal field of Leipzig Murat once more faught on Napo- 
leon's side, leading the French squadrons with all his old valour 
and dash. But this crowning catastrophe was too much for 
his wavering faith. On the evening of the i6th of October, 
the first day of the battle, Metternich found means to open a 
separate negotiation with him: Great Britain and Austria 
would, in the event of Murat's withdrawal from Napoleon's 
army and refusal to send reinforcements to the viceroy of Italy, 
secure the cession to him of Naples by King Ferdinand, guarantee 
him in its possession, and obtain for him further advantages 
in Italy. To accept the Austrian advances seemed now his 
only chance of continuing to be a king. At Erfurt he asked 
and obtained the emperor's leave to return to Naples; " our 
adieux," he said, " were not over-cordial." 

He reached Naples on the 4th of November and at once 
informed the Austrian envoy of his wish to join the Allies, 
suggesting that the Papal States, with the exception of Rome 
and the surrounding district, should be made over to him as 
his reward. On the 3ist of December Count Neipperg, after- 
wards the lover of the empress Marie Louise, arrived at Naples 
with powers to treat. The result was the signature, on the nth 
of January 1814, of a treaty by which Austria guaranteed to 
Murat the throne of Naples and promised her good offices to 
secure the assent of the other Allies. Secret additional articles 



stipulated that Austria would use her good offices to secure the 
renunciation by Ferdinand of his rights to Naples, in return 
for an indemnity to hasten the conclusion of peace between 
Naples and Great Britain, and to augment the Neapolitan 
kingdom by territory embracing 400,000 souls at the expense 
of the states of the Church. 

The project of the treaty having been communicated to 
Castlereagh, he replied by expressing the willingness of the 
British government to conclude an armistice with " the person 
exercising the government of Naples " (Jan. 22), and this was 
accordingly signed on the 3rd of February by Bentinck. It 
was clear that Great Britain had no intention of ultimately 
recognizing Murat's right to reign. As for Austria, she would 
be certain that Murat's own folly would, sooner or later, give 
her an opportunity for repudiating her engagements. For the 
present the Neapolitan alliance would be invaluable to the Allies 
for the purpose of putting an end to the French dominion in 
Italy. The plot was all but spoilt by the prince royal of Sicily, 
who in an order of the day announced to his soldiers that their 
legitimate sovereign had not renounced his rights to the throne 
of Naples (Feb. 20); from the Austrian point of view it was 
compromised by a proclamation issued by Bentinck at Leghorn 
on the i4th of March, in which he called on the Italians to rise 
in support of the " great cause of their fatherland." From 
Dijon Castlereagh promptly wrote to Bentinck (April 3) to say 
that the proclamation of the prince of Sicily must be disavowed, 
and that if King Ferdinand did not behave properly Great 
Britain would recognize' Murat's title. A letter from Metternich 
to Marshal Bellegarde, of the same place and date, insisted 
that Bentinck 's operations must be altered; the last thing that 
Austria desired was an Italian national rising. 

It was, indeed, by this time clear to the allied powers that 
Murat's ambition had o'erleaped the bounds set for them. 
" Murat, a true son of the Revolution," wrote Metternich, 
in the same letter, " did not hesitate to form projects of con- 
quest when all his care should have been limited to simple 
calculations as to how to preserve his throne. ... He dreamed 
of a partition of Italy between him and us. ... When we refused 
to annex all Italy north of the Po, he saw that his calculations 
were wrong, but refused to abandon his ambitions. His attitude 
is most suspicious." " Press the restoration of the grand-duke 
in Tuscany," wrote Castlereagh to Bentinck; " this is the true 
touchstone of Murat's intentions. We must not suffer him to 
carry out his plan of extended dominion; but neither must 
we break with him and so abandon Austria to his augmented 
intrigues." 

Meanwhile, Murat had formally broken with Napoleon, and 
on the i6th of January the French envoy quitted Naples. But 
the treason by which he hoped to save his throne was to make 
its loss inevitable. He had betrayed Napoleon, only to be made 
the cat's-paw of the Allies. Great Britain, even when con- 
descending to negotiate with him, had never recognized his 
title; she could afford to humour Austria by holding out hopes of 
ultimate recognition, in order to detach him from Napoleon; for 
Austria alone of the Allies was committed to him, and Castle- 
reagh well knew that, when occasion should arise, her obliga- 
tions would not be suffered to hamper her interests. With the 
downfall of Napoleon Murat's defection had served its turn; 
moreover, his equivocal conduct during the campaign in Italy 1 
had blunted the edge of whatever gratitude the powers may 
have been disposed to feel; his ambition to unite all Italy south 
of the Po under his crown was manifest, and the statesmen 
responsible for the re-establishment of European order were 
little likely to do violence to their legitimist principles in order 
to maintain on his throne a revolutionary sovereign who was 
proving himself so potent a centre of national unrest. 

At the very opening of the congress of Vienna Talleyrand, 
with astounding effrontery, affected not to know " the man " 

1 He had contributed to the defeats of the viceroy Prince Eugene 
in January and February 1814, but did not show any eagerness to 
press his victories to the advantage of the Allies, contenting himself 
with occupying the principality of Benevento. 



MURAT 



29 



who had been casually referred to as " the king of Naples "; 
and he made it the prime object of his policy in the weeks that 
followed to secure the repudiation by the powers of Murat's 
title, and the restoration of the Bourbon king. The powers, 
indeed, were very ready to accept at least the principle of this 
policy. " Great Britain," wrote Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool 
on the 3rd of September from Geneva, " has no objection, but 
the reverse, to the restoration of the Bourbons in Naples." 1 
Prussia saw in Murat the protector of the malcontents in Italy. 2 
Alexander I. of Russia had no sympathy for any champion of 
Liberalism in Italy save himself. Austria confessed " sub 
sigillo " that she shared " His Most Christian Majesty's views 
as to the restoration of ancient dynasties." 3 The main difficul- 
ties in the way were Austria's treaty obligations and the means 
by which the desired result was to be obtained. 

Talleyrand knew well that Austria, in the long run, would 
break faith with Murat and prefer a docile Bourbon on the throne 
of Naples to this incalculable child of the Revolution; but he 
had his private reasons for desiring to " score off " Metternich, 
the continuance of whose quasidiplomatic liaison with Caroline 
Murat he rightly suspected. He proposed boldly that, since 
Austria, in view of the treaty of Jan. n, 1814, was naturally 
reluctant to undertake the task, the restored Bourbon king 
of France should be empowered to restore the Bourbon king of 
Naples by French arms, thus reviving once more the ancient 
Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry for dominion in Italy. 4 

Metternich, with characteristic skill, took advantage of this 
situation at once to checkmate France and to disembarrass 
Austria of its obligations to Murat. While secretly assuring 
Louis XVTII., through his confidant Blacas, that Austria was 
in favour of a Bourbon restoration in Naples, he formally 
intimated to Talleyrand that a French invasion of Italian soil 
would mean war with Austria. 6 To Murat, who had appealed 
to the treaty of 1814, and demanded a passage northward for 
the troops destined to oppose those of Louis XVIII., he explained 
that Austria, by her ultimatum to France, had already done all 
that was necessary, that any movement of the Neapolitan 
troops outside Naples would be a useless breach of the peace 
of Italy, and that it would be regarded as an attack on Austria 
and a rupture of the alliance. Murat's suspicions of Austrian 
sincerity were now confirmed; 6 he realized that there was no 
question now of his obtaining any extension of territory at the 
expense of the states of the Church, and that in the Italy as 
reconstructed at Vienna his own position would be intolerable. 
Thus the very motives which had led him to betray Napoleon 
now led him to break with Austria. He would secure his throne 
by proclaiming the cause of united Italy, chasing the Austrians 

1 P.O. Vienna Congress, vii. 

2 Mem. of Hardenberg, F.O. Cong. Pruss. Arch. 20. Aug. 14- 
June 15. 

3 Metternich to Bombelles. Jan. 13, 1815, enclosed in Castle- 
reagh to Liverpool of Jan. 25. F.O. Congr. Vienna, xi. 

4 Sorel, viii. 41 1 seq. 

' Cf. a " most secret " communication to be made to M. de Blacas 
(in Metternich to Bombelles, Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). Murat's 
aggressive attitude, and the unrest in Italy, are largely due to the 
threatening attitude of France. . . . H.I.M. is not prepared to 
risk a rising of Italy under " the national flag." How will France 
coerce Naples? By sending an army into Italy across our states, 
which would thus become infected with revolutionary views? 
The emperor could not allow such an expedition. When Italy is 
settled and we will not allow Murat to keep the Marches . . . 
he will lose prestige, and then . . . will be the time for Austria to 
give effect to the views which, all the time, she shares with His 
Most Christian Majesty." (In Castlereagh to Liverpool, " private," 
Jan. 25, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) 

* That they were fully justified is clear from the following ex- 
tract from a letter of Metternich to Bombelles at Paris (dated 
Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). " Whether Joachim or a Bourbon reigns 
at Naples is for us a very subordinate question. . . . When Europe 
is established on solid foundations the fate of Joachim will no longer 
be problematical, but do not let us risk destroying Austria and 
France and Europe, in order to solve this question at the worst 
moment it would be put on the tapis. . . . This is no business of 
the Congress, but let the Bourbon Powers declare that they maintain 
their claims." (In Castlereagh's private letter to Lord Liverpool, 
Jan. 15, 1815, F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) 



from the peninsula, and establishing himself as a national 
king. 

To contemporary observers in the best position to judge 
the enterprise seemed by no means hopeless. Lord William 
Bentinck, the commander of the English forces in Italy, wrote 
to Castlereagh 7 that, " having seen more of Italy," he doubted 
whether the whole force of Austria would be able to expel Murat; 
" he has said clearly that he will raise the whole of Italy; and 
there is not a doubt that under the standard of Italian indepen- 
dence the whole of Italy will rally." This feeling, continued 
Bentinck, was due to the foolish and illiberal conduct of the 
restored sovereigns; the inhabitants of the states occupied by 
the Austrian troops were " discontented to a man "; even in Tus- 
cany " the same feeling and desire " universally prevailed. All 
the provinces, moreover, were full of unemployed officers and 
soldiers who, in spite of Murat's treason, would rally to his 
standard, especially as he would certainly first put himself into 
communication with Napoleon in Elba; while, so far as Bentinck 
could hear of the disposition of the French army, it would be 
" dangerous to assemble it anywhere or for any purpose." The 
urgency of the danger was, then, fully realized by the powers 
even before Napoleon's return from Elba; for they were well 
aware of Murat's correspondence with him. On the first news 
of Napoleon's landing in France, the British government wrote 
to Wellington 8 that this event together with " the proofs of 
Murat's treachery " had removed " all remaining scruples " on 
their part, and that they were now " prepared to enter into a 
concert for his removal," adding that Murat should, in the event 
of his resigning peaceably, receive " a pension and all considera- 
tion." The rapid triumph of Napoleon, however, altered this 
tone. " Bonaparte's successes have altered the situation," wrote 
Castlereagh to Wellington on the 24th, adding that Great Britain 
would enter into a treaty with Murat, if he would give guarantees 
" by a certain redistribution of his forces " and the like, and 
that in spite of Napoleon's success he would be " true to Europe." 
In a private letter enclosed Castlereagh suggested that Murat 
might send an auxiliary force to France, where " his personal 
presence would be unseemly." 9 

Clearly, had King Joachim played his cards well he had the 
game in his hands. But it was not in his nature to play them 
well. He should have made the most of the chastened temper 
of the Allies, either to secure favourable terms from them, or 
to hold them in play until Napoleon was ready to take the field. 
But his head had been turned by the flatteries of the " patriots"; 
he believed that all Italy would rally to his cause, and that alone 
he would be able to drive the " Germans " over the Alps, and 
thus, as king of united Italy, be in a position to treat on equal 
terms with Napoleon, should he prove victorious; and he 
determined to strike without delay. On the 23rd the news 
reached Metternich at Vienna that the Neapolitan troops were 
on the march to the frontier. The Allies at once decided to 
commission Austria to deal with Murat; in the event of whose 
defeat, Ferdinand IV. was to be restored to Naples, on promising 
a general amnesty and giving guarantees for a " reasonable " 
system of government. 10 

Meanwhile, in Naples itself there were signs enough that 
Murat's popularity had disappeared. In Calabria the indiscrimi- 
nate severity of General Manhes in suppressing brigandage had 
made the government hated; in the capital the general dis- 
affection had led to rigorous policing, while conscripts had to 
be dragged in chains to join their regiments. 11 In these circum- 
stances an outburst of national enthusiasm for King Joachim 
was hardly to be expected; and the campaign in effect proved a 
complete fiasco. Rome and Bologna were, indeed, occupied with- 
out serious opposition; but on the I2th of April Murat's forces 
received a check from the advancing Austrians at Ferrara and 
on the 2nd of May were completely routed at Tolentino. The 

7 Letter dated Florence, Jan. 7, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi. 

8 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii., Draft to Wellington dated March 12. 

9 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii. 

10 Ibid. Wellington to Castlereagh, Vienna, March 25. 

u F.O. Cong. xi. ; Munster to Castlereagh, Naples, Jan. 22. 



MURATORI 



Austrians advanced on Naples, when Ferdinand IV. was duly 
restored, while Queen Caroline and her children were deported to 
Trieste. 

Murat himself escaped to France, where his offer of service 
was contemptuously refused by Napoleon. He hid for a 
while near Toulon, with a price upon his head; then, after 
Waterloo, refusing an asylum in England, he set out for Corsica 
(August). Here he was joined by a few rash spirits who urged 
him to attempt to recover his kingdom. Though Metternich 
offered to allow him to join his wife at Trieste and to secure 
him a dignified position and a pension, he preferred to risk 
all on a final throw for power. On the 28th of September he 
sailed for Calabria with a flotilla of six vessels carrying some 
250 armed men. Four of his ships were scattered by a storm; 
one deserted him at the last moment, and on the 8th of October 
he landed at Pizzo with only 30 companions. Of the popular 
enthusiasm for his cause which he had been led to expect there 
was less than no sign, and after a short and unequal contest he 
was taken prisoner by a captain named Trenta-Capilli, whose 
brother had been executed by General Manhes. He was im- 
prisoned in the fort of Pizzo, and on the isth of October 1815 
was tried by court-martial, under a law of his own, for disturbing 
the public peace, and was sentenced to be shot in half an hour. 
After writing a touching letter of farewell to his wife and children, 
he bravely met his fate, and was buried at Pizzo. 

Though much good may be said of Murat as a king sincerely 
anxious for the welfare of his adopted country, his most abiding 
title to fame is that of the most dashing cavalry leader of the 
age. As a man he was rash, hot-tempered and impetuously 
brave; he was adored by his troopers who followed their 
idol, the " golden eagle," into the most terrible fire and against 
the most terrible odds. Napoleon lived to regret his refusal 
to accept his services during the Hundred Days, declaring that 
Murat's presence at Waterloo would have given more con- 
centrated power to the cavalry charges and might possibly have 
changed defeat into victory. 

By his wife Maria Annunciata Carolina Murat had two sons. 
The elder, NAPOLEON ACHII.LE MURAT (1801-1847), during his 
father's reign prince royal of the Two Sicilies, emigrated about 
1821 to America, and settled near Tallahassee, Florida, where 
in 1826-1838 he was postmaster. In 1826 he married a 
great-niece of Washington. He published Lettres d'un citoyen 
des Etats-Unis A un de ses amis d Europe (Paris, 1830); Esquisse 
morale et politique des Etats-Unis (ibid. 1832); and Exposition des 
principes du gouiiernement ripublicain lei qu'il a ete perfectionni en 
Amerique (ibid. 1833). He died in Florida on the isth of April 

1847- 

The second son, NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES MURAT (1803- 
1878), who was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 1813, lived 
with his mother in Austria after 1815, and in 1824 started to 
join his brother in America, but was shipwrecked on the coast 
of Spain and held for a while a prisoner. Arriving in 1823, 
two years later he married in Baltimore a rich American, 
Georgina Frazer (d.. 1879) ; but her fortune was lost, and for 
some years his wife supported herself and him by keeping a 
girls' school. After several abortive attempts to return to 
France, the revolution of 1848 at last gave him his opportunity. 
He was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly and of 
the Legislative Assembly (1849), was minister plenipotentiary 
at Turin from October 1849 to March 1850, and after the coup 
d'ttat of the 2nd of December 1851 was made a member of the 
consultative commission. On the proclamation of the Empire, 
he was recognized by Napoleon III. as a prince of the blood royal, 
with the title of Prince Murat, and, in addition to the payment 
of 2,000,000 fr. of debts, was given a^ income of 150,000 fr. 
As a member of the Senate he distinguished himself in 1861 
by supporting the temporal power of the pope, but otherwise 
he played no conspicuous part. The fall of the Empire in Sep- 
tember 1870 involved his retirement into private life. He died 
on the loth of April 1878, leaving three sons and two daughters, 
(i) Joachim, Prince Murat (1834-1901), in 1854 married Maley 
Berthier, daughter of the Prince de Wagram, who bore him a 



son, Joachim (b. 1856), who succeeded him as head of the family, 
and two daughters, of whom the younger, Anna (b. 1863), 
became the wife of the Austrian minister Count Goluchowski. 

(2) Achille (1847-1895), married Princess Dadian of Mingrelia. 

(3) Louis (b. 1851), married in 1873 to the widowed Princess 
Eudoxia Orbeliani (nee Somov), was for a time orderly officer 
to Charles XV.' of Sweden. (4) Caroline (b. 1832), married in 
1850 Baron Charles de Chassiron and in 1872 Mr John Garden 
(d. 1885). (5) Anna (b. 1841), married in 1865 Antoine de 
Noailles, due de Mouchy. 

AUTHORITIES. See A. Sorel, L'Europe el la r&vclution franfaise 
(8 yols., 1885-1892) passim, but especially vol. viii. for Murat's 
policy after the 1812; Helfert, Joachim Murat, seine letzten Kampfe 
und sein Ende (Vienna, 1878); G. Romano, Ricordi muratiani 
(Pavia, 1890); Correspondence de Joachim Murat, Juillet 1791- 
Juillet 1808, ed A. Lumbroso (Milan, 1899); Count Murat, Murat, 
lieutenant de I'empereur en Espagne (Paris, 1897); Guardione, 
Cioacchino Murat in Italia (Palermo, 1899); M. H. Weil, Prince 
Eugene et Murat (5 vols., Paris, 1901-1904) ; Chavenon and Saint- 
Yves, Joachim Murat (Paris, 1905); Lumbroso, L'Agonia di un 
regnp; Cioacchino Murat al Pizzo (Milan, 1904). See also the 
bibliography to NAPOLEON I. (W. A. P.) 

MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO (1672-1750), Italian 
scholar, historian and antiquary, was born of poor parents at 
Vignola in the duchy of Modena on the 2ist of October 1672. 
While young he attracted the attention of Father Bacchini, 
the librarian of the duke of Modena, by whom his literary tastes 
were turned toward historical and antiquarian research. Having 
taken minor orders in 1688, Muratori proceeded to his degree 
of doctor inutroquejurebelore 1694, was ordained priest in 1695 
and appointed by Count Carlo Borromeo one of the doctors 
of the Ambrosian library at Milan. From manuscripts now 
placed under his charge he made a selection of materials for 
several volumes (Anecdota), which he published with notes. 
The reputation he acquired was such that the duke of Modena 
offered him the situation of keeper of the public archives of the 
duchy. Muratori hesitated, until the offer of the additional 
post of librarian, on the resignation of Father Bacchini, deter- 
mined him in 1700 to return to Modena. The preparation of 
numerous valuable tracts on the history of Italy during the middle 
ages, and of dissertations and discussions on obscure points 
of historical and antiquarian interest, as well as the publication 
of his various philosophical, theological, legal, poetical and 
other works absorbed the greater part of his time. These 
brought him into communication with the most distinguished 
scholars of Italy, France and Germany. But they also exposed 
him in his later years to envy. His enemies spread abroad 
the rumour that the pope, Benedict XIV., had discovered in his 
writings passages savouring of heresy, even of atheism. Muratori 
appealed to the pope, repudiating the accusation. His Holiness 
assured him of his protection, and, without expressing his 
approbation of the opinions in question of the learned antiquary, 
freed him from the imputations of his enemies. Muratori 
died on the 23rd of January 1750, and was buried with much 
pomp in the church of Santa Maria di Pomposa, in connexion 
with which he had laboured as parish priest for many years. 
His remains were removed in 1774 to the church of St Augustin. 

Muratori is rightly regarded as the " father of Italian history." 
This is due to his great collection, Rerum italicarum scriptores, 
to which he devoted about fifteen years' work (1723-1738). 
The gathering together and editing some 25 huge folio 
volumes of texts was followed by a series of 75 dissertations 
on medieval Italy (Antiquitates italicae medii aevi, 1738-1742, 6 
vols. folio). To these he added a Novtts thesaurus inscriptionum 
(4 vols. , 1 739-1 743) , which was of great importance in the develop- 
ment of epigraphy. Then, anticipating the action of the learned 
societies of the igth century, he set about a popular treatment 
of the historical sources he had published. These Annali 
d' Italia (1744-1749) reached 12 volumes, but were imperfect and 
are of little value. In addition to this national enterprise 
(the Scriptores were published by the aid of the Societa palatina 
of Milan) Muratori published Anecdota ex ambrosianae biblio- 
thecaecodd. (2 vols. 4to, Milan, 1697, 1698; Padua, 1713); 
Anecdota graeca (3 vols. 4to, Padua, 1709); Antichita Estens 



MURAVIEV MURCHISON 



(2 vols. fol., Modena, 1717); Vita e rime di F. Petrarca (1711), 
and Vita ed cpere di L. Castehetro (1727). 

In biblical scholarship Muratori is chiefly known as the dis- 
coverer of the so-called Muratorian Canon, the name given to a 
fragment (85 lines) of early Christian literature, which he found 
in 1740, embedded in an 8th-century codex which forms a 
compendium of theological tracts followed by the five early 
Christian creeds. The document contains a list of the books of 
the New Testament, a similar list concerning the Old Testament 
having apparently preceded it. It is in barbarous Latin which 
has probably been translated from original Greek the language 
prevailing in Christian Rome until c. 200. There is little doubt 
that it was composed in Rome and we may date it about the 
year 190. Lightfoot inclined to Hippolytus as its author. It 
is the earliest document known which enumerates the books in 
order. 

The first line of the fragment is broken and speaks of the 
Gospel of St Mark, but there is no doubt that its compiler 
knew also of St Matthew. Acts is ascribed to St Luke. He 
names thirteen letters of St Paul but says nothing of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews. The alleged letters of Paul to the Laodiceans 
and Alexandrians he rejects, " for gall must not be mixed with 
honey." The two Epistles of Peter and the Epistle of James 
are not referred to, but that of Jude and two of John are accepted. 
He includes the Apocalypse of John and also the Apocalypse 
of Peter. The Shtpherd of Hermas he rejects as not of apostolic 
origin, but this test of canonicity is not consistently applied 
for he allows the " Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in 
his honour." He rejects the writings of the Gnostics Valentinus 
and Basilides, and of Montanus. 

The list is not an authoritative decree, but a private register 
of what the author considers the prevailing Christian sentiment 
in his neighbourhood. He notes certain differences among 
the Gospels, because not all the evangelists were eye-witnesses 
of the life of Jesus; yet Mark and Luke respectively have behind 
them the authority of Peter and of Paul, who is thus regarded 
as on a footing with the Twelve. The Fourth Gospel was 
written by John at the request of the other apostles and the 
bishops on the basis of a revelation made to Andrew. The 
letters of Paul are written to four individuals and to seven 
different churches, like the seven letters in the Apocalypse of 
John. 

It is interesting to notice the coincidence of his list with the 
evidence gained from Tertullian for Africa and from Irenaeus 
for Gaul and indirectly for Asia Minor. Before the year 200 
there was widespread agreement in the sacred body of apostolic 
writings read in Christian churches on the Lord's Day along with 
the Old Testament. 

Muratori's Letters, with a Life prefixed, were published by Lazzari, 
(2 vols., Venice, 1783). His nephew, F. G. Muratori, also wrote 
a Vita del celebre Ludov. Ant. Muratori (Venice, 1756). See also 
A. G. Spinelli " BibliographiadellelettereestampadiL. A. Muratori " 
in Bolletino dell' institute storico italiano (1888), and Carducci's 
preface to the new Scriptores. The Muratorian Canon is given 
in full with a translation in H. M. Gwatkin's Selections from Early 
Christian Writers. It is also published as No. I of H. Lietzmann's 
Kleine Tcxte fur theologische Vorlesungen (Bonn, 1902). See also 
Journal of Theological Studies, viii. 537. 

MURAVIEV, MICHAEL NIKOLAIEVICH, COUNT (1845-19(50), 
Russian statesman, was born on the igth of April 1845. He 
was the son of General Count Nicholas Muraviev (governor of 
Grodno), and grandson of the Count Michael Muraviev, who 
became notorious for his drastic measures in stamping out the 
Polish insurrection of 1863 in the Lithuanian provinces. He was 
educated at a secondary school at Poltava, and was for a short 
time at Heidelberg University. In 1864 he entered the chancel- 
lery of the minister for foreign affairs at St Petersburg, and was 
soon afterwards attached to the Russian legation at Stuttgart, 
where he attracted the notice of Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. 
He was transferred to Berlin, then to Stockholm, and back 
again to Berlin. In 1877 he was second secretary at the Hague. 
During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he was a delegate of the 
Red Cross Society in charge of an ambulance train provided i 



by Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. After the war he was succes- 
sively first secretary at Paris, chancellor of the embassy at Berlin, 
and then minister at Copenhagen. In Denmark he was brought 
much into contact with the imperial family, and on the death of 
Prince Lobanov in 1897 he was appointed by the Tsar Nicholas II. 
to be his minister of foreign affairs. The next three and a half 
years were a critical time for European diplomacy. The Chinese 
and Cretan questions were disturbing factors. As regards Crete, 
Count Muraviev's policy was vacillating; in China his hands were 
forced by Germany's action at Kiaochow. But he acted with 
singular Itgerete with regard at all events to his assurances to 
Great Britain respecting the leases of Port Arthur and Talienwan 
from China; he told the British ambassador that these would 
be " open ports," and afterwards essentially modified this 
pledge. When the Tsar Nicholas inaugurated the Peace Con- 
ference at the Hague, Count Muraviev extricated his country 
from a situation of some embarrassment; but when, subsequently, 
Russian ' agents in Manchuria and at Peking connived at the 
agitation which culminated in the Boxer rising of 1900, the 
relations of the responsible foreign minister with the tsar became 
strained. Muraviev died suddenly on the 2ist of June 1900, 
of apoplexy, brought on, it was said, by a stormy interview 
with the tsar. 

MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871), British 
geologist, was born at Tarradale, in eastern Ross, Scotland, on 
the igth of February 1792. His father, Kenneth Murchison 
(d. 1796), came of an old Highland clan in west Ross-shire, and 
having been educated as a medical man, acquired a fortune in 
India; while stilt in the prime of life he returned to Scotland, 
where, marrying one of the Mackenzies of Fairburn, he purchased 
the estate of Tarradale and settled for a few years as a resident 
Highland landlord. Young Murchison left the Highlands when 
three years old, and at the age of seven was sent to the grammar 
school of Durham, where he remained for six years. He was then 
placed at the military college, Great Marlow, to be trained for 
the army. With some difficulty he passed the examinations, 
and at the age of fifteen was gazetted ensign in the 36th regiment. 
A year later (1808) he landed with Wellesley in Galicia, and was 
present at the actions of Rorica and Vimiera. Subsequently 
under Sir John Moore he took part in the retreat to Corunna 
and the final battle there. This was his only active service. 
The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo seeming to close the prospect 
of advancement in the military profession, Murchison, after 
eight years of service, quitted the army, and married the daughter 
of General Hugonin, of Nursted House, Hampshire. With her 
he then spent rather more than two years on the Continent, 
particularly in Italy, where her cultivated tastes were of signal 
influence in guiding his pursuits. He threw himself with all the 
enthusiasm of his character into the study of art and antiquities, 
and for the first time in his life tasted the pleasures of truly 
intellectual pursuits. 

Returning to England in 1818, he sold his paternal property 
in Ross-shire and settled in England, where he took to field 
sports. He soon became one of the greatest fox-hunters in the 
midland counties; but at last, getting weary of such pursuits and 
meeting Sir Humphry Davy, who urged him to turn his energy 
to science, he was induced to attend lectures at the Royal 
Institution. This change in the current of his occupations 
was much helped by the sympathy of his wife, who, besides her 
artistic acquirements, took much interest in natural history. 
Eager and enthusiastic in whatever he undertook, he was fasci- 
nated by the young science of geology. He joined the Geological 
Society of London and soon showed himself one of its most 
active members, having as his colleagues there such men as 
Sedgwick, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, W. H. Fitton and 
Lyell. Exploring with his wife the geology of the south of 
England, he devoted special attention to the rocks of the north- 
west of Sussex and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey, on 
which, aided by Fitton, he wrote his first scientific paper, read 
to the society in 1825. Though he had reached the age of thirty- 
two before he took any interest in science, he developed his 
taste and increased his knowledge so rapidly that in the first 



MURCIA 



three years of his scientific career he had explored large parts 
of England and Scotland, had obtained materials for three 
important memoirs, as well as for two more written in conjunction 
with Sedgwick, and had risen to be a prominent member of the 
Geological Society and one of its two secretaries. Turning his 
attention for a little to Continental geology, he explored with 
Lyell the volcanic region of Auvergne, parts of southern France, 
northern Italy, Tirol and Switzerland. A little later, with 
Sedgwick as his companion, he attacked the difficult problem 
of the geological structure of the Alps, and their joint paper 
giving the results of their study will always be regarded as one of 
the classics in the literature of Alpine geology. 

It was in the year 1831 that Murchison found the field in which 
the chief work of his life was to be accomplished. Acting on 
a suggestion made to him by Buckland he betook himself to 
the borders of Wales, with the view of endeavouring to discover 
whether the greywacke rocks underlying the Old Red Sandstone 
could be grouped into a definite order of succession, as the 
Secondary rocks of England had been made to tell their story by 
William Smith. For several years he continued to work vigor- 
ously in that region. The result was the establishment of the 
Silurian system under which were grouped for the first time a 
remarkable series of formations, each replete with distinctive 
organic remains ol ' ;r than and very different from those of 
the other rocks of England. These researches, together with 
descriptions of the coal-fields and overlying formations in south 
Wales and the English border counties, were embodied in The 
Silurian System (London, 1839), a massive quarto in two parts, 
admirably illustrated with map, sections, pictorial views and 
plates of fossils. The full import of his discoveries was not at 
first perceived; but as years passed on the types of exigence 
brought to light by him from the rocks of the border counties 
of England and Wales were ascertained to belong to a geological 
period of which there are recognizable traces in almost all parts 
of the globe. Thus the term " Silurian," derived from the 
name of the old British tribe Silures, soon passed into the 
vocabulary of geologists in every country. 

The establishment of the Silurian system was followed by 
that of the Devonian system, an investigation in which, aided 
by the palaeontological assistance of W. Lonsdale, Sedgwick 
and Murchison were fellow-labourers, both in the south-west 
of England and in the Rhineland. Soon afterwards Murchison 
projected an important geological campaign in Russia with the 
view of extending to that part of the Continent the classification 
he had succeeded in elaborating for the older rocks of western 
Europe. He was accompanied by P. E. P. de Verneuil (1805- 
1873) and Count A. F. M. L. A. von Keyserling (1815-1891), in 
conjunction with whom he produced a magnificent work on 
Russia and the Ural Mountains. The publication of this mono- 
graph in 1845 completes the first and most active half of Murchi- 
son's scientific career. In 1846 he was knighted, and in the 
same year he presided over the meeting of the British Association 
at Southampton. During the later years of his life a large part 
of his time was devoted to the affairs of the Royal Geographical 
Society, of which he was in 1830 one of the founders, and he was 
president 1843-1845, 1851-1853, 1856-1859 and 1862-1871. So 
constant and active were his exertions on behalf of geographical 
exploration that to a large section of the contemporary public he 
was known rather as a geographer than a geologist. He particu- 
larly identified himself with the fortunes of David Livingstone 
in Africa, and did much to raise and keep alive the sympathy 
of his fellow-countrymen in the fate of that great explorer. 

The chief geological investigation of the last decade of his life 
was devoted to the Highlands of Scotland, where he believed 
he had succeeded in showing that the vast masses of crystalline 
schists, previously supposed to be part of what used to be termed 
the Primitive formations, were really not older than the Silurian 
period, for that underneath them lay beds of limestone and 
quartzite containing Lower Silurian (Cambrian) fossils. Subse- 
quent research, however, has shown that this infraposition of 
the fossiliferous rocks is not their original place, but has been 
brought about by a gigantic system of dislocations, whereby 



successive masses of the oldest gneisses have been torn up from 
below and thrust bodily over the younger formations. 

In 1855 Murchison was appointed director-general of the 
geological survey and director of the Royal School of Mines and 
the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, in 
succession to Sir Henry De la Beche, who had been the first to 
hold these offices. Official routine now occupied much of his 
time, but he found opportunity for the Highland researches 
just alluded to, and also for preparing successive editions of his 
work Siluria (1854, ed. 5, 1872), which was meant to present 
the main features of the original Silurian System together with 
a digest of subsequent discoveries, particularly of those which 
showed the extension of the Silurian classification into other 
countries. His official position gave him further opportunity 
for the exercise of those social functions for which he had always 
been distinguished, and which a considerable fortune inherited 
from near relatives on his mother's side enabled him to display 
on a greater scale. His house in Belgrave Square was one of the 
great centres where science, art, literature, politics and social 
eminence were brought together in friendly intercourse. In 
1863 he was made a K.C. B., and three years later was raised 
to the dignity of a baronet. The learned societies of his own 
country bestowed their highest rewards upon him: the Royal 
Society gave him the Copley medal, the Geological Society its 
Wollaston medal, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh its 
Brisbane medal. There was hardly a foreign scientific society 
of note which had not his name enrolled among its honorary 
members. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the 
prix Cuvier, and elected him one of its eight foreign members in 
succession to Faraday. 

One of the closing public acts of Murchison's life was the 
founding of a chair of geology and mineralogy in the university 
of Edinburgh, for which he gave the sum of 6000, an annual 
sum of 200 being likewise provided by a vote in parliament for 
the endowment of the professorship. While the negotiations 
with the Government in regard to this subject were still in 
progress, Murchison was seized with a paralytic affection on 
2ist of November 1870. He rallied and was able to take 
interest in current affairs until the early autumn of the follow- 
ing year. After a brief attack of bronchitis he died on the 
22nd of October 1871. Under his will there was established 
the Murchison Medal and geological fund to be awarded 
annually by the council of the Geological Society in London. 

See the Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, by Sir A. Geikie (2 vols., 
1875)- (A. GE.) 

MURCIA, a maritime province of south-eastern Spain, bounded 
on the E. by Alicante, S.E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, W. 
by Almerfa and Granada and N. by Albacete. Pop. (1900), 
577,987; area, 4453 sq. m. The extent of coast is about 75 m.; 
from Cape Palos westwards to Villaricos Point (where Almeria 
begins) it is fringed by hills reaching their greatest elevation 
immediately east of Cartagena; northwards from Cape Palos 
to the Alicante boundary a low sandy tongue encloses the 
shallow lagoon called Mar Menor. Eastward from the Mar 
Menor and northward from Cartagena stretches the plain known 
as El Campo de Cartagena, but the surface of the rest of the 
province is diversified by ranges of hills, belonging to the same 
system as the Sierra Nevada, which connect the mountains of 
Almeria and Granada with those of Alicante. The general 
direction of these ranges is from south-west to north-east; they 
reach their highest point (5150 ft.) on the Sierra de Espufia, 
between the Mula and Sangonera valleys. They are rich in 
iron, copper, argentiferous lead, alum, sulphur, and saltpetre. 
Mineral springs occur at Mula, Archena (hot sulphur), and 
Alhama (hot chalybeate). The greater part of the province 
drains into the Mediterranean, chiefly by the Segura, which 
enters it in the north-west below Hellin in Albacete, and leaves 
it a little above Orihuela ip Alicante; within the province it 
receives on the left the Arroyo del Jua, and on the right the 
Caravaca, Quipar, Mula, and Sangonera. The smaller streams 
of Nogalte and Albujon fall directly into the Mediterranean and 
the Mar Menor respectively. The climate is hot and dry, and 



MURCIA MURDOCK 



33 



agriculture is largely dependent on irrigation, which, where 
practicable, has been carried on since the time of the Moors. 
Wheat, barley, maize, hemp, oil, and wine (the latter somewhat 
rough in quality) are produced; fruit, especially the orange, is 
abundant along the course of the Segura; mulberries for seri- 
culture are extensively grown around the capital; and the 
number of bees kept is exceptionally large. Esparto grass is 
gathered on the sandy tracts. The live stock consists chiefly of 
asses, mules, goats and pigs; horses, cattle and sheep being 
relatively few. Apart from agriculture, the principal industry 
is mining, which has its centre near Cartagena. Large quantities' 
of lead and esparto, as well as of zinc, iron and copper ores, and 
sulphur, are exported. The province is traversed by a railway 
which connects Murcia with Albacete and Valencia; from 
Alcantarilla there is a branch to Lorca and Baza. Near the 
capital and other large towns there are good roads, but the 
means of communication are defective in the remoter districts. 
This deficiency has somewhat retarded the development of 
mining, and, although it has been partly overcome by the 
construction of light railways, many rich deposits of ore remain 
unworked. The chief towns are Murcia, the capital, Cartagena, 
Lorca, La Uni6n, Mazarron, Yecla, Jumilla, Aguilas, Caravaca, 
Totana, Cieza, Mula, Moratalla, and Cehegin. Other towns 
with more than 7000 inhabitants are Alhama, Bulias. Fuente 
Alamo, Molina and Torre Pacheco. 

The province of Murcia was the first Spanish possession of 
the Carthaginians, by whom Nova Carthago was founded. The 
Romans included it in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the 
Moors the province was known as Todmir, which included, 
according to Edrisi, the cities Murcia, Orihuela, Cartagena, 
Lorca, Mula and Chinchilla. The kingdom of Murcia, which 
came into independent existence after the fall of Omayyads 
(see CALIPHATE) included the present Albacete as well as Murcia. 
It became subject to the crown of Castile in the I3th century. 
Until 1833 the province of Murcia also included Albacete. 

MURCIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Murcia; 
on the river Segura, 25 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. 
(1900), 111,539. Murcia is connected by rail with all parts 
of Spain, and is an important industrial centre, sixth in respect 
of population among the cities of the kingdom. It has been an 
episcopal see since 1291. It is built nearly in the centre of a 
low-lying fertile plain, known as the huerta or garden of Murcia, 
which includes the valleys of the Segura and its right-hand tribu- 
tary the Sangonera, and is surrounded by mountains. Despite 
the proximity of the sea, the climate is subject to great varia- 
tions, the summer heat being severe, while frosts are common in 
winter. The city is built mainly on the left bank of the Segura, 
which curves north-eastward after receiving the Sangonera below 
Murcia, and falls into the Mediterranean about 30 m. N.E. A 
fine stone bridge of two arches gives access to the suburb of San 
Benito, which contains the bull-ring. As a rule the streets are 
broad, straight and planted with avenues of trees, but the 
Calle de Plateria and Calle de la Traperia, which contain many 
of the principal shops, are more characteristically Spanish, being 
lined with old-fashioned balconied houses, and so narrow that 
wheeled traffic is in most parts impossible. In summer these 
thoroughfares are shaded by awnings. The Malecon, or embank- 
ment, is a fine promenade skirting the left bank of the Segura; 
the river is here crossed by a weir and supplies power to several 
silk-mills. The principal square is the Arenal or Plaza de la 
Constituci6n, planted with orange trees and adjoining the 
Glorieta Park. The cathedral, dating from 1388-1467, is the 
work of many architects; in the main it is late Gothic, but a 
Renaissance dome and a tower 480 ft. high were added in 1521, 
while a Corinthian facade was erected in the i8th century. 
There are some good paintings and fine wood-carving in the 
interior. Other noteworthy buildings are the colleges of San 
Fulgencio and San Isidro, the bishops' palace, the hospital of 
San Juan de Dios, the Moorish Alhondiga, or grain warehouse, 
the buildings of the municipal and provincial councils and 
the Contraste, which is adorned with sculptured coats-of-arms, 
and was originally designed to contain standard weights and 

XIX. 2 



measures; it has become a picture-gallery. There are two 
training schools for teachers, a provincial institute and a museum. 
Since 1875 the industrial importance of Murcia has steadily 
increased. Mulberries (for silkworms), oranges and other fruits 
are largely cultivated in the huerta, and the silk industry, which 
dates from the period of Moorish rule, is still carried on. Manu- 
factures of woollen, linen and cotton goods, of saltpetre, flour, 
leather and hats, have been established in more modern times, 
and Murcia is the chief market for the agricultural produce of 
a large district. A numerous colony of gipsies has settled in the 
west of the city. 

Murcia was an Iberian town before the Punic Wars, but its 
name then, and under Roman cule, is not known, though some 
have tried to identify it with the Roman Vergilia. To the Moors, 
who took possession early in the 8th century, it was known as 
Medinat Mursiya. Edrisi described it in the i2th century as 
populous and strongly fortified. After the fall of the caliphate 
of Cordova it passed successively under the rule of Almeria, 
Toledo and Seville. In 1172 it was taken by the Almohades, and 
from 1223 to 1243 it became the capital of an independent 
kingdom. The Castilians took it at the end of this period, 
when large numbers of immigrants from north-eastern Spain 
and Provence settled in the town; French and Catalan names are 
still not uncommon. Moorish princes continued to rule in name 
over this mixed population, but in 1269 a rising against the 
suzerain, Alphonso the Wise, led to the final incorporation of 
Murcia (which then included the present province of Albacete) 
into the kingdom of Castile. During the War of the Spanish 
Succession Bishop Luis de Belluga defended the city against 
the archducal army by flooding the huerta. In 1810 and 1812 
it was attacked by the French under Marshal Soult. It suffered 
much from floods in 1651, 1879 and 1907, though the construc- 
tion of the Malecon has done much to keep the Segura within 
its own channel. In 1829 many buildings, including the 
cathedral, were damaged by an earthquake. 

MURDER, in law, the unlawful killing of a person with malice 
aforethought (see HOMICIDE). The O. Eng. morSor comes ulti- 
mately from the Indo-European root mar-, to die, which has 
also given Lat. mars, death, and all its derivatives in English, 
French and other Rom. languages; cf. Gr. |3por6$, for noprbs, 
mortal. The O. Eng. form, Latinized as murdrum, murtrum, 
whence Fr. meurtre, is represented in other Teutonic languages 
by a cognate form, e.g. Ger. Mord, Du. moord. 

MURDOCK, WILLIAM (1754-1839), British inventor, was 
born near the village of Auchinleck in Ayrshire on the 2 rst of 
August 1754. His father, John Murdoch (as the name is spelt 
in Scotland), was a millwright and miller, and William was 
brought up in the same occupation. In 1777 he entered the 
employment of Boulton & Watt in the Soho works at Birming- 
ham, and about two years afterwards he was sent to Cornwall to 
superintend the fitting of Watt's engines. It is said that while 
staying at Redruth he carried a series of experiments in the 
distillation of coal so far that in 1792 he was able to light his 
cottage and offices with gas, but the evidence is not conclusive. 
However, after his return to Birmingham about 1799, he made 
such progress in the discovery of practical methods for making, 
storing and purifying gas that in 1802 a portion of the exterior 
of the Soho factory was lighted with it in celebration of the peace 
of Amiens, and in the following year it -was brought into use 
for the interior. Murdock was also the inventor of important 
improvements in the steam-engine. He was the first to devise 
an oscillating engine, of which he made a model about 1784; in 
1786 he was busy somewhat to the annoyance of both Boulton 
and Watt with a steam carriage or road locomotive; and in 
1799 he invented the long D slide valve. He is also believed to 
have been the real deviser of the sun and planet motion patented 
by Watt in 1781. In addition his ingenuity was directed to 
the utilization of compressed air, and in 1803 he constructed 
a steam gun. He retired from business in 1830, and died at Soho 
on the isth of November 1839. 



At the celebration of the centenary of gas lighting in 1892, a bust 
of Murdock was unveiled by Lord Kelvin in the Wallace Monument. 



34 



MURE MURGER 



Stirling, and there is also a bust of him by Sir F. L. Chantrey at 
Handsworth Church, where he was buried. His " Account of the 
Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes " appeared 
in the Phil. Trans, for 1808. 

MURE, SIR WILLIAM (1594-1657), Scottish writer, son of 
Sir William Mure of Rowallan, was born in 1594. His mother 
was Elizabeth, sister of the poet Alexander Montgomerie (q.v.). 
He was a member of the Scottish parliament in 1643, and took 
part in the English campaign of 1644. He was wounded at 
Marston Moor, but a month later was commanding a regiment 
at Newcastle. He died in 1657. He wrote Dido and Aeneas; 
a translation (1628) of Boyd of Trochrig's Latin Hecatombe 
Christiana; The True Crucifixe for True Catholikes (1629); a 
paraphrase of the Psalms; the Historic and Descent of the 
House of Rowallane; A Counter-buff to Lysimachus Nicanor; 
TheCry of Blood and of a Broken Covenant (1650); besides much 
miscellaneous verse and many sonnets. 

A complete edition of his works was edited by William Tough 
for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1898). Mure's Lute-Book, 
a musical document of considerable interest, is preserved in the 
Laing collection of MSS. in the library of the university of 
Edinburgh. 

MURE, WILLIAM (1799-1860), Scottish classical scholar, 
was born at Caldwell, Ayrshire, on the 9th of July 1799. He 
was educated at Westminster School and the universities of 
Edinburgh and Bcnn. From 1846 to 1855 he represented the 
county of Renfrew in parliament in the Conservative interest, 
and was lord rector of Glasgow University in 1847-1848. For 
many years he devoted his leisure to Greek 'studies, and in 
1850-1857 he published five volumes of a Critical History of 
the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, which, though 
uncompleted and somewhat antiquated, is still useful. He died 
in London on the ist of April 1860. 

MURENA, the name of a Roman plebeian family from 
Lanuvium, belonging to the Licinian gens, said to be derived 
from the fondness of one of the family for lampreys (murenae) . 
The principal members of the family were Lucius Licinius 
Murena, who was defeated by Mithradates in Asia in 81 B.C., and 
his son Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defended by Cicero 
in 62 B.C. against a charge of bribery (Cic. Pro Murena). The 
son was for several years legate of Lucius Licinius Lucullus 
in the third Mithradatic War. In 65 he was praetor and made 
himself popular by the magnificence of the games provided by 
him. As administrator of Transalpine Gaul after his praetorship 
he gained the goodwill of both provincials and Romans by his 
impartiality. In 62 he was elected consul, but before entering 
upon office he was accused of bribery by Servius Sulpicius,an 
unsuccessful competitor, supported by Marcus Porcius Cato 
the younger and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a famous jurist and 
son of the accuser. Murena was defended by Marcus Licinius 
Crassus (afterwards triumvir), Quintus Hortensius and Cicero, 
and acquitted, although it seems probable that he was guilty. 
During his consulship he passed a law {lex Junta Licinia) which 
enforced more strictly the provision of the lex Caecilia Didia 
that laws sjjould be promulgated three nundinae before they 
were proposed to the comitia, and further enacted that, in order 
to prevent forgery, a copy of every proposed statute should be 
deposited before witnesses in the aerarium. 

MURETUS, the Latinized name of MARC ANTOINE MURET 
(1526-1585), French humanist, who was born at Muret near 
Limoges on the i2th of April 1526. At the age of eighteen he 
attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to 
lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards 
taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at Bordeaux. Some time 
before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the college of 
Cardinal Lemoine at Paris, which was largely attended, Henry 
II. and his queen being among his hearers. His success made him 
many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a disgraceful 
charge, but released by the intervention of powerful friends. 
The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and 
he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town 
show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as shame- 
fully immoral (1554). After a wandering and insecure life of 



some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of 
the Cardinal Ippolyte d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In 
1561 he revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite 
at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held 
at Poissy. He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained 
him a European reputation, and in 15 78 he received a tempting 
offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence 
in his new college at Cracow. Muretus, however, who about 
1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the liberality of 
Gregory XIII. to remain in Rome, where he died on the 4th of 
June 1585. 

Complete editions of his works: editio princeps, Verona (1727- 
1730); by D. Ruhnken (1789), by C. H. Frotscher (1834-1841); 
two volumes of Scripta selecta, by J. Frey (1871); Variae lectiones, 
by F. A. Wolf and J. H. Fasi (1791-1828). Muretus edited a number 
of classical authors with learned and scholarly notes. His other 
works include Juvenilia et poemata varia, orationes and epistolae. 

See monograph by C. Dejob (Paris, 1881); J. E. Sandys, HisU 
Class. Schol., (2nd ed., 1908), ii. 148-152. 



MUREXIDE (NH^Cs^NsOe.HzO), the ammonium salt of 
purpuric acid. It may be prepared by heating alloxantin in 
ammonia gas to 100 C., or by boiling uramil with mercuric oxide 
(J. v. Liebig, F. Wohler, Ann., 1838, 26, 319), 2C 4 H6N 3 O 3 +O = 
NH4-C 8 H 4 N 6 O6+H 2 O. W. N. Hartley (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 
87, 1791) found considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens 
of murexide sufficiently pure to give concordant results when 
examined by means of their absorption spectra, and conse- 
quently devised a new method of preparation for murexide. In 
this process alloxantin is dissolved in a large excess of boiling 
absolute alcohol, and dry ammonia gas is passed into the solution 
for about three hours. The solution is then filtered from the 
precipitated murexide, which is washed with absolute alcohol 
and dried. The salt obtained in this way is in the anhydrous 
state. It may also be prepared by digesting alloxan with 
alcoholic ammonia at about 78 C.; the purple solid so formed 
is easily soluble in water, and the solution produced is 
indistinguishable from one of murexide. 

On the constitution of murexide see also O. Piloty (Ann., 1904, 
333. 3); R. Mohlau (Ber., 1904, 37, 2686); and M. Slimmer and J. 
Stieglitz (Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 31, 661). 

MURFREESBORO, a city and the county-seat of Rutherford 
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., near the Stone River, 32 m. S.E. of 
Nashville. Pop. (1890), 3739; (1900), 3999 (2248 negroes); 
(1910), 4679. It is served by the Nashville Chattanooga & St 
Louis railway. It is in an agricultural region where cotton is 
an important crop, and has a considerable trade in red cedar, 
hardwood, cotton, livestock and grain; it has also various 
manufactures. At Murfreesboro are Soule College for girls 
(Methodist Episcopal South; 1852), Tennessee College for girls 
(Baptist, 1906), Mooney School for boys (1901), and Bradley 
Academy for negroes. Murfreesboro was settled in 1811; was 
incorporated in 1817, and from 1819 to 1825 was the capital 
of the state. It was named in honour of Colonel Hardy 
Murfree (1752-1809), a native of North Carolina, who served as 
an officer of North Carolina troops in the War of Independence, 
and after 1807 lived in Tennessee. About 2 m. west of the 
city the battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River (q.v.), was 
fought on the 3ist of December 1862 and the 2nd of January 
1863. 

MURGER, HENRY (1822-1861), French man of letters, was 
born in Paris on the 24th of March 1822. His father was a 
German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murger was 
sent into a lawyer's office, but the occupation was uncongenial 
and his father's trade still more so; and he became secretary to 
Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled 
Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism, 
and the paper Le Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohdme 
as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade 
with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have 
existed, though shortlived. In 1848 appeared the collected 
sketches called Scenes de la vie de BohZme.- This book describes 
the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements 
and sufferings of a group of impecunious students, artists and 



MURGHAB MURILLO 



35 



men of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Murger himself, 
while the others have been more or less positively identified. 
Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the 
most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d'Angle- 
mont and Champfleury. La Vie de Boheme, arranged for the 
stage in collaboration with Theodore Barriere, was produced 
at the Varietes on the 22nd of November 1849, and was a 
triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini's 
opera, La Boheme (1898). From this time it was easy for 
Murger to live by journalism and general literature. He was 
introduced in 1851 to the Revue des deux mondes. But he was a 
slow, fastidious and capricious worker, and his years of hardship 
and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among 
other works Claude et Marianne in 1851 ; a comedy, Le Bonhomme 
Jadis in 1852; Le Pays Latin in 1852; Adeline Prolat (one of the 
most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales) 
in 1853; and Les Buveurs d'eau in 1855. This last, the most 
powerful of his books next to the Vie de Boheme, traces the fate 
of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own 
powers and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil 
end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before 
his death, which took place in a maison de sanle near Paris on 
the 28th of January 1861, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near 
Fontainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled 
Le Sabot rouge (1860), in which the character of the French 
peasant is uncomplimentarily treated. 

See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Revue des deux mondes 
{October 1861). 

MURGHAB, a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian 
territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern 
scarp of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after 
traversing that plateau from east to west it turns north through 
deep defiles to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbour- 
hood of Maruchak, it forms for a space the boundary-line between 
Afghan and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river 
at Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Merv, losing itself 
in the sands of the Merv desert after a course of about 450 m., 
its exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of 
Bala Murghab it is 50 yds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a 
rapid current. In the lower part of its course it is flanked by 
a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv, 
which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab 
trade, and Buddhist caves are found in the scarped cliffs of its 
right bank near Panjdeh. 

MURI, a province of the British protectorate of Northern 
Nigeria. It lies approximately between 9 and 11 40' E. and 
7 10' and 9 40' N. The river Benue divides it through its 
length, and the portion on the southern bank of the river is 
watered by streams flowing from the Cameroon region to the 
Benue. The province is bordered S. by Southern Nigeria, 
S.E. by German territory (Cameroon), E. by the province of 
Yola, N. by Bauchi, W. by Nassarawa and Bassa. The district 
of Katsena- Allah extends south of the Benue . considerably 
west of 9 E., the approximate limit of the remainder of the 
province. Muri has an area of 25,800 sq. m. and an estimated 
population of about 828,000. The province is rich in forest 
products and the Niger Company maintains trading stations 
on the river. Cotton is grown, and spinning thread, weaving 
and dyeing afford occupation to many thousands. The valley 
of the Benue has a climate generally unhealthy to Europeans, 
but there are places in the northern part of the province, such 
as the Fula settlement of Wase on a southern spur of the 
Murchison hills, where the higher altitude gives an excellent 
climate. Muri includes the ancient Jukon empire together with 
various small Fula states and a number of pagan tribes, among 
whom the Munshi, who extend into the provinces of Nassarawa 
and Bassa, are among the most turbulent. The Munshi occupy 
about 4000 sq. m. in the Katsena-Allah district. The pagan 
tribes in the north of the province are lawless cannibals who by 
constant outrages and murders of traders long rendered the main 
trade route to Bauchi unsafe, and cut off the markets of the 
Benue valley and the Cameroon from the Hausa states. Only 



two routes, one via Wase and the other via Gatari, pass through 
this belt. In the south of the province a similar belt of hostile 
pagans closed the access to the Cameroon except by two routes, 
Takum and Beli. For Hausa traders to cross the Muri province 
was a work of such danger and expense that before the advent 
of British administration the attempt was seldom made. 

Muri came nominally under British control in 1900. The 
principal effort of the administration has been to control and 
open the trade routes. In 1904 an expedition against the 
northern cannibals resulted in the capture of their principal 
fortresses and the settlement and opening to trade of a large 
district, the various routes to the Benue being rendered safe. 
In 1905 an expedition against the Munshi, rendered necessary 
by an unprovoked attack on the Niger Company's station at 
Abinsi, had a good effect in reducing the riverain portion of 
this tribe to submission. The absence of any central native 
authority delayed the process of bringing the province under 
administrative control. Its government "has been organized 
on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and is under 
a British resident. It has been divided into three administrative 
divisions east, central and west with their respective head- 
quarters at Lau, Amar and Ibi. Provincial and native courts 
of justice have been established. The telegraph has been 
carried to the town of Muri. Muri is one of the provinces in 
which the slave trade was most active, and its position between 
German territory and the Hausa states rendered it in the early 
days of the British administration a favourite route for the 
smuggling of slaves. 

MURILLO, BARTOLOM6 ESTEBAN (1617-1682), Spanish 
painter, son of Caspar Esteban Murillo and Maria Perez, was 
born at Seville in 1617, probably at the end 1 of the year, as he 
was baptized on the first of January 1618. Esteban-Murillo 
appears to have been the compound surname of the father, 
but some inquirers consider that, in accordance with a frequent 
Andalusian custom, the painter assumed the surname of his 
maternal grandmother, Elvira Murillo, in addition to that of 
his father. His parents (the father an artisan of a humble 
class), having been struck with the sketches which the boy 
was accustomed to make, placed him under the care of their 
distant relative, Juan del Castillo, the painter. Juan, a correct 
draughtsman and dry colourist, taught him all the mechanical 
parts of his profession with extreme care, and Murillo proved 
himself an apt pupil. The artistic appliances of his master's 
studio were not abundant, and were often of the simplest kind. 
A few casts, some stray fragments of sculpture and a lay figure 
formed the principal aids available for the Sevillian student of 
art. A living model was a luxury generally beyond the means 
of the school, but on great occasions the youths would strip in 
turn and proffer an arm or a leg to be .studied by their fellows. 
Objects of still life, however, were much studied by Murillo, 
and he early learnt to hit off the ragged urchins of Seville. 
Murillo in a few years painted as well as his master, and as 
stiffly. His two pictures of the Virgin, executed during this 
period, show how thoroughly he had mastered the style, with all 
its defects. Castillo was a kind man, but his removal to Cadiz 
in 1639-1640 threw his favourite pupil upon his own resources. 
The fine school of Zurbaran was too expensive for the poor 
lad; his parents were either dead or too poor to help him, and 
he was compelled to earn his bread by painting rough pictures 
for the " feria " or public fair of Seville. The religious daubs 
exposed at that mart were generally of as low an order as the 
prices paid for them. A " pintura de la feria " (a picture for 
the fair) was a proverbial expression for an execrably bad one; 
yet the street painters who thronged the market-place with 
their "clumsy saints and unripe Madonnas " not unfrequently 
rose to be able and even famous artists. This rough-and-ready 
practice, partly for the market-place, partly for converts in 
Mexico and Peru, for whom Madonnas and popular saints 
were produced and shipped off by the dozen, doubtless increased 
Murillo's manual dexterity; but, if we may judge from the 
picture of the " Virgin and Child" shown in the Murillo-room at 
Seville as belonging to this period, he made little improvement 



MURILLO 



in colouring or in general strength of design. Struck by the 
favourable change which travel had wrought upon the style 
of his brother artist Pedro de Moya, Murillo in 1642 resolved 
to make a journey to Flanders or Italy. Having bought a large 
quantity of canvas, he cut it into squares of different sizes, which 
he converted into pictures of a kind likely to sell. The American 
traders bought up his pieces, and he found himself sufficiently 
rich to carry out his design. He placed his sister, who was 
dependent on him, under the care of some friends, and without 
divulging his plans to any one set out for Madrid. On reaching 
the capital he waited on Velazquez, his fellow-townsman then 
at the summit of his fortune and asked for some introduc- 
tion to friends in Rome. The master liked the youth, and 
offered him lodging in his own house, and proposed to procure 
him admission to the royal galleries of the capital. Murillo 
accepted the offer, and here enjoyed the masterpieces of Italy 
and Flanders without travelling beyond the walls of Madrid. 
The next two years- were chiefly spent in copying from Ribera, 
Vandyck and Velazquez; and in 1644 he so astonished the latter 
with some of his efforts that they were submitted to the king 
and the court. His patron now urged him to go to Rome, 
and offered him letters to smooth his way; but Murillo preferred 
returning to his sister and his native Seville. 

The friars of the convent of San Francesco in Seville had 
about this time determined to adorn the walls of their small 
cloister in a manner worthy of their patron saint. But the 
brotherhood had no money; and after endless begging they found 
themselves incapable of employing an artist of name to execute 
the task. Murillo was needy, and offered his services; after 
balancing their own poverty against his obscurity the friars 
bade him begin. Murillo covered the walls with eleven large 
pictures of remarkable power and beauty displaying by turns 
the strong colouring of Ribera, the lifelike truthfulness of 
Velazquez, and the sweetness of Vandyck. Among them were 
to be found representations of San Francesco, of San Diego, of 
Santa Clara and of San Gil. These pictures were executed 
in his earliest style, commonly called his frio or cold style. It 
was based chiefly on Ribera and Caravaggio, and was dark with 
a decided outline. This rich collection is no longer in Seville; 
Marshal Soult carried off ten of the works. The fame of these 
productions soon got abroad, and " El Claustro Chico " swarmed 
daily with artists and critics. Murillo was no longer friendless 
and unknown. The rich and the noble of Seville overwhelmed 
him with their commissions and their praises. 

In 1648 Murillo married a wealthy lady of rank, Dona Beatriz 
de Cabrera y Sotomayor, of the neighbourhood of Seville, and 
his house soon became the favourite resort of artists and 
connoisseurs. About this time he was associated with the land- 
scape-painter Yriarte the two artists interchanging figures and 
landscapes for their respective works; but they did not finally 
agree, and the co-operation came to an end. Murillo now 
painted the well-known " Flight into Egypt," and shortly 
afterwards changed his earliest style of painting for his calido 
or warm style. His drawing was still well defined, but his 
outlines became softer and his figures rounder, and his colouring 
gained in warmth and transparency. His first picture of this 
style, according to Cean Bermudez, was a representation of 
" Our Lady of the Conception," and was painted in 1652 for 
the brotherhood of the True Cross; he received for it 2500 reals 
(26). In 1655 he executed his two famous paintings of " San 
Leandro " and " San Isidoro " at the order of Don Juan Federigo, 
archdeacon of Carmona, which are now in the cathedral of 
Seville. These are two noble portraits, finished with great care 
and admirable effect, but the critics complain of the figures 
being rather short. His next picture, the " Nativity of the 
Virgin," painted for the chapter, is regarded as one of the most 
delightful specimens of his calido style. In the following year 
(1656) the same body gave him an order for a vast picture of San 
Antonio de Padua, for which he received 10,000 reals (104). 
This is one of his most celebrated performances, and still hangs 
in the baptistery of the cathedral. It was " repaired " in 1833; 
the grandeur of the design, however, and the singular richness 



of the colouring may still be traced. The same year saw him 
engaged on four large semicircular pictures, designed by his 
friend and patron Don Justino Neve y Yevenes, to adorn the 
walls of the church of Santa Maria la Blanca. The first two 
(now in Madrid) were meant to illustrate the history of the 
Festival of Our Lady of the Snow, or the foundation of the 
Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The one represents 
the wealthy but childless Roman senator and his lady asleep 
and dreaming; the other exhibits the devout pair relating 
their dream to Pope Liberius. Of these two noble paintings 
the Dream is the finer, and in it is to be noticed the commence- 
ment of Murillo's third and last style, known as the vaporoso or 
vapoury. It should be noted, however, that the three styles 
are not strictly separable into date-periods; for the painter 
alternated the styles accordingly to his subject-matter or the 
mood of his inspiration, the calido being the most frequent. In 
the vaporoso method the well-marked outlines and careful 
drawing of his former styles disappear, the outlines are lost 
in the misty blending of the light and shade, and the general 
finish betrays more haste than was usual with Murillo. After 
many changes of fortune, these two pictures now hang in the 
Academy at Madrid. The remaining pieces executed for this 
small church were a " Virgin of the Conception " and a figure of 
" Faith." Soult laid his hands on these also, and they have not 
been recovered. 

In 1658 Murillo undertook and consummated a task which 
had hitherto baffled all the artists of Spain, and even royalty 
itself. This was the establishing of a public academy of art. By 
superior tact and good temper he overcame the vanity of Valdes 
Leal and the presumption of the younger Herrera, and secured 
their co-operation. The Academy of Seville was accordingly 
opened for the first time in January 1660, and Murillo and the 
second Herrera were chosen presidents. The former continued 
to direct it during the following year; but the calls of his studio 
induced him to leave it in other hands. It was then flourishing, 
but not for long. 

Passing over some half-length pictures of saints and a dark- 
haired Madonna, painted in 1668 for the chapter-room of the 
cathedral of his native city, we enter upon the most splendid 
period of Murillo's career. In 1661 Don Miguel Manara Vicen- 
telo de Leca, who had recently turned to a life of sanctity from 
one of the wildest profligacy, resolved to raise money for the 
restoration of the dilapidated Hospital de la Caridad, of whose 
pious gild he was himself a member. Manara commissioned 
his friend Murillo to paint eleven pictures for this edifice of San 
Jorge. Three of these pieces represented the " Annunciation," 
the " Infant Saviour," and the " Infant St John." The remaining 
eight are considered Murillo's masterpieces. They consist of 
" Moses striking the Rock," the " Return of the Prodigal," 
" Abraham receiving the Three Angels," the "Charity of San 
Juan de Dios," the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," " Our 
Lord healing the Paralytic," " St Peter released from Prison by 
the Angel," and " St Elizabeth of Hungary." These works 
occupied the artist four years, and in 1674 he received for his 
eight great pictures 78,115 reals or about 800. The " Moses, " 
the " Loaves and Fishes," the " San Juan," and the three 
subjects which we have named first, are still at Seville; the 
French carried off the rest, but the " St Elizabeth " and the 
" Prodigal Son " are now back in Spain. For compass and 
vigour the " Moses " stands first; but the " Prodigal's Return " 
and the " St Elizabeth " were considered by Bermudez the 
most perfect of all as works of art. The front of this famous 
hospital was also indebted to the genius of Murillo; five large 
designs in blue glazed tiles were executed from his drawings. 
He had scarcely completed the undertakings for this edifice 
when his favourite Franciscans again solicited his aid. He 
accordingly executed some twenty paintings for the humble 
little church known as the Convent de los Capucinos. Seventeen 
of these Capuchin pictures are preserved in the Museum of 
Seville. Of these the " Charity of St Thomas of Villanueva " 
is reckoned the best. Murillo himself was wont to call it " su 
lienzo " (his own picture). Another little piece of extraordinary 



MURIMUTH MURKER 



37 



merit, which once hung in this church, is the " Virgin of the 
Napkin," believed to have been painted on a " servilleta " and 
presented to the cook of the Capuchin brotherhood as a memorial 
of the artist's pencil. 

In 1670 Murillo is said to have declined an invitation to court, 
preferring to labour among the brown coats of Seville. Eight 
years afterwards his friend the canon Justino again employed 
him to paint three pieces for the Hospital de los Venerables: 
the " Mystery of the Immaculate Conception," " St Peter 
Weeping," and the " Blessed Virgin." As a mark of esteem, 
Murillo next painted a full-length portrait of the canon. The 
spaniel at the feet of the priest has been known to call forth a 
snarl from a living dog. His portraits generally, though few, 
are of great beauty. Towards the close of his life Murillo 
executed a series of pictures illustrative of the life of " the 
glorious doctor " for the Augustinian convent at Seville. This 
brings us to the last work of the artist. Mounting a scaffolding 
one day at Cadiz (whither he had gone in 1681) to execute the 
higher parts of a large picture of the " Espousal of St Catherine," 
on which he was engaged for the Capuchins of that town, he 
stumbled, and fell so violently that he received a hurt from which 
he never recovered. The great picture was left unfinished, and 
the artist returned to Seville to die. He died as he had lived, 
a humble, pious, brave man, on the 3rd of April 1682 in the arms 
of the chevalier Pedro Nunez de Villavicencio, an intimate 
friend and one of his best pupils. Another of his numerous 
pupils was Sebastian Gomez, named " Murillo's Mulatto." 
Murillo left two sons (one of them at first an indifferent painter, 
afterwards a priest) and a daughter his wife having died 
before him. 

Murillo has always been one of the most popular of painters 
not in Spain alone. His works show great technical attainment 
without much style, and a strong feeling for ordinary nature 
and for truthful or sentimental expression without lofty beauty 
or ideal elevation. His ecstasies of Madonnas and Saints are 
the themes of some of his most celebrated achievements. Take 
as an example the " Immaculate Conception " (or " Assumption 
of the Virgin," for the titles may, with reference to Murillo's 
treatments of this subject, almost be interchanged) in the 
Louvre, a picture for which, on its sale from the Soult collection, 
one of the largest prices on record was given in 1852, some 
24,600. His subjects may be divided into two great groups 
the scenes from low life (which were a new experiment in Spanish 
art, so far as the subjects of children are concerned), and the 
Scriptural, legendary and religious works. The former, of 
which some salient specimens are in the Dulwich Gallery, are, 
although undoubtedly truthful, neither ingenious not sym- 
pathetic; sordid unsightliness and roguish squalor are their 
foundation. Works of this class belong mostly to the earlier 
years of Murillo's practice. The subjects in which the painter 
most excels are crowded compositions in which some act of 
saintliness, involving the ascetic or self-mortifying element, 
is being performed subjects which, while repulsive in some of 
their details, emphasize the broadly human and the expressly 
Catholic conceptions of life. A famous example is the picture, 
now in the Madrid Academy, of St Elizabeth of Hungary washing 
patients afflicted with the scab or itch, and hence commonly 
named " El Tinoso." Technically considered, it unites his three 
styles of painting, more especially the cold and the warm. His 
power of giving atmosphere to combined groups of figures is one 
of the marked characteristics of Murillo's art; and he may be said 
to have excelled in this respect all his predecessors or con- 
temporaries of whatever school. 

Seville must still be visited by persons who wish to study 
Murillo thoroughly. A large number of the works which used 
to adorn this city have, however, been transported else- 
whither. In the Prado Museum at Madrid are forty-five 
specimens of Murillo the " Infant Christ and the Baptist " 
(named " Los Nifios della Concha "), " St Ildefonso vested with 
a Chasuble by the Madonna," &c.; in the Museo della Trinidad, 
" Christ and the Virgin appearing to St Francis in a Cavern " 
(an immense composition), and various others. In the National 



Gallery, London, the chief example is the " Holy Family "; this 
was one of the master's latest works, painted in Cadiz. In 
public galleries in the United Kingdom there are altogether 
twenty-four examples by Murillo; in those of Spain, seventy-one. 
Murillo, who was the last pre-eminent painter of Seville, was 
an indefatigable and prolific worker, hardly leaving his painting- 
room save for his devotions in church; he realized large prices, 
according to the standard of his time, and made a great fortune. 
His character is recorded as amiable and soft, yet independent, 
subject also to sudden impulses, not unmixed with passion. 

See Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain (3 vols., London, 
1848); Richard Ford, Handbook for Spain (London, 1855); Curtis, 
Catalogue of the Works of Velasquez and Murillo (1883); L. Alfonso, 
Murillo, el hombre, &c. (1886); C. Justi, Murillo (illustrated, 
1892); P. Lefort, Murillo elfes eleves (1892); F. M. Tubino, Murillo, 
su epoca, &c. (1864; Eng. trans., 1879); Dr G. C. Williamson, 
Murillo (1902) ; C. S. Ricketts, Th* Prado (1903). (W. M. R.) 

MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274-1347), English ecclesiastic and 
chronicler, was born in 1274 or 1275 and educated in the civil 
law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the 
papal curia at Avignon. Edward II. and Archbishop Winchelsey 
were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him 
canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship 
of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to a country living 
(Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history 
of his own times. His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not 
earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and was carried 
up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes 
fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the 
French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a 
bald narrative of events. But he incorporates many documents 
in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's which 
have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the 
work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The 
Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous 
writer to the year 1380. 

The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that 
by E. M. Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition, 
and to W. Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I. and II., vol. i. (Rolls 
series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation 
is printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London, 
1846). (H. W. C. D.) 

MURKER, THOMAS (1475-1537?), German satirist, was 
born on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strass- 
burg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and 
in 1495 began a wandering life, studying and then teaching and 
preaching in Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg. 
The emperor Maximilian I. crowned him in 1505 poeta laureatus; 
in 1506, he was created doctor theologiae, and in 1513 was ap- 
pointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg, 
an office which, on account of a scurrilous publication, he was 
forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he 
began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel, 
and in 1519 took the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in 
Italy and England, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed 
by the Reformation, sought an exile at Lucerne in Switzerland 
in 1526. In 1533 he was appointed priest of Oberehnheim, 
where he died in 1537, or, according to some accounts, in 1536. 
Murner was an energetic and passionate character, who made 
enemies wherever he went. There is not a trace of human 
kindness in his satires, which were directed against the cor- 
ruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against 
Luther. His most powerful satire and the most virulent 
German satire of the period is Von dem grossen lulherischen 
Narren, wie ihn Dr Murner beschworen hat. Among others 
may be mentioned Die Narrenbeschworung (1512); Die Schelmen- 
zunft (1512); Die Gauchmatt, which treats of enamoured fools 
(1519), and a translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1515) dedicated to 
the emperor Maximilian I. Murner also wrote the humor- 
ous Chartiludium logicae (1507) and the Ludus studentum 
freiburgensium (1511), besides a translation of Justinian's 
Institutiones (1519). 

All Murner's more important works have been republished in 



MUROM MURRAY, A. S. 



critical editions; a selection was published by G. Balke in Kiirsch- 
ner's Deutsche Nationattiteratur (1890). Cf. W. Kawerau, Murner 
und die Kirche des Mittelalters (1890); and by the same writer, 
Murner und die deutsche Reformation (1891); also K. Ott, Uber 
Murners Verhdltniss zu Geiler (1896). 

MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 
on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with 
the Tesha, 108 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Vladimir. Pop. 
(1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedral. It is the chief 
entrepot for grain from the basin of the Ewer Oka, and carries 
on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod. It is 
famed, as in ancient times, for kitchen-gardens, especially for 
its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries 
have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has 
increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distilleries, manufac- 
tories of soap and of iron implements. 

MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727-1805), Irish actor and dramatist, 
son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Clomquin, Roscommon, 
on the 27th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under 
the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English 
college at St Omer. He entered the counting-house of a mer- 
chant at Cork on recommendation of his uncle, Jeffery French, 
in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica alienated French's interest, 
and Murphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By 
the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Gray's Inn Journal, 
a periodical in the style of the Spectator. Two years later he 
became an actor, and appeared in the title-roles of Richard III. 
and Othello; as Biron in Southerne's Fatal Marriage; and as 
Osmyn in Congreve's Mourning Bride. His first farce, The 
Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the 2nd of January 
1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer 
(1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him 
(1760), All in the Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (1772), 
and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all 
adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing 
for their author both fame and wealth. .Murphy edited a 
political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by 
whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, 
although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 1757 
on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also 
wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and genius 
of Samuel Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tacitus. 
Towards the close of his life the office of a commissioner of 
bankrupts and a pension of 200 were conferred upon him 
by government. He died on the i8th of June 1805. 

MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853- ), American landscape 
painter, was born at Oswego, New York, on the nth of 
December 1853. He first exhibited at the National Academy 
of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in 1885 and a 
full academician two years later. He became a member of the 
Society of American Artists (1901) and of the American Water 
Color Society. 

MURPHY, ROBERT (1806-1843), British mathematician, the 
son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in 
1806. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice 
in his father's shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in 
the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through 
their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native 
town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in 1825. 
Third wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a fellow 
of his college. A course of dissipation led him into debt; his 
fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditors, and 
he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832. After 
living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired 
to London in 1836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838 
he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London 
University. He had already contributed several mathematical 
papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1831-1836), 
Philosophical Magazine (1833-1842), and the Philosophical 
Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of 
the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the " Library 
of Useful Knowledge " a Treatise on the Theory of Algebraical 
Equations (1839). He died on the i2th of March 1843. 



MURPHYSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Jackson 
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on the 
Big Muddy River, about 57 m. N. of Cairo. Pop. (1890), 3880; 
(1900), 6463, including 557 foreign-born and 456 negroes; (1910), 
7485. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio 
and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. It is 
the centre for a farming region, in which there are deposits of 
coal, iron, lead and shale, and there are various manufactures 
in the city. Murphysboro was incorporated in 1867, and re- 
incorporated in 1875. 

MURRAIN (derived through O. Fr. marine, from Lat. mori, to 
die), a general term for various virulent diseases in domesticated 
animals, synonymous with plague or epizooty. The principal 
diseases are dealt with under RINDERPEST; PLEURO-PNEUMONIA; 
ANTHRAX; and FOOT AND MOUTH PISEASE. See also VETER- 
INARY SCIENCE. 

MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was 
one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corre- 
sponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross. 
Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas 
Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl 
of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346, 
when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a 
soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross. 
According to some authorities the earldom was then held by 
John's sister Agnes (c. 1312-1369) and her husband, Patrick 
Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285-1368). However 
this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet, 
duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King 
David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a graiftlson of 
Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained 
the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar, 
who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his 
daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455), 
called themselves earl and countess of Moray. 

The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch 
of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural 
son, James Stuart (c. 1490-1544), earl of Moray. James died 
without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time 
by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514-1562), who 
was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it was bestowed in 1562 by 
Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son 
of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl 
of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January 
1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married 
the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom. 
He, who was called the " bonny earl," was killed by his heredi- 
tary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James 
(d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has 
remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the 
4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680 
to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737-1810), was 
made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart. 

See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by 
Sir J. B. Paul (1909). 

MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904), British 
archaeologist, was born at Arbroath on the 8th of January 1841, 
and educated there, at Edinburgh high school and at the 
universities of Edinburgh and Berlin. In 1867 he entered the 
British Museum as an assistant in the department of Greek and 
Roman antiquities under Sir Charles Newton, whom he suc- 
ceeded in 1886. His younger brother, George Robert Milne 
Murray (b. 1858), was made keeper of the botanical department 
in 1895, the only instance of two brothers becoming heads of 
departments at the museum. In 1873 Dr Murray published a 
Manual of Mythology, and in the following year contributed to 
the Contemporary Review two articles one on the Homeric 
question which led to a friendship with Mr Gladstone, the 
other on Greek painters. In 1880-1883 he brought out his 
History of Greek Sculpture, which at once became a standard 
work. In 1886 he was selected by the Society of Antiquaries of 
Scotland to deliver the Rhind lectures on archaeology, out of 



MURRAY, D. MURRAY, LORD GEORGE 



39 



which grew his Handbook of Greek Archaeology (1892). In 
1894-1896 Dr Murray directed some excavations in Cyprus 
undertaken by means of a bequest of 2000 from Miss Emma 
Tournour Turner. The objects obtained are described and 
illustrated in Excavations in Cyprus, published by the trustees 
of the museum in 1900. Among Dr Murray's other official 
publications are three folio volumes on Terra-cotta Sarcophagi, 
White Athenian Vases and Designs from Greek Vases. In 1898 
he wrote for the Portfolio a monograph on Greek bronzes, 
founded on lectures delivered at the Royal Academy in that 
year, and he contributed many articles on archaeology to 
standard publications. In recognition of his services to archaeo- 
logy he was made LL.D. of Glasgow University in 1887 and 
elected a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of 
Sciences in 1900. He died in March 1904. 

MURRAY, DAVID (1840- ), Scottish painter, was born in 
Glasgow, and spent some years in commercial pursuits before 
he practised as an artist. He was elected an associate of the 
Royal Academy in 1891 and academician in 1905; and also 
became an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy and of 
the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours, and a member 
of the Royal Scottish Water Colour Society. He is a landscape 
painter of distinction, and two of his pictures, " My Love is 
gone a-sailing " (1884) and " In the Country of Constable " 
(1903), have been bought for the National Gallery of British 
Art. " Young Wheat," painted in 1890, is one of his most 
noteworthy works. 

MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824-1881), 
English journalist, was born in 1824, the natural son of the 2nd 
duke of Buckingham. Educated at Magdalen Hall (Hertford 
College), Oxford, he entered the diplomatic service through the 
influence of Lord 'Palmerston, and in 1851 joined the British 
embassy at Vienna as attache. At the same time he agreed 
to act as Vienna correspondent of a London daily paper, a 
breach of the conventions of the British Foreign Office which 
cost him his post. In 1852 he was transferred to Hanover, 
and thence to Constantinople, and finally, in 1855, was made 
consul-general at Odessa. In 1868 he returned to England, 
and devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the 
early numbers of Vanity Fair, and in 1869 founded a clever but 
abusive society paper, the Queen's Messenger. For a libel 
published in this paper Lord Carrington horsewhipped him 
on the doorstep of a London club. Murray was subsequently 
charged with perjury for denying on oath his authorship of the 
article. Remanded on bail, he escaped to Paris, where he 
subsequently lived, acting as correspondent of various London 
papers. In 1874 he helped Edmund Yates to found the World. 
Murray died at Passy on the aoth of December 1881. 

His score of books, several of which were translated into French 
and published in Paris, include French Pictures in English Chalk 
(1876-1878); The Roving Englishman in Turkey (1854); Men of the 
Second Empire (1872); Young Brown (1874); Sidelights on English 
Society (1881) ; and Under the Lens: Social Photographs (1885). 

MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694-1760), Scottish Jacobite 
general, fifth son of John, ist duke of Atholl, by his first wife, 
Catherine, daughter of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, was born 
at Huntingtower, near Perth, on the 4th of October 1694. 
He joined the army in Flanders in June 1712; in 1715, contrary 
to their father's wishes, he and his brothers, the marquis of 
Tullibardine and Lord Charles Murray, joined the Jacobite rebels 
under the earl of Mar, each brother commanding a regiment of 
men of Atholl. Lord Charles was taken prisoner at Preston, 
but after the collapse of the rising Lord George escaped with 
Tullibardine to South Uist, and thence to France. In 1719 
Murray took part in the Jacobite attempt in conjunction with 
the Spaniards in the western highlands, under the command of 
Tullibardine and the earl marischal, which terminated in " the 
affair of Glenshiel " on the roth of June, when he was wounded 
while commanding the right wing of the Jacobites. After 
hiding for some months in the highlands he reached Rotter- 
dam in May 1720. There is no evidence for the statement that 
Murray served in the Sardinian army, and little is known of his 



life on the continent till 1724, when he returned to Scotland, 
where in the following year he was granted a pardon. The duke 
of Atholl died in 1724 and was succeeded in the title by his second 
son James, owing to the attainder of Tullibardine; and Lord 
George leased from his brother the old family property of 
Tullibardine in Strathearn, where he lived till 1745. 

On the eve of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the duke of Perth 
made overtures to Lord George Murray on behalf of the 
Pretender; but even after the landing of Charles Edward in 
Scotland in July, accompanied by Tullibardine, Murray's attitude 
remained doubtful. He accompanied his brother the duke to 
Crieff on the 2ist of August to pay his respects to Sir John Cope, 
the commander of the government troops, and he permitted 
the duke to appoint him deputy-sheriff of Perthshire. It has 
been suggested that Murray acted with duplicity, but his 
hesitation was natural and genuine; and it was not till early in 
September, when Charles Edward was at Blair Castle, which had 
been vacated by the duke of Atholl on the prince's approach, 
that Murray decided to espouse the Stuart cause. He then 
wrote to his brother explaining that he did so for conscientious 
reasons, while realizing the risk of ruin it involved. On joining 
the Jacobite army Lord George received a commission as lieu- 
tenant-general, though the prince ostentatiously treated him 
with want of confidence; and he was flouted by the Irish adven- 
turers who were the Pretenderis trusted advisers. At Perth 
Lord George exerted himself with success to introduce discipline 
and organization in the army he was to command, and he gained 
the confidence of the highland levies, with whose habits and 
methods of fighting he was familiar. He also used his influence 
to prevent the exactions and arbitrary interference with civil 
rights which Charles was too ready to sanction on the advice of 
others. At Prestonpans, on the 2ist of September, Lord George, 
who led the Jacobite left wing in person, was practically com- 
mander-in-chief, and it was to his able generalship that the 
victory was mainly due. During the six weeks' occupation of 
Edinburgh he did useful work in the further organization and 
disciplining of the army. He opposed Charles's plan of invading 
England, and when his judgment was overruled he prevailed 
on the prince to march into Cumberland, which he knew to be 
favourable ground for highlander tactics, instead of advancing 
against General Wade, whose army was posted at Newcastle. 
He conducted the siege of Carlisle, but on the surrender of the 
town on the I4th of November he resigned his command on 
the ground that his authority had been insufficiently upheld by 
the prince, and he obtained permission to serve as a volunteer 
in the ranks of the Atholl levies. The dissatisfaction, however, 
of the army with the appointment of the duke of Perth to 
succeed him compelled Charles to reinstate Murray, who accord- 
ingly commanded the Jacobites in the march to Derby. Here 
on the sth of December a council was held at which Murray 
urged the necessity for retreat, owing to the failure of the English 
Jacobites to support the invasion and the absence of aid from 
France. As Murray was supported by the council the retreat 
was ordered, to the intense chagrin of Charles, who never forgave 
him; but the failure of the enterprise was mainly chargeable 
to Charles himself, and it was not without justice that Murray's 
aide de camp, the chevalier Johnstone, declared that " had 
Prince Charles slept during the whole of the expedition, and 
allowed Lord George Murray to act for him according to his 
own judgment, he would have found the crown of Great Britain 
on his head when he awoke." Lord George commanded the 
rear-guard during the retreat; and this task, rendered doubly 
dangerous by the proximity of Cumberland in the rear and Wade 
on the flank, was made still more difficult by the incapacity 
and petulance of the Pretender. By a skilfully fought rear- 
guard action at Clifton Moor, Lord George enabled the army to 
reach Carlisle safely and without loss of stores or war material; 
and on the 3rd of January 1746 the force entered Stirling, where 
they were joined by reinforcements from Perth. The prince 
laid siege to Stirling Castle, while Murray defeated General 
Hawley near Falkirk; but the losses of the Jacobites by sickness 
and desertion, and the approach of Cumberland, made retreat 



MURRAY, JAMES MURRAY, EARL OF 



to the Highlands an immediate necessity, in which the prince 
was compelled to acquiesce; his resentment was such that he 
gave ear to groundless suggestions that Murray was a traitor, 
which the latter's failure to capture his brother's stronghold 
of Blair Castle did nothing to refute. 

In April 1746 the Jacobite army was in the neighbourhood 
of Inverness, and the prince decided to give battle to the duke 
of Cumberland. Charles took up a position on the left bank of 
the Nairn river at Culloden Moor, rejecting Lord George's Murray 
advice to select a much stronger position on the opposite bank. 
The battle of Culloden, where the Stuart cause was ruined, 
was fought on the i6th of April 1746. On the following day the 
duke of Cumberland intimated to his troops that " the public 
orders' of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter"; 
Hanoverian news-sheets printed what purported to be copies 
of such an order, and the historian James Ray and other con- 
temporary writers gave further currency to a calumny that has 
been repeated by modern authorities. Original copies of Lord 
George Murray's " orders at Culloden " are in existence, one of 
which is among Cumberland's own papers, while another was 
in the possession of Lord Hardwicke, the judge who tried the 
Jacobite peers in 1746, and they contain no injunction to refuse 
quarter. After the defeat Murray conducted a remnant of the 
Jacobite army to Ruthven, and prepared to organize further 
resistance. Prince Charles, however, had determined to aban- 
don the enterprise, and at Ruthven Lord George received an 
order dismissing him from the prince's service, to which he replied 
in a letter upbraiding Charles for his distrust and mismanage- 
ment. Charles's belief in the general's treachery was shared 
by several leading Jacobites, but there appears no ground for 
the suspicion. From the moment he threw in his lot with the 
exiled prince's cause Lord George Murray never deviated in his 
loyalty and devotion, and his generalship was deserving of the 
highest praise; but the discipline he enforced and jealousy of 
his authority made enemies of some of those to whom Charles 
was more inclined to listen than to the general who gave him 
sound but unwelcome advice. 

Murray escaped to the continent in December 1746, and was 
graciously received in Rome by the Old Pretender, who granted 
him a pension; but in the following year when he went to Paris 
Charles Edward refused to see him. Lord George lived at 
various places abroad until his death, which occurred at Medem- 
blik in Holland on the nth of October 1760. He married 
in 1728 Amelia, daughter and heiress of James Murray of 
Strowan and Glencarse, by whom he had three sons and two 
daughters. His eldest son John became 3rd duke of Atholl in 
1764; the two younger sons became lieutenant-general and 
vice-admiral respectively in the British service. 

See A Military History of Perthshire, ed. by the marchioness of 
Tullibardine (2 vols., London, 1908), containing a memoir of Lord 
George Murray and a facsimile copy of his orders at Culloden; 
The Atholl Chronicles, ed. by the duke of Atholl (privately printed) ; 
The Chevalier James de Johnstone, Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 
(jrd ed., London, 1822); James Ray, Compleat Historic of the Rebel- 
lion, 1745-1746 (London, 1754); Robert Patten, History of the late 
Rebellion (2nd ed., London, 1717); Memoirs of Sir John Murray of 
Brpughton, ed. by R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898); Andrew Henderson, 
History of the Rebellion, 1745-1746 (2nd ed., London, 1748). 

(R. J- M.) 

MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1710-1794), British governor of Canada, 
was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank 
(d. 1736). Having entered the British army, he served with the 
1 5th Foot in the West Indies, the Netherlands and Brittany, and 
became lieut.enant-colonel of this regiment by purchase in 1751. 
In 1757 he led his men to North America to take part in the 
war against France. He commanded a brigade at the siege of 
Louisburg, was one of Wolfe's three brigadiers in the expedition 
against Quebec, and commanded the left wing of the army in 
the famous battle in September 1759. After the British victory 
and the capture of the city, Murray was left in command of 
Quebec; having strengthened its fortifications and taken 
measures to improve the morale of his men, he defended it in 
April and May 1760 against the attacks of the French, who were 
soon compelled to raise the siege. The British troops had been 



decimated by disease, and it was only a remnant that Murray 
now led to join General Amherst at Montreal, and to be present 
when the last batch of French troops in Canada surrendered. 
In October 1760 he was appointed governor of Quebec, and he 
became governor of Canada after this country had been formally 
ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In this year he quelled a 
dangeious mutiny, and soon afterwards his alleged partiality for 
the interests of the French Canadians gave offence to the British 
settlers; they asked for his recall, and in 1766 he retired from his 
post. After an inquiry in the House of Lords, he was exonerated 
from the charges which had been brought against him. In 
1774 Murray was sent to Minorca as governor, and in 1781, 
while he was in charge of this island, he was besieged in Fort 
St Philip by a large force of French and Spaniards. After a 
stubborn resistance, which lasted nearly seven months, he was 
obliged to surrender the place; and on his return to England 
he was tried by a court-martial, at the instance of Sir William 
Draper, who had served under him in Minorca as lieutenant- 
governor. He was acquitted and he became a general in 1783. 
He died on the i8th of June 1794. Murray's only son was 
James Patrick Murray (1782-1834), a major-general and member 
of parliament. 

MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837- ), 
British lexicographer, was born at Denholm, near Hawick, 
Roxburghshire, and after a local elementary education proceeded 
to Edinburgh, and thence to the university of London, where 
he graduated B.A. in 1873. Sir James Murray, who received 
honorary degrees from several universities, both British and 
foreign, was engaged in scholastic work for thirty years, from 
1855 to 1885, chiefly at Hawick and Mill Hill. During this time 
his reputation as a philologist was increasing, and he was 
assistant examiner in English at the University of London from 
1875 to 1879 and president of the Philological Society of London 
from 1878 to 1880, and again from 1882 to 1884. It was in 
connexion with this society that he undertook the chief work 
of his life, the editing of the New English Dictionary, based on 
materials collected by the society. These materials, which had 
accumulated since 1857, when the society first projected the 
publication of a dictionary on philological principles, amounted 
to an enormous quantity, of which an idea may be formed from 
the fact that Dr Furnivall sent in " some ton and three-quarters 
of materials which had accumulated under his roof." After 
negotiations extending over a considerable period, the contracts 
between the society, the delegates of the Clarendon Press, and 
the editor, were signed on the ist of March 1879, and Murray 
began the examination and arrangement of the raw material, 
and the still more troublesome work of re-animating and main- 
taining the enthusiasm of " readers." In 1885 he removed from 
Mill Hill to Oxford, where his Scriptorium came to rank among 
the institutions of the University city. The first volume of 
the dictionary was printed at the Clarendon Press, Oxford, 
in 1888. A full account of its beginning and the manner of 
working up the materials will be found in Murray 's presidential 
address to the Philological Society in 1879, while reports of 
its progress are given in the addresses by himself and other 
presidents in subsequent years. In addition to his work as a 
philologist, Murray was a frequent contributor to the transac- 
tions of the various antiquarian and archaeological societies of 
which he is a member; and he wrote the article on the English 
language for this Encyclopaedia. In 1885 he received the 
honorary degree of M.A. from Balliol College; he was an original 
fellow of the British Academy, and in 1908 he was knighted. 

MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531- 
1570), regent of Scotland, was an illegitimate son of James V. 
of Scotland by Margaret Erskine, daughter of John Erskine, 
earl of Mar. In 1538 he was appointed prior of the abbey of 
St Andrews in order that James V. might obtain possession of 
its funds. Educated at St Andrews University, he attacked, 
in September 1549, an English force which had made a descent 
on the Fife coast, and routed it with great slaughter. In 
addition to the priory of St Andrews, he received those also of 
Pittenweem and Macon in France, but manifested no vocation 



MURRAY, JOHN 



for a monastic life. The discourses of Knox, which he heard 
at Calder, won his approval, and shortly after the return of the 
reformer to Scotland in 1559, James Stuart left the party of the 
queen regent and joined the lords of the congregation, who 
resolved forcibly to abolish the Roman service. After the 
return of Queen Mary in 1561, he became her chief adviser, and 
his cautious firmness was for a time effectual in inducing her 
to adopt a policy of moderation towards the reformers. At the 
beginning of 1562 he was created earl of Murray, a dignity also 
held by George Gordon, earl of Huntly, who, however, had 
lost the queen's favour. Only a few days later he was made earl 
of Mar,*but as this title was claimed by John, Lord Erskine, 
Stuart resigned it and received a second grant of the earldom of 
Murray, Huntly by this time having been killed in battle. 
Henceforward he was known as the earl of Moray, the alternative 
Murray being a more modern and less correct variant. About 
this time the earl married Anne (d. 1583), daughter of William 
Keith, ist Earl Marischal. 

After the defeat and death of Huntly, the leader of the 
Catholic party, the policy of Murray met for a time with no 
obstacle, but he awakened the displeasure of the queen by his 
efforts in behalf of Knox when the latter was accused of high 
treason; and as he was also opposed to her marriage with 
Darnley, he was after that event declared an outlaw and took 
refuge in England. Returning to Scotland after the murder 
of Rizzio, he was pardoned by the queen. He contrived, 
however, to be away at the time of Darnley's assassination, 
and avoided the tangles of the marriage with Bothwell by going 
to France. After the abdication of Queen Mary at Lochleven, 
in July 1567, he was appointed regent of Scotland. When 
Mary escaped from Lochleven (May 2, 1568), the duke of Chatel- 
herault and other Catholic nobles rallied to her standard, 
but Murray and the Protestant lords gathered their adherents, 
defeated her forces at Langside, near Glasgow (May 13, 1568), 
and compelled her to flee to England. Murray displayed 
promptness in baffling Mary's schemes, suppressed the border 
thieves, and ruled firmly, resisting the temptation to place the 
crown on his own head. He observed the forms of personal 
piety; possibly he shared the zeal of the reformers, while he 
moderated their bigotry. But he reaped the fruits of the 
conspiracies which led to the murders of Rizzio and Darnley. 
He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the Church 
to be deemed a pure reformer of its abuses. He pursued his 
sister with a calculated animosity which would not have spared 
her life had this been necessary to his end or been favoured by 
Elizabeth. The mode of producing the casket letters and 
the false charges added by Buchanan, deprive Murray of any 
claim to have been an honest accuser. His reluctance to charge 
Mary with complicity in the murder of Darnley was feigned, 
and his object was gained when he was allowed to table the 
accusation without being forced to prove it. Mary remained 
a captive under suspicion of the gravest guilt, while Murray 
ruled Scotland in her stead, supported by nobles who had taken 
part in the steps which ended in Bothwell's deed. During the 
year between his becoming regent and his death several events 
occurred for which he has been censured, but which were 
necessary for his security: the betrayal to Elizabeth of the duke 
of Norfolk and of the secret plot for the liberation of Mary; the 
imprisonment of the earl of Northumberland, who after the 
failure of his rising in the north of England had taken refuge 
in Scotland; and the charge brought against Maitland of Leth- 
ington of complicity in Darnley's murder. Lethington was 
committed to custody, but was rescued by Kirkaldy of Grange, 
who held the castle of Edinburgh, and while there " the chame- 
leon," as Buchanan named Maitland hi his famous invective, 
gained over those in the castle, including Kirkaldy. Murray 
was afraid to proceed with the charge on the day of trial, while 
Kirkaldy and Maitland held the castle, which became the 
stronghold of the deposed queen's party. It has been suspected 
that Maitland and Kirkaldy were cognizant of the design of 
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh to murder Murray, for he had been 
with them in the castle. This has been ascribed to private 



vengeance for the ill-treat inent of his wife; but the feud of the 
Hamiltons with the regent is the most reasonable explanation. 
As he rode through Linlithgow Murray was shot on the 2ist of 
January 1570 from a window by Hamilton, who had made careful 
preparation for the murder and his own escape. He was buried 
in the south aisle of St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, amid general 
mourning. Knox preached the sermon and Buchanan furnished 
the epitaph, both panegyrics. The elder of his two daughters, 
Elizabeth, married James Stuart (d. 1592), son of James, ist 
Lord Doune, who succeeded to the earldom of Murray in right 
of his wife. 

The materials for the life of Murray are found in the records and 
documents of the time, prominent among which are the various 
Calendars of State Papers. Mention must also be made of the many 
books which treat of Mary, Queen of Scots, and of the histories of 
the time-^- especially J. A. Froude, History of England, and Andrew 
Lang, History of Scotland. 

MURRAY, JOHN, the name for several generations of a great 
firm of London publishers, founded by John McMurray (1745- 
I 793). a native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines, 
who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in 
Fleet Street, and, dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself 
John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors 
of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English 
Review (1783-1796). Among his publications were Mjtford's 
Greece, Langhorne's Plutarch's Lives, and the first part of Isaac 
D 'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature. He died on the 6th of 
November 1793. 

JOHN MURRAY (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen. 
During his minority the business was conducted by Samuel 
Highley, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner- 
ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage 
in literary speculation which earned for him later the name 
given him by Lord Byron of " the Anak of publishers." In 
1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion, 
and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with 
the help of Canning he launched in opposition the Quarterly 
Review (Feb. 1809), with William Gifford as its editor, and Scott, 
Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker 
among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected 
with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to 
break this association on account of Constable's business methods, 
which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 1811 the first two 
cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas, 
to whom Byron had presented them. Murray paid Dallas 
500 guineas for the copyright. In 1812 he bought the pub- 
lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migrated to 
50, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and 
Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in 
his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in 
1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs, 
considered by Gifford unfit for publication, was destroyed. 
A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher, 
but for political reasons business relations ceased after the 
publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron 
some 20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he 
gave nearly 5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe 
3000 for Tales of the Hall. He died on the 27th of June 1843. 

His son, JOHN MURRAY (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of 
his business tact and judgment. " Murray's Handbooks " for 
travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote 
several volumes (see his article on the " Handbooks " in Murray's 
Magazine, November 1889). He published many books of 
travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's 
Commentary, Smith's Dictionaries; and works by Hallam, 
Gladstone, Lyell, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living- 
stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the 2nd of April 1892, 
and was succeeded by his eldest son, JOHN MURRAY (4) (b. 1851), 
under whom, in association with his brother, A. H. Hallam 
Murray, the firm was continued. 

See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and 
Correspondence of the late John Murray . . . (1891), for the second 
John Murray; a series of three articles by F. Espinasse on " The 



MURRAY, J. MURREE 



House of Murray," in The Critic (Jan. 1860) ; and a paper by the 
same writer in Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Sept. 1885). See 
the Letters and Journals of Byron (ed. Prothero, 1898-1901). 

MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was born at 
Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 22nd of July 1820. 
He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, and attained some 
reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He 
was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine, 
supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and 
it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu- 
ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl 
chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including 
Elements of Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and 
Pharmacy (1804), A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony- 
mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian 
Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another 
John Murray (1786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics' 
institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven- 
tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 1817. 

MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and 
naturalist, was born at Coburg, Ontario, Canada, on the 
3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied 
in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for 
some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In 
1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the 
voyage of the " Challenger " was projected, he was appointed 
one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of 
the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the 
scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports, 
which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the 
results, and was part-author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of 
the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous 
important papers on oceanography and marine biology. In 
1898 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions 
from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his 
work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in 
1880 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Faeroe Channel, 
and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various 
biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with 
the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a 
staff of specialists, he began a bathymetrical survey of the 
fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a 
fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in 1910 
in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition 
which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological 
investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian 
vessel " Michael Sars." 

MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826), Anglo-American gram- 
marian, was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of 
April 1745. His father, a Quaker, was a leading New York 
merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's 
office, but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey. 
He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against 
a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study 
law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in 
New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left 
America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he 
devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book 
was Power of Religion on the Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued 
his Grammar of the English Language. This was followed, 
among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the 
English Reader. These books passed through several editions, 
and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years 
throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on 
the i6th of January 1826. 

See the Memoir o/_ the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray 
(partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of 
Murray, by W. H. Egle (New York, 1885). 

MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673), one- of 

the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert 

, Murray of Craigie, Ayrshire, and was born about the beginning 

of the i-7th century. In early life he served in the French army, 

and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel. 



On the outbreak of the Civil War he returned to Scotland and 
collected recruits for the royal cause. The triumph of Ciomwell 
compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part 
in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and 
was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These 
appointments, which on account of the overthrow of the royal 
cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at 
the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray 
began to take a prominent part in the deliberations of a club 
instituted in London for the discussion of natural science, or, 
as it was then called, the " new philosophy." When it was 
proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to 
interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the 
i5th of July 1662 the club was incorporated by charter under 
the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first 
president. He died in June 1673. 

MURRAY, the largest river in Australia. It rises in the 
Australian Alps in 36 40' S. and 147 E., and flowing north-west 
skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it 
passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south- 
ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes 
its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at 
35 35' S. and 138 55' E. Near its source the Murray Gates, 
precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.; 
and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven. 
Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to 
become a series of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake 
Alexandrina is 1120 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft., 
its average depth about i6ft.;and it drains an area of about 
270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as 
Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations. 
The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New 
South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of 
the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta. 
In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murrumbidgee River till it 
debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake 
Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to 
return without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker, 
while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives. 

MURRAY COD (Oligorus macquariensis) , one of the largest 
of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and 
the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to 
the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc- 
tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the 
body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous 




Murray Cod. 

and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The 
length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having 
shorter spines that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the 
head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but 
none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The 
scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it 
is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous 
small dark green spots. As implied by the name, this fish has 
its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it 
occurs also in the northern parts of New South Wales. It is the 
most important food fish of these rivers, and is said to attain 
a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 1 20 Ib. 

MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the 
Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea. about 
five hours' journey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and 
the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses are built on the 



MURSHIDABAD MUSCAT 



43 



summit and sides of an irregular ridge, and command magnifi- 
cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with 
villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of 
Kashmir in the background. The population in 1901 was 1844;^ 
but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number 
10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain 
batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial 
government have been transferred to Simla. The Murree 
brewery, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial 
establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children 
of European soldiers is situated here. 

MURSHIDABAD, or MOORSHEEDABAD, a town and district 
of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The 
administrative headquarters of the district are at Berhampur. 
The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi 
or old sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 15,168. 
The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital 
of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed 
the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he 
called after his own name. The great family of Jagat Seth 
maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad 
from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of 
Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time 
the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the 
supreme civil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1772, but in 
1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again. 
In 1 790, under Lord Cornwallis, the entire revenue and judicial 
staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence 
of the nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province 
with the style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of 
nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a 
magnificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with 
other palaces, mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such 
industries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and 
silk-weaving. A college is maintained for the education of the 
nawab 's family. 

The DISTRICT OF MURSHIDABAD has an area of 2143 sq. m. 
It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi, 
the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west, 
known as the Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone. 
The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and 
seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to 
alluvial plains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent 
swamps; but the whole country is low-lying, and liable to annual 
inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks, 
said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (1901), 1,333,184, show- 
ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry 
is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived 
with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses 
the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj 
on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and 
a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened. 

HUS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Decian 
gens, (i) PUBLICS DECIUS Mus won his first laurels in the 
Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribune of the 
soldiers, he rescued the Roman main army* frdm an apparently 
hopeless position (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T. 
Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he commanded in the Latin 
War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius. 
The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the 
general whose troops first gave way should devote himself to 
destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius 
became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff 
the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks 
of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son, 
also called PUBLIUS, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed 
the example of his father at the battle of Sentinum, when the 
left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy 
x. 28). The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen 
as an unhistorical " doublette " of what is related on better 
authority of the son. 

MUSAEUS, the name of three Greek poets, (i) The first was 



a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was 
said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica. 
According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill, 
south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and 
purificatory hymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses. 
These were collected and arranged in the time of Peisistratus 
by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and 
oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis, 
are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viii. 96; ix. 43). 
A Titanomachia and Theogonia are also attributed to him 
(G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenla, 1878). (2) The 
second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of 
Pergamum, who wrote a Perseis, and poems on Eumenes and 
Attalus (Suidas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in 
all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the 
beginning of the 6th century A.D., as his style and metre are 
evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before 
Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the 
friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the 
story of Hero and Leander is by far the most beautiful of the age 
(editions by F. Passow, 1810; G. H. Schafer, 1825; C. Dilthey, 
1874). The little love-poem Alpheus and Arethusa (Anthol. pal. 
ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musaeus. 

MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border 
of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin, 
numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory 
by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are 
not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are 
a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British, 
but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the 
south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other 
Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration 
against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed. 
In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the 
Zhob Valley Expedition. 

MUSA' US, JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787), German 
author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied 
theology at the university, and would have become the pastor 
of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected 
that he had been known to dance. In 1760 to 1762 he published 
in three volumes his first work, Grandison der Zweite, afterwards 
(in 1781-1782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Der deutsche 
Grandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel 
Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in 
Germany. In 1763 Musaus was made master of the court pages 
at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar 
gymnasium. His second book Physiognomische Reisen did not 
appear until 1778-1779. It was directed against Lavater, and 
attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he 
published his best work Volksmiirchen der Deutschen. Even 
in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected 
among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories, 
therefore, lack the simplicity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785 
was issued Freund Heins Erscheinungen in Holbeins Manier by 
J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by 
Musaus. A collection of stories entitled Straussfedern, of which 
a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com- 
pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787. 

The Volksmiirchen have been frequently reprinted (Dusseldorf, 
1903, &c.). They were translated into French in 1844, and three 
of the stories are included in Carlyle's German Romance (1827); 
Musaus's Nachgelassene Scriften were edited by his relative, A. von 
Kotzebue (1791). See M. Miiller, /. K. A. Musaus (1867), and an 
essay by A. Stern in Beitrdge zur Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahr- 
hunderts (1893). 

MUSCAT, MUSKAT or MASKAT, a town on the south-east 
coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value 
as a naval base is derived from its position, which commands 
the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the 
chief port of Makr5n, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement 
with the sultan the British occupy that port with a telegraph 
station of the Indo-Persian telegraph service. An Indian 
political residency is established at Muscat. In geographical 



44 



MUSCATINE MUSCLE AND NERVE 



position it is isolated from the interior of the continent. The 
mountains rise behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road 
exists. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by 
an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that land com- 
munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both 
Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land- 
ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to 
importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf, 
and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two 
lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called Jalali and the 
western Merani, occupy the summits of hills on either side the 
cove overlooking the town; and beyond them on the seaward 
side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these 
are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and 
fortress of Jalali with the mainland, and upon this isthmus stands 
the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed 
building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese 
occupation, called by the Arabs El Jereza, a corruption of 
Igrezia (church). This term is probably derived from the chapel 
once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese 
governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant, 
and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat 
prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates 
are also exported. 

History. The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu- 
guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first 
burnt the place after destroying Karyat in 1508, Kalhat was 
the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively 
unimportant. Kalhat was subsequently sacked and burnt, the 
great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned 
to his ships, " giving many thanks to our Lord." From that 
date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was 
held as a naval station and factory during a period of local 
revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it 
was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat 
became the headquarters of their fleet and the most important 
place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu- 
guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been 
reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the 
garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five 
years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in 
1741. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804- 
1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his 
death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions 
were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883- 
1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully 
besieged by the Indabayin and Rehbayin tribes, led by Abdul 
Aziz, the brother of Turki. In 1885 Colonel Miles, resident at 
Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of 
Wellsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of 
the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French 
acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station. 

See Stiffe, " Trading Ports of Persian Gulf," vol. ix. Geog. Journal, 
and the political reports of the Indian government from the Persian 
Gulf. Colonel Miles's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vii. 
Geog. Journal (1896). (T. H. H.*) 

MUSCATINE, a city and the county-seat of Muscatine county, 
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon 
bridge), at the apex of the " great bend," in the south-east part 
of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900), 14,073, of whom 
2352 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,178. It is served 
by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock 
Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways. 
It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl- 
button industry introduced in 1891 by J. F. Boepple, a German, 
the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water 
mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu- 
factures. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and near the city are 
large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine 
Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most 
important products. The municipality owns and operates the 
waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It 



was laid out in 1836, incorporated as a town under the name 
of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a city, under its 
present name, in 1851. 

MUSCHELKALK, in geology, the middle member of the 
German Trias. It consists of a series of calcareous, marly 
and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter 
and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., calcaire 
coquillier; conchylien, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a 
characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence 
of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the 
midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the 
Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region 
and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia, 
Harz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia. and the Saar and Alsace 
districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo- 
land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south 
of the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and Montpellier, 
in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and 
beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, China, Australia, 
California, and in North Africa (Constantine). From the nature 
of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the 
Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within 
a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence, 
had only imperfect communications with the more open waters 
of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation 
were of course deposited in diverse conditions, and are only to 
be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk 
fossils. 

In the " German " area the Muschelkalk is from 250-350 ft. 
thick; it is readily divisible into three groups, of which the 
upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish- 
grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of 
gypsiferous and saliniferous marls with dolomite. The Lower 
Muschelkalk consists, from below upwards, of the following 
rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wellen Kalk, upper 
Wellen Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the 
bedding) with beds of " Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime- 
stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myophoria 
orbicularis) . In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifel, 
these beds take on a sandy aspect, the " Muschelsandstein." 
The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as already indi- 
cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of 
anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at 
Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from 
this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and 
south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular 
nature of much of the dolomite has given rise to the term 
" Zellendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk (Hauptmuschelkalk, 
Friedrichshallkalk of von Alberti) consists of regular beds of 
shelly limestone alternating with beds of marl. The lower 
portion or " Trochitenkalk " is often composed entirely of the 
fragmentary stems of Encrinus liliiformis; higher up come the 
" Nodosus " beds with Ceratites compressus, C. nodosus, and 
C. semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia 
the highest beds are platy dolomites with Tringonodus Sander- 
gensis and the crustacean Bairdia. Stylolites are common in 
all the Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs 
in many respects from that of the type area, and shows a closer 
relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more 
important local phases will be found tabulated in the article 
TRIAS. 

In addition to the fossils mentioned above, the following are 
Muschelkalk forms: Terebratulina vulgaris, Spiriferina Mantzeli 
and 5. hirsuta, Myophoria vulgaris, Rhynchotites hirundo, Ceratites 
Miinsteri, Ptychites studeri, Balatonites balatonicus, Aspidura scutel- 
lata, Daonella Lommeli, and in the Alpine region several rock- 
forming Algae, Bactryllium, Gyroporella, Diplopora, &c. 

(J. A. H.) 

MUSCLE AND NERVE (Physiology). 1 Among the properties 
of living material there is one, widely though not universally 
present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of 

'The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under MUSCULAR 
SYSTEM, and of the nerves under NERVE and NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



MUSCLE AND NERVE 



45 



muscular cells. This property is the liberation of some of 
the energy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells 

in such a way as to give mechanical work. The 

mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting 
from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the 
framework of the living cell. In the fibrils existing in the 
cell a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an 
increased tension on the points of attachment of the cell to the 
neighbouring elements of the tissue in which the cell is placed. 
These yield under the strain, and tne cell shortens between 
those points of its attachment. This shortening is called 

contraction. But the volume of the cell is not 
Mm'" " appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape, 

for its one diameter increases in proportion as its 
other is diminished. The manifestations of contractility by 
muscle are various in mode. By tonic contraction is meant 
a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under 
analysis no element of intermittent character. This is mani- 
fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the 
heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of 
energy in process in the muscular tissue, the outcome of the 
latter's own intrinsic life, and largely independent of any con- 
nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the 
blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however, 
seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the 
muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their 
nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb. 
In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g. 
gastrocnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last 
mentioned, is not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it 
is indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly. 
The receptive organs of the muscular sense and of the semi- 
circular canals are to be regarded as the sites of origin of this 
reflex tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing 
an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter 
muscles. 

Another mode of manifestation of contractility by muscles 
is the rhythmic. A tendency to rhythmic contraction seems dis- 
coverable in almost all muscles. In some it is very marked, for 
example in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the 
uterus, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of 
these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera- 
tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent 
explosions in nerve cells, but are attributable to decompositions 
arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle cells 
themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of 
the muscle of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of 
the animal, continue, when kept moist and warm and supplied 
with oxygen, to " beat " rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic 
contraction is also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal 
muscles, e.g. the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity is, 
however, clearly secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve 
cells constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such 
discharges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through 
'the intermediation of various spinal nerve cells excite the 
respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of 
contraction intermediate in character between the tonic and 
the rhythmic is met in the auricle of the heart of the toad. There 
slowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus 
regularly alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic 
" beats " of the pulsating heart. 

" The beat," i.e. the short-lasting explosive contraction of 
the heart muscle, can be elicited by a single, even momentary, 
application of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly, 
such a single stimulus elicits from a skeletal muscle a single 
" beat," or, as it is termed, a " twitch." In the heart muscle 
during a brief period after each beat, that is, after each 
single contraction of the rhythmic series, the muscle becomes 
inexcitable. It cannot then be excited to contract by any 
agent, though the inexcitable period is more brief for strong 
than for weak stimuli. But in the skeletal, voluntary or 
striped muscles a second stimulus succeeding a previous so 



Excit- 
ability. 



quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction 
excited by a first, elicits a second contraction. This second 
contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction 
the muscle may have reached at the time. A third stimulus 
excites a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so 
on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and 
less, until the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not 
to augment, the existing degree of contraction. We arrive thus 
by synthesis at a summation of " beats " or of simple contrac- 
tions in the compound, or " tetanic," or summed contraction of 
the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are 
more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and 
liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The 
tension developed by their means in the muscle is many times 
greater than that developed by a simple twitch. 

Muscle cells respond by changes in their activity to changes 
in their environment, and thus are said to be " excitable." 
They are, however, less excitable than are the nerve 
cells which innervate them. The change which 
excites them is termed a stimulus. The least 
stimulus which suffices to excite is known as the stimulus of 
threshold value. In the case of the heart muscle this threshold 
stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest 
stimulus; that is, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it 
is above threshold value, is not a function of the amount of the 
muscular response. But in the ordinary skeletal muscles the 
amount of the muscular contraction is for a short range of 
quantities of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned 
to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value 
of stimulus, however, is soon reached which evokes a maximal 
contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow 
further increase of the intensity of the stimulus above that 
point. 

Just as in a nerve fibre, when excited by a localized stimulus, 
the excited state spreads from the excited point to the adjacent 
unexcited ones, so in muscle the " contraction," when excited 
at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted parts. Both 
in muscle and in nerve this spread is termed conduction. 
It is propagated along the muscle fibres of the skeletal muscles 
at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle 
it travels much more slowly. The disturbance travels as a 
wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-like 
disturbance measures in ordinary muscles much more than the 
whole length of any single muscle fibre. That the excited state 
spreads only to previously unexcited portions of the muscle 
fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of muscle there 
exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability. 
The duration of this period is about yj"tr of a second in skeletal 
muscle. 

When muscle that has remained inactive for some time is 
excited by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at 
intervals too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding 
contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree. 
The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this 
so-called " staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the 
production of CO? in the muscle. That substance, in small 
doses, favours the contractile power of muscle. The muscle 
is a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical 
compounds. It is not surprising that the chemical substances 
produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should 
not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that 
if the series of excitations of the muscle be prolonged beyond 
the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after 
being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and 
speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This 
decline is said to be due to muscular fatigue. The muscle 
recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while, 
and more quickly on being washed with an innocuous but non- 
nutritious solution, such as -6%, NaCl in water. The washing 
seems to remove excreta of the muscle's own production, and 
the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps 
by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the 



4 6 



MUSCLE AND NERVE 



Neuron 
Theory. 



muscle produces lactic acids during activity, it has been sug- 
gested that acids are among the " fatigue substances " with 
which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood. 
Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances 
which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically 
recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous 
centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac- 
tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaxation process. 
The contracted state, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis- 
continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears 
off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological 
" contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect 
upon the contraction of muscle; it enormously delays the 
return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an 
alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland. 

Nervous System. The work of Camillo Golgi (Pavia, 1885 
and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has 
led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi- 
ology. It had been held that the branches of the 
nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres 
since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell 
branches are nerve fibres which form a close felt-work in the 
nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con- 
tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible 
conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the 
whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred 
preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal 
to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons 
unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The 
intricate felt-work has by Golgi been ascertained to be a mere 
interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches 
springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and 
unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each 
neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete 
unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh- 
bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of 
its neighbours. Among the properties of the neuron is con- 
ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together 
it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to 
neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the 
transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although 
possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches, 
is possible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only. 
That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses 
flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore, 
as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called, 
is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense 
of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse 
appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather 
to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under 
stress, e.g. under effect of poisons. The axons of the motor 
neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks, 
easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated 
that they are practically indefatigable repeatedly stimulated 
by electrical currents, even through many hours, they, unlike 
muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction. . 
^ et wnen the muscular contraction is taken as index 
of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis- 
takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence- 
ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases 
to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to 
it through its nerve. But the muscle will, when excited directly, 
e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously 
after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses) 
applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The 
inference is that the "fatigue substances" generated in .the 
muscle fibres in the course of their prolonged contraction injure 
and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis 
between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm 
the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkaloid 
curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way 
this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre. 



Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are 
the myelinate. 

The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon 
from which the cell branches dendrites and axon extend^ 
and it is this perikaryon which, as its name implies, 
contains the nucleus. It forms the trophic centre of 
the cell, just as the nucleus-containing part of every 
cell is the trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell 
cut off from the nucleus-containing part dies down: this is as 
true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron 
it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration. 
On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon 
from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole nerve 
cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu- 
ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera- 
tion is first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve 
filaments of the motor end plate. A little later the breaking 
down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath 
alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout its entire 
length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of 
the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com- 
ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as 
well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, like the axis cylinder, 
is a part of the nerve cell itself. 

In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part 
of the neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon 
on the cell branches, one neuron also in many instances in- 
fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance, 
the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by 
section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the 
nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve 
cells of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Gadden's 
atrophy). They dwindle in size; they do not, however, die. 
Similarly, when the axons of the motor spinal cells are by 
severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the 
muscle cells undergo " degeneration " dwindle, become fatty, 
and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence 
which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of an 
extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that 
direction which is the one normally taken by the T a ! c ^ 

T * . . Activity of 

natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in ^ eurong 
the case of the nexus between certain neurons, 
that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ- 
ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the 
nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading 
nerve cell. The wave of change (nervous impulse) induced 
in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden 
augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron 
a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase of 
the metaboh'sm inherent in and inseparable from its life. The 
nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an 
ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change " 
or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed 
by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same 
synapses as are its nerve impulses. This gentle continuous 
activity of the neuron is called its tonus. In tracing the tonus 
of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against 
the current of nerve force so to say, " up stream " to the 
first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifacient surfaces 
of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense 
organs, tonus is constantly initiated. Hence, when cut off 
from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various 
central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor 
neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the 
great afferent root cells which normally play upon them. 
A prominent and practically important illustration of neural 
tonus is given by the skeletal muscles. These muscles exhibit 
a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis- 
appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle. 
It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on 
the continual glow of excitement in the spinal motor neuron, 
whose outgoing end plays upon the muscle cells, whose ingoing 



MUSCLE AND NERVE 



47 



end is played upon by other neurons spinal, cerebral and 
cerebellar. 

It is with the neural element of muscle tonus that tendon pheno- 
mena are intimately associated. The earliest-studied of these, the 
" knee-jerk," may serve as example of the class. It is a brief ex- 
tension of the limb at the knee-joint, due to a simple contraction of 
the extensor muscle, elicited by a tap or other short mechanical 
stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the 
muscle. The jerk is obtainable only from muscle fibres possessed 
of neural tonus. If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be 
severed, the "jerk " is lost. The brevity of the interval between 
the tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction 
of the muscle seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex 
development. A little experience in observations on the knee-jerk 
imparts a notion of the average strength of the " jerk." Wide 
departures from the normal standard are met with and are sympto- 
matic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles 
antagonistic to the extensors namely, of the flexor muscles 
reduces the jerk by inhibiting the extensor spinal nerve cells through 
the nervous impulses generated by the tense flexor muscles. Hence 
a favourable posture of the limb for eliciting the jerk is one ensuring 
relaxation of the hamstring muscles, as when the leg has been 
crossed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep 
sleep quite abolished. Extreme bodily fatigue diminishes it. Con- 
versely, a cold bath increases it. The turning of attention towards 
the knee interferes with the jerk; hence the device of directing the 
person to perform vigorously some movement, which does not 
involve the muscles ot the lower limb, at the moment when the 
light blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction 
of muscle seems the substratum of all attention. The direction of 
attention to the performance of some movement by the arm ensures 
that looseness and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which 
is essential for the provocation of the jerk. The motor cells of 
the extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence, 
appear refractory. T. Ziehen has noted exaltation of the jerk to 
follow extirpation of a cortical centre. 

Although the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with 

its contained nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the 

life of the cell branches, it has become recognized 

Conduction .!_,, , ,. f t, 

la Neurons. ^" a *- t" e ac t ua ' process and function of con- 
duction " in many neurons can, and does, go on 
without the cell body being directly concerned in the conduction. 
S. Exner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse 
travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along 
the other parts of the nerve trunk that is, that it suffers no 
delay in transit through the perikarya of the afferent root- 
neurons. Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya 
from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennule of 
Carcinus. The conduction through the amputated cell branches 
continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that 
the conjunction between the conducting substance of the 
dendrons and that of the axon can be effected without the 
intermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutntion 
of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the 
cell branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus 
it contains. Evidence illustrating this nexus is found in the 
visible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged 
activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches 
of the cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken, 
and their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing 
chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the 
volume of the nucleus, amounting even to 44% of the initial 
volume. In the myelinated cell branches of the neuron, that 
is, in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been 
demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however 
great a striking contrast to the observations obtained on 
the perikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity 
in the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of 
COj is barely measurable, and no production of heat is 
observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity. 

The nerve cells of the higher vertebrata, unlike their blood 
cells, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells, 
Growth la early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of 
Nervous multiplication. The number of them formed is 
System. definitely closed at an early period of the individual 
life. Although, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for 
reproduction of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells 
a high power of individual growth. They continue to grow, and 



to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches, 
for many years far into adult life. They similarly possess power 
to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are 
injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana- 
tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with 
consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a 
rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the 
sensory functions of a nerve trunk. 

Whether examined by functional or by structural features, 
the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from 
beginning to end, never terminate in the centres of 
that system, but pass through them. All ultimately 
emerge as efferent channels. Every efferent 
channel, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub- 
divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channels 
soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain 
before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest 
routes thus formed traverse late in their course the cortex of 
the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relatively huge development 
of cortex cerebri which is the pre-eminent structural character 
of man. This means that the number of " longest routes " 
in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately 
great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous 
structure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and 
even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials 
it is more evident, and its excitation by electric currents evokes 
movements in the musculature of the crossed side of the body. 
Larger and thicker in the rabbit, when excited it gives rise in 
that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs 
and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the 
dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental excitation, 
definitely localized foci, whence can be evoked movements 
of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, eyes, ears and fate. In 
the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and 
the number of foci, for distinct movements of this and that 
member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are 
much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive 
surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a 
smaller one. 

Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the 
differentiation of the foci or "centres " of movement in the motor 
field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found 
whence stimuli excite movements of this or that finger alone, 
of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue, 
or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from 
a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is 
determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points 
of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A will, when 
excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro- 
trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if excited 
after C, which yields lip-retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac- 
tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation 
of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with 
natural movements that is, are only portions of complete 
normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements 
evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated 
protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again, 
from different points of the cortex the assumption of the 
requisite positions of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and 
epiglottis, as components in the act of sucking, can be pro- 
voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and 
then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation 
of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with 
which the other points are functionally connected. Again, 
no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg- 
ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural 
movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a 
number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain 
together. 

The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any 
verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci 
in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be 



MUSCLE AND NERVE 



noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of 
a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controls. 
The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg, and 
in the leg is greater than in the arm, and in the arm is many times 
greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical 
area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is 
the least extensive of all. 

The motor field of the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively 



to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid 
than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid 

Anus <J vagina* 

**? :XMftL ty* 

Knee ''^'^^^/^'^y^^ ..Chest 

Hip. 



come to be furnished more and more with fibres that are fully 
myelinate. At the beginning of its history each is unprovided 
with myelinate nerve fibres. The excitable foci of the cerebral 
cortex are well myelinated long before the unexcitable are so. 
The regions of the cortex, whose conduction paths are early 
completed, may be arranged in groups by their connexions 
with sense-organs: eye-region, ear-region, skin and somaesthetic 
region, olfactory and taste region. The areas of intervening 



cortex, arriving at structural completion later than the above 
sense-spheres, are called by some association-spheres, to indicate 
the view that they contain the neural mechanisms of 
reactions (some have said " ideas ") associated with 
the sense perceptions elaborated in the several sense- 
spheres. 

The name " motor area " is given to that region 
of cortex whence, as D. Ferrier's investigations 
showed, motor reactions of the facial and Seasorl- 
limb muscles are regularly and easily motor 
evoked. This region is often called the &*"*. 
sensori-motor cortex, and the term somaesthetic has 
also been used and seems appropriate. It has been 
found that disturbance of sensation, as well as 
disturbance of movement, is often incurred by its 
injury. Patients in whom, for purposes of diagnosis, 
it has been electrically excited, describe, as the 
initial effect of the stimulation, tingling and obscure 
but locally-limited sensations, referred to the part 
whose muscles a moment later are thrown into 
co-ordinate activity. The distinction, therefore, 
between the movement of the eyeballs, elicited from 
the occipital (visual) cortex, and that of the hand, 
elicited from the cortex in the region of the central 

Sulciis cerUfaUs, sulcus (somaesthetic), is not a difference between 

cords. r1a.iticaion Mi** motor and sensory, for both are sensori-motor in the 

Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the Motor Field nature of their reactions; the difference is only a 

of Chimpanzee. difference between the kind of sense and sense-organ 

brain still more increased even than the motor field are the great in the two cases, the muscular apparatus in each case being 




EAT--.''' 

Eyelid . 
Nose 



Cidaure 

' Opening 



regions of the cortex outside that field, which yield no definite 
movements under electric excitation, and are for that reason 
known as " silent." The motor field, therefore, though absolutely 
larger, forms a smaller fraction of the whole cortex of the brain 
than in the lower forms. The statement that in the anthropoid 
(orang-outan) brain the groups of foci in the motor fields of the 
cortex are themselves separated one from another by sur- 
rounding inexcitable cortex, has been made and was one of 
great interest, but has not been confirmed by subsequent 
observation. That in man the excitable foci of the motor 
field are islanded in excitable surface similarly and even more 
extensively, was a natural inference, but it had its chief basis 
in the observations on the orang, now known to be erroneous. 

In the diagram there is indicated the situation of the cortical 
centres for movement of the vocal cords. Their situation is 
at the lower end of the motor field. That they should lie 
there is interesting, because that place is close to one known 
in man to be associated with management of the movements 
concerned in speech. When that area in man is injured, the 
ability to utter words is impaired. Not that there is paralysis 
of the muscles of speech, since these muscles can be used perfectly 
for all acts other than speech. The area in man is known as 
the motor centre for speech; in most persons it exists only in 
the left half of the brain and not in the right. In a similar way 
damage of a certain small portion of the temporal lobe of the 
brain produces loss of intelligent apprehension of words spoken, 
although there is no deafness and although words seen are 
perfectly apprehended. Another region, " the angular region," 
is similarly related to intelligent apprehension of words seen, 
though not of words heard. 

When this differentiation of cortex, with its highest expres- 
sion in man, is collated' with the development of the cortex 
as studied in the successive phases of its growth and ripening 
in the human infant, a suggestive analogy is obvious. The 
nervous paths in the brain and cord, as they attain completion, 



an appanage of the sensual. 

That the lower types of vertebrate, such as fish, e.g. carp, 
possess practically no cortex cerebri, and nevertheless execute 
" volitional " acts involving high co-ordination and suggesting 
the possession by them of associative memory, shows that for 
the existence of these phenomena the cortex cerebri is in them 
not essential. In the dog it has been proved that after removal 
from the animal of every vestige of its cortex cerebri, it still 
executes habitual acts of great motor complexity requiring 
extraordinarily delicate adjustment of muscular contraction. 
It can walk, run and feed; such an animal, on wounding its 
foot, will run on three legs, as will a normal dog under similar 
mischance. But signs of associative memory are almost, if 
not entirely, wanting. Throughout three years such a dog 
failed to learn that the attendant's lifting it from the cage at a 
certain hour was the preliminary circumstance of the feeding- 
hour; yet it did exhibit hunger, and would refuse further food 
when a sufficiency had been taken. In man, actually gross 
sensory defects follow even limited lesions of the cortex. Thus 
the rabbit and the dog are not absolutely blinded by removal 
of the entire cortex, but in man destruction of the occipital 
cortex produces total blindness, even to the extent that the 
pupil of the eye does not respond when light is flashed into 
the eye. 

Examination of the cerebellum by the method of Wallerian 
degeneration has shown that a large number of spinal and 
bulbar nerve cells send branches up into it. These 
seem to end, for the most, part, in the grey cortex 
of the median lobe, some, though not the majority, of 
them decussating across the median line. The organ seems 
also to receive many fibres from the parietal region of the 
cerebral hemisphere. From the organ there emerge fibres 
which cross to the opposite red nucleus, and directly or 
indirectly reach the thalamic region of the crossed hemi- 
sphere. The pons or middle peduncle, which was regarded, 



Cerebellum. 



MUSCLE AND NERVE 



49 



on the uncertain ground of naked-eye dissection of human 
anatomy, as commissural between the two lateral lobes of 
the cerebellum, is now known to constitute chiefly a cerebro- 
cerebellar decussating path. Certain cerebellar cells send 
processes down to the cell-group in the bulb known as the 
nucleus of Deiters, which latter projects fibres down the 
spinal cord. Whether there is any other or direct emergent 
path from the cerebellum into the spinal cord is a matter 
on which opinion is divided. 

Injuries of the cerebellum, if large, derange the power of 
executing movements, without producing any detectable 
derangement of sensation. The derangement gradually dis- 
appears, unless the damage to the organ be very wide. A 
reeling gait, oscillations of the body which impart a zigzag 
direction to the walk, difficulty in standing, owing to unsteadi- 
ness of limb, are common in cerebellar disease. On the other 
hand, congenital defect amounting to absence of one cerebellar 
hemisphere has been found to occasion practically no symptoms 
whatsoever. Not a hundredth part of the cerebellum has 
remained, and yet there has existed ability to stand, to walk, to 
handle and lift objects in a fairly normal way, without any trace 
of impairment of cutaneous or muscular sensitivity. The 
damage to the cerebellum must, it would seem, occur abruptly or 
quickly in order to occasion marked derangement of function, 
and then the derangement falls on the execution of movements. 
One aspect of this derangement, named by Luciani astasia, 
is a tremor heightened by or only appearing when the muscles 
enter upon action " intention tremor." Vertigo is a frequent 
result of cerebellar injury: animals indicate it by their actions; 
patients describe it. To interpret this vertigo, appeal must 
be made to disturbances, other than cerebellar, which like- 
wise occasion vertigo. These include, besides ocular squint, 
many spatial positions and movements unwonted to the body: 
the looking from a height, the gliding over ice, sea-travel, to 
some persons even travelling by train, or the covering of one 
eye. Common to all these conditions is the synchronous rise 
of perceptions of spatial relations between the self and the 
environment which have not, or have rarely, before arisen in 
synchronous combination. The tactual organs of the soles, and 
the muscular sense organs of limbs and trunk, are originating 
perceptions that indicate that the self is standing on the 
solid earth, yet the eyes are at the same time originating 
perceptions that indicate that the solid earth is far away 
below the standing self. The combination is hard to harmonize 
at first; it is at least not given as innately harmonized. Per- 
ceptions regarding the " me " are notoriously highly charged 
with " feeling," and the conflict occasions the feeling insuffi- 
ciently described as " giddiness." The cerebellum receives 
paths from most, if not from all, of the afferent roots. With 
certain of these it stands associated most closely, namely, 
with the vestibular, representing the sense organs which furnish 
data -for appreciation of positions and movements of the head, 
and with the channels, conveying centripetal impressions from 
the apparatus of skeletal movement. Disorder of the cere- 
bellum sets at variance, brings discord into, the space-percep- 
tions contributory to the movement. The body's movement 
becomes thus imperfectly adjusted to the spatial requirements 
of the act it would perform. 

In the physiological basis of sense exist many impressions 
which, apart from and devoid of psychical accompaniment, 
reflexly influence motor (muscular) innervation. It is with 
this sort of habitually apsychical reaction that the cerebellum 
is, it would seem, employed. That it is apparently devoid of 
psychical concomitant need not imply that the impressions 
concerned in it are crude and inelaborate. The seeming want 
of reaction of so much of the cerebellar structure under artificial 
stimulation, and the complex relay system revealed in the 
histology of the cerebellum, suggest that the impressions are 
elaborate. Its reaction preponderantly helps to secure co- 
ordinate innervation of the skeletal musculature, both for 
maintenance of attitude and for execution of movements. 

Sleep. The more obvious of the characters of sleep (q.v.) are 



essentially nervous. In deep sleep the threshold-value of the 
stimuli for the various senses is very greatly raised, rising 
rapidly during the first hour and a half of sleep, and then declining 
with gradually decreasing decrements. The muscles become less 
tense than in their waking state: their tonus is diminished, the 
upper eyelid falls, and the knee-jerk is in abeyance. The 
respiratory rhythm is less frequent and the breathing less deep; 
the heart-beat is less frequent; the secretions are less copious; 
the pupil is narrow; in the brain there exists arterial anaemia with 
venous congestion, so that the blood-flow there is less than in the 
waking state. 

It has been suggested that the gradual cumulative result 
of the activity of the nerve cells during the waking day is to 
load the brain tissue with " fatigue-substances " 
which clog the action of the cells, and thus periodi- s / eep . 
cally produce that loss of consciousness, &c., which 
is sleep. Such a drugging of tissue by its own excreta is known 
in muscular fatigue, but the fact that the depth of sleep progres- 
sively increases for an hour and more after its onset prevents 
complete explanation of sleep on similar lines. It has been 
urged that the neurons retract during sleep, and that thus at the 
synapses the gap between nerve cell and nerve cell becomes 
wider, or..t>jat the supporting cells expand between the nerve 
cells and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certain it is 
that in the course of the waking day a great number of stimuli 
play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra- 
tion of the living molecules of the central nervous system. 
Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells 
are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-result is 
that the cell attains an atomic condition less favourable to 
further disintegration than to reintegration. That phase of 
cell life which we are accustomed to call " active " is accompanied 
always by disintegration. When in the cell the assimilative 
processes exceed dissimilative, the external manifestations of 
energy are liable to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion 
of the neuron in the sense that prolonged activity has reduced 
its excitability to zero. The nerve cell just prior to sleep is still 
well capable of response to stimuli, although perhaps the thres- 
hold-value of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after 
entrance upon sleep and continuance of sleep for several hours, 
and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been 
long withheld, the threshold-value of the sensory stimulus 
becomes enormously higher than before. The exciting cause 
of sleep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available 
material of the cells, nor is it entirely any paralysing of them by 
their excreta. It is more probably abeyance of external function 
during a periodic internal assimilatory phase. 



Two processes conjoin to initiate the assimilatory phase. There 
is close interconnexion between the two aspects of the double 
activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of 
protoplasm, between dissimilation and assimilation. Hering has 
long insisted on a self-regulative adjustment of the cell metabolism, 
so that action involves reaction, increased catabolism necessitates 
after-increase of anabolism. The long-continued incitement to 
catabolism of the waking day thus of itself predisposes the nerve 
cells towards rebound into the opposite phase; the increased cata- 
bolism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabolism, and 
though recuperation goes on to a large extent during the day itself, 
the recuperative process is slower than, and lags behind, the dis- 
integrative. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progressively 
increasing from the opening till the closing hours. The second 
factor inducing tiie assimilative change is the withdrawal of the 
nervous system from sensual stimulation. The eyes are closed, 
the maintenance.of posture by active contraction is replaced by the 
recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the 
mere mechanical consistence of the body, the ears are screened 
from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localized pressure 
by a soft, yielding couch. The effect of thus reducing the excitant 
action of the environment is to give consciousness over more to 
mere revivals by memory, and gradually consciousness lapses. A 
remarkable case is well authenticated, where, owing to disease, a 
young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of 
one ear. If these last channels were sealed, in two or three minutes' 
time he invariably fell asleep. 

If natural sleep is the expression of a phase of decreased excit- 
ability due to the setting in of a tide of anabolism in the cells of the 
nervous system, what is the action of narcotics ? They lower the 



MUSCOVITE 



external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time 
lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that 
in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for 
the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they seem to 



Narcotics. 



lower both the internal and the external activity of the 



nerve cells, to lessen the cell's entire metabolism, to 
reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence 
it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation, 
obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to 
nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment 
is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be 
supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to 
ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned 
above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres 
that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it 
may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the 
portals of the senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the 
chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a 
period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the 
initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed 
away. 

Hypnotism. The physiology of this group of " states " is, 
as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently 
vague (see also HYPNOTISM). The conditions which tend to in- 
duce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual 
attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms 
attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of tht e eyelids by 
the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by 
the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted, 
as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially 
resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts 
of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the 
reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are 
exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense 
impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of 
will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This 
reflex activity with " paralysis of will " is characteristic of the 
somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli 
adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered. 
Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another 
room can be heard. Judgment of weight and texture of surface 
is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then 
re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is 
that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in- 
creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet 
supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for 
hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypno- 
tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism " 
resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some 
unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes 
" set " in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of 
the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for 
various periods. This condition is more than usually readily 
induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. 
The decerebrate monkey exhibits " cataleptoid " reflexes. 
Father A. Kircher's experimentum mirabile with the fowl and 
the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The 
^attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense, 
.discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are 
iprobably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden 
iintense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge. 
It completes the movement that has already set in but had been 
.checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained. 
Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the 
higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of 
inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the 
posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral 
influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the 
.cerebral hemispheres have been ablated. 

But a potent according to some, the most potent factor 
;in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the 
production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one 
idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the 
outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material 
process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the 
concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin 



sensation. The physical " touch " that initiates the psychical 
" touch " initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a 
reflex movement responsive to the physical " touch," just as the 
psychical " touch " may be considered also a response to the 
same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have 
good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone 
as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume 
that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher 
order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex 
motor mechanisms than 1 they, and is connected with a much 
wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that- this 
reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with 
memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances 
be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them may 
in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a 
standstill then we might imagine a condition resembling that 
of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism. 

Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great 
complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each 
of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without 
more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take 
one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar 
clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of 
a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive 
consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that 
we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between 
the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism 
seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually 
result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping 
mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and 
street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship's 
engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine- 
room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and 
rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which, 
though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the 
trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The 
warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside 
of dangerous patients, and " suggested " to awake the instant the 
patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for 
them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked 
all day and performed night duty also for months without showing 
fatigue. This is akin to the " repetition " which, read by the 
schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking " known by heart." 
Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually 
early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so. 

Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed 
to account for the separation of the complex reactions of 
these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory. 
R. P. H. Heidenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the 
hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching 
to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer's view is that the 
essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power 
under a prolonged effort of undivided attention. 

Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not {he 
only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that 
hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which 
is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be 
profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting 
itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with 
paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals 
have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing 
anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave 
objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient 
degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely 
susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization. 
It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks 
before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow 
of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state 
itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that 
produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to 
recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone 
through he has had those physiological activities upon which 
his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not 
improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.) 

MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica 
group (see MICA). It is also known as potash-mica, being a 
potassium, hydrogen and'aluminium orthosilicate, 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 




As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent 
cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for 
window panes and known as " Muscovy glass "; hence the name 
muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in 
the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however, 
are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates: 
thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common. 
The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to 
t^ e basal plane (c in the figure), on 
which the lustre is pearly in character. 
jit "7 The hardness is 2-2 1, and the spec, 

grav. 2-8-2-9. The plane of the optic 
axes is perpendicular to the plane of 
symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage; 
the optic axial angle is 60-70, and double refraction is strong 
and negative in sign. 

Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact 
aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted 
by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz, 
cyanite, &c.j several varieties depending on differences in 
structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are 
damourite, margarodite (from Gr. jia/xyapt-njj, a pearl), gilber- 
tite, sericite (from <njpt/cos, silky), &c. In sericite the fine scales 
are united in fibrous aggregates giving rise to a silky lustre: 
this variety is a common constituent of phyllites and sericite- 
schists. Oncosine (from oyKotns, intumescence) is a compact 
variety forming rounded aggregates, which swell up when 
heated before the blowpipe. Closely related to oncosine are several 
compact minerals, included together under the name pinite, 
which have resulted by the alteration of iolite, spodumene and 
other minerals. Other varieties depend on differences in 
chemical composition. Fuchsite or " chrome-mica " is a bright 
green muscovite containing chromium; it has been used as a 
decorative stone. Oellacherite is a variety containing some 
barium. In phengite there is more silica than usual, the com- 
position approximating to H 2 KAI 3 (Si3O 8 )3. 

Muscovite is of wide distribution and is the commonest of the 
micas. In igneous rocks it is found only in granite, never in 
volcanic rocks; but it is abundant hi gneiss and mica-schist, 
and in phyllites and clay-slates, where it has been formed at 
the expense of alkali-felspar by dynamo-metamorphic processes. 
In pegmatite-veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist it 
occurs as large sheets of commercial value, and is mined in India, 
the United States and Brazil (see MICA), and to a limited extent, 
together with felspar, in southern Norway and in the Urals. 
Large sheets of muscovite were formerly obtained from Solovetsk 
Island, Archangel. (L. J. S.) 

MUSCULAR SYSTEM (Anatomy 1 ). The muscular tissue 
(Lat. musculus, from a fancied resemblance of certain muscles 
to a little mouse) is of three kinds: (i) voluntary or striped 
muscle; (2) involuntary or unstriped muscle, found in the skin, 
walls of hollow viscera, coats of blood and lymphatic vessels, &c. ; 
(3) heart muscle. The microscopical differences of these different 
kinds are discussed in the article on CONNECTIVE TISSUES. Here 
only the voluntary muscles, which are under the control of the 
will, are to be considered. 

The voluntary muscles form the red flesh of an animal, and 
are the structures by which one part of the body is moved at 
will upon another. Each muscle is said to have an origin and 
an insertion, the former being that attachment which is usually 
more fixed, the latter that which is more movable. This 
distinction, however, although convenient, is an arbitrary one, 
and an example may make this clear. If we take the pectoralis 
major, which is attached to the front of the chest on the one 
hand and to the upper part of the arm bone on the other, the 
effect of its contraction will obviously be to draw the arm towards 
the chest, so that its origin under ordinary circumstances is said 
to be from the chest while its insertion is into the arm; but if. 
in climbing a tree, the hand grasps a branch above, the muscular 
contraction will draw the chest towards the arm, and the latter 
will then become the origin. Generally, but not always, a 
1 For physiology, see MUSCLE AND NERVE. 



muscle is partly fleshy and partly tendinous; the fleshy contractile 
part is attached at one or both ends to cords or sheets of white 
fibrous tissue, which in some cases pass round pullies and so 
change the direction of the muscle's 
action. The other end of these cords 
or tendons is usually attached to the 
periosteum of bones, with which it 
blends. In some cases, when a 
tendon passes round a bony pulley, 
a sesamoid bone is developed in it 
which diminishes the effects of fric- 
tion. A good example of this is the 
patella in the tendon of the rectus 
femoris (fig. i, P.). 

Every muscle is supplied with blood 
vessels and lymphatics (fig. i, v, a, /), 
and also with one or more nerves. 
The nerve supply is very important 
both from a medical and a morpho- 
logical point of view. The approxi- 
mate attachments are also important, 
because unless they are realized 
the action of the muscle cannot be 
understood, but the exact attach- 
ments are perhaps laid too great stress 
on in the anatomical teaching of 
medical students. The study of the 
actions of muscles is, of course, a 
physiological one, but teaching the 
subject has been handed over to the 
anatomists, and the results have been 
in some respects unfortunate. Until 
very recently the anatomist studied 
only the dead body, and his one idea 
of demonstrating the action of a 
muscle was to expose and then to 
pull it, and whatever happened he 
said was the action of that muscle. 
It is now generally recognized that 
no movement is so simple that only 
one muscle is concerned in it, and that 
what a, muscle may do and what it 
really does do are not necessarily the 
same thing. As far as the deeper 
muscles are concerned, we still have 
onlythe anatomical method to depend 
upon, but with the superficial muscles it should be checked by 
causing a living person to perform certain movements and then 
studying which muscles take part in them. 

For a modern study of muscular actions, see C. E. Beevor's, 
Croonian Lectures for ipoj (London, 1904). 

Muscles have various shapes: they may be fusiform, as in fig. i,. 
conical, riband-like, or flattened into triangular or quadrilateral' 
sheets. They may also be attached to skin, cartilage or fascia, 
instead of to bone, while certain muscles surround openings, 
which they constrict and are called sphincters. The names of the- 
muscles have gradually grown up, and no settled plan has been, 
used in giving them. Sometimes, as in the coraco-brachialis and: 
thyro-hyoid, the name describes the origin and insertion of the 
muscle, and, no doubt, for the student of human anatomy this, 
is the most satisfactory plan, since by learning the name the 
approximate attachments are also learnt. Sometimes the name 
only indicates some peculiarity in the shape of the muscle and 
gives no clue to its position in the body or its attachments; 
examples of this are biceps, semitendinosus and pyriformis. 
Sometimes, as in the flexor carpi ulnaris and corrugator supercilii, 
the use of the muscle is shown. At other times the position in, 
the body is indicated, but not the attachments, as hi the tibialis: 
anticus and peroneus longus, while, at other times, as in the case 
of the pectineus, the name is only misleading. Fortunately the 
names of the describers themselves are very seldom applied to, 
muscles; among the few examples are Horner's muscle and the. 



FIG. i. The Rectus Mus- 
cle of the Thigh; to 
show the constituent 
parts of a muscle. 

R, The fleshy belly. 

to, Tendon of origin. 

ti, Tendon of insertion, 

n, Nerve of supply. 

a, Artery of supply. 

v. Vein. 

/, Lymphatic vessel. 

P, The patella. 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



muscular band of Treitz. The German anatomists at the Basel 
conference lately proposed a uniform Latin and Greek nomencla- 
ture, which, though not altogether satisfactory, is gaining ground 
on the European continent. As there are some four hundred 

Epicranial aponeurosis ATTRAHENS AUREM 



transverse wrinkles in the forehead. The anterior, posterior and 
superior auricular muscles are present but are almost functionless 
in man. The orbicularis palpebrarum forms a sphincter round the 
eyelids, which it closes, though there is little doubt that parts of the 
muscle can act separately and cause various expressions. The side of 




FRONTALIS 



ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM 
PYKAMIDALIS NASI 



COMPRESSOR NARIS 

LEVATOR LADII SUFERIORIS ALALQUE NASI 

LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORS 

MINOR 



Parotid 

gland 

STEENO- 

MASTOID 



DEPRESSOR ALAE NASI 
ZYGOMATICUS MAJOR 
Stenson's duct 
ORBICULARIS ORIS 
RISORIUS 
BUCCINATOR 
DEPRESSOR AXGULI ORIS 
DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS 

MASSETER 
PLATVSMA UVOIDES 



From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 2. The Muscles of the Face and Scalp (muscles of expression). 



muscles on. each side of the body it will be impossible here to 
attempt more than a mere sketch of them; for the details the 
anatomical textbooks must be consulted. 

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND FACE (see fig. 2). The scalp is 
moved by a large flat muscle called the occipito-frontalis, which has 
two muscular bellies, the occipitalis and frontalis, and an intervening 
epicranial aponeurosis; this muscle moves the scalp and causes the 



the nose has several muscles, the actions of which are indicated by their 
names ; they are the compressor, two dilatores and the depressor aloe 
nasi, while the levator labii superioris et alae nasi sometimes goes to 
the nose. Raising the upper lip, in addition to the last named, are 
the levator labii superioris proprius and the levator anguli oris, while 
the zygomaticus major draws the angle of the mouth outward. The 
lower lip is depressed by the depressor labii inferioris and depressor 
anguli oris, while the orbicularis oris acts as a sphincter to the mouth. 



Epicranial aponeurosis 



TEMPORAL MUSCLE 



Auriculo-temporal nerve 

Superficial temporal 

artery 

External carotid artery 

Internal literal ligament 

Posterior auricular artery 

Lingual nerve 

Mylo-hyoid nerve 

Parotid gland 

Inferior dental nerve 
MASSETER (cut) 




Temporal branch of 

buccal nerve 
/ Temporal branches of 
f inferior maxillary nerve 



EXTERNAL PTERYCOID 
Posterior dental artery 
Posterior dental nerve 
Long buccal nerve 
Pterygo-mandibular 



Mental branch of inferior 
dental nerve 



From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Booh of Anatomy. 

FIG. 3. Pterygoid Region. 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



53 



The buccinator muscle in the substance of the cheeks rises from the 
upper and lower jaws and runs forward to blend with the orbicularis 
oris. All the foregoing are known as muscles of expression and all 
are supplied by the seventh or facial nerve. The temporal muscle 
at the side of the cranium (fig. 3) and the masseter (fig. 2), which 
rises from the zygoma, close the mouth, since both are inserted into 
the ramus of the mandible ; while, rising from the pterygoid plates, 
are the external and internal pterygoid muscles (fig. 3), the former of 
which pulls forward the condyle, and so the whole mandible, while 
the latter helps to close the mouth by acting on the angle of the lower 
jaw. This group of muscles forms the masticatory set, all of which 
are supplied by the third division of the fifth nerve. For the 
muscles of the orbit, see EYE ; for those of the soft palate and pharynx, 
see PHARYNX; and for those of the tongue, see TONGUE. 



both triangles to the hyoid bone Where it passes deep to the 
sterno-mastoid it has a central tendon which is bound to the first 
rib by a loop of cervical fascia. Rising from the styloid process are 
three muscles, the stylo-glossus, stylo-hyoid and stylo-pharyngeus, 
the names of which indicate their attachments. Covering these 
muscles of the anterior triangle is a thin sheet, close to the skin, 
called the platysma, the upper fibres of which run back from the 
mouth over the cheek and are named the risorius (fig. 2) ; this sheet 
is one of the few remnants in man of the ski musculature or panni- 
culus carnosus of lower Mammals. With regard to the nerve supply 
of the anterior triangle muscles, all those which go to the tongue 
are supplied by the hypoglossal or twelfth cranial nerve while the 
muscles below the hyoid bone are apparently supplied from this 
nerve but really from the upper cervical nerves (see NERVE, 



STERI.O-CLEIDO- 
MASTOID 




lYlO-HYOID 

DIGASTRIC 

'HYOCLOSSUS 

iTYLO-HYOID 

MIDDLE CONSTRICTOR 
THYEO-HYOID 
INTERIOR CONSTRICTOR 

;O-BYOID 
INFERIOR CONSTRICTOR 

iTERNO-BYOID 

STERNO-THYROID 



From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 4. The Triangles of the Neck (muscles). 



MUSCLES OF THE NECK (fig. 4). Just below the mandible is the 
digastric, which, as its name shows, has two bellies and a central 
tendon; the anterior belly, supplied by the fifth nerve, is attached to 
the mandible near the symphysis, the posterior supplied by the 
seventh of the mastoid process, while the central tendon is bound 
to the hyoid bone. Stretching across from one side of the lower jaw 
to the other and forming a floor to the mouth is the mylo-hyoid muscle ; 
posteriorly this reaches the hyoid bone, and in the mid-line has a 
tendinous raphe separating the two halves of the muscle. Rising 
from the manubrium sterni and inner part of the clavicle is the 
sterno-deido-mastoid, which is inserted into the mastoid process and 
superior curved lines of the occipital bone; when it contracts it 
makes the face look over the opposite shoulder, and it is supplied 
by the spinal accessory nerve as well as by branches from the 
cervical plexus. It is an important surgical landmark, and forms a 
diagonal across the quadrilateral outline of the side of the neck, 
dividing it into an anterior triangle with its apex downward and a 
posterior with its apex upward. In the anterior triangle the relative 
positions of the hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage and sternum should 
be realized, and then the hyo-glossus, thyro-hyoid, sterno-hyoid and 
sterno-thyroid muscles are explained by their names. The omo-hyoid 
muscle rises from the upper border of the scapula and runs across 



CRANIAL; and NERVE, SPINAL). The posterior triangle is formed 
by the sterno-mastoid in front, the trapezius behind, and the clavicle 
below; in its floor from above downward part of the following muscles 
are seen: complexus, splenius, levator anguli scapulae, scalenus 
medius and scalenus anticus. Sometimes a small piece of the 
scalenus posticus is caught sight of behind the scalenus medius. The 
splenius rotates the head to its own side, the levator anguli scapulae 
raises the upper angle of the scapula, while the three scalenes run 
from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae and fix or 
raise the upper ribs. The trapezius (fig. 5) arises from the spines 
of the thoracic vertebrae and the ligamentum nuchae, and is inserted 
into the outer third of the clavicle and the spine of the scapula; it is 
used in shrugging the shoulders and in drawing the upper part of the 
scapula toward the mid-dorsal line. Its nerve supply is the spinal 
accessory and third and fourth cervical nerves. When the super- 
ficial muscles and complexus are removed from the hack of the neck, 
the sub-occipital triangle is seen beneath the occipital bone. Exter- 
nally it is bounded by the superior oblique, running from the trans- 
verse process of the atlas to the lateral part of the occipital bone, 
internally by the rectus capilis poslicus major, passing from the spine 
of the axis to the lateral part of the occipital bone, and inferiorly by 
the inferior oblique joining the spine of the axis to the transverse 



54 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



process of the atlas. These muscles move the head on the atlas 
and the atlas on the axis. They are supplied by the posterior branch 
of the first cervical nerve. 

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. The trapezius has already been de- 
scribed as a superficial muscle of the upper part of the back; in the 
loin region the latissimus dorsi (fig. 5) is the superficial muscle, its 
origin being from the lower thoracic spines, lower ribs and lumbar 



COMPLEXUS' 

STERNO-MASTOID 

SPLENIUS CAPITIS 

SPLENTUS com 

SERRATUS posncus SUPERIOR 
LEVAIOR ANODU SCAPULAS 

RHOVBOIDEUS MINOR 

RHOMBOIDEUS 
MAJOK 

TRAPEZIUS 



TERES MAJOR 




forming the semispinalis and multifidus spinae muscles. The 
latissimus dorsi and rhomboids, are supplied by branches of the 
brachial plexus of nerves, while the deeper muscles get their nerves- 
from the posterior primary divisions of the spinal nerves (see NERVE, 
SPINAL). On the anterior part of the thoracic region the pectoralis 
major runs from the clavicle, sternum and ribs, to the humerus (fig. 6) ; 
deep to this is the pectoralis minor, passing from the upper ribs to- 



STERNO-MASTOID 



TRAPEZTOS 



Fascia over gluteus 
maxim us 



DELTOID 



RHOMBOIDEUS 

MAJOR 

TERES MAJOR 



LATISSIMUS 
DORSI 



OBIIQUOS EXTERNOS 
ABDOUINIS 



OBLIQUUS DJTERNUS 



Gluteal fascia 
Fascia over gluteus 
maximus (cut) 



GLGTEUS MAXDIUS 



From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Tat Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 5. Superficial Muscles of the Back. 



fascia, and it i inserted into the upper part of the arm bone or 
humerus. When the trapezius is cut, the rhomboid muscles (major 
and minor) passing from the upper thoracic spines to the vertebral 
border of the scapula are seen, and deep to these is the serralus 
ppsticus superior passing from nearly the same spines to the upper 
ribs. On reflecting the latissimus dorsi the serratus posticus inferior 
is seen running from the lower thoracic spines to the lower ribs. 
When these muscles are removed the great mass of the erector spinae 
is exposed, familiar to every one as the upper cut of the sirloin or ribs 
of beef ; it runs all the way up the dorsal side of the vertebral column 
from the pelvis to the occiput, the complexus already mentioned 
being its extension to the head. It 13 longitudinally segmented 
jnto many different bundles to which special names are given, and it 
is attached to the various vertebrae and ribs as it goes up, thus 
straightening the spinal column. Deep to the erector spinae are 
found shorter bundles passing from one vertebra to another and 



the coracoid process. The serratus magnus is a large muscle rising 
by serrations from the upper eight ribs, and running back to the 
vertebral border of the scapula, which it draws forward as in the 
fencer's lunge. Between the ribs are the external and internal inter- 
costal muscles; the former beginning at the tubercle and ending at 
the junctions of the ribs with their cartilages, while the latter only 
begin at the angle of the ribs but are prolonged on to the sternum, so 
that an interchondral as well as an intercostal part of each muscle 
is recognized. The fibres of the external intercostals run downward 
and forward, those of the internal downward and backward (see 
RESPIRATION). The abdominal walls are formed of three sheets 
of muscle, of which the most superficial or external oblique (fig. 6) 
is attached to the outer surfaces of the lower ribs; its fibres run 
downward and forward to the pelvis and mid-line of the abdomen, 
the middle one or internal oblique is on the same plane as the ribs, 
and its fibres run downward and backward, while the transversalis 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



55 



is attached to the deep surfaces of the ribs, and its fibres run horizon- 
tally forward. Below, all these muscles are attached to the crest of 
the ilium and to Poupart's ligament, which is really the lower free 
edge of the external oblique, while, behind, the two deeper ones, 
at all events, blend with the fascia lumborum. As they approach 
the mid-ventral line they become aponeurotic and form the sheath 
of the rectus. The rectus abdominis (fig. 6) is a flat muscular band 
which runs up on each side of the linea alba or mid-ventral line of the 
abdomen from the pubis to the ribs and sternum. This muscle 
has certain tendinous intersections or lineae transversae, the positions 



SIERNO-IIASTOID 
TRAPEZTOS 



rotating muscles pass from the scapula to the upper end of the 
humerus; these are the subscapularis passing in front of the shoulder 
joint, the supraspinatus above the joint, and the infraspinatus and 
teres minor behind. The teres major (fig. 5) comes from near the 
lower angle of the scapula, and is inserted with the latissimus dorsi 
into the front of the surgical neck of the humerus. The coraco- 
brachialis (fig. 7) passes from the coracoid process to the middle of 
the humerus in front of the shoulder joint, while the brachialis 
anticus passes in front of the elbow from the humerus to the coronoid 
process of the ulna. Passing in front of both shoulder and elbow is 



Coracoid 
process 

PECTORAUS 
MAJOR (divided) 

PECTORALIS 

MINOR 



sternal part 



Sheath of rectus 







PYRAMIDALIS ABDOIONIS 

Poupart's ligament 
Extemal abdominal ring 

Triangular fascia 



v- \ 

From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Tact Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 6. Anterior Muscles of the Trunk. 



of which are noticed in the article ANATOMY (Superficial and A rtistic) , 
and the morphology of which is referred to later. In front of the 
lowest part of the rectus is sometimes a small triangular muscle 
called the pyramidalis. The quadratus lumborum is a muscle at the 
back of the abdominal wall which runs between the last rib and the 
crest of the ilium. In front of the bodies of the vertebrae is a 
preyertebral or hypaxial musculature, of which the rectus capitis 
anticus major and minor muscles and longus colli in the neck and the 
psoas in the loins form the chief parts, the latter being familiar as 
the undercut of the sirloin of beef, while the pelvis is closed below by 
a muscular floor formed by the levator ani and coccygeus muscles. 
The diaphragm is explained in a separate article. 

MUSCLESOF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. The deltoid (seefigs.7and8) 
is the muscle which forms the shoulder cap and is used in abducting 
the arm to a right angle with the trunk; it runs from the clavicle, 
acromial process and spine of the scapula, to the middle of the 
humerus, and is supplied by the circumflex nerve. Several short 



the biceps (fig. 7), the long head of which rises from the tap of the 
glenoid cavity inside the joint, while the short head comes from the 
coracoid process. The insertion is into the tubercle of the radius. 
These three muscles are ail supplied by the same (musculo-cutaneous) 
nerve. At the back of the arm is the triceps (fig. 8) which passes 
behind both shoulder and elbow joints and is the great extensor 
muscle of them; its long head rises from just below the glenoid 
cavity of the scapula, while the inner and outer heads come from the 
back of the humerus. It is inserted into the olecranon process of 
the u'.na and is supplied by the musculo-spinal nerve. The muscles 
of the front of the forearm form superficial and deep sets (see fig. 7). 
Most of the superficial muscles come from the internal condyle of 
the humerus. From without inward they are the pronator radii 
teres going to the radius, the flexor carpi radialis to the base of the 
index metacarpa) bone, the palmaris longus to the palmar fascia, 
the flexor subhmis digitorum to the middle phalanges of the fingers, 
and the flexor carpi ulnaris to the pisiform bone. The important 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



points of practical interest about these muscles are noticed in the 
article ANATOMY (Superficial and Artistic). In addition to these 
the brachio-radialis is a flexor of the forearm, though it arises from 
the outer supracondylar ridge of the humerus. It is supplied by the 
musculo-spiral nerve, the flexor carpi ulnaris by the ulnar, the rest 
by the median. The deep muscles of the front of the forearm consist 
of the flexor longus pollicis running from the radius to the terminal 
phalanx of the thumb, the flexor profundus digitorum from the ulna 
to the terminal phalanges of the fingers, and the pronator quadratus 



INSERTION OF 
PECTORALIS MINOR 



DELTOID 



Axillary artery 

Musculc- 
cutaneous nerve 
Median nerve 
(outer head) 
Median nerve 
(inner head) 



INSERTION OF | 
PECTORALIS 

MAJOR 
CORACO-BRAI 



SHORT HEAD op BICEPS 

LONG HEAD OF BICEPS 



BRACHIALIS AOTICUS 



TRICEPS (inner bead) 



Musculo-cutaneous nerve 
Musculo-spiral nerve 



BRACHIO-RADIALIS 



EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS 
LONGIOR 



Radial artery (cut) 



EXTENSOR ossis 

HETACARPI POLLICIS 

Radial artery (cut) 

Anterior annular 
ligament. 




Ulnar nerve 



Semflunar fascia of biceps 

PRONATOR RADH TERES 
Deep fascia of forearm 

FLEXOR CARPI KADIALIS 

PALMARIS LONGUS 
FLEXOR CARFI ULNARIS 
FLEXOR SUBLIMIS DIGITORUM 

FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS 
PRONATOR QUADRATUS 
Ulnar artery 

Ulnar nerve 



From A, M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Analomf. 
FIG. 7. Superficial Muscles on the Front of the Arm and Forearm. 

passing across from the lower third of the ulna to the same amount 
of the radius. These three muscles are supplied by the anterior 
interosseous branch of the median nerve, but the flexor profundus 
digitorum has an extra twig from the ulnar. The extensor muscles 
at the back of the forearm are also divided into superficial and deep 
sets (see fig. 8). The former rise from the region of the external 
condyle of the humerus, and consist of the extensor carpi radialis 
longior and brevior inserted into the index and medius metacarpal 
bones, the extensor communis digitorum to the middle and distal 



phalanges of the fingers, the extensor minimi digiti, the extensor carpi 
ulnaris passing to the metatarsal bone of the minimus, and the 
supinator brevis wrapping round the neck of the radius to which it 
is inserted. The aconeus which runs from the external condyle to 
the olecranon process is really a part of the triceps. The deep 
muscles rise from the posterior surfaces of the radius and ulna, and 
are the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, the name of which gives its 
insertion, the extensor brevis pollicis to the proximal phalanx, and 
the extensor longus pollicis to the distal phalanx of the thumb, while 



\ TRAPEZTUS 




DELTOID 

INFRASPIXATUS 
TERES MAJOR 
LATISSQIUS DOESI 



BRACHIALIS ANTICUS 

TRICEPS 

External intermuscular septum 

BRACnlO-RALULIS 

Ulnar nerve 



EXIENSOR CARPI RADIALiS 
LONCIOR 



EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS 
BREVIOR 

Deep fascia of forearm 
EXTENSOR COMMUNE DIGITORUM 
EXTENSOR CARPI CLNARIS 

EXTENSOR ossis METACARPI 
POLLICIS 

EXTENSOR BREVIS POUJOS 

EXTENSOR MINIMI Dic.m 

TENDONS OF EXTENSORS OF 
CARPUS 

Posterior annular ligament 
EXTENSOR LONGUS POLLICIS 
EXTENSOR INDICIS 



From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. 8. The Muscles on the Back of the Arm, Forearm and Hand. 

the extensor indicts joins the extensor communis slip to the index 
finger; all these posterior muscles are supplied by the posterior 
interosseous nerve. In front and behind the wrist the tendons are 
bound down by the anterior and posterior annular ligaments, while 
on the flexor surface of each finger is a strong fibrous sheath or theca 
for the flexor tendons. The ball of the thumb is occupied by short 
muscles called the thenar group, while hypnthenar muscles are found 
in the ball of the little finger. The four tumbrical muscles (fig. 9. ) 
run from the flexor profundus digitorum tendons to those of the 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



57 



extensor communis between the heads of the metacarpal bones, 
while, rising from the shafts of these bones, are the three palmar 
and four dorsal interosseous muscles (fig. 9, e) which also are inserted 
into the extensor tendons. The two outer lumbricals and the 
thenar muscles are supplied by the median nerve; all the other hand 
muscles by the ulnar. 

MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. On the front of the thigh 
the quadriceps extensor muscles are the most important: there are 
four of these, the rectus femoris (fig. l) with its straight and reflected 
heads rising from just above the acetabulum, the crureus, deep to 
this, from the front of the femur, and the vastus externus and internus 
wrapping round the femur on each side from the linea aspera. All 
these are inserted into the patella, or rather the patella is a sesamoid 
bone developed where their common tendon passes round the lower 




FIG. 9. Tendons attached to a Finger. 

a, The extensor tendon. e. An interosseous muscle. 

b, Deep flexor. /, Tendinous expansion from the lum- 

c, Superficial flexor. brical and interosseous muscles 

d, A lumbrical muscle. joining the extensor tendon. 

end of the femur when the knee is bent. The distal part of this 
tendon, which passes from the patella to the tubercle of the tibia, 
is the ligamentum patellae. The sartorius is a long riband-like 
muscle running from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the 
inner surface of the tibia, obliquely across the front of the thigh. 
It forms the outer boundary of Scarpa's triangle, the inner limit of 
which is the adductor longus and the base Poupart's ligament. 
The floor is formed by the iliacus from the iliac fossa of the pelvis, 
which joins the psoas, to be inserted with it into the lesser trochanter, 
and by the pectineus running from the upper ramus of the pubis to 
just below the insertion of the last muscles. The adductor muscles, 
longus, brevis and magnus, all rise from the subpubic arch, and are 
inserted into the linea aspera of the femur, so that they draw the 
femur toward the middle line. The gracilis (fig. 10) is part of the 
adductor mass, though its insertion is into the upper part of the 
tibia. The extensor muscles of the front of the thigh are supplied 
by the anterior crural nerve, but the adductor group on the inner 
side from the obturator. The pectineus is often supplied from both 
sources. On the back of the thigh the gluteus maximus (figs. 5 and 
lo) plays an important part in determining man's outline (see 
ANATOMY : Superficial and Artistic). It rises from the sacral region, 
and is inserted into the upper part of the femur and the deep fascia 
of the thigh, which is very thick and is known as the fascia lata ; 
the muscle is a great extensor of the hip and raises the body from the 
stooping position. The gluteus medius rises from the ilium, above the 
hip joint, and passes to the great trochanter; it abducts the hip and 
enables the body to be balanced on one leg, as in taking a step for- 
ward. The gluteus minimus is covered by the last muscle, and passes 
from the ilium to the front of the great trochanter, thus rotating the 
hip joint inward. Some of its anterior fibres are sometimes separate 
from the rest, and are then called the scansorius (see JOINTS). 
When the gluteus maximus is removed, a number of short externally 
rotating muscles are seen, rising from the pelvis and inserted into 
the great trochanter (fig. 10) ; these are, from above downward, the 
pyriformis, gemellus superior, obturator internus, gemellus inferior 
and quadratus femoris. They are all supplied by special branches of 
the sacral plexus. On cutting the quadratus femoris a good deal of 
the obturator externus can be seen, coming from the outer surface 
of the obturator membrane and passing to the digital fossa of the 
great trochanter. Unlike the rest of this group, it is supplied by the 
obturator nerve. Coming from the anterior part of the crest of the 
ilium is the tensor fasciae femoris, which is inserted into the fascia 
lata, as is part of the gh'teus maximus, and the thickened band of 
fascia which runs down the outer side of the thigh from these to the 
head of the tibia is known as the ilio tibial band. The tensor fasciae 
femoris, gluteus medius and minimus, are supplied by the superior 
gluteal nerve, the gluteus maximus by the inferior gluteal. At the 
back of the thigh are the hamstrings rising from the tuberosity of the 
ischium (fig. 10); these are the semimembranosusandsemitendinosus, 
passing to the inner part of the upper end of the tibia and forming 
the internal hamstrings, and the biceps femoris or external hamstring, 
which has an extra head from the shaft of the femur and is inserted 
into the head of the fibula. These muscles are supplied by the great 
sciatic nerve and extend the hip joint while they flex the knee. In 
the leg, as distinguished from the thigh, are three groups of muscles, 
anterior, external and posterior. The anterior group (fig. n) all 
come from the front of the tibia and fibula, and consist of the 
extensor longus digitorum, extending the middle and distal phalanges 
of the four outer toes, the extensor proprius hallucis, extending the 



big toe, and the peroneus tertius, a purely human muscle inserted 
into the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. All these are supplied by 
the anterior tibial nerve. 

The external group comprises the peroneus longus and brevis, 
rising from the outer surface of the fibula and inserted into the 
tarsus (fig. n), the longus tendon passing across the sole to the base 
of the first metatarsal bone, the brevis to the base of the fifth 
metatarsal. These are supplied by the musculo-cutaneous nerve. 



OBTURATOR 
:EKNUSAND 

EMELLI 



ADDUCTOR 
SEHTTENDINOSUS 



SnOMEUBRANOSU: 



SARTORIUS TENDON 




BICEPS (short 
head) 



Tibial nerve 

BICEPS TENDON 
(along with 
peroneal nerve) 

PLANTARIS 



GASTROCNEJOUS 



From A. M. Pateison, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. 

FTG. 10. The Muscles on the Back of the Thigh. 

The posterior group is- divided into a superficial and a deep set. 
The superficial is composed of the gastrocnemius, the two heads of 
which rise from the two condyles of the femur, the soleus, which rises 
from the upper parts of the back of the tibia and fibula, the plantaris, 
which comes from just above the external condyle of the femur, 
and the popliltus which, although on a deeper plane, really belongs 
to this group and rises by a tendon from the outer condyle while its 
fleshy part is inserted into the upper part of the back of the tibia. 
The gastrocnemius and soleus unite to form the tendo Achillis, which 
is attached to the posterior part of the calcaneum, while the plantaris 
runs separately as a very thin tendon to the same place. These 
muscles are supplied by the internal popliteal nerve. The deep set 
is formed by three muscles which rise from the posterior surf aces of 
the tibia and fibula, the flexor longus digitorum,'the tibialis posticus, 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



and the flexor longus hallucis from within outward. Their tendons 
all pass into the sole, that of the flexor longus digitorum being 
inserted into the terminal phalanges of the four outer toes, the flexor 
longus hallucis into the terminal phalanx of the big toe, while the 
tibialis posticus sends expansions to most of the tarsal bones. The 
nerve supply of this group is the posterior tibial. On the dorsum of 
the foot is the extensor brevis digitorum (fig. 1 1), which helps to extend 



EXTENSOR LONGUS 
DicrroRuii 

PERONEUS 



PERONEUS B 



Lower portion of 

anterior anm___ 

ligament 

TENDON OF PERONECS. 

TERTIHS 

INNERMOST sup OF 

EXTENSOR BREVIS 

mcrroRUM 




From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. II. Muscles of the Front of the Right Leg and Dorsum 
of the Foot. 

the four inner toes, while in the sole are four layers of short muscles, 
the most superficial of which consists of the abductor hallucis, the 
flexor brevis digitorum, and the abductor minimi digiti, the names of 
which indicate their attachments. The second layer is formed by 
muscles which are attached to the flexor longus digitorum tendon ; 
they are the accessorius, running forward to the tendon from the 
lower surface of the calcaneum, and the four lumbricales, which rise 
from the tendon after jt has split for the four toes and pass 
between the toes to be inserted into the tendons of the extensor 
longus digitorum on the dorsum. The third layer comprises the 
flexor brevis hallucis, adductor obliauus and adductor transversus 
hallucis and the flexor brevis minimi digiti. The fourth layer contains 
the three plantar and four dorsal interosseous murcles, rising from 
the metatarsal bones and inserted into the proximal phalanges 
and extensor tendons in such a way that the plantar muscles draw 
the toes towards the line of the second toe while the dorsal draw 
them away from that line. Of these sole muscles the flexor brevis 
digitorum, flexor brevis hallucis, abductor hallucis and the innermost 
lumbrical are supplied by the internal plantar nerve, while all the 
rest are supplied by the external plantar. 



Embryology. 

The. development of the muscular system is partly known from 
the results of direct observation, and partly inferred from the study 
of the part of the nervous system whence the innervation is derived. 
The unstriped muscle is formed from the mesenchyme cells of the 
somatic and splanchnic layers of the mesoderm (see EMBRYOLOGY), 
but never, as far as we know, from the mesodermic somites. The 
heart muscle is also developed from mesenchymal cells, though the 
changes producing its feebly striped fibres are more complicated. 
The skeletal or real striped muscles are derived either from the meso- 
dermic somites or from the branchial arches. As the mesodermic 
somites are placed on each side of the neural canal in the early 
embryo, it is obvious that the greater part of the trunk musculature 
spreads gradually round the body from the dorsal to the ventral 
side and consists of a series of plates called myotomes (fig. 12). The 
muscle fibres in these plates run in the long a*is of the embryo, and 
are at first separated from those of the two neighbouring plates by 
thin fibrous intervals called myocommata. In some cases these 




From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. 12. Scheme to Illustrate the Disposition of the Myotomes 

in the Embryo in Relation to the Head, Trunk and Limbs. 
A, B, C, First three cephalic myotomes. 
N, 1,2, 3, 4, Last persisting cephalic myotomes. 
C, T, L, S, Co., The myotomes of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, 

sacral and caudal regions. 

I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., XL, XII., Refer to 
the cranial nerves and the structures with which they may be 
embryologically associated. 

myocommata persist and even become ossified, as in the ribs, but 
more usually they disappear early, and the myotomes then unite with 
one another to form a great muscular sheet. In the whole length of the 
trunk a longitudinal cleavage at right angles to the surface occurs, 
splitting the musculature into a dorsal and ventral part, supplied 
respectively by the dorsal and ventral primary divisions of the spinal 
nerves. F_rom the dorsal part the various muscles of the erector 
spinae series are derived by further longitudinal cleavages either 
tangential or at right angles to the surface, while the ventral part 
is again longitudinally split into mesial and lateral portions. A 
transverse section of the trunk at this stage, therefore, would show 
the cut ends of three longitudinal strips of muscle: (i) a mesial 
ventral, from which the rectus, pyramidalis sterno-hyoid, omo- 
hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles are derived ; (2) a lateral ventral, 
forming the flat muscles of the abdomen, intercostals and part of 
the sternomastoid and trapezius; and (3) the dorsal portion already 
noticed. The mesial ventral part is remarkable for the persistence 
of remnants of myocommata in it, forming the lineae transversae 
of the rectus and the central tendon of the omo-hyoid. The lateral 
part in the abdominal region splits tangentially into three layers, 



MUSES, THE 



59 



the external and internal oblique and the transversalis, the fibres 
of which become differently directed. In the thoracic region the 
intercostals probably indicate a further tangential splitting of the 
middle or internal oblique layer, because the external oblique is 
continued headward superficially to the ribs and the transversalis 
deeply to them. The more cephalic part of the external oblique 
layer probably disappears by a process of pressure or crowding out 
owing to the encroachment of the serratus magnus, a muscle which 
its nerve supply indicates is derived from the lower cervical myo- 
tomes. The deeper parts of the lateral mass of muscles spread to 
the ventral surface of the bodies of the vertebrae, and form the 
hypaxial muscles such as the psoas, longus colli and recti capitis 
antici. The nerve supply indicates that the lowest myotomes taking 
part in the formation of the abdominal walls are those supplied by 
the first and second lumbar nerves, and are represented by the 
cremaster muscle in the scrotum. In the perineum, however, the 
third and fourth sacral myotomes are represented, and these muscles 
are differentiated largely from the primitive sphincter which sur- 
rounds the cloacal orifice, though partly from vestigial tail muscles 
(see P. Thompson, Journ. Anal, and Phys., vol. xxxv; and R. H. 
Paramore, Lancet, May 21, 1910). In the head no distinct myotomes 
have been demonstrated in the mammalian embryo, but as they are 
present in more lowly vertebrates, it is probable that their develop- 
ment has been slurred over, a process often found in the embryology 
of the higher forms. Probably nine cephalic myotomes originally 
existed; of which the first gives rise to the eye muscles supplied by 
the third nerve, the second to the superior oblique muscle supplied 
by the fourth nerve, and the 'third to the external rectus supplied by 
the sixth nerve. The fourth, fifth and sixth myotomes are sup- 
pressed, but the seventh, eighth and ninth possibly form the muscles 
of the tongue supplied by the twelfth cranial nerve. 

Turning now to the branchial arches, the first branchiomere is 
innervated by the fifth cranial nerve, and to it belong the masseter, 
temporal, pterygoids, anterior belly of the digastric, mylo-hyoid, 
tensor tympam and tensor palati, while from the second branchio- 
mere, supplied by the seventh or facial nerve, all the facial muscles 
of expression and the stylo-hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric 
are derived, as well as the platysma, which is one of the few remnants 
of the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of the lower mam- 
mals. From the third branchiomere, the nerve of which is the ninth 
or glossopharyngeal, the stylo-pharyngeus and upper part of the 
pharyngeal constrictors are formed, while the fourth and fifth gill 
arches give rise to the muscles of the larynx and the lower part of 
the constrictors supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. It is possible 
that parts of the sterno-mastoid and trapezius are also branchial 
in their origin, since they are supplied by the spinal accessory or 
eleventh nerve, but this is unsettled. The limb musculature is 
usually regarded as a sleeve-like outpushing of the external oblique 
stratum of the lateral ventral musculature of the trunk, and it is 
believed that parts of several myotomes are in this way pushed out 
in the growth of the limb bud. This process actually occurs in the 
lower vertebrates, and the nerve supplies provide strong presumptive 
evidence .that this is the real phylogenetic history of the higher forms, 
though direct observation shows that the limb muscles of mammals 
are formed from the central mesoderm of the limb and at first are 
quite distinct from the myotomes of the trunk. A possible explana- 
tion of the difficulty is that this is another example of the slurring 
over of stages in phytogeny, but this is one of many obscure morpho- 
logical points. The muscles of each limb are divided into a dorsal 
and ventral series, supplied by dorsal and ventral secondary divisions 
of the nerves in the limb plexuses, and these correspond to the original 
position of the limbs as they grow out from the embryo, so that in 
the upper extremity the back of the arm, forearm and dorsum of the 
hand are dorsal, while in the lower the dorsal surface is the front of 
the thigh and leg and the dorsum of the foot. 

For further details see Development of the Human Body, by J. P. 
McMurrich (London, 1906), and the writings of L. Bolk, Morphol. 
Jahrb. vols. xxi-xxv. 

Comparitive Anatomy. 

In the acrania (e.g. amphioxus) the simple arrangement of myo- 
tomes and myocommata seen in the early human embryo is perma- 
nent. The myotomes or muscle plates are < shaped, with their 
apices pointing towards the head end, each being supplied by its 
own spinal nerve. In the fishes this arrangement is largely persis- 
tent, but each limb of the < is bent on itself, so that the myotomes 
have now the shape of a , the central angle of which corresponds 
to the lateral line of the fish. In the abdominal region, however, 
the myotomes fuse and rudiments of the recti and obhqui abdominis 
muscles of higher types are seen. In other regions too, such as the 
fins of fish and the tongue of the Cyclostomata (lamprey), specialized 
muscular bundles are separated off and are coincident with the 
acquirement of movements of these parts in different directions. 
In the Amphibia the limb musculature becomes much more complex 
as the joints are formed, and many of the muscles can be homologized 
with those of mammals, though this is by no means always the case, 
while, in the abdominal region, a superficial delaminatipn occurs, 
so that in many forms a superficial and deep rectus abdominis occurs 
as well as a cutaneus abdominis .delaminated from the external 
oblique. It is probable that this delamination is the precursor of 



the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of mammals. The 
branchial musculature also becomes much more complex, and the 
mylo-hyoid muscle, derived from the first branchial arch and lying 
beneath the floor of the mouth, is very noticeable and of great 
importance in breathing. 

In the reptiles further differentiation of the muscles is seen, and 
with the acquirement of costal respiration the external and internal 
intercostals are formed by a delamination of the internal oblique 
stratum. In the dorsal region several of the longitudinal muscles 
which together make up the erector spinae are distinct, and a very 
definite sphincter cloacae is formed round and cloacal aperture. 
In mammals certain muscles vary in their attachments or presence 
and absence in different orders, sub-orders and families, so that, 
were it not for the large amount of technical knowledge required 
in recognizing them, they might be useful from a classificatory point 
of view. There is, however, a greater gap between the musculature 
of Man and that of the other Primates than there is between many 
different orders, and this is usually traceable either directly or 
indirectly to the assumption of the erect position. 

The chief causes which produce changes of musculature are: 
(i) splitting, (2) fusion, (3) suppression either partial or complete, 
(4) shifting of origin, (5) shifting of insertion, (6) new formation, 
(7) transference of part of one muscle to another. In many of these 
cases the nerve supply gives an important clue to the change which 
has been effected. Splitting of a muscular mass is often the result 
of one part of a muscle being used separately, and a good example 
of this is the deep flexor mass of the forearm. In the lower mammals 
this mass rises from the flexor surface of the radius and ulna, and 
supplies tendons to the terminal phalanges of all five digits, but in 
man the thumb is used separately, and, in response to this, that 
partf the mass which goes to the thumb is completely split off into 
a separate muscle, the flexor longus pollicis. The process, however, 
is going farther, for we have acquired the habit of using our index 
finger alone for many purposes, and the index slip of the flexor 
profundus digitorum is in us almost as distinct a muscle as the flexor 
longus pollicis. Fusion may be either collateral or longitudinal. 
The former is seen in the case of the flexor carpi ulnaris. In many 
mammals (e.g. the dog), there are two muscles inserted separately 
into the pisiform bone, one rising from the internal condyle of the 
humerus, the other from the olecranon process, but in many others 
(e.g. man) the two muscles have fused. Longitudinal fusion is seen 
in the digastric, where the anterior belly is part of the first (man- 
dibular) branchial arch and the posterior of the second or hyoid arch ; 
in this case, as one would expect, the anterior belly is supplied by 
the fifth nerve and the posterior by the seventh. Partial suppression 
of a muscle is seen in the rhomboid sheet; in the lower mammals 
this rises from the head, neck and anterior (cephalic) thoracic spines, 
but in man the head and most of the neck part is completely sup- 
pressed. Complete suppression of a muscle is exemplified in the 
omo-trachelian, a muscle which runs from the cervical vertebrae 
to the acromian process and fixes the scapula for the strong action 
of the triceps in pronograde mammals; in man this strong action 
of the triceps is no longer needed for progression, and the fixing 
muscle has disappeared. Shifting of origin is seen in the short head 
of the biceps femoris. This in many lower mammals (e.g. rabbit) 
is a muscle running from the tail to the lower leg; in many others 
(e.g. monkeys and man) the origin has slipped down to the femur, 
and in the great anteater it is evident that the agitator caudae has 
been used as a muscle slide, because the short head of the biceps 
or tenuissimus has once been found rising from the surface of this 
muscle. Shifting of an insertion is not nearly as common as shifting 
of an origin; it is seen, however, in the peroneus tertius of man, in 
which part of the extensor longus digitorum has acquired a new 
attachment to the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. The new 
formation of a muscle is seen in the stylo-hyoideus alter, an occasional 
human muscle; in this the stylo-hyoid ligament has been converted 
into a muscle. The transference of part of one muscle to another 
is well shown by the human adductor magnus; here the fibres which 
pass from the tuber ischii to the condyle of the femur have a nerve 
supply from the great sciatic instead of the obturator, and in most 
lower mammals are a separate part of the hamstrings known as the 
presemimembranosus. 

For further details see Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thicr- 
reichs; " The Muscles of Mammals," by F. G. Parsons, Jour. Anat. 
and Phys. xxxii. 428; also accounts of the musculature of mammals, 
by Windle and Parsons, in Proc. Zool. Soc. (1894, seq.); Humphry, 
Observations in Myology (1874). (F. G. P.) 

MUSES, THE (Gr. MoDow, the thinkers), in Greek myth- 
ology, originally nymphs of springs, then goddesses of song, and, 
later, of the different kinds of poetry and of the arts and sciences 
generally. In Homer, who says nothing definite as to their 
names or number, they are simply goddesses of song, who dwell 
among the gods on Olympus, where they sing at their banquets 
under the leadership of Apollo Musagetes. According to Hesiod 
(Theog. 77), who first gives the usually accepted names and 
number, they were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the 
personification of memory; others made them children of 



6o 



MUSET MUSEUMS OF ART 



Uranus and Gaea. Three older Muses (Mneme, Melete, Aoide) 
were sometimes distinguished, whose worship was said to have 
been introduced by the Aloidae on Mt Helicon (Pausanias ix. 29). 
It is probable that three was the original number of the 
Muses, which was increased to nine owing to their arrangement 
in three groups of three in the sacred choruses. Round the 
altar of Zeus they sing of the origin of the world, of gods and men, 
of the glorious deeds of Zeus; they also honour the great heroes; 
and celebrate the marriages of Cadmus and Peleus, and the 
death of Achilles. As goddesses of song they protect those who 
recognize their superiority, but punish the arrogant such as 
Thamyris, the Thracian bard, who for having boasted himself 
their equal was deprived of sight and the power of song. From 
their connexion with Apollo and their original nature as inspiring 
nymphs of springs they also possess the gift of prophecy. They 
are closely related to Dionysus, to whose festivals dramatic 
poetry owed its origin and development. The worship of the 
Muses had two chief seats on the northern slope of Mt 
Olympus in Pieria, and on the slope of Mt Helicon near 
Ascra and Thespiae in Boeotia. Their favourite haunts were the 
springs of Castalia, Aganippe and Hippocrene. From Boeotia 
their cult gradually spread over Greece. As the goddesses who 
presided over the nine principal departments of letters, their 
names and attributes were: Calliope, epic poetry (wax tablet and 
pencil); Euterpe, lyric poetry (the double flute); Erato, rotic 
poetry (a small lyre) ; Melpomene, tragedy (tragic mask and ivy 
wreath); Thalia, comedy (comic mask and ivy wreath); Poly- 
hymnia (or Polymnia), sacred hymns (veiled, and in an attitude 
of thought); Terpsichore, choral song and the dance (the lyre); 
Clio, history (a scroll); Urania, astronomy (a celestial globe). 
To these Arethusa was added as the muse of pastoral poetry. 
The Roman poets identified the Greek Muses with the Italian 
Camenae (or Casmenae), prophetic nymphs of springs and god- 
desses of birth, who possessed a grove near the Porta Capena 
at Rome. One of the most famous of these was Egeria, the 
counsellor of King Numa. 

See H. Deiters, Ueber die Verehrung der Musen bei den Griechen 
(1868); P. Decharme, Les Muses (i8fc); J. H. Krause, Die Musen 
(1871); F. Rodiger, Die Musen (1875); O. Navarre in Daremberg 
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, and O. Bie in Roscher's 
Lexikon der Mythologie, the latter chiefly for representations of the 
Muses in art. 

MUSET, COLIN (fl. 1200), French trouvere, was poet and 
musician, and made his living by wandering from castle to castle 
singing his own songs. These are not confined to the praise of 
the conventional love that formed the usual topic of the trouveres, 
but contain many details of a singer's life. Colin shows naive 
gratitude for presents in kind from his patrons, and recommends 
a poet repulsed by a cruel mistress to find consolation in the 
bans morceaux qu'on mange devant un grand feu. One of his 
patrons was Agnes de Bar, duchess of Lorraine (d. 1226). 

See'Hist. lilt, de la France, xxiii. 547-553 ; also a thesis, De Nicolas 
Museto (1893), by J. Bedier. 

MUSEUMS OF ART. 1 The later igth century was remarkable 
for the growth and development of museums, both in Great 
Britain and abroad. This growth, as Professor Stanley Jevons 
predicted, synchronizes with the advancement of education. 
Public museums are now universally required; old institutions 
have been greatly improved, and many new ones have been 
founded. The British parliament has passed statutes conferring 
upon local authorities the power to levy rates for library and 
museum purposes, while on the continent of Europe the collection 
and exhibition of objects of antiquity and art has become a 
recognized duty of the state and municipality alike. 

A sketch of the history of museums in general is given below, 
under MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The modern museum of art differs 
essentially from its earlier prototypes. The aimless collection 
of curiosities and bric-a-brac, brought together without method 

1 Under the term " museum " (Gr. novaflov, temple of the muses) 
we accept the ordinary distinction, by which it covers a collection of 
all so_rts of art objects, while an art gallery (q.v.) confines itself 
practically to pictures. 



or system, was the feature of certain famous collections in by- 
gone days, of which the Tradescant Museum, formed in the i7th 
century, was a good example. This museum was a miscellany 
without didactic value; it contributed nothing to the advance- 
ment of art; its arrangement was unscientific, and the public 
gained little or no advantage from its existence. The modern 
museum, on the other hand, should be organized for the public 
good, and should be a fruitful source of amusement and instruc- 
tion to the whole community. Even when Dr Waagen described 
the collections of England, about 1840, private individuals 
figured chiefly among the owners of art treasures. Nowadays in 
making a record of this nature the collections belonging to the 
public would attract most attention. This fact is becoming more 
obvious every year. Not only are acquisitions of great value 
constantly made, but the principles of museum administration 
and development are being more closely defined. What Sir 
William Flower, an eminent authority, called the " new museum 
idea " (Essays on Museums, p. 37) is pervading the treatment of 
all the chief museums of the world. Briefly stated, the new 
principle of museum development first enunciated in 1870, but 
now beginning to receive general support is that the first aim of 
public collections shall be education, and their second recreation. 
To be of teaching value, museum arrangement and classification 
must be carefully studied. Acquisitions must be added to their 
proper sections; random purchase of " curios " must be avoided. 
Attention must be given to the proper display and cataloguing 
of the exhibits, to their housing and preservation, to the lighting, 
comfort and ventilation of the galleries. Furthermore, facilities 
must be allowed to those who wish to make special study of 
the objects on view. "A museum is like a living organism: 
it requires continual and tender care; it must grow, or it will 
perish " (Flower, p. 13). 

Great progress has been made in the classification of objects, 
a highly important branch of museum work. There are three 
possible systems namely, by date, by material and 
by nationality. It has been found possible to tl ^f 
combine the systems to some extent; for instance, 
in the ivory department of the Victoria and Albert Museum, 
South Kensington, London, where the broad classification is 
by material, the objects being further subdivided according to 
their age, and in a minor degree according to their nationality. 
But as yet there is no general preference of one system to another. 
Moreover, the principles of classification are not easily laid down; 
e.g. musical instruments: should they be included in art exhibits 
or in the ethnographical section to which they also pertain? 
Broadly speaking, objects must be classified according to the 
quality (apart from their nature) for which they are most remark- 
able. Thus a musket or bass viol of the i6th century, inlaid 
with ivory and highly decorated, would be properly included in 
the art section, whereas a 'common flute or weapon, noteworthy 
for nothing but its interest as an instrument of music or destruc- 
tion, would be suitably classified as ethnographic. In England, 
at any rate, there is no uniformity of practice in this respect, 
and though it is to be hoped that the ruling desire to classify 
according to strict scientific rules may not become too preva- 
lent, it would nevertheless be a distinct advantage if, in one or 
more of the British museums, some attempt were made to 
illustrate the growth of domestic arts and crafts according to 
classification by date. Examples of this classification in Munich, 
Amsterdam, Basel, Zurich and elsewhere afford excellent lessons 
of history and art, a series of rooms being fitted up to show 
in chronological order the home life of our ancestors. In the 
National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) there is a superb suite of 
rooms illustrating the progress of art from Merovingian times 
down to the igth century. Thus classification, though studied, 
must not check the elasticity of art museums; it should not be 
allowed to interfere with the mobility of the exhibits that is to 
say, it should always be possible to withdraw specimens for the 
closer inspection of students, and also to send examples on loan 
to other museums and schools of art an invaluable system long 
in vogue at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and one which 
should be still more widely adopted. An axiom of museum law 



MUSEUMS OF ART 



61 



is that the exhibits shall be properly shown. " The value of a 
museum is to be tested by the treatment of its contents " 
(Flower, p. 24). But in many museums the chief hindrance to 
study and enjoyment is overcrowding of exhibits. Although 
a truism, it is necessary to state that each object should be 
properly seen, cleaned and safeguarded; but all over the world 
this rule is forgotten. The rapid acquisition of objects is one 
cause of overcrowding, but a faulty appreciation of the didactic 
purpose of the collection is more frequently responsible. 

In Great Britain, museum progress is satisfactory. Visitors 
are numbered by millions, access is now permitted on Sundays 

and week-days alike, and entrance fees are being con- 
*sistently reduced; in this the contrast between Great 

Britain and some foreign countries is singular. A 
generation or so ago the national collections of Italy used to be 
always open to the public. Pay-days, however, were gradually 
established, with the result that the chief collections are now 
only visible without payment on Sundays. In Dresden payment 
is obligatory five days a week. The British Museum never 
charges for admission. On the other hand, the increase in 
continental collections is more rapid than in Great Britain, where 
acquisitions are only made by gift, purchase or bequest. In 
other European countries enormous collections have been 
obtained by revolutions and conquest, by dynastic changes, and 
by secularizing religious foundations. Some of the chief 
treasures of provincial museums in France were spoils of the 
Napoleonic armies, though the great bulk of this loot was returned 
in 1815 to the original owners. In Italy the conversion of a 
monastery into a museum is a simple process, the Dominican 
house of San Marco in Florence offering a typical example. A 
further stimulus to the foundation of museums on the continent 
is the comparative ease with which old buildings are obtained 
and adapted for the collections. Thus the Germanisches Museum 
of Nuremberg is a secularized church and convent ; the enormous 
collections belonging to the town of Ravenna are housed in an 
old Camaldulensian monastery. At Louvain and Florence 
municipal palaces of great beauty are used; at Nlmes a famous 
Roman temple; at Urbino the grand ducal palace, and so on. 
There are, however, certain disadvantages in securing both 
building and collection ready-made, and the special care devoted 
to museums in Great Britain can be traced to the fact that their 
cost to the community is considerable. Immense sums have 
been spent on the buildings alone, nearly a million sterling being 
devoted to the new buildings for the Victoria and Albert Museum 
in London. Had it been possible to secure them without such 
an outlay the collections themselves would have been much 
increased, though in this increase itself there would have been a 
danger, prevalent but not yet fully realized in other countries, 
of crowding the vacant space with specimens of inferior quality. 
The result is that fine things are badly seen owing to the masses 
of second-rate examples; moreover, the ample space available 
induces the authorities to remove works of art from their original 
places, in order to add them to the museums. Thus the statue 
of St George by Donatello has been taken from the church of Or 
San Michele at Florence (on the plea of danger from exposure), 
and is now placed in a museum where, being dwarfed and under 
cover, its chief artistic value is lost. The desire to make financial 
profit from works of art is a direct cause of the modern museum 
movement in Italy. One result is to displace and thus depreciate 
many works of art, beautiful in their original places, but quite 
insignificant Vhen put into a museum. Another result is that, 
owing to high entrance fees, the humbler class of Italians can 
rarely see the art treasures of their own country. There are 
other collections, akin to art museums, which would best be 
called biographical museums. They illustrate the life and work 
of great artists or authors. Of these the most notable are the 
museums commemorating Diirer at Nuremberg, Beethoven at 
Bonn, Thorwaldsen at Copenhagen, Shakespeare at Stratford 
and Michelangelo at Florence. The sacristies of cathedrals often 
contain ecclesiastical objects of great value, and are shown 
to the public as museums. Cologne, Aachen, Milan, Monza and 
Reims have famous treasuries. Many Italian cathedrals have 



small museums attached to them, usually known as " Opera del 
Duomo." 

United Kingdom. The influence and reputation of the British 
Museum are so great that its original purpose, as stated in the 
preamble of the act by which it was founded (1753, 
c. 22), may be quoted: " Whereas all arts and sciences Museum. 
have a connexion with each other, and discoveries 
in natural philosophy and other branches of speculative know- 
ledge, for the advancement and improvement whereof the said 
museum or collection was intended, do, or may in many instances 
give help and success to the most useful experiments and under- 
takings . . ." The "said museum " above mentioned referred 
to the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, to be purchased under the 
act just quoted. Sir Hans Sloane is therein stated, " through 
the course of many years, with great labour and expense, to 
have gathered together whatever could be procured, either in 
our own or foreign countries, that was rare and curious." In 
order to buy his collections and found the museum a lottery of 
300,000 was authorized, divided into 50,000 tickets, the prizes 
varying from 10 to 10,000. Provision was made for the 
adequate housing of Sir Robert Cotton's books, already bought in 
1700 (12 and 13 Will. III. c. 7). This act secured for the nation 
the famous Cottonian manuscripts, "of great use and service for 
the knowledge and preservation of our constitution, both in 
church and state." Sir Robert's grandson had preserved the 
collection with great care, and was willing that it should not be 
" disposed of or embeziled," and that it should be preserved for 
public use and advantage. This act also sets forth the oath to 
be sworn by the keeper, and deals with the appointment of 
trustees. This is still the method of internal government at the 
British Museum, and additions to the Board of Trustees are made 
by statute, as in 1824, in acknowledgment of a bequest. The 
trustees are of three classes: (a) three principal trustees, namely 
the Primate, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker; (b) general 
trustees, entitled ex officio to the position in virtue of ministerial 
office; (c) family, bequest and nominated trustees. A standing 
committee of the trustees meets regularly at the museum for the 
transaction of business. The great departments of the museum 
(apart from the scientific and zoological collections, now placed 
in the museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington) are of 
printed books, MSS., Oriental books, prints and drawings, 
Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, British and medieval 
antiquities, coins and medals. Each of these eight departments 
is under a keeper, with an expert staff of subordinates, the head 
executive officer of the whole museum being styled director and 
chief librarian. The museum has been enriched by bequests 
of great importance, especially in the library. Recent legacies 
have included the porcelain bequeathed by Sir Wollaston Franks, 
and the valuable collection of works of art (chiefly enamels and 
gold-smithery) known as the Waddesdon bequest a legacy of 
Baron F. de Rothschild. The most important group of acquisi- 
tion by purchase in the history of the museum is the series of 
Greek sculptures known as the Elgin Marbles, bought by act of 
parliament (56 Geo. Ill, c. 99). 

There are four national museums controlled by the Board of 
Education, until recently styled the Department of Science and 
Art. The chief of these is the Victoria and Albert Museums of 
Museum at South Kensington. This museum has a theBoaraof 
dependency at Bethnal Green, the Dublin and ^d"""' "- 
Edinburgh museums having been now removed from its direct 
charge. There is also a museum of practical geology in Jermyn 
Street, containing valuable specimens of pottery and majolica. 
The Victoria and Albert Museum owed its inception to the 
Exhibition of 1851, from the surplus funds of which 12 acres of 
land were bought in South Kensington. First known as the 
Department of Practical Art, the museum rapidly established 
itself on a broad basis. Acquisitions of whole collections and 
unique specimens were accumulated. In 1857 the Sheepshanks 
gallery of pictures was presented; in 1879 the India Office trans- 
ferred to the department the collection of Oriental art formerly 
belonging to the East India Company; in 1882 the Jones bequest 
of French furniture and decorative art (1740-1810) was received; 



MUSEUMS OF ART 



in 1884 the Patent Museum was handed over to the department. 
Books, prints, MSS. and drawings were bequeathed by the Rev. 
A. Dyce and Mr John Forster. Meanwhile, gifts and purchases 
had combined to make the collection one of the most important 
in Europe. The chief features may be summarized as consisting 
of pictures, including the Raphael cartoons lent by the king; 
textiles, silks and tapestry; ceramics and enamels; ivory and 
plastic art, metal, furniture and Oriental collections. The 
guiding principle of the museum is the illustration of art applied 
to industry. Beauty and decorative attraction is perhaps the 
chief characteristic of the exhibits here, whereas the British 
Museum is largely archaeological. With this object in view, 
the museum possesses numerous reproductions of famous 
art treasures: casts, facsimiles and electrotypes, some of 
them so well contrived as to be almost indistinguishable 
from the originals. An art library with 75,000 volumes 
and 25,000 prints and photographs is at the disposal of 
students, and an art school is also attached to the museum. 
The museum does considerable work among provincial schools 
of art and museums, " circulation " being its function in 
this connexion. Works of art are sent on temporary loan to 
local museums, where they are exhibited for certain periods 
and on being withdrawn are replaced by fresh examples. The 
subordinate museum of the Beard of Education at Bethnal 
Green and that at Edinburgh call for no comment, their contents 
being of slender value. The Dublin Museum, though now 
controlled by the Irish Department, may be mentioned here as 
having been founded and worked by the Board of Education. 
Apart from the fact that it is one of the most suitably housed 
and organized museums in the British Isles, it is remarkable for 
its priceless collection of Celtic antiquities, belonging to the 
Royal Irish Academy, and transferred to the Kildare Street 
Museum in 1890. Among its most famous specimens of early 
Irish art may be mentioned the shrine and bell of St Patrick, 
the Tara brooch, the cross of Cong and the Ardagh chalice. The 
series of bronze and stone implements is most perfect, while 
the jewels, gold ornaments, torques, fibulae, diadems, and so 
forth are such that, were it possible again to extend the galleries 
(thus allowing further classification and exhibition space), the 
collection would surpass the Danish National Museum at 
Copenhagen, its chief rival in Europe. 

The famous collections of Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890) having 
been bequeathed to the British nation by his widow, the public 
other nas acc l u i re<: l a magnificent gallery of pictures, 
National together with a quantity of works of art, so important 
and Quasi- as to make it necessary to include Hertford House 
among national museums. French art predominates, 
and the examples of bronze, furniture, and porcelain 
are as fine as those to be seen in the Louvre. Hertford House, 
however, also contains a most remarkable collection of armour, 
and the examples of Italian faience, enamels, bijouterie, &c., 
are of first-rate interest. The universities of Cambridge and 
Oxford have museums, the latter including the Ashmolean collec- 
tions, a valuable bequest of majolica from D. Fortnum, and some 
important classical statuary, now in the Taylorian Gallery. 
Christ Church has a small museum and picture gallery. Trinity 
College, Dublin, has a miniature archaeological collection, 
containing some fine examples of early Irish art. The National 
Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, controlled by the Board of 
Manufactures, was formed by the Scottish Society of Antiquaries, 
and has a comprehensive collection of Scottish objects, lay and 
religious. The Tower of London contains armour of historic 
and artistic interest, and the Royal College of Music has an 
invaluable collection of musical instruments, presented by Mr 
George Donaldson. Art museums are also to be found in several 
public schools in the United Kingdom. 

The Museums Act of 1845 enabled town councils to found and 
maintain museums. This act was superseded by another passed 
Munid I ' n 1 ^S I k v ^ r William Ewart, which in its turn has 
Museurns. been replaced by amending statutes passed in 1855, 
1866, 1868 and 1885. The Museums and Gymna- 
siums Act of 1891 sanctioned the provision and maintenance of 



museums for the reception of local antiquities and other objects 
of interest, and allows a jd. rate, irrespective of other acts. 
Boroughs have also the right to levy special rates under private 
municipal acts, Oldham affording a case in point. Civic museums 
must still be considered to be in their infancy. Although 
the movement is now firmly established in municipal enterprise, 
the collections, taken as a whole, are still somewhat nondescript. 
In many cases collections have been handed over by local 
societies, particularly in geology, zoology and other scientific 
departments. There are about twelve museums in which Roman 
antiquities are noticeable, among them being Leicester, and the 
Civic Museum of London, at the Guildhall. British and Anglo- 
Saxon relics are important features at Sheffield and Liverpool; 
in the former case owing to the Bateman collection acquired in 
1876; while the Mayer collection presented to the latter city 
contains a highly important series of carved ivories. At Salford, 
Glasgow and Manchester industrial art is the chief feature of the 
collections. Birmingham, with perhaps the finest provincial 
collection of industrial art, is supported by the rates to the extent 
of 4200 a year. Its collections (including here, as in the majority 
of great towns, an important gallery of paintings) are entirely 
derived from gifts and bequests. Birmingham has made a 
reputation for special exhibitions of works of art lent for a time 
to the corporation. These loan exhibitions, about which 
occasional lectures are given, and of which cheap illustrated 
catalogues are issued, have largely contributed to the great 
popularity and efficiency of the museum. Liverpool, Preston, 
Derby and Sheffield owe their fine museum buildings to private 
generosity. Other towns have museums which are chiefly 
supported by subscriptions, e.g. Chester and Newcastle, where 
there is a fine collection of work by Bewick the engraver. At 
Exeter the library, museum, and art gallery, together with 
schools of science and art, are combined in one building. Other 
towns may be noted as having art museums: Stockport, Notting- 
ham (Wedgwood collection), Leeds, Bootle, Swansea, Bradford, 
Northampton (British archaeology), and Windsor. There are 
museums at Belfast, Larne, Kilkenny and Armagh. The cost 
of the civic museum, being generally computed with the mainten- 
ance of the free library, is not easily obtained. In many cases 
the librarian is also curator of the museum; elsewhere no curator 
at all is appointed, his work being done by a caretaker. In 
some museums there is no classification or cataloguing and 
the value of existing collections is impaired both by careless 
treatment and by the too ready acceptance of worthless 
gifts; often enough the museums are governed by committees 
of the corporation whose interest and experience are not 
great. 

Foreign Museums. Art museums are far more numerous 
on the continent of Europe than in England. In Germany 
progress has been very striking, their educational aspect being 
closely studied. In Italy public collections, which are ten times 
more numerous than in England, are chiefly regarded as financial 
assets. The best examples of classification are to be found 
abroad, at Vienna, Amsterdam, Ziirich, Munich and Gizeh in 
Egypt. The Musee Carnavalet, the historical collection of the 
city of Paris, is the most perfect civic museum in the world. 
The buildings in which the objects can be most easily studied are 
those of Naples, Berlin and Vienna. The value of the aggregate 
collections in any single country of the great powers, Russia 
excepted, probably exceeds the value of British collections. At 
the same time, it must be remembered that mas'ses of foreign 
collections represent expropriations by the city and the state, 
together with the inheritance of royal and semi-royal collectors. 
In Germany and Italy, for instance, there are at least a dozen 
towns which at one time were capitals of principalities. In 
some countries the public holds over works of art the pre-emptive 
right of purchase. In Italy, under the law known as the Editto 
Pacca, it is illegal to export the more famous works of art. 
Speaking generally, the cost of maintaining municipal museums 
abroad is very small, many being without expert or highly-paid 
officials, while admission fees are often considerable. Nowhere 
in the United Kingdom are the collections neglected in a manner 



MUSEUMS OF ART 



through which certain towns in Italy and Spain have gained an 
unenviable name. 

Berlin and Vienna have collections of untold richness, and the 
public are freely admitted. Berlin, besides its picture gallery 
di-rmanv an d architectural museum, has a collection of Christian 
and antiquities in the university. The old museum, a 

Austria. royal foundation, is renowned for its classical sculp- 
ture and a remarkable collection of medieval statuary, in 
which Italian art is well represented. The new museum is 
also noteworthy for Greek marbles, and contains bronzes and 
engravings, together with one of the most typical collections of 
Egyptian art. Schliemann's discoveries are housed in the 
Ethnographic Museum. The Museum of Art and Industry, 
closely similar in object and arrangement to the Victoria and 
Albert Museum in London, contains collections of the same 
character enamels, furniture, ceramics, &c. Vienna also has 
one of these museums (Kunstgewerbe), in which the great value 
of the examples is enhanced by their judicious arrangement. 
The Historical Museum of this city is interesting, and the 
Imperial Museum (of which the structure corresponds almost 
exactly with a plan of an ideal museum designed by Sir William 
Flower) is one of the most comprehensive extant, containing 
armour of world-wide fame and the choicest specimens of indus- 
trial art. Prague, Innsbruck and Budapest are respectively 
the homes of the national museums of Bohemia, Tirol and 
Hungary. The National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) has been 
completed, and its exhibition rooms, 100 in number, show the 
most recent methods of classification, Nuremberg, with upwards 
of eighty rooms, being its only rival in southern Germany. 
Mainz and Trier have Roman antiquities. Hamburg, Leip/ig and 
Breslau have good " Kunstgewerbe " collections. In Dresden 
there are four great museums the Johanneum, the Albertinum, 
the Zwinger and the Griine Gewolbe in which opulent art can 
best be appreciated ; the porcelain of the Dresden galleries is 
superb, and few branches of art are unrepresented. Gotha is 
remarkable for its ceramics, Brunswick for enamels (in the 
ducal cabinet). Museums of minor importance exist at Hanover, 
Ulm, Wurzburg, Danzig and Ltibeck. 

The central museum of France, the Louvre, was founded 
as a public institution during the Revolutionary period. It 
contains the collections of Francois I., Louis XIV., 
and the Napoleons. Many works of art have been 
added to it from royal palaces, and collections formed by dis- 
tinguished connoisseurs (Campana, Sauvageot, La Caze) have 
been incorporated in it. The Greek sculpture, including the 
Venus of Melos and the Nike of Samothrace, is of pre-eminent 
fame. Other departments are well furnished, and from a 
technical point of view the manner in which the officials have 
overcome structural difficulties in adapting the palace to the 
needs of an art museum is most instructive. The Cluny 
Museum, bought by the city in 1842, ^.nd subsequently 
transferred to the state, supplements the medieval collections 
of the Louvre, being a storehouse of select works of art. It 
suffers, however, from being overcrowded, while for purposes 
of study it is badly lighted. At the same time the Maison 
Cluny is a well-furnished house, decorated with admirable 
things, and as such has a special didactic value of its own, 
corresponding in this respect with Hertford House and the 
Poldi-Pezzoli Gallery at Milan collections which are more than 
museums, since they show in the best manner the adaptation of 
artistic taste to domestic life. ^The French provincial museums 
are numerous and important. Twenty-two were established 
early in the igth century, and received 1000 pictures as gifts 
from the state, numbers of which were not returned in 1815 to 
the countries whence they were taken. The best of these 
museiyns are at Lyons; at Dijon, where the tombs of Jean sans 
Peur and Philip the Bold are preserved; at Amiens, where the 
capital Musee de Picardie was built in 1850; at Marseilles and at 
Bayeux, where the " Tapestry " is well exhibited. The collec- 
tions of Lille, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Avignon are also impor- 
tant. The objects shown in these museums are chiefly local 
gleanings, consisting largely of church plate, furniture, together 



France. 



with sculpture, carved wood, and pottery, nearly everything 
being French in origin. In many towns Roman antiquities and 
early Christian relics are preserved (e.g. Autun, Nlmes, Aries 
and Luxeuil). Other collections controlled by municipalities 
are kept at Rouen, Douai, Montpellier, Chartres (14th-century 
sculptures), Grenoble, Toulon, Ajaccio, Epinal (Carolingian 
objects), Besancon, Bourges, Le Mans (with the remarkable 
enamel of Geoffrey of Anjou), Nancy, Aix and in many other 
towns. As a rule, the public is admitted free of charge, special 
courtesy being shown to foreigners. In many cases the collections 
are ill cared for and uncatalogued, and little money is provided 
for acquisitions in the civic museums; indeed, in this respect the 
great national institutions contrast unfavourably with British 
establishments, to which purchase grants are regularly made. 

The national, civic and papalmuseumsofltalyare sonumerous 
that a few only can be mentioned. The best arranged and best 
classified collection is the Museo Nazionale at Naples, 
containing many thousand examples of Roman 
art, chiefly obtained from the immediate neighbourhood. For 
historical importance it ranks as primus inter pares with the 
collections of Rome and the Vatican. It is, however, the only 
great Italian museum where scientific treatment is consistently 
adopted. Other museums of purely classical art are found at 
Syracuse, Cagliari and Palermo. Etruscan art is best displayed 
at Arezzo, Perugia (in the university), Cortona, Florence (Museo 
Archeologico), Volterra and the Vatican. The Florentine 
museums are of great importance, consisting of the archaeological 
museum of antique bronzes, Egyptian art, and a great number of 
tapestries. The Museo Nazionale, housed in the Bargello (A.D. 
1260), is the central depository of Tuscan art. Numerous 
examples of Delia Robbia ware have been gathered together, 
and are fixed to the walls in a manner and position which reduce 
their value to a minimum. The plastic arts of Tuscany are 
represented by Donatello, Verrocchio, Ghiberti, and Cellini, 
while the Carrand collection of ivories, pictures, and varied 
medieval specimens is of much interest. This museum, like so 
many others, is becoming seriously overcrowded, to the lasting 
detriment of churches, market-places, and streets, whence these 
works ofartarebeingruthlesslyremoved. The public is admitted 
free one day a week, and the receipts are devoted to art and 
antiquarian purposes (" tasse . . . destinate . . . alia conver- 
sazione dei monumenti, all' ampliamento 'degli scavi, ed' all' 
incremento dei instituti . . . nella citta." Law of 1875, 5). 
The museums of Rome are numerous, the Vatican alone contain- 
ing at least six Museo Clementino, of classical art, with the 
Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and other masterpieces; the 
Chiaramonti, also of classical sculpture; the Gallery of Inscrip- 
tions; the Egyptian, the Etruscan and the Christian museums. 
The last is an extensive collection corresponding with another 
papal museum in the Lateran Palace, also known as the Christian 
Museum (founded 1843), an d remarkable for its sarcophagi and 
relics from the catacombs. The Lateran has also a second 
museum known as the Museo Profano. 'Museums belonging 
to the state are equally remarkable. The Kircher Museum deals 
with prehistoric art, and contains the " Preneste Hoard." The 
Museo Nazionale (by the Baths of Diocletian), the Museo Capi- 
tolino, and the Palazzo dei Conservatori contain innumerable 
specimens of the finest classical art, vases, bronzes, mosaics, 
and statuary, Greek as well as Roman. Among provincial 
museums there are few which do not possess at least one or two 
objects of signal merit. Thus Brescia, besides a medieval 
collection, has a famous bronze Victory. Pesaro, Urbino, and 
the Museo Correr at Venice have admirable examples of majolica; 
Milan, Pisa and Genoa have general archaeology combined with 
a good proportion of mediocrity. The civic museum of Bologna 
is comprehensive and well arranged, having Egyptian, classical, 
and Etruscan collections, besides many things dating from the 
" Bella Epoca " of Italian art. At Ravenna alone can the 
Byzantine art of Italy be properly understood, and it is most 
deplorable that the superb collections in its fine galleries should 
remain uncatalogued and neglected. Turin, Siena, Padua, and 
other towns have civic museums. 



MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 



Russia. 



The Ryks Museum at Amsterdam, containing the national 
collections of Holland, is a modern building in which a series 
Belgium of historical rooms are furnished to show at a glance 
and the artistic progress of the Dutch at any given period. 

Holland. Nine rooms are also devoted to the chronological 
display of ecclesiastical art. Besides the famous paintings, this 
museum (the sole drawback of which is the number of rooms 
which have no top light) contains a library, many engravings, a 
comprehensive exhibit of armour, costume, metal-work, and a 
department of maritime craftsmanship. Arnhem and Haarlem 
have municipal collections. At Leiden the university maintains 
a scholarly collection of antiquities. The Hague and Rotterdam 
have also museums, but everything in Holland is subordinated 
to the development of the great central depository at Amsterdam, 
to which examples are sent from all parts of the country. In 
Belgium the chief museum, that of ancient industrial art, is at 
Brussels. It contains many pieces of medieval church furniture 
and decoration, but in this respect differs only in size from the 
civic museums of Ghent and Luxemburg and the Archbishop's 
Museum at Utrecht. In Brussels, however, there is a good show 
of Prankish and Carolingian objects. The city of Antwerp 
maintains the Musee Plantin, a printing establishment which has 
survived almost intact, and presents one of the most charming 
and instructive museums in the world. As a whole, the 
museums of Belgium are disappointing, though, per contra, the 
churches are of enhanced interest, not having been pillaged for 
the benefit of museums. 

New museums are being founded in Russia every year. 
Kharkoff and Odessa (the university) have already large collec- 
tions, and in the most remote parts of Siberia it is 
curious to find carefully chosen collections. Krasno- 
yarsk has 12,000 specimens, a storehouse of Buriat art. Irkutsk 
the capital, Tobolsk, Tomsk (university), Khabarovsk, and 
Yakutsk have now museums. In these Russian art naturally 
predominates. It is only at Moscow and St Petersburg that 
Western art is found. The Hermitage Palace in the latter city 
contains a selection of medieval objects of fabulous value, there 
being no less than forty early ivories. But from a national point 
of view these collections are insignificant when compared with 
the gold and silver objects illustrating the primitive arts and 
ornament of Scythia, Crimea and Caucasia, the high standard 
attained proving an advanced stage of manual skill. At Moscow 
(historical museum) the stone and metal relics are scarcely less 
interesting. There is also a museum of industrial art, the speci- 
mens of which are not of unusual value, but being analogous to 
the Kunstgewerbe movement in Germany, it exercises a whole- 
some influence upon the designers who study in its schools. 

American museums are not committed to traditional systems, 
and scientific treatment is allowed its fullest scope. They exist 
in great numbers, and though in some cases their 
exhibits are chiefly ethnographic, a far wider range 
of art objects is rapidly being secured. The National Museum 
at Washington, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.), 
while notable for its American historical and ethnological 
exhibits, has the National Gallery of Art. The Metropolitan 
Museum of Art (held by trustees for the benefit of the city 
of New York) has in the Cesnola collection the most complete 
series of Cypriot art objects. It has also departments of coins, 
Greek sculpture and general examples of European and American 
art. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston is very comprehensive, 
and has a remarkable collection of ceramics, together with good 
reproductions of antique art. There are museums at St 
Louis, Chicago, Pittsburg, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Buffalo and 
Washington, as well as Montreal in Canada; and the universities 
of Harvard, Chicago, Pennsylvania and Yale have important 
collections. 

The Swiss National Museum is situated at Zurich, and though 

of medium size (50 rooms), it is a model of arrangement and 

organization. Besides the special feature of rooms 

Countries, illustrating the historical progress of art, its collection 

of stained glass is important. Basel also (historical 

museum) is but little inferior in contents or system to the Zurich 



America. 



establishment. Geneva has three collections. Lausanne holds 
the museum of the canton, and Bern has a municipal collection. 
All these institutions are well supported financially, and are 
much appreciated by the Swiss public. The art museums of 
Stockholm, Christiania and Copenhagen rank high for their 
intrinsic excellence, but still more for their scientific and didactic 
value. Stockholm has three museums: that of the Royal 
Palace, a collection of costume and armour; the Northern 
Museum, a large collection of domestic art; the National 
Museum, containing the prehistoric collections, gold ornaments, 
&c., classified in a brilliant manner. The National Museum 
of Denmark at Copenhagen is in this respect even more famous, 
being probably the second national collection in the world. The 
arrangement of this collection leaves little to be desired, and it 
is to be regretted that some British collections, in themselves of 
immense value, cannot be shown, as at Copenhagen, in a manner 
which would display their great merits to the fullest degree. 
There is also at Copenhagen a remarkable collection of antique 
busts (Gamle Glyptotek), and the Thorwaldsen Museum con- 
nected with the sculptor of that name. Norse antiquities are 
at Christiania (the university) and Bergen. Athens has three 
museums, all devoted to Greek art: that of the Acropolis, that 
of the Archaeological Society (vases and terra-cotta) and the 
National Museum of Antiquities. The state owns all discoveries 
and these are accumulated at the capital, so that local museums 
scarcely exist. The collections, which rapidly increase, are of 
great importance, though as yet they cannot vie with the 
aggregate in other European countries. The Museum of 
Egyptian Antiquities (Cairo), founded by Mariette Bey at Bulak, 
afterwards removed to the Giza palace and developed by Maspero, 
is housed in a large building erected in 1902, well classified, and 
liberally supported with money and fresh acquisitions. Minor 
museums exist at Carthage and Tunis. At Constantinople the 
Turkish Museum contains some good classical sculpture and a 
great deal of rubbish. The Museo del Prado and the Archaeo- 
logical Museum at Madrid are the chief Spanish collections, 
containing numerous classical objects and many specimens of 
Moorish and early Spanish art. In Spain museums are badly 
kept, and their contents are of indifferent value. The museums 
of the chief provinces are situated at Barcelona, Valencia, 
Granada and Seville. Cadiz and Cordova have also sadly 
neglected civic collections. The National Museum of Portugal at 
Lisbon requires no special comment. The progress of Japan 
is noticeable in its museums as in its industrial enterprise. The 
National Museum(Weno Park, Tokyo) is large and well arranged 
in a new building of Western architecture. Kioto and Nara 
have excellent museums, exclusively of Oriental art, and two or 
three other towns have smaller establishments, including com- 
mercial museums. There are several museums in India, the 
chief one being at Calcutta, devoted to Indian antiquities. 

The best history *pf museums can be found in the prefaces and 
introductions to their official catalogues, but the following works 
will be useful for reference: Annual Reports presented to Parliament 
(official) of British Museum and Board of Education; Civil Service 
Estimates, Class IV., annually presented to Parliament; Second 
Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Museums of 
Science and Art Department (official; I vol., 1898); Annual Reports 
of the Museum Association (London) ; Edward Edwards, The Fine 
Arts in England (London, 1840); Professor Stanley Jevons, " Use 
and Abuse of Museums," printed in Methods of Social Reform 
(London, 1882); Report of Committee on Provincial Museums. 
Report of British Association (London, 1887); Thos. Greenwood, 
Museums and Art Galleries (London, 1888); Professor Brown Goode, 
Museums of the Future, Report on" the National Museum for 1889 
(Washington, 1891) ; Principles of Museum Administration; Report of 
Museum Association (London, 1895) ; Mariotti, La Legislazione delle 
belle arti. (Rome, 1892); L. B6nedite, Rapport sur r organisation 
. . . dans les musees de la Grande Bretagne (official; Paris, 1895); 
Sir William Flower, Essays on Museums (London, 1898); Le Gallerie 
nazionali italiane (3 vols., Rome, 1894); D. Murray, Museums: 
Their History and Use, with Bibliography and List of Museums in 
the United Kingdom (3 vols., 1904). (B.) 

MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The ideal museum should cover 
the whole field of human knowledge. It should teach the 
truths of all the sciences, including anthropology, the science 
which deals with man and all his works in every age. All the 



MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 



sciences and all the arts are correlated. The wide separation 
of collections illustrative of the arts (see MUSEUMS OF ART above) 
from those illustrative of the sciences, and their treatment as 
if belonging to a wholly different sphere, is arbitrary. Such 
separation, which is to-day the rule rather than the exception, 
is due to the circumstances of the origin of many collections, 
or in other cases to the limitations imposed by poverty or lack 
of space. Many of the national museums of continental Europe 
had their beginnings in collections privately acquired by 
monarchs, who, at a time when the modern sciences were in their 
infancy, entertained themselves by assembling objects which 
appealed to their love of the beautiful and the curious. The 
pictures, marbles, bronzes and bric-a-brac of the palace became 
the nucleus of the museum of to-day, and in some notable cases 
the palace itself was converted into a museum. In a few instances 
these museums, in which works of art had the first place, have 
been enriched and supplemented by collections illustrative of 
the advancing sciences of a later date, but in a majority of cases 
these collections have remained what they were at the outset, 
mere exponents of human handicraft in one or the other, or all 
of its various departments. Some recent great foundations 
have copied the more or less defective models of the past, and 
museums devoted exclusively to the illustration of one or the 
other narrow segment of knowledge will no doubt continue to 
be multiplied, and in spite of their limited range, will do much 
good. A notable illustration of the influence of lack of space 
in bringing about a separation of anthropological collections 
from collections illustrative of other sciences is afforded by the 
national collection in London. For many years the collections 
of the British Museum, literary, artistic and scientific, were 
assembled in ideal relationship in Bloomsbury, but at last the 
accumulation of treasure became so vast and the difficulties of 
administration were so pressing that a separation was decided 
upon, and the natural history collections were finally removed 
to the separate museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington. 
But the student of museums can never fail to regret that the 
necessities of space and financial considerations compelled this 
separation, which in a measure destroyed the ideal relationship 
which had for so many years obtained. 

The ancient world knew nothing of museums in the modern 
sense of the term. There were collections of paintings and 
statuary in the temples and palaces of Greece and Rome; the 
homes of the wealthy were everywhere adorned by works of art; 
curious objects of natural history were often brought from afar, 
as the skins of the female gorillas, which Hanno after his voyage 
on the west coast of Africa hung up in the temple of Astarte at 
Carthage; Alexander the Great granted to his illustrious teacher, 
Aristotle, a large sum of money for use in his scientific researches, 
sent him natural history collections from conquered lands, and 
put at his service thousands of men to collect specimens, upon 
which he based his work on natural history; the museum of 
Alexandria, which included within its keeping the Alexandrian 
library, was a great university composed of a number of associated 
colleges; but there was nowhere in all the ancient world an 
institution which exactly corresponded in its scope and purpose 
to the modern museum. The term " museum," after the 
burning of the great institution of Alexandria, appears to have 
fallen into disuse from the 4th to the i?th century, and the idea 
which the word represented slipped from the minds of men. 

The revival of learning in the i5th century was accompanied 
by an awakening of interest in classical antiquity, and many 
persons laboured eagerly upon the collection of memorials of 
the past. Statuary, inscriptions, gems, coins, medals and manu- 
scripts were assembled by the wealthy and the learned. The 
leaders in this movement were presently followed by others who 
devoted themselves to the search for minerals, plants and curious 
animals. Among the more famous early collectors of objects 
of natural history may be mentioned Georg Agricola (1490-1555), 
who has been styled " the father of mineralogy." By his 
labours the elector Augustus of Saxony was induced to establish 
the Kunst und Naturalien Kantmer, which has since expanded 
into the various museums at Dresden. One of his contempo- 
xrx. 3 



raries was Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1516-1565), " the German 
Pliny," whose writings are still resorted to by the curious. 
Others whose names are familiar were Pierre Belon (1517-1564), 
professor at the College de France; Andrea Cesalpini (1510-1603), 
whose herbarium is still preserved at Florence; Ulissi Aldrovandi 
(1522-1605), remnants of whose collections still exist at Bologna; 
Ole Worm (1588-1654), a Danish physician, after whom the so- 
called " Wormian bones " of the skull are named, and who was 
one of the first to cultivate what is now known as the science 
of prehistoric archaeology. At a later date the collection of 
Albert Seba (1665-1736) of Amsterdam became famous, and 
was purchased by Peter the Great in 1716, and removed to 
St Petersburg. In Great Britain among early collectors were 
the two Tradescants; Sir John Woodward (1665-1728), a portion 
of whose collections, bequeathed by him to Cambridge University 
is still preserved there in the Woodwardian or Geological Museum ; 
Sir James Balfour (1600-1657), and Sir Andrew Balfour (1630- 
1694), whose work was continued in part by Sir Robert Sibbald 
(1641-1722). The first person to elaborate and present to modern 
minds the thought of an institution which should assemble 
within its walls the things which, men wish to see and study was 
Bacon, who in his New Atlantis (1627) broadly sketched the 
outline of a great national museum of science and art. 

The first surviving scientific museum established upon a 
substantial basis was the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, 
founded by Elias Ashmole. The original collection had been 
made by the Tradescants, father and son, gardeners who were 
in the employment of the duke of Buckingham and later of King 
Charles I. and his queen; it consisted of " twelve cartloads of 
curiosities," principally from Virginia and Algiers, which the 
younger Tradescant bequeathed to Ashmole, and which, after 
much litigation with Tradescant's widow, he gave to Oxford 
upon condition that a suitable building should be provided. 
This was done in 1682 after plans by Sir Christopher Wren. 
Ashmole in his diary makes record, on the I7th of February 
1683, that " the last load of my rareties was sent to the barge, 
and this afternoon I relapsed into the gout." 

The establishment of the German academy of Naturae 
Curiosi in 1652, of the Royal Society of London in 1660, and of 
the Academic des Sciences of Paris in 1666, imparted a powerful 
impulse to scientific investigation, which was reflected not only 
in the labours of a multitude of persons who undertook the 
formation of private scientific collections, but in the initiation 
by crowned heads of movements looking toward the formation 
of national collections, many of which, having their beginnings 
in the latter half of the i7th century and the early years of the 
1 8th century, survive to the present day. 

The most famous of all English collectors in his time was 
Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose vast collection, acquired at 
a great outlay of money, and including the collections of Petiver, 
Courten, Merret, Plukenet, and Buddie all of which he had 
purchased was by his will bequeathed to the British nation on 
condition that parliament should pay to his heirs the sum of 
20,000, a sum far less than that which he had expended upon it, 
and representing, it is sdld, only the value of the coins which it 
contained. Sloane was a man who might justly have said of 
himself " humani nihil a me alienum puto "; and his collection 
attested the catholicity of his tastes and the breadth of his 
scientific appetencies. The bequest of Sloane was accepted 
upon the terms of his will, and, together with the library of 
George II., which had likewise been bequeathed to the nation, 
was thrown open to the public at Bloomsbury in 1759 as the 
British Museum. As showing the great advances which have 
occurred in the administration of museums since that day, the 
following extract taken from A Guide- Book to the General 
Contents of the British Museum, published in 1761, is interest- 
ing: ". . . fifteen persons are allowed to view it in one Company, 
the Time allotted is two Hours; and when any Number not 
exceeding fifteen are inclined to see it, they must send a List of 
their Christian and Sirnames, Additions, and Places of Abode, to 
the Porter's Lodge, in order to their being entered in the Book; 
in a few Days the respective Tickets will be made out, specifying 



66 



MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 



the Day and Hour in which they are to come, which, on being 
sent for, are delivered. If by any Accident some of the Parties 
are prevented from coming, it is proper they send their 
Ticket back to the Lodge, as nobody can be admitted with it 
but themselves. It is to be remarked that the fewer Names there 
are in a List, the sooner they are likely to be admitted to see it." 

The establishment of the British Museum was coincident in 
time with the development of the systematic study of nature, 
of which Linnaeus was at that time the most distinguished 
exponent. The modern sciences, the wonderful triumphs of 
which have revolutionized the world, were just emerging from 
their infancy. Museums were speedily found to furnish the 
best agency for preserving the records of advancing knowledge, 
so far as these consisted of the materials upon which the investi- 
gator had laboured. In a short time it became customary for 
the student, either during his lifetime or at his death, to entrust 
to the permanent custody of museums the collections upon 
which he had based his studies and observations. Museums were 
thenceforth rapidly multiplied, and came to be universally 
regarded as proper repositories for scientific collections of all 
kinds. But the use of museums as repositories of the collec- 
tions of the learned came presently to be associated with their 
use as seats of original investigation and research. Collections 
of new and rare objects which had not yet received attentive 
study came into their possession. Voyages of exploration 
into unknown lands, undertaken at public or private expense, 
added continually to their treasures. The comparison of newer 
collections with older collections which had been already made 
the subject of study, was undertaken. New truths were thus 
ascertained. A body of students was attracted to the museums, 
who in a few years by their investigations began not only to add 
to the sum of human knowledge, but by their publications to 
shed lustre upon the institutions with which they were connected. 
The spirit of inquiry was wisely fostered by private and public 
munificence, and museums as centres for the diffusion of scientific 
truth came to hold a well-recognized position. Later still, 
about the middle of the ipth century, when the importance of 
popular education and the necessity of popularizing knowledge 
came to be more thoroughly recognized than it had heretofore 
been, museums were found to be peculiarly adapted in certain 
respects for the promotion of the culture of the masses. They 
became under the new impulse not merely repositories of scientific 
records and seats of original research, but powerful educational 
agencies, in which by object lessons the most important truths of 
science were capable of being pleasantly imparted to multitudes. 
The old narrow restrictions were thrown down. Their doors 
were freely opened to the people, and at the beginning of the 
zoth century the movement for the establishment of museums 
assumed a magnitude scarcely, if at all, less than the movement 
on behalf of the diffusion of popular knowledge through public 
libraries. While great national museums have been founded and 
all the large municipalities of the world through private or civic 
gifts have established museums within their limits, a multitude 
of lesser towns, and even in some cases villages, have established 
museums, and museums as adjuncts of universities, colleges and 
high schools have come to be recognized as almost indispensable. 
The movement has assumed its greatest proportions in Great 
Britain and her colonies, Germany, and the United States of 
America, although in many other lands it has already advanced 
far. 

There are now in existence in the world, exclusive of museums 
of art, not less than 2000 scientific museums which possess in 
themselves elements of permanence, some of which are splendidly 
supported by public munificence, and a number of which have 
been richly endowed by private benefactions. 

Great Britain and Ireland. The greatest museum in London 
is the British Museum. The natural history department at 
South Kensington, with its wealth of types deposited there, 
constitutes the most important collection of the kind in the 
world. The Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street 
contains a beautiful and well-arranged collection of minerals 
and a very complete series of specimens illustrative of the 



petrography and the invertebrate paleontology of the British 
Islands. The botanical collections at Kew are classic, and are 
as rich in types as are the zoological collections of the British 
Museum. The Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of 
Surgeons contains a notable assemblage of specimens illustrating 
anatomy, both human and comparative, as well as pathology. 
In London also a number of private owners possess large collec- 
tions of natural history specimens, principally ornithological, 
entomological and conchological, in some instances destined to 
find a final resting place in the national collection. One of the 
most important of these great collections is that formed by F. 
Ducane Godman, whose work on the fauna of middle America, 
entitled Biologia centrali-americana, is an enduring monument 
to his learning and generosity. The Hon. Walter Rothschild 
has accumulated at Tring one of the largest and most important 
natural history collections which has ever been assembled by a 
single individual. It is particularly rich in rare species which 
are either already extinct or verging upon extinction, and the 
ornithological and entomological collections are vast in extent 
and rich in types. Lord Walsingham has at his country seat, 
Merton Hall, near Thetford, the largest and most perfect 
collection of the microlepidoptera of the world which is in 
existence. 

The Ashmolean Museum and the University Museum at Oxford, 
and the Woodwardian Museum and the University Museum at 
Cambridge, are remarkable collections. The Free Public Museum 
at Liverpool is in some respects one of the finest and most 
successfully arranged museums in Great Britain. It contains 
a great wealth of important scientific material, and is rich in 
types, particularly of birds. The Manchester Museum of Owens 
College and the museum in Sheffield have in recent years 
accomplished much for the cause of science and popular educa- 
tion. The Bristol Museum has latterly achieved considerable 
growth and has become a centre of much enlightened activity. 
The Royal Scottish Museum, the herbarium of the Royal 
Botanical Garden, and the collections of the Challenger Expe- 
dition Office in Edinburgh, are worthy of particular mention. 
The museum of the university of Glasgow and the Glasgow 
Museum contain valuable collections. The museum of St 
Andrews University is very rich in, material illustrating marine 
zoology, and so also are the collections of University College at 
Dundee. The Science and Art Museum of Dublin and the 
Public Museum of Belfast, in addition to the works of art which 
they contain, possess scientific collections of importance. 

There are also in Great Britain and Ireland some two hundred 
smaller museums, in which there are collections which cannot be 
overlooked by specialists, more particularly by those interested 
in geology, paleontology and archaeology. 

India. The Indian Museum, the Geological Museum of the 
Geological Survey of India, and the herbarium of the Royal Botanic 
Garden in Calcutta, are richly endowed with collections illustrating 
the natural history of Hindostan and adjacent countries. The 
finest collection of the vertebrate fossils of the Siwalik Hills is that 
found in the Indian Museum. The Victoria and Albert Museum in 
Bombay and the Government Museum in Madras are institutions 
of importance. 

Australia. The Queensland Museum, and the museum of the 
Geological Survey of Queensland located in Brisbane, and the 
National Museum at Melbourne, Victoria, represent important 
beginnings. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the centre 
of considerable scientific activity. The museums connected with 
the university of Sydney, the museum of the Geological Survey of 
New South Wales, and the Australian Museum, all possess valuable 
collections. The museum at Adelaide is noteworthy. 

New Zealand. Good collections are found in the Otago Museum, 
Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum at Christ Church, the Auckland 
Museum at Auckland, and the Colonial Museum at Wellington. 

South Africa. The South African Museum at Capetown is a 
flourishing and important institution, which has done excellent 
work in the field of South African zoology. A museum has been 
established at Durban, Natal, which gives evidence of vitality. 

Egypt. Archaeological studies overshadow all others in the land 
of the Nile, and the splendid collections of the great museum of 
antiquities at Cairo find nothing to parallel them in the domain of 
the purely natural sciences. A geological museum was, however, 
established in the autumn of 1903, and in view of recent remarkable 
paleontological discoveries in Egypt possesses brilliant opportunities. 



MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 



67 



Canada. In connexion with the Universite Laval in Quebec, 
the McGill University in Montreal, and the university of Toronto 
in Ontario, beginnings of significance have been made. The Peter 
Redpath Museum of McGilT College contains important collections 
in all branches of natural history, more particularly botany. 
The provincial museum at Victoria, British Columbia, is growing m 
importance. A movement has been begun to establish at Ottawa 
a museum which shall in a sense be for the Dominion a national 
establishment. 

France. Paris abounds in institutions for the promotion of culture. 
In possession of many of the institutions of learning, such as the Ecole 
Nationals Superieure des Mines, the Inslitut National Agronomique, 
and the various learned societies, are collections of greater or less 
importance which must be consulted at times by specialists in the 
various sciences. The Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin 
des Plantes is the most comprehensive and important collection of 
its kind in the French metropolis, and while not as rich in types as 
the British Museum, nevertheless contains a vast assemblage of 
classic specimens reflecting the labours of former generations of 
French naturalists. Unfortunately, much of the best material, 
consisting of the types of species obtained by the naturalists of 
French voyages of exploration, have been too long exposed to the 
intense light which fills the great building and have become bleached 
and faded to a great degree. The zeal to popularize knowledge by 
the display of specimens has conflicted with the purpose to preserve 
the records of science, a fact which French naturalists themselves 
universally admit. As in England, so also in France, there are a 
number of virtuosi, who have amassed fine private collections. 
One of the very largest and finest of all the entomological collections 
of the world is that at Rennes, belonging to the brothers Oberthiir, 
upon which they have expended princely sums. The Museum des 
Sciences Naturelles of Lyons is in some respects an important 
institution. 

Belgium. Brussels has been called " a city of museums." The 
Musee du Congo and the Musee Royal d'Histoire Naturelle du Belgique 
are the two most important institutions from the standpoint of the 
naturalist. The former is rich in ethnographic and zoological material 
brought from the Congo Free State, and the latter contains very 
important paleontological collections. 

Holland. The zoological museum of the Koninklijk Zoologisch 
Genootschap, affiliated with the university at Amsterdam, is well 
known. The royal museums connected with the university of 
Leiden are centres of much scientific activity. 

Denmark. The National Museum at Copenhagen is particularly 
rich in Scandinavian and Danish antiquities. 

Sweden. In Stockholm, the capital, the Nordiska Museet is 
devoted to Scandinavian ethnology, and the Naturhistoriska Riks- 
Museum is rich in paleontological, botanical and archaeological 
collections. Great scientific treasures are also contained in the 
museums connected with the university of Upsala. 

Norway. Classic collections especially interesting to the student 
of marine zoology are contained in the university of Christiania. 

Germany, Germany is rich in museums, some of which are of 
very great importance. The Museum fur Naturkunde, the ethno- 
graphical museum, the anthropological museum, the mineralogical 
museum and the agricultural museum in Berlin are noble institutions, 
the first mentioned being particularly rich in classical collections. 
Hamburg boasts an excellent natural history musei-m and ethno- 
graphical museum, the Museum Godeffroy and the Museum Umlauff. 
There are a number of important private collections in Hamburg. 
The municipal museum in Bremen is important from the standpoint 
of the naturalist and ethnologist. The Roemer Museum at Hildes- 
heim is one of the best provincial museums in Germany. Dresden 
even more justly than Brussels may be called "a city of museums," 
and the mineralogical, archaeological, zoological and anthropological 
museums are exceedingly important from the standpoint of the 
naturalist. Here also in private hands is the greatest collection 
of palaearctic lepidoptera in Europe, belonging to the heirs of Dr 
Otto Staudinger. The ethnographical museum at Leipzig is rich 
in collections brought together from South and Central America. 
The natural history museum, the anatomical museum and the ethno- 
graphical museum in Munich are important institutions, the first 
mentioned being particularly rich in paleontological treasures. 
The natural history museum of Stuttgart is likewise noted for 
its important paleontological collections. The Senckenbergische 
Naturforsckende Gesellschaft museum at Frankfort-on-the-Main 
contains a very important collection of ethnographical, zoological 
and botanical material. The museum of the university at Bonn, 
and more particularly the anatomical museum, are noteworthy. 
In connexion with almost all the German universities and in almost 
all the larger towns and cities are to be found museums, in many of 
which there are important assemblages illustrating not only the 
natural history of the immediate neighbourhood, but in a multitude 
of cases containing important material collected in foreign lands. 
One of the most interesting of the smaller museums lately established 
is that at Liibeck, a model in its way for a provincial museum. 

Austro-Hungary. The Imperial Natural HistoryMuseum inVienna 
is one of the noblest institutions of its kind in Europe, and possesses 
one of the finest mineralogical collections in the world. It is rich 
also in botanical and conchological collections. There are important 



ethnographical and anthropological collections at Budapest. The 
natural history collections of the Bohemian national museum at 
Prague are well arranged, though not remarkably extensive. 

Russia. The Rumiantsof Museum in Moscow possesses splendid 
buildings, with a library of over 700,000 volumes in addition to 
splendid artistic treasures, and is rich in natural history specimens. 
It is one of the most magnificent foundations of its kind in Europe. 
There are a number of magnificent museums in St Petersburg which 
contain stores of important material. Foremost among these is 
the museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, rich in collec- 
tions illustrating the zoology, paleontology and ethnology, not only 
of the Russian Empire, but also of foreign lands. There are a number 
of provincial museums in the larger cities of Russia which are growing 
in importance. 

Italy. Italy is rich in museums of art, but natural history 
collections are not as strongly represented as in other lands. Con- 
nected with the various universities are collections which possess 
more or less importance from the standpoint of the specialist. 
The Museo Civico di Storia Naturale at Genoa, and the collections 
preserved at the marine biological station at Naples, have most 
interest for the zoologist. 

Spain. There are no natural history collections of first importance 
in Spain, though at all the universities there are minor collections, 
which are in some instances creditably cared for and arranged. 

Portugal. The natural history museum at Lisbon contains 
important ornithological treasures. 

Eastern Asia. The awakening of the empire of Japan has resulted 
among other things in the cultivation of the modern sciences, and 
there are a number of scientific students, mostly trained in European 
and American universities, who are doing excellent work in the 
biological and allied sciences. Very creditable beginnings have been 
made in connexion with the Imperial University at Tokio for the 
establishment of a museum of natural history. At Shanghai there 
is a collection, gathered by the Chinese branch of the Royal Asiatic 
Society, which is in a decadent state, but contains much good 
material. Otherwise as yet the movement to establish museums has 
not laid strong hold upon the inhabitants of eastern Asia. At 
Batavia in Java, and at Manila in the Philippine Islands, there are 
found the nuclei of important collections. 

United States. The movement to establish museums in the 
United States is comparatively recent. One of the very earliest 
collections (1802), which, however, was soon dispersed, was 
made by Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). The Academy of Natural 
Sciences in Philadelphia, established in 1812, is the oldest society 
for the promotion of the natural sciences in the United States. 
It possesses a very important library and some most excellent 
collections, and is rich in ornithological, conchological and 
botanical types. The city of Philadelphia also points with pride 
to the free museum of archaeology connected with the university 
of Pennsylvania, and to the Philadelphia museums, the latter 
museums of commerce, but which incidentally do much to pro- 
mote scientific knowledge, especially in the domain of ethnology, 
botany and mineralogy. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy 
is well endowed and organized. The zoological museum at 
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is associated 
with the names of Louis and Alexander Agassiz, the former of 
whom by his learning and activity as a collector, and the latter 
by his munificent gifts, as well as by his important researches, 
not only created the institution, but made it a potent agency 
for the advancement of science. The Peabody Museum of 
American Archaeology and Ethnology, likewise connected with 
Harvard University, is one of the greatest institutions of its 
kind in the New World. The Essex Institute at Salem, Massa- 
chusetts, is noteworthy. The Butterfield Museum, Dartmouth 
College, Hanover, New Hampshire, and the Fairbanks Museum 
of Natural Science (1891) at St Johnsbury, Vermont, are im- 
portant modern institutions. In the museum of Amherst 
College are preserved the types of the birds described by J. J. 
Audubon, the shells described by C. B. Adams, the mineralogical 
collections of Charles Upham Shepard, and the paleontological 
collections of President Hitchcock. In Springfield (1898) 
and Worcester, Massachusetts, there are excellent museums. 
The Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University, 
New Haven, Connecticut, contains much of the paleontological 
material described by Professor O. C. Marsh. The New 
York State Museum at Albany is important from a geological 
and paleontological standpoint. The American Museum of 
Natural History in New York City, founded in 1869, provision 
for the growth and enlargement of which upon a scale of the 



68 



MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 



Gallery of 
Reptiles 





Gallery of Birds 



THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTE 

Pittsburg, Penn.,U.S.A. 

Plan of First Floor. 



Reference. 

A. Main Entrance to Institute 

B. Entrance to Main Auditorium 

C. Main Entrance to Library 

1. Administration Rooms of Institute 

2. Public Comfort Rooms 

3. Administrative Rooms of Library 




1 Children's] 
1 Children's Library 
Library 



o 

1 

o 

I 

Cu 



T' 



It 

! 3 

& 



1 MI 



Open 



Court 



Open Court 



L. 






o 
o 
CQ 



O fc-; 




Loan Department of 
Library* 



Open Court 



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Gallery of Useful Arts 
Ceramics, etc. 



H 



3 3 



3 




31 Greenroom of p j f " ij Greenroom 

I Auditorium t**" *" ""I Auditoriui 



of 



Gallery of 
Architecture 



The width of the front of the building 
ia 400 feet; Its depth over all exceeds 
6 00 feet 




Emery Walkw K. 



MUSGRAVE MUSH 



69 



utmost magnificence has been made, is liberally -supported 
both by public and private munificence. The ethnographical, 
paleontological and archaeological material gathered within 
its walls is immense in extent and superbly displayed. The 
museum of the New York botanical garden in Bronx Park is 
a worthy rival to the museums at Kew. The Brooklyn Institute 
of Arts and Sciences combines with collections illustrative of 
the arts excellent collections of natural history, many of which 
are classic. 

The United States National Museum at Washington, under 
the control of the Smithsonian Institution, of which it is a depart- 
ment, has been made the repository for many years past of the 
scientific and artistic collections coming into the possession of 
the government. The growth of the material entrusted to its 
keeping has, more particularly in recent years, been enormous, 
and the collections have wholly outgrown the space provided 
in the original building, built for it during the incumbency 
of Professor Spencer F. Baird as secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution. The congress of the United States has in recent 
years made provision for the erection of a new building upon 
the Mall in Washington, to which the natural history collections 
are ultimately to be transferred, the old buildings to be retained 
for the display of collections illustrating the progress of the arts, 
until replaced by a building of better construction for the same 
purpose. The United States National Museum has published 
a great deal, and has become one of the most important agencies 
for the diffusion of scientific knowledge in the country. It is 
liberally supported by the government, and makes use of the 
scientific men connected with all the various departments of 
activity under government control as agents for research. The 
collections of the United States Geological Survey, as well as 
many of the more important scientific collections made by the 
Department of Agriculture, are deposited here. 

As-the result of the great Columbian international exposition, 
which took place in 1893, a movement originated in the city of 
Chicago, where the exposition was held, to form a permanent 
collection of large proportions. The great building in which 
the international exposition of the fine arts was displayed 
was preserved as the temporary home for the new museum. 
Marshall Field contributed $1,000,000 to the furtherance of 
the enterprise, and in his honour the institution was called 
" The Field Columbian Museum." The growth of this 
institution was very rapid, and Mr. Field, at his death, in 
1906, bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000, half to be 
applied to the erection of a new building, the other half to consti- 
tute an endowment fund, in addition to the revenues derived 
from the endowment already existing. The city of Chicago 
provides liberally for the support of the museum, the name 
of which, in the spring of 1906, was changed to " The Field 
Museum of Natural History. '' The city of St Louis has taken 
steps, as the result of the international exposition of 1904, to 
emulate the example of Chicago, and the St Louis Pubb'c Museum 
was founded under hopeful auspices in 1905. 

Probably the most magnificent foundation for the advance- 
ment of science and art in America which has as yet been created 
is the Carnegie Institute in the city of Pittsburg. The Carnegie 
Institute is a complex of institutions, consisting of a museum 
of art, a museum of science, and a school for the education of 
youth in the elements of technology. Affiliated with the 
museums of art and science, and under the same roof, is the 
Central Free Library of Pittsburg. The buildings erected 
for the accommodation of the institute, at the entrance to 
Schenley Park, cost $8,000,000, and Mr Andrew Carnegie 
provided liberally for the endowment of the museums of art 
and science and the technical school, leaving to the city of 
Pittsburg the maintenance of the general library. The natural 
history collections contained in the museum of science, although 
the institution was only founded in 1896, are large and 
important, and are particularly rich in mineralogy, geology, 
paleontology, botany and zoology. The entomological collections 
are among the most important in the new world. The concho- 
logical collections are vast, and the paleontological collections 



are among the most important in America. The great Bayet 
collection is the largest and most complete collection represent- 
ing European paleontology in America. The Carnegie Museum 
contains natural history collections aggregating over 1,500,000 
specimens, which cost approximately 125,000, and these are 
growing rapidly. The ethnological collections, particularly 
those illustrating the Indians of the plains, and the archaeological 
collections, representing the cultures more particularly of Costa 
Rica and of Colombia, are large. 

in connexion with almost all the American colleges and 
universities there are museums of more or less importance. 
The Bernice Pauahi Bishop museum at Honolulu is an institution 
established by private munificence, which is doing excellent 
work in the field of Polynesian ethnology and zoology. 

Other American Countrits. The national museum in the city of 
Mexico has in recent years been receiving intelligent encouragement 
and support both from the government and by private individuals, 
and is coming to be an institution of much importance. National 
museums have been established at the capitals of most of the Central 
American and South American states. Some of them represent 
considerable progress, but most of them are in a somewhat languish- 
ing condition. Notable exceptions are the national museum in 
Rio de Janeiro, the Museu Paraense (Museu Goeldi), at Para, the 
Museu Paulista at Sao Paulo, and the national museum in Buenos 
Aires. The latter institution is particularly rich in paleontological 
collections. There is an excellent museum at Valparaiso in Chile, 
which in recent years has been doing good work. (W. J. H.) 

MUSGRAVE, SAMUEL (1732-1780), English classical scholar 
and physician, was born at Washfield, in Devonshire, on the 
zgth of September 1732. Educated at Oxford and elected 
to a Radcliffe travelling fellowship, he spent several years 
abroad. In 1766 he settled at Exeter, but not meeting with 
professional success removed to Plymouth. He ruined his 
prospects, however, by the publication of a pamphlet in the 
form of an address to the people of Devonshire, in which he 
accused certain members of the English ministry of having been 
bribed by the French government to conclude the peace of 1763, 
and declared that the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, French 
minister plenipotentiary to England, had in his possession 
documents which would prove the truth of his assertion. De 
Beaumont repudiated all knowledge of any such transaction 
and of Musgrave himself, and the House of Commons in 1770 
decided that the charge was unsubstantiated. Thus discredited, 
Musgrave gained a precarious living in London by his pen until 
his death, in reduced circumstances, on the 5th of July 1780. 
He wrote several medical works, now forgotten ; and his edition 
of Euripides (1778) was a considerable advance on that of Joshua 
Barnes. 

See W. Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, ii. (1878). 

MUSH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name of the 
Bitlis vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, and an important military 
station. It is situated at the mouth of a gorge in the mountains 
on the south side of the plain, the surrounding hills being covered 
with vineyards and some oak scrub. There are few good houses; 
the streets are ill-paved and winding, while the place and its 
surroundings are extremely dirty. The castle, of which there 
are some remains, is said to have been built by Mushig, an 
Armenian king of the province Daron, who founded the town. 
A khan, with two stone lions (Arab or Seljuk) in bas-relief, 
deserves notice, but the bazaar is poor, although pretty 
embroidered caps are produced. Good roads lead to Erzerum 
and Bitlis. There are 1400 inhabitants, consisting of Kurds 
and Armenians, about equally divided. The climate is healthy 
but cold in winter, with a heavy snow fall. Mush is the seat 
of the Gregorian and Roman Catholic Armenian bishops and 
some American mission schools. Some miles to the west at 
the edge of the plain is the celebrated monastery of Surp 
Garabed or St John the Baptist, an important place of Armenian 
pilgrimage. 

Mush plain, 35 m. long by 12 broad, is very fertile, growing 
wheat and tobacco, and is dotted with many thriving Armenian 
villages. The Murad or eastern Euphrates traverses the western 
end of the plain and disappears into a narrow mountain gorge 
there. Vineyards are numerous and a fair wine is produced. 



MUSHROOM 



Wood is scarce and the usual fuel is tezek or dried cow-dung. 
There are several sulphur springs, and earthquakes are frequent 
and sometimes severe. It was on the plain of Mush that 
Xenophon first made acquaintance with Armenian houses, 
which have little changed since his day. 

MUSHROOM. 1 There are few more useful, more easily 
recognized, or more delicious members of the vegetable kingdom 
than the common mushroom, known botanically as Agaricus 
campestris (or Psalliota, campestris). It grows in short grass 
in the temperate regions of all parts of the world. Many 
edible fungi depend upon minute and often obscure botanical 
characters for their determination, and may readily be con- 
founded with worthless or poisonous species; but that is not the 
case with the common mushroom, for, although several other 
species of Agaricus somewhat closely approach it in form and 
colour, yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly gathered, may 
be distinguished from all other fungi with great ease. It almost 
invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in places where 
the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses, herds and flocks. 
Although this plant is popularly termed the " meadow mush- 
room," it never as a rule grows in meadows. It never grows in 
wet boggy places, never in woods, or on or about stumps of trees. 
An exceptional specimen or an uncommon variety may sometimes 
be seen in the above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best, 
the true, and common variety of the table is the produce of short, 
upland, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never large in 
size; its cap very seldom exceeds 4, at most 5 in. in diameter. 
The large examples measuring from 6 to 9 or more in. across 
the cap belong to Agaricus arvensis, called from its large size and 
coarse texture the horse mushroom, which grows in meadows 
and damp shady places, and though generally wholesome is 
coarse and sometimes indigestible. The mushroom usually 
grown in gardens or hot-beds, in cellars, sheds, &c., is a distinct 
variety known as Agaricus hortensis. On being cut or broken the 
flesh of a true mushroom remains white or nearly so, the flesh 
of the coarser horse mushroom changes to buff or sometimes to 
dark brown. To summarize the characters of a true mushroom 
it grows only in pastures; it is of small size, dry, and with 
unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the gills are free from the 
stem, the spores brown-black or deep purple-black in colour, 
and the stem solid or slightly pithy. When all these char- 
acters are taken together no other mushroom-like fungus 
and nearly a thousand species grow in Britain can be con- 
founded with it. 

The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and cap; the stem 
has a clothy ring round its middle, and the cap is furnished under- 
neath with numerous radiating coloured gills. Fig. I (i) represents 
a section through an infant mushroom, (2) a mature example, 
and (3) a longitudinal section through a fully developed mushroom. 
The cap D, E is fleshy, firm and white within, never thin and watery ; 
externally it is pale brown, dry, often slightly silky or floccose, 
never viscid. The cuticle of a mushroom readily peels away from 
the flesh beneath, as shown at F. The cap has a narrow dependent 
margin or frill, as shown at G, and in section at H ; this dependent 
frill originates in the rupture of a delicate continuous wrapper, 
which in the infancy of the mushroom entirely wraps the young 
plant; it is shown in its continuous state at j, and at the moment 
of rupture at K. The gills underneath the cap L, M, N are at first 
white, then rose-coloured, at length brown-black. A point of great 
importance is to be noted in the attachment of the gills near the stem 
at o, P ; the gills in the true mushroom are (as shown) usually more 
or less free from the stem, they never grow boldly against it or run 
down it; they may sometimes just touch the spot where the stem 
joins the bottom of the cap, but never more; there is usually a slight 
channel, as at p, all round the top of the stem. When a mushroom 
is perfectly ripe and the gills are brown-black in colour, they throw 
down a thick dusty deposit of fine brown-black or purple-black 
spores ; it is essential to note the colour. The spores on germination 
make a white felted mat, more or less dense, of mycelium; this, 
when compacted with dry, half-decomposed dung, is the mushroom 
spawn of gardeners. The stem is firm, slightly pithy up the middle, 
but never hollow; it _ bears a floccose ring near its middle, as 
illustrated at Q, Q; this ring originates by the rupture of the thin 
general wrapper x of the infant plant. 

Like all widely spread and much-cultivated plants, the edible 
*The earlier 15th-century form of the word was musseroun, 

muscheron, &c., and was adapted from the French mousseron, which 

is generally connected with moutse, moss. 



mushroom has numerous varieties, and it differs in different 
places and under different modes of culture in much the same 
way as our kitchen-garden plants differ from the type they have 
been derived from, and from each other. In some instances 
these differences are so marked that they have led some 
botanists to regard as distinct species many forms usually 
esteemed by others as varieties only. 




FIG. i. Pasture Mushroom (Agaricus campestris). 

A small variety of the common mushroom found in pastures has 
been named A. pratensis; it differs from the type in having a pale 
reddish-brown scaly top, and the flesh on being cut or broken 
changes to pale rose-colour. A variety still more marked, with a 
darker brown cap and the flesh changing to a deeper rose, and 
sometimes blood-red, has been described as A. rufescens. The 
well-known compact variety of mushroom-growers, with its white 
cap and dull purplish clay-coloured gills, is A. hortensis. Two 
sub-varieties of this have been described under the names of A. 
Buchanani and A. elongatus, and other distinct forms are known to 
botanists. A variety also grows in woods named A. silvicola; this 
can only be distinguished from the pasture mushroom by its elongated 
bulbous stem antfits externally smooth cap. There is also a fungus 
well known to botanists and cultivators which appears to be inter- 
mediate between the pasture variety and the wood variety, named 
A. vaporarius. The large rank horse mushroom, now generally 
referred to as A. arvensis, is probably a variety of the pasture mush- 
room; it grows in rings in woody places and under trees and hedges 
in meadows; it has a large scaly round cap, and the flesh quickly 
changes to buff or brown when cut or broken ; the stem too is hollow. 
An unusually scaly form of this has been described as A.-viUaticus 
and another as A. augustus. 

A species, described by Berkeley and Broome as distinct from 
both the pasture mushroom and horse mushroom, has been pub- 
lished under the name of A. elvensis. This grows under oaks, in 
clusters a most unusual character for the mushroom, and is said 
to be excellent for the table. An allied fungus peculiar to woods, 
with a less fleshy cap than the true mushroom, with hollow stem, 
and strong odour, has been described as a close ally of the pasture 
mushroom under the name of A. silvaticus; its qualities for the table 
have not been recorded. 

Many instances are on record of symptoms of poisoning, and 
even death, having followed the consumption of plants which have 
passed as true mushrooms; these cases have probably arisen from 
the examples consumed being in a state of decay, or from some mis- 
take as to the species eaten. It should always be specially noted 
whether the fungi to be consumed are in a fresh and wholesome 
condition, otherwise they act as a poison in precisely the same way 
as does any other semi-putrid vegetable. Many instances are on 
record where mushroom-beds have been invaded by a growth of 
strange fungi and the true mushrooms have been ousted to the advan- 
tage of the new-comers. When mushrooms are gathered for sale 
by persons unacquainted with the different species mistakes are of 
frequent _ occurrence. A very common spurious mushroom in 
markets is A. velutinus, a slender, ringless, hollow-stemmed, black- 
gilled fungus, common in gardens and about dung and stumps; it 
is about the size of a mushroom, but thinner in all its parts and far 
more brittle ; it has a black hairy fringe hanging round the edge of the 
cap when fresh. Another spurious mushroom, and equally common 
in dealers' baskets, is A. lacrymabundus; this grows in the same posi- 
tions as the last, and is somewhat fleshier and more like a true mush- 
room; it has a hollow stem and a slight ring, the gills are black-brown' 
mottled and generally studded with tear-like drops of moisture. 
In both these species the gills distinctly touch and grow on to the 
stem. Besides these there are numerous other black-gilled species 
which find a place in baskets some species far too small to bear 



MUSHROOM 



7 1 



any resemblance to a mushroom, others large and deliquescent, 

f:nerally belonging to the stump- and dung-borne genus Coprinus. 
he true mushroom itself is to a great extent a dung-borne species, 
therefore mushroom-beds are always liable to an invasion from other 
dung-borne forms. The spores of all fungi are constantly floating 
about in the air, and when the spores of dung-infesting species 
alight on a mushroom-bed they find a nidus already prepared that 
exactly suits them; and if the spawn of the new-comer becomes 
more profuse than that of the mushroom the stranger takes up his 
position at the expense of the mushroom. There is also a fungus 
named Xylaria vaporaria, which sometimes fixes itself on mushroom- 
beds and produces such an enormous quantity of string-like spawn 
that the entire destruction of the bed results. This spawn is some- 
times so profuse that it is pulled out of the beds in enormous masses 
and carted away in barrows. 

Sometimes cases of poisoning follow the consumption of what 
have really appeared to gardeners to be true bed-mushrooms, and 
to country folks as small horse mushrooms. The case is made more 
complicated by the fact that these highly poisonous forms now and 
then appear upon mushroom-beds to the exclusion of the mush- 
rooms. This dangerous counterfeit is A . fastibilis, or sometimes A . 
crustuliniformis, a close ally if not indeed a mere variety of the first. 
A description of one will do for both, A. fastibilis being a little the 
more slender of the two. Both have fleshy caps, whitish, moist and 
clammy to the touch ; instead of a pleasant odour, they have a dis- 
agreeable one; the stems are ringless, or nearly so; and the gills, 
which are palish-clay-brown, distinctly touch and grow on to the 
solid or pithy stem. These two fungi usually grow in woods, but 
sometimes in hedges and in shady places in meadows, or even, as has 
been said, as invaders on mushroom-beds. The pale clay-coloured 
gills, offensive odour, and clammy or even viscid top are decisive 
characters. A reference to the accompanying illustration (fig. 2), 
which is about one-half natural size, will give a good idea of A. 
fastibilis; the difference in the nature of the attachment of the gills 
near the stem is seen at R, the absence of a true ring at s, and of a 
pendent frill at x. The colour, with the exception of the gills, is 
not unlike that of the mushroom. In determining fungi no single 
character must be relied upon as conclusive, but all the characters 
must be taken together. Sometimes a beautiful, somewhat slender, 
fungus peculiar to stumps in woods is mistaken for the mushroom in 
A. cervinus; it has a tall, solid, white, ringless stem and somewhat 
thin brown cap, furnished underneath with beautiful rose-coloured 
gills, which are free from the stem as in the mushroom, and which 




FIG. 2. Poisonous Mushroom (Agaricus fastibilis). 



never turn black. It is probably a poisonous plant, belonging, as it 
does, to a dangerous cohort. Many other species of Agaricus more 
or less resemble A. campestris, notably some of the plants found 
under the sub-genera Lepiota, Volvaria, Pholiota and Psalliota; 
but when the characters are noted they may all with a little care 
be easily distinguished from each other. The better plan is to 
discard at once all fungi which have not been gathered from open 
pastures; by this act alone more than nine-tenths of worthless and 
poisonous species will be excluded. 

In cases of poisoning by mushrooms immediate medical advice 
should be secured. The dangerous principle is a narcotic, and the 
symptoms are usually great nausea, drowsiness, stupor and pains 
in the joints. A good palliative is sweet oil; this will allay any 
corrosive irritation of the throat and stomach, and at the same 
time cause vomiting. 

Paris mushrooms are cultivated in enormous quantities in dark 
underground cellars at a depth of from 60 to 160 ft. from the surface. 
The stable manure is taken into the tortuous passages of these cellars, 
and the spawn introduced from masses of dry dung where it occurs 
naturally. In France mushroom-growers do not use the compact 
blocks or bricks of spawn so familiar in England, but much smaller 
flakes or " leaves " of dry dung in which the spawn or mycelium can 
be seen to exist. Less manure is used in these cellars than we 
generally see in the mushroom-houses of England, and the surface 
of each bed is covered with about an inch of fine white stony soil. 
The beds are kept artificially moist by the application of water 
brought from the surface, and the different galleries bear crops in 
succession. As one is exhausted another is in full bearing, so that 



by a systematic arrangement a single proprietor wiH send to the 
surface from 300 Ib to 3000 Ib of mushrooms per day. The passages 
sometimes extend over several miles, the beds sometimes occupying 
over 20 m., and, as there are many proprietors of cellars, the produce 
of mushrooms is so large that not only is Paris fully supplied, but 
vast quantities are forwarded to the different large towns of Europe; 
the mushrooms are not allowed to reach the fully expanded condi- 
tion, but are gathered in a large button state, the whole growth of 
the mushroom being removed and the hole left in the manure 
covered with fine earth. The beds remain in bearing for six or 
eight months, and then the spent manure is taken to the surface 
again for garden and field purposes. The equable temperature of 
these cellars and their freedom from draught is one cause of their 
great success; to this must be added the natural virgin spawn, 
for by continually using spawn taken from mushroom-producing 
beds the potency for reproduction is weakened. The beds produce 
mushrooms in about six weeks after this spawning. 

The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is propagated by 
spores, the fine black dust seen to be thrown off when a mature speci- 
men is laid on white paper or a white dish ; these give rise to what 
is known as the " spawn " or mycelium, which consists of whitish 
threads permeating dried dung or similar substances, and which, 
when planted in a proper medium, runs through the mass, and even- 
tually develops the fructification known as the mushroom. This 
'spawn may be obtained from old pastures, or decayed mushroom 
beds, and is purchased from nurserymen in the form of bricks 
charged with the mycelium, and technically known as mushroom 
spawn. When once obtained, it may be indefinitely preserved. 
It may be produced by placing quantities of horse-dung saturated 
with the urine of horses, especially of stud horses, with alternate 
layers of rich earth, and covering the whole with straw, to_ exclude 
rain and air; the spawn commonly appears in the heap in about 
two months afterwards. The droppings of stall-fed horses, or of 
such as have been kept on dry food, should be made use of. 

The old method of growing mushrooms in ridges out of doors, or 
on prepared beds either level or sloping from a back wall in sheds or 
cellars, may generally be adopted with success. The beds are formed 
of horse-droppings which have been slightly fermented and frequently 
turned, and may be made 2 or 3 ft. broad and of any length. A layer 
of dung about 8 or 10 in. thick is first deposited, and covered with a 
light dryish earth to the depth of 2 in. ; and two similar layers with 
similar coverings are added, the whole being made narrower as it 
advances in height. When the bed is finished, it is covered with 
straw to protect it from rain, and also from parching influences. 
In about ten days, when the mass is milkwarm, the bed will be 
ready for spawning, which consists of inserting small pieces of spawn 
bricks into the sloping sides of the bed, about 6 in. asunder. A layer 
of fine earth is then placed over the whole, and well beaten down, 
and the surface is covered with a thick coat of straw. When the 
weather is temperate, mushrooms will appear in about a month after 
the bed has been made, but at other times a much longer period may 
elapse. The principal things to be attended to are to preserve a 
moderate state of moisture and a proper mild degree of warmth; 
and the treatment must vary according to the season. 

These ordinary ridge beds furnish a good supply towards the end 
of summer, and in autumn. To command a regular supply, how- 
ever, at all seasons, the use of a mushroom-house will be Found very 
convenient. The material employed in all cases is the droppings of 
horses, which should be collected fresh, and spread out in thin layers 
in a dry place, a portion of the short litter being retained well mois- 
tened by horse-urine. It should then be thrown together in ridges 
and frequently turned, so as to be kept in an incipient state of fer- 
mentation, a little dryish friable loam being mixed with it to retain 
the ammonia given off by the dung. With this or a mixture of 
horse-dung, loam, old mushroom-bed dung, and half-decayed leaves, 
the beds are built up in successive layers of about 3 in. thick, each 
layer being beaten firm, until the bed is 9 or 10 in. thick. If the heat 
exceeds 80", holes should be made to moderate the fermentation. 
The beds are to be spawned when the heat moderates, and the surface 
is then covered with a sprinkling of warmed loam, which after 
a few days is made up to a thickness of 2 in., and well beaten down. 
The beds made partly of old mushroom-bed dung often contain 
sufficient spawn to yield a crop, without the introduction of brick or 
cake spawn, but it is advisable to spawn them in the regular way. 
The spawn should be introduced an inch or two below the surface 
when the heat has declined to about 75, indeed the bed ought never 
to exceed 80. The surface is to be afterwards covered with hay or 
litter. The atmospheric temperature should range from 60 to 65 
till the mushrooms appear, when it may drop a few degrees, but not 
lower than 55. If the beds require watering, water of about 80 
should be used, and it is preferable to moisten the covering of litter 
rather than the surface 01 the beds themselves. It is also beneficial, 
especially in the case of partially exhausted beds, to water with a 
dilute solution of nitre. For a winter supply the beds should be 
made towards the end of August, and the end of October. Slugs 
and woodlice are the worst enemies of mushroom crops. 

The Fairy-ring Champignon. This fungus, Marasmius Oreades, 
is more universally used in France and Italy than in England, 
although it is well known and frequently used both in a fresh and in 
a dry state in England. It is totally different in appearance from the 



MUSIC 



pasture mushroom, and, like it, its characters are so distinct that 
there is hardly a possibility of making a mistake when its peculiari- 
ties are once comprehended. It has more than one advantage 
over the meadow mushroom in its extreme commonness, its profuse 
growth, the length of the season in which it may be gathered, the 
total absence of varietal forms, its adaptability for being dried and 
preserved for years, and its persistent delicious taste. It is by many 
esteemed as the best of all the edible fungi found in Great Britain. 
Like the mushroom, it grows in short open pastures and amongst 
the short grass of open roadsides; sometimes it appears on lawns, 
but it never occurs in woods or in damp shady places. Its natural 
habit is to grow in rings, and the grassy fairy-rings so frequent 
amongst the short grass of downs and pastures in the spring are 
generally caused by the nitrogenous manure applied to the soil 
in the previous autumn by the decay of a circle of these fungi. Many 
other fungi in addition to the fairy-ring champignon grow in circles, 
so that this habit must merely be taken with its other characters in 
cases of doubt. 

A glance at the illustration (fig. 3) will show how entirely the fairy- 
ring champignon differs from the mushroom. In the first place, it 




FIG. 3. The Fairy-ring Champignon (Marasmius oreades). 



is about one-half the size of a mushroom, and whitish-buff in every 
part, the gills always retaining this colour and never becoming 
salmon-coloured, brown or black. The stem is ;solid and corky, 
much more solid than the flesh of the cap, and perfectly smooth, 
never being furnished with the slightest trace of a ring. The buff- 
gills are far apart (v), and in this they greatly differ from the some- 
what crowded gills of the mushroom; the junction of the gills with 
the stem (w) also differs in character from the similar junction in the 
mushroom. The mushroom is a semi-deliquescent fungus which 
rapidly falls into putridity in decay, whilst the champignon dries 
up into a leathery substance in the sun, but speedily revives and takes 
its original form again after the first shower. To this character the 
fungus owes its generic name (Marasmius) as well as one of its most 
valuable qualities for the table, for examples may be gathered from 
June to November, and if carefully dried may be hung on strings 
for culinary purposes and preserved without deterioration for several 
years; indeed, many persons assert that the rich flavour of these 
fungi increases with years. Champignons are highly esteemed (and 
especially is this the case abroad) for adding a most delicious flavour 
to stews, soups and gravies. 

A fungus which may carelessly be mistaken for the mushroom is 
M . peronatus, but this grows in woods amongst dead leaves, and has a 
hairy base to the stem and a somewhat acrid taste. Another is M. 
urens ; this also generally grows in woods, but the gills are not nearly 
so deep, they soon become brownish, the stem is downy, and the taste 
is acrid. An Agaricus named A. dryophilus has sometimes been 
gathered in mistake for the champignon, but this too grows in woods 
where the champignon never grows ; it has a hollow instead of a solid 
stem, gills crowded together instead of far apart, and flesh very 
tender and brittle instead of tough. A small esculent ally of the 
champignon, named M. scovodonius, is sometimes found in pastures 
in Great Britain; this is largely consumed on the Continent, where 
it is esteemed for its powerful flavour of garlic. In England, where, 
garlic is not used to a large extent, this fungus is not sought for. 
Another small and common species, M. porreus, is pervaded with a 
garlic flavour to an equal extent with the last. A third species, 
M. alliaceus, is also strongly impregnated with the scent and taste 
of onions or garlic. Two species, M. impudicus and M. foetidus, 
are in all stages of growth highly foetid. The curious little edible 
Agaricus esculentus, although placed under the sub-genus Collybia, 
is allied by its structure to Marasmius. It is a small bitter species 
common in upland pastures and fir plantations early in the season. 
Although not gathered for the table in England, it is greatly prized 
in some parts of the Continent. 

MUSIC. The Greek juouffiK^ (sc. TX"?), from which this 
word is derived, was used very widely to embrace all those 
arts over which the Nine Muses (Mouaai) were held to preside. 
Contrasted with 7iywcumK^ (gymnastic) it included those 
branches of education concerned with the development of the 
mind as opposed to the body. Thus such widely different arts 
and sciences as mathematics, astronomy, poetry and literature 



generally, and even reading and writing would all fall under 
tiovaiKrj, besides the singing and setting of lyric poetry. On 
the educational value of music in the foimation of character 
the philosophers laid chief stress, and this biased their aesthetic 
analysis. 'Ap/iowa (harmony), or appoviKri (sc. Tt\vri), rather 
than fiowM'ht was the name given by the Greeks to the art of 
arranging sounds for the purpose of creating a definite aesthetic 
impression, with which this article deals. 

I. GENERAL SKETCH 

i. Introduction. As a mature and independent art music 
is unknown except in the modern forms realized by Western 
civilization; ancient music, and the non-European music of the 
present day, being (with insignificant exceptions of a character 
which confirms the generalization) invariably an adjunct of poetry 
or dance, in so far as it is recognizable as an art at all. The 
modern art of music is in a unique position; for, while its language 
has'been wholly created by art, this language is yet so perfectly 
organized as to be in itself natural; so that though the music 
of one age or style may be at first unintelligible to a listener 
who is accustomed to another style, and though the listener 
may help himself by acquiring information as to the char- 
acteristics and meaning of the new style, he will best learn to 
understand it by merely divesting his mind of prejudices and 
allowing the music to make itself intelligible by its own self- 
consistency. The understanding of music thus finally depends 
neither upon t*ehnical knowledge nor upon convention, but 
upon the listener's immediate and familiar experience of it; 
an experience which technical knowledge and custom can of 
course aid him to acquire more rapidly, as they strengthen 
his memory and enable him to fix impressions by naming 
them. 

Beyond certain elementary facts of acoustics (see SOUND), 
modern music shows no direct connexion with nature inde- 
pendently of art; indeed, it is already art that determines the 
selection of these elementary acoustic facts, just as in painting 
art determines the selection of those facts that come under the 
cognizance of optics. 1 In music, however, the purely acoustic 
principles are incomparably fewer and simpler than the optical 
principles of painting, and their artistic interaction transforms 
them into something no less remote from the laboratory 
experiments of acoustic science than from the unorganized 
sounds of nature. The result is that while the ordinary non- 
artistic experiences of sight afford so much material for plastic 
art that the vulgar conception of good painting is that it is 
deceptively like nature, the ordinary non-artistic experience 
of sound has so little in common with music that musical 
realism is, with rare though popular exceptions, generally 
regarded as an eccentricity. 

This contrast between music and plastic art may be partly 
explained by the mental work undergone, during the earliest 
infancy both of the race and of the individual, in interpreting 
sensations of space. When a baby learns the shape of objects 
by taking them in his hands, and gradually advances to the 
discovery that his toes belong to him, he goes through an 
amount of work that is quite forgotten by the adult, and its 
complexity and difficulty has perhaps only been fully realized 
through the experience of persons who have been born blind 
but have acquired sight at a mature age by an operation. Such 
work gives the facts of normal adult vision an amount of organic 
principle that makes them admirable raw material for art. 
The power of distinguishing sensations of sound is associated 
with no such mental skill, and is no more complex than the 
power of distinguishing colours. On the other hand, sound 
is the principal medium by which most of the higher animals 
both express and excite emotion; and hence, though until 

1 Thus Chinese and Japanese art has attained high organization 
without the aid of a veracious perspective; while, on the other hand, 
its carefully formulated decorative principles, though not realistic, 
certainly rest on an optical and physiological basis. Again, many 
modern impressionists justify their methods by an appeal to pheno- 
mena of complementary colour which earlier artists possibly did not 
perceive and certainly did not select as artistic materials. 



GENERAL SKETCH] 



MUSIC 



73 



codified into human speech it does not give any raw material 
for art, yet so powerful are its primitive effects that music 
(in the laird-song sense of sound indulged in for its own attractive- 
ness) is as long prior to language as the brilliant colours of 
animals and flowers are prior to painting (see SONG). Again, 
sound as a warning or a menace is eminently important in the 
history of tLe instinct of self-preservation; and, above all, its 
production is instantaneous and instinctive. 

AH these facts, while they tend to make musical expression 
an early phenomenon in the history of life, are extremely 
unfavourable to the early development of musical art. They 
invested the first musical attempts with a mysterious power 
over listener and musician, by re-awakening instincts more 
powerful, because more ancient and necessary, than any that 
could ever have been appealed to by so deliberate a process 
as that of drawing on a flat surface a series of lines calculated 
to remind the eye of the appearance of solid objects in space. 
It is hardly surprising that music long remained as imperfect 
as its legendary powers were portentous, even in the hands of 
so supremely artistic a race as that of classical Greece; and what- 
ever wonder this backwardness might still arouse in us vanishes 
when we realize the extreme difficulty of the process by which 
the principles of the modern art were established. 

2. Non-harmonic and Greek Music. Archaic music is of 
two kinds the unwritten, or spontaneous, and the recorded, 
or scientific. The earliest musical art-problems were far too 
difficult for conscious analysis, but by no means always beyond 
the reach of a lucky hit from an inspired singer; and thus folk- 
music often shows real beauty where the more systematic music 
of the time is merely arbitrary. Moreover, folk-music and the 
present music of barbarous and civilized non-European races 
furnish the study of musical origins with material analogous to 
that given by the present manners and customs of different races 
in the study of social evolution and ancient history. We may 
mention as examples the accurate comparison of the musical 
scales of non-European races undertaken by A. J. Ellis {On 
the Musical Scales of Various Nations, 1885); the parallel 
researches and acute and cautious reasoning of his friend and 
- collaborator, A. J. Hipkins (Ddrian and Phrygian reconsidered 
from a Non-harmonic Point of View, 1902); and, perhaps most 
of all, the study of Japanese music, with its remarkable if 
uncertain signs of the beginning of a harmonic tendency, its 
logical coherence, and its affinity to Western scales, points 
in which it seems to show a great advance upon the Chinese 
music from which most of it is derived (Music and Musical 
Instruments of Japan, by J. F. Piggott, 1893). The reader will 
find detailed accounts of ancient Greek music in the article 
on that subject in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians 
(new ed., ii. 223) and in Monro's Modes of Ancient Greek Music 
(Clarendon Press, 1894), while both the Greek music itself, 
and the steps by which it passed through Graeco-Roman and 
early Christian phases to become the foundation of the modern 
art, are traced as clearly as is consistent with accuracy in 
The Oxford History of Music, vol. i., by Professor Wooldridge. 
Sir Hubert Parry's Evolution of the Art of Music (" International 
Scientific Series," originally published under the title of The 
Art of Music) presents the main lines of the evolution of modern 
musical ideas in the clearest and most readable form yet 
attained. 

Sir Hubert Parry illustrates in this work the artificiality of 
our modern musical conceptions by the word " cadence," 
which to a modern musician belies its etymology, since it 
normally means for him no " falling " close but a pair of final 
chords rising from dominant to tonic. Moreover, in consequence 
of our harmonic notions we think of scales as constructed from 
the bottom upwards; and even in the above-mentioned article 
in Grove's Dictionary all the Greek scales are, from sheer force 
of habit, written upwards. But the ancient and, almost 
universally, the primitive idea of music is like that of speech, 
in which most inflections are in fact cadences, while rising 
inflexions express less usual sentiments, such as surprise or 
interrogation. Again, our modern musical idea of " high " 



and " low " is probably derived from a sense of greater and less 
vocal effort; and it has been much stimulated by our harmonic 
sense, which has necessitated a range of sounds incomparably 
greater than those employed in any non-harmonic system. 
The Greeks derived their use of the terms from the position 
of notes on their instruments; and the Greek hypate was what 
we should call the lowest note of the mode, while nete was the 
highest. Sir George Macfarren has pointed out (Ericy. Brit., 
9th ed., art. " Music ") that Boethius (c. A.D. 500) already fell 
into the trap and turned the Greek modes upside down. * 

Another radical though less grotesque misconception was 
also already well exploded by Macfarren ; but it still frequently 
survives at the present day, since the study of non-harmonic 
scales is, with the best of intentions, apt rather to encourage 
than to dispel it. The more we realize the importance of 
differences in position of intervals of various sizes, as producing 
differences of character in scales, the more irresistible is the 
temptation to regard the ancient Greek modes as differing from 
each other in this way. And the temptation becomes greater 
instead of less when we have succeeded in thinking away our 
modern harmonic notions. Modern harmonization enormously 
increases the differences of expression between modes of which 
the melodic intervals are different, but it does this in a fashion 
that draws the attention almost entirely away from these 
differences of interval; and without harmony we find it extremely 
difficult to distinguish one mode from another, unless it be 
by this different arrangement of intervals. Nevertheless, all 
the evidence irresistibly tends to the conclusion that while the 
three Greek genera diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic 
were scales differing in intervals, the Greek modes were a series 
of scales identical in arrangement of interval, and differing, 
like our modern keys, only in pitch. The three genera were 
applied to all these modes or keys, and we have no difficulty 
in understanding their modifying effects. But the only clue 
we have to the mental process by which in a preharmonic age 
different characteristics can be ascribed to scales identical in 
all but pitch, is to be found in the limited compass of Greek 
musical sounds, corresponding as it does to the evident sensitive- 
ness of the Greek ear to differences in vocal effort. We have 
only to observe the compass of the Greek scale to see that in 
the most esteemed modes it is much more the compass of speaking 
than of singing voices. Modern singing is normally at a much 
higher pitch than that of the speaking voice, but there is no 
natural reason, outside the peculiar nature of modern music, 
why this should be so. It is highly probable that all modern 
singing would strike a classical Greek ear as an outcry; and 
in any case such variations of pitch as are inconsiderable in 
modern singing are extremely emphatic in the speaking voice,, 
so that they might well make all the difference to an ear un- 
accustomed to organized sound beyond the speaking compass. 
Again, much that Aristoxenus and other ancient authorities 
say of the character of the modes (or keys) tends to confirm 
the view that that character depends upon the position of the 
mese or keynote within the general compass. Thus Aristotle 
(Politics, v. (viii.) 7, 1342 b. 20) states that certain low-pitched 
modes suit the voices of old men, and thus we may conjecture 
that even the position of tones and semitones might in the 
Dorian and Phrygian modes bring the bolder portion of the 
scale in all three genera into the best regions of the average 
young voice, while the Ionian and Lydian might lead the voice 
to dwell more upon semitones and enharmonic intervals, and 
so account for the heroic character of the former and the sensual 
character of the latter (Plato, Republic, 398 to 400). 

Of the Greek genera, the chromatic and enharmonic (especially 

1 It is worth adding that in the i6th century the great contrapun- 
tal composer Costanzo Porta had been led by doubts on the subject 
to the wonderful conclusion that ancient Greek music was poly- 
phonic, and so constructed as to be invertible ; in illustration of which 
theory he and Vincentino composed four-part motets in each of the 
Greek genera (diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic), Porta's being 
constructed like the I2th and I3th fugues in Bach's Kunst der Fuge 
so as to be equally euphonious when sung upside down! (See 
Hawkins's History of Music, i. 112.) 



74 



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the latter) show very clearly the origin of so many primitive 
scales in the interval of the downward fourth. That interval 
'(e.g. from C to G) is believed to be the earliest melodic relation- 
ship which the ear learnt to fix; and most of the primitive scales 
were formed by the accretion of auxiliary notes at the bottom 
of this interval, and the addition of a similar interval, with 
similar accretions, below the former. In this way a pentatonic 
scale, like that of so many Scotch melodies, can easily be formed 
(thus, C, A, G; F, D, C) ; and though some primitive scales seem 
to have been on the nucleus of the rising fifth,' while the Siamese 
now use two scales of which not a single note within the octave 
can be accounted for by any known principle, still we may 
consider that for general historic purposes the above example 
is typical. The Greeks divided their downward fourth into 
four notes, called a tetrachord; and by an elaborate system of 
linking tetrachords together they gave their scale a compass 
of two octaves. The enharmonic tetrachord, being the most 
ancient, gathered the lower three notes very closely to the 
bottom, leaving the second note no less than a major third 
from the top, thus C,Ab, G', G; (where G' stands for a note 
between Ab and G). The chromatic tetrachord was C, Bbb, 
Ab, G; and the diatonic tetrachord was C, Bb, Ab, G. It is this 
last that has become the foundation of modern music, and the 
Greeks themselves soon preferred it to the other genera and 
found a scientific basis for it. In the first place they noticed 
that its notes (and, 'less easily, the notes of the chromatic scale) 
could be connected by a series of those intervals which they 
recognized as concordant. These were, the fourth; its converse, 
or inversion, the fifth; and the octave. The notes of the enhar- 
monic tetrachord could not be connected by any such series. 
In the articles on HARMONY and SOUND account is given of 
the historic and scientific foundations of the modern conception 
of concord; and although this harmonic conception applies 
to simultaneous notes, while the Greeks concerned themselves 
only with successive notes, it is nevertheless permissible to 
regard the Greek sense of concord in successive notes as con- 
taining the germ of our harmonic sense. The stability of the 
diatonic scale was assured as early as the 6th century B.C. when 
Pythagoras discovered (if he did not learn from Egypt or India) 
the extremely simple mathematical proportions of its intervals. 
And this discovery was of unique importance, as fixing the 
intervals by a criterion that could never be obscured by the 
changes of taste and custom otherwise inevitable in music that 
has no conscious harmonic principles to guide it. At the same 
time, the foundation of a music as yet immature and ancillary 
to drama, on an acoustic science ancillary to a priori mathe- 
matics, was not without disadvantage to the art; and it is 
arguable that the great difficulty with which during the 
medieval beginnings of modern harmony the concords of the 
third and sixth were rationalized may have been increased by 
the fact that the Pythagorean system left these intervals con- 
siderably out of tune. In preharmonic times mathematics 
could not direct even the most observant ear to the study of 
those phenomena of upper partials of which Helmholtz, in 
1863, was the first to explain the significance; and thus though 
the Greeks knew the difference between a major and minor 
tone, on which half the question depended, they could not 
possibly arrive at the modern reasons for adding both kinds 
of tone in order to make the major third. (See SOUND.) 

Here we must digress in order to illustrate what is implied 
by our modern harmonic sense; for the difference that this 
makes to our whole musical consciousness is by no means uni- 
versally realized. Music, as we now understand it, expresses 
itself in the interaction of three elements rhythm, melody and 
harmony. The first two are obviously as ancient as human 
consciousness itself. Without the third a musical art of per- 
manent value and intelligibility has not been known to attain 
independent existence. With harmony music assumes the 
existence of a kind of space in three dimensions, none of which 
can subsist without at least implying the others. When we 
hear an unaccompanied melody we cannot help interpreting 
it in the light of its most probable harmonies. Hence, when 



it does not imply consistent harmonies it seems to us quaint 
or strange; because, unless it is very remote from our harmonic 
conceptions, it at least implies at any given moment some 
simple harmony which in the next moment it contradicts. 
Thus our inferences as to the expression intended by music 
that has not come under European influence are unsafe, and 
the pleasure we take in such music is capricious. The effort of 
thinking away our harmonic preconceptions is probably the 
most violent piece of mental gymnastics in all artistic experience, 
and furnishes much excuse for a sceptical attitude as to the 
artistic value of preharmonic music, which has at all events 
never become even partially independent of poetry and dance. 
Thus the rhythm of classical Greek music seems to have been 
entirely identical with that of verse, and its beauty and ex- 
pression appreciated in virtue of that identity. From the modern 
musical point of view the rhythm of words is limited to a merely 
monotonous uniformity of flow, with minute undulations which 
are musically chaotic (see RHYTHM). The example of Greek 
tragedy, with the reports of its all-pervading music (in many 
cases, as in that of Aeschylus, composed by the dramatist 
himself) could not fail to fire the imaginations of modern pioneers 
and reformers of opera; and Monteverde, Gluck and Wagner 
convinced themselves and their contemporaries that their work 
was, amongst other things, a revival of Greek tragedy. But all 
that is known of Greek music shows that it represents no such 
modern ideas, as far as their really musical aspect is concerned. 
It represents, rather, an organization of the rise and fall of the 
voice, no doubt as elaborate and artistic as the organization 
of verse, no doubt powerful in heightening the emotional and 
dramatic effect of words and action, but in no way essential 
to the understanding or the organization of the works which it 
adorned. The classical Greek preference for the diatonic scale 
indicates a latent harmonic sense and also that temperance 
which is at the foundation of the general Greek sense of beauty; 
but, beyond this and similar generalities, all the research in the 
world will not enable us to understand the Greek musician's 
mind. Non-harmonic music is a world of two dimensions, and 
we must now inquire how men came to rise from this " flat kind " 
to the solid world of sound in which Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven 
and Wagner live. 

3. Harmonic Origins. Although the simultaneous blending 
of different sounds was never seriously contemplated by the 
Greeks, yet in classical times they were fond of singing with 
high and low voices in octaves. This was called magadizing, 
from the name of an instrument on which playing in octaves 
was rendered easy by means of a bridge that divided the strings 
at two-thirds of their length. While the practice was esteemed 
for the beauty of the blending of different voices, it was tolerated 
only because of the peculiar effect of identity furnished by 
the different notes of the octave, and no other interval was so 
used by the Greeks. In the article on HARMONY the degrees of 
identity-in-difference which characterize the simpler harmonic 
intervals are analysed, and the main steps are indicated by which 
the more complicated medieval magadizing uses of the fourth 
and fifth (the symphonia, diaphonia or organum of Hucbald) 
gave way (partly by their own interchange and partly through 
experiments in the introduction of ornaments and variety) 
to the modern conception of harmony as consisting of voices 
or parts that move independently to the exclusion of such parallel 
motion. In The Oxjord History of Music, vols. i. and ii., will 
be found abundant examples of every stage of the process, 
which begins with the organum or diaphony that prevailed 
until the death of Guido of Arezzo (about 1050) and passes 
through the discant, or measured music, of the I3th century, 
in which rhythm is first organized on a sufficiently firm basis to 
enable voices to sing contrasted rhythms simultaneously, 
while the new harmonic criterion of the independence of parts 
more and more displaces and shows its opposition to the old 
criterion of parallelism. 

The most extraordinary example of these conflicting principles 
is the famous rota " Sumer is icumen in," a 13th-century round 
in four parts on a canonic ground-bass in two. Recent researches 



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MUSIC 



75 



have brought to light a number of works in the forms of motet, 
conductus, rondel (neither the later rondo nor the round, but a 
kind of triple counterpoint), which show that " Sumer is icumen 
in " contains no unique technical feature; but no work within 
two centuries of its date attains a style so nearly intelligible 
to modern ears. Its richness and firmness of harmony are 
such that the frequent use of consecutive fifths and octaves, 
in strict accordance with 13th-century principles, has to our 
ears all the effect of a series of grammatical blunders, so sharply 
does it contrast with the smooth counterpoint of the rest. In 
what light this smooth counterpoint struck contemporaries, 
or how its author (who may or may not be the writer of the 
Reading MS., John of Fornsete) arrived at it, is not clear, 
though W. S. Rockstro's amusing article, " Sumer is icumen 
in," in Grove's Dictionary, is very plausible. All that we know is 
that music in England in the I3th century must have been at 
a comparatively high state of development; and we may also 
conjecture that the tuneful character of this wonderful rota 
has something in common with the unwritten but famous 
songs of the aristocratic troubadours, or trouveres, of the izth 
and i3th centuries, who, while disdaining to practise the art of 
accompaniment or the art of scientific and written music, 
undoubtedly set the fashion in melody, and, being themselves 
poets as well as singers, formed the current notions as to the 
relations between musical and poetic rhythm. The music 
of Adam de la Hale, surnamed Le Bossu d' Arras (c. 1230-1288), 
shows the transformation of the troubadour into the learned 
musician; and, nearly a century later, the more ambitious 
efforts of a greater French poet (like his contemporary Petrarca, 
one of Chaucer's models in poetic technique), Guillaume de 
Machault (fl. 1350), mark a further technical advance, though they 
are not appreciably more intelligible to the modern ear. 

In the next century we find an Englishman, John Dunstable, 
who had as early as 1437 acquired a European reputation; 
while his works were so soon lost sight of that until recently 
he was almost a legendary character, sometimes revered as the 
" inventor " of counterpoint, and once or twice even identified 
with St Dunstan! Recently a great deal of his work has come 
to light, and it shows us (especially when taken in connexion 
with the fact that the early Netherlandish master, G. Dufay, 
did not die until 1474, twenty-one years after Dunstable) that 
English counterpoint was fully capable of showing the composers 
of the Netherlands the path by which they were to reach the 
art of the " Golden age." In such examples of Dunstable's work 
as that appended to the article " Dunstable " in Grove's 
Dictionary (new ed., i. 744) we see music approaching a style 
more or less consistently intelligible to a modern ear; and in 
English Carols of the z^th Century (1891) several two-part 
compositions of the period, in a style resembling Dunstable's, 
have been made accessible to modern readers and filled out into 
four-part music by the editor " in accordance with the rules 
of the time." And though it may be doubted whether Mr 
Rockstro's skill would not have been held in the 1 5th century to 
savour overmuch of the Black Art, still the success of his attempt 
shows that the musical conceptions he is dealing with are no 
longer radically different from those of our modern musical 
consciousness. 

4. The Golden Age. The struggle towards the realization 
of mature musical art seems incredibly slow when we do not 
realize its difficulty, and wonderfully rapid as soon as we attempt 
to imagine the effort of first forming those harmonic conceptions 
which are second nature to us. Even at the time of Dunstable 
and Dufay the development of the contrapuntal idea of inde- 
pendence of parts had not yet so transformed the harmonic 
consciousness that the ancient parallelisms or consecutive 
fourths and fifths that were the backbone of discant could 
be seen in their true light as contradictory to the contrapuntal 
method. By the beginning of the i6th century, however, the 
laws of counterpoint were substantially fixed; practice was 
for a while imperfect, and aims still uncertain, but skill was 
increasing and soon became marvellous; and in 16th-century 
music we leave the archaic world altogether. Henceforth music 



may show various phenomena of crudeness, decadence and 
transition, but its transition-periods will always derive light 
from the past, whatever the darkness of the future. 

In the best music of the i6th century we have no need of 
research or mental gymnastics, beyond what is necessary in 
all art to secure intelligent presentation and attention. Its 
materials show us the " three dimensions " of music in their 
simplest state of perfect balance. Rhythm, emancipated from 
the tyranny of verse, is free to co-ordinate and contrast a multi- 
tude of melodies which by the very independence of their flow 
produce a mass of harmony that passes from concord to concord 
through ordered varieties of transitional discord. The criterion 
of discord is no longer that of mere harshness, but is modified 
by the conception of the simplicity or remoteness of the steps 
by which the flux of independent simultaneous melodies passes 
from one concord, or point of repose, to another. When the 
music reaches a climax, or its final conclusion, the point of 
repose is, of course, greatly emphasized. It is accordingly the 
" cadences " or full closes of 16th-century music that show 
the greatest resemblance to the harmonic ideas of the present 
day; and it is also at these points that certain notes were most 
frequently raised so as to modify the ecclesiastical modes which 
are derived more or less directly from the melodic diatonic 
scale of the Greeks, and misnamed, according to inevitable 
medieval misconceptions, after the Greek modes. 1 

In other passages our modern ears, when unaccustomed to 
the style, feel that the harmony is strange and lacking in definite 
direction; and we are apt to form the hasty conclusion that the 
mode is an archaic survival. A more familiar acquaintance 
with the art soon shows that its shifting and vague modulations 
are no mere survival of a scale inadequate for any but melodic 
purposes, but the natural result of a state of things in which only 
two species of chord are available as points of repose at all. If 
no successions of such chords were given prominence, except those 
that define key according to modern notions based upon a much 
greater variety of harmony, the resulting monotony and triviality 
would be intolerable. Moreover, there is in this music just 
as much and no more of formal antithesis and sequence as its 
harmony will suffice to hold together. Lastly, we shall find, 
on comparing the masterpieces of the period with works of 
inferior rank, that in the masterpieces the most archaic modal 
features are expressive, varied and beautiful; while in the inferior 
works they are often avoided in favour of ordinary modern 
ideas, and, when they occur, are always accidental and monoto- 
nous, although in strict conformity with the rules of the time. 
The consistent limitations of harmony, form and rhythm have 
the further consequence that the only artistic music possible 
within them is purely vocal. The use of instruments is little 
more than a necessary evil for the support of voices in case of 
insufficient opportunity for practice; and although the origins 
of instrumental music are already of some artistic interest in 
the 1 6th century, we must leave them out of our account if our 
object is to present mature artistic ideas in proper proportions. 

The principles of 16th-century art-forms are discussed in 
more detail in the article on CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS. Here we 
will treat the formal criteria on a general basis; especially as 
with art on such simple principles the distinction between one 
art-form and another is apt to be either too external or too 
subtle for stability. With music there is a stronger probability 
than in any other art that merely mechanical devices will be 
self-evident, and thus they may become either dangerous or 
effective. With the masters of the Netherlands they speedily 
became both. Two adjacent groups of illustrations in Burney's 

1 The technical nature of the subject forbids us to discuss the 
origin and characteristics of the great Ambrosian and Gregorian 
collections of melodic church music on which nearly all medieval 
and 16th-century polyphony was based, and from which the ecclesi- 
astical modes were derived. Professor Wooldridge in The Oxford 
History of Music, i. 20-44, has shown- the continuity of this early 
Christian music with the Graeco- Roman music, and the origin of its 
modes in the Ptolemaic modification (c. A.D. 150) of the Greek 
diatonic scale; while a recent defence of the ecclesiastical tradi- 
tion of a revision by St Gregory will be found in the article on 
" Gregorian music " in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.), ii. 235. 



7 6 



MUSIC 



[GENERAL SKETCH 



History of Music will show on the one hand the astonishing 
way in which early polyphonic composers learnt to " dance 
in fetters," and, on the other hand, tne expressive power that 
they attained by that discipline. Burney quotes from the 
venerable 15th-century master Okeghem, or Okenheim, some 
canons so designed as to be singable in all modes. They are 
by no means extreme cases of the ingenuity which Okenheim 
and his pupils often employed; but though they are not very 
valuable artistically (and are not even correctly deciphered 
by Burney) 1 they prove that mechanical principles may be a 
help rather than a hindrance to the attainment of a smooth 
and plastic style. Burney most appropriately follows them 
with Josquin Des Pres's wonderful Deploralion de Jehan Okenheim, 
in which the tenor sings the plain chant of the Requiem a degree 
below its proper pitch, while the other voices sing a pastoral 
dirge in French. The device of transposing the plain chant a 
note lower, and making the tenor sing it in that position through- 
out the whole piece, is obviously as mechanical as any form of 
acrostic: but it is happily calculated to impress our ears, even 
though, unlike Josquin's contemporaries, most of us are not 
familiar with the plain chant in its normal position; because 
it alters the position of all the semitones and gives the chant 
a plaintive minor character which is no less impressive in itself 
than as a contrast to the orthodox form. And the harmonic 
superstructure is as fine an instance of the expressive possibilities 
of the church modes at their apogee from modern tonality as 
could be found anywhere. A still nobler example, which we 
may perhaps acclaim as the earliest really sublime masterpiece 
in music, is Josquin's Miserere, which is accessible in a modern 
edition. In this monumental work one of the tenor parts is 
called Vagans, because it sings the burden Miserere mei Deus 
at regular intervals, in an almost monotonous wailing figure, 
wandering through each successive degree of the scale throughout 
the composition- The effect, aided as it is by consummate 
rhetorical power in every detail of the surrounding mass of 
harmony and counterpoint, is extremely expressive; and the 
device lends itself to every shade of feeling in the works of the 
greatest of all Netherland masters, Orlando di Lasso. Palestrina 
is less fond of it. Like all more obvious formal devices it is 
crowded out of his Roman art by the exquisite subtlety of his 
sense of proportion, and the exalted spirituality of his style 
which, while it allows him to set the letters of the Hebrew alphabet 
in the Lamentations of Jeremiah in much the same spirit as 
that in which they would be treated in an illuminated Bible, 
forbids him to stimulate a sense of form that might distract 
the mind from the sense of mystery and awe proper to objects 
of devout contemplation. Yet in one of his greatest motets, 
Tribularer si nescirem, the burden of Josquin's Miserere appears 
with the same treatment and purpose as in its prototype. 

But with the lesser Flemish masters, and sometimes with 
the greatest, such mechanical principles often became not only 
inexpressive but absolutely destructive to musical effect. The 
ingenuity necessary to make the stubborn material of music 
plastic was not so easily attainable as the ingenuity necessary 
to turn music into a mathematical game; and when Palestrina was 
in his prime the inferior composers so outnumbered the masters 
to whom music was a devout language, and so degraded the 
art, not only by ousting genuine musical expression but by 
foisting secular tunes and words into the church services, that 
one of the minor questions with which the Council of Trent 
was concerned was whether polyphonic church music should be 
totally abolished with other abuses, or whether it was capable 
of reform. Legendary history relates that Palestrina submitted 
for judgment three masses of which the Missa papae Marcelli 
proved to be so sublime that it was henceforth accepted as the 
ideal church music (see PALESTRINA). This tale is difficult to 
reconcile with the chronology of Palestrina's works, but there is 
no doubt that Palestrina was officially recognized by the Church 
as a bulwark against bad taste. But we must not allow 
this to mislead us as to the value of church music before 

' * The correct version will be found in The Oxford History of Music, 
ii. 215. 



Palestrina. Nor must we follow the example of Baini, who, 
in his detestation of what he is pleased to call fiammingo squalore, 
views with uncritical suspicion any work in which Palestrina 
does not confine himself to strictly Italian methods of expression. 
A notion still prevails that Josquin represents counterpoint in 
an anatomical perfection into which Palestrina was the first 
to breathe life and soul. This gives an altogether inadequate 
idea of 16th-century music. Palestrina brought the century to a 
glorious close and is undoubtedly its greatest master, but he 
is primus inter pares; and in every part of Europe music was 
represented, even before the middle of the century, by masters 
who have every claim to immortality that sincerity of aim, 
completeness of range, and depth and perfection of style can 
give. It has been rightly called the golden age of music, and 
our chronological table at the end of this article gives but an 
inadequate idea of the number of its masters whom no lover 
of music ought to neglect. It is not exclusively an age of church 
music. It is also the age of madrigals, both secular and spiritual ; 
and, small as was its range of expression, there has been no 
period in musical art when the distinctions between secular and 
ecclesiastical style were more accurately maintained by the great 
masters, as is abundantly shown by the test cases in which 
masses of the best period have been based on secular themes. 
(See MADRIGAL.) 

5. The Monadic Resolution and its Results. Like all golden 
ages, that of music vanished at the first appearance of a knowledge 
beyond its limitations. The first and simplest realization of 
mature art is widespread and nourishes a veritable army of great 
men; its masterpieces are innumerable, and its organization 
is so complete that no narrowness or specialization can be felt 
in the nature of its limitations. Yet these are exceedingly 
close, and the most modest attempt to widen them may have 
disastrous results. Many experiments were tried before Pales- 
trina's death and throughout the century, notably by the 
elder and younger Gabrieli. Perhaps Palestrina himself is 
the only great composer of the time who never violates the 
principles of his art. Orlando di Lasso, unlike Palestrina, 
wrote almost as much secular as sacred music, and in his youth 
indulged in many eccentricities in a chromatic style which he 
afterwards learnt to detest. But if experiments are to revolu- 
tionize art it is necessary that their novelty shall already embody 
some artistic principle of coherence. No such principle will 
avail to connect the Phrygian mode with a chord containing A$; 
and, however proud the youthful Orlando di Lasso may be at 
being the first to write A#, neither his early chromatic experiments 
nor those of Cipriano di Rore, which he admired so much, left 
a mark on musical history. They appealed to nothing deeper 
than a desire for sensational variety of harmony; and, while 
they carried the successions of chords far beyond the limits 
of the modes, they brought no new elements into the chords 
themselves. 

By the beginning of the I7th century the true revolutionary 
principles were vigorously at work, and the powerful genius 
of Monteverde speedily made it impossible for men of impres- 
sionable artistic temper to continue to work in the old 
style when such vast new regions of thought lay open to 
them. In the year of Palestrina's death, 1594, Monteverde pub- 
lished, in his third book of madrigals, works in which without 
going irrevocably beyond the letter of 16th-century law he showed 
far more zeal for emotional expression than sense of euphony. 
In 1 599 he published madrigals in which his means of expression 
involve harmonic principles altogether incompatible with 16th- 
century ideas. But he soon ceased to place confidence in the 
madrigal as an adequate art-form for his new ideals of expression, 
and he found an unlimited field in musical drama. Dramatic 
music received its first stimulus from a group of Florentine 
dilettanti, who aspired amongst other things to revive the ideals of 
Greek tragedy. Under their auspices the first true opera 
ever performed in public, Jacopo Peri's Euridice, appeared in 
1600. Monteverde found the conditions of dramatic music 
more favourable to his experiments than those of choral music, 
in which both voices and ears are at their highest sensibility 



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to discord. Instruments do not blend like voices; and players, 
producing their notes by more mechanical means, have not 
the singer's difficulty in making combinations which the ear 
does not readily understand. 

The one difficulty of the new art was fatal: there were no 
limitations. When Monteverde introduced his unprepared 
discords, the effect upon musical style was like that of intro- 
ducing modern metaphors into classical Greek. There were 
no harmonic principles to control the new material, except 
those which just sufficed to hold together the pure loth-century 
style; and that style depended on an exquisite continuity of 
flow which was incompatible with any rigidity either of har- 
mony or rhythm. Accordingly there were also no rhythmic 
principles to hold Monteverde's work together, except such 
as could be borrowed from types of secular and popular music 
that had hitherto been beneath serious attention. If the i7th 
century seems almost devoid of great musical names it is not 
for want of incessant musical activity. The task of organizing 
new resources into a consistent language was too gigantic to 
be accomplished within three generations. Its fascinating 
dramatic suggestiveness and incalculable range disguised for 
those who first undertook it the fact that the new art was as 
difficult and elementary in its beginnings as the very beginning 
of harmony itself in the I3th and i4th centuries. And the 
most beautiful compositions at the beginning of the I7th century 
are rather those which show the decadence of 16th-century art 
than those in which the new principles were most consistently 
adopted. Thus the madrigals of Monteverde, though often 
dull and always rough, contain more music than his operas. 
On the other hand, almost until the middle of the xyth century 
great men were not wanting who still carried on the pure 
polyphonic style. Their asceticism denotes a spirit less compre- 
hensive than that of the great artists for whom the golden age 
was a natural environment; but in parts of the world where the 
new influences did not yet prevail even this is not the case, 
and a composer like Orlando Gibbons, who died in 1625, is 
well worthy to be ranked with the great Italian and Flemish 
masters of the preceding century. 

But the main task of composers of the iyth century lay 
elsewhere; and if the result of their steady attention to it was 
trivial in comparison with the glories of the past, it at least 
led to the glories of the greater world organized by Bach and 
Handel. The early monodists, Monteverde and his fellows, 
directed attention to the right quarter in attempting to express 
emotion by means of single voices supported by instruments; 
but the formless declamation of their dramatic writings soon 
proved too monotonous for permanent interest, and such method 
as it showed became permanent only by being codified into 
the formulas of recitative, which are, for the most part, very 
happy idealizations of speech-cadence, and which accordingly 
survive as dramatic elements in music at the present day, 
though, like all rhetorical figures, they have often lost meaning 
from careless use. 1 It was all very well to revolutionize current 
conceptions of harmony, so that chords were no longer considered, 
as in the days of pure polyphony, to be the result of so many 
independent melodies. But in art, as elsewhere, new thought 
eventually shows itself as an addition to, not a substitute for, 
the wisdom of ages. Moreover, it is a mistake, though one 
endorsed by high authorities, to suppose that the 16th-century 
composers did not appreciate the beauty of successions of chords 
apart from polyphonic design. On the contrary, Palestrina 
and Orlando di Lasso themselves are the greatest masters the 
world has ever seen of a style which depends wholly on the 
beauty of masses of harmony, entirely devoid of polyphonic 
detail, and held together by a delicately balanced rhythm in 
which obvious symmetry is as carefully avoided as it is in the 
successions of chords themselves. Nevertheless, the monody 
of the 1 7th century is radically different in principle, not only 
because ^ chords are used which were an outrage on i6th- 

1 The " invention " of recitative is frequently ascribed to this or 
that monodist, with as little room for dispute as when we ascribe 
the invention of clothes to Adam and Eve. All monody was recita- 
tive, if only from inability to organize melodies. 



century ears, but because the fundamental idea is that of a 
solo voice declaiming phrases of paramount emotional interest, 
and supported by instruments that play such chords as will 
heighten the poignancy of the voice. And the first advance 
made on this chaotic monody consisted, not in the reintroduction 
of vitality into the texture of the harmonies, but in giving formal 
symmetry and balance to the vocal surface. This involved the 
strengthening of the harmonic system, so that it could carry 
the new discords as parts of an intelligible scheme, and not 
merely as uncontrollable expressions of emotion. In other words, 
the chief energies of the successors of the monodists were devoted 
to the establishment of the modern key-system; a system in 
comparison with which the subtle variety of modal concord 
sounded vague and ill-balanced, until the new key-system 
itself was so safely established that Bach and Beethoven could 
once more appreciate and use essentially modal successions of 
chords in their true meaning. 

The second advance of the monodic movement was in the 
cultivation of the solo voice. This developed together with 
the cultivation of the violin, the most capable and expressive 
of the instruments used to support it. Monteverde already 
knew how to make interesting experiments with violins, such 
as directing them to play pizzicato, and accompanying an excited 
description of a duel by rapidly repeated strokes on a major 
chord, followed by sustained dying harmonies in the minor. 
By the middle of the century violin music is fairly common, 
and the distinction between Sonata da chiesa and Sonata da 
camera appears (see SONATA). But the cultivation of instru- 
mental technique had also a great effect on that of the voice; 
and Italian vocal technique soon developed into a monstrosity 
that so corrupted musical taste as not only to blind the contem- 
poraries of Bach and Handel to the greatness of their choral 
art, but, in Handel's case, actually to swamp a great deal of 
his best work. The balance between a solo voice and a group 
of instruments was, however, successfully cultivated together 
with the modern key-system and melodic form; with the result 
that the classical aria, a highly effective art-form, took shape. 
This, while it totally destroyed the dramatic character of opera 
for the next hundred years, yet did good service in furnishing 
a reasonably effective means of musical expression which could 
encourage composers and listeners to continue cultivating the 
art until the day of small things was past. The operatic aria, 
as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti, is at its worst a fine oppor- 
tunity for a gorgeously dressed singer to display feats of vocal 
gymnastics, either on a concert platform, or in scenery worthy 
of the Drury Lane pantomime. At its best it is a beautiful 
means of expression for the devout fervour of Bach and Handel. 
At all times it paralyses dramatic action, and no more ironic 
revenge has ever overtaken iconoclastic reformers than the 
historic development by which the purely dramatic declama- 
tion of the monodists settled down into a series of about thirty 
successive displays of vocalization, designed on rigidly musical 
conventions, and produced under spectacular conditions by 
artificial sopranos as the highest ideal of music-drama. 

The principal new art-forms of the I7th century are then, 
firstly, the aria (not the opera, which was merely a spectacular 
condition under which people consented to listen to some thirty 
arias in succession); and, secondly, the polyphonic instrumental 
forms, of which those of the suite or sonata da camera were 
mainly derived from the necessity for ballet music in the opera 
(and hence greatly stimulated by the taste of the French court 
under Louis XIV.), while those of the sonata da chiesa were also 
inspired by a renaissance of interest in polyphonic texture. 
The sonata da chiesa soon settled into a conventionality only 
less inert than that of the aria because violin technique had 
wider possibilities than vocal; but when Lulli settled in France 
and raised to a higher level of effect the operatic style suggested 
by Cambert, he brought with him justr enough of the new instru- 
mental polyphony to make his typical form of French overture 
(with its slow introduction in dotted rhythm, and its quasi-fugal 
allegro) worthy of the important place it occupies in Bach's and 
Handel's art. 



MUSIC 



[GENERAL SKETCH 



Meanwhile great though subordinate activity was also shown 
in the evolution of a new choral music dependent upon an instru- 
mental accompaniment of more complex function than that of 
mere support. This, in the hands of the Neapolitan masters, 
was destined to lead straight to the early choral music of Mozart 
and Haydn, both of whom, especially Mozart, subsequently 
learnt its greater possibilities from the study of Handel. But the 
most striking choral art of the time came from the Germans, 
who never showed that thoughtless acquiescence in the easiest 
means of effect which was already the bane of Italian art. 
Consequently, while the German output of the iyth century fails 
to show that rapid attainment of modest maturity which gives 
much Italian music of the period a permanent if slight artistic 
value, there is, in spite of much harshness, a stream of noble 
polyphonic effort in both organ and choral music in Germany 
from the time of H. Schiitz (who was born in 1585 and who was a 
great friend and admirer of Monteverde) to that of Bach and 
Handel just a century later. Nor was Germany inactive in the 
dramatic line, and the i yth-century Italian efforts in comic opera, 
which are so interesting and so unjustly neglected by historians, 
found a parallel, before Handel's maturity, in the work of 
R. Keiser, and may be traced through him in Handel's first 
opera, Almira. 

The best proof of the insufficiency of 17th-century resources 
is to be found in the almost tragic blending of genius and failure 
shown by our English church music of the Restoration. The 
works of Pelham Humfrey and Blow already show the qualities 
which with Purcell seem at almost any given moment to amount 
to those of the highest genius, while hardly a single work has 
any coherence as a whole. The patchiness of Purcell's music 
was, no doubt, increased by the influence of French taste then 
predominant at court. When Pelham Humfrey was sixteen, 
King Charles II., as Sir Hubert Parry remarks, " achieved the 
characteristic and subtle stroke of humour of sending him over 
to France to study the methods of the most celebrated composer 
of theatrical music of the time in order to learn how to compose 
English church music." Yet it is impossible to see how such 
ideas as Purcell's could have been presented in more than French 
continuity of flow by means of any designs less powerful than 
those of Bach and Handel. Purcell's ideas are, like those of 
all great artists, at least sixty years in advance of the normal 
intellect of the time. But they are unfortunately equally in 
advance of the only technical resources then conceivable; and 
Purcell, though one of the greatest contrapuntists that ever 
lived, is probably the only instance in music of a man of really 
high genius born out of due time. Musical talent was certainly 
as common in the lyth century as at any other time; and if we 
ask why, unless we are justified in counting Purcell as a tragic 
exception, the whole century shows not one name in the first 
artistic rank, the answer must be that, after all, artistic talent 
is far more common than the interaction of environment and 
character necessary to direct it to perfect artistic results. 

6. Bach and Handel. It was not until the i8th century had 
begun that two men of the highest genius could find in music a 
worthy expression of their grasp of life. Bach and Handel were 
born within a month of each other, in 1685, and in the same part 
of Saxony. Both inherited the tradition of polyphonic effort 
that the German organists and choral writers had steadily 
maintained throughout the lyth century; and both profited by 
the Italian methods that were penetrating Germany. In Bach's 
case it was the Italian art-forms that appealed to his sense of 
design. Their style did not affect him, but he saw every possi- 
bility which the forms contained, and studied them the more 
assiduously because they were not, like polyphonic texture, his 
birthright. In recitative his own distinctively German style 
attained an intensity and freedom of expression which is one of 
the most moving things in art. Nevertheless, if he handled 
recitative in his own way it was not for want of acquaintance 
with the Italian formulas, nor even because he despised them; 
for in his only two extant Italian works the scraps of recitative 
are strictly in accordance with Italian convention, and the 
arias show (when we allow for their family likeness with Bach's 



normal style) the most careful modelling upon Italian forms. 
Again, as is well known, Bach arranged with copious additions 
and alterations many concertos by Vivaldi (together with some 
which though passing under Vivaldi's name are really by German 
contemporaries); and, while thus taking every opportunity of 
assimilating Italian influences in instrumental as well as in vocal 
music, he was no less alive to the importance of the French 
overture and suite forms. Moreover, he is very clear as to where 
his ideas come from, and extremely careful to maintain every 
art-form in its integrity. Yet his style remains his own through- 
out, and the first impression of its resemblance to that of his 
German contemporaries diminishes the more the period is studied. 
Bach's art thus forms one of the most perfectly systematic 
and complete records a life's work has ever achieved. His 
art-forms might be arranged in a sort of biological scheme, and 
their interaction and genealogy has a clearness which might 
almost be an object of envy to men of science even if Bach had 
not demonstrated every detail of it by those wonderful re- 
writings of his own works which we have described elsewhere 
(see BACH). 

Handel's methods were as different from Bach's as his circum- 
stances. He soon left Germany and, while he never betrayed 
his birthright as a great choral writer, he quickly absorbed the 
Italian style so thoroughly as to become practically an Italian. 
He also adopted the Italian forms, but not, like Bach, from any 
profound sense of their possible place in artistic system. To 
him they were effective, and that was all. He did not trouble 
himself about the permanent idea that might underlie an art- 
form and typify its expression. He has no notion of a form as 
anything higher than a rough means of holding music together 
and maintaining its flow; but he and Bach, alone among their 
contemporaries, have an unfailing sense of all that is necessary 
to secure this end. They worked from opposite points of view: 
Bach develops his art from within, until its detail, like that of 
Beethoven's last works, becomes dazzling with the glory of the 
whole design; Handel at his best is inspired by a magnificent 
scheme, in the execution of which he need condescend to finish 
of detail only so long as his inspiration does not hasten to the 
next design. Nevertheless it is to the immense sweep and 
breadth of Handel's choral style, and its emotional force, that all 
subsequent composers owe their first access to the larger and 
less mechanical resources of music. (See HANDEL.) 

7. The Symphonic Classes. After the death of Bach and 
Handel another change of view, like that Copernican revolution 
for which Kant sighed in philosophy, was necessary for the 
further development of music. Once again it consisted in an 
inversion of the relation between form and texture. But, 
whereas at the beginning of the lyth century the revolution 
consisted mainly in directing attention to chords as, so to speak, 
harmonic lumps, instead of moments in a flux of simultaneous 
melodies; in the later half of the i8th century the revolution 
concerned the larger musical outlines, and was not complicated 
by the discovery of new harmonic resources. On the contrary, 
it led to an extreme simplicity of harmony. The art of Bach 
and Handel had given perfect vitality to the forms developed 
in the i8th century, but chiefly by means of the reinfusion of 
polyphonic life. The formal aspects (that is, those that decree 
the shapes of aria and suite-movement and the balance and 
contrasts of such choruses as are not fugues) are, after all, of 
secondary importance; the real centre of Bach's and Handel's 
technical and intellectual activity is the polyphony; and the 
more the external shape occupies the foreground the more the 
work assumes the character of light music. In the article 
SONATA FORMS we show how this state of things was altered, 
and attention is there drawn to the dramatic power of a music 
in which the form is technically prior to the texture. And it 
is not difficult to understand that Gluck's reform of opera would 
have been a sheer impossibility if he had not dealt with music 
in the sonata style, which is capable of changing its character 
as it unfolds its designs. 

The new period of transition was neither so long nor so inter- 
esting as that of the lyth century. The contrast between the 



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79 



squalid beginnings of the new art and the glories of Bach and 
Handel is almost as great as that between the monodists and 
Palestrina, but it appeals far less to our sympathies, because it 
seems like a contrast between noble sincerity and idle elegance. 
The new art seems so easy-going and empty that it conceals 
from us the necessity of the sympathetic historical insight for 
which the painful experiments of the monodists almost seem to 
cry aloud. And its boldest rhetorical experiments, such as the 
fantasias of Philipp Emanuel Bach, show a security of harmony 
which, together with the very vividness of their realization of 
modern ideas, must appear to a modern listener more like the 
hollow rhetoric of a decadent than the prophetic inspiration 
of a pioneer. And, just as in the lyth century, so in the time 
before Haydn and Mozart, the work that is most valuable artis- 
tically tends to be that which is of less importance historically. 
The cultivation of the shape of music at the expense of its texture 
was destined to lead to greater things than polyphonic art had 
ever dreamt of; but no living art could be achieved until the 
texture was brought once more into vital, if subordinate, relation 
to the shape. Thus, far more interesting artistically than the 
epoch-making earlier pianoforte works of Philipp Emanuel Bach 
are his historically less fruitful oratorios, and his symphonies, 
and the rich polyphonic modifications of the new principles 
in the best works of his elder brother Friedemann. Yet the tran- 
sition-period is hardly second in historic importance to that of 
the lyth century; and we may gather from it even more direct 
hints as to the meaning of the tendencies of our own day. 

As in the lyth century, so in the i8th the composers and 
critics of Haydn's youth, not knowing what to make of the new 
tendencies, and conscious rather of the difference between new 
and old ideas than of the true nature of either, took refuge in 
speculations about the emotional and external expression of 
music; and when artistic power and balance fail it is very con- 
venient to go outside the limits of the art and explain failure 
away by external ideas. Fortunately the external ideas were 
capable of serious organic function through the medium of opera, 
and in that art-form music was passing out of the hands of 
Italians and assuming artistic and dramatic life under Gluck. 
The metaphysical and literary speculation which overwhelmed 
musical criticism at this time, and which produced paper warfares 
and musical party-feuds such as that 'between the Gluckists 
and the Piccinists, at all events had this advantage over the 
Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian controversies of the last genera- 
tion and the disputes about the legitimate function of instru- 
mental music at the present day that it was speculation applied 
exclusively to an art-form in which literary questions were 
directly concerned, an art-form which moreover had up to that 
time been the grave of all the music composers chose to put 
into it. But as soon as music once more attained to consistent 
principles all these discussions became but a memory. If Gluck's 
music had not been more musical as well as more dramatic than 
Piccini's, all its foreshadowing of Wagnerian principles would 
have availed it no more than it availed Monteverde. 

When the new art found symphonic expression in Haydn and 
Mozart, it became music pure and simple, and yet had no more 
difficulty than painting or poetry in dealing with external 
ideas, when these were naturally brought into it by the human 
voice or the conditions of dramatic action. It had once more 
become an art which need reject or accept nothing on artificial or 
extraneous grounds. Beethoven soon showed how gigantic the 
scale and range of the sonata style could be, and how tremendous 
was its effect on the possibilities of vocal music, both dramatic 
and choral. No revolution was needed to accomplish this. 
The style was perfectly formed, and for the first and so far the 
only time in musical history a mature art of small range opened 
out into an equally perfect one of gigantic range, without a 
moment of decadence or destruction. The chief glory of the 
art that culminates in Beethoven is, of course, the instrumental 
music, all of which comes under the head of the sonata-forms 
(<?..). 

Meanwhile Mozart raised comic opera, both Italian and 
German, to a height which has never since been approached 



within the classical limits, and from which the operas of Rossini 
and his successors show a decadence so deplorable that if 
" classical music " means " high art " we must say that classical 
opera buffa begins and ends in Mozart. But Gluck, finding his 
dramatic ideas -encouraged by the eminent theatrical sensibilities 
of the French, had already given French opera a stimulus 
towards the expression of tragic emotion which made the classics 
of the French operatic school well worthy to inspire Beethoven 
to his one noble operatic effort and Weber to the greatest works 
of his life. Cherubini, though no more a Frenchman than 
Gluck, was Gluck's successor in the French classical school of 
dramatic music. His operas, like his church music, account for 
Beethoven's touching estimation of him as the greatest composer 
of the time. In them his melodies, elsewhere curiously cold and 
prosaic, glow with the warmth of a true classic; and his tact in 
developing, accelerating and suspending a dramatic climax is 
second only to Mozart's. Scarcely inferior to Cherubini in 
mastery and dignity, far more lovable in temperament, and 
weakened only by inequality of invention, Mehul deserves a far 
higher place in musical history than is generally accorded him. 
His most famous work, Joseph, is of more historical importance 
than his others, but it is by no means his best from a purely 
musical point of view, though its Biblical subject impelled 
Me'hul to make extremely successful experiments in " local 
colour " which had probably considerable influence upon 
Weber, whose admiration of the work was boundless. One 
thing is certain, that the romantic opera of Weber owes much 
of its inspiration to the opera comique of these masters. 1 

8. From Beethoven to Wagner. After Beethoven comes 
what is commonly though vaguely described as the " romantic " 
movement. In its essentials it amounts to little more than 
this, that musicians found new and prouder titles for a very 
ancient and universal division of parties. The one party set up 
a convenient scheme of form based upon the average procedure 
of all the writers of sonatas except Haydn and Beethoven, 
which scheme they chose to call classical; while the other party 
devoted itself to the search for new materials and new means of 
expression. The classicists, if so they may be called, did not 
quite approve of Beethoven; and while there is much justification 
for the charge that has been brought against them of reducing 
the sonata-form to a kind of game, they have for that very 
reason no real claim to be considered inheritors of classical 
traditions. The true classical method is that in which matter 
and form are so united that it is impossible to say which is 
prior to the other. The pseudo-classics are the artists who set 
up a form conveniently like the average classical form, and fill 
it with something conveniently like the average classical matter, 
with just such difference as will seem like an advance in brilliance 
and range. The romanticists are the artists who realize such a 
difference between their matter and that of previous art as impels 
them to find new forms for it, or at all events to alter the old 
forms considerably. But if they are successful the difference 
between their work and that of the true classics becomes merely 
external; they are classics in a new art-form. As, however, 
this is as rare as true classical art is at the best of times, romanti- 
cism tends to mean little more than the difference between an 
unstable artist who cannot master his material and an artist 
who can, whether on trje pseudo-classical or the true classical 
plane. The term " romantic opera " has helped us to regard 
Weber as a romanticist in that sphere, but when we call his instru- 
mental works " romantic " the term ceases to have really 
valuable meaning. As applied to pieces like the Concertstiick, 
the Invitation a la danse, and other pieces of which the external 
subject is known either from Weber's letters or from the titles 
of the pieces themselves, the term means simply " programme- 
music " such as we have seen to be characteristic of any stage 
in which the art is imperfectly mastered. Weber's programme- 
music shows no advance on Beethoven in the illustrative 
resources of the art; and the application of the term " romantic " 

1 We must remember in this connexion that the term Optra 
comique means simply opera with spoken dialogue, and has nothing 
to do with the comic idea. 



8o 



MUSIC 



[GENERAL SKETCH 



to his interesting and in many places beautiful pianoforte 
sonatas has no definite ground except the brilliance of his piano- 
forte technique and the helplessness in matters of design (and 
occasionally even of harmony) that drives him to violent and 
operatic outbreaks. 

Schubert also lends some colour to the opposition between 
romantic and classical by his weakness in large instrumental 
designs, but his sense of form was too vital for his defective 
training to warp his mind from the true classical spirit; and the 
new elements he introduced into instrumental music, though not 
ratified by concentration and unity of design, were almost always 
the fruits of true inspiration and never mere struggles to escape 
from a difficulty. His talent for purely instrumental music was 
incomparably higher than Weber's, while that for stage-drama, 
as shown in the most ambitious of his numerous operas, Fierra- 
bras, was almost nil. But he is the first and perhaps the greatest 
classical song writer. It was Beethoven's work on a larger 
scale that so increased the possibilities of handling remote 
harmonic sequences and rich instrumental and rhythmic effects 
as to prepare for Schubert a world in which music, no less than 
literature, was full of suggestions for that concentrated expres- 
sion of a single emotion which distinguishes true lyric art. And, 
whatever the defects of Schubert's treatment of larger forms, 
his construction of small forms which can be compassed by a 
single melody or group of melodies is unsurpassable and is truly 
classical in spirit and result. 

Schumann had neither Schubert's native talent for larger 
form nor the irresponsible spirit which allowed Schubert to 
handle it uncritically. Nor had he the astounding lightness 
of touch and perfect balance of style with which Chopin con- 
trolled the most wayward imagination that has ever found 
expression in the pianoforte lyric. But he had a deep sense of 
melodic beauty, a mastery of polyphonic expression which 
for all its unorthodox tendency was second only to that of the 
greatest classics, and an epigrammatic fancy which enabled 
him to devise highly artistic forms of music never since imitated 
with success though often unintelligently copied. In his songs 
and pianoforte lyrics his romantic ideas found perfectly mature 
expression. Throughout his life he was inspired by a deep 
reverence which, while it prevented him from attempting to 
handle classical forms with a technique which he felt to be 
inadequate, at the same time impelled him as he grew older to 
devise forms on a large scale externally resembling them. The 
German lyric poetry, which he so perfectly set to music, strength- 
ened him in his tendency to present his materials in an epi- 
grammatic and antithetic manner; and, when he took to writing 
orchestral and chamber music, the extension of the principles 
of this style to the designing of large spaces in rigid sequence 
furnished him with a means of attaining great dignity and weight 
of climax in a form which, though neither classical nor strictly 
natural, was at all events more true in its relationship to his 
matter than that of the pseudo-classics such as Hummel or even 
Spohr. Towards the end of his short life, before darkness 
settled upon his mind, he rose perhaps to his greatest height as 
regards solemnity of inspiration, though none of his later works 
can compare with his early lyrics for artistic perfection. Be this 
as it may, his last choral works, especially the latter parts of 
Faust (which, unlike the first part, was written before his powers 
failed), show that the sense of beauty and polyphonic life with 
which he began his career was always increasing; and if he was 
led to substitute an artificial and ascetic for a natural and 
classical solution of the difficulties of the larger art-forms it was 
only because of his insight into artistic ideals which he felt to be 
beyond his attainment. He shared with Mendelssohn the inevit- 
able misunderstanding of those contemporaries who grouped 
all music under one or other of the two heads, Classical and 
Romantic. 

There is good reason to believe that Mendelssohn died before 
he had more than begun to show his power, though this may be 
denied by critics who have not thought of comparing Handel's 
career up to the age at which Mendelssohn's ceased. And his 
mastery, resting, like Handel's, on the experience of a boyhood 



comparable only to Mozart's, was far too easy to induce him 
as a critic to reconcile the idea of high talent with distressing 
intellectual and technical failure. This same mastery also 
tended to discredit his own work, both as performer and composer, 
in the estimation of those whose experience encouraged them 
to hope that imperfection and over-excitement were infallible 
signs of genius. And as his facility actually did co-operate with 
the tendencies of the times to deflect much of his work into 
pseudo-classical channels, while nevertheless his independence 
of form and style kept him at all times at a higher level of 
interest and variety than any mere pseudo-classic, it is not to be 
wondered that his reputation became a formidable object of 
jealousy to those apostles of new ideas who felt that their own 
works were not likely to make way against academic opposition 
unless they called journalism to their aid. 

Nothing has more confused, hindered and embittered the 
careers of Wagner and Liszt and their disciples than the paper 
warfare which they did everything in their power to encourage. 
No doubt it had a useful purpose, and, as nothing affords a 
greater field for intrigue than the production of operas, it is at 
least possible that the gigantic and unprecedentedly expensive 
works of Wagner might not even at the present day have 
obtained a hearing if Wagner himself had been a tactful and 
reticent man and his partisans had all been discreet lovers and 
practisers of art. As to Wagner's achievement there is now no 
important difference of opinion. It has survived all attacks 
as the most monumental result music has achieved with the aid 
of other arts. Its antecedents must be sought in many very 
remote regions. The rediscovery, by Mendelssohn, of the choral 
works of Bach, after a century of oblivion, revealed the possi- 
bilities of polyphonic expression in a grandeur which even 
Handel rarely suggested; and inspired Mendelssohn with impor- 
tant ideas in the designing of oratorios as wholes. The complete 
fusion of polyphonic method with external and harmonic design 
had, under the same stimulus, been carried a step further than 
Beethoven by means of Schumann's more concentrated harmonic 
and lyric expression. That wildest of all romanticists, Berlioz, 
though he had less polyphonic sense than any composer who 
ever before or since attained distinction, nevertheless revealed 
important new possibilities in his unique imagination in orches- 
tral colour. The breaking down of the barriers that check 
continuity in classical opera was already indicated by Weber, 
in whose Euryanthe the movements frequently run one into the 
other, while at least twenty different themes are discoverable 
in the opera, recurring, like the Wagnerian leit-motif, in apt 
transformation and logical association with definite incidents 
and persons. 

But many things undreamed of by Weber were necessary to 
complete the breakdown of the classical barriers; for the whole 
pace of musical motion had to be emancipated from the influence 
of instrumental ideas. This was the most colossal reformation 
ever attempted by a man of real artistic balance; and even the 
undoubted, though unpolished, dramatic genius shown in Wag- 
ner's libretti (the first in which a great composer and dramatist 
are one) is but a small thing in comparison with the musical 
problems which Wagner overcomes with a success immeasur- 
ably outweighing any defects his less perfect literary mastery 
allowed to remain in his dramatic structure and poetic diction. 
Apart from the squabbles of Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian 
journalism, the chief difficulty of his supporters and antagonists 
really lay in this question of the pace of the music and the 
consequent breadth of harmony and design. The opening of 
the Walkiire, in which, before the curtain rises, the sound of 
driving rain is reproduced by very simple sequences that take 
sixteen long bars to move a single step, does not, as instrumental 
music, compare favourably for terseness and variety with the 
first twenty bars of the thunderstorm in Beethoven's Pastoral 
Symphony, where at least four different incidents faithfully 
portray not only the first drops of rain and the distant thunder, 
but all the feelings of depression and apprehension which they 
inspire, besides carrying the listener rapidly through three 
different keys in chromatic sequence. But Beethoven's storm 



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81 



is idealized, in its whole rise and fall, within a space of five 
minutes. Wagner's task is to select five real minutes near the 
end of the storm and to treat them with no greater variety than 
the action of the drama demands. When we have learnt to 
dissociate our minds from irrelevant ideas of an earlier instru- 
mental art, we find that Wagner's broad spaces contain all that 
is necessary. Art on a large scale will always seem to have 
empty spaces, so long as we expect to find in it the kind of detail 
appropriate to art on a smaller scale. 

Wagner's new harmonic resources are of similar and more 
complex but not less legitimate origin. In Derfliegende Hollander 
they are, like his wider rhythmic sweep, imperfectly digested; 
in fact, much of his work before the Meistersinger is, in patches, 
debased by the influence of Meyerbeer. But in his later works 
the more closely his harmonic language is studied the more 
conclusively does it show itself to be a logical and mastered 
thing. His treatment of key is, of course, adapted to a state 
of things in which the designs are far too long for the mind to 
attach any importance to the works ending in the key in which 
it began. To compare Wagner's key-system with that of a 
symphony is like comparing the perspective anrl-composition 
of a panorama with the perspective and composition of an easel 
picture. Indeed the differences are precisely analogous in the 
two cases; and Wagner's sense of harmony and key turns out 
on investigation to be the classical sense truly adapted to its 
new conditions. For this very reason it is in detail quite irrele- 
vant to symphonic art; and there was nothing anti-Wagnerian 
in the reasons why Brahms had so little to do with it in his 
music, although every circumstance of the personal controversies 
and thinly disguised persecutions of Brahms's youth were enough 
to give any upholder of classical symphonic art a rooted prejudice 
to everything bearing the name of " romantic." 

Side by side with Wagner many enthusiasts place Liszt; and 
it is indisputable that Liszt had in mind a larger and slower flow 
of musical sequence closely akin to Wagner's, and, no doubt, 
partly independent of it; and moreover, that one of Liszt's 
aims was to apply this to instrumental music. Also his mastery 
and poetic power as a pianoforte player were faithfully reflected 
in his later treatment of the orchestra, and ensured an extra- 
ordinary rhetorical plausibility for anything he chose to say. 
But neither the princely magnanimity of his personal character, 
which showed itself in his generosity alike to struggling artists 
and to his opponents, nor the great stimulus he gave (both by 
his compositions and his unceasing personal efforts and encour- 
agement) to new musical ideas on romantic lines, ought at this 
time of day to blind us to the hollowness and essential vulgarity 
of. his style. These unfortunate qualities did not secure for his 
compositions immediate popular acceptance; for they were 
outweighed by the true novelty of his aims. But recently they 
have given his symphonic poems an attractiveness which, while 
it has galvanized a belated interest in those works, has made 
many critics blind to their historical importance as the founda- 
tion of new forms which have undergone a development of 
sensational brilliance under Richard Strauss. 

Meanwhile the party politics of modern music did much to 
distract public attention from the works of Brahms, who 
carried on the true classical method of the sonata-forms in his 
orchestral and chamber music, while he was no less great and 
original as a writer of songs and choral music of all kinds. He 
also developed the pianoforte lyric and widened its range. 
Without losing its characteristic unity it assumed a freedom and 
largeness of expression hitherto only attained in sonatas. Hence, 
however, Brahms's work, like Bach's, seemed, from its continuity 
with the classical forms, to look backward rather than forward. 
Indeed Brahms's reputation is in many quarters that of an 
academic reactionary; just as Bach's was, even at a time when 
the word " academic " was held to be rather a title of honour 
than of reproach. When the contemporary standpoints of 
criticism are established by the production of works of art in 
which the new elements shall no longer be at war with one another 
and with the whole, perhaps it will be recognized once more that 
the idea of progress has no value as a critical standard unless 



it is strictly applied to that principle by which every work of 
art must differ in every part of its form from every other 
work, precisely as far as its material differs and no further. 
Then, perhaps, as the conservative Bach after a hundred years 
of neglect revealed himself as the most profoundly modern force 
in the music of the ipth century, while that of his gifted and 
progressive sons became a forgotten fashion as soon as their 
goal was attained by greater masters, so may the musical epoch 
that seems now to have closed be remembered by posterity as 
the age, not of Wagner and the pioneer Liszt, but the age of 
Wagner and Brahms. 

It will also in all probability be remembered as the age in 
which the performer ceased to be necessarily the intellectual 
inferior of the composer and musical scholar. With the excep- 
tion of Wagner and Berlioz every great composer, since Palestrina 
sang in the papal choir, has paid his way as a performer; but 
Joseph Joachim was the first who threw the whole mind of a 
great composer into the career of an interpreter; and the example 
set by him, Billow, Clara Schumann and Jenny Lind, though 
followed by very few other artists, sufficed to dispel for ever 
the old association of the musical performer with the mounte- 
bank. 

Joachim's influence on Brahms was incalculable. The two 
composers met at the time when new musical tendencies were 
beginning to arouse violent controversy. At the age of twenty- 
one Joachim had produced in his Hungarian Concerto a work of 
high classical mastery and great nobility, and his technique in 
form and texture was then considerably in advance of Brahms's. 
For some years Joachim and Brahms interchanged contrapuntal 
exercises, and many of the greatest and most perfect of Brahms's 
earlier works owe much to Joachim's criticism. Yet it is 
impossible to regret that Joachim did not himself carry on as 
a composer the work he so nobly began, when we realize the 
enormous influence of his playing in the history of modern music. 
By it we have become familiar with a standard of truthfulness 
in performance which all the generous efforts of Wagner and 
Liszt could hardly have rendered independent of their own 
special propaganda. And by it the record of classical music has 
been made a matter of genuine public knowledge, with a unique 
freedom from those popularizing tendencies which invest vulgar 
error with the authority of academic truth. 

In this respect there is a real change in the nature of modern 
musical culture. No serious composer at the present day would 
dedicate a great work to an artist who, like F. Clement, for whom 
Beethoven wrote his Violin Concerto, would perform the work 
in two portions and between them play a sonata for the violin 
on one string with the violin upside down. But it is hardly 
true that Wagner and Liszt produced a real alteration in the 
standard of general culture among musicians. Their work, 
especially Wagner's, appealed, like Gluck's, to many specific 
literary and philosophical interests, and they themselves were 
brilliant talkers; but music will always remain the most self- 
centred of the arts, and men of true culture will measure the 
depth and range of the musician's mind by the spontaneity 
and truthfulness of his musical expression rather than by his 
volubility on other subjects. The greatest musicians have not 
often been masters of more than one language; but they have 
always been men of true culture. Their humanity has been 
illuminated by the constant presence of ideals which their 
artistic mastery keeps in touch with reality. 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

Pythagoras, c. 582-500 B.C. Determines the ratios of the diatonic 

scale. 
Aristoxenus, /. 320 B.C. Our chief authority on classical Greek 

music. 
Ptolemy, fl. A.D. 130. Astronomer, geographer, mathematician 

and writer on music. Reforms the Greek modes so as to prepare 

the way for the ecclesiastical modes. 
St Ambrose. Arranges the Ambrosian tones of church music, 

A.D. 384. 
Hucbald, c. 840-930. Systematizer of Diaphonia or Organum 

(cailed by him Symphonia), and inventor of a simple and in- 
genious notation which did not survive him. 



MUSIC 



[RECENT MUSIC 



Guido of Arezzo, c. 990-1050. Theorist and systematizer of musical 
notation and solmization. 

Franco of Cologne, nth century author of treatises on musical 
rhythm. Works under the name of Franco appear at dates 
and places which have led to the assumption of the existence of 
three different authors, who, however, have been partly 
explained away again; and the nth century is sometimes called 
the Franconian period of discant. 

Discantus positio vulgaris. An anonymous treatise written before 
1 150; is said to contain the earliest rules for " measured music," 
i.e. for music in which different voices can sing different rhythms. 

The Reading MS., c. 1240 (British Museum, MS. Harl.,978, fol. lib.), 
contains the rota Sumer is icumen in." 

Walter Odington, fl. 1280. English writer on music, and composer. 

Adam de la Hale, 1230-1288 ) Connecting-links between the trouba- 

Machault, yZ. 1350 Jdoursand the archaic contrapuntists. 

John Dunstable, died 1453. English contrapuntal composer. 

G. Dufay, died 1474. Netherland contrapuntal composer. 

(These two are the principal founders of artistic counterpoint.) 

Josquin Des Pres, 1445-1521. The first great composer. 

MASTERS OF THE GOLDEN AGE 

[In the following list when a name is not qualified as " church 
composer " or " madrigalist," the composer is equally great in both 
lines ; but the qualification must not be taken as exclusive.] 

Netherland Masters. 
J. Arcadelt, c. 1514-1560. Madrigalist. 
Clemens non Papa, died before 1558. 
Orlando di Lasso, born between 1520 and 1530; died 1594. 
Jan P. Sweelinck, 1562-1621. Organist, theorist and church com- 
poser. 

French Masters. 

E. Genet, surnamed Carpentrasso, fl. 1520. Church composer. 
C. Goudimel. Killed in the massacre of Lyons, 1572. 

Italian Masters. 
Palestrina, c. 1525-1594. 
L. Marenzio, c. 1560; died 1599. 

Anerio, Felice c. 1560-1630, and G. Francesco, c. 1567-1620, brothers. 
Church composers. 

Spanish Masters. 

C. Morales, 1512-1553 ~) _, . . . , , 

F. Guerrero, c. 1528-1599 I Exclusively church com- 
T. L. de Victoria or Vittoria, fl. 1580 J PO^ TS - 

English Masters. 

T. Tallis, c. 1515; died 1585. Church composer. 
W. Byrd, 1542 or 1543-1623. Greatest as church composer. 
J. Wilbye,^. 1600. Madrigalist. 
T. Morley, fl. 1590. Theorist and madrigalist. 
Orlando Gibbons, 1583-1625. 

German Masters. 
I. Handl, or Callus, c. 1550-1591. 
Hans Leo Hasler or Hassler, 1564-1612. Church composer. 

G. Aichinger, c. 1565-1628. Church composer. 

THE MONODISTS 

Cavalieri's La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, posthumously 
produced in 1600. The first oratorio, one of the first works 
dependent on instrumental accompaniment, and one of the 
first with a " figured bass " indicating by figures what chords 
are to be used. 

Peri's Euridice, 1600. The first opera. 

Monteverde, 1567-1643. Great pioneer of modern harmony. 
THE RENAISSANCE OF TEXTURE 

H. Schtitz, 1585-1672. Combines monodic and polyphonic prin- 
ciples in German church music and Italian madrigal. 

G. Frescobaldi, 1583-1644. Organ composer. 

Alessandro Scarlatti, 1659-1725. Founder of the aria-form of 
Handelian opera, anal of the Neapolitan school of composition. 

J. B. Lulli, 1633-1687. The first classic of French opera. 

H. Purcell, c. 1658; died 1695. 

A. Corelli, 1653-1713. The first classic of the violin in the forms 
of suite (or sonata da camera), sonata da chiesa and concerto. 

F. Couperin, 1668-1733. French composer of suites (ordres) and much 

addicted to giving fanciful titles to his pieces which are some- 
times " programme music " in fact as well as name. 
J. P. Rameau, 1683-1764. French opera writer, harpsichordist and 
theorist. 

D. Buxtehude, 1637-1707. 
J. S. Bach, 1685-1750. 

G. F. Handel, 1685-1759. 

THE SONATA EPOCH 
Domenico Scarlatti, 1685-1757, son of Alessandro. Harpsichord 

virtuoso and master of a special early type of sonata. 
K. Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-1788, third son of Sebastian Bach. 

The principal pioneer of the sonata style. 
C. W. Gluck, 1714-1787. Reformer of opera, and the first classic of 

essentially dramatic music. 
F. J. Haydn, 1732-1809. 



W. A. Mozart, 1756-1791. 
Beethoven, 1770-1827. 

Cherubini, 1760-1842. A classic of French opera and of church 
music. 

THE LYRIC AND DRAMATIC OR " ROMANTIC " PERIOD 

[In this list the only qualifications given are those of which the 
complex conditions of modern art make definition easy as well as 
desirable; and, as throughout this table, the definitions must not 
be taken as exclusive. The choice of names is, however, guided 
by the different developments represented: thus accounting for 
glaring omissions and artistic disproportions.] 
Weber, 1786-1826. Master of romantic opera. 
Schubert, 1797-1828. The classic of song. 
Mendelssohn, 1809-1847. 

Chopin, 1809-1849. Composer of pianoforte lyrics. 
Berlioz, 1803-1869. Master of impressionist orchestration. 
Schumann, 1810-1856. 

Wagner, 1813-1883. Achieves absolute union of music with drama. 
Liszt, 181 1-1886. Pianoforte virtuoso and pioneer of the symphonic 

poem. 

Bruckner, 1824-1896. The symphonist of the Wagnerian party. 
Brahms, 18331897. Classical symphonic and lyric composer. 
Joachim, 18311907. Violinist, composer and teacher. Brahms's 

chief fellow-worker in continuing the classical tradition. 
TschaikovsL^v. 1840-1893. 
Dvorak, 1841-1904. 

Richard Strauss, 1864- Development of the symphonic 

poem. (D. F. T.) 

II. RECENT Music 

Under separate biographical headings, the work of the chief 
modern composers in different countries is dealt with; and here it 
will be sufficient to indicate the general current of the art, and to 
mention some of the more prominent among recent composers. 

Germany. On the death of Brahms, the great German composers 
seemed, at the close of the igth century, to have left no successor. 
Such merely epigonal figures as A. Bungert (b. 1846) and Cyrill 
Kistler (18481907) could not be regarded as important; and E. 
Humperdinck's (b. 1854) striking success with Hansel und Gretel 
(1893) was a solitary triumph in a limited genre. The outstanding 
figure, at the opening of the 2Oth century, was Richard Strauss (g..) ; 
but it was not so much now in composition, as in the high excel- 
lence of executive art, that Germany still kept up her hegemony in 
European music, by her schools, her great conductors and instru- 
mentalists, and her devotion as a nation to the production of musical 
works. 

France. From the earliest days of their music, the French have 
had the enviable power of assimilating the great innovations which 
were originated in other countries, without losing their habit of 
warmly appreciating that which their own countrymen produce. 
That which happened with the Netherlandish composers of the 
l6th century, and with Lulli in the I7th, was repeated, more or 
less exactly, with Rossini in the early part of the igth century and 
with Wagner at its close. During the last quarter of the igth 
century all that is represented by the once-adored name of Gounod 
was discarded in favour of a style as different as possible from his. 
The change was mainly due to the Belgian musician, C6sar Auguste 
Franck (1822-1890), who established a kind of informal school of 
symphonic and orchestral composition, as opposed to the con- 
ventional methods pursued at the Paris Conservatoire. Massenet 
was left as almost the only representative of the older school, and 
from Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) to G. Charpentier (b. 1860), all 
the younger composers of France adopted the newer style. With 
these may be mentioned Alfred Bruneau (b. 1857), and Gabriel 
Faur6 (b.. 1845). Camille Saint-Saens (b. 1835), however, remained 
the chief representative of the sound school of composition, if only 
by reason of his greater command of resources of every kind and 
his success in all forms of music. Among the newer school of 
composers the most original unquestionably was Debussy (}..), 
and among others may be mentioned Ernest Reyer (b. 1823), the 
author of some ambitious and sterling operas; F. L. V. de Joncieres 
(b. 1839), an enthusiastic follower of Wagner, and a composer of 
merit; Emanuel Chabrier (18411894), a man of extraordinary 
gift, who wrote one of the finest operas comiques of modern times, 
Le Roi malgre lui (1887) ; Charles Marie Widor (b. 1845), an earnest 
musician of great accomplishment; and yincent d'Indy (b. 1851), a 
strongly original writer, alike in dramatic, orchestral and chamber 
compositions. In the class of lighter music, which yet lies above 
the level of opera bouffe, mention must be made of Leo Delibes 
(1836-1891) and Andr6 Messager (b. 1855). In describing the 
state of music in France, it would be wrong to pass over the work 
done by the great conductors of various popular orchestral concerts, 
such as Jules E. Pasdeloup (1819-1887), Chas. Lamoureux (1834- 
1899), and Judas [Edouard] Colonne (b. 1838). 

Italy. In Italy during the last quarter of the igth century 
many important changes took place. The later development in 
the style ot Verdi (q.v.) was only completed in Otello (1887) and 
Falstaf (1893), while his last composition, the four beautiful sacred 
vocal works, show how very far he had advanced in reverence, 



RECENT MUSIC] 



MUSIC 



solidity of style and impressiveness, from the time when he wrote 
his earlier operas. And Arrigo Bpito's Mefistofele had an immense 
influence on modern Italian music. Among the writers of " abso- 
lute " music the most illustrious are G. Sgambati (b. 1843) and 
G. Martucci (b. 1856), the latter's symphony in D minor being a 
fine work. Meanwhile a younger operatic school was growing up, 
of which the first production was the Flora mirabtiis of Spiro 
Samara (b. 1861), given in 1886. Its culmination was in the 
Cavalleria rusticana (1890) of Pietro Mascagni (b. 1863), the 
Pagliacci (1892) of R. Leoncavallo (b. 1858), and the operas of 
Giacomo Puccini (b. 1858), notably Le Villi (1884), Manon Lescaut 
(1893), La Boheme (1896), Tosca (1900), and Madama Butterfly 
(1904). The oratorios of Don Lorenzo Perosi (b. 1872) had an inter- 
esting influence on the church music of Italy, (see PALESTRINA). 

Russia. The new Russian school of music originated with M. A. 
Balakirev (b. 1836), who was instrumental in founding the Free 
School of Music at St Petersburg, and who introduced the music 
of Berlioz and Liszt into Russia; he instilled the principles of 
"advanced" music into A. P. Borodin (1834-1887), C. A. Cui 
(b. 1835), M. P. Moussorgsky (1839-1881), and N. A. Rimsky- 
Korsakov (1844-1908), all of whom, as usual with Russian com- 
posers, were, strictly speaking, amateurs in music, having some 
other profession in the absence of any possible opportunity for 
making money out of music in Russia. The most remarkable 
man among their contemporaries was undoubtedly Tschaikovsky 
(q.v.). A. Liadov (b. 1855) excels as a writer for the pianoforte, 
and A. Glazounov (b. 1865) has composed a number of fine orchestral 
works. 

United States. Of the older American composers, only John 
Knowles Paine (d. 1906) and Dudley Buck (d. 1909), both born in 
1839, and Benjamin Johnson Lang (18371909), need be mentioned. 
Paine, professor of music at Harvard University, and composer 
of oratorios, orchestral music, &c., ranks with the advanced school 
of romantic composers. Dudley Buck was one of the first American 
composers whose names were known in Europe; and if his numerous 
cantatas and church music do not reach a very high standard accord- 
ing to modern ideas, he did much to conquer the general apathy 
with regard to the existence of original music in the States. Lang, 
prominent as organist and conductor, also became distinguished as 
a composer. George Whitefield Chadwick (b. 1854) has produced 
many orchestral and vocal works of original merit. Though the 
works of Clayton Johns (b. 1857) are less ambitious, they have 
won more popularity in Europe, and his songs, like those of Arthur 
Foote (b. 1853), Reginald De Koven(b. 1859), and Ethelbert Nevin 
(18621901), are widely known. Edward Alexander McDowell 
(q.v.) may be regarded as the most original modern American 
composer. Walter Johannes Damrosch (b. 1862), the eminent 
conductor of the New York Symphony Orchestra, and of various 
operatic undertakings, has established his position as an original 
and poetic composer, not only by his opera, The Scarlet Letter, but 
by such song^s as the intensely dramatic " Danny Deever." Dr 
Horatio William Parker's (b. 1863) oratorio settings of the hymn 
" Hora novissima " and of "The Wanderer's Psalm " are deservedly 
popular. Their masterly workmanship and his power of expression 
in sacred music mark him as a distinct personality. Numerous 
orchestral as well as vocal works have not been heard out of America, 
but a group of songs, newly set to the words of familiar old English 
ditties, have obtained great success. Mrs H. H. A. Beach, the 
youngest of the prominent composers of the United States and an 
accomplished pia'nist, has attained a high reputation as a writer 
in all the more ambitious forms of music. Many of her songs and 
anthems have obtained wide popularity. The achievements of the 
United States are, however, less marked in the production of new 
composers than in the attention which has been paid to musical 
education and appreciation generally. Henry E. Krehbiel (b. 1854), 
the well-known critic, was especially prominent in drawing American 
attention to Wagner and Brahms. The New York Opera has been 
made a centre for the finest artists of the day, and the symphony 
concerts at Boston and Chicago have been unrivalled for excellence. 
It is worthy of note that no country has produced a greater number 
of the most eminent of recent singers. Mesdames E. Eames, 
Nordica, Minnie Hauck, Susan Strong, Suzanne Adams, Sybil 
Sanderson, Esther Palliser, Evangeline Florence, and very many 
more among leading sopranos, with Messrs E. E. Oudin, D. Bispham 
and Denis O'Sullivan, to name but three out of the host of excellent 
male artists, proved the natural ability of the Americans in vocal 
music; and it might also be said that the more notable English- 
speaking pupils of the various excellent French schools of voice- 
production are American with hardly an exception. 

United Kingdom. English music requires more detailed notice, 
if only because of the striking change in the national feeling with 
regard to it. The nation had been accustomed for so long to 
consider music as an exotic, that, notwithstanding the glories of 
the older schools of English music, the amount of attention paid to 
everything that came from abroad, and the rich treasures of tradi- 
tional ancTdistinctively English music scattered through the country, 
the majority of educated people adhered to the common belief that 
England was not a musical country. The beauty and the enormous 
quantity of traditional Irish music, the enthusiasm created in 
Scotland by trumpery songs written in what was supposed to be 



an imitation of the Scottish style, the existence of the Welsh 
Eisteddfodau, were admitted facts; but England was supposed to 
have had no share in these gifts of nature or art, and the vogue of 
foreign music, from Italian opera to classical symphonies, was held 
as evidence of her poverty, instead of being partly the reason of 
the national sterility. In the successive periods during which the 
music of Handel and Mendelssohn respectively had been held as 
all-sufficient for right-thinking musicians, success could only be 
attained, if at all, by those English musicians who deliberately set 
themselves to copy the style of these great masters; the few men 
who had the determination to resist the popular movement were 
either confined, like the Wesleys, to one branch of music in which 
some originality of thought was still allowed that of the Church, 
or, like Henry Hugo Pierson in the days of the Mendelssohn worship, 
were driven to seek abroad the recognition they could not obtain 
at home. For a time it seemed as if the great vogue of Gounod 
would exalt him into a third artistic despot; but no native com- 
poser had even the energy to imitate his Faust; and, by the date 
of The Redemption (1882) and Mors et vita (1885), a renaissance of 
English music had already begun. 

For a generation up to the 'eighties the affairs of foreign opera 
in England were rather depressing; the rival houses presided over 
by the impresarios Frederick Gye (1810-1878) and Colonel J. H. 
Mapleson (1828-1901) had been going from bad to worse; the 
traditions of what were called " the palmy days " had been for- 
gotten, and with the retirement of Christine Nilsson in 1881, and 
the death of Therese J. A. Tietjens in 1877, the race of the great 
queens of song seemed to have come to an end. It is true that 
Mme Patti was_ in the plenitude of her fame and powers, but the 
number of her impersonations, perfect as they were, was so small 
that she alone could not support the weight of an opera season, 
and her terms made it impossible for any manager to make both 
ends meet unless the rest of the company were chosen on the 
principle enunciated by the husband of Mme Catalan!, " Ma femme 
et quatre ou cinq poupees." Mme Albani (b. 1851) had made her 
name famous, but the most important part of her artistic career 
was yet to come. She had already brought Tannhduser and 
Lohengrin into notice, but in Italian versions, as was then usual; 
and the great vogue of Wagner's operas did not begin until the series 
of Wagner concerts given at the Royal Albert Hall in 1877 with 
the object of collecting funds for the preservation of the Bayreuth 
scheme, which after the production of the Nibelungen trilogy in 
1876 had become involved in serious financial difficulties. The 
two seasons of German opera at Drury Lane under Dr Hans Richter 
(b. 1843) in 1882 and 1884, and the production of the trijogy at 
Her Majesty's in 1882, under Angelo Neumann's managership, first 
taught stay-at-home Englishmen what Wagner really was, and an 
Italian opera as such {i.e. with Italian as the exclusive language 
employed and the old " star " system in full swing) ceased to exist 
as a regular institution a few years after that. The revival of 
public interest in the opera only took place after Mr (afterwards 
Sir) Augustus Harris (1852-1896) had started his series of operas 
at Drury Lane in 1887. In the following season Harris took 
Covent Garden, and since that time the opera has been restored 
to greater public favour than it ever enjoyed, at all events since the 
days of Jenny Lind. The clever manager saw that the public 
was tired of operas arranged to suit the views of the prima donna 
and no one else, and he cast the works he produced, among which 
were Un Ballo in maschera and Les Huguenots, with due attention 
to every part. The brothers Jean and Edouard de Reszke, both 
of whom had appeared in London before the former as a baritone 
and the latter during the seasons 1880-1884 were even stronger 
attractions to the musical public of the time than the various 
leading sopranos, among whom were Mme Albani, Miss M. Mac- 
intyre, Mme Melba, Frau Sucher and Mme Nordica, during the 
earlier seasons, and Mme Eames, Mile Ravogli, MM. Lassalle and 
P. H. Plancon, and many other Parisian favourites later. As 
time went on, the excellent custom obtained of giving each work 
in the language in which it was written, and among the distinguished 
German artists who were added to the company were Frau M. 
Ternina, Frau E. Schumann-Heink, Frau Lilli Lehmann and many 
more. Since Harris's death in 1896 the traditions started by him 
were on the whole well maintained, and as a sign of the difference 
between the present and the former position of English composers, 
it may be mentioned that two operas by F. H. Cowen, Signa and 
Harold, and two by Stanford, The Veiled Prophet and Much Ado 
about Nothing, were produced. To Signer Lago, a manager of 
more enterprise than good fortune, belongs the credit of reviving 
Gluck's Orfeo (with the masterly impersonation of the principal 
character by Mile Giulia Ravogli), and of bringing out Cavalleria 
rusticana, Tschaikovsky's Eugen Onegin and other works. 

If it be just to name one institution and one man as the creator 
of such an atmosphere as allowed the genius of English composers 
to flourish, then that honour must be paid to the Crystal Palace 
and August Manns, the conductor of its Saturday concerts. At 
first engaged as sub-conductor, under a certain Schallehn, at the 
building which was the lasting result of the Great Exhibition of 
1851, he became director of the music in 1855; so for the better 
part of half a century his influence was exerted on behalf of the 
best music of all schools, and especially in lavour of anything of 



MUSIC 



I RECENT MUSIC 



English growth. Through evil report and good report he supported 
his convictions, and for many years he introduced one English 
composer after another to a fame which they would have found it 
hard to gain without his help and that of Sir George Grove, his 
loyal supporter. In 1862, when Arthur Sullivan had lust returned 
from his studies in Leipzig, his Tempest music was produced at the 
Crystal Palace, and it is beyond question that it was this success 
and that of the succeeding works from the same hand which first 
showed Englishmen that music worth listening to might be pro- 
duced by an English hand. Sullivan reached the highest point of 
his achievement in The Golden Legend (1886), his most important 
contribution to the music of the renaissance. An important part 
of the Crystal Palace music was that the concerts did not follow, 
but led, popular taste; the works of Schubert, Schumann and 
many other great masters were given constantly, and the whole 
repertory of classical music was gone through, so that a constant 
attendant at these concerts would have become acquainted with 
the whole range of the best class of music. From 1859 onwards 
the classical chamber-music could be heard at the Popujar Concerts 
started by Arthur Chappell, and for many years their repertory 
was not less catholic than that of the Crystal Palace undertaking; 
that in later times the habit increased to a lamentable extent of 
choosing only the " favourite " (i.e. hackneyed) works of the great 
masters does not lessen the educational value of the older concerts. 
The lovers of the newer developments of music were always more 
fully satisfied at the concerts of the Musical Union, a body founded 
by John Ella in 1844, which lasted until 1880. From 1879 onwards 
the visits of Hans Richter, the conductor, were a feature of the 
musical season, and the importance of his work, not only in spread- 
ing a love of Wagner's music, but in regard to every other branch 
of the best orchestral music, cannot be exaggerated. Like the 
popular concerts, the Richter concerts somewhat fell away in 
later years from their original purpose, and their managers were 
led by the popularity of certain pieces to give too little variety. 
The importance of Richter's work was in bringing forward the finest 
English music in the years when the masters of the renaissance 
were young and untried. Here were to be heard the orchestral 
works of Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, Sir A. 
Campbell Mackenzie and Dr F. H. Cowen; and the names of these 
composers were thus brought into notice much more effectually 
than could have been the case in other surroundings. Meanwhile 
outside London the work of the renaissance was being carried on, 
notably at Cambridge, where by the amalgamation of various 
smaller societies with the University Musical Society, Stanford 
created in 1875 a splendid institution which did much to foster a 
love of the best music for many years; and at Oxford, where private 
meetings in the rooms of Hubert Parry brought about the institu- 
tion of the Musical Club, which has borne fruit in many ways, 
though only in the direction of chamber-music. The Bach Choir, 
founded by Mr Arthur Duke Coleridge in 1875, and conducted for 
the first ten years of its existence by Mr Otto Goldschmidt and 
subsequently by Professor Stanford, worked on purely uncommercial 
lines ever since its foundation, and besides many important works 
of Bach, it brought forward most important compositions by 
Englishmen, and had a prominent share in the work of the renais- 
sance. Parry's earlier compositions had a certain austerity in 
them which, while it commanded the homage of the cultivated few, 
prevented their obtaining wide popularity; and it was not until 
the date of his choral setting of Milton's Ode at a Solemn Mustek 
that he found his true vein. In this and its many successors, 
produced at the autumn festivals, though very rarely given in 
London, there was a nobility of utterance, a sublimity of concep- 
tion, a mastery of resource, that far surpass anything accomplished 
in England since the days of Purcell; while his " Symphonic Varia- 
tions " for orchestra, and at least two of his symphonies, exhibit 
his command of the modern modifications of classical forms in 
great perfection. Like Parry, Stanford first caught the ear of the 
public at large with a choral work, the stirring ballad-setting of 
Tennyson's Revenge; and in all his earlier and later works alike, 
which include compositions in every form, he shows himself a 
supreme master of effect ; in dramatic or lyrical handling of voices, 
in orchestral and chamber-music, his sense of beauty is unfailing, 
and while his ideas have real distinction, his treatment of them is 
nearly always the chief interest of his works. The work of the 
musical renaissance has been more beneficially fostered by these 
two masters than by any other individuals, through the medium 
. of the Royal College of Music. In 1876 the National Training 
School of Music was opened with Sullivan as principal; he was 
succeeded by Sir John Stainer in 1881, and the circumstance that 
such artists as Mr Eugen d' Albert and Mr Frederic Cliff e received 
there the foundation of their musical education is the only important 
fact connected with the institution, which in 1882 was succeeded 
by the Royal College of Music, under the directorship of Sir George 
Grove, and with Parry and Stanford as professors of composition. 
In 1894 Parry succeeded to the directorship, and before and after 
this date work of the best educational kind was done in all branches 
of the art, but most of all in the important branch of composition. 
Mackenzie's place among the masters of the renaissance is assured 
by his romantic compositions for orchestra such as La Belle dame 
sans merci and the two " Scottish Rhapsodies "; some of his choral 



works, such as the oratorios, show some tendency to fall back into 
the conventionalities from which the renaissance movement was an 
effort to escape: but in The Cottar's Saturday Night; The Story of 
Sayid; Veni, Creator Spiritus, and many other things, not except- 
ing the opera Colomba or the witty " Britannia " overture, he shows 
no lack of spontaneity or power. As principal of the Royal Academy 
of Music (he succeeded Macfarren in 1888) he revived the former 
glories of the school, and the excellent plan by which it and the Royal 
College unite their forces in the examinations of the Associated 
Board is largely due to his initiative. The opera just mentioned 
was the first of the modern series of English operas brought out 
from 1883 onwards by the Carl Rosa company during its tenure 
of Drury Lane Theatre: at the time it seemed as though English 
opera had a chance of getting permanently established, but the 
enterprise, being a purely private and individual one, failed to have 
a lasting effect upon the art of the country, and after the production 
of two operas by Mackenzie, two by Arthur Goring Thomas, one 
by F. Corder, two by Cowen and one by Stanford, the artistic 
work of the company grew gradually less and less important. In 
spite of the strong influence of French ideals and methods, the music 
of Arthur Goring Thomas was remarkable for individuality and 
charm ; in any other country his beautiful opera Esmeralda would 
have formed part of the regular repertory; and his orchestral 
suites, cantatas and a multitude of graceful and original songs, 
remain as evidence that if his career had been prolonged, the art 
of England might have been enriched by some masterpiece it would 
not willingly have let die. After a youth of extraordinary pre 
cocity, and a number of variously successful attempts in the more 
ambitious and more serious branches of the art, Cowen found his 
chief success in the treatment of fanciful or fairy subjects, whether 
in cantatas or orchestral works; here he is without a rival, and his 
ideas are uniformly graceful, excellently treated and wonderfully 
effective. His second tenure of the post of conductor of the Phil- 
harmonic Society showed him to be a highly accomplished conductor. 

In regard to English opera two more undertakings deserve to be 
recorded. In 1891 the Royal English Opera House was opened 
with Sullivan's Ivanhoe, a work written especially for the occasion, 
the absence of anything like a repertory, and the retention of this 
one work in the bills for a period far longer than its attractions 
could warrant, brought the inevitable result, and shortly after the 
production of a charming French comic opera the theatre was 
turned into the Palace Music Hall. The charming and thoroughly 
characteristic Shamus O'Brien of Stanford was successfully pro- 
duced in 1896 at the Opera Comique theatre. This work brought 
into public prominence the conductor Mr Henry J. Wood (b. 1870), 
who exercised a powerful influence on the art of the country by 
means of his orchestra, which was constantly to be heard at the 
Queen's Hall, and which attained, by continual performance 
together, a degree of perfection before unknown in England. It 
achieved an important work in bringing music within the reach of 
all classes at the Promenade Concerts given through each summer, 
as well as by means of the Symphony Concerts at other seasons. 

The movement thus started by Mr Wood increased and spread 
remarkably in later years. His training of the Queen's Hall 
Orchestra was characterized by a thoroughness and severity pre- 
viously unknown in English orchestras. This was partly made 
possible by the admirable business organization which fostered 
the movement in its earlier years; so many concerts were guaranteed 
that it was possible to give the players engagements which included 
a large amount of rehearsing. The result was soon apparent, not 
only in the raising of the standard of orchestral playing, but also 
in the higher and more intelligent standard of criticism to which 
performances were subjected both by experts and by the general 
public. The public taste in London for symphonic music grew so 
rapidly as to encourage the establishment of other bodies of players, 
until in 1910 there were five first-class professional orchestras 
giving concerts regularly in London the Philharmonic Society, 
the Queen's Hall Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra 
(described by Dr Hans Richter as " the finest orchestra in the 
world "), the New Symphony Orchestra under Mr Landon Ronald 
(b. 1873), a composer and conductor of striking ability, and Mr 
Thomas Beecham s Orchestra. Mr Beecham, who had come rapidly 
to the front as a musical enthusiast and conductor, paid special 
attention to the work of British composers. Manchester, Birming- 
ham, Liverpool and Edinburgh, had their own orchestras; and it 
might be said that the whole of the United Kingdom was now 
permeated with a taste for and a knowledge of orchestral music. 
The effect of this development has influenced the whole of the musical 
life of England. The symphony and the symphonic poem have 
taken the place so long held by the oratorio in popular taste; and 
English composers of any merit or ability find it possible to get 
a hearing for orchestral work which at the end of the igth century- 
would have had to remain unperformed and unheard. The result 
has been the r?pid development of a school of English orchestral 
comppsers-^-a school of considerable achievement and still greater 
promise. 

The new school of English writers contains many names of 
skilled composers. Sir Edward Elgar established his reputation 
by his vigorous Caractacus and the grandiose imaginings of his 
Dream of Gerontius, as by orchestral and chamber compositions of 



RECENT MUSIC] 



MUSIC 



decided merit and individuality, and by being the composer of a 
symphony which attained greater and wider fame than any similar 
work since the symphonies of Tschaikovsky. Mr Edward German 
(b. 1862) won great success as a writer of incidental music for plays, 
and in various lighter forms of music, for which his great skill in 
orchestration and his knowledge of effect stand him in good stead. 
The quality of Mr Frederic Cliffe's orchestral works is extremely 
high. Dr Arthur Somervell (b. 1863), who succeeded Stainer as 
musical adviser to the Board of Education, first came into promi- 
nence as a composer of a number of charming songs, notably a 
fine song-cycle from Tennyson's Maud, but his Mass and various 
orchestral works and cantatas and pianoforte pieces show his 
conspicuous ability in other forms. Various compositions written 
by Mr Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868), while still a student at the 
Royal College of Music, were received with acclamation; but his 
later work was not of equal value, though his operas Jeanie 
Deans and Diarmid were successful. Mr Granville Bantock 
(b. 1868), an ardent supporter of the most advanced music, has 
written many fine things for orchestra, and Mr William Wallace 
(b. 1861), in various orchestral pieces played at the Crystal Palace 
and elsewhere, and in such things as his " Freebooter " songs, has 
shown strong individuality and imagination. Mr Arthur Hinton 
(b. 1869) has produced things of fanciful beauty and quaint origi- 
nality. Miss Ethel M. Smyth, whose Mass was given at the Royal 
Albert Hall in most favourable conditions, had her opera Fantasia 
produced at Weimar and Carlsruhe, and Der Wald at Covent 
Garden. Miss Maud Valerie White's graceful and expressive songs 
brought her compositions into wide popularity; and Mme Liza 
Lehmann made a new reputation by her cycles of songs after 
her retirement from the profession of a singer. The first part of 
Mr S. Coleridge-Taylor's (b. 1875) Hiawatha scenes was performed 
while he was still a student at the Royal College, and so great was 
its popularity that the third part of the trilogy was commissioned 
for performance by the Royal Choral Society. Mr Cyril Scott is 
a composer who aims high, though with a somewhat strained 
originality. Dr H. VValford Davies (b. 1869) and W. Y. Hurlstone 
(1876-1906) excel in the serious kind of chamber-music and use the 
classic forms with notable skill; and Mr R. Vaughan Williams, in 
his songs and other works, has shown perhaps the most conspicuous 
talent among all of the younger school. 

English executive musicians have never suffered from foreign 
competition in the same degree as English composers, and the 
success of such singers as Miss Anna Williams, Miss Macintyre, 
Miss Marie Brema, Miss Clara Butt, Miss Agnes Nicholls, Messrs 
Santley, Edward Lloyd, Ben Davies, Plunket Greene and Ffrangcon 
Davies; or of such pianists as Miss Fanny Davies and Mr Leonard 
Borwick, is but a continuance of the tradition of British excellence. 

The scientific study of the music of the past has more and more 
decidedly taken its place as a branch of musical education; the 
learned writings of VV. S. Rockstro (1823-1895), many of them 
made public first in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and Grove's 
Dictionary of Music, made the subject clear to many who had been 
groping in the dark before; and the actual performance of old 
music has been undertaken not only by the Bach Choir, but by the 
Magpie Madrigal Society under Mr Lionel Benson's able direction. 
In vocal and instrumental music alike the musical side of the Inter- 
national Exhibition of 1885 did excellent work in its historical 
concerts; and in that branch of archaeology which is concerned 
with the structure and restoration of olcf musical instruments, 
important work has been done by Mr A. J. Hipkins (1826-1903; 
so long connected with the firm of Broad wood), the Rev. F. W. 
Galpin. Arnold Dolmetsch and others. The formation of the 
Folk-Song Society in 1899 drew attention to the importance and 
extent of English traditional music, and did much to popularize 
it with singers of the present day. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among encyclopaedic dictionaries of music 
Sir George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1878- 
1889; new ed. by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1908), takes the first 
place among publications in English^ while Robert Eitner's (d. 1905) 
monumental Quellenlexikon (1900-1904), in German, is an authority 
of the first rank. Among other modern works of value on various 
accounts may be mentioned F. J. Fetis's Biographic universelle des 
musiciens (2nd ed., 1860-1865; supplement by A. Pougin, 1878); 
G. Schilling's Encyklopddie der gesammten musikalischen Wissen- 
schaft (1835-1838); Mendel and Reissmann's Musikalisches Con- 
versations-lexikon (2nd ed., 1883); H. Riemann's Musik-lexikon 
(5th ed., 1900; also an Eng. trans., with additions, by J. S. Shed- 
lock); the American Cyclopaedia of Music and Musicians (1889 
1891) ; and the Oxford History of Music (1901-1905). The literature 
of music generally is enormous, but the following selected list of 
works on various aspects may be useful : 

Aesthetics, Theory, &c. H. Ehrlich, Die Musik-Aesthetik in ihrer 
Entwickelung von Kant bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1882); E. 
Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music (London, 1891); R. Wallaschek, 
Aesthetik der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1886); R. Pohl, Die Hohenzilge 
der musikalischen Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1888); A. Schnez, Die 
Geheimnisse der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1891); I. A. Zahm, Sound and 
Music (Chicago, 1892); C. Bellaique, Psychologie musicale( Paris, 
1893); W. Pole, Philosophy of Music (vol. xi. of the English and 
Foreign Philosophical Library, 1895); M. Seybel, Schopenhauers 



Metaphysik der Musik (Leipzig, 1895); L. Lacombe, Philosophie et 
musique (Paris, 1896); Sir C. H. H. Parry, The Evolution of the Art 
of Music (London, 1897); H. Riemann, Prdludien untf Studien 
(Frankfort, 1896); Geschic hie der Musiktheorie im IX. -XIX. Jahr- 
hundert (Leipzig, 1898); Systemalische Modulationslehre (Hamburg, 
1887) ; J. C. Lobe, Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 
1884); A. B. Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition 
(Leipzig, 1887, 1890); M. L. C. Cherubini, Theorie des Kontra- 
punktes und der Fuge (Cologne, 1896); Sir J. F. Bridge and F. J. 
Sawyer, A Course of Harmony (London, 1899) ; E. Prout, Counter- 
point (London, 1890); Double Counterpoint and Canon (London, 
1893); Musical Form (London, 1893); Applied Forms (London, 
1895); B. Widmann, Die strengen Fornten der Musik (Leipzig, 
1882); S. Jadassohn, Die Formen in den Werken der Tonkunst 
(Leipzig, 1885); M. Steinitzer, Psychologische Wirkungen der musik- 
alischen Formen (Munich, 1885); J. Combarieu, Theorie du rhythme 
dans la composition moderne d'apres la doctrine antique (Paris, 
1897); P. Goetschius, Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition 
(New York, 1898) ; William Wallace, The Threshold of Music (1007). 

English Music. W. Nagel, Geschichte der Musik in England 
(Strassburg, 1894); H. Davey, History of English Music (London, 
1895); F. J. Crcwest, The Story of British Music (London, 1896); 
S. Vautyn, L'Evolution de la musique en Angleterre (Brussels, 1900); 
Ernest Walker, English Music (1907). 

America. W. S. B. Mathews, A Hundred Years of Music in 
America (Chicago, 1889); L. C. Elson, The National Music of 
America and its Sources (Boston, 1900) ; T. Baker, Uber die Musik 
der nord-amerikanischen Wilden (Leipzig, 1882). 

France. H. Laroix, La Musique fran^aise (Paris, 1891); N. M. 
Schletterer, Studien zur Geschichte der franzosischen Musik (Berlin, 
1884-1885) ; T. Galino, La Musique fran^aise au moyen dge (Leipzig, 
1890); A. Ccgnard, De la Musique en France depuis Rameau (Paris, 
1891); G. Servieres, La Musique franfaise moderne (Paris, 1897). 

Germany. W. Baeumker, Geschichte der Tonkunst in Deutschland 
bis zur Reformation (Freiburg, 1881); O. Ebben, Der volksthumliche 
deutsche Mannergesang (Tubingen, 1887); L. Meinardus, Die deutsche 
Tonkunst; A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique allemande (Paris, 1896). 

Italy. O. Chilesotti, / nostri maestri del passato (Milan, 1882); 
V. Lee, 77 Settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881); G. Masutto, / Maestri 
di musica italiani del secolo XIX. (Venice, 1882). 

Russia. A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie (Paris, 
1898). 

Scandinavia. A. Gronvoed, Norske Musikere (Christiania, 
1883); C. Valentin, Studien uber die schwedischen Volksmelodien 



(Leipzig, 1885). 
Spain.]. F. 
1887); J. Tort y Daniel, Noticia musical del " Lied " 6 CanQO cata- 



Riafio, Notes on Early Spanish Music (London, 



lana (Barcelona, 1892); A. Soubies, Hist, de la mus. en Espagne 
(1899). 

Switzerland. A. Niggli, La Musique dans la Suisse allemande 
(1900); F. Held, La Musique dans la Suisse romande (1900); A. 
Soubies, Hist, de la mus. dans la Suisse (1899). 

Church Music. F. L. Humphreys, The Evolution of Church 
Music (New York, 1898); E. L. Taunton, History of Church Music 
(London, 1887); A. Morsch, Der italienische Kirchengesang bis 
Palestrina (Berlin, 1887); G. Masutto, Delia Musica sacra in Italia, 
(Venice, 1889) ; G. Felix, Palestrina et la musique sacree (Bruges, 
1895); R. v. Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der 
evangelischen Gottesdienste (Schleswig, 1893). 

Instruments (see also the separate articles on each). L. Arrigoni, 
Organografia ossia descrizione degli instrumenti musicali antichi 
.(Milan, 1881) ; F. Boudoin, La Musique hislorique (Paris, 1886); 
A. Jacquot, Etude de I'art instrumental. Dictionnaire des instru- 
ments de musique (Paris, 1886) ; H. Boddington, Catalogue of Musical 
Instruments illustrative of the History of the Pianoforte (Manchester 
1888); M. E. Brown, Musical Instruments and their Homes (New 
York, 1888); A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instruments: Historic, Rare 
and Unique (Edinburgh, 1888); W. Lynd, Account of Ancient 
Musical Instruments and their Development (London, 1897); J. 
Weiss, Die musikalischen Instrumente in den heiligen Schriften des 
Alien Testaments (Graz, 1895) ; E. Travers, Les Instruments de 
musique au xiv. siecle (Paris, 1882); E. A. v. Hasselt, L' Anatomic 
des instruments de musique (Brussels, 1899); E. W. Verney, Siamese 
Musical Instruments (London, 1888); C. R. Day, Music and Musical 
Instruments of Southern India (London, 1891); D. G. Brinton, 
Native American Stringed Musical Instruments (1897); I. Ruehl- 
mann, Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente (Brunswick, 1882); 
F. di Caffarelli, Gli Strumenti ad area e la musica da camera (Milan, 
1894); Kathleen Schlesinger, Instruments of the Orchestra (1910). 

Conducting. W. R. Wagner, On Conducting (London, 1887); 
M. Kufferath, L' Art de diriger Vorchestre (Paris, 1891); F. Wein- 
gartner, Uber das Dirigiren (Berlin, 1896). 

Biography. IP. Hueffer, The Great Musicians (London, 1881 
1884) ; F. Clement, Les Grands musiciens (Paris, 1882) ; C. E. Bourne, 
The Great Composers (London, 1887); G. T. Ferris, Great Musical 
Composers; Sir C. H. H. Parry, Studies of Great Composers (London, 
1887); A. A. Ernouf, Compositeurs celebres (Paris, 1888); F. T. 
Bennassi-Desplantes, Les Musiciens celebres (Limoges, 1889); 
A. Haunedruche, Les Musiciens et compositeurs franfais , (Paris, 
1890); N. H. Dole, A Score of Famous Composers (New York, 



86 



MUSICAL-BOXMUSICAL NOTATION 



1891); L. T. Morris, Famous Musical Composers (London, 1891); 
H. de Bremont, The World of Music (London, 1892); J. K. Paine, 
Famous Composers and their Works (Boston, 1892-1893); E. Polko, 
Meister der Tonkunst (Wiesbaden, 1897); R. F. Sharp, Makers of 
Music (London, 1898); L. Nohl, Mosaik Denksteine aus dem Leben 
beriihmter Tonkunstler (Leipzig, 1899); T. Baker, A Biographical 
Dictionary of Musicians (New York, 1900); M.Charles, Zeitgenos- 
sische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1888); A. Jullien, Musiciens d'aujourd'hui 
(Paris, 1892). 

MUSICAL-BOX, an instrument for producing by mechanical 
means tunes or pieces of music. The modern musical-box is 
an elaboration of the elegant toy musical snuff-box in vogue 
during the i8th century. The notes or musical sounds are pro- 
duced by the vibration of steel teeth or springs cut in a comb or 
flat plate of steel, reinforced by the harmonics generated in the 
solid steel back of the comb. The teeth are graduated in length 
from end to end of the comb or plate, the longer teeth giving the 
deeper notes; and the individual teeth are accurately attuned, 
where necessary, by filing or loading with lead. Each tone and 
semitone in the scale is represented by three or four separate 
teeth in the comb, to permit of successive repetitions of the same 
note when required by the music. The teeth are acted upon and 
musical vibrations produced by the revolution of a brass cylinder 
studded with projecting pins, which, as they move round, raise 
and release the proper teeth at due intervals according to the 
nature of the music. A single revolution of the cylinder com- 
pletes the performance of each of the several pieces of music for 
which the apparatus is set, but upon the same cylinder there may 
be inserted pins for performing as many as thirty-six separate 
airs. This is accomplished by making both the points of the 
teeth and the projecting pins which raise them very fine, so that 
a very small change in the position of the cylinder is sufficient 
to bring an entirely distinct set of pins in contact with the teeth. 
In the more elaborate musical-boxes the cylinders are removable, 
and may be replaced by others containing distinct sets of music. 
In these also there are combinations of bell, drum, cymbal and 
triangle effects, &c. The revolving motion of the cylinder is 
effected by a spring and clock-work which on some modern instru- 
ments will work continuously for an hour and a half without 
winding, and the rate of revolution is regulated by a fly regulator. 
The headquarters of the musical-box trade is Geneva, where the 
manufacture gives employment to thousands of persons. 

The musical-box is a type of numerous instruments for producing 
musical effects by mechanical means, in all of which a revolving 
cylinder or barrel studded with pins is the governing feature. The 
position of the pins on the barrel is determined by two considera- 
tions: those of pitch and of time or rhythm. The degrees of 
pitch or semitones of the scales are in the direction of the length 
of the cylinder, while those of time, or the beats in the bars, are in 
the path of the revolution of the cylinder. The action of the pins 
is practically the same for all barrel instruments; each pin serves to 
raise some part of the mechanism for one note at the exact moment 
and for the exact duration of time required by the music to be 
played, after which, passing along with the revolution of the 
cylinder, it ceases to act. The principle of the barrel operating 
by friction, by percussion or by wind on reeds, pipes or strings 
governs carillons or musical bells, barrel organs, mechanical flutes, 
celestial voices, harmoniphones, violin-pianos and the orchestrions 
and polyphons in which a combination of all orchestral effects is 
attempted. In the case of wind instruments, such as flutes, 
trumpets, oboes, clarinets, imitated in the more complex orches- 
trions, the pins raise levers which open the valves admitting air, 
compressed by mechanical bellows, to various kinds of flue-pipes, 
and to others fitted with beating and free reeds. The sticks used 
for striking bells, drums, cymbals and triangles are set in motion 
in a similar manner. A fine set of full-page drawings, published at 
Frankfort in i6is, 1 makes the whole working of the pinned barrel 
quite clear, and establishes the exact relation of the pins to the 
music produced by the barrel so unmistakably that some bars of 
the piece of music set on the cylinder can be made out. The 
prototype of the 19th-century musical-box is to be found in the 
Netherlands where during the ijth century the dukes of Burgundy 
encouraged the invention of ingenious mechanical musical 
curiosities such as " organs which played of themselves," musical 
snuff-boxes, singing birds, curious clocks, &c. A principle of more 
recent introduction than the studded cylinder consists of sheets 
of perforated paper or card, somewhat similar to the Jacquard 
apparatus for weaving. The perforations correspond in position 
and length to the pitch and duration of the note they represent, 

1 See S. de Caus, Les forces mouvantes; and article BARREL ORGAN. 



and as the web or long sheet of paper passes over the instrument 
the perforated holes are brought in proper position and sequence 
under the influence of the suction or pressure cf air from a bellows, 
and thereby the notes are either directly acted on, as in the case of 
reed instruments, or the opening and closing of valves set in motion 
levers or liberate springs which govern special notes. The United 
States are the original home of the instruments controlled by 
perforated paper known as orguinettes, organinas, melodeons, &c. 
All these instruments are being gradually replaced in popular 
favour by the piano-players and the gramophone. (K. S.) 

MUSICAL NOTATION, a pictorial method of representing 
sounds to the ear through the medium of the eye. It is probable 
that the earliest attempts at notation were made by the Hindus 
and Chinese, from whom the legacy was transferred to Greece. 
The exact nature of the Greek notation is a subject of dispute, 
different explanations assigning 1680, 1620, 990, or 138 signals 
to their alphabetical method of delineation. To Boethius we 
owe the certainty that the Greek notation was not adopted by 
the Latins, although it is not certain whether he was the first 
to apply the fifteen letters of the Roman alphabet to the scale 
of sounds included within the two octaves, or whether he was 
only the first to make record of that application. The reduction 
of the scale to the octave is ascribed to St Gregory, as also the 
naming of the seven notes, but it is not safe to assume that such 
an ascription is accurate or final. Indications of a scheme of 
notation based, not on the alphabet, but on the use of dashes, 
hooks, curves, dots and strokes are found to exist as early as 
the 6th century, while specimens in illustration of this different 
method do not appear until the 8th. The origin of these signs, 
known as neumes (vtvuara, or nods), is the full stop (punctus), 
the comma (virga), and the mound or undulating line (dims), 
the first indicating a short sound, the second a long sound, and 
the third a group of two notes. The musical intervals were 
suggested by the distance of these signals from the words of the 
text. The variety of neumes employed at different times, and 
the fluctuations due to handwriting, have made them extremely 
difficult to decipher. In the loth century a marked advance 
is shown by the use of a red line traced horizontally above the 
text to give the singer a fixed note (F = fa), thus helping him to 
approximate the intervals. To this was added a second line in 
yellow (for C = ut), and finally a staff arose from the further 
addition of two black lines over these. The difficulty of the 
subject is complicated for the student by the fact that an 
incredible variety of notations coexisted at one period, all more 
or less representing attempts in the direction of the modern 
system. A variety of experiments resulted in the assignment 
of the four-lined staff to sacred music and of the five-lined staff 
to secular music. The yellow and red colours were replaced 
by the use of the letters F and C (fa and ut) on the lines. This 
use of letters to indicate clef is forestalled in a manuscript of 
Guido of Arezzo's Micrologus, dating from the i2th century, in 
which is the famous hymn to St John, printed with neumes on 
a staff of three lines (see Guroo OF AREZZO). The use of letters 
for indicating clefs has survived to the present day, our clef 
signatures being modified forms of the letters C, F and G, which 
have passed through a multitude of shapes. Before the lath 
century there is no trace of a measured notation (i.e. of a 
numerical time division separating the component parts of a 
piece of music). It is at the time of Franco of Cologne 2 that 
measured music takes its rise, together with the black notation 
in place of neumes, which disappeared altogether by the end of 
the i4th century. Writing four hundred years after St Gregory, 
Cottonius complains bitterly of the defects in the system of 
neumes: " The same marks which Master Trudo sang as 
thirds, were sung as fourths by Master Albinus; while Master 
Salomo asserts that fifths are the notes meant, so at last there 
were as many methods of singing as teachers of the art." Pos- 
sibly the reckless multiplication of lines in the staff may have 
contributed to the obscurity of which Cottonius complains. 
In the black notation, which led to the modern system, the 
square note with a tail fl) is the long sound; the square note 

1 The principles of Franco are found in the treatises of Walter 
Odington, a monk of Evesham who became archbishop of Canterbury 
in 1228. 



MUSIC HALLS 



without a tail () is the breve; and the lozenge shape (4) is the 
semibreve. In a later development there were added the double 
long ^ and the minum (fl). The breve, according to Franco of 
Cologne, was the unit of measure. The development of a fixed 
time division was further continued by Philippe de Vitry. It 
has been noted with well-founded astonishment that at this time 
the double time (i.e. two to the bar) was unknown, in spite of 
this being the time used in marching and also illustrated in the 
process of breathing. Triple time (i.e. three to the bar) was 
regarded as the most perfect because it was indivisible. It was 
as if there lay some mysterious enchantment in a number that 
could not be divided into equal portions without the fraction. 
" Triple time, " says Jean de Muris, " is called perfect, according 
to Franco, a man of much skill in his art, because it hath its name 
from the Blessed Trinity which is pure and true perfection." 
Vitry championed the rights of imperfect time and invented 
signs to distinguish the two. The perfect circle O represented 
the perfect or triple time; the half circle C the imperfect or 
double-time. This C has survived in modern notation to 
indicate four-time, which is twice double-time; when crossed ([ 
it means double-time. The method of dividing into perfect 
and imperfect was described as prolation. The addition of a 
point to the circle or semi-circle (0 ( ) indicated major pro- 
lation; its absence, minor prolation. The substitution of 
white for black notation began with the first year of the I4th 
century and was fully established in the I5th century. 

It has already been shown how the earlier form of alphabetical 
notation was gradually superseded by one based on the attempt 
to represent the relative height and depth of sounds pictorially. 
The alphabetical nomenclature, however, became inextricably 
associated with the pictorial system. The two conceptions 
reinforced each other; and from the hexachordal scale, endowed 
with the solmization of ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la which was a 
device for identifying notes by their names when talked of, 
rather than by their positions when seen on a page of music 
arose the use of what are now known as accidentals. Of these 
it may here be said that the flat originated from the necessity 
of sinking the B of the scale in order to form a hexachord on 
the note F in such a way as to cause the semitone to fall in the 
right place which in the case of all hexachords was between 
the third and fourth notes. This softened B was written in a 
rounded form thus: b (rotundum), while the original B remained 
square thus: [3 (quadrum). The original conception of the sharp 
was to cross or lattice the square B, by which it was shown that 
it was neither to be softened nor to remain unchanged. The 
flat, which originated in the loth century, appears to have been 
of far earlier date than the sharp, the invention of which has 
been ascribed to Josquin Des Pres (1450-1521). The B-sharp 
was called B cancellatum, the cross being formed thus %. The 
use of key signatures constructed out of these signs of sharp and 
flat was of comparatively late introduction. The key signature 
states at the beginning of a piece of music the sharps and flats 
which it contains within the scale in which it is written. It is a 
device to avoid repeating the sign of sharp and flat with every 
fresh occasion of their occurring. The exact distinction between 
what were accidental sharps or flats, and what were sharps or 
flats in the key, was still undetermined in the time of Handel, 
who wrote the Suite in E containing the " Harmonious Black- 
smith " with three sharps instead of four. The double bb (some- 
times written \> or /3) and the double sharp X (sometimes 
written ^, ^ or :$ ) are Conventions of a much later date, 
called into existence by the demands of modern music, while 
the sign of natural (t|) is the outcome of the original B quadra- 
tion or square B (3. 

The systems known as Tonic Sol Fa and the Galin-Paris- 
Cheve methods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they 
are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel- 
oped systems analysed above. The basis of these substitutes 
is the reference of all notes to key relationship and not to pitch. 

AUTHORITIES. E. David and M. Lussy, Hisioire de la notation 
musicale (Paris, 1882); H. Riemann, Notenschrift und Notendruck 
(1896) ; C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903) ; Robert 



Eitner, Bibliographic der musik. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahr- 
hunderts (Berlin, 1877) ; Friedrich Chrysander, " Abriss einer 
Geschichte des Musikdrucks vom I5--I9. Jahrh.," Allgemeine musik- 
alische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1879, Nos. n-i6); W. H. James Weale, 
A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare Manuscripts and Printed Works, 
chiefly Liturgical (Historical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall, 
London, January-October, 1885); (London, 1886); W. Barclay 
Squire, " Notes on Early Music Printing," in the Zeitschrift biblio- 
graphica, p. IX. S. 99-122 (London, 1896); Grove's Diet, of Music. 

MUSIC HALLS. The "variety theatre" or "music-hall" 
of to-day developed out of the " saloon theatres " which existed 
in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence 
to the restrictive action of the " patent " theatres at that time. 
These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was 
broadly called the "legitimate drama," which ranged from 
Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldsmith 
to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Cornhill, citizen and poet, 
and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses 
defended their rights when they were attacked by the " minor " 
and " saloon " theatres, but they often acted in the spirit of 
the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and 
even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves, 
they too often neglected the " legitimate drama " for the 
supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate 
competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the 
inn or tavern. The tavern was the source of life and heat, and 
warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather 
rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses 
were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as 
possible for the " groundlings " by layers of straw, but the tavern 
character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable 
liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the 
audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or 
platform (like the " avant-scene " boxes at a Parisian theatre), 
were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel 
luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a " smoking- 
theatre." 

While the drama progressed as a recognized public entertain- 
ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings in the 
town, or certain booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its 
patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power 
to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and 
Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by 
Charles II. to his " trusty and well-beloved " Thomas Killigrew 
" and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not 
connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known 
in theatrical history as the " Killigrew and Davenant patent." 
Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir 
William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate chUd of William 
Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius. 
Charles II. had strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to 
arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The 
Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended, 
after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury 
Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing 
these theatres. The " minor " and outlying playhouses were 
carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and 
the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates. 

The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or 
tavern, it was now the turn of the inn or tavern to develop into 
an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation 
of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution 
of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose from 
the most modest, humble and obscure beginning from the 
public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly " sing-songs," chiefly 
supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings" 
of the " long-room " upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' or 
Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers were 
engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the " assem- 
bly-room " entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls 
and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The 
district " tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature of 
suburban life the suburbs being next door to the city and the 
country next door to the suburbs was the first to show dramatic 



88 



MUSIC HALLS 



ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy 
grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight 
people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling 
off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical 
statues in plaster, always slightly mutilated, gave an educational 
tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst 
the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the " Royal 
Vauxhall Gardens '' as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny 
refreshment ticket. There were degrees of quality, of course, 
amongst these places, which answered to the German beer- 
gardens, though with inferior music. The Beulah Spa at 
Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York- 
shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico, 
the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red 
Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Barn at Highbury, the Manor 
House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at 
Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of 
their time, if rarely beyond it. 

The suspended animation of the law the one Georgian act, 
which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs 
in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the little London of 1730, 
when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only 
about six millions encouraged the growth eventually of a 
number of " saloon theatres " in various London districts, 
which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing" 
to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres 
thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. II. c. 36, which in later 
days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty 
millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally 
interpreted, as long as it kept clear of politics. 

The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to 
taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse- 
ments with smoking and light refreshments. The principal 
" saloons " were the Emngham in the Whitechapel Road, the 
Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington, 
the Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the 
Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several 
others of less importance. All these places had good com- 
panies, especially in the winter, and many of' them nourished 
leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly 
rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage, 
occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and 
Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and 
died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired 
fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who 
was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading 
saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music 
hall (a distinction with little difference), fought his way to the 
front after the abolition of the " patent rights " and was accepted 
as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Grecian 
saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden 
or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the 
material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Boz, was a place 
managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion by its pro- 
prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the " saloon " where the one and only 
attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost 
all the original repertory of the Opera Comique in Paris, with the 
result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny 
audience that had never been heard before nor since in England. 
Auber, Herold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gretry, Donizetti, 
Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced 
musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing 
part of London, long before board schools were established. 
The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when 
they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake- 
speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union 
Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel 
Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the 
Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager 
of his day, was tempted in 1834 to give a performance of Othello. 
It was " raided " by the then rather " new police," and all the 
actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken 



into custody and marched off to Worship Street police station, 
confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned 
in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those 
who are helping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no 
holders of exclusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion. 
The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this 
time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama- 
tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that 
the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while 
interfering with the beneficial freedom of public amusements. 

The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of 
acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical 
employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries. 
They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for 
years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two 
performances a night, like a " gaff " in the New Cut or White- 
chapel. They had not destroyed the " star " system, and 
Edmund Kean and the boy Betty the " Infant Roscius " 
were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles 
Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd 
and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards 
free trade in the drama was secured. 

The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon 
theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking, 
and even eating were allowed hi the auditorium. An act was 
soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a 
censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under 
the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This 
was the lord chamberlain for the time being. The lord chamber- 
lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres 
under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed 
" in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and customs 
of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter 
were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates, 
or other licensing authorities, under the 25 Geo. II. c. 36 the 
Music and Dancing Act and so far a divorce was decreed 
between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain 
eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were 
allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive 
positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and 
private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli- 
cation. All this implied that stage plays were to be kept free 
from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain- 
ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was 
accepted by those " saloon theatres " which were not tempted 
to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many 
additions, started the first music halls. 

Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first 
as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can- 
terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door 
to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a " minor 
theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern 
germ, its creator being Mr Charles Morton, who honourably 
earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified 
its title by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the 
prejudice and unfairness of Planche's sarcasm in a Haymarket 
burlesque " most music hall most melancholy." Mr Charles 
Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained 
the support of Punch, which stamped the Canterbury as the 
" Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere 
accident Gounod's great opera of Faust, through defective inter- 
national registration, fell into the public domain in England and 
became common property. The Canterbury, not daring 
to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of the 
Stage-play Act, gave what was called " An Operatic Selection," 
the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a 
school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter Hall. 
The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent com- 
pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time 
the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal 
opera managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket 
and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were being' 



MUSIC HALLS 



89 



whistled by the " man in the street," the " boy in the gutter " 
and the tradesman waiting at the door for orders. 

With the Canterbury Hall, and its brother the Oxford 
in Oxford Street a converted inn and coaching yard built 
and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the 
music halls were well started. They had imitators in every 
direction some large, some small, and some with architectural 
pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap 
prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the 
regular theatres. 

With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few 
old cellar " singing-rooms " gradually disappeared. Evans's 
in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the 
Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi 
Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms 
the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet 
Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London) 
disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material 
for Thackeray's picture of " The Cave of Harmony." This 
" Cave," like Dickens's " Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn 
from the features of many places. To do the " cellars " a little 
justice, they represented the manners of a past time heavy 
suppers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and 
recitations was partly due to the fact that the audience and 
the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray clung 
to Evans's to the last. It was his nightly " chapel of 
ease " to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became 
decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind 
screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival 
in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on 
and off the stage, and became an ordinary music hall. 

The rise and progress of the London music halls naturally 
excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of 
the regular theatres, and this was increased when the first 
Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square. 
The building was the finest example of Moorish architec- 
ture on a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt 
down in the 'eighties, and the present theatre was built in 
its place. Originally it was " The Panopticon," a palace of 
" recreative science," started under the most distinguished 
direction on the old polytechnic institution lines, and with 
ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being 
tried as an " American Circus," it was turned into a great 
variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the 
name of the Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith, 
the energetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr 
Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from 
the Crystal Palace. He produced in 1865 an ambitious ballet 
the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had 
been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as " Azae'l." 

The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for 
infringing the Stage-play Act the 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68. The 
case is in the law reports Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible 
plaintiffs being the well-known actors and managers Horace 
Wigan and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone, 
and many other theatrical managers. A long trial before 
eminent judges, with eminent counsel on both sides, produced 
a decision which was not very satisfactory, and far from final. 
It held that, as far as the entertainment went, according to 
the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any 
distinct story or coherent action, but it might have been a 
" divertissement " a term suggested in the course of the 
trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro- 
duced at the same theatre, called Where's the Police? 
which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin, 
with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the 
traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the 
same plaintiffs before a police magistrate at Marlborough Street, 
who inflicted the full penalties 20 a performance for 12 
performances, and costs. An appeal was made to the West- 
minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine 
and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan- 



cellor Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being 
heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports. 

These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of 
a parliamentary inquiry, and a House of Commons select 
committee was appointed in 1866, at the instigation of the 
music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted 
much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses 
amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who 
had no personal objection to undertake the control of these 
comparatively young places of amusement and recreation. 
Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act, 
as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a stage 
play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent 
judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation 
that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play, 
and that the old definition " the representation of any action 
by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration " 
could be supported in the then state of the law in any of 
the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were 
encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France. 
Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Miche! Chevalier, 
passed a decree known as La LibertS des IheStres, which 
fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Operettas, 
ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light 
pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally 
confined to songs and acrobatic performances. The report 
of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr 
(afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the 
variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for, 
which were those enjoyed in France and other countries. 

Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several 
private bills in the House of Commons, which came to nothing, 
checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The 
variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im- 
portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. The lighting 
and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various 
" palaces " (as many of them were now called) improved, 
and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in- 
creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions 
and more. The same and only act (25 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate 
or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as' the 
" administrative county of London," and its area the 
zo-miles radius is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board 
of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County 
Council was created and has taken its place. The London 
County Council, with extended power over structures and 
structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres 
and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex, 
Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within 
the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine 
and enforce their powers. They have been advised that 
they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like, 
and that when they grant the united licence the dancing 
means the dancing of paid performers on a stage, and not the 
dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short- 
lived but elegant Cremorne Gardens, or an old-time " Casino." 
They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless 
the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local 
magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their 
control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with- 
held unless a similar promise is made the drink authority in 
this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV. 
( 5 &6 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 7). 

The spread of so-called " sketches " a kind of condensed 
drama or farce in the variety theatres, and the action of the 
London County Council in trying to check the extension of 
refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds 
of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or " limited 
companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com- 
mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production 
of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and 
the same objections were raised against a licensing authority 



9 o 



MUSK MUSKEGON 



which is elected by public votes, only exists for three years 
before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for 
the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion 
(as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to 
parliament like the Home Office or the Board of Trade the 
preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff, 
who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The 
chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after- 
wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same 
as the one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested: 
one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert 
rooms. 

Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety 
theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the 
last half of the igth century, the business has little or no 
corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete 
registration of the various properties throughout the United 
Kingdom. In London the " London Entertainments Pro- 
tection Association," which has the command of a weekly 
paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after 
its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of 
capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing 
80,000 persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year 
about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music 
licences in London alone are over 300. (J. HD.) 

HUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. tiba\<K, possibly Pers. 
mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum), the name originally 
given to a perfume obtained from the strong-smelling substance 
secreted in a gland by the musk-deer (q.v.), and hence applied 
to other animals, and also to plants, possessing a similar odour. 
The variety which appears in commerce is a secretion of the 
musk-deer; but the odour is also emitted by the musk-ox and 
musk-rat of India and Europe, by the musk-duck (Biziura 
lobala) of West Australia, the musk-shrew, the musk-beetle 
(Calickroma moschala), the alligator of Central America, and by 
several other animals. In the vegetable kingdom it is present 
in the common musk (Mimulus moschatus), the musk- wood 
of the Guianas and West Indies (Guarea, spp.), and in the seeds 
of Hibiscus Abelmoschus (musk-seeds). To obtain the perfume 
from the musk-deer the animal is killed and the gland com- 
pletely removed, and dried, either in the sun, on a hot stone, 
or by immersion in hot oil. It appears in commerce as " musk 
in pod," i.e. the glands are entire, or as " musk in grain," in 
which the perfume has been extracted from its receptacle. 
Three kinds are recognized: (i) Tong-king, Chinese or Tibetan, 
imported from China, the most valued; (2) Assam or Nepal, 
less valuable; and (3) Karbardin or Russian (Siberian), imported 
from Central Asia by way of Russia, the least valuable and 
hardly admitting of adulteration. The Tong-king musk is 
exported in small, gaudily decorated caddies with tin or lead 
linings, wherein the perfume is sealed down; it is now usually 
transmitted direct by parcel post to the merchant. 

Good musk is of a dark purplish colour, dry, smooth and 
unctuous to the touch, and bitter in taste. It dissolves in boiling 
water to the extent of about one-half; alcohol takes up one-third 
of the substance, and ether and chloroform dissolve still less. 
A grain of musk will distinctly scent millions of cubic feet of 
air without any appreciable loss of weight, and its scent is not 
only more penetrating but more persistent than that of any 
other known substance. In addition to its odoriferous principle, 
it contains ammonia, cholesterin, fatty matter, a bitter resinous 
substance, and other animal principles. As a material in 
perfumery it is of the first importance, its powerful and enduring 
odour giving strength and permanency to the vegetable essences, 
so that it is an ingredient in many compounded perfumes. 

Artificial musk is a synthetic product, haying a similar odour to 
natural musk. It was obtained by Baur in 1888 by condensing 
toluene with isobutyl bromide in the presence of aluminium chloride, 
and nitrating the product. It is a symtrinitrp-^-butyl toluene. 
Many similar preparations have been made, and it appears that the 
odour depends upon the symmetry of the three nitro groups. 

MUSK-DEER (Moschus moschiferus) , an aberrant member 
of the deer family constituting the sub-family Ceruidae Moschinae 



(see DEER). Both sexes are devoid of antler appendage; 
but in this the musk-deer agrees with one genus of true deer 
(Hydrelaphus), and as in the latter, the upper canine teeth of 
the males are long and sabre-like, projecting below the chin, 
with the ends turned somewhat backwards. In size the musk- 
deer is rather less than the European roe-deer, being about 
20 in. high at the shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder 
pair, are long; and the feet remarkable for the great develop- 
ment of the lateral pair of hoofs and for the freedom of motion 




The Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus). 



they all present, which must be of assistance to the animal 
in steadying it in its agile bounds among the crags of its native 
haunts. The ears are large, and the tail rudimentary. The 
hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly 
brittle and pith-like character, breaking easily; it is generally 
of a greyish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red, 
and often variegated with lighter patches. The musk-deer 
inhabits the forest districts in the Himalaya as far west as 
Gilgit, always, however, at great elevations being rarely 
found in summer below 8000 ft. above the sea-level, and ranging 
as high as the limits of the thickets of birch, rhododendron 
and juniper, among which it mostly conceals itself in the day- 
time. The range extends into Tibet, Siberia and north- 
western China; but the musk-deer of Kansu has been separated 
as a distinct species, under the name of M. sifanicus. Musk- 
deer are hardy, solitary and retiring animals, chiefly nocturnal 
in habits, and almost always found alone, rarely in pairs and 
never in herds. They are exceedingly active and surefooted, 
having perhaps no equal in traversing rocks and precipitous 
giound; and they feed on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants 
which grow on the mountains. 

Most mammals have certain portions of the skin specially 
modified and provided with glands secreting odorous and fatty 
substances characteristic of the particular species. The special 
gland of the musk-deer, which has made the animal so well 
known, and has proved the cause of unremitting persecution 
to its possessor, is found in the male only, and is a sac about 
the size of a small orange, situated beneath the skin of the 
abdomen, the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial 
aperture. The secretion with which the sac is filled is dark 
brown or chocolate in colour, and when fresh of the consistence 
of " moist gingerbread," but becoming dry and granular after 
keeping (see MUSK). The Kansu (M. sifanicus) differs from 
the typical species in having longer ears, which are black on 
the outer surface. 

MUSKEGON, a city and the county-seat of Muskegon 
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Muskegon lake, an expansion 
of Muskegon river near its mouth, about 4 m. from Lake 
Michigan and 38 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890), 
22,702; (1900), 20,818, of whom 6236 were foreign-born; 



MUSKET MUSK-OX 



9 1 



(igio census) 24,062. It is served by the Grand Trunk, 
the Pere Marquette, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the 
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon (electric) railways, 
and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake 
ports. There are several summer resorts in the vicinity. As 
the gifts of Charles H. Hackley (1837-1905), a rich lumberman, 
the city has an endowment fund to the public schools of about 
$2,000,000; a manual training school, which has an endowment 
of $600,000, and is one of the few endowed public schools in 
the United States; a public library, with an endowment of 
$275,000; a public hospital with a $600,000 endowment; and 
a poor fund endowment of $300,000. In Hackley Park there 
are statues of Lincoln and Farragut, and at the' Hackley School 
there is a statue of McKinley; all three are by C. H. Niehaus. 
The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Muskegon 
lake is 5 m. long and 15 m. wide, with a depth of 30 to 40 ft., 
and is ice-free throughout the year. The channel from Muskegon 
lake to Lake Michigan has been improved to a depth of 20 ft. 
and a width of 300 ft. by the Federal government since 1867. 
From Muskegon are shipped large quantities of lumber and 
market-garden produce, besides the numerous manufactures 
of the city. The total value of all factory products in 1904 
was $6,319,441 (39-6% more than in 1900), of which more 
than one-sixth was the value of lumber. A trading post was 
established here in 1812, but a permanent settlement was 
not established until 1834. Muskegon was laid out as a town 
in 1849, incorporated as a village in 1861, and chartered as a 
city in 1869. The name is probably derived from a Chippewa 
word, maskeg or muskeg, meaning " grassy bog," still used in 
that sense in north-western America. 

MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.), the term generally 
applied to the firearm of the infantry soldier from about 1550 
up to and even beyond the universal adoption of rifled small 
arms about 1850-1860. The word originally signified a male 
sparrowhawk (Italian moschetto, derived perhaps ultimately 
from Latin musca, a fly) and its application to the weapon may 
be explained by the practice of naming firearms after birds 
and beasts (cf. falcon, basilisk). Strictly speaking, the word 
is inapplicable both to the early hand-guns and to the arquebuses 
and calivers that superseded the hand-guns. The " musket " 
proper, introduced into the Spanish army by the duke of Alva, 
was much heavier and more powerful than the arquebus. Its 
bullet retained sufficient striking energy to stop a horse at 500 
and 600 yards from the muzzle. A writer in 1598 (quoted 
s.v. in the New English Dictionary) goes so far as to say 
that " One good musket may be accounted for two caUivers." 
Unlike the arquebus, it was fired from a rest, which the 
" musketeer " stuck into the ground in front of him. But 
during the ryth century the musket in use was so far improved 
that the rest could be dispensed with (see GUN). The musket 
was a matchlock, weapons with other forms of lock being 
distinguished as wheel-locks, firelocks, snaphances, &c., and 
soldiers were similarly distinguished as musketeers and fusiliers. 
On the disuse, about 1690-1695, of this form of firing mechanism, 
the term " musket " was, in France at least, for a time discon- 
tinued in favour of " fusil," or flint-lock, which thenceforward 
reigned supreme up to the introduction of a practicable per- 
cussion lock about 1830-1840. But the term " musket " 
survived the thing it originally represented, and was currently 
used for the firelock (and afterwards for the percussion weapon). 
To-day it is generically used for military firearms anterior to 
the modern rifle. The original meaning of the word musketry 
has remained almost unaltered since 1600; it signifies the fire of 
infantry small-arms (though for this " rifle fire " is now a far 
more usual term), and in particular the art of using them 
(see INFANTRY and RIFLE). Of the derivatives, the only one 
that is not self-explanatory is musketoon. This was a short, 
large-bore musket somewhat of the blunderbuss type, originally 
designed for the use of cavalry, but afterwards, in the i8th 
century, chiefly a domestic or coachman's weapon. 

MUSKHOGEAN STOCK, a North American Indian stock. The 
name is from that of the chief tribe of the Creek confederacy, 



the Muskogee. It includes the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
Seminoles and other tribes. Its territory was almost the 
whole state of Mississippi, western Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, 
Alabama, most of Georgia, and later nearly all Florida. Musk- 
hogean traditions assign the west and north-west as the original 
home of the stock.. Its history begins in 1527, on the first 
landing of the Spaniards on the Gulf Coast. The Muskhogean 
peoples were then settled agriculturists with an elaborate social 
organization, and living in villages, many of which were fortified 
(see INDIANS: North American). 

MUSKOGEE, a city and the county-seat of Muskogee county, 
Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 3 m. W. by S. of the confluence of the 
Verdigris, Neosho (or Grand) and Arkansas rivers, and about 
130 m. E.N.E. of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1900), 4154; (1907), 
14,418, of whom 4298 were negroes and 332 Indians; (1910), 25, 278. 
It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland 
Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri, 
Oklahoma & Gulf railways. Fort Gibson (pop. in 1910, 1344), 
about 5 m. N.E. on the Neosho, near its confluence with the 
Arkansas, is the head of steam-boat navigation of the 
Arkansas; if is the site of a former government fort and of a 
national cemetery. Muskogee is the seat of Spaulding Institute 
(M.E. Church, South) and Nazareth Institute (Roman Catholic), 
and at Bacone, about 2 m. north-east, is Indian University 
(Baptist, opened 1884). Muskogee is the commercial centre of 
an agricultural and stock-raising region, is surrounded by 
an oil and natural gas field of considerable extent producing 
a high grade of petroleum, and has a large oil refinery, railway 
shops (of the Midland Valley and the Missouri, Oklahoma & 
Gulf railways), cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cotton-seed 
oil and flour mills. The municipality owns and operates the 
water-works, the water supply being drawn from the Neosho 
river. Muskogee was founded about 1870, and became the 
chief town of the Creek Nation (Muskogee) and the metropolis 
and administrative centre of the former Indian Territory, 
being the headquarters of the Union Indian Agency to the 
Five Civilized Tribes, of the United States (Dawes) Commission 
to the Five Civilized Tribes, and of a Federal land office for 
the allotment of lands to the Creeks and Cherokees, and the 
seat of a Federal Court. The city was chartered in 1898; its 
area was enlarged in 1908, increasing its population. 

MUSK-OX, also known as musk-buffalo and musk-sheep, 
an Arctic American ruminant of the family Bovidae (q.v.), 
now representing a genus and sub-family by itself. Apparently 
the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) has little or no near relation- 
ship to either the oxen or the sheep; and it is not improbable 
that its affinities are with the Asiatic takin (Budorcas) and the 
extinct European Criotherium of the Pliocene of Samos. The 
musky odour from which the animal takes its name does not 
appear to be due to the secretion of any gland. 

In height a bull musk-ox stands about 5 ft. at the shoulder. 
The head is large and broad. The horns in old males have 
extremely broad bases, meeting in the middle line, and covering 
the brow and crown of the head. They are directed at first 
downwards by the side of the face, and then turn upwards 
and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. The basal 
half is dull white, oval in section and coarsely fibrous, the middle 
part smooth, shining and round, and the tip black. In females 
and young males the horns are smaller, and their bases separated 
by a space in the middle of the forehead. The ears are small, 
erect, pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair. The space 
between the nostrils and the upper lip is covered with short 
close hair, as in sheep and goats, without any trace of the bare 
muzzle of oxen. The greater part of the animal is covered with 
long brown hair, thick, matted and curly on the shoulders, 
so as to give the appearance of a hump, but elsewhere straight 
and hanging down that of the sides, back and haunches 
reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely concealing 
the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur, 
shed in summer, when the whole coat conies off in blanket-like 
masses. The hair on the lower jaw, throat and chest is long 
and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, though 



MUSK-RAT 



there is no loose fold of skin in this situation. The limbs are 
stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external 
being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially 
covered with hair. 

Musk-oxen at the present day are confined to the most 
northern parts of North America, where they range over the 
rocky Barren Grounds between lat. 64 and the shores of the 
Arctic Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and 
it appears that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie 
river, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay. 




The Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus). 

Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry 
Islands and Grinnell Land to north Greenland, reaching on 
the west coast as far south as Melville Bay; and it also occurs 
at Sabine Island on the east coast. The Greenland animal is 
a distinct race (0. m. wardi), distinguished by white hair on 
the forehand; and it is suggested that the one from Grinnell 
Land forms a third race. As proved by the discovery of fossil 
remains, musk-oxen ranged during the Pleistocene period over 
northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, their 
bones occurring in river-deposits along with those of the rein- 
deer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros. They have also been 
found in Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as 
Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield near Bath, Barnwood near 
Gloucester, and in the brick-earth of the Thames valley at Cray- 
ford, Kent; while their remains also occur in Arctic America. 

Musk-oxen are gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of 
twenty or thirty head, or sometimes eighty or a hundred, in 
which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown 
males. They run with considerable speed, notwithstanding 
the shortness of their legs. They feed chiefly on grass, but 
also on moss, lichens and tender shoots of the willow and pine. 
The female brings forth one young in the end of May or begin- 
ning of June, after a gestation of nine months. The Swedish 
expedition to Greenland in 1899 found musk-oxen in herds 
of varying size some contained only a few individuals, and 
in one case there were sixty-seven. The peculiar musky odour 
was perceived from a distance of a hundred yards; but accord- 
ing to Professor Nathoist there was no musky taste or smell in 
the flesh if the carcase were cleaned immediately the animals 
were killed. 

Of late years musk-oxen have been exhibited alive in Europe; 
and two examples, one of which lived from 1899 till 1903, have 
been brought to England. The somewhat imperfect skull of an 
extinct species of musk-ox from the gravels of the Klondike has 
enabled Mr W. H. Osgood to make an important addition to our 
knowledge of this remarkable type of ruminant. The skull, which 
is probably that of a female, differs from the ordinary musk-ox by 
the much smaller and shorter horn-cores, which are widely separ- 
ated in the middle line of the skull, where there is a groove-like 
depression running the whole length of the forehead. The sockets 
of the eyes are also much less prominent, and the whole fore-part of 
the skull is proportionately longer. On account of these and other 
differences (for which the reader may refer to the original paper, 
published in vol. xlviii. of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) 



its describer refers the Klondike skull to a new jjenus, with the 
title Symbos tyrrelli, the specific name being given in honour of its 
discoverer. This, however, is not all, for Mr Osgood points out 
that a skull discovered many years ago in the vicinity of Fort 
Gibson, Oklahoma, and then named Ovwos or Bootherium cavifrons, 
evidently belongs to the same genus. That skull indicates a bull, 
and the author suggests that it may possibly be the male of Symbos 
tyrrelli, although the wide separation of the localities made him 
hesitate to accept this view. Perhaps it would have been better 
had he done so, and taken the name Symbos cavifrons for the species. 
A third type of musk-ox skull is, however, known from North 
America, namely one from the celebrated Big-Bone Lick, Kentucky, 
on which the genus and species Bootherium bombifrons was estab- 
lished, which differs from all the others by its small size, convex 
forehead and rounded horn-cores, the latter being very widely 
separated, and arising from the sides of the skull. This specimen 
has been regarded as the female of Symbos cavifrons; but this 
view, as pointed out by Mr Osgood, is almost certainly incorrect, 
and it represents an entirely distinct form. 

This, however, is not the whole of the past history of the musk- 
ox group ; and in this connexion it may be mentioned that palaeonto- 
logical discoveries are gradually making it evident that the poverty 
of America in species of horned ruminants is to a great extent a 
feature of the present day, and that in past times it possessed a 
considerable number of representatives of this group. One of the 
latest additions to the list is a large sheep-like animal from a cave 
in California, apparently representing a new generic type, which 
has been described by E. L. Furlong in the publications of the 
University of California, under the name of Preptoceras sinclairi. 
It is represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and has doubly- 
curved horns and sheep-like teeth. In common with an allied 
ruminant from the same district, previously described as Eucera- 
therium, it seems probable that Preptoceras is related on the one 
hand to the musk-ox, and on the other to the Asiatic takin, while 
it is also supposed to have affinities with the sheep. If these 
extinct forms really serve to connect the takin with the musk-ox, 
their systematic importance will be very great. From a geographical 
point of view nothing is more likely, for the takin forms a type 
confined to Eastern Asia (Tibet and Szechuen), and it would be 
reasonable to expect that, like so many other peculiar forms from 
the same region, they should have representatives on the American 
side of the Pacific. (R. L.*) 

MUSK-RAT, or MUSQUASH, the name of a large North Ameri- 
can rat-like rodent mammal, technically known as Fiber zibe- 
thicus, and belonging to the mouse-tribe (Muridae). Aquatic 
in habits, this animal is related to the English water-rat and 
therefore included in the sub-family Microtinae (see VOLE). It 
is, however, of larger size, the head and body being about 1 2 in. 




The Musk-rat (Fiber zibelhicus). 

in length and the tail but little less. It is rather a heavily- 
built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short 
limbs, the eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond 
the fur. The fore-limbs have four toes and a rudimentary 
thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct 
toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally 
compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles 
that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft under- 
fur, interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which oveilie 
and conceal the former, on the upper surface and sides of the 



MUSK-SHREW MUSPRATT, J. 



body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black 
on the back and grey below. The tail and naked parts of the 
feet are black. The musky odour from which it derives its 
name is due to the secretion of a large gland situated in the 
inguinal region, and present in both sexes. 

The ordinary musk-rat is one of several species of a genus 
peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities 
in the northern part of the continent, extending from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren 
grounds bordering the Arctic seas. It lives on the shores of 
lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with facility, feeding on 
the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and 
vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits. 
Musk-rats are most active at night, spending the greater part 
of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist 
of a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under 
the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more 
elaborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of 
sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with 
mud. As their fur is an important article of commerce, large 
numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared 
at the mouths of their holes. (See also RODENTIA.) 

MUSK-SHREW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidura 
of the family Soricidae (see INSECTIVORA). The term is generally 
used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coerulea) of India. 
Dr Dobson believed this to be a semi-domesticated variety of the 
brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original 
wild type. The head and body of a full-grown specimen measure 
about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and 
bluish-grey is the usual colour of the fur, which is paler on the 
under surface. Dr Blanford states that the story of wine or beer 
becoming impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of 
this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India 
than formerly owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in 
Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted. 

MUSLIM IBN AL-HAJJAJ, the Imam, the author of one of 
the two books of Mahommedan tradition called Sahih, " sound," 
was born at Nishapur at some uncertain date after A.D. 815 and 
died there in 875. Like al-Bukhari (?..), of whom he was a 
close and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting 
and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as 
Egypt. It is plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist 
school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system 
of canon law on a speculative basis (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). 
But though he was a student and friend of Ahmad ibn Hanbal 
(q.v.) he did not go in traditionalism to the length of some, and 
he defended al-Bukhari when the latter was driven from Nishapur 
for icfusing to admit that the utterance (lafz) of the Koran by 
man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see MAHOMMEDAN 
RELIGION; and Patton's Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 32 sqq.). His great 
collection of traditions is second in popularity only to that of 
al-Bukhari, and is commonly regarded as more accurate and 
reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to 
weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional 
basis for a system of law. Therefore, though he arranged his 
material according to such a system, he did not add guiding 
rubrics, and he regularly brought together in one place the 
different parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is 
thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His 
biographers give almost no details as to his life, and its early 
part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many 
as twenty works, but only his Sahih seems to have reached us. 

See further, de Slane's transl. of ibn Khallikan, iii. 348 sqq, and of 
Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomenes, ii. 470, 475; Goldziher, Muhammedan- 
ische Studien, ii. 245 sqq., 255 sqq.; Brockelmann, Geschichle der 
arab. Litt., \. 760 seq.; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, 
80, 147 seq.; Dhahabi Tadhkira (edit, of Hyderabad), ii. 165 sqq. 

(D. B. MA.) 

MUSLIN (through Fr. mousseline from It. mussolino, diminu- 
tive of Mussolo, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan) a light cotton 
cloth said to have been first made at Mosul, a city of Mesopo- 
tamia. Muslins have been largely made in various parts of 
India, whence they were imported to England towards the end 



93 

of the 1 7th century. Some of these Indian muslins were very 
fine and costly. Among the specialties are Ami muslin, made 
in the Madras presidency, and Dacca muslin, made at Dacca 
in Bengal. Muslins of many kinds are now made in Europe 
and America, and the name is applied to both plain and fancy 
cloths, and to printed calicoes of light texture. Swiss muslin 
is a light variety, woven in stripes or figures, originally made 
in Switzerland. Book muslin is made in Scotland from very 
fine yarns. Mulls, jaconets, lenos, and other cloths exported 
to the East and elsewhere are sometimes described as muslins. 
Muslin is used for dresses, blinds, curtains, &c. 

HUSONIUS RUFUS, a Roman philosopher of the ist century 
A.D., was born in Etruria about A.D. 20-30. He fell under 
the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled 
to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation 
in Piso's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the 
friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring 
an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher 
whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus) 
and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and good- 
will among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing 
upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian 
made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were 
expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that 
he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy, 
which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil, 
Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though 
he did not altogether neglect .logic and physics, he maintained 
that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a 
thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It 
is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and 
the truly good man is also the true philosopher. 

Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a 
number of letters to Apollonius of Tyana. The jetters are certainly 
unauthentic; about the others there is no evidence. His views 
were collected by Claudius (or Valerius) Pollio, who wrote 'Aro- 
HvrjuovfbuaTa ^Aovtruviov TOV 4tXoff6<ov, from which Stobaeus 
obtained his information. See Ritter and Preller 477, 488, 489; 
Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81 ; and compare articles 
STOICS and EPICTETUS. 

MUSPRATT, JAMES (1793-1886), British chemical manu- 
facturer, was born in Dublin on the izth of August 1793. At 
the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist, 
but his apprenticeship was terminated in 1810 by a quarrel 
with his master, and in 1812 he went to Spain to take part in 
the Peninsular War. Lack of influence prevented him from 
getting a commission in the cavalry, but he followed the British 
army on foot far into the interior, was laid up with fever at 
Madrid, and, narrowly escaping capture by the French, succeeded 
in making his way to Lisbon. There he joined the navy, but 
after taking part in the blockade of Brest he was led to desert, 
through the harshness of the discipline on the second of the two 
ships in which he served. Returning to Dublin about 1814, 
he began the manufacture of chemical products, such as hydro- 
chloric and acetic acids and turpentine, adding prussiate of 
potash a few years later. He also had in view the manufacture 
of alkali from common salt by the Leblanc process, but on the 
one hand he could not command the capital for the plant, and 
on the other saw that Dublin was not well situated for the experi- 
ment. In 1822 he went to Liverpool, which was at once a good 
port and within easy reach of salt and coal, and took a lease of 
an abandoned glass-works on the bank of the canal in Vauxhall 
Road. At first he confined himself to prussiate of potash, until 
in 1823, when the tax on salt was reduced from 153. to 2s. a 
bushel, his profits enabled him to erect lead-chambers for making 
the sulphuric acid necessary for the Leblanc process. In 1828 
he built works at St Helen's and in 1830 at Newton; at the latter 
place he was long harassed by litigation on account of the 
damage done by the hydrochloric acid emitted from his factory, 
and finally in 1850 he left it and started new works at Widnes 
and Flint. In 1834-1835, in conjunction with Charles Tennant, 
he purchased sulphur mines in Sicily, to provide the raw material 
for his sulphuric acid; but on the imposition of the Neapolitan 



94 



MUSSCHENBROEK MUSSEL 



government of a prohibitive duty on sulphur Muspratt found 
a substitute in iron pyrites, which was thus introduced as the 
raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He was 
always anxious to employ the best scientific advice available 
and to try every novelty that promised advantage. He was 
a close friend of Liebig, whose mineral manures were compounded 
at his works. He died at Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool, on the 
4th of May 1886. After his retirement in 1857 his business was 
continued in the hands of four of his ten children. 

His eldest son, JAMES SHERIDAN MUSPRATT (1821-1871), 
studied chemistry under Thomas Graham at Glasgow and 
London and under Liebig at Giessen, and in 1848 founded the 
Liverpool College of Chemistry, an institution for training 
chemists, of which he also acted as director. From 1854 to 
1860 he was occupied in preparing a dictionary of Chemistry . . . 
as applied and relating to the Arts and Manufactures, which 
was translated into German and Russian, and he published a 
translation of Plattner's treatise on the blow-pipe in 1845, and 
Outlines of Analysis in 1849. His original work included a 
research on the sulphites (1845), and the preparation of toluidine 
and nitro-aniline in 1845-1846 with A. W. Hofmann. 

MUSSCHENBROEK, PIETER VAN (1692-1761), Dutch 
natural philosopher, was born on the i4th of March 1692 at 
Leiden, where his father Johann Joosten van Musschenbroek 
(1660-1707) was a maker of physical apparatus. He studied 
at the university of his native city, where he was a pupil and 
friend of W. J. s'G. Gravesande. Graduating in 1715 with a 
dissertation, De aeris praesenlia in humoribus animdlium, Mus- 
schenbroek was appointed professor at Duisburg in 1719. In 
1723 he was promoted to the chair of natural philosophy and 
mathematics at Utrecht. In 1731 he declined an invitation 
to Copenhagen, and was promoted in consequence to the chair 
of astronomy at Utrecht in 1732. The attempt of George II. 
of England in 1737 to attract him to the newly-established 
university of Gottingen was also unsuccessful. At length, 
however, the claims of his native city overcame his resolution 
to remain at Utrecht, and he accepted the mathematical chair 
at Leiden in 1739, where, declining all offers from abroad, he 
remained till his death on the 9th of September 1761. 

His first important production was Epitome elementorum physico- 
malhematicorum (i2mo, Leiden, 1726) a work which was after- 
wards gradually altered as it passed through several editions, and 
which appeared at length (posthumously, ed. by Johann Lulofs, 
one of his colleagues as Leiden) in 1762, under the title of Introductio 
ad philosophiam naturalem. The Physicae experimentales et geo- 
metricae dissertaliones (1729) threw new light on magnetism, capillary 
attraction, and the cohesion of bodies. A Latin edition with notes 
(1731) of the Italian work Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell- 
I'Accademia del Cimento contained among many other investigations 
a description of a new instrument, the pyrometer, which Musschen- 
broek had invented, and of several experiments which he had made 
on the expansion of bodies by heat. Musschenbroek was also the 
author of Elementa physica (8vo, 1729), and his name is associated 
with the invention of the Leyden jar (q.v.). 

MUSSEL (O. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus, 
mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels), a term applied 
in England to two families of Lamellibranch Molluscs the 
marine Mytilacea, of which. the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis, 
is the representative; and the fresh- water Unionidae, of which 
the river mussel, Unio pictorum, and the swan mussel, Anodonta 
cygnea, are the common British examples. It is not obvious 
why these fresh-water forms have been associated popularly 
with the Mytilacea under the name mussel, unless it be on 
account of the frequently very dark colour of their shells. They 
are somewhat remote from the sea mussels in structure, and have 
not even a common economic importance. 

The sea mussel (Mylilus edulis) belongs to the second order 
of the class Lamellibranchia (<?..), namely the Filibranchia, 
distinguished by the comparatively free condition of the gill- 
filaments, which, whilst adhering to one another to form gill- 
plates, are yet not fused to one another by concrescence. It is 
also remarkable' for the small size of its foot and the large 
development of two glands in the foot the byssus-forming and 
the byssus-cementing glands. The byssus is a collection of 



horny threads by which the sea mussel (like many other Lamelli- 
branch or bivalve molluscs) fixes itself to stones, rocks or 
submerged wood, but is not a permanent means of attachment, 
since it can be discarded by the animal, which, after a certain 
amount of locomotion, again fixes itself by new secretion of 
byssus from the foot. Such movement is more frequent in 
young mussels than in the full-grown. Mytilus possesses no 
siphonal tube-like productions of the margin of the mantle-skirt, 
nor any notching of the same, representative of the siphons 
which are found in its fresh-water ally, the Dreissensia poly- 
morpha. 

Mytilus edulis is an exceedingly abundant and widely distri- 
buted form. It occurs on both sides of the northern Atlantic 
and in the Mediterranean basin. It presents varieties of form 
and colour according to the depth of water and other circum- 
stances of its habitat. Usually it is found on the British coast 
encrusting rocks exposed at low tides, or on the flat surfaces 
formed by sandbanks overlying clay, the latter kind of colonies 
being known locally as " scalps." Under these conditions it 
forms continuous masses of individuals closely packed together, 
sometimes extending over many acres of surface and numbering 
millions. The readiness with which the young Mytilus attaches 
itself to wicker-work is made the means of artificially cultivating 
and securing these molluscs for the market both in the Bay of 
Kiel in North Germany and at the mouth of the Somme and other 
spots on the coast of France. 

Natural scalps are subject to extreme vicissitudes: an area 
of many acres may be destroyed by a local change of current 
producing a deposit of sand or shingle over the scalp, or by 
exposure to frost at low tide in winter, or by accumulation of 
decomposing vegetable matter. The chief localities of natural 
scalps on the British coast are Morecambe Bay in Lancashire 
and the flat eastern shores, especially that of the Wash of Lincoln, 
and similar shallow bays. These scalps are in some cases in 
the hands of private owners, and the Fisheries Department has 
made arrangements by which some local authorities, e.g. the 
corporation of Boston, can lease layings to individuals for the 
purpose of artificial cultivation. 

The sea mussel is scarcely inferior in commercial value to the 
oyster. In 1873 the value of mussels exported from Antwerp 
alone to Paris to be used as human food was 280,000. In Britain 
their chief consumption is in the deep-sea line fishery, where they 
are held to be the most effective of all baits. Twenty-eight boats 
engaged in haddock-fishing at Eyemouth used between October 
1882 and May 1883 920 tons of mussels (about 47,000,000 in- 
dividuals), costing nearly 1800 to the fishermen, about one-half of 
which sum was expended on the carriage of the mussels. The 
quantity of mussels landed on Scottish coasts has decreased in 
recent years owing to the decline in the line fisheries. In 1896 
the quantity was over 243,000 cwts., valued at 14,950; in 1902 it 
was only 95,663 cwts., valued at 5976. In the statistics for England 
and Wales mussels are not separately distinguished. Many thou- 
sand tons of mussels are wastefully employed as manure by the 
farmers on lands adjoining scalp-producing coasts, as in Lancashire 
and Norfolk, three half-pence a bushel being the price quoted in 
such cases. It is a curious fact, illustrative of the ignorant pro- 
cedure and arbitrary fashions of fisher-folk, that on the Atlantic 
seaboard of the United States the sea mussel, Mytilus edulis, though 
common,, is not used as bait nor as food. Instead, the soft clam, 
Mya arenaria, a Lamellibranch not used by English or Norwegian 
fishermen, though abundant on their shores, is employed as bait 
by the fishermen to the extent of ij million bushels per annum, 
valued at 120,000. At the mouth of the river Conway in North 
Wales the sea mussel is crushed in large quantities in order to 
extract pearls of an inferior quality which are occasionally found 
in these as in other Lamellibranch molluscs (Gwyn Jeffreys). 

Mytilus edulis is considered of fair size for eating when it is 
2 in. in length, which size is attained in three years after the spat 
or young mussel has fixed itself. Under favourable circumstances 
it will grow much jarger than this, specimens being recorded of 
9 in. in length. It is very tolerant of fresh water, fattening best, 
as does the oyster, in water of density 1014 (the density of the water 
of the North Sea being 1026). Experiments made by removing 
mussels from salt water to brackish, and finally to quite fresh 
water show that it is even more tolerant of fresh water than the 
oyster; of thirty mussels so transferred all were alive after fifteen 
days. Mytilus edulis is occasionally poisonous, owing to conditions 
not satisfactorily determined. 

The fresh-water Mussels, Anodonta cygnea, Unio pictorum, 



MUSSELBURGH MUSSET, ALFRED DE 



95 



and Unio margaritiferus belong to the order Eulamellibranchia 
of Lamellibranch Molluscs, in which the anterior and posterior 
adductor muscles are equally developed. An account of the 
anatomy of Anodon is given in the article LAMELLIBRANCHIA. 
Unio differs in no important point from Anodonta in internal 
structure. The family Unionidae, to which these genera belong, 
is of world-wide distribution, and its species occur only in ponds 
and rivers. A vast number of species arranged in several genera 
and sub-genera have been distinguished, but in the British 
Islands the three species above named are the only claimants to 
the title of "fresh- water mussel." 

Anodonta cygnea, the Pond Mussel or Swan Mussel, appears to be 
entirely without economic importance. Unio pictorum, the common 
river mussel (Thames), appears to owe its name to the fact that the 
shells were used at one time for holding water-colour paints as now 
shells of this species and of the sea mussel are used for holding 
gold and silver paint sold by artists' colourmen, but it has no other 
economic value. Unio margaritiferus, the pearl mussel, was at 
one time of considerable importance as a source of pearls, and the 
pearl mussel fishery is to this day carried on under peculiar state 
regulations in Sweden and Saxony, and other parts of the continent. 
In Scotland and Ireland the pearl mussel fishery was also of im- 
portance, but has altogether dwindled into insignificance since the 
opening up of commercial intercourse with the East and with the 
islands of the Pacific Ocean, whence finer and more abundant 
pearls than those of Unio margaritiferus are derived. 

In the last forty years of the 1 8th century pearls were exported 
from the Scotch fisheries to Paris to the value of 100,000; round 
pearls, the size of a pea, perfect in every respect, were worth 3 
or 4. The pearl mussel was formerly used as bait in the Aberdeen 
cod fishery. 

LITERATURE. For an account of the anatomy of Mytilus edulis 
the reader is referred to the treatise by Sabatier on that subject 
(Paris, 1875). The essay by Charles Harding on Molluscs used 
for Food or Bait, published by the committee of the London Inter- 
national Fisheries Exhibition (1883), may be consulted as to the 
economic questions connected with the sea mussel. The develop- 
ment of this species is described by Wilson in Fifth Ann. Rep. 
Scot. Fish. Board (1887). (E. R. L.; J. T. C.) 

MUSSELBURGH, a municipal and police burgh of Midlothian, 
Scotland, 55 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. 
Pop. (1901), 11,711. The burgh, which stretches for a mile 
along the south shore of the Firth of Forth, is intersected by the 
Esk and embraces the village of Fisherrow on the left bank of 
the river. Its original name is said to have been Eskmouth, its 
present one being derived from a bed of mussels at the mouth of 
the river. While preserving most of the ancient features of its 
High Street, the town has tended to become a suburb of the 
capital, its fine beach and golf course hastening this development. 
The public buildings include the town-hall (dating"from 1762 and 
altered in 1876), the tolbooth (1590), and the grammar school. 
Loretto School, one of the foremost public schools in Scotland, 
occupies the site of the chapel of Our Lady of Loretto, which 
was founded in 1534 by Thomas Duthie, a hermit from Mt 
Sinai. This was the favourite shrine of Mary of Guise, who 
betook herself hither at momentous crises in her history. The 
ist earl of Hertford destroyed it in 1544, and after it was rebuilt 
the Reformers demolished it again, some of its stones being 
used in erecting the tolbooth. In the west end of the town is 
Pinkie House, formerly a seat of the abbot of Dunfermline, 
but transformed in 1613 by Lord Seton. It is a fine example 
of a Jacobean mansion, with a beautiful fountain in the 
middle of the court-yard. The painted gallery, with an elabor- 
ate ceiling, too ft. long, was utilized as a hospital after the 
battle of Pinkie in 1547. Prince Charles Edward slept in it 
the night following the fight at Prestonpans (1745). Near 
the tolbooth stands the market cross, a stone column with 
a unicorn on the top supporting the burgh arms. At the 
west end of High Street is a statue of David Macbeth 
Moir (" Delta," 1798-1851), Musselburgh's most famous son. 
The antiquity of the town is placed beyond doubt by the 
Roman bridge across the Esk and the Roman remains found 
in its vicinity. The chief bridge, which carries the high road 
from Edinburgh to Berwick, was built by John Rennie in 
1807. The principal industries include paper-making, brewing, 
the making of nets and twine, bricks, tiles and pottery, 
tanning and oil-refining, besides saltworks and seed-crushing 



works. The fishery is confined to Fisherrow, where there is 
a good harbour. The Links are the scene every year of the 
Edinburgh race meetings and of those of the Royal Caledonian 
Hunt which are held every third year. Archery contests also 
take place at intervals under the auspices of the Royal Company 
of Archers. Most of the charitable institutions for instance, 
the convalescent home, fever hospital, home for girls and Red 
House home are situated at Inveresk, about ij m. up the Esk. 
About i m. south-east is the site of the battle of Pinkie, 
and 25 m. south-east, on the verge of Haddingtonshire, is 
Carberry Hill, where Mary surrendered to the lords of the 
Congregation in 1567, the spot being still known as Queen 
Mary's Mount. Musselburgh joins with Leith and Portobello 
(the Leith Burghs) in returning one member to parliament. 

MUSSET, LOUIS CHARLES ALFRED DE (1810-1857), French 
poet, play- writer and novelist, was born on the nth of December 
1810 in a house in the middle of old Paris, near the H&tel Cluny. 
His father, Victor de Musset, who traced his descent back as far 
as 1 140, held several ministerial posts of importance. He brought 
out an edition of J. J. Rousseau's works in 1821, and followed 
it soon after with a volume on the Genevan's life and writing. 
In Alfred de Mussel's childhood there were various things 
which fostered his imaginative power. He and his brother 
Paul (born 1804, died 1880), who afterwards wrote a biography 
of Alfred, delighted in reading old romances together, and in 
assuming the characters of the heroes in those romances. But 
it was not until about 1826 that Musset gave any definite sign of 
the mental force which afterwards distinguished him. In the 
summer of 1827 he won the second prize (at the College Henri 
IV.) by an essay on "The Origin of our Feelings." In 1828, 
when Eugene Scribe, Joseph Duveyrier, who under the name of 
Melesville, was a prolific playwriter and sometimes collaborator 
with Scribe, and others of note were in the habit of coming 
to Mme de Mussel's house at Auteuil, where drawing-room 
plays and charades were constantly given, Musset, excited 
by this companionship, wrote his first poem. This, to judge 
from the exlracts preserved, was neither betler nor worse lhan 
much olher work of clever boys who may or may nol aflerwards 
turn out lo be possessed of genius. He took up the study of 
law, threw it over for that of medicine, which he could not 
endure, and ended by adopting no set profession. Shortly 
afler his firsl altempt in verse he was taken by Paul Foucher 
lo Viclor Hugo's house, where he mel such men as Alfred de 
Vigny, Prosper Merimee, Charles Nodier and Sainle-Beuve. It 
was under Hugo's influence, no doubl, lhal he composed a 
play. The scene was laid in Spain, and some lines, showing 
a marked advance upon his first effort, are preserved. In 
1828, when the war between Ihe classical and Ihe romanlic 
school of lileralure was growing daily more serious and exciling, 
Mussel had published some verses in a counlry newspaper, 
and boldly reciled some of his work lo Sainle-Beuve, who 
wrole of il to a friend, " There is amongst us a boy full of genius." 
At eighteen years old Mussel produced a Iranslation, with 
addilions of his own, of De Quincey's " Opium-Ealer." This 
was published by Mame, allracled no allenlion, and has been 
long oul of prinl. His firsl original volume was published in 
1829 under Ihe name of Contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie, had an 
immediale and slriking success, provoked biller opposition, 
and produced many unworthy imilalions. This volume con- 
lained, along wilh far belter and more importanl Ihings, a 
fanlaslic parody in verse on cerlain produclions of Ihe romanlic 
school, which made a deal of noise al Ihe time. This was the 
famous " Ballade a la lune " with its recurring comparison of 
the moon shining above a steeple to the dot over an i. It 
was, lo Mussel's delight, taken quite seriously by many worthy 
folk. 

In December 1830 Musset was jusl Iwenly years old, and was 
already conscious of lhat curious double exislence wilhin him 
so frequenlly symbolized in his plays in Oclave and Clio 
for inslance (in Les Caprices de Marianne), who also sland for 
Ihe two camps, Ihe men of mailer and the men of feeling 
which he has elsewhere described as characlerislic of his 



9 6 



MUSSET, ALFRED DE 



generation. At this date his piece the Nuit vinilienne was pro- 
duced by Harel, manager of the Odeon. The exact causes of its 
failure might now be far to seek; unlucky stage accidents had 
something to do with it, but there seems reason to believe that 
there was a strongly organized opposition. However this may 
be, the result was disastrous to the French stage; for it put a 
complete damper on the one poet who, as he afterwards showed 
both in theoretical and in practical writings, had the fine insight 
which took in at a glance the merits and defects both of the 
classical and of the romantic schools. Thus he was strong and 
keen to weld together the merits of both schools in a new method 
which, but for the fact that there has been no successor to grasp 
the wand which its originator wielded, might well be called the 
school of Mussel. The serious effect produced upon Musset 
by the failure of his Nuit vSnitienne is curiously illustrative of 
his character. A man of greater strength and with equal belief 
in his own genius might have gone on appealing to the public 
until he compelled them to hear him. Musset gave up the 
attempt in disgust, and waited until the public were eager to 
hear him without any invitation on his part. In the case of 
his finest plays this did not happen until after his death; but 
long before that he was fully recognized as a poet of the first 
rank and as an extraordinary master of character and language 
in prose writing. In his complete disgust with the stage after 
the failure above referred to there was no doubt something of 
a not ignoble pride, but there was something also of weakness 
of a kind of weakness out of which it must be said sprang some 
of his most exquisite work, some of the poems which could only 
have been written by a man who imagined himself the crushed 
victim of difficulties which were old enough in the experience of 
mankind, though for the moment new and strange to him. 

Musset now belonged, in a not very whole-hearted fashion, 
to the " Cenacle," but the connexion came to an end in 1832. 
In 1833 he published the volume called Un Spectacle dans un 
fauteuil. One of the most striking pieces in this " Namouna " 
was written at the publisher's request to fill up some empty 
space; and this fact is noteworthy when taken in conjunction 
with the horror which Musset afterwards so often expressed 
of doing anything like writing " to order " of writing, indeed, 
in any way or at any moment except when the inspiration 
or the fancy happened to seize him. The success of the 
volume seemed to be small in comparison with that of his Conies 
d'Espagne, but it led indirectly to Mussel's being engaged as a 
contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In this he published, 
in April 1833, Andre del Sarto, and he followed this six weeks 
later with Les Caprices de Marianne. This play afterwards took 
and holds rank as one of the classical pieces in the repertory 
of the Theatre Franc,ais. Afler Ihe retirement in 1887 from 
the stage of the brilliant actor Delaunay the piece dropped 
out of the Francais repertory until it was replaced on the 
stage by M. Jules Claretie, administrator-general of the Comedie 
Franqaise, on the igth of January 1906. Les Caprices de 
Marianne affords a fine illuslration of the method referred to 
above, a method of which Musset gave somelhing like a definite 
explanation five years later. This explanation was also pub- 
lished in the Revue des deux mondes, and il sel forth thai Ihe 
war belween Ihe classical and Ihe romantic schools could never 
end in a definite victory for either school, nor was it desirable 
that it should so end. " It was time," Musset said, " for a third 
school which should unite the merits of each." And in Les 
Caprices de Marianne these merits are most curiously and happily 
combined. It has perhaps more of the Shakespearian qualily 
Ihe quality of artfully mingling Ihe terrible, the grotesque, and 
the high comedy lones which exisls more or less in all Mussel's 
long and more serious plays, than is found in any other of these. 
The piece is called a comedy, and il owes Ihis litle to its extra- 
ordinary brilliance of dialogue, truth of characterization, and 
swiftness in action, under which there is ever lalenl a sense of 
impending fale. Many of the qualilies indicated are found in 
others of Mussel's dramalic works and nolably in On ne badine 
pas avec I'amour, where the skill in insensibly preparing his 
hearers or readers through a succession of dazzling comedy 



scenes for the swift destruction of the end is very marked. 
But Les Caprices de Marianne is perhaps for this particular 
purpose of illuslralion Ihe mosl compacl and most typical of 
all. 

The appearance of Les Caprices de Marianne in the Revue 
(1833) was followed by thai of " Rolla," a symplom of Ihe 
maladie du siecle. Rolla, for all Ihe smack which is nol lo 
be denied of Werlherism, has yel a decided individually. 
The poem was wrilten at Ihe beginning of Mussel's liaison with 
George Sand, and in December 1833 Mussel slarled on Ihe un- 
forlunale journey lo Ilaly. Il was well known lhal Ihe ruplure 
of what was for a lime a mosl passionale altachment had a 
disastrous effect upon Musset, and brought out Ihe weakest 
side of his moral character. He was at first absolulely and 
complelely slruck down by Ihe blow. But it was not so well 
known unlil Paul de Musset pointed it out lhal Ihe passion 
expressed in the Nuit de decembre, written aboul Iwelve 
monlhs afler the journey to Italy, referred nol lo George 
Sand bul lo anolher and quile a differenl woman. The story 
of the Italian journey and its results are told under the guise 
of fiction from two points of view in the two volumes called 
respectively Elle et lui by George Sand, and Lui et elle by 
Paul de Mussel. As to the permanenl effecl on Alfred de 
Mussel, whose irresponsible gaiely was killed by Ihe breaking 
off of Ihe connexion, there can be no doubl. 

During Mussel's absence in Italy Fantasia was published in Ihe 
Revue, Lorenzaccio is said lo have been written al Venice, and 
nol long afler his relurn On ne badine pas avec I'amour was written 
and published in the Revue. In 1835 he produced Lucie, La Nuit 
de mai, La Ouenouille de Barberine, Le Chandelier, La Loi sur la 
presse, La Nuit de decembre, and La Confession d'un enfant du 
siecle, wherein is conlained what is probably a Irue accounl of 
Mussel's relations with George Sand. The Confession is excep- 
tionally inleresling as exhibiling Ihe poel's frame of mind al 
Ihe lime, and Ihe approach to a revulsion from the Bonaparlisl 
ideas amid which he had been brought up in his childhood. To 
Ihe supreme power of Napoleon he in Ihis work allribuled lhal 
moral sickness of Ihe lime which he described. " One man," 
he wrole, " absorbed the whole life of Europe; the resl of the 
human race slruggled lo fill Iheir lungs wilh Ihe air lhat he had 
breathed." When the emperor fell, " a ruined world was a 
resting-place for a generation weighled with care." The Con- 
fession is further importanl, aparl from ils high literary merit, 
as exhibiting in many passages the poet's lendency lo shun or 
wildly prolest against all lhal is disagreeable or difficull in human 
life a lendency lo which, however, much of his finesl work was 
due. To 1836 belong the Nuit d'aout, the Lettre a Lamartine, 
the Stances a la Malibran, the comedy // ne faut jurer de rien, 
and the beginning of the brillianl letters of Dupuis and Colonel 
on romanticism. II ne faut jurer de rien is as lypical of Mussel's 
comedy work as is Les Caprices de Marianne of Ihe work in which 
a lerrible falalily underlies Ihe brillianl dialogue and keen 
polished characterization. In 1837 was published Un Caprice, 
which afterwards found its way to the Paris stage by a curious 
road. Mme AUan-Despreaux, the aclress, heard of il in 
Si Pelersburg as a Russian piece. On asking for a French 
Iranslation of the play she received the volume Comedies et 
proverbes reprinted from the Revue des deux mondes. In 1837 
appeared also some of the Nouvelks. In 1839 Mussel began a 
romance called Le Poete dechu, of which the existing fragments 
are full of passion and insighl. In 1840 he passed through a 
period of feeling lhat the public did not recognize his genius 
as, indeed, they did nol and wrole a very short but very 
striking series of reflections headed wilh Ihe words "A Irente 
ans," which Paul de Musset published in his Life. In 1841 
there came out in Ihe Revue de Paris Mussel's " Le Rhin alle- 
mand," an answer to Becker's poem which appeared in the 
Revue des deux mondes. This fine war-song made a great deal 
of noise, and broughl lo the poet quanlilies of challenges from 
German officers. Belween Ihis dale and 1845 he wrole compara- 
lively little. In the lasl named year Ihe charming " proverbe " 
// faut qu'une porte soil ouverte ou fermee appeared. In 1847 



MUSSOORIE MUSTARD 



97 



Un Caprice was produced at the Theatre Francais, and the 
employment in it of such a word as " rebonsoir " shocked some 
of the old school. But the success of the piece was immediate 
and marked. It increased Mussel's reputation with the public 
in a degree out of proportion to its intrinsic importance; 
and indeed freed him from the burden of depression caused by 
want of appreciation. In 1848 // ne faut jurer de rien was 
played at the Theatre Francais and the Chandelier at the Theatre 
Historique. Between this date and 1851 . Bettine was pro- 
duced on the stage and Carmosine written; and between this 
time and the date of his death, from an affection of the heart, 
on the 2nd of May 1857, the poet produced no large work of 
importance. 

Alfred de Musset now holds the place which Sainte-Beuve 
first accorded, then denied, and then again accorded to him 
as a poet of the first rank. He had genius, though not genius 
of that strongest kind which its possessor can always keep in 
check. His own character worked both for and against his 
success as a writer. He inspired a strong personal affection in 
his contemporaries. His very weakness and his own conscious- 
ness of it produced such beautiful work as, to take one instance, 
the Nuit d'oclobre. His Nouvellesaxe extraordinarily brilliant; 
his poems are charged with passion, fancy and fine satiric power; 
in his plays he hit upon a method of his own, in which no one 
has dared or availed to follow him with any closeness. He 
was one of the first, most original, and in the end most successful 
of the first-rate writers included in the phrase " the 1830 period." 
The wilder side of his life has probably been exaggerated; and 
his brother Paul de Musset has given in his Biographic a striking 
testimony to the finer side of his character. In the later years 
of his life Musset was elected, not without opposition, a member 
of the French Academy. Besides the works above referred to, 
the Nouvelles et conies and the (Euvres posthumes, in which 
there is much of interest concerning the great tragic actress 
Rachel, should be specially mentioned. 

The biography of Alfred de Musset by his brother Paul, partial 
as it naturally is, is of great value. Alfred de Musset has afforded 
matter for many appreciations, and among these in English may be 
mentioned the sketch (1890) of C. F. Oliphant and the essay (1855) 
of F. T. Palgrave. See also the monograph by Arvfede Barme 
(Madame Vincens) in the " Grands ecrivains francais " series. 
Musset 's correspondence with George Sand was published intact for 
the first time in 1904. 

A monument to Alfred de Musset by Antonin Merci6, presented 
by M. Osiris, and erected on the Place du Theatre Francais, was 
duly " inaugurated " on the 24th of February 1906. The ceremony 
took place in the vestibule of the theatre, where speeches were 
delivered by Jules Claretie, Frangois Coppe'e and others, and 
Mounet-Sully recited a poem, written for the occasion by Maurice 
Magre. (W. H. P.) 

MUSSOORIE, or MASTJRI, a town and sanitarium of British 
India, in the Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces, about 
6600 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 6461, rising to 15,000 in the 
hot season. It stands on a ridge of one of the lower Himalayan 
ranges, amid beautiful mountain scenery, and forms with 
Naini Tal the chief summer resort for European residents in the 
plains of the United Provinces. The view from Mussoorie 
over the valley of the Dun and across the Siwalik hills to the 
plains is very beautiful, as also is the view towards the north, 
which is bounded by the peaks of the snowy range. Mussoorie 
practically forms one station with Landaur, the convalescent 
depot for European troops, 7362 ft. above the sea. Some 
distance off, on the road to Simla, is the cantonment of Chakrata, 
7300 ft. It was formerly approached by road from Saharanpur 
in the plains, 58 m. distant, but in 1900 the railway was opened 
to Dehra, 21 m. by road. There are numerous schools for 
Europeans, including St George's college, the Philander-Smith 
institute, the Oak Grove school of the East Indian railway, and 
several Church of England and Roman Catholic institutions, 
together with a cathedral of the latter faith. The first brewery 
in India was established here in 1850. The town has botanical 
gardens, and is the summer headquarters of the Trigonometrical 
Survey. 

MUSTAFA RESHID PASHA (1800-1858), Turkish statesman 
and diplomatist, was born at Constantinople in 1800. He 
xix. 4 



entered the public service at an early age and rose rapidly, 
becoming ambassador at Paris in 1834 and in London 1836, 
minister for foreign affairs 1837, again ambassador in London 
1838, and in Paris 1841. Appointed vali of Adrianople in 
1843, he returned as ambassador to Paris in the same year. 
Between 1845 and 1857 he was six times grand vizier. One of 
the greatest and most brilliant statesmen of his time, thoroughly 
acquainted with European politics, and well versed in affairs, 
he was a convinced if somewhat too ardent partisan of reform 
and the principal author of the legislative remodelling of Turkish 
administrative methods known as the Tanzimat. His ability 
was recognized alike by friend and by foe. In the settlement 
of the Egyptian question in 1840, and during the Crimean War 
and the ensuing peace negotiations, he rendered valuable services 
to the state. 

MUSTANG, the wild or semi-wild horse of the prairies of 
America, the descendant of the horses imported by the Spaniards 
after the conquest in the i6th century (see HORSE). The word 
appears to be due to two Spanish words, meslrenco, or mostrenco, 
defined by Minsheu (1599) as " a strayer. " Mestrenco (now 
mesteno) means " wild, having no master," and appears to be 
derived from mesta, a grazier-association, which among other 
functions appropriated any wild cattle found with the herds. 

MUSTARD. The varieties of mustard-seed of commerce are 
produced from several species of the genus Brassica (a member 
of the natural order Cruciferae). Of these the principal are the 
black or brown mustard, Brassica nigra (Sinapis nigra), the 
white mustard, Brassica alba, and the Sarepta mustard, B. 
juncea. Both the white and black mustards are cultivated 
to some extent in various parts of England. The white is to 
be found in every garden as a salad plant; but it has come into 
increasing favour as a forage crop for sheep, and as a green 
manure, for which purpose it is ploughed down when about to 
come into flower. The black mustard is grown solely for its 
seeds, which yield the well-known condiment. The name of the 
condiment was in French mouslarde, mod. moutarde, as being made 
of the seeds of the plant pounded and mixed with must (Lat. 
mustum, i.e. unf ermented wine) . l The word was thus transferred 
to the plant itself. When white mustard is cultivated for its 
herbage it is sown usually in July or August, after some early 
crop has been removed. The land being brought into a fine 
tilth, the seed, at the rate of 12 Ib per acre, is sown broadcast, 
and covered in the way recommended for clover seeds. In 
about six weeks it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for 
ploughing down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White 
mustard is not fastidious in regard to soil. When grown for 
a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be described for the 
other variety. For this purpose either kind requires a fertile 
soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The seed is sown in April, 
is once hoed in May, and requires no further culture. As soon as 
the pods have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and 
laid down in handfuls, which lie until dry enough for thrashing 
or stacking. In removing it from the ground it must be handled 
with great care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on 
cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on 
its being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much 
from wet. This great evil attends its growth, that the seeds 
which are unavoidably shed in harvesting the crop remain in the 
soil, and stock it permanently with what proves a pestilent weed 
amongst future crops. 

White mustard is used as a small salad generally accompanied 
by garden cress while still in the seed leaf. To keep up a 
supply the seed should be sown every week or ten days. The 
sowings in the open ground may be made from March till October, 
earlier or later according to the season. The ground should 
be light and rich, and the situation warm and sheltered. Sow 
thickly in rows 6 in. apart, and slightly cover the seed, pressing 
the surface smooth with the back of the spade. When gathering 
the crop, cut the young plants off even with the ground, or pull 

1 There were two kinds of mustum, one the best for keeping, 
produced after the first treading of the grapes, and called mustum 
lixivum; the other, mustum tortivum, obtained from the mass of 
trodden grapes by the wine-press, was used for inferior purposes. 



9 8 



MUSTARD OILS MUSURUS 



them up and cut off the roots, beginning at one end of a row. 
From October to March the seeds should be sown thickly in 
shallow boxes and placed in a warm house or frame, with a 
temperature not below 65. 

Brassica nigra occurs as a weed in waste and cultivated ground 
throughout England and the south of Scotland, but is a doubtful 
native. It is a large branching annual 2 to 3 ft. high with stiff, 
rather rough, stem and branches, dark green leaves ranging from 
Jyrate below to lanceolate above, short racemes of small bright 
yellow flowers one-third of an inch in diameter and narrow 
smooth pods. B. alba is more restricted to cultivated ground and 
has still less claim to be considered a native of Great Britain; 
it is distinguished from black mustard by its smaller size, larger 
flowers and seeds, and spreading rough hairy pods with a long 
curved beak. 

The peculiar pungency and odour to which mustard owes much of 
its value are due to an essential oil developed by the action of water 
on two peculiar chemical substances contained in the black seed. 
These bodies are a glucoside termed by its discoverers myronate of 
potassium, but since called sinigrin, CioHisKNSjOio, and an albumi- 
noid body, myrosin. The latter substance in presence of water 
acts as a ferment on sinigrin, splitting it up into the essential oil of 
mustard, a potassium salt, and sugar. It is worthy of remark that 
this reaction does not take place in presence of boiling water, and 
therefore it is not proper to use very hot water (above 120 F.) in 
the preparation of mustard. The explanation is that myrosin is 
decomposed by water above this temperature. Essential oil of 
mustard is in chemical constitution an isothiocyanate of allyl 
CaHjNCS. It is prepared artificially by a process, discovered by 
Zinzin, which consists in treating bromide of ally! with thiocyanate 
of ammonium and distilling the resultant thiocyanate of allyl. The 
seed of white mustard contains in place of sinigrin a peculiar gluco- 
side called sinalbin, Cail^Nsi^Oij, in several aspects analogous to 
sinigrin. In presence of water it is acted upon by myrosin, 
present also in white mustard, splitting it up into acrinyl isothio- 
cyanate, sulphate of sinapin and glucose. The first of these is a 
powerful rubefacient, whence white mustard, although yielding 
no volatile oil, forms a valuable material for plasters. The seeds 
of Brassica juncea have the same constitution and properties as black 
mustard, as a substitute for which they are extensively cultivated 
in southern Russia; the plant is also cultivated abundantly in India. 

Both as a table condiment and as a medicinal substance, mustard 
has been known from a very remote period. Under the name of 
rawv it was used by Hippocrates in medicine. The form in which 
table mustard is now sold in the United Kingdom dates from 1720, 
about which time Mrs Clements of Durham hit on the idea of grinding 
the seed in a mill and sifting the flour from the husk. The bright 
yellow farina thereby produced under the name of " Durham 
mustard " pleased the taste of George I., and rapidly attained wide 
popularity. As it is now prepared mustard consists essentially of 
a mixture of black and white farina in certain proportions. Several 
grades of pure mustard are made containing nothing but the farina 
of mustard-seed, the lower qualities having larger amounts of the 
white cheaper mustard; and corresponding grades of a mixed 
preparation of equal price, but containing certain proportions of 
wheaten or starch flour, are also prepared and sold as " mustard 
condiment." The mixture is free from the unmitigated bitterness 
and sharpness of flavour of pure mustard, and it keeps much better. 

The volatile oil distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration 
with water is official in the British Pharmacopeia under the title 
Oleum sinapis volatile. It is a yellowish or colourless pungent 
liquid, soluble only in about fifty parts of water, but readily so in 
ether and in alcohol. From it is prepared, with camphor, castor 
oil and alcohol, the linimentum sinapis. The official sinapis consists 
of black and white mustard seeds powdered and mixed. The advan- 
tage of mixture depends upon the fact that the white mustard seeds 
have an excess of the ferment myrosin, and the black, whilst some- 
what deficient in myrosin, yield a volatile body as compared with the 
fixed product of the white mustard seeds. From this mixture is 
prepared the charts, sinapis, which consists of cartridge paper covered 
with a mixture of the powder and the liquor caoutchouc, the fixed 
oil having first been removed by benzol, thus rendering the glucoside 
capable of being more easily decomposed by the ferment. 

Used internally as a condiment, mustard stimulates the salivary 
but not the gastric secretions. It increases the peristaltic move- 
ments of the stomach very markedly. One drachm to half an ounce 
of mustard in a tumblerful of warm water is an efficient emetic, 
acting directly upon the gastric sensory nerves, long before any of 
the drug could be absorbed so as to reach the emetic centre in the 
medulla oblongata. The heart and respiration are reflexly stimu- 
lated, mustard being thus the only stimulant emetic. Some few other 
emetics act without any appreciable depression, but in cases of 
poisoning with respiratory or cardiac failure mustard should never 
be forgotten. In contrast to this may be mentioned, amongst the 
external therapeutic applications of mustard, its frequent power of 
relieving vomiting when locally applied to the epigastrium. 



The uses of mustard leaves in the treatment of local pains are 
well known. When a marked counter-irritant action is needed, 
mustard is often preferable to cantharides in being more manageable 
and in causing a less degree of vesication ; but the cutaneous damage 
done by mustard usually takes longer to heal. A mustard sitz 
bath will often hasten and alleviate the initial stage of menstruation, 
and is sometimes used to expedite the appearance of the eruption 
in measles and scarlatina. The domestic remedy of hot water and 
mustard for children's feet in cases of cold or threatened cold may 
be of some use in drawing the blood to the surface and thus tending 
to prevent an excessive vascular dilatation in the nose or bronchi. 
The proportion of an ounce of mustard to a gallon of water is a fair 
one and easily remembered. But by far the most important 
therapeutic application of mustard is as a unique emetic. 

MUSTARD OILS, organic chemical compounds of general 
formula R-NCS. They may be prepared by the action of 
carbon bisulphide on primary amines in alcoholic or ethereal 
solution, the alkyl dithio-carbamic compounds formed being 
then precipitated with mercuric chloride, and the mercuric 
salts heated in aqueous solution, 



or the isocyanic esters may be heated with phosphorus penta- 
sulphide (A. Michael and G. Palmer, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1884, 
6, 257). They are colourless liquids with a very pungent irritating 
odour. They are readily oxidized, with production of the corre- 
sponding amine. Nascent hydrogen converts them into the 
amine, with simultaneous formation of thio-formaldehyde, 
RNCS+4H = R-NH 2 +HCSH. When heated with acids to 
100 C, they decompose with formation of the amine and libera- 
tion of carbon bisulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. They 
combine directly with alcohols, mercaptans, ammonia, amines 
and with aldehyde ammonia. 

Methyl mustard oil, CH S NCS, melts at 35 C.and boils at nq C. 
Allyl mustard oil, CjHsNCS, is the principal constituent of the 
ordinary mustard oil obtained on distilling black mustard seeds. 
These seeds contain potassium myronate (CioHiaNSjOioK) which in 
presence of water is hydrolysed by the myrosin present in the seed, 



It may also be prepared by heating allyl sulphide with potassium 
sulphpcyanide. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 150-7 C. It 
combines directly with potassium bisulphite. Phenyl mustard oil, 
CeHsNCS, is obtained by boiling sulphocarbanilide with concentrated 
hydrochloric acid, some triohenylguanidine being formed at the same 
time. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 222 C. When heated 
with copper powder it yields benzonitrile. 

MUSTER (Mid. Eng. moslre, moustre, adapted from the similar 
O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare), originally an exhibition, show, 
review, an exhibition of strength, prowess or power. One of 
the meanings of this common Romanic word, viz. pattern, 
sample, is only used in commercial usage in English (e.g. in 
the cutlery trade), but it has passed into Teutonic languages, 
Ger. Muster, Du. mouster. The most general meaning is for the 
assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and review, and 
more particularly for the ascertainment and verification of the 
numbers on the roll. This use is seen in the Med. Lat. monstrum 
and monstratio, "recensio milUum" (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v.). In 
the "enlistment" system of army organization during the 
1 6th and lyth centuries, and later in certain special survivals, 
each regiment was " enlisted " by its colonel and reviewed 
by special officers, " muster-masters," who vouched for the 
members on the pay roll of the regiment representing its 
actual strength. This was a necessary precaution in the days 
when it was in the power of the commander of a unit to fill 
the muster roll with the names of fictitious men, known in the 
military slang of France and England as passe-volants and 
"faggots" respectively. The chief officer at headquarters 
was the muster-master-general, later commissary general of 
musters. In the United States the term is still commonly 
used, and a soldier is " mustered out " when he is officially 
discharged from military service. 

MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. 1470-1517), Greek scholar, was 
born at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he 
became a pupil of John Lascaris at Venice. In 1505 he was 
made professor of Greek at Padua, but when the university 
was closed in 1509 during the war of the league of Cambrai he 



MUTE MUTILATION 



99 



returned to Venice, where he filled a similar post. In 1516 he 
was summoned to Rome by Leo X., who appointed him arch- 
bishop of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the Peloponnese, but he died 
before he left Italy. Since 1493 Musurus had been associated 
with the famous printer Aldus Manutius, and belonged to 
the "Neacademia," a society founded by Manutius and other 
learned men for the promotion of Greek studies. Many of the 
Aldine classics were brought out under Musurus's supervision, 
and he is credited with the first editions of the scholia of Aristo- 
phanes (1498), Athenaeus (1514), Hesychius (1514), Pausanias 

(1516). 

See R. Menge's De M. Musuri vita studiis ingenio, in vol. 5 of 
M. Schmidt's edition of Hesychius (1868). 

MUTE (Lat. mutus, dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For 
the human physical incapacity see DEAF AND DUMB. In 
phonetics (q.ii.) a "mute" letter is one which (like p or g) repre- 
sents no individual sound. The name of "mutes" is given, for 
obvious reasons, to the undertaker's assistants at a funeral. In 
music a "mute" (Ital. sordino, from Lat. surdus, deaf) is a device 
for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibra- 
tions. Its use is marked by the sign c.s. (con sordino), and its 
cessation by s.s. (senza sordino). In the case of the violin and 
other stringed instruments this object is attained by the use of a 
piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge 
without touching the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden 
or muffle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments 
a leather, wooden or papier mache pad in the shape of a pear 
with a hole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument, 
by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference 
with the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of 
elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and 
trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are 
muted or "muffled" either by the pressure of the hand on the 
head, or by covering with cloth. In the side drum this is effected 
by the insertion of pieces of cloth between the membrane and the 
"snares," or by loosening the "snares." The muting of a 
pianoforte is obtained by the use of the soft-pedal. 

MUTIAN, KONRAD (1471-1526), German humanist, was 
born in Homberg on the isth of October 1471 of well-to-do 
parents named Mut, and was subsequently known as Konrad 
Mutianus Rufus, from his red hair. At Deventer under Alex- 
ander Hegius he had Erasmus as schoolfellow ; proceeding( 1486) to 
the university of Erfurt, he took the master's degree in 1492. 
From 1495 he travelled in Italy, taking the doctor's degree 
in canon law at Bologna. Returning in 1502, the landgraf of 
Hesse promoted him to high office. The post was not congenial ; 
he resigned it (1503) for a small salary as canonicus in Gotha. 
Mutian was a man of great influence in a select circle especially 
connected with the university of Erfurt, and known as the 
Mutianiscker Bund, which included Eoban Hess, Crotus 
Rubeanus, Justus Jonas and other leaders of independent 
thought. He had no public ambition; except in correspondence, 
and as an epigrammatist, he was no writer, but he furnished 
ideas to those who wrote. He may deserve the title which has 
been given him as "precursor of the Reformation," in so far as he 
desired the reform of the Church, but not the establishment 
of a rival. Like Erasmus, he was with Luther in his early 
stage, but deserted him in his later development. Though he 
had personally no hand in it, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum 
(due especially to Crotus Rubeanus) was the outcome of the 
Reuchlinists in his Bund. He died at Gotha on the 3<5th of 
March (Good Friday) 1526. 

See F. W. Kampschulte, Die Universitdt Erfurt (1858-1860); C. 
Krause, Eobanus Hessus (1879); L. Geiger, in Allgemeine Deutsche 
Biog. (1886) ; C. Krause, Der Briefwechsel des Mutianus Rufus (1885) ; 
another collection by K. Gillert (1890). (A. Go.*) 

MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed). The wounding, 
maiming and disfiguring of the body is a practice common 
among savages and systematically pursued by many entire races. 
The varieties of mutilation are as numerous as the instances of 
it are widespread. Nearly every part of the body is the object 
of mutilation, and nearly every motive common to human 



beings vanity, religion, affection, prudence has acted in 
giving rise to what has been proved to be a custom of great 
antiquity. Some forms, such as tattooing and depilation, 
have stayed on as practices even after civilization has banished 
the more brutal types; and a curious fact is that analogous 
mutilations are found observed by races separated by vast 
distances, and proved to have had no relations with one another, 
at any rate in historic times. Ethnical mutilations have in 
certain races a great sociological value. It is only after sub- 
mission to some such operation that the youth is admitted to 
full tribal rights (see INITIATION). Tattooing, too, has a semi- 
religious importance, as when an individual bears a representa- 
tion of his totem on his body; and many mutilations are tribe 
marks, or brands used to know slaves. 

Mutilations may be divided into: (i) those of the skin; (2) of the 
face and head; (3) of the body and limbs; (4) of the teeth; (5) of the 
sexual organs. 

1. The principal form of skin-mutilation is tattooing (<?..), the 
ethnical importance of which is very great. A practice almost as 
common is depilation, or removal of hair. This is either by means 
of the razor, e.g. in Japan, by depilatories, or by tearing out the hairs 
separately, as among most savage peoples. The parts thus mutilated 
are usually the eyebrows, the face, the scalp and the pubic regions. 
Many African natives tear out all the body hair, some among them 
(e.g. the Bongos) using special pincers. Depilation is common, too, 
in the South Sea Islands. The Andaman islanders and the Boto- 
cudos of Brazil shave the body, using shell-edges and other primitive 
instruments. 

2. Mutilations of the face and head are usuajly restricted to the 
lips, ears, nose and cheeks. The lips are simply perforated or 
distended to an extraordinary degree. The Botocudos insert disks 
of wood into the lower lip. Lip-mutilations are common in North 
America, too, on the Mackenzie river and among the Aleutians. 
In Africa they are frequently practised. The Manganja women 
pierce the upper lips and introduce small metal shields or rings. 
The Mittu women bore the lower lip and thrust a wooden peg through. 
In other tribes little sticks of rock crystal are pushed through, 
which jingle together as the wearer -talks. The women of Senegal 
increase the natural thickness of the upper lip by pricking it repeat- 
edly until it is permanently inflamed and swollen. The ear, and 
particularly the lobe, is almost universally mutilated, from the ear- 
rings of the civilized West to the wooden disks of the Botocudos. 
The only peoples who are said not to wear any form of ear ornament 
are the Andaman islanders, the Neddahs, the Bushmen, the Fuegians 
and certain tribes of Sumatra. Ear mutilation in its most exag- 
gerated form is practised in Indo-China by the Mois of Annam and 
the Penangs of Cambodia, and in Borneo by the Dyaks. They 
extend the lobe by the insertion of wooden disks, and by metal 
rings and weights, until it sometimes reaches the shoulder. In 
Africa and Asia earrings sometimes weigh nearly half a pound. 
Livingstone said that the natives of the Zambesi distend the per- 
foration in the lobe to such a degree that the hand closed could be 
passed through. The Monbuttus thrust through a perforation in 
the body of the ear rolls of leaves, or of leather, or cigarettes. The 
Papuans, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides, and most Melanesian 
peoples carry all sorts of things in their ears, the New Caledonians 
using them as pipe-racks. Many races disfigure the nose with 
perforations. The young dandies of New Guinea bore holes through 
the septum and thrust through pieces of bone or flowers, a mutilation 
found, too, among New Zealanders, Australians, New Caledonians 
and other Polynesian races. In Africa the Bagas and Bongos hang 
metal rings and buckles on their noses; the Aleutians cords, bits 
of metal or amber. In women it is the side of the nose which is 
usually perforated; rings and jewelled pendants (as among Indian 
and Arabic women, the ancient Egyptians and Jews), or feathers, 
flowers, coral, &c. (as in Polynesia), being hung there. Only one 
side of the nose is usually perforated, and this is not always merely 
decorative. It may denote social position, as among the Ababdes 
in Africa, whose unmarried girls wear no rings in their noses. The 
male Kulus of the Himalaya wear a large ring in the left nos'ril. 
Malays and Polynesians sometimes deform the nose by enlarging 
its base, effecting this by compression of the nasal bones of the 
newly born. 

The cheeks are not so frequently mutilated. The people of the 
Aleutian and Kurile Islands bore holes through their cheeks and 
place in them the long hairs from the muzzles of seals. The Guaranis 
of South America wear feathers in the same manner. In some 
countries the top of the head or the skin behind the ears of children 
is burnt to preserve them from sickness, traces of which mutilation 
are said to be discoverable on some neolithic skulls; while some 
African tribes cut and prick the neck close to the ear. By many 
peoples the deformation of the skull was anciently practised. 
Herodotus, Hippocrates and Strabo mention such a custom among 
peoples of the Caspian and Crimea. Later similar practices were 
found existing among Chinese mendicant sects, some tribes of 
Turkestan, the Japanese priesthood, in Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and 



100 



MUTINY MUTSU HITO 



the south seas. In Europe it was not unknown. But the discovery 
of America brought to our knowledge those races which made a fine 
art of skull-deformities. At the present day the custom is still 
observed by the Haidas and Chinooks, and by certain tribes of Peru 
and on the Amazon, by the Kurds of Armenia, by certain Malay 
peoples, in the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The 
reasons for this type of mutilation are uncertain. Probably the idea 
of distinguishing themselves from lower races was predominant in 
most cases, as for example in that of the Chinook Indians, who 
deformed the skull to distinguish themselves from their slaves. 
Or it may have been through a desire to give a ferocious appearance 
to their warriors. The deformation was always done at infancy, 
and often in the case of both sexes. It was, however, more usually 
reserved for boys, and sometimes for a single caste, as at Tahiti. 
Different methods prevailed: by bands, bandages, boards, com- 
presses of clay and sandbags, a continued pressure was applied to 
the half-formed cranial bones to give them the desired shape. 
Hand-kneading may also possibly have been employed. 

3. Mutilations of the body or limbs by maiming, lopping off or 
deforming, are far from rare. Certain races (Bushmen, Kaffirs 
and Hottentots) cut off the finger joints as a sign of mourning, 
especially for parents. The Tongans do the same, in the belief that 
the evil spirits which bring diseases into the body would escape by 
the wound. Diseased children are thus mutilated by them. Con- 
tempt for female timidity has caused a curious custom among the 
Gallas (Africa). They amputate the mammae of boys soon after 
birth, believing no warrior can possibly be brave who possesses 
them. The fashion of distorting the feet of Chinese ladies of high 
rank has been of long continuance and only recently prohibited. 

4. Mutilations of the teeth are among the most common and the 
most varied. They are by breaking, extracting, filing, inlaying or 
cutting away the crown of the teeth. Nearly every variety of dental 
mutilation is met with in Africa. In a tribe north-east of the Albert 
Nyanza it is usual to pry out with a piece of metal the four lower 
incisors in children of both sexes. The women of certain tribes on 
the Senegal force the growth of the upper incisors outwards so as 
to make them project beyond the lower lips. Many of the aboriginal 
tribes of Australia extract teeth, and at puberty the Australian boys 
have a tooth knocked out. The Eskimos of the Mackenzie River 
cut down the crown of the upper incisors so as not to resemble dogs. 
Some Malay races, too, are said to blacken their teeth because dogs 
have white teeth. This desire to be unlike animals seems to be at 
the bottom of many dental mutilations. Another reason is the wish 
to distinguish tribe from tribe. Thus some Papuans break their 
teeth in order to be unlike other Papuan tribes which they despise. 
In this way such practices become traditional. Finally, like many 
mutilations, those of the teeth are trials of endurance of physical 
pain, and take place at ceremonies of initiation and at puberty. 
The Mois (Stiengs) of Cochin-China break the two upper middle 
incisors with a flint. This is always ceremoniously done at puberty 
to the accompaniment of feasting and prayers for those mutilated, 
who will thus, it is thought, be preserved from sickness. Among 
Malay races the filing of teeth takes place with similar ceremony at 
puberty. In Java, Sumatra and Borneo the incisors are thinned 
down and shortened. Deep transverse grooves are also made with a 
file, a stone, bamboo or sand, and the teeth filed to a point. The 
Dyaks of Borneo make a small hole in the transverse groove and 
insert a pin of brass, which is hammered to a nail-head shape in the 
hollow, or they inlay the teeth with gold and other metals. The 
ancient Mexicans also inlaid the teeth with precious stones. 

5. Mutilations of the sexual organs are more ethnically important 
than any. They have played a great part in human history, and 
still have much significance in many countries. Their antiquity 
is undoubtedly great, and nearly all originate with the idea of 
initiation into full sexual life. The most important, circumcisjon 
(o.v.)t has been transformed into a religious rite. Infibulation 
(Lat. fibula, a clasp), or the attaching a ring, clasp, or buckle to the 
sexual organs, in females through the labia majora, in males through 
the prepuce, was an operation to preserve chastity very commonly 
practised in antiquity. At Rome it was in use; Strabo says it was 
prevalent in Arabia and in Egypt, and it is still native to those regions 
(Lane, Modern Egyptians, i. 73; Arabic Lexicon, s.v. " hafada "). 
Niebuhr heard that it was practised on both shores of the Persian 
Gulf and at Bagdad (Description de V Arabic, p. 70). It is common in 
Africa (see Sir H. H. Johnston. Kilimanjaro Expedition, 1886), but 
is there often replaced by an operation which consists in stitching 
the labia majora together when the girl is four or five years old. 
Castration is practised in the East to supply guards for harems, and 
was employed in Italy until the time of Pope Leo XIII. to provide 
" soprani ' for the papal choir ; it has also been voluntarily submitted 
to from religious motives (see EUNUCH). The operation has, 
however, been resorted to for other purposes. Thus in Africa it is 
said to have been used as a means of annihilating conquered tribes. 
The Hottentots and Bushmen, too, have the curious custom of 
removing one testicle when a boy is eight or nine years old, in the 
belief that this partial emasculation renders the victim fleeter of 
foot for the chase. The most dreadful of these mutilations is that 
practised by certain Australian tribes on their boys. It consists 
of cutting open and leaving exposed the whole length of the urethral 
canal and thus rendering sexual intercourse impossible. According 



to some authorities it is hatred of the white man and dread of slavery 
which are the reasons of this racial suicide. Among the Dyaks and 
in many of the Melanesian islands curious modes of ornamentation 
of the organs (such as the kalang) prevail, which are in the nature of 
mutilations. 

Penal Use. Mutilation as a method of punishment was common 
in the criminal law of many ancient nations. In the earliest laws of 
England mutilation, maiming and dismemberment had a prominent 
place. " Men branded on the forehead, without hands, feet, or 
tongues, lived as examples of the danger which attended the com- 
mission of petty crimes and as a warning to all churls " (Pike's 
History of Crime in England, 1873). The Danes were more severe 
than the Saxons. Under their rules eyes were plucked out; noses, 
ears and upper lips cut off; scalps town away; and sometimes the 
whole body flayed alive. The earliest forest-laws of which there 
is record are those of Canute (1016). Under these, if a freedman 
offered violence to a keeper of the king's deer he was liable to lose 
freedom and property ; if a serf, he lost his right hand, and on a second 
offence was to die. One who killed a deer was either to have his 
eyes put out or lose his life. Under the first two Norman kings 
mutilation was the punishment for poaching. It was, however, not 
reserved for that, as during the reign of Henry I. some coiners were 
taken to Winchester, where their right hands were Ijpped off and 
they were castrated. Under the kings of the West Saxon dynasty 
the loss of hands had been a common penalty for coining (The 
Obsolete Punishments of Shropshire, by S. Meeson Morris). Morris 
quotes a case in John's reign at the Salop Assizes in 1203, where one 
Alice Crithecreche and others were accused of murdering an old 
woman at Lilleshall. Convicted of being accessory, Crithecreche 
was sentenced to death, but the penalty was altered to that of 
having her eyes plucked out. During the Tudor and Stuart periods 
mutilations were a common form of punishment extra-judicially 
inflicted by order of the privy council and the Star Chamber. There 
are said to be preserved at Playford Hall, Ipswich, instruments of 
Henry VIII. 's time for cutting off ears. This penalty appears to 
have been inflicted for not attending church. By an act of Henry 
VIII. (33 Hen. VIII. c. 12) the punishment for "striking in the 
king's court or house " was the loss of the right hand. For writing a 
tract on The Monstrous Regimen of Women a Nonconformist divine 
(Dr W. Stubbs) had his right hand lopped off. Among many cases 
of severe mutilations during Stuart times may be mentioned those 
of Prynne, Burton, Bastwick and Titus Gates. 

MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, 
a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. entente; the original is the Late Lat. 
mota, commotion, from movere, to move), a resistance by force 
to recognized authority, an insurrection, especially applied to 
a sedition in any military or naval forces of the state. Such 
offences are dealt with by courts-martial. (See MILITARY LAW 
and COURT MARTIAL.) 

MUTSU, MUNEMITSU, COUNT (1842-1896), Japanese states- 
man, was born in 1842 in Wakayama. A vehement opponent 
of " clan government " that is, usurpation of administrative 
posts by men of two or three fiefs, an abuse which threatened 
to follow the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate he con- 
spired to assist Saigo's rebellion and was imprisoned from 1878 
until 1883. While in prison he translated Bentham's Utilitarian- 
ism. In 1886, after a visit to Europe, he received a diplomatic 
appointment, and held the portfolio of foreign affairs during 
the China-Japan War (1894-95), being associated with Prince 
(then Count) Ito as peace plenipotentiary. He negotiated 
the first of the revised treaties (that with Great Britain), and 
for these various services he received the title of count. He 
died in Tokyo in 1896. His statue in bronze stands before the 
foreign office in Tokyo. 

MUTSU HITO, MIKADO, or EMPEROR, OF JAPAN (1852- ), 
was born on the 3rd of November 1852, succeeded his father, 
Osahito, the former emperor, in January 1867, and was crowned 
at Osaka on the 3ist of October 1868. The country was then 
in a ferment owing to the concessions which had been granted 
to foreigners by the preceding shogun lyemochi, who in 1854 
concluded a treaty with Commodore Perry by which it was 
agreed that certain ports should be open to foreign trade. 
This convention gave great offence to the more conservative 
daimios, and on their initiative the mikado suddenly decided 
to abolish the shogunate. This resolution was not carried out 
without strong opposition. The reigning shogun, Keiki, yielded 
to the decree, but many of his followers were not so complaisant, 
and it was only by force of arms that the new order of things 
was imposed on the country. The main object of those who 
had advocated the change was to lead to a reversion to the 



MUTTRA 



101 



primitive condition of affairs, when the will of the mikado was 
absolute and when the presence in Japan of the hated foreigner 
was unknown. But the reactionary party was not to be allowed 
to monopolize revolutions. To their surprise and discomfiture, 
the powerful daimios of Satsuma and Choshu suddenly declared 
themselves to be in favour of opening the country to foreign 
intercourse, and of adopting many far-reaching reforms. With 
this movement Mutsu Hito was cordially in agreement, and of 
his own motion he invited the foreign representatives to an 
audience on the 23rd of March 1868. As Sir Harry Parkes, 
the British minister, was on his way to this assembly, he was 
attacked by a number of two-sworded samurai, who, but for 
his guard, would doubtless have succeeded in assassinating 
him. The outrage was regarded by the emperor and his minis- 
ters as a reflection on their honour, and they readily made all 
reparation within their power. While these agitations were 
afoot, the emperor, with his advisers, was maturing a political 
constitution which was to pave the way to the assumption by 
the emperor of direct personal rule. As a step in this direction, 
Mutsu Hito transferred his capital from Kioto to Yedo, the 
former seat of the shoguns' government, and marked the event 
by renaming the city Tokyo, or Eastern Capital. In 1869 the 
emperor paid a visit to his old capital, and there took as his 
imperial consort a princess of the house of Ichijo. In the same 
year Mutsu Hito bound himself by oath to institute certain 
reforms, the first of which was the establishment of a deliberative 
assembly. In this onward movement he was supported by the 
majority of the daimios, who in a supreme moment of patriotism 
surrendered their estates and privileges to their sovereign. This 
was the death-knell of the feudalism which had existed for so 
many centuries in Japan, and gave Mutsu Hito the free hand 
which he desired. A centralized bureaucracy took the place of 
the old system, and the nation moved rapidly along the road of 
progress. Everything European was eagerly adopted, even 
down to frock-coats and patent-leather boots for the officials. 
Torture was abolished (1873), and a judicial code, adapted from 
the Code Napoleon, was authorized. The first railway that 
from Yokohama to Tokyo was opened in 1872; the European 
calendar was adopted, and English was introduced into the 
curriculum of the common schools. In all these reforms Mutsu 
Hito took a leading part. But it was not to be expected that 
such sweeping changes could be effected without opposition, 
and thrice during the period between 1876 and 1884 the emperor 
had to face serious rebellious movements in the provinces. 
These he succeeded in suppressing; and even amid these pre- 
occupations he managed to inflict a check on his huge neighbour, 
the empire of China. As the government of this state declared 
that it was incapable of punishing certain Formosan pirates for 
outrages committed on Japanese ships (1874), Mutsu Hito 
landed a force on the island, and, having inflicted chastisement 
on the bandits, remained in possession of certain districts until 
the compensation demanded from Peking was paid. The un- 
paralleled advances which had been made by the government 
were now held by the emperor and his advisers to justify a 
demand for the revision of the foreign treaties, and negotiations 
were opened with this object. They failed, however, and the 
consequent disappointment gave rise to a strong reaction against 
everything foreign throughout the country. Foreigners were 
assaulted on the roads, and even the Russian cesarevich, after- 
wards the tsar Nicholas II., was attacked by would-be assassins 
in the streets of Tokyo. A renewed attempt to revise the 
treaties in 1894 was more successful, and in that year Great 
Britain led the way by concluding a revised treaty with Japan. 
Other nations followed, and by 1901 all those obnoxious clauses 
suggestive of political inferiority had finally disappeared from the 
treaties. In the same year (1894) war broke out with China, and 
Mutsu Hito, in common with his subjects, showed the greatest 
zeal for the campaign. He reviewed the troops as they left 
the shores of Japan for Korea and Manchuria, and personally 
distributed rewards to those who had won distinction. In 
the war with Russia, 1904-5, the same was the case, and it was 
to the virtues of their emperor that his generals loyally ascribed 



the Japanese victories. In his wise patriotism, as in all matters, 
Mutsu Hito always placed himself in the van of his countrymen. 
He led them out of the trammels of feudalism ; by his progressive 
rule he lived to see his country advanced to the first rank of 
nations; and he was the first Oriental sovereign to form an 
offensive and defensive alliance with a first-rate European 
power. In 1869 Mutsu Hito married Princess Haru, daughter 
of Ichijo Tadaka, a noble of the first rank. He has one son 
and several daughters, his heir-apparent being Yoshi Hito, who 
was born on the 3ist of August 1879, and married in 1900 
Princess Sada, daughter of Prince KujS, by whom he had three 
sons before 1909. Mutsu Hito adopted the epithet of Meiji, or 
" Enlightened Peace," as the nengo or title of his reign. Thus 
the year 1901, according to the Japanese calendar, was the 
34th year of Meiji. 

MUTTRA, or MATHURA, a city and district of British India 
in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The city is on the 
right bank of the Jumna, 30 m. above Agra; it is an important 
railway junction. Pop. (1901), 60,042. It is an ancient town, 
mentioned by Fa Hien as a centre of Buddhism about A.D. 400; 
his successor Hstian Tsang, about 650, states that it then con- 
tained twenty Buddhist monasteries and five Brahmanical 
temples. Muttra has suffered more from Mahommedan plunder 
than most towns of northern India. It was sacked by Mah- 
mud of Ghazni in 1017-18; about 1500 Sultan Sikandar Lodi 
utterly destroyed all the Hindu shrines, temples and images; 
and in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed a governor expressly to 
" stamp out idolatry." In 1669-70 Aurangzeb visited the city 
and continued the work of destruction. Muttra was again 
captured and plundered by Ahmad Shah with 25,000 Afghan 
cavalry in 1756. The town still forms a great centre of Hindu 
devotion, and large numbers of pilgrims flock annually to the 
festivals. The special cult of Krishna with which the neighbour- 
hood is associated seems to be of comparatively late date. 
Much of the prosperity of the town is due to the residence of a 
great family of seths or native bankers, who were conspicuously 
loyal during the Mutiny. Temples and bathing-stairs line the 
river bank. The majority are modern, but the mosque of 
Aurangzeb, on a lofty site, dates from 1669. Most of the public 
buildings are of white stone, handsomely carved. There are 
an American mission, a Roman Catholic church, a museum of 
antiquities, and a cantonment for a .British cavalry regiment. 
Cotton, paper and pilgrims' charms are the chief articles of 
manufacture. 

The DISTRICT OF MUTTRA has an area of 1445 sq. m. It consists 
of an irregular strip of territory lying on both sides of the 
Jumna. The general level is only broken at the south-western 
angle by low ranges of limestone hills. The eastern half con- 
sists for the most part of a rich upland plain, abundantly irrigated 
by wells, rivers and canals, while the western portion, though 
rich in mythological association and antiquarian remains, is 
comparatively unfavoured by nature. For eight months of the 
year the Jumna shrinks to the dimensions of a mere rivulet, 
meandering through a waste of sand. During the rains, how- 
ever, it swells to a mighty stream, a mile or more in breadth. 
Formerly nearly the whole of Muttra consisted of pasture and 
woodland, but the roads constructed as relief works in 1837-1838 
have thrown open many large tracts of country, and the task 
of reclamation has since proceeded rapidly. The population 
in 1901 was 763,099, showing an increase of 7 % in the 
decade. The principal crops are millets, pulse, cotton, wheat, 
barley and sugar cane. The famine of 1878 was severely felt. 
The eastern half of the district is watered by the Agra canal, 
which is navigable, and the western half by branches of the 
Ganges canal. A branch of the Rajputana railway, from 
Achnera to Hathras, crosses the district; the chord line of the 
East India, from Agra to Delhi, traverses it from north to south ; 
and a new line, connecting with the Great Indian Peninsula, 
was opened in 1905. 

The central portion of Muttra district forms one of the most 
sacred spots in Hindu mythology. A circuit of 84 kos around 
Gokul and Brindaban bears the name of the Braj-Mandal, and 



102 



MUTULE MUZAFFARNAGAR 



carries with it many associations of earliest Aryan times. 
Here Krishna and his brother Balarama fed their cattle upon the 
plain; and numerous relics of antiquity in the towns of Muttra, 
Gobardhan, Gokul, Mahaban and Brindaban still attest the 
sanctity with which this holy tract was invested. During the 
Buddhist period Muttra became a centre of the new faith. 
After the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni the city fell into 
insignificance till the reign of Akbar; and thenceforward its 
history merges in that of the Jats of Bharatpur, until it again 
acquired separate individuality under Suraj Mai in the middle 
of the 1 8th century. The Bharatpur chiefs took an active part 
in the disturbances consequent on the declining power of the 
Mogul emperors, sometimes on the imperial side, and at others 
with the Mahrattas. The whole of Muttra passed under British 
rule in 1804. 

See F. S. Growse, Malhura (Allahabad, 1883). 

MUTULE (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), in architecture 
the rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek 
Doric temple, which is studded with guttae. It is supposed to 
represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs 
were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows 
the rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule 
was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it 
virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian 
cornice. 

MUZAFFAR-ED-DlN, shah of Persia (1853-1907), the second 
son of Shah Nasr-ed-Dm, was born on the 25th of March 1853. 
He was in due course declared vali ahd, or heir-apparent, and 
invested with the governorship of Azerbaijan, but on the 
assassination of his father in 1896 it was feared that his elder 
brother, Zill-es-Sultan, the governor of Isfahan, might prove 
a dangerous rival, especially when it was remembered that 
Muzaffar-ed-Dln had been recalled to Teheran by his father upon 
his failure to suppress a Kurd rising in his province. The 
British and Russian governments, in order to avoid wide- 
spread disturbances, agreed however to give him their support. 
All opposition was thus obviated, and Muzaffar-ed-Din was 
duly enthroned on the 8th of June 1896, the Russian general 
Kosakowsky, commander of the Persian Cossacks, presiding over 
the ceremony with drawn sword. On this occasion the new 
shah announced the suppression of all purchase of civil and 
military posts, and then proceeded to remit in perpetuity all 
taxes on bread and meat, thus lightening the taxation on food, 
which had caused the only disturbances in the last reign. But 
whatever hopes may have been aroused by this auspicious 
beginning of the reign were soon dashed owing to the extrava- 
gance and profligacy of the court, which kept the treasury in 
a chronic state of depletion. Towards the end of 1896 the 
Amin-es-Sultan, who had been grand vizier during the last 
years of Nasr-ed-Dln's reign, was disgraced, and Muzaffar-ed- 
Dm announced his intention of being in future his own grand 
vizier. The Amin-ad-Dowla, a less masterful servant, took 
office with the lower title of prime minister. During his short 
administration an elaborate scheme of reforms was drawn up 
on paper, and remained on paper. The treasury continued 
empty, and in the spring of 1898 Amin-es-Sultan was recalled 
with the special object of filling it. The delay of the British 
government in sanctioning a loan in London gave Russia her 
opportunity. A Russian loan was followed by the establishment 
of a Russian bank at Teheran, and the vast expansion of 
Russian influence generally. At the beginning of 1900 a 
fresh gold loan was negotiated with Russia, and a few 
months later Muzaffar-ed-Din started on a tour in Europe 
by way of St Petersburg, where he was received with great 
state. He subsequently went to Paris to visit the Exhibition 
of 1900, and while there an attempt on his life was made 
by a madman named Francois Salson. In spite of this 
experience the shah so enjoyed his European tour that he 
determined to repeat it as soon as possible. By the end of 
1901 his treasury was again empty; but a fresh Russian loan 
replenished it and in 1902 he again came to Europe, paying 
on this occasion a state visit to England. On his way back 



he stopped at St Petersburg, and at a banquet given in his 
honour by the tsar toasts were exchanged of unmistakable 
significance. None the less, during his visit to King Edward VII. 
the shah had been profuse in his expressions of friendship for 
Great Britain, and in the spring of 1903 a special mission was 
sent to Teheran to invest him with the Order of the Garter. 

The shah's misguided policy had created widespread dis- 
affection in the country, and the brunt of popular disfavour 
fell on the atabeg (the title by which the Amin-es-Sultan was 
now known), who was once more disgraced in September 1903. 
The war with Japan now relaxed the Russian pressure on 
Teheran, and at the same time dried up the source of supplies; 
and the clergy, giving voice to the general misery and discontent, 
grew more and more outspoken in their denunciations of the 
shah's misrule. Nevertheless Muzaffar-ed-Dm defied public 
opinion by making another journey to Europe in 1905; but, 
though received with the customary distinction at St Petersburg, 
he failed to obtain further supplies. In the summer of 1906 
popular discontent culminated in extraordinary demonstrations 
at Teheran, which practically amounted to a general strike. 
The shah was forced to yield, and proclaimed a liberal con- 
stitution, the first parliament being opened by him on the I2th 
of October 1906. Muzaffar-ed-Din died on the 8th of January 
1907, being succeeded by his son Mahommed Ali Mirza. 

MUZAFFARGARH, a town and district of British India, 
in the Multan division of the Punjab. The town is near the 
right bank of the river Chenab, and has a railway station. 
Pop. (1901), 4018. Its fort and a mosque were built by Nawab 
Muzaffar Khan in 1794-1796. 

The DISTRICT or MUZAFFARGARH occupies the lower end of 
the Sind-Sagar Doab. Area, 3635 sq. m. In the northern 
half of the district is the wild thai or central desert, an arid 
elevated tract with a width of 40 m. in the extreme north, 
which gradually contracts until it disappears about 10 m. 
south of Muzaffargarh town. Although apparently a table-land, 
it is really composed of separate sandhills, with intermediate 
valleys lying at a lower level than that of the Indus, and at 
times flooded. The towns stand on high sites or are protected 
by embankments; but the villages scattered over the lowlands 
are exposed to annual inundations, during which the people 
abandon their grass-built huts, and take refuge on wooden 
platforms attached to each house. Throughout the cold weather 
large herds of camels, belonging chiefly to the Povindah 
merchants of Afghanistan, graze upon the sandy waste. 

The district possesses hardly any distinct annals of its own, 
having always formed part of Multan (?..). The population 
in 1901 was 405,656, showing an increase of 6-4% in the decade, 
due to the extension of irrigation. The principal crops are 
wheat, pulse, rice and indigo. The most important domestic 
animal is the camel. The district is crossed by the North- 
Western railway, and the boundary rivers are navigable, besides 
furnishing numerous irrigation channels, originally constructed 
under native rule. 

MUZAFFARNAGAR, a town and district of British India, 
in the Meerut division of the United Provinces. The town is 
790 ft. above the sea, and has a station on the North-Western 
railway. Pop. (1901), 23,444. It is an important trading centre 
and has a manufacture of blankets. It was founded about 1633 
by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, one of the famous 
Sayid family who rose to power under the emperor Shah Jahan. 

The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARNAGAR has an area of 1666 sq. m. 
It lies near the northern extremity of the Doab or great alluvial 
plain between the Ganges and the Jumna, and shares to a large 
extent in the general monotony of that level region. A great 
portion is sandy and unfertile; but under irrigation the soil is 
rapidly improving, and in many places the villagers have 
succeeded in introducing a high state of cultivation. Before 
the opening of the canals Muzaffarnagar was liable to famines 
caused by drought; but the danger from this has been mini- 
mized by the spread of irrigation. It is traversed by four main 
canals, the Ganges, Anupshahr, Deoband and Eastern Jumna. 
Its trade is confined to the raw materials it produces. The 



MUZAFFARPUR MYCENAE 



103 



climate of the district is comparatively cool, owing to the 
proximity of the hills; and the average annual rainfall is 33 in. 
The population in 1901 was- 877,188, showing an increase of 
13-5 % in the decade, which was a period of unexampled 
prosperity. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and 
sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the North-Western 
railway from Delhi to Saharanpur. 

Hindu tradition represents Muzaffarnagar as having formed a 
portion of the Pandava kingdom of the Mahdbharala; authentic 
history, however, dates from the time of the Moslem conquests 
in the i3th century, from which time it remained a dependency 
of the various Mahommedan dynasties which ruled at Delhi 
until the practical downfall of the Mogul Empire in the middle 
of the i8th century. In 1788 the district fell into the hands 
of the Mahrattas. After the fall of Aligarh, the whole Doab 
as far north as the Siwalik hills passed into the hands of the 
British without a blow, and Muzaffarnagar became part of 
Saharanpur. It was created a separate jurisdiction in 1824. 
During the Mutiny there was some disorder, chiefly occasioned 
by official weakness, but no severe fighting. 

See Muzaffarnagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903). 

MUZAFFARPUR, a town and district of British India, in the 
Patna division of Bengal. The town is on the right bank of 
the Little Gandak river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 
45,617. The town is well laid out, and is an important centre 
of trade, being on the direct route from Patna to Nepal. It is 
the headquarters of the Behar Light Horse volunteer corps and 
has a college established in 1899. 

The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARPUR has an area of 3035 sq. m. It 
was formed in January 1875 out of the great district of Tirhoot, 
which up to that time was the largest and most populous district 
of Lower Bengal. The district is an alluvial plain between the 
Ganges and the Great Gandak, the Baghmat and Little Gandak 
being the principal rivers within it. South of the Little Gandak 
the land is somewhat elevated, with depressions containing 
lakes toward the south-east. North of the Baghmat the land 
is lower and marshy, but is traversed by elevated dry ridges. 
The tract between the two rivers is lowest of all and liable to 
floods. Pop. (1901), 2,754,790, showing an increase of 1-5 % 
in the decade. Average density, 914 per sq. m., being exceeded 
in all India only by the neighbouring district of Saran. Indigo 
(superseded to some extent, owing to the fall in price, by sugar) 
and opium are largely grown. Rice is the chief grain crop, 
and cloth, carpets and pottery are manufactured. The district 
is traversed in several directions by the Tirhoot system of the 
Bengal and North-Western railway. It suffered from drought 
in 1873-1874, and again in 1897-1898. 

See Muzaffarpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907). 

MUZIANO, GIROLAMO (1528-1592), Italian painter, was 
born at Acquafredda, near Brescia, in 1528. Under Romanino, 
an imitator of Titian, he studied his art, designing and colouring 
according to the principles of the Venetian school. But it was 
not until he had left his native place, still in early youth, and 
had repaired to Rome about 1550, that he came into notice. 
There his pictures soon gained for him the surname of II Giovane 
de' paesi (the young man of the landscapes); chestnut-trees 
are predominant in these works. He next tried the more 
elevated style of historical painting. He imitated Michelangelo 
in giving great prominence to the anatomy of his figures, and 
became fond of painting persons emaciated by abstinence or 
even disease. His great picture of the " Resurrection of 
Lazarus " at once established his fame. Michelangelo praised 
it, and pronounced its author one of the first artists of that age. 
It was placed in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, but was 
afterwards transferred to the Quirinal Palace. Muziano, with 
dogged perseverance (at one time he shaved his head, so as not 
to be tempted to go out of doors), continued to proceed in the 
path on which he had entered. He grew excellent in depicting 
foreign and military costumes, and in introducing landscapes 
into his historical pieces after the manner of Titian. Mosaic 
working also occupied his attention while he was employed as 



superintendent at the Vatican; and it became under his hands 
a perfect imitation of painting. His ability and industry soon 
gained for him a handsome fortune. Part of this he expended 
in assisting to found the Academy of St Luke in Rome. He 
died in 1592, and was buried in the church of Santa Maria 
Maggiore. 

Many of Muziano's works are in the churches and palaces of 
Rome; he also worked in Oryieto and Loreto. In Santa Maria 
degli Angeli, Rome, is one of his chief works, " St Jerome preaching 
to Monks in the Desert " ; his " Circumcision " is in the church of the 
Gesu, his " Ascension " in the Araceli, and his " St Francis receiv- 
ing the Stigmata " in the church of the Conception. A picture by 
him, representing Christ washing the feet of His disciples, is in the 
cathedral of Reims. 

MUZZIOLI, GIOVANNI (1854-1894), Italian painter, was 
born in Modena, whither his family had removed from Castel- 
vetro, on the loth of February 1854. From the time that he 
began to attend the local academy at the age of thirteen he was 
recognized as a prodigy, and four years later, by the unanimous 
vote of the judges, he gained the Poletti scholarship entitling 
him to four years' residence in Rome and Florence. After his 
return to Modena, Muzzioli visited the Paris Exhibition, and 
there came under the influence of Sir L. Alma Tadema. His 
first important picture was " In the Temple of Bacchus " (1881); 
and his masterpiece, " The Funeral of Britannicus," was one of 
the chief successes of the Bologna Exhibition of 1888. From 
1878 to his death (August 5, 1894) Muzzioli lived in Florence, 
where he painted the altar-piece for the church of Castelvetro. 

See History of Modern Italian Art, by A. R. Willard (London, 
1898). 

MWERU, a large lake of Eastern Central Africa, traversed 
by the Luapula or upper Congo. It lies 3000 ft. above the sea; 
measures about 76 m. in length by some 25 in breadth, and is 
roughly rectangular, the axis running from S.S.W. to N.N.E. 
It is cut a little south of its centre by 9 S. and through its 
N.E. corner passes 29 E. At the south end a shallow bay 
extends to 9 31' S. East of this, and some miles further north, 
the Luapula enters from a Vast marsh inundated at high water; 
it leaves the lake at the north-west corner, making a sharp bend 
to the west before assuming a northerly direction. Besides 
the Luapula, the principal influent is the Kalungwizi, from the 
east. Near the south end of the lake lies the island of Kilwa, 
about 8 m. in length, rising into plateaus 600 ft. above the 
lake. Here the air is cool and balmy, the soil dry, with short 
turf and clumps of shady trees, affording every requirement for 
a sanatorium. Mweru was reached by David Livingstone in 
1867, but its western shore was first explored in 1890 by Sir 
Alfred Sharpe, who two years later effected its circumnavigation. 
The eastern shores from the Luapula entrance to its exit, 
together with Kilwa Island, belong to British Central Africa; 
the western to the Belgian Congo. 

MYAUNGMYA, a district in the Irrawaddy division of lower 
Burma, formed in 1893 out of a portion of Bassein district, and 
reconstituted in 1903. It has an area of 2663 sq. m., and a 
population (1901) of 278,119, showing an increase of 49% in 
the decade and a density of 104 inhabitants to the square mile. 
Among the population were about 12,800 Christians, mostly 
Karens. The district is a deltaic tract, bordering south on the 
sea and traversed by many tidal creeks. Rice cultivation and 
fishing occupy practically all the inhabitants of the district. 
The town of Myaungmya had 4711 inhabitants in 1901. 

MYCENAE, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, was 
situated on a hill above the northern extremity of the fertile 
Argive plain nvxy "Apytos i7nro/36roto. Its situation is ex- 
ceedingly strong, and it commands all the roads leading from 
Corinth and Achaea into the Argive plain. The walls of Mycenae 
are the greatest monument that remains of the Heroic age 
in Greece; part of them is similar in style and doubtless con- 
temporary in date with the walls of the neighbouring town 
Tiryns. There can therefore be little doubt that the two 
towns were the strongholds of a single race, Tiryns commanding 
the sea-coast and Mycenae the inner country. Legend tells 
of the rivalry between the dynasties of the Pelopidae at Mycenae 



104 



MYCENAE 



and of the Proetidae at Argos. In early historic times Argos 
had obtained the predominance. The Mycenaeans, who had 
temporarily regained their independence with the help of 
Sparta, fought on the Greek side at Plataea in 479 B.C. The 
long warfare between the two cities lasted till 468 B.C., when 
Mycenae was dismantled and its inhabitants dispersed. The 
city never revived; Strabo asserts that no trace of it remained 
in his time, but Pausanias describes the ruins. For the character 
of Mycenaean art and of the antiquities found at Mycenae 
see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION. 

The extant remains of the town of Mycenae are spread over 
the hill between the village of Charvati and the Acropolis. 
They consist of some traces of town walls and of houses, and 
of an early bridge over the stream to the east, on the road 
leading to the Heraeum. The walls of the Acropolis are in 



of thin slabs of stone set up on end, with others laid across the 
top of them; at the part of this enclosure nearest to the Lion 
Gate is an entrance. Some have" supposed the circle of slabs 
to be the retaining wall of a tumulus; but its structure is not 
solid enough for such a purpose, and it can hardly be anything 
but a sacred enclosure. It was within this circle that Dr H. 
Schliemann found the five graves that contained a marvellous 
wealth of gold ornaments and other objects; a sixth was sub- 
sequently found. Above one of the graves was a small circular 
altar, and there were also several sculptured slabs set up above 
them. The graves themselves were mere shafts sunk in the 
rock. Dr Schliemann identified them with the graves of 
Agamemnon, Cassandra, and their companions, which were 
shown to Pausanias within the walls; and there can be little 
doubt that they are the graves that gave rise to the tradition, 




Based on a plan in Schuchhardt's Scldicmann' s Excavations. 



FIG. i. Plan of the Citadel of Mycenae. 



the shape of an irregular triangle, and occupy a position of 
great natural strength between two valleys. They are preserved 
to a considerable height on all sides, except where the ravine 
is precipitous and they have been carried away by a landslip; 
they are for the most part built of irregular blocks of great 
size in the so-called " Cyclopian " style; but certain portions, 
notably that near the chief gate, are built in almost regular 
courses of squared stones; there are also some later repairs in 
polygonal masonry. The main entrance is called the Lion Gate, 
from the famous triangular relief which fills the space above 
its massive lintel. This represents two lions confronted, resting 
their front legs on a low altar-like structure on which is a 
pillar which stands between them. The device is a translation 
into stone of a type not uncommon in gem-cutter's and 
goldsmith's work of the " Mycenaean " age. The gate is 
approached by a road commanded on one side by the city wall, 
on the other by a projecting tower. There is also a postern 
gate on the north side of the wall, and at its eastern extremity 
are two apertures in the thickness of the wall. One of these 
leads out on to the rocks above the southern ravine, the other 
leads to a long staircase, completely concealed in the wall and 
the rocks, leading down to a subterranean well or spring. Just 
within the Lion Gate is a projection of the wall surrounding a 
curious circular enclosure, consisting of two concentric circles 



though the historical identity of the persons actually buried in 
them is a more difficult question. Outside the circle, especially 
to the south of it, numerous remains of houses of the Mycenaean 
age have been found, and others, terraced up at various levels, 
occupy almost the whole of the Acropolis. On the summit, 
approached by a well-preserved flight of steps, are the remains 
of a palace of the Mycenaean age, similar to that found at 
Tiryns, though not so complicated or extensive. Above them 
are the foundations of a Doric temple, probably dating from the 
last days of Mycenaean independence in the 5th century. 

Numerous graves have been found in the slopes of the hills 
adjoining the town of Mycenae. Most of these consist merely of 
a chamber, usually square, excavated in the rock, and approached 
by a " dromos " or horizontal approach in the side of a hill. 
They are sometimes provided with doorways faced with stucco, 
and these have painted ornamentation. Many of these tombs 
have been opened, and their contents are in the Athens museum. 
Another and much more conspicuous kind of tomb is that 
known as the beehive tomb. There are eight of them at Mycenae 
itself, and others in the neighbourhood. Some of them were 
visible in the time of Pausanias, who calls them the places 
where Atreus and his sons kept their treasures. There can, 
however, be no doubt that they were the tombs of princely 
families. The largest and best preserved of them, now 



MYCETOZOA 



105 



commonly called the Treasury of Atreus, is just outside the Lion 
Gate. It consists of a circular domed chamber, nearly 50 ft. 
in diameter and in height; a smaller square chamber opens out 
of it. It is approached by a horizontal avenue 20 ft. wide and 
US ft- long, with side walls of squared stone sloping up to a 
height of 45 ft. The doorway was flanked with columns of 
alabaster, with rich spiral ornament, now in the British Museum; 
and the rest of the facade was very richly decorated, as may 
be seen from Chipiez's fine restoration. The inside of the 
vault was ornamented with attached bronze ornaments, but 
not, as is sometimes stated, entirely lined with bronze. It is 
generally supposed that these tombs, as well as those excavated 
in the rock, belong to a later date than the shaft-tombs on the 
Acropolis. 

See H. Schliemann, Mycenae (1879) I C. Schuchhardt, SMiemann's 
Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891) ; Chr. Tsountas, Mw^vai ai Miwiji'euKAj 
ToXtTK7AiAi(i893); Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (1897); 
Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans I'antiquite, vol. vi., L'art 
Myceneenne. Various reports in OpaxTutd TJJS Apx- iroipios and in 
'E$7)iutpis ip\tuoKoyi.K.ii. (E. GR.) 

MYCETOZOA (Myxomycetes, Schleimpilze) , in zoology, a 
group of organisms reproducing themselves by spores. These 
are produced in or on sporangia which are formed in the air 
and the spores are distributed by the currents of air. They 
thus differ from other spore-bearing members of the animal 
kingdom (which produce their spores while immersed in water 
or, in the case of parasites, within the fluids of their hosts), 
and resemble the Fungi and many of the lower green plants. 
In relation with this condition of their fructification the structures 
formed at the spore-bearing stage to contain or support the 
spores present a remarkable resemblance to the sporangia of 
certain groups of Fungi, from which, however, the Mycetozoa 
are essentially different. 

Although the sporangial and some other phases have long been 
known, and Fries had enumerated 192 species in 1829, the 
main features of their life-history were first worked out in 1859- 
1860 by de Bary (i and 2). He showed that in the Mycetozoa 
the spore hatches out as a mass of naked protoplasm which 
almost immediately assumes a free-swimming flagellate form 
(zoospore), that after multiplying by division this passes into an 
amoeboid phase, and that from such amoebae the plasmodia 
arise, though the mode of their origin was not ascertained by him. 

The plasmodium of the Mycetozoa is a mass of simple proto- 
plasm, without a differentiated envelope and endowed with 
the power of active locomotion. It penetrates the interstices 
of decaying vegetable matter, or, in the case of the species 
Badhamia utricularis, spreads as a film on the surface of living 
fungi; it may grow almost indefinitely in size, attaining under 
favourable conditions several feet in extent. It constitutes 
the dominant phase of the life-history. From the plasmodium 
the sporangia take their origin. It was Cienkowski who (in 
1863) contributed the important fact that the plasmodia arise 
by the fusion with one another of numbers of individuals in 
the amoeboid phase a mode of origin which is now generally 
recognized as an essential feature in the conception of a 
plasmodium, whether as occurring among the Mycetozoa or 
in other groups (7). De Bary clearly expressed the view that 
the life-history of the Mycetozoa shows them to belong not 
to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom. 

The individual sporangia of the Mycetozoa are, for the most 
part, minute structures, rarely attaining the size of a mustard- 
seed, though, in the composite form of aethalia, they may 
form cake-like masses an inch or more across (fig. 21). They are 
found, stalked or sessile, in small clusters or distributed by the 
thousand over a wide area many feet in diameter, on the bark 
of decaying trees, on dead leaves or sticks, in woods and shrub- 
beries, among the stems of plants on wet moors, and, generally, 
at the surface in localities where there is a substratum of decaying 
vegetable matter sufficiently moist to allow the plasmodium 
to live. Tan-heaps have long been known as a favourite habitat 
of Fuligo septica, the plasmodia of which, emerging in bright 
yellow masses at the surface prior to the sporangial (in this 
case aethalial) phase, are known as " flowers of tan." The 



film-like, expanded condition of the plasmodium, varying in 
colour in different species and traversed by a network of vein- 
like channels (fig. 5), has long been known. The plasmodial 
stage was at one time regarded as representing a distinct group 
of fungi, to which the generic name Mesenterica was applied. 
The species of Mycetozoa are widely distributed over the world in 
temperate and tropical latitudes where there is sufficient 
moisture for them to grow, and they must be regarded as not 
inconsiderable agents in the disintegrating processes of nature, 
by which complex organic substances are decomposed into 
simpler and more stable chemical groups. 

Classification. The Mycetozoa, as here understood, fall into 
three main divisions. The Endosporeae, in which the spores are 
contained within sporangia, form together with the Exosporeae, 
which bear their spores on the surface of sporophores, a natural 
group characterized by forming true plasmodia. They con- 
stitute the Euplasmodida. Standing apart from them is the 
small group of the mould-like Sorophora, in which the amoeboid 
individuals only come together immediately prior to spore- 
formation and do not completely fuse with one another. 

A number of other organisms living on vegetable and animal 
bodies, alive or dead, and leading an entirely aquatic life, are 
included by Zopf (31) under the Mycetozoa, as the " Monadina," 
in distinction from the " Eumycetozoa," consisting of the three 
groups above mentioned. The alliance of some of these (e.g. 
Protomonas) with the Mycetozoa is probable, and was accepted 
by de Bary, but the relations of other Monadina are obscure, 
and appear to be at least as close with the Heliozoa (with which 
many have in fact been^assed). The limits here adopted, 
following de Bary, include a group of organisms which, as 
shown by their life-history, belong to the animal stock, and yet 
alone among animals 1 they have acquired the habit, widely 
found in the ( vegetable kingdom, of developing and distributing 
their spores in air. 

Class MYCETOZOA. 
Sub-class I. EUPLASMODIDA.* 

Division I. Endosporeae. 
Cohort i. Amaurosporales. 
Sub-cohort i. Calcarineae. 
Order i. Physaraceae. Genera: Badhamia, Physarum, Physarella, 

Trichamphora, Erionema, Cienkowskia, Fuligo, Craterium, 

Leocarpus, Chondrioderma, Diachaea. 
Order 2. Didymiaceae. Genera: Didymtum, Spumaria, Lepido- 

derma. 

Sub-cohort 2. Araaurochaetineae. 
Order i. Stemonitaceae. Genera: Stemonitis, Comatricha, Ener- 

thenema, Echinostelium, Lamproderma, Clastoderma. 
Order 2. Amaurochaetaceae. Genera: Amaurochaete, Brefeldia. 
Cohort 2. Lamprospprales. 
Sub-cohort i. Anemineae. 
Order i. Heterodermaceae. Genera: Lindbladia, Cribraria, 

Dictydium. 

Order 2. Licaeceae. Genera : Licea, Orcadella. 
Order 3. Tubulinaceae. Genera: Tubulina, Siphoptychium, A Iwisia. 
Order 4. Reticulariaceae. Genera: Dictydiaethalium, Enteridium, 

Reticularia. 
Order 5. Lycogalaceae. Genus : Lycogala. 

Sub-cohort 2. Calonemineae. 
Order i. Trichiaceae. Genera: Trichia, Oligonema, Hemilrichia, 

Cornuvia. 

Order 2. Arcyriaceae. Genera: A rcyria, Lac hnobolus, Perichaena. 
Order 3. Margaritaceae. Genera : Margarita, Dianema, Proto- 

trichia, Listerella. 

Division 2. Exosporeae. 
Order i. Ceratiomyxaceae. Genus: Ceratiomyxa. 

Sub-class 2. SOROPHORA. 
Order i. Guttulinaceae.. Genera: Copromyxa, Gutlulina, Guttu- 

linopsis. 
Orders. Dictyosteliaceae. Genera: Dictyostelium, Acrasis, Poly- 

sphondylium. 

1 Bursulla, a member of Zopf's Monadina, likewise forms its spores 
in air. 

4 The classification of the Euplasmodida here given is that of A. 
and G. Lister (22), the outcome of a careful study of the group 
extending over more than twenty-five years. The writer of this 
article desires to express his indebtedness to the opportunities he 
has had of becoming familiar with the work of his father, Mr A. Lister, 
F.R.S., whose views on the affinities and life-history of the Mycetozoa 
he has endeavoured herein to summarize. 



io6 



MYCETOZOA 




d 



After A. Lister. 

FIG. 



LIFE-HISTORY OF THE MYCETOZOA 

EUPLASMODIDA 

Endosporeae. 

We may begin our survey of the life-history at the point where 
the spores, borne on currents of air, have settled among wet decaying 
vegetable matter. Shrunken when dry, they rapidly absorb water 

and resume the spherical 
shape which is found in 
nearly all species. Each 
is surrounded by a spore 
wall, sheltered by which 
the protoplasm, though 
losing moisture by drying, 
may remain alive for as 
many as four years. In 
several cases it has been 
found to give the chemical 
reaction of cellulose. It 
is smooth or variously 
sculptured according to 
the species. Within the 
protoplasm may be seen 
the nucleus, and one or 
more contractile vacuoles 
make their appearance. 

l.^Stages in the Hatching of the After the spore has lain 
Spores of Dtdymium difforme. in water for a pe riod 

a, The unruptured spore. varying from a few hours 

b. The protoplasmic contents of the spore to a day or two the wall 
emerging It contains a nucleus with bursts and the contained 
the (light) nucleolus, and a contractile protoplasm slips out and 
vacuole (shaded). lies free in the water as a 

c The same, free from the spore wall. minute colourless mass, 

d, Zoospore with nucleus at the base of presenting amoeboid 
the flageilum, and contractile vacuole. movements (fig I c) It 

e, A zoospore with pseudopodial processes soon assumes an elongated 
at the posterior end, to one of which pi r if or m shape, and a 
a bacillus adheres. Two digestive fl age llum is developed at 
vacuoles in the interior contain in- the narrow end, attaining 
gested bacilli. a length equal to the rest 

/, Amoeboid phase with retracted o f tne body. The minute 
nagellum. zoospore, thus equipped, 

swims away with a characteristic dancing motion. The proto- 
plasm is granular within but hyaline externally (fig. I, d). The 
nucleus, lying at the end of the body where it tapers into the 
flagellum, is limited by a definite wall and contains a nuclear 

network and a nucleolus. It often 
presents the appearance of being 
drawn out into a point towards the 
flagellum, and a bell-like structure 
[first described by Plenge (27)], 
staining more darkly than the rest 
of the protoplasm, extends from the 
base of the flagellum and invests 
the nucleus (fig. 2, a and c). The 
other end of the zoospore may be 
evenly rounded (fig. I, d) or it may 
be produced into short pseudo- 
podia (fig. I , e). By means of these 
the zoospore captures bacteria 
which are drawn into the body and 
FIG. 2 ZoospotesolBodhamw enc i osed in digestive vacuoles. A 
pamcea stained (X .650). contractile vacuole is also present 
In a and c the bell-like struc- near the hind end. Considerable 
ture investing the nucleus is movement may be observed among 
clearly seen. tne granules of the interior, and 

in the large zoospores of Amaurochaete atra this may amount to an 
actual streaming, though without the rhythm characteristic of the 
plasmodial stage. 

Other shapes may be temporarily assumed by the zoospore. 

Attaching itself to an object it 
may become amoeboid, either with 
(fig. I, /) or without (fig. 2, c) the 
temporary retraction of the flagel- 
lum; or it may take an elongated 
slug-like shape and creep with the 
flagellum extended in front, with 

FIG. 3. Three stages in the tactile and apparently exploratory 
division of the Zoospore of movements. 

Reticularia Lycoperdon (X That the zoospores of many 
1000). species of the Endosporeae feed on 

bacteria has been shown by A. 

Lister (18). New light has recently been thrown on the matter 
by Pinoy (26), who has worked chiefly with Sorophora, in which, 
as shown below, the active phase of the life-history is passed 

1 Figures i, 4, and 11-22 are from the British Museum Guide to 
the British Mycetozoa. The other figures are from Lankester's 
Treatise on Zoology, part I. Introduction and Protozoa. Fascicle I. 
Article Mycetozoa. 





a, 

After A. Lister. 



mainly in the state of isolated amoebae. Pinoy finds that the 
amoebae of this group live on particular species of bacteria, and that 
the presence of the latter is a necessary condition for the develop- 
ment of the Sorophora, and even (as has been recognized by other 
workers) for the hatching of their spores. Pinoy's results indicate, 
though not so conclusively, that bacteria are likewise the essential 
food of the Euplasmodida in the early phases of their life-history. 
The zoospores do, however, ingest other solid bodies, e.g. carmine 
granules (Saville Kent, 15). 

The zoospores multiply by binary fission, the flagellum being 
withdrawn and the nucleus undergoing mitotic division, with the 
formation of a well-marked achromatic spindle (fig. 3). 

It is probable that fission occurs more than once in the zoospore 
stage; but there is not satisfactory evidence to show how often 
it may be repeated. 2 

At this, as at other phases of the life-history, a resting stage 
may be assumed as the result of drying, but also from other and 
unknown causes. The flagel- 
ium is withdrawn and the 
protoplasm, becoming spheri- 
cal, secretes a cyst wall. The 
organism thus passes into the 
condition of a micrpcyst, from 
which when dry it may be 
awakened to renewed activity 
by wetting. 

At the end of the zoospore 
stage the organism finally 
withdraws its flagellum and 
assumes the amoeboid shape. 
It is now known as an amoe- 
bula. The amoebulae become 
endowed, as was first recog- 
nized by Cienkowski, with 
mutual attraction, and on After A. Lister, 
meeting fuse with one another. 

Fig. 4 represents a group of FlG - 4- Amoebulae of Dtdymium 
such amoebulae. Several difforme uniting to form a Plas- 
have already united to form medium. The common mass 
a common mass, to which contains digestive vacuoles (). 
others, still free, are con- The clear spherical bodies are 
verging. The protoplasmic microcysts and an empty spore- 
mass thus arising is the plas- she11 ls seen to the left - 
medium. The fusion between 

the protoplasmic bodies of the amoebulae which unite to form it is 
complete. Their nuclei may be traced for some time in the young 
plasmodium and no fusion between them has been observed at this 
stage (20). As the plasmodium increases in size by the addition of 
amoebulae the task of following the fate of the individual nuclei by 
direct observation becomes impossible. 

The appearance of an active plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis, 
which, as we have seen, lives and feeds on certain fungi, is shown in 
fig. 5. It consists of a film of protoplasm, of a bright yellow colour, 
varying in size up to a foot or more in diameter. It is traversed 
by a network of branching and anastomosing channels, which divide 
up and are gradually lost as they approach the margin where the 
protoplasm forms a uniform and lobate border. Elsewhere the 





FIG. 5. Part of the Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis (X 8). 

main trunks of the network may lie free with little or no connecting 
film between them and their neighbours. The plasmodia of other 
species, which live in the interstices of decaying vegetable matter, 
are less easily observed, but on emerging on the surface prior to 

2 Pinoy states (26) that the spores of Spumaria alba, cultivated 
with bacteria on solid media, hatch out into amoebae, which under 
these conditions do not assume the flagellate stage. The amoeba 
from a spore was observed to give rise by three successive divisions 
to eight amoebulae. 






MYCETOZOA 



107 



spore formation they present an essentially similar appearance. 
There is, however, great variety in the degree of concentration or 
expansion presented by plasmodia, in relation with food supply, 
moisture and other circumstances. The plasmodia move slowly 
about over or in the substratum, concentrating in regions where food 
supply is abundant, and leaving those where it is exhausted. 

On examining under the microscope a film which has spread over 
a cover-slip, the channels are seen to be streams of rapidly moving 
granular protoplasm. This movement is rhythmic in character, 
being directed alternately towards the margin of an advancing 
region of the plasmodium, and away from it. As a channel is 
watched the stream of granules is seen to become slower, and after 
a momentary pause to begin in the opposite direction. In an active 
plasmodium the duration of the flow in either direction varies from 
a minute and a half to two minutes, though it is always longer when 
in the direction of the general advance over the substratum. When 
the flow of the protoplasm is in this latter direction the border be- 
comes turgid, and lobes of hyaline protoplasm are seen (under a high 
magnification) to start forward, and soon to become filled with granu- 
lar contents. When the flow is reversed, the margin becomes thin 
from the drainage away of its contents. A delicate hyaline layer 
invests the plasmodium, and is apparently less fluid than the material 
flowing in the channels. The phenomena of the rhythmic movement 
of the protoplasm are not inconsistent with the view that they result 
from alternating contraction and relaxation of the outer layer in 
different regions of the plasmodium, but any dogmatic statement as 
to their causation appears at present inadvisable. 




, 

.u*. ;*-'-: /\ 

* 



FIG. 6. 

a. Part of a stained Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis. 
n, Nuclei (X no). 

b. Nuclei, some in process of simple (amitotic) division (X 500). 

c. Part of a Plasmodium in which the nuclei are in simultaneous 

mitotic division. 
d-f, Other stages in this process (X 650). 

Minute contractile vacuoks may be seen in great numbers in the 
thin parts of the plasmodium between the channels. In stained 
preparations nuclei, varying (in Badhamia utricularis) from 2-5 to 
5 micrornillimeters in diameter, are found abundantly in the granular 
protoplasm (fig. 6, b). They contain a nuclear reticulum and one 
or more well-marked nucleoli. In any stained plasmodium some 
nuclei may be found, as shown in the figure b, which appear to be 
in some stage of simple (amitotic) division, and this is, presumably, 
the chief mode in which the number of the nuclei keeps pace with 
the rapidly growing plasmodium. There is, however, another mode 
of nuclear division in the plasmodium which has hitherto been 
observed in one recorded instance (19, p. 541), the mitotic (fig. 6, c-f), 
and this appears to befall all the nuclei of a plasmodium simul- 
taneously. What the relation of these two modes of nuclear division 
may be to the life-history is obscure. 

That the amitotic is the usual mode of nuclear division is indicated 
by the very frequent occurrence of these apparently dividing nuclei 
and also by the following experiment. A plasmodium of Badhamia 
utricularis spreading over pieces of the fungus Auricularia' was 
observed to increase in size about fourfold in fourteen hours, and 
during this time a small sample was removed and stained every 
quarter of an hour. The later stainings showed no diminution in 
the number of nuclei in proportion to the protoplasm, and yet none 
of the sample showed any sign of mitotic division (20, p. 9). It 
would appear therefore that the mode of increase of the nuclei during 
this period was amitotic. 




FIG. 7. Section 



Prowazek (28) has recently referred to nuclear stages, similar to 
those here regarded as of amitotic division, but has interpreted 
them as nuclear fusions. He does not, however, discuss the mode 
of multiplication of nuclei in the plasmodium. 

In the group of the Calcareae, granules of carbonate of lime are 
abundant in the plasmodia, and in all Mycetozoa other granules of 
undetermined nature are present. The colour of plasmodia varies 
in different species, and may be yellow, white, pink, purple or green. 
The colouring matter is in the form of minute drops, and in the 
Calcareae these invest the lime granules. 

Nutrition. The plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis, advancing 
over the pilei of suitable fungi, feeds on the superficial layer dissolving 
the walls of the hyphae (!<[) The protoplasm may be seen to 
contain abundant foreign bodies such as spores of fungi or sclerotium 
cysts (vide infra) which have been taken in and are undergoing 
digestion. It has been found experimentally (n) that pieces of 
coagulated proteids are likewise taken in and digested in vacuoles. 
On the other hand it has been found that plasmodia will live, 
ultimately producing sporangia, in nutrient solutions (o). 1 It would 
appear therefore that the nutrition of plasmodia is effected in part 
by the ingestion of solid foodstuffs, and in part by the absorption 
of material in solution, and that there is great variety in the com- 
plexity of the substances which serve as their food. 

Sclerotium. As the result of drought, the plasmodium, having 
become much denser by loss of water, passes into the sclerotial 
condition. Drawing together into a 
thickish layer, the protoplasm divides 
up into a number of distinct masses, 
each containing some 10 to 20 nuclei, 
and a cyst wall is excreted round each 
mass (fig. 7). The whole has now a 
hard brittle consistency. In this state 
the protoplasm will remain alive for 
two or three years. On the addition 
of water the cyst walls are ruptured .. 

and in part absorbed, their contents Plasmodium of Badhamia 
join together, and the active streaming utnculans when i passing into 
condition of the plasmodium is re- tne condition of sclerotium. 
sumed. It is to be noted, however, . The nuclei contained in 
that the sclerotial condition may be * he young sclerotial cysts, 
assumed under other conditions than dryness, and sclerotia may 
even be formed in water. 

The existence of the sclerotial stage affords a ready means of 
obtaining the plasmodium for experimental purposes. If a cultiva- 
tion of the plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis on suitable fungi 
(Stereum, Auricularia) is allowed to become partially dry the plas- 
modium draws together and would, if drying were continued, pass 
into the sclerotial stage on the fungus. If now strips of wet blotting- 
paper are placed so as to touch the plasmodium, the latter, attracted 
by the moisture, crawls on the blotting-paper. If this is now removed 
and allowed to dry rapidly, the plasmodium passes into sclerotium 
on it. 2 By this means the plasmodium is removed from the partially 
disintegrated and decayed fungus on which it has been feeding, and 
a clean sclerotium is obtained, which, as above stated, remains alive 
for years (21, p. 7). An easy method for obtaining small plasmodia 
for microscopic examination is to scatter small fragments, scraped 
from a piece of the hard sclerotium, over cover-slips wetted with 
rain-water and kept in a moist atmosphere. In twelve to twenty- 
four hours small plasmodia will be seen spreading on the cover-slips 
and these may be mounted for observation. 

The plasmodial stage ends by the formation of the sporangia. 
The plasmodium withdraws from the interstices of the material 
among which it has fed, and emerges on the surface in a diffuse or 
concentrated mass. In the case of Badhamia utricularis it may with- 
draw from the fungus on which it has been feeding, or change into 
sporangia on it. The mode of formation of the sporangia will be 
described in the case of Badhamia, some of the chief differences in 
the process and in the structure of the sporangia in other forms 
being subsequently noticed. 

When the change to sporangia begins the protoplasm of the 
plasmodium becomes gradually massed in discrete rounded lobes, 
about a half to one millimeter in diameter and scattered in clusters 
over the area occupied by the plasmodium. The reticulum of 
channels of the plasmodium becomes meanwhile less and less 
marked. When the whole of the protoplasm is drawn in to the 
lobes, the circulation ceases. The lobes are the young sporangia. 
Meanwhile foreign bodies, taken in with the food, are ejected, and 
the protoplasm secretes on its outer surface a pellicle of mucoid, 
transparent substance which dries as the sporangia ripen. This 
invests the young sporangia, and as they rise above the substratum 
falls together at their bases forming the stalks; extended over the 
substratum it forms the hypothallus, and in contact with the 
rounded surface of the sporangium it forms the sporangium-wall. 
While the sporangium-wall is formed externally a secretion of 



1 A solution which has thus been found favourable contains 
the following mineral salts: KH 2 PO, K 8 HPO 4 ,MgSO <> KNOj, 
CA (NOs)j, a free acid, and 5% of dextrine. 

* If the plasmodium is slowly dried it is very apt to pass into 
sporangia. 



io8 



MYCETOZOA 



similar material occurs along branching and anastomosing tracts 
through the protoplasm of the sporangium, giving rise to the 
capilhtium. The greater part of the lime granules pass out of the 
protoplasm and are deposited in the capilhtium, which in the ripe 
sporangia of Badhamia is white and brittle with the contained lime 
(cf. fig. 8). In this genus some granules are found also in the 
sporangium-wall. Strasburger concludes that the sporangium-wall 
of Trichia is a modification of cellulose (29). 




FIG. 8. Sporangia of Badhamia panicea, some intact, others (to 
left) ruptured, exposing the black masses of spores and the 
capillitium. The latter is white with deposited lime granules. 
An empty sporangium is seen above (X 30). 

It has been stated (16), but the observation requires confirmation, 
that a fusion of the nuclei in pairs occurs early in the development 
of the sporangium. 





FIG. 9. Part of a section 
through a young Sporangium 
of Trichivaria, showing the 
mitotic division of the nuclei (n) 
prior to spore formation. 

c, Capillitium thread (X 650). 

At a later stage, after the capillitium is formed, the nuclei undergo a 
mitotic division which affects all the nuclei of a sporangium simul- 
taneously. This was first described by Strasburger (29). While it 



FIG. 10. Part of a section 
through a Sporangium of Trichia 
varia after the spores are formed 
(X 650). 





FIG. 12. Physarum nutans. 

a. Sporangia (X 9). 

b, Capillitium threads, with frag- 
ment of the sporangium-wall 
attached, lime knots at the 
junctions and spores (X no). 

is in progress the protoplasm of the sporangium divides., into succes- 
sively smaller masses, until each daughter nucleus is the centre of a 
single mass of protoplasm. 1 These nucleated masses are the young 



FIG. n. Badhamia utricularis. 

a, Sporangia (X 3i). 

b, Capillitium and cluster of 
spores (X 140). 



1 In some genera such as Arcyria and Trichia (illustrated in figs. 9 
and 10) the division of the protoplasm does not occur until the nuclei 
have undergone this division. The protoplasm then divides up 
about the daughter nuclei to form the spores. 



spores. A spore-wall is soon secreted and the sporangium has now 
resolved itself into a mass of spores, traversed by the strands of 
the capillitium and enclosed in a sporangium-wall, connected with 
the substratum by a stalk. As ripening proceeds, the wall becomes 
membranous and readily ruptures, and the dry spores may be carried 
abroad on the currents of air or washed out by rain. 





FIG. 13. Chondrioderma 
ceum. 

a, GroupofthreeSporangia(X9). 

b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- 
angium-wall and spores (X 
170). 



testa- FIG. 14. Cralerium peduncula- 
turn. 

a, Two Sporangia, in one the lid 
has fallen away (X 10). 

b, Capillitium with lime knots 
and spores (X no). 



We may now review some of the main differences in structure 
presented by the sporangia. They may be stalked or sessile (fig. 
13). If the former, the stalk is usually, as in Badhamia utricularis, 





FIG. 15. Didymium effusum. 

a. Two Sporangia, one showing 
the columella and capillitium 
(X 12). 

b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- 
angium-wall with carbonate 

(x'isop)! 1 "^ 

the continuation of the sporangium-walls (figs, n and 12), but in 
Stemonitis and its allies (figs. 17 and 18) it is an axial structure. 
A central columella may project into the interior of the sporangium, 
either in stalked (fig. 15) or sessile (fig. 13) forms. 



FIG. 16. Lepidoderma tigrinum. 

c, Sporangium ( X 6) ; the crystal- 
line disks of lime are seen 
attached to the sporangium- 
wall. 

b, Capillitium and spores (X 140). 





FIG. 17. Lamproderma irlaeum. 

a, Sporangia (X 2%). 

6, A Sporangium deprived of 
spores, showing the capillitium 
and remains of the sporangium- 
wall (X 25). 



FIG. 18. Stemonitis splendens. 

a, Group of Sporangia (nat. size). 

b, Portion of columella and capil- 
litium, the latter branching to 
form a superficial network 
(X 42)- 



The sporangium-wall may be most delicate and evanescent (fig. 1 7) , 
or consist of a superficial network of threads (fig. 18), which in 
Dictydium (fig. 19) present a beautifully regular arrangement. 





FIG. 19. Dictydium umblicatum. FIG. 20. Arcyria punicca. 

a. Group of Sporangia, nat. size, a, Group of Sporangia (X 2). 

b, A Sporangium after dispersion b, Capillitium (X 560). 
of the spores (X 20). c, Spore (X 560). 

In Chondrioderma (fig. 13) the wall is double, the inner layer being 
membranous, the outer thickly encrusted with lime granules. In 
Cralerium the upper part of the sporangium-wall is lid-like and falls 
away, leaving the spores in an open cup (fig. 14). 



MYCETOZOA 



109 



The condition of the capiliitium is very various. In the Calcari- 
neae the lime may be generally distributed through it (fig. n), or 
aggregated at the nodes of the network in " lime-knots " (figs. 12 and 
14) or it may be absent from the capiliitium altogether. The 
capiliitium attains its highest development in the Calonemineae 
in which the threads, distinct (in which case they are known as 
elaters, figs. 9 and 10) or united into a network (fig. 20), present 
regular thickenings in the form of spiral bands or transverse bars. 
These threads, altering their shape with varying states of moisture, 
are efficient agents in distributing the spores. In another group, 
the Anemineae, the capiliitium is absent altogether. 

The Didymiaceae are characterized by the fact that the lime, 
though present in a granular form in the plasmodium, is deposited 
on the sporangium-wall in the form of crystals, either in radiating 
groups (fig. 15) or in disks (fig. 16). 

In most Endosporeae the sporangia are separate symmetrical 
bodies, but in many genera a form of fructification occurs in which 





FIG. 21. Fuligo septica. FIG. 22" Licea flexuosa. 

a, Aethalium ( X 1). a, Groupof Plasmodiocarps (X2). 

b, Capiliitium threads (with b, A continuous Plasmodiocarp 
lime-knots) and two spores (X 6). 

(X 120). c, Spores (X 200). 

the spores are produced in masses of more or less irregular outline, 
retaining in extreme cases much of the diffuse character of the plas- 
modium. With the spores they contain capiliitium, but there are 
no traces of sporangial walls to be found in their interior. They are 
known as plasmodiocarps (fig. 22). They are characteristic of certain 
species, but in others they may be formed side by side with separate 
sporangia from the same plasmodium. There is indeed no sharp 
line to be drawn between sporangia and plasmodiocarps. On the 
other hand, the crowded condition of the sporangia of some species 
forms a transition to the large compound fructifications known 
as aethalia (fig. 21). These, either in their young stages or up to 
maturity, retain some evidence of their formation by a coalescence 
of sporangia, and in addition to the capiliitium they are generally 
penetrated by the remains of the walls of the sporangia which have 
thus united. 

Exosporeae. 

It will be convenient to begin our survey of the life-history 

of Ceratiomyxa, the single 
representative of the Exo- 
sporeae, at the stage at 
which the plasmodium 
emerges from the rotten 
wood in which it has fed. 
At this stage it has been 
observed to spread as a film 
over a slide, and to exhibit 
the network of channels and 
rhythmic flow of the proto- 
plasm in a manner precisely 
similar to that seen in the 
Endosporeae (20, p. 10). It 
soon, however, draws to- 
gether into compact masses, 
From the surface of which 
finger-like or antler-like 
lobes grow upwards. Here 
too the secretion of a trans- 
parent mucoid substance 
occurs, which is at first 
From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology; figs, o penetrated by the anasto- 
and c-h after A. Lister; 6g. b after Fatnintzin mosing Strands of the 
and Woronin. protoplasm, but gradually 

FIG. 23. Ceratiomyxa mucida. the latter tends more and 
a, Ripe sporophore (X 40). more to form a reticular and 

6, Maturing sporophore showing the ultimately a nearly continu- 
development of the spores. ous superficial investment, 

c, Ripe spore. Instead of the single covering the mucoid ma- 
nucleus here indicated there should terial. The latter even- 
be four nuclei, as in d. tually dries and forms the 

d, Hatching spore. exceedingly delicate support 
e-h. Stages in the development of the of the spores or sporophore 

zoospores. (fig. 23, a). 

The investing proto- 
plasm, with its nuclei, having become arranged in an even 
layer, undergoes cleavage and thus forms a pavement-like 
layer of protoplasmic masses, each occupied by a single nucleus 




(fig. 23, b). Each of these masses now grows out perpendicularly 
to the surface of the sporophore. As it does so an envelope is 
secreted, which, closing in about the base forms a slender stalk. 
The minute mass, borne on the stalk, becomes the ellipsoid spore, 
surrounded by the spore-wall. In this manner the whole of the 
protoplasmic substance of the plasmodium is converted into spores, 
borne on supporting structures (stalks and sporophores) , which are 
formed by secretion of the protoplasm. 

In the course of the development of which the external features 
have now been traced nuclear changes occur of which accounts have 
been given by Jahn (14) and by Olive (24 and 25). Jahn has shown 
that prior to the cleavage of the protoplasm a mitotic division of 
the nuclei takes place, the daughter nuclei of which are those 
occupying the protoplasmic masses seen in fig. 23 b. 1 After the 
spore has risen on its stalk two further mitotic divisions occur in 
rapid succession, and the four-nucleated condition characteristic 
of the spore of Ceratiomyxa, is thus attained. The spores, on being 
brought into water, soon hatch (fig. 23, d), and the four nuclei 
contained in them undergo a mitotic division. Meanwhile the 
protoplasm divides, at first into four, then into eight masses, and 
the latter acquire flagella, although for some time remaining con- 
nected with their fellows (fig. 23, e-h). On separating each is a free 
zoospore. 

From observation of cultivations of zoospores the impression is 
that here, as in the Endosporeae, they multiply by binary division, 
though no exact observations of the process have been recorded. 
The zoospores lose their flagella and become amoebulae, but the 
fusion of the latter to form plasmodia has not been directly observed 
in Ceratiomyxa, although from analogy with the Endosporeae it 
can hardly be doubted that such fusions occur. 

Sorophora. 

The Sorophora of Zopf (Acrasiae of Van Tieghem) are a group of 
microscopic organisms inhabit- 
ing the dung of herbivorous 
animals and other decaying 
vegetable matter. As Pinoy 
(26) has shown, the presence of 
a particular species of bacteria 
with the spores is necessary 
for their hatching and as the 
essential food of the amoebulae 
which emerge from them. There 
is no flagellate stage, and it 
is in the form of amoebulae, 
multiplying by fission, that the 
vegetative stage of the life- 
history is passed. At the end 
of this stage numbers of amoe- 
bulae draw together to form 
a " pseudo-plasmodium." This 
appears to be merely an aggre- 
gation of amoebulae prior to 
spore formation. The outlines 
of the individual amoebulae are 
maintained, and there is no fu- 
sion between them, as in the 
formation of the plasmodium 
of the Euplasmodida. 

In some genera certain of the 
amoebulae constituting the 
pseudo-plasmodium are modi- 
fied into a stalk (simple in 
Guttulina and Dictyostelium, 
branched in Polysphondylium, 
fig. 24, d), along which the From 
other units creep to encyst, 
and become spores at the end 




Lankester's Treatise on 



a and b after Fayod ; c and d after 
from Zopf. 

or ends of the" stalk. In"other FlG - 2 4- a , and 6, Copromyxa pro- 

cases (Copromyxa, fig. 24, a tea > slightly magnified. 

and 6) the pseudo-plasmodium c and d, Polysphondylium via- 

is transformed into a mass of laceum. 

encysted spores without the 1 c < A young sorus, seen in optical 



differentiation of supporting 
structures. 

It is not impossible that the 
Myxobacteriaceae of Thaxter 
may, as that author suggests, be 
allied to the Sorophora (30). 



section. A mass of elongated 
amoebulae are grouped round 
the stalk, and others are ex- 
tended about the base (X 165). 
A sorus approaching maturity 
(X 30). 



Review of the Life-Histories of the Mycetozoa. The data for a 
comparison of the life-history of the Mycetozoa with those of other 
Protozoa in respect of nuclear changes are at present incomplete. 



'Jahn (14) described two mitotic divisions at this stage, but in 
' Myxomycetenstudien 7 Ceratiomyxa," Ber. deut. hot. Gesellsch. 
xxvi. a (1908) he shows that only one mitotic division occurs in the 
maturing sporophore prior to cleavage. Olive gives a preliminary 
account of a fusion of nuclei prior to cleavage, but as he has not 
seen the mitotic division which certainly occurs at this stage hia 
results cannot be accepted as secure. 



I IO 



MYCONIUS, F. MYDDELTON 



At some stage or other we are led by analogy to expect that a 
division of nuclei would occur in which the number of chromosomes 
would be reduced by one half, that this would be followed by the 
formation of gametes, and that the nuclei of the latter would subse- 
quently fuse in karyogamy. 

It is clear that both in the Endosporeae and Exosporeae a mitotic 
division of nuclei immediately precedes spore-formation. This is 
regarded by Jahn as a reduction division. If this is the case, the 
zoospores or the amoebulae must in some way represent the gametes. 
The fusion of the latter to form plasmodia appears to offer a pro- 
cess comparable with the conjugation of gametes, but though the 
fusion of the protoplasm of the amoebulae has been often observed no 
fusion of their nuclei (karyogamy) has been found to accompany it. 
A fusion of nuclei has indeed been described as occurring in the 
plasmodium, or at stages in the development of the sporangia or 
sporophores, but in no case can the evidence be regarded as satis- 
factory. 1 Until we have clear evidence on this point the nuclear 
history of the mycetozoa must remain incomplete. 

Jahn's observation of the mitotic division of nuclei preceding 
spore-formation in Ceratiomyxa gives a fixed point for comparison 
of the Exosporeae with the Endosporeae. Starting from this divi- 
sion it seems clear that the spore of Ceratiomyxa is comparable 
with the spore of the Endosporeae except that the nucleus of the 
former has undergone two mitotic divisions. 

LITERATURE. (i) A. de Bary, " Die Mycetozoen," Zeitschr.f. wiss. 
Zool., x. 88 (1860). (2) " Die Mycetozoen," (2nd ed., Leipzig, 
1864). (3) Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, 
Mycetozoa and Bacteria, translation (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 
1887). (4) O. Butschli, " Protozoa, Abth. g, Sarcodina," Bronn's 
Thierreich, Bd. i. (5) L. Cienkowski, " Die Pseudogonidien," Pring- 
sheim's Jahrbiicher, i. 371. (6) " Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der 
Myxomyceten," Pringsheim's Jahrbiicher, iii. 325 (pub. 1862). 
(7)" Das Plasmodium, ibid. p. 400(1863). (8)" Beitrage zur Kennt- 
niss der Monaden," Arch. f. mikr. Anal. i. 203 (1865). (9) J. C. 
Constantineanu, " Ueber die Entwicklungsbedingungen der Myxo- 
myceten," Annales mycologiti, Vierter Jahrg. (Dec. 1906). (io) A. 
Famintzin and M. Woronin, " Ueber zwei neue Formen von Schleim- 
pilzen Ceratium hydnoides, A. und Sch., and C. porioides, A. und 
Sch.," Mem. de Vacad. imp. d. sciences de St Petersburg, series 7, T. 20, 
No. 3 (1873). (11) M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, " On the R61e 
of Acid in Protozoan Digestion," Jour, of Physiology, xvi. 441 (1894). 
(12) R. A. Harper, " Cell and Nuclear Division in Fuligo varians," 
Botanical Gazette, vol. 30, No. 4, p. 217 (1900). (13) E. Jahn, " Myxo- 
mycetenstudien 3. Kernteilung u. Geisselbildung bei den Schwarmern 
von Stemonitis flaccida, Lister," Bericht d. deutschen botanischen 
Gesellschaft, Bd. 22 p. 84 (1904). (14) " Myxomycetenstudien 6. 
Kernverschmelzungen und Reduktionsteilungen,' ibid. Bd. 25, 
p. 23 (1907). (15) W. Saville Kent, " The Myxomycetes or Myceto- 
zoa; Animals or Plants?" Popular Science Review, n.s., v. 97 
(1881). (16) H. Kranzlin, " Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Spor- 
angien bei den Trichien und Arcyrien," Arch. f. Protistenkunde, 
Bd. ix. Heft. I, p. 170 (1907). (17) A. Lister, " Notes on the Plasmo- 
dium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia maxima," Ann. of 
Botany, vol. ii. No. 5 (1888). (18) " On the Ingestion of Food Material 
by the Swarm-Cells of the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot) 
xxv. 435 (1889). (19) " On the Division of Nuclei in the Mycetozoa," 
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) vol. xxix. (1893). ( 2 ) " A Monograph of 
the Mycetozoa," British Museum Catalogue (London, 1894). (21) 
" Presidential Address to the British Mycological Society," Trans. 
Brit. Mycological Soc. (1906). (22) A. and G. Lister, " Synopsis of 
the Orders, Genera and Species of Mycetozoa," Journal ofBotany, 
vol. xlv. (May 1907). (23) E. W. Olive, " Monograph of the 
Acrasiae," Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. History, vol. xxx. No. 6 (1902). 
(24) " Evidences of Sexual Reproduction in the Slime Moulds," 
Science, n.s., xxv. 266 (Feb. 1907). (25) " Cytological Studies in 
Ceratiomyxa, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 
vol. xv., pt. ii. p. 753 (Dec. 1907). (26) E. Pinoy, " Role desbacteries 
dans le developpement de certains Myxomycetes," Ann. de I'institut 
Pasteur, T. xxi. pp. 622 and 686 (1907). (27) H. Plenge, " Ueber 
die Verbindungen zwischen Geissef u. Kern bei den Schwarmer- 
zellen d. Mycetozoen," Verh. d. nvturhist.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg, 
N.F. Bd. vi. Heft 3 (1899). (28) S. von Prowazek " Kernverander- 
ungen in Myxomycetenplasmodien," Oesterreich. botan. Zeitschr. 
Bd. liv. p. 278 (1904). (29) E. Strasburger, " Zur Entwickelungs- 
geschichte d. Sporangien von Trifhia fallax," Botanische Zeitung 
(1884). (30) R. Thaxter, " On the Myxobacteriaceae, a new order of 
Schizomycetes," Botanical Gazette, xvii. 389 (1892). (31) W. Zopf, 
" Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik 

(1887). O.J-LR-) 

MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH (1400-1546), Lutheran divine, was 
born on the 26th of December 1490, at Lichtenfels on the Main, 
of worthy and pious parents, whose family name, Mecum, gave 

1 In the work cited in the last footnote Jahn described a fusion 
of nuclei as occurring in Ceratiomyxa at the stage at which the 
plasmodium is emerging to form sporophores. Jahn was at first 
inclined to regard this fusion as the sexual karyogamy of the life- 
cycle, but the writer learns by correspondence (July 1910) that he 
is inclined to regard this fusion as pathological, ana to look for the 
essential karyogamy elsewhere. 



rise to proud uses of the word as it appears in various places 
in the Vulgate, whereas Myconius, from the island Myconus, 
was a proverb for meanness. His schooling was in Lichtenfels 
and at Annaberg, where he had a memorable encounter with 
the. Dominican, Tetzel, his point being that indulgences should 
be given pauperibus gratis. His teacher, Staffelstein, persuaded 
him to enter (July 14, 1510) the Franciscan cloister. That same 
night a pictorial dream turned his thoughts towards the 
religious standpoint which he subsequently reached as a 
Lutheran. From Annaberg he passed to Franciscan commu- 
nities at Leipzig and Weimar, where he was ordained priest 
(1516); he had endeavoured to satisfy his mind with scholastic 
divinity, but next year his " eyes and ears were opened " by 
the theses of Luther, whom he met when Luther touched at 
Weimar on his way to Augsburg. For six years he preached 
his new gospel, under difficulties, in various seats of his order, 
lastly at Zwickau, whence he was called to Gotha (Aug. 1524) 
by Duke John at the general desire. Here he married Margaret 
Jacken, a lady of good family. He was intimately connected 
with the general progress of the reforming movement, and 
was especially in the confidence of Luther. Twice he was 
entrusted (1528 and 1533) with the ordering of the churches and 
schools in Thuringia. In all the religious disputations and 
conferences of the time he took a leading part. At the Con- 
vention of Smalkald (1537) he signed the articles on his own 
behalf and that of his friend Justus Menius. In 1538 he was in 
England, as theologian to the embassy which hoped to induce 
Henry VIII. on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, to make 
common cause with the Lutheran reformation; a project which 
Myconius caustically observed might have prospered on con- 
dition that Henry was allowed to be pope. Next year he was 
employed in the cause of the Reformation in Leipzig. Not 
the least important part of his permanent work in Gotha was 
the founding and endowment of its gymnasium. In 1541 his 
health was failing, but he lived till the 7th of April 1546. He 
had nine children, four of whom were living in 1542. 

Though he published a good many tracts and pamphlets, Myconius 
was not distinguished as a writer. His Historia reformationis , 
referring especially to Gotha, was not printed till 1715. See Mel- 
chior Adam, Vitae theologorum (1706); J. G. Bosseck, F. Myconii 
Memoriam . . . (1739) ; C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Narratio de F. Myconio 
(1825); K. F. Ledderhose, F. Myconius (1854); also in Allgemeine 
deutsche Biog. (1886); O. Schmidt and G. Kawerau in Hauck's 
Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*) 

MYCONIUS, OSWALD (1488-1552), Zwinglian divine, was 
born at Lucerne in 1488. His family name was Geisshiisler; 
his father was a miller; hence he was also called MOLITORIS. 
The name Myconius seems to have been given him by Erasmus. 
From the school at Rottweil, on the Neckar, he went (1510) 
to the university of Basel, and became a good classic. From 
1514 he obtained schoolmaster posts at Basel, where he married, 
and made the acquaintance of Erasmus and of Holbein, the 
painter. In 1516 he was called, as schoolmaster, to Zurich, 
where (1518) he attached himself to the reforming party of 
Zwingli. This led to his being transferred to Lucerne, and 
again (1523) reinstated at Zurich. On the death of Zwingli 
(1531) he migrated to Basel, and there held the office of town's 
preacher, and (till 1541) the chair of New Testament exegesis. 
His spirit was comprehensive; in confessional matters he was for 
a union of all Protestants; though a Zwinglian, his readiness 
to compromise with the advocates of consubstantiation gave 
him trouble with the Zwinglian stalwarts. He had, however, 
a distinguished follower in Theodore Bibliander. He died on 
the I4th of October 1552. 

Among his several tractates, the most important is De H. Zimnglii 
vita et obitu (1536), translated into English by Henry Bcnnet 
(1561). See Melchior Adam, Vita theologorum (1620); M. Kirch- 
hofer, O. Myconius (1813); K. R. Hagenbach, J. Oekolampad und 
O. Myconius (1859); F. M. Ledderhose, in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. 
(1886) ; B. Riggenbach and Egli, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903). 

(A. Go.*) 

MYDDELTON (or MIDDLETON), SIR HUGH, BART. (c. 1560- 
1631), contractor of the New River scheme for supplying London 
with water, was a younger son of Sir Richard Myddelton, 
governor of Denbigh Castle. Hugh became a successful London 



MYELAT MYERS 



in 



goldsmith, occupying a shop in Bassihaw, or Basinghall Street; 
he made money by commercial ventures on the Spanish main, 
being associated in these with Sir Walter Raleigh; and he was 
also interested in cloth-making. He was an alderman, and then 
recorder of Denbigh, and was member of parliament for this 
borough from 1603 to 1628. In 1609 Myddelton took over from 
the corporation of London the projected scheme for supplying 
the city with water obtained from springs near Ware, in Hert- 
fordshire. For this purpose he made a canal about 10 ft. wide 
and 4 ft. deep and over 38 m. in length, which discharged its 
waters into a reservoir at Islington called the New River Head. 
The completion of this great undertaking put a severe strain 
upon Myddelton 's financial resources, and in 1612 he was 
successful in securing monetary assistance from James I. The 
work was completed in 1613 and Myddelton was made the first 
governor of the company, which, however, was not a financial 
success until after his death. In recognition of his services he 
was made a baronet in 1622. Myddelton was also engaged in 
working some lead and silver mines in Cardiganshire and in 
reclaiming a piece of the Isle of Wight from the sea. He died 
on the loth of December 1631, and was buried in the church of 
St Matthew, Friday Street, London. He had a family of ten 
sons and six daughters. 

One of Sir Hugh's brothers was Sir Thomas Myddelton 
(c. 1550-1631), lord mayor of London, and another was William 
Myddelton (c. 1556-1621), poet and seaman, whc died at Antwerp 
on the 27th of March 1621. 

Sir Thomas was a member of parliament under Queen Eliza- 
beth and was chosen lord mayor on the 2oth of September 1613, 
the day fixed for the opening of the New River. Under James I. 
and Charles I. he represented the city of London in parliament, 
and he helped Rowland Heylyn to publish the first popular 
edition of the Bible in Welsh. He died on the i2th of August 
1631. Sir Thomas's son and heir, Sir Thomas Myddelton 
(1586-1666), was a member of the Long Parliament, being an 
adherent of the popular party. After the outbreak of the Civil 
War he served in Shropshire and in north Wales, gaining a 
signal success over the royalists at Oswestry in July 1644, and 
another at Montgomery in the following September. In 1659, 
however, he joined the rising of the royalists under Sir George 
Booth, and in August of this year he was forced to surrender 
his residence, Chirk Castle. His eldest son, Thomas (d. 1663), 
was made a baronet in 1660, a dignity which became extinct 
when William the 4th baronet died in 1718. 

MYELAT, a division of the southern Shan States of Burma, 
including sixteen states, none of any great size, with a total 
area of 3723 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 119,415. 
The name properly means " the unoccupied country," but it 
has been occupied for many centuries. All central Myelat and 
great parts of the northern and southern portions consist of 
rolling grassy downs quite denuded of jungle. It has a great 
variey of different races, Taungthus and Danus being perhaps 
the most numerous. They are all more or less hybrid races. The 
chiefs of the Myelat are known by the Burmese title of gwegunh- 
mu, i.e. chiefs paying the revenue in silver. The amount 
paid by the chiefs to the British government is Rs. 99,567. 
The largest state, Loi L6ng, has an area of 1600 sq. m., a great 
part of which is barren hills. The smallest, Nam Hkon, had no 
more than 4 sq. m., and has been recently absorbed in a neigh- 
bouring state. The majority of the states cover less than 
loo sq. m. Under British administration the chiefs have powers 
of a magistrate of the second class. The chief cultivation 
besides rice is sugar-cane, and considerable quantities of crude 
sugar are exported. There is a considerable potato cultivation, 
which can be indefinitely extended when cheaper means of 
export are provided. Wheat also grows very well. 

MYELITIS (from Gr. juueXos, marrow) a disease which by 
inflammation induces destructive changes in the tissues com- 
posing the spinal cord. In the acute variety the nerve elements 
in the affected part become disintegrated and softened, but 
repair may take place; in the chronic form the change is slower, 
and the diseased area tends to become denser (sclerosed), the 



nerve-substance being replaced by connective tissue. Myelitis 
may affect any portion of the spinal cord, and its symptoms and 
progress will vary accordingly. Its most frequent site is in 
the lower part, and its existence there is marked by the sudden 
or gradual occurrence of weakness of motor power in the legs 
(which tends to pass into complete paralysis), impairment or 
loss of sensibility in the parts implicated, nutritive changes 
affecting the skin and giving rise to bed-sores, together with 
bladder and bowel derangements. In the acute form, in which 
there is at first pain in the region of the spine and much con- 
stitutional disturbance, death may take place rapidly from 
extension of the disease to those portions of the cord connected 
with the muscles of respiration and the heart, from an acute 
bed-sore, which is very apt to form, or from some intercurrent 
disease. Recovery to a certain extent may, however, take 
place; or, again, the disease may pass into the chronic form. 
In the latter the progress is usually slow, the general health 
remaining tolerably good for a time, but gradually the strength 
fails, the patient becomes more helpless, and ultimately sinks 
exhausted or is cut off by some complication. The chief 
causes of myelitis are injuries or diseases affecting the spinal 
column, extension of inflammation from the membranes of the 
cord to its substance (see MENINGITIS), exposure to cold and 
damp, and occasionally some pre-existing constitutional morbid 
condition, such as syphilis or a fever. Any debilitating cause or 
excess in mode of life will act powerfully in predisposing to this 
malady. The disease is most common in adults. The treatment 
for myelitis in its acute stage is similar to that for spinal 
meningitis. When the disease is chronic the most that can be 
hoped for is the relief of symptoms by careful nursing and 
attention to the condition of the body and its functions. Good 
is sometimes derived from massage and the use of baths and 
douches to the spine. 

MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901), English 
poet and essayist, son of Frederic Myers of Keswick author of 
Lectures on Great Men (1856) andCatholic Thoughts (first collected 
1873), a book marked by a most admirable prose style was born 
at Keswick, Cumberland, pn the 6th of February 1843, and edu- 
cated at Cheltenham and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he 
won a long list of honours and in 1865 was appointed classical 
lecturer. He had no love for teaching, which he soon discon- 
tinued, but he took up his permanent abode at Cambridge in 
1872, when he became a school inspector under the Education 
Department. Meanwhile he published, in 1867, an unsuccessful 
essay for the Seatonian prize, a poem entitled St Paul, which met 
at the hands of the general public with a success that would be 
difficult to explain, for it lacks sincerity and represents views 
which the writer rapidly outgrew. It was followed by small 
volumes of collected verses in 1870 and 1882: both are marked 
by a flow of rhetorical ardour which culminates in a poem of 
real beauty, " The Renewal of Youth," in the 1882 collection. 
His best verse is in heroic couplets. Myers is more likely to 
be remembered by his two volumes of Essays, Classical and 
Modern (1883). The essay on Virgil, by far the best thing he 
ever wrote, represents the matured enthusiasm of a student and 
a disciple to whom the exquisite artificiality and refined culture 
of Virgil's method were profoundly congenial. Next to this in 
value is the carefully wrought essay on Ancient Greek Oracles 
(this had first appeared in Hellenica). Scarcely less delicate 
in phrasing and perception, if less penetrating in insight, is the 
monograph on Wordsworth (1881) for the " English Men of 
Letters " series. In 1882, after several years of inquiry and 
discussion, Myers took the lead among a small band of explorers 
(including Henry Sidgwick and Richard Hodgson, Edmund 
Gurney and F. Podmore), who founded the society for Psychical 
Research. He continued for many years to be the mouthpiece 
of the society, a position for which his perfermdum ingenium, 
still more his abnormal fluency and alertness, admirably fitted 
him. He contributed greatly to the coherence of the society 
by steering a mid-course between extremes (the extreme sceptics 
on the one hand, and the enthusiastic spiritualists on the 
other), and by helping to sift and revise the cumbrous mass of 



112 



MYINGYAN MYLODON 



Proceedings, the chief concrete results being the two volumes of 
Phantasms of the Living (1886), to which he contributed the in- 
troduction. Like many theorists, he had a faculty for ignoring 
hard facts, and in his anxiety to generalize plausibly upon the 
alleged data, and to hammer out striking formulae, his insight 
into the real character of the evidence may have left something 
to be desired. His long series of papers on subliminal conscious- 
ness, the results of which were embodied in a posthumous work 
called Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols. 
1903), constitute his own chief contribution to psychical theory. 
This, as he himself would have been the first to admit, was little 
more than provisional; but Professor William James has pointed 
out that the series of papers on subliminal consciousness is " the 
first attempt to consider the phenomena of hallucination, 
hypnotism, automatism, double personality and mediumship, as 
connected parts of one whole subject." The last work published 
in his lifetime was a small collection of essays, Science and a 
Future Life (1893). He died at Rome on the i7th of January 
1901, but was buried in his native soil at Keswick. 

MYINGYAN, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper 
Burma. It lies in the valley of the Irrawaddy, to the south of 
Mandalay, on the east bank of the river. Area, 3137 sq. m. 
Pop. (1901), 356,052, showing an increase of i% in the decade 
and a density of 1 14 inhabitants to the square mile. The greater 
part of the district is flat, especially to the north and along the 
banks of the Irrawaddy. Inland the country rises in gently 
undulating slopes. The most noticeable feature is Popa hill, 
an extinct volcano, in the south-eastern corner of the district. 
The highest peak is 4962 ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry 
and healthy, with high south winds from March till September. 
The annual rainfall averages about 35 in. The temperature 
varies between 106 and 70 F. The ordinary crops are millet, 
sesamum, cotton, maize, rice, gram, and a great variety of peas 
and beans. The district as a whole is not well watered, and most 
of the old irrigation tanks had fallen into disrepair before the 
annexation. There are no forests, but a great deal of low scrub. 
The lacquer ware of Nyaung-u and other villages near Pagan is 
noted throughout Burma. A considerable number of Chinese 
inhabit Myingyan and the larger villages. The headquarters 
town, MYINGYAN, stands on the Irrawaddy, and had a population 
in 1901 of 16,139. It i fi the terminus of the branch railway 
through Meiktila to the main line from Mandalay to Rangoon. 
The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also call here. 
A cotton-pressing machine was erected here in the time of 
independent Burma, and still exists. 

MYITKYINA, the most northerly of the districts of Upper 
Burma in the Mandalay division, separated from Bhamo district 
in 1895. It is cut up into strips by comparatively low parallel 
ranges of hills running in a general way north and south. The 
chief plain is that of Myitkyina, covering 600 sq. m. To the 
east of the Irrawaddy, which bisects the district, it is low-lying 
and marshy. To the west it rises to a higher level, and is mostly 
dry. Except in the hills inhabited by the Kachin tribes there 
are practically no villages off the line of the Irrawaddy. The 
Indawgyi lake, a fine stretch of water measuring 16 m. by 6, 
lies in the south-west of the district. A very small amount of 
cultivation is carried on, mostly without irrigation. Area, 
10,640 sq. m.; estimated population (1901) 67,399, showing a 
density of six persons to the square mile. More than half the total 
are Kachins, who inhabit the hills on both sides of the Irrawaddy. 
The headquarters town, MYITKYINA, had in 1901 a population of 
3618. It is the limit of navigation on the Irrawaddy, and the 
terminus of the railway from Rangoon and Sagaing. 

MYLODON (Gr. for " mill-tooth " from io>Ma> and 65ous), a 
genus of extinct American edentate mammals, typified by a 
species (M . harlani) from the Pleistocene of Kentucky and other 
parts of the United States, but more abundantly represented in 
the corresponding formations of South America, especially 
Argentina and Brazil. The mylodons belong to the group of 
ground-sloths, and are generally included in the family Megath- 
eriidae, although sometimes made the type of a separate family. 
From Megatherium these animals, which rivalled the Indian 



rhinoceros in bulk, differ in the shape of their cheek-teeth ; these 
(five above and four below) being much smaller, with an ovate 
section, and a cupped instead of a ridged crown-surface, thus 
resembling those of the.true sloths. In certain species of mylodon 
the front pair of teeth in each jaw is placed some distance in front 
of the rest and has the crown surface obliquely bevelled by 




From Owen. 
Skeleton of Mylodon robustus (Pleistocene, South America). 

wearing against the corresponding teeth in the opposite jaw. On 
this account such species have been referred to a second genus, 
under the name of Leslodon, but the distinction scarcely seems 
necessary. The skull is shorter and lower than in Megatherium, 
without any vertical expansion of the middle of the lower jaw, 
and the teeth also extend nearly to the front of the jaws; both 
these features being sloth-like. In the fore feet the three inner 
toes have large claws, while the two outer ones are rudimentary 
and clawless; in the hind-limbs the first toe is wanting, as in 
Megatherium, but the second and third are clawed. The skin 
was strengthened by a number of small deeply-embedded bony 
nodules. 

Although the typical M. harlani is North American, the 
mylodons are essentially a South American group, a few of the 
representatives of which effected an entrance into North America 
when that continent became finally connected with South 
America. Special interest attaches to the recent discovery in 
the cavern of Ultima Esperanza, South Patagonia, of remains of 
the genus Glossotherium, or Grypolherium, a near relative of 
Mylodon, but differing from it in having a bony arch connecting 
the nasal bones of the skull with the premaxillae; these include 
a considerable portion of the skin with the hair attached. 
Ossicles somewhat resembling large coffee-berries had been 
previously found in association with the bones of Mylodon, and in 
Glossotherium nearly similar ossicles occur embedded on the 
inner side of the thick hide. The coarse and shaggy hair is 
somewhat like that of the sloths. The remains, which include 
not only the skeleton and skin, but likewise the droppings, were 
found buried in grass which appears to have been chopped 
up by man, and it thus seems not only evident that these 
ground-sloths dwelt in the cave, but that there is a considerable 
probability of their having been kept there in a semi-domesti- 
cated state by the early human inhabitants of Patagonia. The 
extremely fresh condition of the remains has given rise to the 
idea that Glossotherium may still be living in the wilds of 
Patagonia. 

Scelidotherium is another genus of large South American Pleisto- 
cene ground-sloths, characterized, among other features, by the 
elongation and slenderness of the skull, which thus makes a decided 
approximation to the anteater type, although retaining the full 
series of cheek-teeth, which were, of course, essential to an herbi- 
vorous animal. The feet resemble those of Megatherium. \ much 
smaller South American species represents the genus Nothrotherium. 

In North America Mylodon was accompanied by another gigantic 
species typifying the genus Megalonyx, in which the fore part of the 
skull was usually wide, and the third and fourth front toes carried 
claws. Another genus has been described from the Pleistocene 



MYLONITE MYRA 



of Nebraska, as Paramylodon; it has only four pairs of teeth, and an 
elongate skull with an inflated muzzle. All the above genera differ 
from Megatherium in having a foramen on the inner side of the lower 
end of the humerus. A presumed large ground-sloth from Mada- 
gascar has been described, on the evidence of a limb-bone, as Brady- 
therium, but it is suggested by Dr F. Ameghino that the specimen 
really belongs to a lemuroid. Be this as it may, the North American 
mammals described as Moropm and Morotherium, in the belief that 
they were ground-sloths, are really referable to the ungulate group 
Ancylopoda. 

Although a few of the Pleistocene ground-sloths, such as Nothro- 
pus and Nothrotherium ( = Coelodon), were of comparatively small 
size, in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia few of the representatives 
of the family much exceeded a modern sloth in size. The best- 
known generic types are Eucholoeops, Hapalops and Pseudahapalops, 
of which considerable portions of the skeleton have been disinterred. 
In these diminutive ground-sloths the crowns of the cheek-teeth 
approached the prismatic form characteristic of Mega[lo]therium, 
as distinct from the subcylindrical type occurring in Mylodon, 
Glossotherium, &c. 

By many palaeontologists a group of 'North American Lower 
Tertiary mammals, known as Ganodonta, has been regarded as 
representing the ancestral stock of the ground-sloths and those of 
other South American edentates; but according to Professor W. B. 
Scott this view is incorrect and there is no affinity between the two 
groups. If this be so, we are still in complete darkness as to the 
stock from which the South American edentates are derived. 

See W. B. Scott, Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata, 
Rep., Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904) ; B. Brown 
A New Genus of Ground-Sloth from the Pleistocene of Nebraska, 
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xix, 569 (1903). (R. L.*) 

MYLONITE (Gr. juuXoiJ', a mill), in petrology, a rock which has 
been crushed and ground down by earth movement and at the 
same time rendered compact by pressure. Mylonites are fine- 
grained, sometimes even flinty, in appearance, and often banded 
in parallel fashion with stripes of varying composition. The 
great majority are quartzose rocks, such as quartzite and quartz- 
schist; but in almost any type of rock mylonitic structure may 
be developed. Gneisses of various kinds, hornblende-schists, 
chlorite-schists and limestones are not infrequently found in 
belts of mylonitic rock. The process of crushing by which 
mylonites are formed is known also as " granulitization " and 
" cataclasis," and mylonites are often described as granuh'tes, 
though the two terms are not strictly equivalent in all their 
applications. Mylonites occur in regions where there has 
been considerable metamorphism. Thrust planes and great 
reversed faults are often bounded by rocks which have all been 
crushed to fine slabby mylonites, that split readily along planes 
parallel to the direction in which movement has taken place. 
These " crush-belts " may be only a few feet or several hundred 
yards broad. The movements have probably taken place slowly 
without great rise of temperature, and hence the rocks have not 
recrystallized to any extent. 

Crushing and movement on so extensive a scale are to be expected 
principally in regions consisting of rocks greatly folded and 
compressed. Hence mylonites are commonest in Archean regions, 
but may be found also in Carboniferous and later rocks where the 
necessary conditions have prevailed. Within a short space it is 
often possible to trace rocks from a normal to a highly mylonized 
condition, and to follow by means of the microscope all the stages 
of the process. A sandstone, grit, or fine quartzose conglomerate, 
for example, when it approaches a mylonitic zone begins to lose 
its clastic or pebbly structure. The rounded grains of quartz 
become cracked, especially near their edges, and are then surrounded 
by narrow borders, consisting of detached granules: this is due to the 
pebbles being pressed together and forced to pass one another as the 
rock yields to the pressures which overcome its rigidity. Then each 
quartz grain breaks up into a mosaic of little angular fragments; 
the rounded pebbles are flattened out and become lenticular or cake- 
shaped. Finally only a small oval patch of fine interlocking quartz 
grains is left to indicate the position of the pebble, and if the matrix 
is quartzose this gradually blends with it and a uniform fine-grained 
quartzose rock results. If felspar is present it may become crushed 
like quartz, but often tends to recrystallize as quartz and muscovite, 
the minute scales of white mica being parallel to the foliation or 
banding of the rock, and a finely granulitic or mylonitic quartz- 
schist is the product. In hornblendic rocks, such as epidiorite, 
amphibolite and hornblende-schist, the mineral composition may 
remain unchanged, but very often chlorite, carbonates and biotite 
develop, epidote and sphene being also frequent. Biotite- and mus- 
covite-gneisses yield very perfect mylonites, in which the micas 
have parallel orientation, giving the rock a flat banding and marked 
schistosity (see PETROLOGY, PI. iv., fig. 6). When these mylonitic 



gneisses contain pink garnet (often with kyanite or sillimanite) 
they pass into normal granulites; limestones, if fossiliferous, become 
changed into finely crystalline masses, often fissile, sometimes with 
lenticular or augen structure. An interesting variety of mylonite, 
developed in granite-porphyry and gneiss, is fine, dark and almost 
vitreous in appearance, consisting mainly of very minute grains of 
quartz and felspar and resembling flint in appearance. These 
form threads and vein-like streaks ramifying through the normal 
rocks. Examples are furnished by the flinty-crushes of west Scot- 
land and the " trap-shotten " gneisses of south India. (J. S. F.) 

MYMENSINGH, or MAIMANSINGH, a district of British India, 
in the Dacca division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies 
a portion of the alluvial valley of the Brahmaputra east of the 
main channel (called the Jamuna) and north of Dacca. The 
administrative headquarters are at Nasirabad, sometimes called 
Mymensingh town. Area, 6332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 3,915,068, 
showing an increase of 12-8% in the decade. The district is 
for the most part level and open, covered with well-cultivated 
fields, and intersected by numerous rivers. The Madhupur 
jungle is a slightly elevated tract, extending from the north of 
Dacca district into the heart of Mymensingh; its average height 
is about 60 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, and it 
nowhere exceeds 100 ft. The jungle contains abundance of sal, 
valuable both as timber and for charcoal. The only other elevated 
tract in the district is on the southern border, where the Susang 
hills rise. They are for the most part covered with thick thorny 
jungle, but in parts are barren and rocky. The Jamuna forms 
the western boundary of Mymensingh for a course of 94 m. It is 
navigable for large boats throughout the year; and during the 
rainy season it expands in many places to 5 or 6 m. in breadth. 
The Brahmaputra enters Mymensingh at its north-western 
corner near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south till it 
joins the Meghna a little below Bhairab Bazar. The gradual 
formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its course 
has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel 
of the Jamuna, which has in consequence become of much more 
importance than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna only 
flows for a short distance through the south-east portion of 
the district, the eastern and south-eastern parts of which 
abound in marshes. The staple crops of the country are rice, 
jute and oil-seeds. A branch line of the Eastern Bengal railway 
runs north from Dacca through Nasirabad, &c., to the Jamuna. 
The district was severely affected by the earthquake of the 
i2th of June 1897. 

MYNGS, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1625-1666), British admiral, 
came of a Norfolk family. Pepys' story of his humble birth is 
said to be erroneous. It is probable that he saw a good deal of 
sea-service before 1648. He first appears prominently as the 
captain of the " Elisabeth," which after a sharp action brought 
in a Dutch convoy with two men-of-war as prizes. From 1653 
to 1655 he continued to command the " Elisabeth," high in 
favour with the council of state and recommended for promotion 
by the flag officers under whom he served. In 1655 he was 
appointed to the " Marston Moor," the crew of which was on the 
verge of mutiny. His firm measures quelled the insubordinate 
spirit, and he took the vessel out to the West Indies, where he 
remained for some years. The Restoration government retained 
him in his command, and in 1664 he was made vice-admiral in 
Prince Rupert's squadron. As vice-admiral of the White he flew 
his flag at Lowestoft in 1665, and for his share in that action 
received the honour of knighthood. In the following year he 
served under the new lord high admiral, Sandwich, as vice- 
admiral of the Blue. He was on detachment with Prince Rupert 
when the great Four Days' Battle began, but returned to the 
main fleet in time to take part, and in this action he received a 
wound of which he died. 

MYONEMES, in Infusoria and some Flagellates, the differ- 
entiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly 
refractive, performing the function of muscular fibres in the 
Metazoa. 

MYRA (mod. Dembre), an ancient town of Lycia situated a 
short distance inland between the rivers Myrus and Andracus. 
In common with that of most other Lycian towns its early history 



MYRIAPODA MYRRH 



is not known, and it does not play any part of importance in 
either Greek or Roman annals. Its fame begins with Chris- 
tianity. There St Paul touched on his last journey westward 
(A.D. 62), and changed into " a ship of Alexandria sailing into 
Italy." In the 3rd century the great St Nicholas, born at 
Patara, was its bishop, and he died and was buried at Myra. His 
tomb is still shown, but his relics are supposed to have been trans- 
lated to Bari in Italy in the nth century. Theodosius II. made 
Myra the Byzantine capital of Lycia, and as such it was besieged 
and taken by Harun al-Rashid in 808. The town seems shortly 
afterwards to have decayed. A small Turkish village occupied 
the plain at the foot of the acropolis, and a little Greek monastery 
lay about a mile westward by the church of St Nicholas. The 
latter has formed the nucleus of modern Dembre, which has 
been increased by settlers from the Greek island of Castelorizo. 
Myra has three notable sights, its carved cliff-cemetery, its 
theatre, and its church of St Nicholas. The first is the most 
remarkable of the Lycian rock-tomb groups. The western scarp 
of the acropolis has been sculptured into a number of sepulchres 
imitating wooden houses with pillared facades, some of which 
have pediment reliefs and inscriptions in Lycian. The theatre 
lies at the foot of this cliff and is partly excavated out of it, 
partly built. It is remarkable for the preservation of its corri- 
dors. The auditorium is perfect in the lower part, and the 
scena still retains some of its decoration both columns and 
carved entablature. The church of St Nicholas lies out in 
the plain, at the western end of Dembre, near a small monastery 
and new church recently built with Russian money. Its floor 
is far below the present level of the plain, and until recently the 
church was half filled with earth. The excavation of it was 
undertaken by Russians about 1894 and it cost Dembre dear; 
for the Ottoman government, suspicious of foreign designs on 
the neighbouring harbour of Kekova, proceeded to inhibit all 
sale of property in the plain and to place Dembre under a minor 
state of siege. The ancient church is of the domed basilica 
form with throne and seats still existent in the tribunal. In 
the south aisle as a tomb with marble balustrade which is pointed 
out as that wherein St Nicholas was laid. The locality of the 
tomb is very probably genuine, but its present ornament, as 
well as the greater part of the church, seems of later date (end 
of 7th century ?). None the less this is among the most interest- 
ing early Christian churches in Asia Minor. There are also 
extensive ruins of Andriaca, the port of Myra, about 3 m. west, 
containing churches, baths, and a great grain store, inscribed 
with Hadrian's name. They lie along the course of the Andraki 
river, whose navigable estuary is still fringed with ruinous 
quays. 

See E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, &c. (1889). 

(D. G. H.) 

MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged "), arthropod animals 
of which centipedes and millipedes are familiar examples. 
Linnaeus included them in his Insecta Aptera together with 
Crustacea and Arachnida; in 1796 P. A. Latreille designated 
them as Myriopoda, making of them, along with the Crustacean 
Oniscus, one of the seven orders into which he divided the 
Aptera of Linnaeus. Later on J. C. Savigny, by study of the 
mouth-parts, clearly distinguished them from Insects and Crus- 
tacea. In 1814 W. E. Leach defined them and divided them into 
Centipedes and Millipedes. In 1825 Latreille carried further 
the observations of Leach, and suggested that the two groups 
were very distinct, the millipedes being nearer Crustacea and 
the centipedes approaching Arachnida and Insecta. Although 
Latreille's suggestion has not been adopted, it is recognized that 
centipedes and millipedes are too far apart to be united as 
Myriapoda, and they are now treated as separate classes of 
the Arthropoda. See CENTIPEDE (Chilopoda) and MILLIPEDE 
(Diplopoda). 

MYRMIDONES, in Greek legend, an Achaean race, in Homeric 
times inhabiting Phthiotis in Thessaly. According to the ancient 
tradition, their original home was Aegina, whence they crossed 
over to Thessaly with Peleus, but the converse view is now 
more generally accepted. Their name is derived from a supposed 



ancestor, son of Zeus and Eurymedusa, who was wooed by the 
god in the form of an ant (Gr. /ivp/w;); or from the repeopling 
of Aegina (when all its inhabitants had died of the plague) with 
ants changed into men by Zeus at the prayer of Aeacus, king of 
the island. The word " myrmidon " has passed into the 
English language to denote a subordinate who carries out the 
orders of his superior without mercy or consideration for others. 
See Strabo viii. 375, ix. 433; Homer, Iliad, ii. 681 ; schol. on Pindar 
Nem. iii. 21 ; Clem. Alex., Protrepticon, p. 34, ed. Potter. 

MYROBALANS, the name given to the astringent fruits of 
several species of Terminalia, largely used in India for dyeing 
and tanning and exported for the same purpose. They are 
large deciduous trees and belong to the family Combretaceae. 
The chief kinds are the chebulic or black myrobalan, from 
Terminalia Chebula, which are smooth, and the beleric, from 
T. belerica, which are five-angled and covered with a greyish 
down. 

MYRON, a Greek sculptor of the middle of the 5th century B.C. 
He was born at Eleutherae on the borders of Boeotia and Attica. 
He worked almost exclusively in bronze: and though he made 
some statues of gods and heroes, his fame rested principally upon 
his representations of athletes, in which he made a revolution, by 
introducing greater boldness of pose and a more perfect rhythm. 
His most famous works according to Pliny (Nat. Hist., 34, 57) 
were a cow, Ladas the runner, who fell dead at the moment of 
victory, and a discus-thrower. The cow seems to have earned 
its fame mainly by serving as a peg on which to hang epigrams, 
which tell us nothing about the pose of the animal. Of the 
Ladas there is no known copy. But we are fortunate in pos- 
sessing several copies of the discobolus, of which the best is in 
the Massimi palace at Rome (see GREEK ART, PI. iv. fig. 68). 
The example in the British Museum has the head put on wrongly. 
The athlete is represented at the moment when he has swung 
back the discus with the full stretch of his arm, and is about to 
hurl it with the full weight of his body. The head should be 
turned back toward the discus. 

A marble figure in the Lateran Museum (see GREEK ART, 
PI. iii. fig. 64), which is now restored as a dancing satyr, is 
almost certainly a copy of a work of Myron, a Marsyas desirous 
of picking up the flutes which Athena had thrown away (Pausa- 
nias, i. 24, i). The full group is copied on coins of Athens, on 
a vase and in a relief which represent Marsyas as oscillating 
between curiosity and the fear of the displeasure of Athena. 

The ancient critics say of Myron that, while he succeeded 
admirably in giving life and motion to his figures, he did not 
succeed in rendering the emotions of the mind. This agrees 
with the extant evidence, in a certain degree, though not per- 
fectly. The bodies of his men are of far greater excellence than 
the heads. The face of the Marsyas is almost a mask ; but from 
the attitude we gain a vivid impression of the passions which 
sway him. The face of the discus-thrower is calm and unruffled; 
but all the muscles of his body are concentrated in an effort. 

A considerable number of other extant works are ascribed to 
the school or the influence of Myron by A. Furtwangler in his 
suggestive Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (pp. 168-219). These 
attributions, however, are anything but certain, nor do the 
arguments by which Furtwangler supports his attributions bear 
abridgment. 

A recently discovered papyrus from Egypt informs us that 
Myron made statues of the athlete Timanthes, victorious at 
Olympia in 456 B.C., and of Lycinus, victorious in 448 and 444. 
This helps us to fix his date. He was a contemporary, but a 
somewhat older contemporary, of Pheidias and Polyclitus. 

(P.G.) 

MYRRH (from the Latinized form myrrha of Gr. /*u/5pa ; the 
Arabic murr, bitter, was applied to the substance from its 
bitterness), a gum-resin highly esteemed by the ancients as an 
unguent and perfume, used for incense in temples and also in 
embalming. It was one of the gifts offered by the Magi, and a 
royal oblation of gold, frankincense and myrrh is still annu- 
ally presented by the sovereign on the feast of Epiphany 
in the Chapel Royal in London, this custom having been in 



MYRTLE MYSIA 



1 1 



existence certainly as early as the reign of Edward I. 1 True 
myrrh is the product of Balsamodendron (Commiphora) Myrrha, 
a small tree of the natural order Amyridaceae that grows in 
eabtern Africa and Arabia, but the name is also applied to gum 
resins obtained from other species of Balsamodendi on. 

I. Baisa Bol, Bhesa Bol or Bissa Bol, from Balsamodendron 
Kataf, resembles true myrrh in appearance, but has a disagreeable 
taste and is scarcely bitter. It is used in China, mixed with food, 
to give to milch cows to improve the quality and increase the 
quantity of milk, and when mixed with lime as a size to impart a 
gloss to walls. (2) Opaque bdellium produced by B. Playfairii, 
when shaken with water forms a slight but permanent lather, and on 
this account is used by the Somali women for cleansing their hair, 
and by the men to whiten their shields; it is known as meena hdrma 
in Bombay, and was formerly used there for the expulsion of the 
guinea-worm. (3) African bdellium is from B. africanum. and like 
opaque bdellium lacks the white streaks which are characteristic 
of myrrh and bissa bol, both are acrid, but have scarcely any bitter- 
ness or aroma. (4) Indian bdellium, probably identical with the 
Indian drug googul obtained in Sind and Baluchistan from B. Mukul 
and B. pubesccns. Hook, is of a dark reddish colour, has an acrid 
taste and an odour resembling cedar-wood, and softens in the hand. 

As met with in commerce true myrrh occurs in pieces of 
irregular size and shape, from $ in. to 2 or 3 in. in diameter, 
and of a reddish-brown colour. The transverse fracture has a 
resinous appearance with white streaks; the flavour is bitter 
and aromatic, and the odour characteristic. It consists of a 
mixture of resin, gum and essential oil, the resin being present to 
the extent of 25 to 40%, with 2 to 8% of the oil, myrrhol, to 
which the odour is due. 

Myrrh has the properties of other substances which, like it, 
contain a volatile oil. Its only important application in medi- 
cine is as a carminative to lessen the griping caused by some 
purgatives such as aloes. The volatile oils have for centuries 
been regarded as of value in disorders of the reproductive 
organs, and the reputation of myrrh in this connexion is simply 
a survival of this ancient but ill-founded belief. 

MYRTLE. The /iupros of the Greeks, the myrtus of the 
Romans, and the myrtle, Myrtus communis (see fig.), of botanists, 
as now found growing wild in many parts of the Mediterranean 
region, doubtless all belong to one and the same species. It is a 
low-growing, evergreen shrub, with opposite leaves, varying in 




I 



Myrtle (Myrtus communis), \ nat. size. 

1. Vertical section of flower, 3. Berry, enlarged. 

enlarged. 4. Seed with contained embryo, 

2. Plan of flower in horizontal e, much enlarged. 

plane. 

dimensions, but always small, simple, da[k-green, thick in tex- 
ture, and studded with numerous receptacles for oil. When the 
leaf is held up to the light it appears as if perforated with pin- 

1 Liber quotidianus contra-rotulaloris garderobae Edw. I. (London, 
PP, xxxii. and 27. 



holes owing to the translucency of these oil-cysts. The fragrance 
of the plant depends upon the presence of this oil. Another 
peculiarity of the myrtle is the existence of a prominent vein 
running round the leaf within the margin. The flowers are 
borne on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. The flower-stalk 
is dilated at its upper end into a globose or ovoid receptacle 
enclosing the 2- to 4-partitioned ovary. From its margin pro- 
ceed the five sepals, and within them the five rounded, spoon- 
shaped, spreading, white petals. The stamens spring from the 
receptacle within the petals and are very numerous, each consist- 
ing of a slender white filament and a small yellow two-lobed 
anther. The style surmounting the ovary is slender, terminating 
in a small button-like stigma. The fruit is a purplish berry, 
consisting of the receptacle and the ovary blended into one 
succulent investment enclosing very numerous minute seeds. 
The embryo-plant within the seed is usually curved. In cultiva- 
tion many varieties are known, dependent on variations in the 
size and shape of the leaves, the presence of so-called double 
flowers, &c. The typical species is quite hardy in the south of 
England. The Chilean species, M. Ugni, a shrub with ovate, 
dark green leaves and white flowers succeeded by globular red or 
black glossy truit with a pleasant smell and taste, is a greenhouse 
shrub, hardy in south-west Britain. The common myrtle is 
the sole representative in Europe of a large genus which has its 
headquarters in extra-tropical South America, whilst other 
members are found in Australia and New Zealand. The genus 
Myrtus also gives its name to a very large natural order, 
Myrtaceae, the general floral structure of which is like that of 
the myrtle above described, but there are great differences in 
the nature of the fruit or seed-vessel according as it is dry or 
capsular, dehiscent, indehiscent or pulpy; minor differences exist 
according to the way in which the stamens are arranged. The 
aromatic oil to which the myrtle owes its fragrance, and its use in 
medicine and the arts, is a very general attribute of the order, as 
may be inferred from the fact that the order includes, amongst 
other genera, Eucalyptus (q.v.), Pimenta and Eugenia (cloves). 
Myrlol, a constituent of myrtle oil, has been given in doses of 
5-15 minims on sugar or in capsules for pulmonary tuberculosis, 
fetid bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and similar conditions. It 
appears to lessen expectoration in such cases. The leaves of 
Myrtus chekan are aromatic and expectorant, and have been used 
in chronic bronchitis. 

MYSIA, the district of N.W. Asia Minor in ancient times 
inhabited by the Mysi. It was bounded by Lydia and Phrygia 
on the S., by Bithynia on the N.E., and by the Propontis and 
Aegean Sea on the N. and W. But its precise limits are difficult 
to assign, the Phrygian frontier being vague and fluctuating, 
while in the north-west the Troad was sometimes included in 
Mysia, sometimes not. Generally speaking, the northern portion 
was known as Mysia Minor or Hellespontica and the southern as 
Major or Pergamene. 

The chief physical features of Mysia (considered apart from 
that of the Troad) are the two mountain-chains, Olympus 
(7600 ft.) in the north and Temnus in the south, which for some 
distance separates Mysia from Lydia, and is afterwards prolonged 
through Mysia to the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Adramyttium. 
The only considerable rivers are the Macestus and its tributary 
the Rhyndacus in the northern part of the province, both of 
which rise in Phrygia, and, after diverging widely through 
Mysia, unite their waters below the lake of Apollonia about 15 m. 
from the Propontis. The Calcus in the south rises in Temnus, 
and from thence flows westward to the Aegean Sea, passing 
within a few miles of Pergamum. In the northern portion of 
the province are two considerable lakes, Artynia or Apolloniatis 
(Abulliont Geul), and Aphnitis (Maniyas Geul), which discharge 
their waters into the Macestus from the east and west 
respectively. 

The most important cities were Pergamum (q.v.) in the valley 
of the Calcus, and Cyzicus (q.v.) on the Propontis. But the whole 
sea-coast was studded with Greek towns, several of which were 
places of considerable importance; thus the northern portion 
included Parium, Lampsacus and Abydos, and the southern 



n6 



MYSLOWITZ MYSORE 



Assus, Adramyttium, and farther south, on the Elaitic Gulf, 
Elaea, Myrina and Cyme. 

Ancient writers agree in describing the Mysians as a distinct 
people, like the Lydians and Phrygians, though they never 
appear in history as an independent nation. It appears from 
Herodotus and Strabo that they were kindred with the Lydians 
and Carians, a fact attested by their common participation in 
the sacred rites at the great temple of Zeus at Labranda, as well 
as by the statement of the historian Xanthus of Lydia that their 
language was a mixture of Lydian and Phrygian. Strabo was 
of opinion that they came originally from Thrace (cf. BITHYNIA), 
and were a branch of the same people as the Mysians or Moesians 
(see MOESIA) who dwelt on the Danube a view not inconsistent 
with the preceding, as he considered the Phrygians and Lydians 
also as having migrated from Europe into Asia. According 
to a Carian tradition reported by Herodotus (i. 171) Lydus and 
Mysus were brothers of Car an idea which also points to the 
belief in a common origin of the three nations. The Mysians 
appear in the list of the Trojan allies in Homer and are repre- 
sented as settled in the Cai'cus valley at the coming of Telephus 
to Pergamum; but nothing else is known of their early history. 
The story told by Herodotus (vii. 20) of their having invaded 
Europe in conjunction with the Teucrians before the Trojan 
War is probably a fiction; and the first historical fact we learn 
is their subjugation, together with all the surrounding nations, 
by Lydian Croesus. After the fall of the Lydian monarchy they 
remained under the Persian Empire until its overthrow by 
Alexander. After his death they were annexed to the Syrian 
monarchy, of which they continued to form a part until the defeat 
of Antiochus the Great (too B.C.), after which they were trans- 
ferred by the Romans to the dominion of Eumenesof Pergamum. 
After the extinction of the Pergamenian dynasty (130 B.C.) 
Mysia became a part of the Roman province of Asia, and from 
this time disappears from history. The inhabitants probably 
became gradually Hellenized, but none of the towns of the 
interior, except Pergamum, ever attained to any importance. 

See C. Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1839); W. J. Hamilton, 
Researches (London, 1842); J. A. R. Munro in Geogr. Journal (1897, 
Hellespontica) ; W. von Diest, Petermanns Mitth. (Erganzungsheft 
94; Gotha, 1889; Pergamene). (F. W. HA.) 

MYSLOWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Silesia. Pop. (1905), 15,845. It lies on the navigable Przemsa, 
across which an iron bridge leads to the Polish town of Modr- 
zejow, 120 m. S.E. from Breslau by rail, and an important 
junction of lines to Oswiecim-Lemberg and Vienna. It contains 
a Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, a palace and 
a gymnasium, and other schools. Extensive coal-mines are 
worked, and among its other industries are flax-spinning and 
brick-making. It became a town in 1857. 

See Lustig, Geschichte von Myslowitz (Myslowitz, 1867). 

MYSORE, a native state of southern India, almost surrounded 
by the Madras presidency, but in political relations with the 
governor-general. It is naturally divided into two regions of 
distinct character the hill country called the Malnad, on the 
west, and the more open country known as the Maidan, compris- 
ing the greater part of the state, where the wide-spreading 
valleys and plains are covered with villages and populous towns. 
The drainage of the country, with a slight exception, finds its 
way into the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great 
river systems that of the Kistna on the north, the Cauvery on 
the south, and the Northern and Southern Pennar and Palar 
on the east. Owing to either rocky or shallow beds none of 
the Mysore rivers is navigable, but some are utilized for floating 
down timber at certain seasons. The main streams, especially 
the Cauvery and its tributaries, support an extensive system 
of irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams 
(anicuts), which retain the water at a high level and permit only 
the overflow to pass down stream. The streams which gather 
from the hill-sides and fertilize the valleys are embanked at 
every favourable point in such a manner as to form a series of 
reservoirs or tanks, the outflow from one at a higher level supply- 
ing the next lower, and so on, all down the course of the stream 



at short intervals. These tanks, varying in size from small 
ponds to extensive lakes, are dispersed throughout the country 
to the number of 20,000; the largest is the Sulekere lake, 40 m. 
in circumference. 

Mysore is perhaps the most prosperous native state in India. 
Situated on a healthy plateau, it receives the benefit of both 
the south-west and north-east monsoons, a natural advantage 
which, in conjunction with its irrigation system, has brought to 
Mysore a larger degree of immunity from famine than almost 
any other internal tract of India (always excepting the great 
calamity of 1876-1877, when one-fourth of the population are 
believed to have perished). Coffee, sandal-wood, silk, gold 
and ivory are among the chief products. The famous Kolar 
gold-fields are worked by electric power, which is conveyed 
for a distance of 92 m. from the Cauvery Falls. This was the 
first electric power scheme of magnitude in Asia. A long 
period of administration by British officers led to the introduction 
of a system based on British models, which has been maintained 
under a series of exceptionally able native ministers, and the 
state can boast of public works, hospitals, research laboratories, 
&c., unsurpassed in India. 

The total area of the state is 29,433 sq. m., subdivided into 
8 districts, namely: Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mysore, Hassan, 
Kadur, Shimoga and Chitaldrug. Pop. (1901), 5,539,399, 
showing an increase of 18% between 1881 and 1891, and 
of 12% between 1891 and 1901. The proportion of Hindus 
(92-1%) is larger than in any province of India, showing 
how ineffectual was the persecution of Hyder and Tippoo. 
The Christians (apart from native converts, who are chiefly 
Roman Catholics) largely consist of the garrison at Bangalore, 
the families of military pensioners at the same town, coffee- 
planters and gold-miners. The finances of the state have 
been very successfully managed under native rule, assisted by 
large profits from railways and gold-mines. The revenue 
amounts to about 1,400,000, of which nearly half is derived 
from land. In accordance with the " instrument of transfer," 
Mysore pays to the British government a tribute of 234,000, 
as contribution to military defence; but the full amount was not 
exacted until 1896. The state maintains a military force, 
consisting of two regiments of silladar cavalry and three bat- 
talions of infantry total, about 2800 men; and also a regiment 
of imperial service lancers, with a transport corps. An interest- 
ing political experiment has been made, in the constitution of 
a representative assembly, composed of 350 representatives of 
all classes of the community, who meet annually to hear an 
account of the state administration for the previous year. The 
assembly has no power to enact laws, to vote supplies, or to pass 
any resolution binding upon the executive. But it gives to the 
leading men of the districts a pleasant opportunity of visiting 
the capital, and to a limited extent brings the force of public 
opinion to bear upon the minister. Since 1891 this representa- 
tive assembly has been elected by local boards and other public 
bodies. 

In the earliest historical times the northern part of Mysore was 
held by the Kadamba dynasty, whose capital, Banawasi, is 
mentioned by Ptolemy; they reigned with more or less splendour 
during fourteen centuries, though latterly they became feuda- 
tories of the Chalukyas. The Cheras were contemporary with 
the Kadambas, and governed the southern part of Mysore till 
they were subverted by the Cholas in the 8th century. Another 
ancient race, the Pallavas, held a small portion of the eastern side 
of Mysore, but were overcome by the Chalukyas in the 7th cen- 
tury. These were overthrown in the 1 2th century by the Ballalas 
(Hoysalas), an enterprising and warlike race professing the Jain 
faith. They ruled over the greater part of Mysore, and portions ' 
of the modern districts of Coimbatore, Salem and Dharwar, with 
their capital at Dwarasamudra (the modern Halebid); but in 
1310 the Ballala king, was captured by Malik Kafur, the general 
of Ala-ud-din; and seventeen years later the town was entirely 
destroyed by another force sent by Mahommed Tughlak. After 
the subversion of the Ballala dynasty, a new and powerful 
Hindu sovereignty arose at Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra. 



MYSORE MYSTERY 



117 



In 1565 a confederation of the Mahommedan kingdoms de- 
feated the Vijayanagar sovereign at the battle of Talikota; and 
his descendants ultimately became extinct as a ruling house. 
During the feeble reign of the last king, the petty local chiefs 
(palegars) asserted their independence. The most important of 
these was the wcdeyar of Mysore, who in 1610 seized the fort of 
Seringapatam, and so laid the foundation of the present state. 
His fourth successor, Chikka Deva Raja, during a reign of 
34 years, made his kingdom one of the most powerful in 
southern India. In the middle of the i8th century the famous 
Mahommedan adventurer Hyder AH usurped the throne, and 
by his military prowess made himself one of the most powerful 
princes of India. His dynasty, however, was as brief as it 
was brilliant, and ended with the defeat and death of his son 
Tippoo at Seringapatam in 1799. A representative of. the 
ancient Hindu line was then replaced on the throne. This 
prince, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, was only five years old, and until 
he came of age in 1811 the state was under the administration 
of Purnaiya, the Brahman minister of Hyder and Tippoo. 
When Krishnaraja took over the management of his state he 
received an orderly and contented principality with a surplus 
of two crores of rupees. Within twenty years he had driven 
his subjects into rebellion and involved himself and his state 
in heavy debt. The British government therefore assumed 
the administration in 1831, and placed it in the hands of com- 
missioners. In 1862 no less than 88 lakhs of state debts and of 
the maharaja's own liabilities had been liquidated; the entire 
administration had been reformed, a revised system of land 
revenue introduced, and many public works executed. The 
maharaja therefore pressed his claims to a restoration of his 
powers, but the British government refused the application as 
incompatible with the true interests of the people of Mysore, 
and as not justified by any treaty obligation. In the same year 
Chamarajendra Wodeyar, afterwards maharaja, was born of 
the Bettada Kote branch of the ruling house; and in June 1865 
Maharaja Krishnaraja adopted him as his son and successor, 
although he had been informed that no adoption could be 
recognized except to his own private property, already once 
more heavily weighted with private debts. In 1867 the policy 
of government underwent a change; it was determined to secure 
the continuance of native rule in Mysore, by acknowledging 
the adoption upon certain conditions which would secure to the 
people the continued benefits of good administration enjoyed 
by them under British control. The old maharaja died on the 
27th of March 1868, and Chamarajendra Wodeyar was publicly 
installed as the future ruler of Mysore on the 23rd of September 
1868. His education was taken in hand, abuses which had grown 
up in the palace establishment were reformed, the late maharaja's 
debts were again paid off, and the whole internal administration 
perfected in every branch during the minority. On the 2$th of 
March 1881 Maharaja Chamarajendra, having attained the age 
of 1 8 years, was publicly entrusted with the administration of 
the state. He made over to the British government, with full 
jurisdiction, a small tract of land at Bangalore, forming the 
" civil and military station," and received in return the island of 
Seringapatam. But the most important incident of the change 
was the signing of the " instrument of transfer," by which 
the young maharaja, for himself and his successors, undertook 
to perform the conditions imposed upon him. To that agree- 
ment the maharaja steadfastly adhered during his reign, and 
the instrument is a landmark in the history of British relations 
with the protected states of India. The maharaja's first 
minister was Ranga Charlu, who had been trained in the 
British administration of Mysore. He signalized the restoration 
of native rule by creating the representative assembly. In 
1883 Sheshadri Aiyar succeeded Ranga Charlu, and to him 
Mysore is indebted for the extension of railways and schemes of 
irrigation, the development of the Kolar goldfields, and the 
maintenance of the high standard of its administration. The 
maharaja died at Calcutta on the 28th of December 1894. His 
eldest son, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, born in 1884, succeeded him, 
and his widow, Maharani Vanivilas, was appointed regent, 



until in 1902 the maharaja was formally invested with full 
powers by the viceroy in person. 

See B. L. Rice, Mysore (2nd ed., Bangalore, 1897); Mysore and 
Coorg Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908). 

MYSORE, capital of the state of Mysore, India, 10 m. S.W. of 
Seringapatam on the Mysore State railway. Pop. (1901), 68,111. 
The city, which is spread over an area of about 7! sq. m., has its 
nucleus at the foot of the Chamundi hill, in a valley formed by 
two parallel ridges running north and south. The fort stands 
in the south of the town, forming a quarter by itself; the ground- 
plan is quadrangular, each of the sides being about 450 yds. long. 
The old palace of the maharaja within the fort, built in an 
extravagant style of Hindu architecture, was partly destroyed 
by fire in 1897, whereupon a new palace was built on the same 
site. The principal object of interest in the old palace was the 
throne, which is said to have been presented to Chikka Deva Raj 
by the emperor Aurangzeb. The houses of the European residents 
are for the most part to the east of the town. The residency or 
government house was built in 1805. The building afterwards 
used for the district offices was originally built by Colonel 
Wellesley (duke of Wellington) for his own occupation. The 
domed building for the public offices in Gordon Park, the 
Maharaja's College, the Victoria Jubilee Institute, and the law 
courts are conspicuous. Mysore, though the dynastic capital 
of the state, was superseded by Seringapatam as the seat of the 
court from 1610 to 1799, and in 1831, on the British occupation, 
the seat of administration was removed to Bangalore. 

MYSTERY (Gr. nwn-ripiov, from juwmjs, an initiate, tiiitiv, 
to shut the mouth), a general English term for what is secret 
and excites wonder, derived from the religious sense (see below). 
It is not to be confounded with the other old word " mystery," 
or more properly " mistery," meaning a trade or handicraft 
(Lat. ministerium, Fr. metier). For the medieval plays, called 
mysteries, see DRAMA; they were so called (Skeat) because acted 
by craftsmen. 

Greek Mysteries. It is important to obtain a clear conception 
of the exact significance of the Greek term fivvrliptov, which is 
often associated and at times appears synonymous with the words 
Tf\trri, opyia. We may interpret " mystery " in its original 
Greek meaning as a " secret " worship, to which only certain 
specially prepared people oi /iV7)0ejr were admitted after a 
special period of purification or other preliminary probation, and 
of which the ritual was so important and perilous that the 
" catechumen " needed a hierophant or expounder to guide him 
aright. In the ordinary public worship of the state or the private 
worship of the household the sacrifice with the prayer was the 
chief act of the ceremony; in the " mysterion " something other 
than a sacrifice was of the essence of the rite; something was 
shown to the eyes of the initiated, the mystery was a 5pS.ua 
fj.vffri.K6v, and 8pav and dprjo-fioffuvr] are verbal terms expressive 
of the mystic act. We have an interesting account given us by 
. Theo Smyrnaeus 1 of the various elements and moments of the 
normal mystic ceremony: first is the KaBapfjibs or preliminary 
purification; secondly, the TeXerijs irapadoffK, the mystic com- 
munication which probably included some kind of X&yos, a 
sacred exegesis or exhortation; thirdly, the tTroirreta or the 
revelation to sight of certain holy things, which is the central 
point of the whole; fourthly, the crowning with the garland, 
which is henceforth the badge of the privileged; and finally, 
that which is the end and object of all this, the happiness that 
arises from the friendship or communion with the deity. This 
exposition is probably applicable to the Greek mysteries in 
general, though it may well have been derived from his know- 
ledge of the Eleusinian. We may supplement it by a statement 
of Lucian's that " no mystery was ever celebrated without 
dancing " (De saltat. 15), which means that it was in some sense 
a religious drama, ancient Greek dancing being generally 
mimetic, and represented some Up6s Xo^os or sacred story as 
the theme of a mystery-play. 

Before we approach the problem as to the content of the 
mysteries, we may naturally raise the question why certain 
1 De ulil. math., Herscher, p. 15. 



u8 



MYSTERY 



ancient cults in Greece were mystic, others open and public. 
An explanation often offered is that the mystic cults are the 
Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic and that the conquered populations 
desired to shroud their religious ceremonies from the profane 
eyes of the invaders. But we should then expect to find them 
administered chiefly by slaves and the lower population; on the 
contrary they are generally in the hands of the noblest families, 
and the evidence that slaves possessed in any of them the right 
of initiation is only slight. Nor does the explanation in other 
respects fit the facts at all. The deities who are worshipped 
with mystic rites have in most cases Hellenic names and do not 
all belong to the earliest stratum of Hellenic religion. Besides 
those of Demeter, by far the most numerous in the Hellenic 
world, we have record of the mysteries of Ge at Phlye in Attica, 
of Aglauros and the Charities at Athens, of Hecate at Aegina; 
a shrine of Artemis Mucn'a on the road between Sparta and 
Arcadia points to a mystic cult of this goddess, and we can infer 
the existence of a similar worship of Themis. Now these are 
either various forms of the earth-goddess, or are related closely 
to her, being powers that we call " chthonian," associated with 
the world below, the realm of the dead. We may surmise then 
that the mystic setting of a cult arose in many cases from the 
dread of the religious miasma which emanated from the nether 
world and which suggested a prior ritual of purification as neces- 
sary to safeguard the person before approaching the holy presence 
or handling certain holy objects. This would explain the 
necessity of mysteries in the worship of Dionysus also, the Cretan 
Zagreus, Trophonius at Lebadeia, Palaemon-Melicertes on the 
Isthmus of Corinth. They might also be necessary for those 
who desired communion with the deified ancestor or hero, and 
thus we hear of the mysteries of Dryops at Asine, of Antinoiis 
the favourite of Hadrian at Mantineia. Again, where there was 
hope or promise that the mortal should by communion be able 
to attain temporarily to divinity, so hazardous an experiment 
would be safeguarded by special preparation, secrecy and 
mystic ritual; and this may have been the prime motive of the 
institution of the Attis-Cybele mystery. (See GREAT MOTHER 
OF THE GODS.) 

For the student of Hellenism, the Eleusinian and Orphic 
ceremonies are of paramount importance; the Samothracian, 
which vied with these in attractiveness for the later Hellenic 
world, were not Hellenic in origin, nor wholly hellenized in char- 
acter, and cannot be considered in an article of this compass. 

As regards the Eleusinia, we are in a better position for the 
investigation of them than our predecessors were; for the modern 
methods of comparative religion and anthropology have at least 
taught us to asu. the right questions and to apply relevant 
hypotheses; archaeology, the study of vases, excavations on the 
site, yielding an ever-increasing hoard of inscriptions, have 
taught us much concerning the external organization of the 
mysteries, and have shown us the beautiful figures of the deities 
as they appeared to the eye or to the mental vision of the 
initiated. 

As regards the inner content, the secret of the mystic celebra- 
tion, it is in the highest degree unlikely that Greek inscriptions or 
art would ever reveal it; the Eleusinian scenes that appear on 
Attic vases of about the sth century cannot be supposed to show 
us the heart of the mystery, for such sacrilegious rashness would 
be dangerous for the vase-painter. If we are to discover it, we 
must turn to the ancient literary records. These must be 
handled with extreme caution and a more careful scrutiny than 
is often applied. We must not expect full enlightenment from 
the Pagan writers, who convey to us indeed the poetry and the 
glow of this fascinating ritual, and who attest the deep and puri- 
fying influence that it exercised upon the religious temperament, 
but who are not likely to tell us more. It is to the Christian 
Fathers we must turn for more esoteric knowledge, for they 
would be withheld by no scruple from revealing what they knew. 
But we cannot always believe that they knew much, for only 
those who, like Clement and Arnobius, had been Pagans in their 
youth, could ever have been initiated. Many of them uncriti- 
cally confuse in the same context nd in one sweeping verdict 



of condemnation Orphic, Phrygian-Sabazian and Attis-Mysteries 
with the Eleusinian; and we ought not too lightly to infer that 
these were actually confused and blended at Eleusis. We must 
also be on our guard against supposing that when Pagan or 
Christian writers refer vaguely to " mysteria," they always have 
the Eleusinian in their mind. 

The questions that the critical analysis of all the evidence 
may hope to solve are mainly these: (a) What do we know or 
what can we infer concerning the personality of the deities to 
whom the Eleusinian mysteries were originally consecrated, 
and were new figures admitted at a later period ? (b) When was 
the mystery taken over by Athens and opened to all Hellas, and 
what was the state-organization provided ? (c) What was the 
inner significance, essential content or purport of the Eleusinia, 
and what was the source of their great influence on Hellas? 
(d) Can we attribute any ethical value to them, and did they 
strongly impress the popular belief in immortality? Limits of 
space allow us only to adumbrate the results that research on 
the lines of these questions has hitherto yielded. 

The paramount divine personalities of the mystery were in 
the earliest period of which we have literary record, the mother 
and the daughter, Demeter and Kore, the latter being never 
styled Persephone in the official language of Eleusis; while the 
third figure, the god of the lower world known by the euphemistic 
names of Pluto (Plouton) and at one time Eubouleus, the ravisher 
and the husband, is an accessory personage, comparatively in 
the background. This is the conclusion naturally drawn from 
the Homeric hymn to Demeter, a composition of great ritualistic 
value, probably of the 7th century B.C., which describes the 
abduction of the daughter, the sorrow and search of the mother, 
her sitting by the sacred well, the drinking of the KVKf&v or 
sacred cup and the legend of the pomegranate. An ancient 
hymn of Pamphos, from which Pausanias freely quotes and 
which he regards as genuine, 1 appears to have told much the 
same story in much the same way. As far as we can say, then, 
the mother and daughter were there in possession at the very 
beginning. The other pair of divinities known as 6 debs ^ Ota, 
that appear in a 5th-century inscription and on two dedicatory 
reliefs found at Eleusis, have been supposed to descend from 
an aboriginal period of Eleusinian religion when deities were 
nameless, and when a peaceful pair of earth-divinities, male and 
female, were worshipped by the rustic community, before the 
earth-goddess had pluralized herself as Demeter and Kore, and 
before the story of the madre dolorosa and the lost daughter had 
arisen. 2 But for various reasons the contrary view is more 
probable, that 6 06j and 17 Oea are later cult-titles of the 
married pair Pluto-Cora (Plouton-Kore), the personal names 
being omitted from that feeling of reverential shyness which was 
specially timid in regard to the sacred names of the deities of 
the underworld. And it is a fairly familiar phenomenon in Greek 
religion that two separate titles of the same divinity engender 
two distinct cults. 

The question as to the part played by Dionysus in the 
Eleusinia is important. Some scholars, like M. Foucart, have 
supposed that he belonged from the beginning to the inner 
circle of the mystery; others that he forced his way in at a 
somewhat later period owing to the great influence of the Orphic 
sects who captured the stronghold of Attic religion and engrafted 
the Orphic-Sabazian Up6s Xiyyoj, the story of the incestuous 
union of Dionysus-Sabazius with Demeter-Kore, and of the 
death and rendering of Zagreus, upon the primitive Eleusinian 
faith. A saner and more careful criticism rejects this view. 
There is no genuine trace discovered as yet in the inner circle 
of the mysteries of any characteristically Orphic doctrine; the 
names of Zagreus and Phanes are nowhere heard, the legend of 
Zagreus and the death of Dionysus are not known to have 
been mentioned there. Nor is there any print within or in 
the precincts of the rt\wriipiov: the hall of the Muorot, of the 
footsteps of the Phrygian deities, Cybele, Attis, Sabazius. 

'i; 38, 3: i- 39. i. 

1 See Dittenberger, Sylloge, 13; Corp. inscr. all. 2, 1620 c, 3, 1109; 
Ephem. archaiol. (1886), *li>. 3; Hcberdey in Festschrift fur Benndorf, 
p. 3, Taf. 4; Von Prott in Athen. Mittheil. (1899), p. 262. 



MYSTERY 



nq 



The exact relation of Dionysus to the mysteries involves the 
question as to the divine personage called lacchus; who and what 
was lacchus? Strabo (p. 468), who is a poor authority on such 
matters, describes him as " the daemon of Demeter, the founder 
of the leader of the mysteries." More important is it to note 
that " lacchus " is unknown to the author of the Homeric hymn, 
and that the first literary notice of him occurs in the well-known 
passage of Herodotus (viii. 65), who describes the procession of 
the mystae as moving along the sacred way from Athens to 
Eleusis and as raising the cry "latcxf. We find lacchus the 
theme of a glowing invocation in an Aristophanic Ode (Frogs, 
324-398), and described as a beautiful " young god "; but he is 
first explicitly identified with Dionysus in the beautiful ode of 
Sophocles' Antigone (1119); and that this was in accord with the 
popular ritualistic lore is proved by the statement of the scholiast 
on Aristophanes (Frogs, 482) that the people at the Lenaea, the 
winter-festival of Dionysus, responded to the command of 
" Invoke the god! " with the invocation " Hail, lacchus, son of 
Semele, thou giver of wealth!" We are sure, then, that in the 
high tide of the Attic religious history lacchus was the youthful 
Dionysus, a name of the great god peculiar to Attic cult; and 
this is all that here concerns us to know. 

We can now answer the question raised above. This youthful 
Attic Dionysus has his home at Athens; he accompanies his 
votaries along the sacred way, filling their souls with the exalta- 
tion and ecstasy of the Dionysiac spirit ; but at Eleusis he had no 
temple, altar or abiding home; he comes as a visitor and departs. 
His image may have been carried into the Hall of the Mysteries, 
but whether it played any part there in a passion-play we do 
not know. That he was a primary figure of the essential mystery 
is hard to believe, for we find no traces of his name in the 
other Greek communities that at an early period had insti- 
tuted mysteries on the Eleusinian model. Apart from lacchus, 
Dionysus in his own name was powerful enough at Eleusis as in 
most other localities. And the votaries carried with them no 
doubt into the hall the Bacchic exaltation of the lacchus proces- 
sion and the nightly revel with the god that preceded the full 
initiation; many of them also may have belonged to the private 
Dionysiac sects and might be tempted to read a Dionysiac signifi- 
cance into much that was presented to them. But all this is 
conjecture. The interpretation of what was shown would natur- 
ally change somewhat with the changing sentiment of the ages; 
but the mother and the daughter, the stately and beautiful 
figures presented to us by the author of the homeric hymn, who 
says no word of Dionysus, are still found reigning paramount 
and supreme at Eleusis just before the Gothic invasion in the 
latter days of Paganism. Triptolemus the apostle of corn- 
culture, Eubouleus originally a euphemistic name of the god 
of the under-world, " the giver of good counsel," conveying a 
hint of his oracular functions these are accessory figures of 
Eleusinian cult and mythology that may have played some part 
in the great mystic drama that was enacted in the hall. 

The development and organization of the Eleusinia may now 
be briefly sketched. The legends concerning the initiation of 
Heracles and the Dioscuri preserve the record of the time when 
the mysteries were closed against all strangers, and were the 
privilege of the Eleusinians alone. Now the Homeric hymn in 
its obvious appeal to the whole of the Greek world to avail 
themselves of these mysteries gives us to suppose that they 
had already been thrown open to Hellas; and this momentous 
change, abolishing the old gentile barriers, may have naturally 
coincided with, or have resulted from, the fusion of Eleusis and 
Athens, an event of equal importance for politics and religion 
which we may place in the prehistoric period. The reign of 
Peisistratus was an era of architectural activity at Eleusis; 
but the construction of the /iu<m/<6s en/iois was one of the 
achievements of the Periclean administration. Two inscriptions, 
containing decrees passed during the supremacy of Pericles, the 
one proclaiming a holy truce of three months for the votaries 
that came from any Greek community, 1 the other bidding the 
subject allies and inviting the independent states to send 
1 Corp. inscr. alt. i. I. 



dirapxtu or tithe-offerings of corn to Eleusis, 1 record the far- 
sighted policy of Periclean Athens, her determination to find a 
religious support for her hegemony. 

At least from the sth century onwards, the external control 
and all questions of the organization of the mysteries were in 
the hands of the Athenian state, the rule holding in Attica as 
elsewhere in Hellas that the state was supreme over the Church. 
The head of the general management was the king-archon 
(arckon-basileus) who with his paredros and the four " epimele- 
tai " formed a general committee of supervision, and matters of 
importance connected with the ritual were decided by the Boule 
or Ecclesia. But the claim of Eleusis as the religious metropolis 
was not ignored. The chief of the two priestly families, in whose 
hands lay the mystic celebration itself and the formal right of 
admission, was the Eleusinian " gens " of the Eumolpidae; it 
was to their ancestor that Demeter had entrusted her opyia, 
and the recognition of their claims maintained the principle 
of apostolic succession. To them belonged the hierophant 
(lepo<t>avTTis) , the high priest of the Eleusinia, whose function 
alone it was to " reveal the orgies," to show the sacred things, 
and who alone or perhaps with his consort-priestess could 
penetrate into the innermost shrine in the hall; an impres- 
sive figure, so sacred in person that no one could address him 
by his personal name, and bound, at one period at least, by a 
rule of celibacy. We hear also of two " hierophantides," female 
attendants on the older and younger goddesses. In fact, while 
the male priest predominates in this ritual, the women play a 
prominent part: as we should expect, considering that the 
sister-festival of the Thesmophoria was wholly in their hands. 

The other old priestly family was that of the " Kerykes," 
to whom the 5<fSovx.os belonged, " the holder of the torch," 
the official second in rank to the lepcxpavn^. It is uncertain 
whether this family was of Eleusinian origin; and in the 4th 
century it seems to have died out, and the office of the SpSoDxos 
passed into the hands of the Lycomidae, a priestly family of 
Phlye, suspected of being devotees of Orphism. 

Turning now to the celebration itself, we can only sketch 
the more salient features here. On the i3th of Boedromion, 
the Attic month corresponding roughly to our September, 
the Ephebi (q.v.) marched out to Eleusis, and returned to Athens 
the next day bringing with them the " holy things " (iepd) to 
the " Eleusinion " in the city; these Upa. probably included small 
images of the goddesses. The i6th was the day of the ayvpnos, 
the gathering of the catechumens, when they met to hear the 
address of the hierophant, called the irp6pp7j<7is. This was 
no sermon, but a proclamation bidding those who were dis- 
qualified or for some reason unworthy of initiation to depart. 
The legally qualified were all Hellenes and subsequently all 
Romans above a certain very youthful limit of age, women, 
and as it appears even slaves; barbarians, and those uncleansed 
of some notorious guilt, such as homicide, were disqualified. We 
are sure that there was no dogmatic test, nor would time allow 
of any searching moral scrutiny, and only the Samothracian 
rites, in this respect unique in the world of classical religion, 
possessed a system of confessional. The hierophant appealed to 
the conscience of the multitude; but we are not altogether sure 
of the terms of his proclamation, which can only be approximately 
restored from late Pagan and early Christian writers. We know 
that he demanded of each candidate that he should be " of 
intelligible speech (i.e. an Hellene) and pure of hand "; and he 
catechized him as to his condition of ritualistic purity the food 
he had eaten or abstained from. It appears also from Libanius 
that in the later period at least he solemnly proclaimed that the 
catechumen should be " pure of soul," * and this spiritual 
conception of holiness had arisen already in the earlier periods 
of Greek religious thought. On the other hand we must bear in 
mind the criticism that Diogenes is said to have passed upon the 
Eleusinia, that many bad characters were admitted to com- 
munion, thereby securing a promise of higher happiness than an 
uninitiated Epaminondas *tould aspire to. 

An essential preliminary was purification and lustration, and 
1 Dittenberger, Sylloge, 13. ' Or. Corinth, iv. 356. 



I2O 



MYSTERY 



after the assembly the " mystae " went to the sea-shore (a\aoe 
HvaTai) and purified themselves with sea-water, and probably 
with sprinkling of pigs' blood, a common cathartic medium. 
After their return from the sea, a sacrifice of some kind was 
offered as an essential condition of JUITJCTIS, but whether as a 
sacrament or a gift-offering to the goddesses it is impossible to 
determine. On the igth of Boedromion the great procession 
started along the sacred way bearing the " fair young god " 
lacchus; and as they visited many shrines by the way the march 
must have continued long after sunset, so that the 2oth is some- 
times spoken of as the day of the exodus of lacchus. On the 
way each wore a saffron band as an amulet ; and the ceremonious 
reviling to which the " mystai " were subjected as they crossed 
the bridge of the Cephissus answered the same purpose of 
averting the evil eye. Upon the arrival at Eleusis, on the same 
night or on the following, they celebrated a midnight revel 
under the stars with lacchus, which Aristophanes glowingly 
describes. 

The question of supreme interest now arises: What was the 
mystic ceremony in the hall? what was said and what was done? 
We can distinguish two grades in the celebration; the greater 
was the rXa and r<wmKa, the full and satisfying celebration, 
to which only those were admitted who had passed the lesser 
stage at least a year before. As regards the actual ritual in the 
hall of the mystae, much remains uncertain in spite of the 
unwearying efforts of many generations of scholars to construct 
a reasonable statement out of fragments of often doubtful 
evidence. We are certain at least that something was acted there 
in a religious drama or passion-play, the revelation was partly 
a pageant of holy figures; the accusations against Aeschylus 
and Alcibiades would suffice to prove this; and Porphyry speaks 
of the hierophant and the 5p5oDxos acting divine parts. 
What the subject of this drama was may be gathered partly 
from the words of Clement " Deo (Demeter) and Kore became 
the personages of a mystic drama, and Eleusis with its Sqfiovxos 
celebrates the wandering, the abduction and the sorrow" 
(Protrept., p. 12 Potter), partly from Psyche's appeal to Demeter 
in Apuleius (Metamarph. 6) " by the unspoken secrets of the 
mystic chests, the winged chariots of thy dragon-ministers, the 
bridal descent of Proserpine [Persephone], the torch-lit wander- 
ings to find thy daughter and all the other mysteries that the 
shrine of Attic Eleusis shrouds in secret." We may believe then 
that the great myth of the mother's sorrow, the loss and the 
partial recovery of her beloved was part of the Eleusinian 
passion-play. Did it also include a iepos yafux? We should 
naturally expect that the sacred story acted in the mystic 
pageant would close with the scene of reconciliation, such as a 
holy marriage of the god and the goddess. But the evidence 
that this was so is mainly indirect, apart from a doubtful passage 
in Asterius, a writer of questionable authority in the 4th century 
A.D. (Econom. martyr, p. 194, Combe). At any rate, if a holy 
marriage formed part of the passion-play, it may well have been 
acted with solemnity and delicacy. We have no reason to 
believe that even to a modern taste any part of the ritual would 
appear coarse or obscene; even Clement, who brings a vague 
charge of obscenity against all mysteries in general, does not 
try to substantiate it in regard to the Eleusinia, and we hear 
from another Christian writer of the scrupulous purity of the 
hierophant. 

It would be interesting to know if the birth of a holy child, 
a babe lacchus, for example, was a motive of the mystic drama. 
The question seems at first sight to be decided by a definite 
statement of Hippolytus (Philosoph. 5, 8), that at a certain 
moment in the mysteries the hierophant cried aloud: " The lady- 
goddess Brimo has borne Brimos the holy child." But a careful 
consideration of the context almost destroys the value of his 
authority. For he does not pretend to be a first-hand witness, 
but admits that he is drawing from Gnostic sources, and he goes 
on at once to speak of Attis and his self-mutilation. The formula 
may then refer to the Sabazian-Phrygian mystery, which the 
Gnostics with their usual spirit of religious syncretism would 
have no scruple in identifying with the Eleusinian. And the 



archaeological evidence that has been supposed to support the 
statement of Hippolytus is deceptive. 

Finally, we must not suppose that there could be any very 
elaborate scenic arrangements in the hall for the representation 
of Paradise and the Inferno, whereby the rewards of the faithful 
and the punishments of the damned might be impressively 
brought home to the mystae. The excavations on the site have 
proved that the building was without substructures or under- 
ground passages. A large number of inscriptions present us 
with elaborate accounts of Eleusinian expenditure; but there is 
no item for scenic expenses or painting. We are led to suppose 
that the pageant-play produced its effect by means of gorgeous 
raiment, torches and stately figures. 

But the mystic action included more than the pageant-play. 
The hierophant revealed certain holy objects to the eyes of the 
assembly. There is reason to suppose that these included cer- 
tain primitive idols of the goddesses of immemorial sanctity; 
and, if we accept a statement of Hippolytus (loc. cit.) we must 
believe that the epoptae were also shown " that great and marvel- 
lous mystery of perfect revelation, a cut corn-stalk." The value 
of this definite assertion, which appears to be an explicit revela- 
tion of the secret, would be very great, if we could trust it; but 
unfortunately it occurs in the same suspicious context as the 
Brimo-Brimos formula, and we again suspect the same uncritical 
confusion of Eleusinian with Phrygian ritual, for we know that 
Attis himself was identified in his mysteries with the " reaped 
corn," the OTaxw apr/ros, almost the very phrase used by 
Hippolytus. Only, it is in the highest degree probable, whether 
Hippolytus knew anything or not, that a corn-token was shown 
among the sacred things of a mystery which possessed an original 
agrarian significance and was intended partly to consecrate and 
to foster the agricultural life. But to say this is by no means the 
same as to admit the view of Lenormant 1 and Dr Jevons 2 that 
the Eleusinians worshipped the actual corn, or revered it as a 
clan-totem. For of direct corn-worship or of corn-totemism 
there is no trace either at Eleusis or elsewhere in Greece. 

Among the Sp&ufva or " things done " may we also include 
a solemn sacrament, the celebration of a holy communion, in 
which the votary was united to the divinity by partaking of 
some holy food or drink? We owe to Clement of Alexandria 
(Protrept. p. 18, Potter) an exact transcription of the pass-word 
of the Eleusinian mystae; it ran as follows (if we accept 
Lobeck's emendation cf tyytvaanevos for p7oerd/Ki'os) : " I 
have fasted, I have drunk the barley-drink, I have taken [the 
things] from the sacred chest, having tasted thereof I have placed 
them into the basket and again from the basket into the chest." 
We gather from this that some kind of sacrament was at least a 
preliminary condition of initiation; the mystae drank of the same 
cup as the goddess drank in her sorrow, partly as we say " in 
memory of her," partly to unite themselves more closely with 
her. We know also from an inscription that the priest of the 
Samothracian mysteries broke sacred bread and poured out drink 
for the mystae (Arch, epigr. Mitth. 1882, p. 8, No. 14). But 
neither in these nor in the Eleusinian is there any trace of the 
more mystic sacramental conception, any indication that the 
votaries believed themselves to be partaking of the actual body 
of their divinity; 3 for there is no evidence that Demeter was 
identified with the corn, still less with the barley-meal of which 
the Kuxeop was compounded. Nor is it likely that the sacra- 
ment was the pivot of the whole mystery or was part of the 
essential act of the iiinjavi itself. In the first place we have 
an almost certain representation of the Eleusinian sacrament on 
an archaic vase in Naples, 4 probably of Attic provenance, and 
the artistic reproduction of a holy act would have been impious 
and dangerous, if this had belonged to the inner circle of the 
mystery. Again, there is no mention of sacrament or sacrifice 
among the five essential parts of /iwjais given by Theo 

1 Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire, : , p. 1066. 

8 Introduction to the Study of Religion. 

3 This is Dr Jevons's supposition op. cit on which he bases 
an important theory of the whole Eleusinian mysteries and their 
intrinsic attraction. 

4 Farnell, Cults, vol. iii. pi. xv*. 



MYSTERY 



121 



Smyrnaeus, nor in the imaginary narrative of the late rhetorician 
Sopatros, 1 who supposes the strange case of a man being initiated 
by the goddesses in a dream: they admit him to their full 
communion merely by telling him something and showing him 
something. 

Besides the dp&neva, then, there were also certain things 
said in the hall, or in the earlier stages of initiation, which we 
would gladly discover. Part of these were mystic formulae, 
one of which has been discussed already, the pass-word of 
the votaries. We gather also from Proclus and Hippolytus 2 
that in the Eleusinian rites they gazed up to heaven and 
cried aloud " rain " i) and gazed down upon the earth and 
cried " conceive " Kde. This ritual charm we cannot call it 
prayer descends from the old agrarian magic which underlay 
the primitive mystery. What else the votaries may have uttered, 
whether by way of thanksgiving or solemn litany, we do not 
know. 3 But there was also a certain ttpos Myos, some exposi- 
tion accompanying the unfolding of the mysteries; for it was part 
of the prestige of the hierophant that he was chief spokesman, 
" who poured forth winning utterance and whose voice the 
catechumen ardently desired to hear " (Anth. Pal., app. 246) ; and 
Galen speaks of the rapt attention paid by the initiated " to the 
things done and said in the Eleusinian and Samothracian 
mysteries " (De usu part. 7. 14). But we have no trustworthy 
evidence as to the real content of the \tryos of the hierophant. 
We need not believe that the whole of his discourse was taken 
up with corn-symbolism, as Varro seems to imply (Aug. De civil. 
Dei. 20), or that he taught natural philosophy rather than 
theology, or again, the special doctrine of Euhemerus, as two 
passages in Cicero (De natur. dear. i. 42; Tusc. i. 13) might 
prompt us to suppose. His chief theme was probably an expo- 
' sition of the meaning and value of the itpa, as in an Australian 
initiation rite it is the privilege of the elders to explain the 
nature of the " churinga " to the youths. And his discourse 
on these may have been coloured to some extent by the theories 
current in the philosophic speculation of the day. But though 
in the time of Julian he appears to have been a philosopher of 
Neo-platonic tendencies, we ought not to suppose that the 
hierophant as a rule would be able or inclined to rise above the 
anthropomorphic religion of the times. Whatever symbolism 
attached to the Upa, the sacred objects shown, was probably 
simple and natural; for instance, in the Eleusinian, as in Egyptian 
eschatology, the token of the growing corn may have served as 
an emblem though not a proof of man's resurrection. The 
doctrine of the continuance of the soul after death was already 
accepted by the popular belief, and the hierophant had no need 
to preach it as a dogma; the votaries came to Eleusis to ensure 
themselves a happy immortality. And in our earliest record, 
the Homeric hymn, we find that the mysteries already hold out 
this higher promise. How, we may ask, were the votaries 
assured? M. Foucart in Les grands mysteres d' Eleusis has 
maintained that the object of the mysteries was much the same 
as that of the Egyptian Book of the Dead; to provide the mystae 
with elaborate rules for avoiding the dangers that beset the road 
to the other world, and for attaining at last to the happy regions; 
that for this purpose the hierophant recited magic formulae 
whereby the soul could repel the demons that it might encounter 
on the path; and that it was to seek this deliverance from the 
terrors of hell that all Greece flocked to Eleusis. This is in 
accord with his whole " egyptizing " theory concerning the 
Eleusinia, a theory which, though Egyptian influence cannot 
a priori be ruled out, is not found in harmony with the facts 
of the two religious systems. And the particular hypothesis 
just stated is altogether wanting in direct evidence, or we 
may say in vraisemblance. There is no hint or allusion to 

1 Rhet. grace . viii. 121. 

2 In Tim. 293'; Ref. Omn. Haer. 5, 7, p. 146. 

1 The other formula which the scholiast on Plato (Gorg. 497 c.) 
assigns to the Eleusinian rite: " I have eaten from the timbrel, I 
have drunk from the cymbal, I have carried the sacred vessel, 
I have crept under the bridal-chamber," belongs, not to Eleusis, 
but, as Clement and Firmicus Maternus themselves attest, to Phrygia 
and to Attis. 



be found in the ancient sources suggesting that the recital of 
magic formulae was part of the ceremony. The X67, what- 
ever it was, was comparatively unimportant. And the Greek 
public in general, in its vigorous period when the Eleusinian 
religion reached its zenith, was not tormented, as modern 
Europe has at times been, by ghostly terrors of judgment. 

The assurance of the hope of the Eleusinian votary was 
obtained by the feeling of friendship and mystic sympathy, 
established by mystic contact, with the mother and the daughter, 
the powers of life after death. Those who won their friendship 
by initiation in this life would by the simple logic of faith 
regard themselves as certain to win blessing at their hands in 
the next. 

It is obvious that the mysteries made no direct appeal to 
the intellect, nor on the other hand revolted it by any oppressive 
dogmatism. As regards their psychic effect, we have Aristotle's 
invaluable judgment: " The initiated do not learn anything so 
much as feel certain emotions and are put into a certain frame 
of mind " (Synes. Dion. p. 480). The appeal was to the eye 
and to the imagination through a form of religious mesmerism 
working by means that were solemn, stately and beautiful. 
To understand the quality and the intensity of the impression 
produced, we should borrow something from the modern experi- 
ences of Christian communion-service, mass, and passion-play, 
and bear in mind also the extraordinary susceptibility of the 
Greek mind to an artistically impressive pageant. 

That the Eleusinia preached a higher morality than that 
of the current standard is not proved. That they exercised 
a direct and elevating influence on the individual character is 
nowhere explicitly maintained, as Diodorus (v. 49) maintains 
concerning the Samothracian. But on general grounds it is 
reasonable to believe that such powerful religious experience 
as they afforded would produce moral fruit in many minds. The 
genial Aristophanes (Frogs, 455) intimates as much, and 
Andocides (De myster. p. 36, 31; p. 44, 125) assumes that 
those who had been initiated would take a juster and sterner 
view of moral innocence and guilt, and that foul conduct was 
a greater sin when committed by a man who was in the official 
service of the mother and the daughter. 

Besides the greater mysteries at Eleusis, we hear of the 
lesser mysteries of Agrae on the banks of the Ilissos. Estab- 
lished, perhaps, originally by Athens herself at a time when 
Eleusis was independent and closed her rites to strangers, 
they became wholly subordinated to the greater, and were put 
under the same management and served merely as a necessary 
preliminary to the higher initiation into them. Sacrifice was 
offered to the same great goddesses at both; but we have the 
authority of Duris (Athenae, 253^), the Samian historian, and 
the evidence of an Attic painting, called the pinax of Nannion, 4 
that the predominant goddess in the mysteries at Agrae was 
Kore. And this agrees with the time of their celebration, in 
the middle of Anthesterion, when Kore was supposed to return 
in the young corn. Stephanus (s.v. "A.ypa), drawing from an 
unknown source, declares that the Dionysiac story was the 
theme of their mystic drama. Hence theorists have supposed 
that their content was wholly Orphic or that their central 
motive was the marriage of Dionysus and Kore. The theory 
has no archaeological or literary support except the passage in 
Stephanus, nor have we reason for believing that the marriage 
of these two divinities was recognized in Attic state ritual. 

The influence of Eleusis in early times must have been 
great, for we find offshoots of its cult, whether mystic or not, 
in other parts of Greece. In Boeotia, Laconia, Arcadia, Crete 
and Thera, Demeter brought with her the title of "Eleusinia"; 
and no other explanation is so probable as the obvious one 
that this name designates " the goddess of Eleusis," and though 
there may have been other places called " Eleusis," the only 
famous religious centre was the Attic. The initiation rites of 
Demeter at Celeae near Phlius, at Lerna in Argolis, and at 
Naples, were organized after the pattern of the Eleusinian. But 
of these and the other Demeter mysteries in the Greek world, 
* Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, vol. iii. p. 242, pi. xvi. 



122 



MYSTERY 



there is little to record that is certain and at the same time of 
primary importance for the history of religion. The Arcadian 
city of Pheneus possessed a mystery that boasted an Eleusinian 
character and origin, yet in the record of it there is no mention 
of Kore, and we may suspect that, like other Demeter-worships 
in the Peloponnese, it belonged to a period when the earth- 
goddess was revered as a single personality and Kore had not 
yet emanated from her. We know much more of the details 
of the great Andaman mysteries in Messenia, owing to the 
discovery of the important and much-discussed Andanian in- 
scription of 91 B.C. 1 But what we know are facts of secondary 
importance only. We gather from Pausanias (4. 33. 4;cf. 4. i. 
5. and 4. 26. 8; 4. 27. 6) that the rites, which he regards as second 
in solemnity and prestige to the Eleusinian alone, were conse- 
crated to the MeydXa: Gtai, . . . the great goddesses, . . . and that 
Kore enjoyed the mystic title of Hagne, " the holy one." 
The inscription has been supposed to correct and to refute 
Pausanias, but it does not really controvert his statements, 
which are attested by other evidence; it proves only that other 
divinities came at a later time to have a share in the mysteries, 
such as the Me-yaAoi 6eoi who were probably the Cabeiri (<?..). It 
is clear that the Andanian mysteries included a sacred drama, 
in which women personated the goddesses. The priestesses were 
married women, and were required to take an oath that they 
had lived " in relation to their husbands a just and holy life." 
We hear also of grades of initiation, purification-ceremonies, 
but of no sacrament or eschatologic promise; yet it is probable 
that these mysteries, like the Eleusinian, maintained and 
secured the hope of future happiness. 

The Eleusinian faith is not wholly unattested by the grave- 
inscriptions of Hellas, though it speaks but rarely on these. 
The most interesting example is the epitaph of a hierophant 
who proclaims that he has found that " death was not an evil, 
but a blessing." 2 

Of equal importance for the private religion of Greece were 
the Orphic mystic societies, bearing a Thraco-Phrygian tradition 
into Greece, and associated originally with the name of Dionysus, 
and afterwards with Sabazius also and the later cult-ideas of 
Phrygia. 3 The full account of the Dionysiac mysteries would 
demand a critical study of the Dionysiac religion as a whole, 
as well as of the private sects that sprang up under its shadow. 
It is only possible here to indicate the salient characteristics of 
those which are of primary value for the history of religion. 

Originally a great nature-god of the Thraco-Phrygian stock, 
powerful over all vegetation and especially revealing his power 
in the vine, Dionysus was forcing his way into Greece at least 
as early as the Homeric period, and by the 6th century was 
received into the public cults of most of the Greek communities. 
We can gather with some certainty or probability his aboriginal 
characteristics and the form of his worship. Being a god of 
the life of the earth, he was also a nether divinity, the lord of 
the world of souls, with whom the dead votary entered into 
privileged communion; his rites were mystic, and nightly 
celebrations were frequent, marked by wild ecstasy and orgiastic 
self-abandonment, in which the votary became at one with 
the divinity and temporarily possessed his powers; women 
played a prominent part in the ritual; a savage form of sacra- 
mental communion was in vogue, and the animal victim of 
whose flesh and blood the votaries partook was at times re- 
garded as the incarnation of the divinity, so that the god himself 
might be supposed to die and to rise again; finally we may 
regard certain cathartic ideas as part of the primeval tradition 

'See Sauppe, Mysterieninschrift von Andania; cf. Foucart's 
commentary in Le Bas, Voyage archeol. 2, No. 326*; H. Collitz, 
Dialect-inschriften, 4689. 

1 Eph. arch. (1883), p. 81. 

3 The best account of the origin and development of the Dionysiac 
religion is in Rohde's Psyche, vol. i. ; for Orphic ritual and doctrine 
see article on " Orpheus " in Roscher's Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der 
griechischen und romischen Mythologie; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena, 
to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 455-659, with critical appendix 
by G_. Murray on the Orphic tablets discovered in Crete, near Rome, 
and in south Italy. 



of this religion. Admitted among the soberer cults of the 
Greek communities, it lost most of its wildness and savagery, 
while still retaining a more emotional ecstatic character than 
the rest. But this cooling process was arrested by a new 
wave of Dionysiac fervour that spread over Greece from the 
7th century onwards, bringing with it the name of Orpheus, 4 
and engendering at some later date the Orphic brotherhoods 
(thiasi). This religious movement may have started like 
the earlier one from the lands north of Greece; but Crete and 
even Egypt are supposed to have contributed much to the 
Orphic doctrine and ritual. Our earliest authority for the 
proceedings of the mystery-practitioner who used the name 
of Orpheus is the well-known passage in Plato's Republic 
(p. 3640), in which he speaks contemptuously of the itinerant 
ritualists who knock at the doors of the rich, the vendors of 
magic incantations, who promise absolution from sins and 
happiness in the next world to be attained by a ritual of puri- 
fication and mystic initiation. This record brings to our notice 
a phenomenon unknown elsewhere in Greek religion; the 
missionary spirit, the impulse to preach to all who would hear, 
which foreshadows the breaking down of the gentile religious 
barriers of the ancient world. And it is probable that some 
kind of " Orphic " propagandism, whether through books or 
itinerant mystery-priests, or both, had been in vogue some time 
before Plato. We may fairly conjecture that it has to some 
extent inspired the glowing eschatology of Pindar, who describes 
the next world as wplace of penance and purgation from ancestral 
or personal taint and of final reward for the purified soul, and 
who unites this belief with a doctrine of reincarnation. In 
the Hippolytus of Euripides, Theseus taunts his son with 
cloaking his immorality under hypocritical " Orphic " preten- 
sions to purity, the pharisaic affectation, for instance, of a 
vegetarian diet (952-954). Still more important is the fragment 
of the Cretans of Euripides, attesting the strength of the 
antiquity of these mystic Dionysiac associations in Crete. 
The initiated votary proclaims himself as sanctified to Zeus of 
Ida, to Zagreus the Orphic name of the nether-world Dionysus 
and to the mountain-goddess Rhea-Cybele; he has fulfilled 
" the solemn rite of the banquet of raw flesh," and henceforth 
he " robes himself in pure white and avoids the taint of child- 
birth and funerals and abstains from meat." And what is 
most significant he calls himself by the very name of his god 
he is himself BIXKXOJ. In spirit and in most of its details 
the passage accords well with the Bacchae of Euripides, which 
reflects not so much the public worship of Greece, but rather 
the mystic Dionysiac brotherhoods. Throughout this inspired 
drama the votary rejoices to be one with his divinity and to 
call himself by his name, and this mystic union is brought 
about partly, though Euripides may not have known it, through 
" the meal of raw flesh " or the drinking of the blood of the 
goat or the kid or the bull. The sacramental intention of this 
is confirmed by abundant proof; even in the state-cult of 
Tenedos they dressed up a bull-calf as Dionysus and reveren- 
tially sacrificed it (Ael. Nat. an. 12. 34); those who partook of 
the flesh were partaking of what was temporarily the body of 
their god. The Christian fathers at once express their abhorrence 
of this savage <jfio4>ayia and reveal its true significance 
(Arnob. Adv. nat. 5. 119); and Firmicus Maternus (De error., 
p. 84) attests that the Cretans of his own day celebrated a funeral 
festival in honour of Dionysus in which they enacted the life and 
the death of the god in a passion-play and " rent a living bull 
with their teeth." 

But the most speaking record of the aspirations and ideas 
of the Orphic mystic is preserved in the famous gold tablets 
found in tombs near Sybaris, one near Rome, and one in Crete. 
These have been frequently published and discussed; and here 
it is only possible to allude to the salient features that concern 
the general history of religion. They contain fragments of a 
sacred hymn that must have been in vogue at least as early 
as the 3rd century B.C., and which was inscribed in order to 

4 The name 'Op&ets first occurs in Ibycus, Frag. 10: bvona.K.\vri>v 

'Op<t>Tll>. 



MYSTICISM 



123 



be buried with the defunct, as an amulet that might protect 
him from the dangers of his journey through the under-world 
and open to him the gates of Paradise. The verses have the 
power of an incantation. The initiated soul proclaims its divine 
descent : " I am the son of Earth and Heaven " : " I am perishing 
with thirst, give me to drink of the waters of memory ": " I come 
from the pure ": " I have paid the penalty of unrighteousness ": 
" I have flown out of the weary, sorrowful circle of life." His 
'reward is assured him: " O blessed and happy one, thou hast 
put off thy mortality and shall become divine." The strange 
formula ept<os ya\' tirtrov, "la kid fell into the milk," 
has been interpreted by Dieterich (Eine Mithras Liturgie, 
p. 174) with great probability as alluding to a conception of 
Dionysus himself as tpl<t>uK, the divine kid, and to a ritual 
of milk-baptism in which the initiated was born again. 

We discern, then, in these mystic brotherhoods the germs of 
a high religion and the prevalence of conceptions that have 
played a great part in the religious history of Europe. And 
as late as the days of Plutarch they retained their power of 
consoling the afflicted (Consol. ad uxor., c. 10). 

The Phrygian-Sabazian mysteries, associated with Attis, 
Cybele and Sabazius, which invaded later Greece and early 
imperial Rome, were originally akin to these and contained 
many concepts in common with them. But their orgiastic 
ecstasy was more violent, and the psychical aberrations to 
which the votaries were prone through their passionate desire 
for divine communion were more dangerous. Emasculation 
was practised by the devotees, probably in order to assimilate 
themselves as far as possible to their goddess by abolishing the 
distinction of sex, and the high-priest himself bore the god's 
name. Or communion with the deity might be attained by the 
priest through the bath of blood in the taurobolion (q.v.), or 
by the gashing of the arm over the altar. A more questionable 
method which lent itself to obvious abuses, or at least to the 
imputation of indecency, was the simulation of a sacred 
marriage, in which the catechumen was corporeally united 
with the great goddess in her bridal chamber (Dieterich, op. 
cit. pp. 121-134). Prominent also in these Phrygian mysteries 
were the conception of rebirth and the belief, vividly impressed 
by solemn pageant and religious drama, in the death and resur- 
rection of the beloved Attis. The Hilaria in which these 
were represented fell about the time of our Easter; and Firmicus 
Maternus reluctantly confesses its resemblance to the Christian 
celebration. 1 

The Eleusinian mysteries are far more characteristic of the 
older Hellenic mind. These later rites breathe an Oriental 
spirit, and though their forms appear strange and distorted 
they have more in common with the subsequent religious 
phenomena of Christendom. And the Orphic doctrine may 
have even contributed something to the later European ideals 
of private and personal morality. 2 

LITERATURE. For citation of passages in classical literature 
bearing on Greek mysteries in general see Lobeck's Aglaophamus 
(1829) ; and the collection of material for Demeter mysteries in L. R. 
Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1906), iii. 343-367. For general 
theory and discussion see Dr Jevons, Introduction to the Study of 
Religton; Farnell, Cults of the Creek States, iii. 127-213; Dyer's The 
Gods of Greece (1891), en. v. ; M. P. Foucart, Les Grands mysteres 
d'Eleusis (1900); Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (1887), 
pp. 264276 ; Goblet d'Alviella, Eleusinia (1903). See further articles 
DIONYSUS; GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; DEMETER. (L. R. F.) 

MYSTICISM (from GT. pbtu>, to shut the eyes; /U^TJJS, one 
initiated into the mysteries), a phase of thought, or rather 
perhaps of feeling, which from its very nature is hardly suscep- 
tible of exact definition. It appears in connexion with the 
endeavour of the human mind to grasp the divine essence or 
the ultimate reality of things, and to enjoy the blessedness of 
actual communion with the Highest. The first is the philosophic 
side of mysticism; the second, its religious side. The first effort 
is theoretical or speculative; the second, practical. The 
thought that is most intensely present with the mystic is that 

1 Farnell, Cults, iii. 299-302. 

1 See Archivfiir Religionswiss. (1906), article by Salomon Reinach. 



of a supreme, all-pervading, and indwelling power, in whom 
all things are one. Hence the speculative utterances of 
mysticism are always more or less pantheistic in character. On 
the practical side, mysticism maintains the possibility of direct in- 
tercourse with this Being of beings intercourse, not through any 
external media such as an historical revelation, oracles, answers 
to prayer, and the like, but by a species of ecstatic transfusion 
or identification, in which the individual becomes in very truth 
" partaker of the divine nature." God ceases to be an object 
to him and becomes an experience. In the writings of the 
mystics, ingenuity exhausts itself in the invention of phrases 
to express the closeness of this union. Mysticism differs, there- 
fore, from ordinary pantheism in that its inmost motive is 
religious; but, whereas religion is ordinarily occupied with a 
practical problem and develops its theory in an ethical refer- 
ence, mysticism displays a predominatingly speculative bent, 
starting from the divine nature rather than from man and his 
surroundings, taking the symbolism of religious feeling as 
literally or metaphysically true, and straining after the present 
realization of an ineffable union. The union which sound 
religious teaching represents as realized in the submission of 
the will and the ethical harmony of the whole life is then reduced 
to a passive experience, to something which comes and goes 
in time, and which may be of only momentary duration. 
Mysticism, it will be seen, is not a name applicable to any 
particular system. It may be the outgrowth of many differing 
modes of thought and feeling. Most frequently it appears 
historically, in relation to some definite system of belief, as a 
reaction of the spirit against the letter. When a religion begins 
to ossify into a system of formulas and observances, those who 
protest in the name of heart-religion are not unfrequently 
known by the name of mystics. At times they merely bring 
into prominence again the ever-fresh fact of personal religious 
experience; at other times mysticism develops itself as a 
powerful solvent of definite dogmas. 

A review of the historical appearances of mysticism will serve 
to show how far the above characteristics are to be found, 
separately or in combination, in its different phases. 

In the East, mysticism is not so much a specific phenomenon 
as a natural deduction from the dominant philosophic systems, 
and the normal expression of religious feeling in the 
lands in which it appears. Brahmanic pantheism 
and Buddhistic nihilism alike teach the unreality of 
the seeming world, and preach mystical absorption as the 
highest goal; in both, the sense of the worth of human person- 
ality is lost. India consequently has always been the fertile 
mother of practical mystics and devotees. The climate itself 
encourages to passivity, and the very luxuriance of vegetable 
and animal life tends to blunt the feeling of the value of life. 
Silent contemplation and the total deadening of consciousness 
by perseverance for years in unnatural attitudes are among the 
commonest forms assumed by this mystical asceticism. But 
the most revolting methods of self-torture and self-destruction 
are also practised as a means of rising in sanctity. The 
sense of sin can hardly be said to enter into these exercises that 
is, they are not undertaken as penance for personal transgression. 
They are a despite done to the principle of individual or separate 
existence. 

The so-called mysticism of the Persian Sufis is less intense and 
practical, more airy and literary in character. Sufism (q.v.) 
appears in the gth century among the Mahommedans of Persia 
as a kind of reaction against the rigid monotheism and. formalism 
of Islam. It is doubtless to be regarded as a revival of ancient 
habits of thought and feeling among a people who had adopted 
the Koran, not by affinity, but by compulsion. Persian literature 
after that dace, and especially Persian poetry, is full of an ardent 
natural pantheism, in which a mystic apprehension of the unity 
and divinity of all things heightens the delight in natural and 
in human beauty. Such is the poetry of Hafiz and Saadi, 
whose verses are chiefly devoted to the praises of wine and 
women. Even the most licentious of these have been fitted 
by Mahommedan theologians with a mystical interpretation. 



124 



MYSTICISM 



The delights of love are made to stand for the raptures of union 
with the divine, the tavern symbolizes an oratory, and intoxica- 
tion is the bewilderment of sense before the surpassing vision. 
Very often, if not most frequently, it cannot be doubted that 
the occult religious significance depends on an artificial 
exegesis; but there are also poems of Hafiz, Saadi, and other 
writers, religious in their first intentions. These are unequivo- 
cally pantheistic in tone, and the desire of the soul to escape 
and rest with God is expressed with all the fervour of Eastern 
poetry. This speculative mood, in which nature and beauty 
and earthly satisfaction appear as a vain show, is the counterpart 
of the former mood of sensuous enjoyment. 

For opposite reasons, neither the Greek nor the Jewish mind 
lent itself readily to mysticism: the Greek, because of its clear and 
sunny naturalism; the Jewish, because of its rigid monotheism 
and its turn towards worldly realism and statutory observance. 
It is only with the exhaustion of Greek and Jewish civilization 
that mysticism becomes a prominent factor in Western thought. 
It appears, therefore, contemporaneously with Christianity, 
and is a sign of the world-weariness and deep religious need 
that mark the decay of the old world. Whereas Plato's main 
problem had been the organization of the perfect state, and 
Aristotle's intellect had ranged with fresh interest over all 
departments of the knowable, political speculation had become 
a mockery with the extinction of free political life, and know- 
ledge as such had lost its freshness for the Greeks of the Roman 
Empire. Knowledge is nothing to these men if it does not 
show them the infinite reality which is able to fill the aching 
void within. Accordingly, the last age of Greek philosophy 
is theosophical in character, and its ultimate end is a practical 
satisfaction. Neoplatonism seeks this in the ecstatic intuition 
of the ineffable One. The systematic theosophy of Plotinus 
and his successors does not belong to the present article, except 
so far as it is the presupposition of their mysticism; but, inas- 
much as the mysticism of the medieval Church is directly 
derived from Neoplatonism through the speculations of the 
pseudo-Dionysius, Neoplatonic mysticism fills an important 
section in any historical review of the subject. 

Neoplatonism owes its form to Plato, but its underlying 
motive is the widespread feeling of self-despair and the longing 
for divine illumination characteristic of the age 
niatonism m which it appears. Before the rise of Neoplaton- 
ism proper we meet with various mystical or semi- 
mystical expressions of the same religious craving. The 
contemplative asceticism of the Essenes of Judaea may be 
mentioned, and, somewhat later, the life of the Therapeutae 
on the shores of Lake Moeris. In Philo, Alexandrian Judaism 
had already seized upon Plato as " the Attic Moses," and done 
its best to combine his speculations with the teaching of his 
Jewish prototype. Philo's God is described in terms of absolute 
transcendency; his doctrine of the Logos or Divine Sophia is a 
theistical transformation of the Platonic world of ideas; his 
allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament represents 
the spiritualistic dissolution of historical Judaism. Philo's 
ethical ideal is renunciation, contemplation, complete surrender 
to the divine influence. Apollonius of Tyana and the so-called 
Neopythagoreans drew similar ethical consequences from 
their eclectic study of Plato. Wonder-workers like Alexander 
the Paphlagonian exhibit the grosser side of the longing for 
spiritual communion. The traits common to Neoplatonism 
and all these speculations are well summed up by Zeller (Philos. 
der Griechen, iii. 2. 214) as consisting in: " (i) the dualistic 
opposition of the divine and the earthly; (2) an abstract con- 
ception of God, excluding all knowledge of the divine nature; 
(3) contempt for the world of the senses, on the ground of the 
Platonic doctrines of matter and of the descent of the soul from 
a superior world into the body; (4) the theory of intermediate 
potencies or beings, through whom God acts upon the world 
of phenomena; (5) the requirement of an ascetic self-emancipa- 
tion from the bondage of sense and faith in a higher revelation 
to man when in a state called enthusiasm." Neoplatonism 
appears in the first half of the 3rd century, and has its 



greatest representative in Plotinus. He develops the Platonic 
philosophy into an elaborate system by means of the doctrine 
of emanation. The One, the Good, and the Idea of the Good 
were identical in Plato's mind, and the Good was therefore not 
deprived of intelligible essence. It was not separated from 
the world of ideas, of which it was represented as either the 
crown or the sum. By Plotinus, on the contrary, the One is 
explicitly exalted above the vow and the " ideas "; it trans- 
cends existence altogether (eirexeiva rtjs owias), and is not- 
cognizable by reason. Remaining itself in repose, it rays out, 
as it were, from its own fullness an image of itself, which is 
called vovs, and which constitutes the system of ideas of the 
intelligible world. The soul is in turn the image or product of 
the coOj, and the soul by its motion begets corporeal matter. 
The soul thus faces two ways towards the vovs, from which 
it springs, and towards the material life, which is its own 
pioduct. Ethical endeavour consists in the repudiation of 
the sensible; material existence is itself estrangement from 
God. (Porphyry tells us that Plotinus was unwilling to name 
his parents or his birthplace, and seemed ashamed of being 
in the body.) Beyond the Ka0a.p<rtis, or virtues which purify 
from sin, lies the further stage of complete identification with 
God (OVK co afiaprias dvai; dXXo. Oeov elvai). To reach the 
ultimate goal, thought itself must be left behind; for thought 
is a form of motion, and the desire of the soul is for the motion- 
less rest which belongs to the One. The union with transcendent 
deity is not so much knowledge or vision as ecstasy, coalescence, 
contact (tKaraaK airXcoois, a.(j>ri, Ennead., vi. 9. 8-9). But in 
our present state of existence the moments of this ecstatic union 
must be few and short; " I myself," says Plotinus simply, 
" have realized it but three times as yet, and Porphyry hitherto 
not once." 

It will be seen from the above that Neoplatonism is not 
mystical as regards the faculty by which it claims to apprehend 
philosophic truth. It is first of all a system of complete 
rationalism; it is assumed, in other words, that reason is capable 
of mapping out the whole system of things. But, inasmuch as 
a God is affirmed beyond reason, the mysticism becomes in a 
sense the necessary complement of the would-be all-embracing 
rationalism. The system culminates in a mystical act, and 
in the sequel, especially with lamblichus and the Syrian 
Neoplatonists, mystical practice tended more and more to 
overshadow the theoretical groundwork. 

It was probably about the end of the 5th century, just as 
ancient philosophy was dying out in the schools of Athens, 
that the speculative mysticism of Neoplatonism made a 
definite lodgment in Christian thought through the literary 
forgeries of the pseudo-Dionysius (see DIONYSIUS THE AREOPA- 
GITE). The doctrines of Christianity were by that time so firmly 
established that the Church could look upon a symbolical or 
mystical interpretation of them without anxiety. The author 
of the Theologia mystica and the other works ascribed to the 
Areopagite proceeds, therefore, to develop the doctrines of 
Proclus with very little modification into a system of esoteric 
Christianity. God is the nameless and supra-essential One, 
elevated above goodness itself. Hence " negative theology," 
which ascends from the creature to God by dropping one after 
another every determinate predicate, leads us nearest to the 
truth. The return to God (^voxns, 0ko<rw) is the consummation 
of all things and the goal indicated by Christian teaching. The 
same doctrines were preached with more of churchly fervour 
by Maximus the Confessor (580-622). St Maximus represents 
almost the last speculative activity of the Greek Church, but 
the influence of the pseudo-Dionysian writings were transmitted 
to the West in the gth century by Erigena, in whose speculative" 
spirit both the scholasticism and the mysticism of the middle 
ages have their rise. Erigena translated Dionysius into Latin 
along with the commentaries of Maximus, and his system is 
essentially based upon theirs. The negative theology is adopted, 
and God is stated to be predicateless Being, above all categories, 
and therefore not improperly called Nothing. Out of this 
Nothing or incomprehensible essence the world of ideas or 



MYSTICISM 



primordial causes is eternally created. This is the Word or 
Son of God, in whom all things exist, so far as they have 
substantial existence. All existence is a theophany, and as 
God is the beginning of all things, so also is He the end. Erigena 
teaches the restitution of all things under the form of the Diony- 
sian adunatio or deificatio. These are the permanent outlines 
of what may be called the philosophy of mysticism in Christian 
times, and it is remarkable with how little variation they are 
repeated from age to age. 

In Erigena mysticism has not yet separated itself in any 
way from the dogma of the Church. There is no revulsion, 
as later, from dogma as such, nor is more stress laid upon one 
dogma than upon another; all are treated upon the same footing, 
and the whole dogmatic system is held, as it were, in solution 
by the philosophic medium in which it is presented. No 
distinction is drawn, indeed, between what is reached by reason 
and what is given by authority; the two are immediately 
identical for Erigena. In this he agrees with the speculative 
mystics everywhere, and differentiates himself from the scholas- 
tics who followed him. The distinguishing characteristic of 
scholasticism is the acceptance by reason of a given matter, 
the truth of which is independent of rational grounds, and 
which remains a presupposition even when it cannot be under- 
stood. Scholasticism aims, it is true, in its chief representatives, 
at demonstrating that the content of revelation and the teaching 
of reason are identical. But what was matter of immanent 
assumption with Erigena is in them an equating of two things 
which have been dealt with on the hypothesis that they are 
separate, and which, therefore, still retain that external relation 
to one another. This externality of religious truth to the mind 
is fundamental in scholasticism, while the opposite view is 
equally fundamental in mysticism. Mysticism is not the 
voluntary demission of reason and its subjection to an external 
authority. In that case, all who accept a revelation without 
professing to understand its content would require to be ranked 
as mystics; the fierce sincerity of Tertullian's credo quia ab- 
surdum, Pascal's reconciliation of contradictions in Jesus 
Christ, and Bayle's half-sneering subordination of reason to 
faith would all be marks of this standpoint. But such a temper 
of mind is much more akin to scepticism than to mysticism; 
it is characteristic of those who either do not feel the need of 
philosophizing their beliefs, or who have failed in doing so and 
take refuge in sheer acceptance. Mysticism, on the other hand, 
is marked on its speculative side by even an overweening 
confidence in human reason. Nor need this be wondered at if we 
consider that the unity of the human mind with the divine is 
its underlying presupposition. Hence where reason is discarded 
by the mystic it is merely reason overleaping itself; it occurs 
at the end and not at the beginning of his speculations. Even 
then there is no appeal to authority; nothing is accepted from 
without. The appeal is still to the individual, who, if not by 
reason then by some higher faculty, claims to realize absolute 
truth and to taste absolute blessedness. 

Mysticism first appears in the medieval Church as the protest 
of practical religion against the predominance of the dialectical 
spirit. It is so with Bernard of Clairvaux (1090- 
IX S3). wno condemns Abelard's distinctions and 
reasonings as externalizing and degrading the faith. 
St Bernard's mysticism is of a practical cast, dealing 
mainly with the means by which man may attain to the know- 
ledge and enjoyment of God. Reason has three stages, in the 
highest of which the mind is able, by abstraction from earthly 
things, to rise to contemplatio or the vision of the divine. More 
.exalted still, however, is the sudden ecstatic vision, such as was 
granted, for example, to Paul. This is the reward of those 
who are dead to the body and the world. Asceticism is thus 
the counterpart of medieval mysticism; and, by his example 
as well as by his teaching in such passages, St Bernard unhappily 
encouraged practices which necessarily resulted in self-delusion. 
Love grows with the knowledge of its object, he proceeds, and 
at the highest stage self-love is so merged in love to God that we 
love ourselves only for God's sake or because God has loved us. 






" To lose thyself in some sort, as if thou wert not, and to have 
no consciousness of thyself at all to be emptied of thyself 
and almost annihilated such is heavenly conversation. ... So 
to be affected is to become God." " As the little water-drop 
poured into a large measure of wine seems to lose its own nature 
entirely and to take on both the taste and the colour of the wine ; 
or as iron heated red-hot loses its own appearance and glows like 
fire; or as air filled with sunlight is transformed into the same 
brightness so that it does not so much appear to be illuminated 
as to be itself light so must all human feeling towards the 
Holy One be self-dissolved in unspeakable wise, and wholly 
transfused into the will of God. For how shall God be all in 
all if anything of man remains in man? The substance will 
indeed remain, but in another form, another glory, another 
power " (De diligendo Deo, c. 10). These are the favourite 
similes of mysticism, wherever it is found. 

Mysticism was more systematically developed by Bernard's 
contemporary Hugh of St Victor (1096-1 141). The Augustinian 
monastery of St Victor near Paris became the head- 
quarters of mysticism during the I2th century. It 
had a wide influence in awakening popular piety, and 
the works that issued from it formed the textbooks of mystical 
and pietistic minds in the centuries that followed. Hugh's 
pupil, Richard of St Victor, declares, in opposition to dialectic 
scholasticism, that the objects of mystic contemplation are 
partly above reason, and partly, as in the intuition of the 
Trinity, contrary to reason. He enters at length into the con- 
ditions of ecstasy and the yearnings that precede it. Walter. 
the third of the Victorines, carried on the polemic against the 
dialecticians. Bonaventura (1221-1274) was a diligent student 
of the Victorines, and in his Itinerarium mentis ad Deum maps 
out the human faculties in a similar fashion. He introduces 
the terms " apex mentis " and " scintilla " (also " synderesis" 
or awTijpjjms) to describe the faculty of mystic intuition. 
Bonaventura runs riot in phrases to describe the union with 
God, and his devotional works were much drawn upon by 
mystical preachers. Fully a century later, when the system 
of scholasticism was gradually breaking up under the predomi- 
nance of Occam's nominalism, Pierre d'Aiily (1350-1425), and 
his more famous scholar John Gerson (1363-1429), chancellor 
of the university of Paris, are found endeavouring to com- 
bine the doctrines of the Victorines and Bonaventura with a 
nominalistic philosophy. They are the last representatives 
of mysticism within the limitations imposed by scholasticism. 

From the i2th and i3th centuries onward there is observable 
in the different countries of Europe a widespread reaction 
against the growing formalism and worldliness of 
the Church and the scandalous lives of many of the 
clergy. Men began to feel a desire for a theology Mystic". 
of the heart and an unworldly simplicity of life. 
Thus there arose in the Netherlands the Beguines and Beghards, 
in Italy the Waldenses (without, however, any mystical leaning), 
in the south of France and elsewhere the numerous sect or sects 
of the Cathari, and in Calabria the apocalyptic gospel of Joachim 
of Floris, all bearing witness to the commotion of the time. 
The lay societies of the Beghards and the Beguines (for 
men and women respectively) date from the end of the 
1 2th century, and soon became extremely popular both 
in the Low Countries and on the Rhine. They were 
free at the outset from any heretical taint, but were never 
much in favour with the Church. In the beginning of the 
I3th century the foundation of the Dominican and Franciscan 
orders furnished a more ecclesiastical and regular means of 
supplying the same wants, and numerous convents sprang 
up at once throughout Germany. The German mind was 
a peculiarly fruitful soil for mysticism, and, in connexion either 
with the Beguines or the Church organization, a number of 
women appear about this time, combining a spirit of mystical 
piety and asceticism with sturdy reformatory zeal directed 
against the abuses of the time. Even before this we hear of 
the prophetic visions of Hildegard of Bingen (a contemporary 
of St Bernard) and Elizabeth of Schonau. In the I3th century 



12& 



MYSTICISM 



Elizabeth of Hungary, the pious landgravine of Thuringia, 
assisted in the foundation of many convents in the north of 
Germany. (For an account of the chief of these female saints 
see the first volume of W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen 
Mystik.) Mechthild of Magdeburg appears to have been the 
most influential, and her book Das fliessende Licht der Gcttheit 
is important as the oldest work of its kind in German. It 
proves that much of the terminology of German mysticism 
was current before Eckhart's time. Mechthild's clerico-political 
utterances show that she was acquainted with the " eternal 
gospel " of Joachim of Floris. Joachim had proclaimed the 
doctrine of three world-ages the kingdom of the Father, of 
the Son, and of the Spirit. The reign of the Spirit was to begin 
with the year 1 260, when the abuses of the world and the Church 
were to be effectually cured by the general adoption of the 
monastic life of contemplation. Very similar to this in appear- 
ance is the teaching of Amalric of Bena (d. 1207); but, while 
the movements just mentioned were reformatory without being 
heretical, this is very far from being the case with the mystical 
pantheism derived by Amalric from the writings of Erigena. 
His followers held a progressive revelation of God in the ages of 
the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Just as the Mosaic dispensation 
came to an end with the appearance of Christ, so the sacraments 
of the new dispensation have lost their meaning and efficacy 
since the incarnation of God as Holy Spirit in the Amalricans. 
With this opposition to the Church they combine a complete 
antinomianism, through the identification of all their desires 
with the impulses of the divine Spirit. Amalric's teaching 
was condemned by the Church, and his heresies led to the public 
burning of Erigena's De divisione naturae in 1225. The sect 
of the New Spirit, or of the Free Spirit as it was afterwards 
called, spread widely through the north of France and into 
Switzerland and Germany. They were especially numerous in 
the Rhineland in the end of the I3th and during the I4th cen- 
tury; and they seem to have corrupted the originally orthodox 
communities of Beghards, for Beghards and Brethren of the 
Free Spirit a.re used henceforward as convertible terms, and 
the same immoralities are related of both. Such was the seed- 
ground in which what is specifically known as German mysticism 
sprang up. 

In MeisterEckhart (? 1260-1327) the German mind definitively 
asserts its pre-eminence in the sphere of speculative mysticism. 

Eckhart was a distinguished son of the Church; 

but in reading his works we feel at once that we 
have passed into quite a different sphere of thought from that 
of the churchly mystics; we seem to leave the cloister behind 
and to breathe a freer atmosphere. The scholastic mysticism 
was, for the most part, practical and psychological in character. 
It was largely a devotional aid to the realization of present 
union with God; and, so far as it was theoretical, it was a theory 
of the faculties by which such a union is attainable. Mysticism 
was pieced on somewhat incongruously to a scholastically 
accepted theology; the feelings and the intellect were not brought 
together. But in Eckhart the attitude of the churchman and 
traditionalist is entirely abandoned. Instead of systematizing 
dogmas, he appears to evolve a philosophy by the free exercise 
of reason. His system enables him to give a profound signifi- 
cance to the doctrines of the Church; but, instead of the system 
being accommodated to the doctrines, the doctrines and 
especially the historical facts acquire a new sense in the system, 
and often become only a mythical representation of speculative 
truth. The freedom with which Eckhart treats historical 
Christianity allies him much more to the German idealists of 
the i gth century than to his scholastic predecessors. 

The political circumstances of Germany in the first half of 
the i4th century were in the last degree disastrous. The war 
between the rival emperors, Frederick of Austria and Louis 
of Bavaria, and the interdict under which the latter was placed 
in 1324 inflicted extreme misery upon the, unhappy people. 
From some places the interdict was not removed for twenty-six 
years. Men's minds were pained and disquieted by the conflict 
of duties and the absence of spiritual consolation. The country 



was also visited by a succession of famines and floods, and in 
1348 the Black Death swept over Europe like a terrible scourge. 
In the midst of these unhappy surroundings religion became 
more inward in men of real piety and the desire grew among 
them to draw closer the bonds that united them to one another. 
Thus arose the society of the Friends of God (Coliesjreunde) 
in the south and west of Germany, spreading as 
far as Switzerland on the one side and the Nether- T> h Q 0ttes 
lands on the other. They formed no exclusive faunae," 
sect. They often took opposite sides in politics 
and they also differed in the type of their religious life; but 
they uniformly desired to strengthen one another in living 
intercourse with God. Among them chiefly the followers of 
Eckhart were to be found. Such were Heinrich Suso of Con- 
stance (1295-1366) and JohannTauler of Strassburg (1300-1361), 
the two most celebrated of his immediate disciples. Nicolas 
of Basel, the mysterious layman from whose visit Tauler dates 
his true religious life, seems to have been the chief organizing 
force among the Gottesfreunde. The society counted many 
members among the pious women in the convents of southern 
Germany. Such were Christina Ebner of Engelthal near 
Nuremberg, and Margaretha Ebner of Medingen in Swabia. 
Laymen also belonged to it, like Hermann of Fritzlar and 
Rulman Merswin, the rich banker of Strassburg (author of a 
mystical work, Buck der neun Felsen, on the nine rocks or 
up wards steps of contemplation). It was doubtless one of the 
Friends who sent forth anonymously from the house of the 
Teutonic Order in Frankfort the famous handbook of mystical 
devotion called Eine deutsche Theologie, first published in 1516 
by Luther. 

Jan van Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), the father of mysticism 
in the Netherlands, stood in connexion with the Friends of God, 
and Tauler is said to have visited him in his seclusion 
at Groenendal (Vauvert, Griinthal) near Brussels. ay * 
He was decisively influenced by Eckhart, though there is no- 
ticeable occasionally a shrinking back from some of Eckhart's 
phraseology. Ruysbroeck's mysticism is more of a practical 
than a speculative cast. He is chiefly occupied with the means 
whereby the unio mystica is to be attained, whereas Eckhart 
dwells on the union as an ever-present fact, and dilates on its 
metaphysical implications. Towards the end of Ruysbroeck's 
life, in 1378, he was visited by the fervid lay-preacher Gerhard 
Groot (1340-1384), who was so impressed by the life of the com- 
munity at Groenendal that he conceived the idea of founding a 
Christian brotherhood, bound by no monastic vows, but living 
together in simplicity and piety with all things in common, 
after the apostolic pattern. This was the origin of the Brethren 
of the Common Lot (or Common Life). The first house of 
the Brethren was founded at Deventer by Gerhard Groot and 
his youthful friend Florentius Radewyn; and here Thomas 
a Kempis (q.v.) received his training. Similar brother-houses 
soon sprang up in different places throughout the Low Countries 
and Westphab'a, and even Saxony. 

It has been customary for Protestant writers to represent 
the mystics of Germany and Holland as precursors of 
the Reformation. In a sense this is true. But Mystics 
it would be false to say that these men protested aaa the Re- 
against the doctrines of the Church in the way the formation. 
Reformers felt themselves called upon to do. There is no 
sign that Tauler, for example, or Ruysbroeck, or Thomas a 
Kempis had felt the dogmatic teaching of the Church jar in 
any single point upon their religious consciousness. Never- 
theless, mysticism did prepare men in a very real way for a 
break with the traditional system. Mysticism instinctively 
recedes from formulas that have become stereotyped and 
mechanical. On the other hand its claim for spiritual freedom 
was soon to be found in opposition also to the Reformers. 

The wild doctrines of Thomas Munzer and the Zwickau 
prophets, merging eventually into the excesses of the Later 
Peasants' War and the doings of the Anabaptists in German 
Miinster, first roused Luther to the dangerous Mystics. 
possibilities of mysticism as a disintegrating force. He was 



MYSTICISM 



127 



also called upon to do battle for his principle against men like 
Caspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561) and Sebastian Franck (1500- 
1545), the latter of whom developed a system of pantheistic 
mysticism, and went so far in his opposition to the letter as to 
declare the whole of the historical element in Scripture to be 
but a mythical representation of eternal truth. Valentin Weigel 
(1533-1588), who stands under manifold obligations to Franck, 
represents also the influence of the semi-mystical physical 
speculation that marked the transition from scholasticism to 
modern times. The final breakdown of scholasticism as a 
rationalized system of dogma may be seen in Nicolas (or 
Nicolaus) of Cusa (1401-1464), who distinguishes between the 
intelleclus and the discursively acting ratio almost precisely 
in the style of later distinctions between the reason and the 
understanding. The intellect combines .what the understanding 
separates ; hence Nicolas teaches the principle of the coincidentia 
contradictoriorum. If the results of the understanding go by 
the name of knowledge, then the higher teaching of the intellec- 
tual intuition may be called ignorance ignorance, however, 
that is conscious of itself, docta ignorantia. " Intuitio," " specu- 
latio," " visio sine comprehensione," " comprehensio incom- 
prehensibilis," " mystica theologia," " tertius caelus," are some 
of the terms he applies to this knowledge above knowledge; 
but in the working out of his system he is remarkably free from 
extravagance. Nicolas's doctrines were of influence upon 
Giordano Bruno and other physical philosophers of the isth 
and 1 6th centuries. All these physical theories are blended 
with a mystical theosophy, of which the most remarkable 
example is, perhaps, the chemico-astrological speculations of 
Paracelsus (1493-1541). The influence of Nicolas of Cusa 
and Paracelsus mingled in Valentin Weigel with that of the 
Deutsche Theologie, Andreas Osiander, Schwenkfeld and Franck. 
Weigel, in turn, handed on these influences to Jakob Boehme 
(1575-1624), philosophus teutonicus, and father of the chief 
developments of theosophy in modern Germany (see BOEHME). 

Mysticism did not cease within the Catholic Church at the 
Reformation. In St Theresa (1515-1582) and John of the Cross 
other the counter-reformation can boast of saints second 
Forms at to none in the calendar for the austerity of their 
Mysticism, mortifications and the rapture of the visions to 
which they were admitted. But, as was to be expected, 
their mysticism moves in that comparatively narrow round, 
and consists simply in the heaping up of these sensuous 
experiences. The speculative character has entirely faded 
out of it, or rather has been crushed out by the tightness with 
which the directors of the Roman Church now held the reins 
of discipline. Their mysticism represents, therefore, no widening 
or spiritualizing of their theology; in all matters of belief they 
remain the docile children of their Church. The gloom and 
harshness of these Spanish mystics are absent from the tender, 
contemplative spirit of Francois de Sales (1567-1622); and in 
the quietism of Mme Guyon (1648-1717) and Miguel de 
Molinos (1627-1696) there is again a sufficient implication of 
mystical doctrine to rouse the suspicion of the ecclesiastical 
authorities. Quietism, name and thing, became the talk of 
all the world through the bitter and protracted controversy to 
which it gave rise between Fenelon and Bossuet. 

In the 1 7th century mysticism is represented in the philo- 
sophical field by the so-called Cambridge Platonists, and 
especially by Henry Mone (1614-1687), in whom the influence 
of the Kabbalah is combined with a species of christianized 
Neoplatonism. Pierre Poiret (1646-1719) exhibits a violent 
reaction against the mechanical philosophy of Descartes, and 
especially against its consequences in Spinoza. He was an 
ardent student of Tauler and Thomas a Kempis, and became 
an adherent of the quietistic doctrines of Mme Bourignon. 
His philosophical works emphasize the passivity of the reason. 
The first influence of Boehme was in the direction of an obscure 
religious mysticism. J. G. Gichtel (1638-1710), the first editor 
of his complete works, became the founder of a sect called the 
Angel-Brethren. All Boehme's works were translated into 
English in the time of the Commonwealth, and regular societies 



of Boehmenists were formed in England and Holland. Later in 
the century he was much studied by the members of the 
Philadelphian Society, John Pordage, Thomas Bromley, Jane 
Lead, and others. The mysticism of William Law (1686-1761) 
and of Louis Claude de Saint Martin in France (1743-1803), 
who were also students of Boehme, is of a much more elevated 
and spiritual type. The " Cherubic Wanderer," and other 
poems, of Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), known as Angelus 
Silesius, are more closely related in style and thought to 
Eckhart than to Boehme. 

The religiosity of the Quakers, with their doctrines of the 
" inner light " and the influence of the Spirit, has decided 
affinities with mysticism; and the autobiography of George 
Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the sect, proceeds throughout 
on the assumption of supernatural guidance. Stripped of its 
definitely miraculous character, the doctrine of the inner light 
may be regarded as the familiar mystical protest against for- 
malism, literalism, and scripture-worship. Swedenborg, though 
selected by Emerson in his Representative Men as the typical 
mystic, belongs rather to the history of spiritualism than to 
that of mysticism as understood in this article. He possesses 
the cool temperament of the man of science rather than the 
fervid Godward aspiration of the mystic proper; and the specu- 
lative impulse which lies at the root of this form of thought 
is almost entirely absent from his writings. Accordingly, his 
supernatural revelations resemble a course of lessons in celestial 
geography more than a description of the beatific vision. 

Philosophy since the end of the i8th century has frequently 
shown a tendency to diverge into mysticism. This has been espe- 
cially so in Germany. The term mysticism is indeed often extended 
by popular usage and philosophical partisanship to the whole activity 
of the post-Kantian idealists. In this usage the word would be 
equivalent to the more recent and scarcely less abused term, tran- 
scendentalism, and as such it is used even by a sympathetic writer 
like Carlyle; but this looseness of phraseology only serves to blur 
important distinctions. However absolute a philosopher's idealism 
may be, he is erroneously styled a mystic if he moves towards his 
conclusions only by the patient labour of the reason. Hegel there- 
fore, to take an instance, can no more fitly be classed as a mystic 
than Spinoza can. It would be much nearer the truth to take both 
as types of a thoroughgoing rationalism. In either case it is of course 
open to anyone to maintain that the apparent completeness of 
synthesis really rests on the subtle intrusion of elements of feeling 
into the rational process. But in that case it might be difficult to 
find a systematic philosopher who would escape the charge of 
mysticism; and it is better to remain by long-established and 
serviceable distinctions. So, again, when R6cejac defines mysti- 
cism as " the tendency to draw near to the Absolute in moral union 
by symbolic means," the definition, as developed by him, is one 
which would apply to the philosophy of Kant. Recdjac's interesting 
work, Les Fondements de la connaissance mystique (Eng. trans. 1899), 
though it touches mysticism at various points, and quotes from 
mystic writers, is in fact a protest against the limitations of experi- 
ence to the data of the senses and the pure reason to the exclusion 
of the moral consciousness and the deliverances of " the heart." 
But such a position is not describable as mysticism in any recognized 
sense. On the other hand, where philosophy despairs of itself, 
exults in its own overthrow, and yet revels in the " mysteries " of a 
speculative Christianity, as in I. G. Hamann (1730-1788), the term 
mysticism may be fitly applied. So, again, it is in place where the 
movement of revulsion from a mechanical philosophy takes the 
form rather of immediate assertion than of reasoned demonstration, 
and where the writers, after insisting generally on the spiritual 
basis of phenomena, either leave the position without further defini- 
tion or expressly declare that the ultimate problems of philosophy 
cannot be reduced to articulate formulas. Examples of this are 
men like Novalis, Carlyle and Emerson, in whom philosophy may be 
said to be impatient of its own task. Schelling's explicit appeal 
in the Identitats-philosophie to an intellectual intuition of the 
Absolute, is of the essence of mysticism, both as an appeal to a supra- 
rational faculty and as a claim not merely to know but to realize 
God. The opposition of the reason to the understanding, as formu- 
lated by S. T. Coleridge, is not free from the first of these faults. 
The later philosophy of Schelling and the philosophy of Franz 
von Baader, both largely founded upon Boehme, belong rather to 
theosophy (q.v.) than to mysticism proper. 

AUTHORITIES. Besides the sections on mysticism in the general 
histories of philosophy by Erdmann, Ueberweg and Windelband, 
and in works on church history and the history of dogma, reference 
may be made for the medieval period to Heinrich Schmid, Der 
Mysticismus in seiner Entstehungsperiode (1824); Charles Schmidt, 
Essai sur les mystiques du 14"" siecle (1836); Ad. Helfferich, Die 
christliche Mystik (1842); L. Noack, Die christliche Mystik des 



128 



MYTHOLOGY 



Mitlelallers (1853); J. Gorres, Die christliche Mystik (new ed., 1879- 
1880); Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909). On 
the German mystics see W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik 
(vol. i. 1874; vol. ii. 1 88 1; vol. iii. 1893). The works of Eckhart 
and his precursors are contained in F. Pfeiffer's Deutsche Mystiker 
des 14. Jahrhunderts (1845-1857). (A.S. P.-P.) 

MYTHOLOGY (Gr. /iu0oX<ryia, the science which examines 
nWoi, myths or legends of cosmogony and of gods and 
heroes. Mythology is also used as a term for these legends 
themselves. Thus when we speak of " the mythology of Greece " 
we mean the whole body of Greek divine and heroic and cosmo- 
gonic legends. When we speak of the" science of mythology " 
we refer to the various attempts which have been made to 
explain these ancient narratives. Very early indeed in the 
history of human thought men awoke to the consciousness 
that their religious stories were much in want of explanation. 
The myths of civilized peoples, as of Greeks and the Aryans of 
India, contain two elements, the rational and what to modern 
minds seems the irrational. The rational myths are those 
which represent the gods as beautiful and wise beings. The 
Artemis of the Odyssey " taking her pastime in the chase of 
boars and swift deer, while with her the wild wood-nymphs 
disport them, and high over them all she rears her brow, and 
is easily to be known where all are fair," is a perfectly rational 
mythic representation of a divine being. We feel, even now, 
that the conception of a " queen and huntress, chaste and fair," 
the lady warden of the woodlands, is a beautiful and natural 
fancy which requires no explanation. On the other hand, the 
Artemis of Arcadia, who is confused with the nymph Callisto, 
who, again, is said to have become a she-bear, and later a star, 
and the Brauronian Artemis, whose maiden ministers danced 
a bear-dance, are goddesses whose legend seems unnatural, 
and is felt to need explanation. Or, again, there is nothing 
not explicable and natural in the conception of the Olympian 
Zeus as represented by the great chryselephantine statue of 
Zeus at Olympia, or in the Homeric conception of Zeus as a god 
who " turns everywhere his shining eyes " and beholds all 
things. But the Zeus whose grave was shown in Crete, or the 
Zeus who played Demeter an obscene trick by the aid of a ram, 
or the Zeus who, in the shape of a swan, became the father of 
Castor and Pollux, or the Zeus who was merely a rough stone, 
or the Zeus who deceived Hera by means of a feigned marriage 
with an inanimate object, or the Zeus who was afraid of Attes, 
is a being whose myth is felt to be unnatural and in great need 
of explanation. It is this irrational and unnatural element 
as Max Miiller saySj " the silly, savage and senseless element " 
that makes mythology the puzzle which men have so long 
found it. 

Early Explanations of Myths. The earliest attempts at a 
crude science of mythology were efforts to reconcile the legends 
of the gods and heroes with the religious sentiment which 
recognized in these beings objects of worship and respect. 
Closely as religion and myth are intertwined, it is necessary 
to hold them apart for the purposes of this discussion. Religion 
may here be defined as the conception of divine, or at least 
supernatural powers entertained by men in moments of gratitude 
or of need and distress, in hours of weakness, when, as Homer 
says, " all folk yearn after the gods." Now this conception 
may be rude enough, and it is nearly related to purely 
magical ideas, to efforts to secure supernatural aid by 
magical ceremonies. Still the roughest form of spiritual 
prayer has for its basis the hypothesis of beneficent beings, 
visible or invisible. The senseless stories or myths about 
the gods are soon felt to be at variance with this hypothesis. 
As an example we may take the instance of Qing, the 
Bushman hunter. Qing, when first he met white men, was 
asked about his religion. He began to explain, and mentioned 
Cagn. Mr Orpen, the chief magistrate of St John's Terri- 
tory, asked: " Is Cagn good or malicious? how do you pray 
to him?" Answer (in a low imploring tone): " 'O Cagn! 
O Cagn! are we not your children? do you not see our hun- 
ger? give us food;' and he gives us both hands full" (Cape 
Monthly Magazine, July 1874). Here we see the religious 



view of Cagn, the Bushman god. But in the mythological 
account of Cagn given by Qing he appears as a kind of grass- 
hopper, supernaturally endowed, the hero of a most absurd 
cycle of senseless adventures. Even religion is affected by these 
irrational .notions, and the gods of savages and of many civilized 
peoples are worshipped with cruel, obscene, and irrational 
rites. But, on the whole, the religious sentiment strives to 
transcend the mythical conceptions of the gods, and is shocked 
and puzzled by the mythical narratives. As soon as this sense 
of perplexity is felt by poets, by priests, or by most men in an 
age of nascent criticism, explanations of what is most crude and 
absurd in the myths are put forward. Men ask themselves 
why their gods are worshipped in the form of beasts, birds, and 
fishes; why their gods are said to have prosecuted their amours 
in bestial shapes; why they are represented as lustful and passion- 
ate thieves, robbers, murderers and adulterers. The answers 
to these questions sometimes become myths themselves. Thus 
both the Mangaians and the Egyptians have been puzzled by 
their own gods in the form of beasts. The Egyptians invented an 
explanation itself a myth that in some moment of danger 
the gods concealed themselves from their foes in the shapes 
of animals. 1 The Mangaians, according to W. W. Gill, hold 
that " the heavenly family had taken up their abode in these 
birds, fishes, and reptiles." 2 

A people so curious and refined as the Greeks were certain 
to be greatly perplexed by even such comparatively pure 
mythical narratives as they found in Homer, still more by 
the coarser legends of Hesiod, and above all by the ancient 
local myths preserved by local priesthoods. Thus, in the 6th 
century before Christ, Xenophanes of Colophon severely blamed 
the poets for their unbecoming legends, and boldly called certain 
myths " the fables of men of old." 3 Theagenes of Rhegium 
(520 B.C.?), according to the scholiast on Iliad, xx. 67,* was the 
author of a very ancient system of mythology. Admitting 
that the fable of the battle of the gods was " unbecoming," if 
literally understood, Theagenes represented it as an allegorical 
account of the war of the elements. Apollo, Helios, and 
Hephaestus were fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was water, Artemis 
was the moon, KCLL TO. \onra. 6/xotcos. Or, by another system, the 
names of the gods represented moral and intellectual qualities. 
Heraclitus, too, disposed of the myth of the bondage of Hera 
as allegorical philosophy. Socrates, in the Cratylus of Plato, 
expounds " a philosophy which came to him all in an instant," 
an explanation of the divine beings based on crude philological 
analyses of their names. Metrodorus, rivalling some recent 
flights of conjecture, resolved not only the gods but even heroes 
like Agamemnon, Hector and Achilles " into elemental combina- 
tions and physical agencies." 6 Euripides makes Pentheus 
(but he was notoriously impious) advance a " rationalistic " 
theory of the story that Dionysus was stitched up in the thigh 
of Zeus. 

When Christianity became powerful the heathen philosophers 
evaded its satire by making more and more use of the allegorical 
and non-natural system of explanation. That method has 
two faults. First (as Arnobius and Eusebius reminded their 
heathen opponents), the allegorical explanations are purely 
arbitrary, depend upon the fancy of their author, and are 
all equally plausible and equally unsupported by evidence. 6 
Secondly, there is no proof at all that, in the distant age when 
the myths were developed, men entertained the moral notions 
and physical philosophies which are supposed to be " wrapped 
up, " as Cicero says, " in impious fables." Another system of 
explanation is that associated with the name of Euemerus 
(316 B.C.). According to this author, the myths are history 
in disguise. All the gods were once men, whose real feats have 
been decorated and distorted by later fancy. This view suited 
Lactantius, St Augustine and other early Christian writers 

1 Plutarch, De I side et Osiride. 

2 Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 35 (1876). 

3 Xenoph. Fr. i. 42. 4 Dindorf'sed., iv. 231. 
6 Grote, Hist, of Greece, (ed. 1869) i. 404. 

_ Cf. Lobeck, Aglaophamus, \. 151-152, on allegorical interpreta- 
tion of myths in the mysteries. 



MYTHOLOGY 



129 



very well. They were pleased to believe that Euemerus " by 
historical research had ascertained that the gods were once but 
mortal men." Precisely the same convenient line was taken 
by Sahagun in his account of Mexican religious myths. As 
there can be no doubt that the ghosts of dead men have been 
worshipped in many lands, and as the gods of many faiths are 
tricked out with attributes derived from ancestor-worship, 
the system of Euemerus retains some measure of plausibility. 
While we need not believe with Euemerus and with Herbert 
Spencer that the god of Greece or the god of the Hottentots 
was once a man, we cannot deny that the myths of both these 
gods have passed through and been coloured by the imaginations 
of men who practised the worship of real ancestors. For 
example, the Cretans showed the tomb of Zeus, and the Phocians 
(Pausanias x. 5) daily poured blood of victims into the tomb 
of a hero, obviously by way of feeding his ghost. The 
Hottentots show many tombs of their god, Tsui-Goab, and tell 
tales about his death; they also pray regularly for aid at the 
tombs of their own parents. 1 We may therefore say that, 
while it is rather absurd to believe that Zeus and Tsui-Goab 
were once real men, yet their myths are such as would be 
developed by people accustomed, among other forms of religion, 
to the worship of dead men. Very probably portions of the 
legends of real men harve been attracted into the mythic accounts 
of gods of another character, and this is the element of truth 
at the bottom of Euemerism. 

Later Explanations of Mythology. The ancient systems of 
explaining what needed explanation in myths were, then, 
physical, ethical, religious and historical. One student, like 
Theagenes, would see a physical philosophy underlying Homeric 
legends. Another, like Porphyry, would imagine that the 
meaning was partly moral, partly of a dark theosophic and 
religious character. Another would detect moral allegory 
alone, and Aristotle expresses the opinion that the myths were 
the inventions of legislators " to persuade the many, and to 
be used in support of law " (Met. xi. 8, 19). A fourth, like 
Euemerus, would get rid of the supernatural element altogether, 
and find only an imaginative rendering of actual history. When 
Christians approached the problem of heathen mythology, 
they sometimes held, with St Augustine, a form of the doctrine 
of Euemerus. 2 In other words, they regarded Zeus, Aphrodite 
and the rest as real persons, diabolical not divine. Some later 
philosophers, especially of the iyth century, misled by the resem- 
blance between Biblical narratives and ancient myths, came to 
the conclusion that the Bible contains a pure, the myths a 
distorted, form of an original revelation. The abbe Banier 
published a mythological compilation in which he systematically 
resolved all the Greek myths into ordinary history. 3 Bryant 
published (1774) A New System, or an Analysis of Ancient 
Mythology, wherein an Attempt is made to divest Tradition of Fable, 
in which he talked very learnedly of " that wonderful people, the 
descendants of Cush," and saw everywhere symbols of the ark 
and traces of the Noachian deluge. Thomas Taylor, at the end 
of the i8th century, indulged in much mystical allegorizing 
of myths, as in the notes to his translation of Pausanias (1794). 
At an earlier date (1760) De Brosses struck on the true line of 
interpretation in his little work Du Culte des dieux fetiches, 
ou parallele de I'ancienne religion de I'Egypte avec la religion 
actuelle de Nigrilie. In this tract De Brosses explained the 
animal-worship of the Egyptians as a survival among a 
civilized people of ideas and practices springing from the 
intellectual condition of savages, and actually existing among 
negroes. A vast symbolical explanation of myths and mysteries 
was attempted by Friedrich Creuzer. 4 The learning and sound 
sense of Lobeck, in his Aglaophamus, exploded the idea that the 
Eleusinian and other mysteries revealed or concealed matter 
of momentous religious importance. It ought not to be forgotten 

1 Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 113. 

2 De civ. dei., yii. 18; viii. 26. 

'La Mythologie el les fables expliquees par I'histoire (Paris, 1738; 
3 vols. 410). 

4 Symbolik und Mythologie der alien Volker (Leipzig and Darm- 
stadt, 1836-1843). 

xix. 5 



that Lafitau, a Jesuit missionary in North America, while 
inclined to take a mystical view of the secrets concealed 
by Iroquois myths, had also pointed out the savage element 
surviving in Greek mythology. 5 

Recent Mythological Systems. Up to a very recent date 
students of mythology were hampered by orthodox traditions, 
and still more by ignorance of the ancient languages and of 
the natural history of man. Only recently have Sanskrit and 
the Egyptian and Babylonian languages become books not 
absolutely sealed. Again, the study of the evolution, of human 
institutions from the lowest savagery to civilization is essentially 
a novel branch of research, though ideas derived from an 
unsystematic study of anthropology are at least as old as 
Aristotle. The new theories of mythology are based on the 
belief that " it is man, it is human thought and human 
language combined, which naturally and necessarily pro- 
duced the strange conglomerate of ancient fable." 6 But, while 
there is now universal agreement so far, modern mythologists 
differed essentially on one point. There was a school (with 
internal divisions) which regarded ancient fable as almost 
entirely " a disease of language," that is, as the result of con- 
fusions arising from misunderstood terms that have survived in 
speech after their original significance was lost. Another school 
(also somewhat divided against itself) believes that misunder- 
stood language played but a very slight part in the evolu- 
tion of mythology, and that the irrational element in myths 
is merely the survival from a condition of thought which was 
once common, if not universal, but is now found chiefly among 
savages, and to a certain extent among children. The former 
school considered that the state of thought out of which myths 
were developed was produced by decaying language; the latter 
maintains that the corresponding phenomena of language were 
the reflection of thought. For the sake of brevity we might 
call the former the " philological " system, as it rests chiefly 
on the study of language, while the latter might be styled the 
" historical " or " anthropological " school, as it is based on 
the study of man in the sum of his manners, ideas and insti- 
tutions. 

The System of Max Mutter. The most distinguished and popular 
advocate of the philological school was Max Muller, whose views 
may be found in his Selected Essays and Lectures on Language. The 
problem was to explain what he calls " the silly, savage and senseless 
element " in mythology (Set. Ess. i. 578). Max Muller says (speaking 
of the Greeks), " their poets had an instinctive aversion to every- 
thing excessive or monstrous, yet they would relate of their gods 
what would make the most savage of Red Indians creep and 
shudder " stories, that is, of the cannibalism of Demeter, of the 
mutilation of Uranus, the cannibalism of Cronus, who swallowed 
his own children, and the like. " Among the lowest tribes of Africa 
and America we hardly find anything more hideous and revolting." 

Max Muller refers the beginning of his system of mythology to 
the discovery of the connexion of the Indo-European or, as they 
are called, " Aryan " languages. Celts, Germans, speakers of 
Sanskrit and Zend, Latins and Greeks, all prove by their languages 
that their tongues may be traced to one family of speech. The 
comparison of the various words which, in different forms, are com- 
mon to all Indo-European languages must inevitably throw much 
light on the original meaning of these words. Take, for example, 
the name of a god, Zeus, or Athene, or any other. The word may 
have no intelligible meaning in Greek, but its counterpart in the 
allied tongues, especially in Sanskrit or Zend, may reveal the original 
significance of the terms. " To understand the origin and meaning 
of the names of the Greek gods, and to enter into the original intention 
of the fables told of each, we must take into account the collateral 
evidence supplied by Latin, German, Sanskrit and Zend philology " 
(Led. on Lang., 2nd series, p. 406). A name may be intelligible in 
Sanskrit which has no sense in Greek. Thus Athene is a divine name 
without meaning in Greek, but Max Muller advances reasons for 
supposing that it is identical with ahana, " the dawn," in Sanskrit. 
It is his opinion, apparently, that whatever story is told of Athene 
must have originally been told of the dawn, and that we must keep 
this before us in attempting to understand the legends of Athene. 
Thus again (op. cit. p. 410), he says, " we have a right to explain 
all that is told of him (Agni, " fire ") " as originally meant for fire." 
The system is simply this: the original meaning of the names of gods 
must be ascertained by comparative philology. The names, as a 
rule, will be found to denote elemental phenomena. And the silly, 



8 Mceurs des sauvages (Paris, 1724). 

6 Max Muller, Lectures on Language (1864), 2nd series, p. 410. 



130 



MYTHOLOGY 



savage and senseless elements in the legends of the gods will be shown 
to have a natural significance, as descriptions of sky, storms, sunset, 
water, fire, dawn, twilight, the life of earth, and other celestial and 
terrestrial existences. Stated in the barest form, these results do 
not differ greatly from the conclusions of Theagenes of Rhegium, 
who held that " Hephaestus was fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was 
water, Artemis was the moon, <al T&. Xoiird &nolws." But Max Miiller's 
system is based on scientific philology, not on conjecture, and is 
supported by a theory of the various processes in the evolution of 
myths out of language. 

It is no longer necessary to give an elaborate analysis of this theory, 
because neither in its philological nor mythological side has it any 
advocates who need be reckoned with. The attempt to disengage 
the history of times forgotten and unknown, by means of analysis 
of roots and words in Aryan languages, has been unsuccessful, or 
has at best produced disputable results. Max Miiller's system was a 
result of the philological theories that indicated the linguistic unity 
of the Indo-European or " Aryan " peoples, and was founded on an 
analysis of their language. But myths precisely similar in irrational 
and repulsive character, even in minute details, to those of the 
Aryan races, exist among Australians, South Sea Islanders, Eskimo, 
Bushmen in Africa, among Solomon Islanders, Iroquois, and so 
forth. The facts being identical, an identical explanation should 
be sought, and, as the languages in which the myths exist are essen- 
tially different, an explanation founded on the Aryan language is 
likely to prove too narrow. Once more, even if we discover the 
original meaning of a god's name, it does not follow that we can 
explain by aid of the significance of the name the myths about the 
god. For nothing is more common than the attraction of a more 
ancient story into the legend of a later god or hero. Myths of un- 
known antiquity, for example, have been attracted into the legend 
of Charlemagne, just as the bans mots of old wits are transferred 
to living humorists. Therefore, though we may ascertain that Zeus 
means " sky " and Agni " fire," we cannot assert, with Max Muller, 
that all the myths about Agni and Zeus were originally told of 
fire and sky. When*these gods became popular they would inevit- 
ably inherit any current exploits of earlier heroes or gods. These 
exploits would therefore be explained erroneously if regarded as 
originally myths of sky or fire. We cannot convert Max Miiller's 
proposition " there was nothing told of the sky that could not in 
some form or other be ascribed to Zeus " into ' there was nothing 
ascribed to Zeus that had not at some time or other been told of the 
sky." This is also, perhaps, the proper place to observe that names 
derived from natural phenomena sky, clouds, dawn and sun 
are habitually assigned by Brazilians, Ojibways, Australians and 
other savages to living men and women. Thus the story originally 
told of a man or woman bearing the name " sun," " dawn," " cloud, 
may be mixed up later with myths about the real celestial dawn, 
cloud or sun. For all these reasons the information obtained from 
philological analysis of names is to be distrusted. We must also 
bear in mind that early men when they conceived, and savage men 
when they conceive, of the sun, moon, wind, earth, sky and so forth, 
have no such ideas in their minds as we attach to these names. 
They think of sun, moon, wind, earth and sky as of living human 
beings with bodily parts and passions. Thus, even when we dis- 
cover an elemental meaning in a god's name, that meaning may be 
all unlike what the word suggests to civilized men. A final objection 
is that philologists differ widely as to the true analysis and real 
meaning of the divine names. Max Muller, for example, connects 
Kronos (KpAros) with xp6ms, "time"; Preller with upotvoi, " I fulfil," 
and so forth. 

The civilized men of the Mythopoeic age were not obliged, as 
Max Muller held, to believe that all phenomena were persons, 
because the words which denoted the phenomena had gender- 
terminations. On the other hand, the gender-terminations were 
survivals from an early stage of thought in which personal character- 
istics, including sex, had been attributed to all phenomena. This 
condition of thought is demonstrated to be, and to have been, 
universal among savages, and it may notoriously be observed among 
children. Thus Max Miiller's theory that myths are " a disease of 
fanguage " seems destitute of evidence, and inconsistent with what 
is historically known about the relations between the language and 
the social, political and literary condition of men. 

Theory of Herbert Spencer. The system of Herbert Spencer, as 
explained in Principles of Sociology, has many points in common 
with that of Max Muller. Spencer attempts to account for the state 
of mind (the foundation of myths) in which man personifies and 
animates all phenomena. According to his theory, too, this habit 
of mind may be regarded as the result of degeneration, for in his 
view, as in Max Miiller's, it is not primary, but the result of miscon- 
ceptions. But, while language is the chief cause of misconceptions 
with Max Muller, with Spencer it is only one of several forces all 
working to the same result. Statements which originally had a 
different significance are misinterpreted, he thinks, and names of 
human beings are also misinterpreted in such a manner that early 
races are gradually led to believe in the personality of phenomena. 
He too notes " the defect in early speech " that is, the " lack of 
words free from implications of vitality " as one of the causes 
which " favour personalization." Here, of course, we have to ask 
Spencer, with Max Muller, why words in early languages " imply 



vitality." These words must reflect the thought of the men who use 
them before they react upon that thought and confirm it in its mis- 
conceptions. So far Spencer seems at one with the philological 
school of mythologists, but he warns us that the misconstructions 
of language in his system are" different in kind, and the erroneous 
course of thought is opposite in direction." According to Spencer 
(and his premises, at least, are correct), the names of human beings 
in an early state of society are derived from incidents of the moment, 
and often refer to the period of the day or the nature of the weather. 
We find, among Australian natives, among Abipones in South 
America, and among Ojibways in the North, actual people named 
Dawn.Gold Flower of Day, Dark Cloud, Sun, and so forth. Spencer's 
argument is that, given a story about real people so named, in process 
of time and forgetfulness the anecdote which was once current 
about a man named Storm and a woman named Sunshine will be 
transferred to the meteorological phenomena of sun and tempest. 
Thus these purely natural agents will come to be " personalized " 
(Prin. Soc. 392), and to be credited with purely human origin and 
human adventures. Another misconception would arise when men 
had a tradition that they came to their actual seats from this moun- 
tain, or that lake or river, or from lands across the sea. They will 
mistake this tradition of local origin for one of actual parentage, 
and will come to believe that, like certain Homeric heroes, they are 
the sons of a river (now personified), or of a mountain, or, like a 
tribe mentioned by Garcilasso de la Vega, that they are descended 
from the sea. Once more, if their old legend told them that they 
came from the rising sun, they will hold, like many races, that they 
are actually the children of the sun. By this process of forgetfulness 
and misinterpretation, mountains, rivers, lakes, sun and sea would 
receive human attributes, while men would degenerate from a more 
sensible condition into a belief in the personality and vitality of 
inanimate objects. As Spencer thinks ancestor-worship the first 
form of religion, and as he holds that persons with such names as 
sun, moon and the like became worshipped as ancestors, his theory 
results in the belief that nature- worship and the myths about natural 
phenomena dawn, wind, sky, night and the rest are a kind of 
transmuted worship of ancestors and transmuted myths about real 
men and women. " Partly by confounding the parentage of the 
race with a conspicuous object marking the natal region of the race, 
partly by literal interpretation of birth names, and partly by literal 
interpretation of names given in eulogy " (such as Sun and Bull, 
among the Egyptian kings), and also through " implicit belief in 
the statements of forefathers," there has been produced belief in 
descent from mountains, sea, dawn, from animals which have become 
constellations, and from persons once on earth who now appear 
as sun and moon. A very common class of myths (see TOTEMISM) 
assures us that certain stocks of men are descended from beasts, 
or from gods in the shape of beasts. Spencer explains these by the 
theory that the remembered ancestor of a stock had, as savages 
often have, an animal name, as Bear, Wolf, Coyote, or what not. 
In time his descendants came to forget that the name was a mere 
name, and were misled into the opinion that they were children of a 
real coyote, wolf or bear. This idea, once current, would naturally 
stimulate and diffuse the belief that such descents were possible, 
and that the animals are closely akin to men. 

The chief objection to these processes is that they require, as a 
necessary condition, a singular amount of memory on the one hand 
and of forgetfulness on the other. The lowest contemporary savages 
remember little or nothing of any ancestor farther back than the 
grandfather. But men in Spencer's Mythopoeic age had much 
longer memories. On the other hand, the most ordinary savage 
does not misunderstand so universal a custom as the imposition of 
names peculiar to animals or derived from atmospheric phenomena. 
He calls his own child Dawn or Cloud, his own name is Sitting Bull 
or Running Wolf, and he is not tempted to explain his great-grand- 
father's name of Bright Sun or Lively Raccoon on the hypothesis 
that the ancestor really was a raccoon or the sun. Moreover, 
savages do not worship ancestresses or retain lively memories of 
their great-grandmothers, yet it is through the female line in the 
majority of cases that the animal or other ancestral name is derived. 
The son of an Australian male, whose kin or totem name is Crane, 
takes, in many tribes, his mother's kin-name, Swan or Cockatoo, 
or whatever it may be, and the same is a common rule in Africa and 
America among races who rarely remember their great-grandfathers. 
On the whole, then (though degeneracy, as well as progress, is a 
force in human evolution), we are not tempted to believe in so strange 
a combination of forgetfulness with long memory, nor so excessive 
a degeneration from common sense into a belief in the personality 
of phenomena, as are required no less by Spencer's system than by 
that of Max Muller. 

Preliminary Problems. We have stated and criticized the 
more prominent modern theories of mythology. It is now 
necessary first to recapitulate the chief points in the problem, 
and then to attempt to explain them by a comparison of the 
myths of various races. The difficulty of mythology is to 
account for the following among other apparently irrational 
elements in myths: the wild and senseless stories of the 



MYTHOLOGY 



beginnings of things, of the origin of men, sun, stars, animals, 
death, and the world in general; the infamous and absurd adven- 
tures of the gods; why divine beings are regarded as incestuous, 
adulterous, murderous, .thievish, cruel, cannibals, and addicted to 
wearing the shapes of animals, and subject to death in some 
stories; the myths of metamorphosis into plants, beasts and 
stars; the repulsive stories of the state of the dead; the descents 
of the gods into the place of the dead, and their return thence. It 
is extremely difficult to keep these different categories of myths 
separate from each other. If we investigate myths of the origin 
of the world, we often find gods in animal form active in the 
work of world-making. If we examine myths of human descent 
from animals, we find gods busy there, and if we try to investigate 
the myths of the origin of the gods, the subject gets mixed up 
with the mythical origins of things in general. 

Our first question will be, Is there any stage of human society, 
and of the human intellect, in which facts that appear to us 
to be monstrous and irrational are accepted as ordinary occur- 
rences of every day life ? E. W. Lane, in his preface to the 
Arabian Nights, says that the Arabs have an advantage over 
us as story-tellers. They can introduce such incidents as the 
change of a man into a horse, or of a woman into a dog, or the 
intervention of an afreet, without any more scruple than our 
own novelists feel in describing a duel or the concealment of 
a will. Among the Arabs the actions of magic and of spirits 
are regarded as at least as probable and common as duels and 
concealments of wills in European society. It is obvious that 
we need look no farther for the explanation of the supernatural 
events in Arab romances. Now let us apply this system to 
mythology. It is admitted that Greeks, Romans, Aryans of 
India in the age of the Sanskrit commentators, Egyptians of 
the Ptolemaic and earlier ages, were as much puzzled as we are 
by the mythical adventures of their gods. But is there any 
known stage of the human intellect in which these divine 
adventures, and the metamorphoses of men into animals, trees, 
stars, and converse with the dead, and all else that puzzles us 
in the civilized mythologies, are regarded as possible incidents 
of daily human life? Our answer is that everything in the 
civilized mythologies which we regard as irrational seems only 
part of the accepted and rational order of things (at least in 
the case of " medicine-men " or magicians) to contemporary 
savages, and in the past seemed equally rational and natural 
to savages concerning whom we have historical information. 
Our theory is, therefore, that the savage and senseless element in 
mythology is, for the most part, a legacy from ancestors of 
the civilized races who were in an intellectual state not higher 
than that of Australians, Bushmen, Red Indians, the lower races 
of South America, Mincopies, and other worse than barbaric 
peoples. As the ancestors of the Greeks, with the Aryans of 
India, the Egyptians, and others advanced in civilization, 
their religious thought was shocked and surprised by myths 
(originally dating from the period of savagery, and natural 
in that period) which were preserved down to the time of 
Pausanias by local priesthoods, or which were stereotyped in 
the ancient poems of Hesiod and Homer, or in the Brahmanas 
and Vedas of India, or were retained in the popular religion 
of Egypt. This theory recommended itself to Lobeck. " We 
may believe that ancient and early tribes framed gods like 
themselves in action and in experience, and that the allegorical 
element in myths is the addition of later peoples who had 
attained to purer ideas of divinity, yet dared not reject the 
religion of their ancestors " (Aglaoph. i. 153). The senseless 
element in the myths would by this theory be for the most part 
a " survival." And the age and condition of human thought 
from which it survived would be one in which our most ordinary 
ideas about the nature of things and the limits of possibility 
did not yet exist, when all things were conceived of in quite 
other fashion the age, that is, of savagery. It is universally 
admitted that " survivals " of this kind do account for many 
anomalies in out institutions, in law, politics, society, even in 
dress and manners. If isolated fragments of an earlier age 
abide in these, it is still more probable that other fragments 



will survive in anything so closely connected as mythology 
with the conservative religious sentiment. 

If this view of mythology can be proved, much will have been 
done to explain a problem which we .have not yet touched, namely, 
the distribution of myths. The science of mythology has to account, 
if it can, not only for the existence of certain stories in the legends 
of certain races, but also for the presence of stories practically 
the same among almost all races. In the long history of mankind 
it is impossible to deny that stories may conceivably have 
spread from a single centre, and been handed on from races like 
the Indo-European and the Semitic to races as far removed 
from them in every way as the Zulus, the Australians, the 
Eskimo, the natives of the South Sea Islands. But, while the 
possibility of the diffusion of myths by borrowing and 
transmission must be allowed for, the hypothesis of the 
origin of myths in the savage state of the intellect supplies 
a ready explanation of their wide diffusion. Archaeologists 
are acquainted with objects of early art and craftsmanship, 
rude clay pipkins and stone weapons, which can only be classed 
as " human," and which do not bear much impress of any one 
national taste and skill. Many myths may be called " human " 
in this sense. They are the rough products of the early human 
mind, and are not yet characterized by the differentiations 
of race and culture. Such myths might spring up anywhere 
among untutored men, and anywhere might survive into civilized 
literature. Therefore where similar myths are found among 
Greeks, Australians, Egyptians, Mangaians and others, it is 
unnecessary to account for their wide diffusion by any hypothesis 
of borrowing, early or late. The Greek " key " pattern found 
on objects in Peruvian graves was not necessarily borrowed 
from Greece, nor did Greeks necessarily borrow from Aztecs 
the " wave " pattern which is common to both. The same 
explanation may be applied to Greek and Aztec myths of the 
deluge, to Australian and Greek myths of the original theft 
of fire. Borrowed they may have been, but they may as probably 
have been independent inventions. 

It is true that some philologists deprecate as unscientific the com- 
parison cf myths which are found in languages not connected with 
each other. The objection rests on the theory that myths are a 
disease of language, a morbid offshoot of language, and that the 
legends in unconnected languages must therefore be kept apart. 
But, as the theory which we are explaining does not admit that 
language is more than a subordinate cause in the development of 
myths, as it seeks for the origin of myths in a given condition of 
thought through which all races have passed, we need do no more 
than record the objection. 

The Intellectual Condition of Savages. Our next step must 
be briefly to examine the intellectual condition of savages, 
that is, of races varying from the condition of the Andaman 
Islanders to that of the Solomon Islanders and the ruder Red 
Men of the American continent. In a developed treatise on the 
subject of mythology it would be necessary to criticize, with 
a minuteness which is impossible here, our evidence for the 
very peculiar mental condition of the lower races. Max Miiller 
asked (when speaking of the mental condition of men when 
myths were developed), " was there a period of temporary 
madness through which the human mind had to pass, and was 
it a madness identically the same in the south of India and the 
north of Iceland? " To this we may answer that the human 
mind had to pass through the savage stage of thought, that this 
stage was for all practical purposes " identically the same " 
everywhere, and that to civilized observers it does resemble 
" a temporary madness." Many races are still abandoned to 
that temporary madness; many others which have escaped 
from it were observed and described while still labouring under 
its delusions. Our evidence for the intellectual ideas of man 
in the period of savagery we derive partly from the reports of 
voyagers, historians, missionaries, partly from an examination 
of the customs, institutions, and laws in which the lower races 
gave expression to their notions. 

As to the first kind of evidence, we must be on our guard against 
several sources of error. Where religion is concerned, travellers 
in general and missionaries in particular are biased in several distinct 



132 



MYTHOLOGY 



ways. The missionary is sometimes anxious to prove that religion 
can only come by revelation, and that certain tribes, having received 
no revelation, have no religion or religious myths at all. Sometimes 
the missionary, on the other hand, is anxious to demonstrate that 
the myths of his heathen flock are a corrupted version of the Biblical 
narrative. In the former case he neglects the study of savage 
myths; in the latter he unconsciously accommodates what he hears 
to what he calls " the truth." The traveller who is not a missionary 
may either have the same prejudices, or he may be a sceptic about 
revealed religion. In the latter case he is perhaps unconsciously 
moved to put burlesque versions of Biblical stories into the mouths 
of his native informants, or to represent the savages as ridiculing 
the Scriptural traditions which he communicates to them. Yet 
again we must remember that the leading questions of a European 
inquirer may furnish a savage with a thread on which to string 
answers which the questions themselves have suggested. " Have 
you ever had a great flood ? " " Yes " " Was any one saved ? " 
The question starts the invention of the savage on a deluge-myth, 
of which, perhaps, the idea has never before entered his mind. There 
still remain the difficulties of all conversation between civilized 
men and unsophisticated savages, the tendency to hoax, and other 
sources of error and confusion. By this time, too, almost every 
explorer of savage life is a theorist. He is a Spencerian, or a believer 
in the universal prevalence of the faith in an " All-Father," or he 
looks everywhere for gods who are " spirits of vegetation." In 
receiving this kind of evidence, ther, we need to know the character 
of our informant, his means of communicating with the heathen, 
his power of testing evidence, and his good faith. His testimony 
will have additional weight if supported by the " undesigned coin- 
cidences " of other evidence, ancient and modern. If Strabo and 
Herodotus and Pomponius Mela, for example, describe a custom, 
rite or strange notion in the Old World, and if mariners and mission- 
aries find the same notion or custom or rite in Polynesia or Australia 
or Kamchatka, we can scarcely doubt the truth of the reports. 
The evidence is best when given by ignorant men, who are astonished 
at meeting with an institution which ethnologists are familiar with 
in other parts of the world. 

Another method of obtaining evidence is by the comparative 
study of savage laws and institutions. Thus we find in Asia, Africa, 
America and Australia that the marriage laws of the lower races 
are connected with a belief in kinship or other relationship with 
animals. The evidence for this belief is thus entirely beyond sus- 
picion. We find, too, that political power, sway and social influence 
are based on the ideas of magic, of metamorphosis, and of the power 
which certain men possess to talk with the dead and to visit the 
abodes of death. All these ideas are the stuff of which myths are 
made, and the evidence of savage institutions, in every part of the 
world, proves that these ideas are the universal inheritance of 
savages. 

Savage men are like ourselves in curiosity and anxiety causas 
cognoscere rerum, but with our curiosity they do not possess 
Savage Ideas our powers of attention. They are as easily satisfied 
about the with an explanation of phenomena as they are eager 
WorM - to possess an explanation. Inevitably they furnish 
themselves with their philosophy out of their scanty stock 
of acquired ideas, and these ideas and general conceptions 
seem almost imbecile to civilized men. Curiosity and 
credulity, then, are the characteristics of the savage intellect. 
When a phenomenon presents itself the savage requires an 
explanation, and that explanation he makes for himself, or 
receives from tradition, in the shape of a myth. The basis of 
these myths, which are just as much a part of early conjectural 
science as of early religion, is naturally the experience of the 
Savage as construed by himself. Man's craving to know " the 
reason why " is already " among rude savages an intellectual 
appetite," and " even to the Australian scientific speculation 
has its germ in actual experience." 1 How does he try to satisfy 
this craving ? E. B. Tylor replies, " When the attention of 
a man in the myth-making stage of intellect is drawn to any 
phenomenon or custom which has to him no obvious reason, 
he invents and tells a story to account for it. " Against this 
statement it has been urged that men in the lower stages of 
culture are not curious, but take all phenomena for granted. If 
there were no direct evidence in favour of Tylor's opinion, it 
would be enough to point to the nature of savage myths them- 
selves. It is not arguing in a circle to point out that almost 
all of them are nothing more than explanations of intellectual 
difficulties, answers to the question, How came this or that 
phenomenon to be' what his? Thus savage myths answer 
the questions What was the origin of the world, and of men, 
and of beasts? How came the stars by their arrangement 
1 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, \. 369 (1871). 



and movements? How are the motions of sun and moon to 
be accounted for? Why has this tree a red flower, and this 
bird a black mark on the tail? What was the origin of the 
tribal dances, or of this or -that law of custom or etiquette? 
Savage mythology, which is also savage science, has a reply 
to all these and all similar questions, and that reply is always 
found in the shape of a story. The answers cannot be accounted 
for without the previous existence of the questions. 

We have now shown how savages come'to have a mythology. 
It is their way of satisfying the early form of scientific curiosity, 
their way of realizing the world in which they move. But they 
frame their stories, necessarily and naturally, in harmony with 
their general theory of things, with what we may call " savage 
metaphysics." Now early man, as Max Miiller says, " not only 
did not think as we think, but did not think as we suppose he 
ought to have thought." The chief distinction between his 
mode of conceiving the world and ours is his vast extension of 
the theory of personality. To the savage, and apparently to men 
more backward than the most backward peoples we know, all 
nature was a congeries of animated personalities. The savage's 
notion of personality is more a universally diffused feeling than 
a reasoned conception, and this feeling of a personal self he 
impartially distributes all over the world as known to him. 
One of the Jesuit missionaries in North America thus describes 
the Red Man's philosophy: 2 " Les sauvages se persuadent que 
non seulement les hommes et les autres animaux, mais aussi 
que toutes les autres choses sont animees." Crevaux, in the 
Andes, found that the Indians believed that the beasts have 
piays (sorcerers and doctors) like themselves.* This opinion 
we may name personalism, and it is the necessary condition 
of savage (and, as will be seen, of civilized) mythology. The 
Jesuits could not understand how spherical bodies like sun 
and moon could be mistaken for human beings. Their catechu- 
mens put them off with the answer that the drawn bows of the 
heavenly bodies gave them' their round appearance. " The 
wind was formerly a person; he became a bird," say the Bushmen, 
and do kal kai, a respectable Bushman once saw the personal 
wind at Haarfontein. 4 The Egyptians, according to Herodotus 
(iii. 16), believed fire to be Orjpiov e/i^uxop, a live beast. The 
Bushman who saw the Wind meant to throw a stone at it, but 
it ran into a hill. From the wind as a person the Bhinyas in 
India (Dalton, p. 140) claim descent, and in Indian epic tradition 
the leader of the ape army was the son of the wind. The 
Wind, by certain mares, became the father of wind-swift steeds 
mentioned in the Iliad. The loves of Boreas are well known. 
These are examples of the animistic theory applied to what, in 
our minds, seems one of the least personal of natural phenomena. 
The sky (which appears to us even less personal) has been re- 
garded as a personal being by Samoyeds, Red Indians, Zulus, 6 
and traces of this belief survive in Chinese, Greek and Roman 
religion. 

We must remember, however, that to the savage, Sky, Sun, 
Sea, Wind, are not only persons, but they are savage persons. 
Their conduct is not what civilized men would attribute to 
characters so august; it is what uncivilized men think probable 
and befitting among beings like themselves. 

The savage regards all animals as endowed with personality. 
" Us tiennent les poissons raisonnables, comme aussi les cerfs," 
says a Jesuit father about the North-American g^,^ 
Indians (Relations, loc. '/.). In Australia the Theory of 
natives believe that the wild dog has the power Man's He/a- 
of speech, like the cat of the Coverley witch in the J 
Spectator. The Breton peasants, according to P. 
Sebillot, credit all birds with language, which they even attempt 
to interpret. The old English and the Arab superstitions 
about the language of beasts are examples of this opinion sur- 
viving among civilized races. The bear in Norway is regarded 
as almost a man, and his dead body is addressed and his wrath 
deprecated by Samoyeds and Red Indians. " The native bear 

* Relations (1636), p. 114. * Voyages, p. 159. 

4 South African Folk-Lore Journal (May 1880). 
E. B. Tylor, op. cit. ii. 256. 



MYTHOLOGY 



Kur-bo-roo is the .sage counsellor of the aborigines in all their 
difficulties. When bent on a dangerous expedition, the men 
will seek help from this clumsy creature, but in what way his 
opinions are made known is nowhere recorded." l H.R. School- 
craft mentions a Red Indian story explaining how " the bear 
does not die," but this tale Schoolcraft (like Herodotus in Egypt) 
" cannot bring himself to relate." He also gives examples of 
lowas conversing with serpents. These may serve as examples 
of the savage belief in the human intelligence of animals. Man 
is on an even footing with them, and with them can interchange 
his ideas. But savages carry this opinion much further. Man 
in their view is actually, and in no figurative sense, akin to the 
beasts. Certain tribes in Java " believe that women when 
delivered of a child are frequently delivered at the same time 
of a young crocodile." 2 The common European story of a 
queen accused of giving birth to puppies shows the survival of 
the belief in the possibility of such births among civilized races, 
while the Aztecs had the idea that women who saw the moon 
in certain circumstances would produce mice. But the chief 
evidence for the savage theory of man's close kinship with the 
lower animals is found in the institution called totemism (q.v.) 
the belief that certain stocks of men in the various tribes are 
descended by blood descent from, or are developed out of, or 
otherwise connected with, certain objects animate or inani- 
mate, but especially with beasts. The strength of the opinion is 
proved by its connexion with very stringent marriage laws. 
No man (according to the rigour of the custom) may marry a 
woman who bears the same kin name as himself, that is, who is 
descended from the same inanimate object or animal. Nor may 
people (if they can possibly avoid it) eat the flesh of animals who 
are their kindred. Savage man also believes that many of his 
own tribe-fellows have the power of assuming the shapes of 
animals, and that the souls of his dead kinsfolk revert to animal 
forms. 

E. W. Lane, in his introduction to the Arabian Nights (i. 58), 
says he found the belief in these transmigrations accepted seriously 
in Cairo. H. H. Bancroft brings evidence to prove that the Mexicans 
supposed pregnant women would turn into beasts, and sleeping 
children into mice, if things went wrong in the ritual of a certain 
solemn sacrifice. There is a well-known Scottish legend to the effect 
that a certain old witch was once fired at in her shape as a hare, 
and that where the hare was hit there the old woman was found to 
be wounded. J. F. Lafitau tells the same story as current among 
his Red Indian flock, except that the old witch and her son took the 
form of birds, not of hares. A Scandinavian witch does the same in 
the Egil saga. In Lafitau's tale the birds were wounded by the 
magic arrows of a medicine man, and the arrow-heads were found 
in the bodies of the human culprits. In Japan 3 people chiefly 
transform themselves into badgers. The sorcerers of Honduras 
(Bancroft, i. 740) " possessed the power of transforming men into 
wild beasts." J. F. Regnard, the French dramatist, found in Lap- 
land (1681) that witches could turn men into cats, and could them- 
selves assume the forms of swans, crows, falcons and geese. Among 
the Bushmen 4 " sorcerers assume the form of beasts and jackals." 
M. Dobrizhofer, a missionary in Paraguay (1717-1791), learned that 
" sorcerers arrogate to themselves the power of changing men into 
tigers " (Eng. trans., i. 63). He was present at a conversion of this 
sort, though the miracle beheld by the people was invisible to the 
missionary. Near Loanda Livingstone noted that " a chief may 
metamorphose himself into a lion, kill any one he chooses, and resume 
his proper form." The same accomplishments distinguish the Barotse 
and Balonda. 6 Among the Mayas of Central America sorcerers 
could transform themselves " into dogs, pigs and other animals; 
their glance was death to a victim (Bancroft, ii. 797). The 
Thlinkeets hold that their shamans have the same powers." A 
bamboo in Sarawak is known to have been a man. Metamor- 
phoses into stones are as common among Red Indians and Australians 
as in Greek mythology. Compare the cases of Niobe and the victims 
of the Gorgon's head. 7 Zulus, Red Indians, Aztecs, 8 Andaman 
Islanders and other races believe that their dead assume the shapes 
of serpents and of other creatures, often reverting to the form of the 
animal from which they originally descended. In ancient Egypt 

1 R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 446 (1878). 

2 J. Hawkesworth, Voyages, iii. 756. 

'Lord Redesdale, Talts of Old Japan (1871). 

* Bleek, Brief Account of Bushman Folk-Lore, pp. 15, 40. 

6 Missionary Travels, pp. 615, 642. 
W. H. Dall, Alaska, p. 423 (1870). 

7 Dorman, Origin of Primitive Superstitions, pp. 130, 134. 

8 Sahagun, French trans., p. 226. 



" the usual prayers demand for the deceased the power of going and 
coming from and to everywhere under any form they like."* A 
trace of this opinion may be noticed in the Aeheid. The serpent 
that appeared at the sacrifice of Aeneas was regarded as possibly 
a " manifestation " of the soul of Anchises (Aeneid, v. 84) 

" Dixerat haec, adytis quum lubricus anguis ab imis 

Septem ingens gyros, septena volumina, traxit," 
and Aeneas is 

" Incertus, geniumne loci, famulumne parentis 

Esse putet." 

On the death of Plotinus, as he gave up the ghost, a snake glided from 
under his bed into a hole in the wall. 10 Compare Pliny " on the cave 
" in quo manes Scipionis Africani majoris custodire draco dicitur." 
The last peculiarity in savage philosophy to which we need call 
attention here is the belief in spirits and in human intercourse 
with the shades of the dead. With the savage natural death 
is not a universal and inevitable ordinance. " All men must 
die " is a generalization which he has scarcely reached; in his 
philosophy the proposition is more like this " all men who die 
die by violence." A natural death is explained as the result of 
a sorcerer's spiritual violence, and the disease is attributed to 
magic or to the action of hostile spirits. After death the man 
survives as a spirit, sometimes taking an animal form, sometimes 
invisible, sometimes to be observed " in his habit as he lived " 
(see APPARITIONS). The philosophy of the subject is shortly 
put in the speech of Achilles (Iliad, xxiii. 103) after he has beheld 
the dead Patroclus in a dream: " Ay me, there remaineth then 
even in the house of Hades a spirit and phantom of the dead, for 
all night long hath the ghost of hapless Patroclus stood over me, 
wailing and making moan." It is almost superfluous to quote 
here the voluminous evidence for the intercourse with spirits 
which savage chiefs and medicine men are believed to maintain. 
They can call up ghosts, or can go to the ghosts, in Australia, 
New Caledonia, New Zealand, North America, Zululand, among 
the Eskimo, and generally in every quarter of the globe. The 
men who enjoy this power are the same as they who can change 
themselves and others into animals. They too command the 
weather, and, says an old French missionary, " are regarded as 
very Jupiters, having in their hands the lightning and the 
thunder " (Relations, loc. til.). They make good or bad seasons, 
and control the vast animals who, among ancient Persians and 
Aryans of India, as among Zulus and Iroquois, are supposed to 
grant or withhold the rain, and to thunder with their enormous 
wings in the region of the clouds. 

Another fertile source of myth is magic, especially the magic 
designed to produce fertility, vegetable and animal. From the 
natives of northern and central Australia to the actors in the 
ritual of Adonis, or the folk among whom arose the customs of 
crowning the May king or the king of the May, all peoples have 
done magic to encourage the breeding of animals as part of the 
food supply, and to stimulate the growth of plants, wild or 
cultivated. In the opinion of J. G. Frazer, the human repre- 
sentatives or animal representatives, in the rites, of the spirit 
of vegetation; of the corn spirit; of the changing seasons, winter 
or summer, have been developed into many forms of gods, 
with appropriate myths, explanatory of the magic, and of the 
sacrifice of the chief performer. In the same way the adoration 
of living human beings, the deification of living kings whose 
title survives in our king or queen of the May, and in the rex 
nemorensis, the priest of Diana in the grove of Aricia has been 
most fruitful in myths of divine beings. These human beings 
are often sacrificed, for various reasons, actual or hypothetical, 
and godl and heroes are almost as likely to be explained as 
spirits of vegetation now, as they were likely to become solar 
mythological figures in the system of Max Miiller. It is certainly 
true that divine beings in most mythologies are apt to acquire 
solar with other elemental attributes, including vegetable 
attributes. But that the origins of such mythical beings were, 
ab initio, either solar or vegetable, or, for that matter, animal, 
it would often be hard to prove. 

Frazer's ideas are to be found in a work of immense erudition, 
The Golden Bough (London, 1900). Two studies by him, pursuing 



* Records of the Past, x. 10. 
10 Plotini vita, pp. 2, 95. 



H. N. xv. 44, 85. 



134 



MYTHOLOGY 



the same set of ideas in more detail, are Adonis, Attis, Osiris (1906) 
and Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905). See A. 
Lang, Magic and Religion (London, 1901), for a criticism in detail 
of the general theory as set forth in The Golden Bough. Whatever 
may be said, Frazer has certainly made the most important of recent 
contributions to the study of mythology. He has fixed the attention 
of students on a mass of early ideas, previously much neglected save 
by W. Mannhardt, and on the facts of ritual, which preserve these 
ideas and represent them in a kind of mystery plays. 

We are now in a position to sum up the ideas of savages about 
man's relations to the world. We started on this inquiry 
because we found that savages regarded sky, wind, sun, earth 
and so forth as practically men, and we had then to ask, what 
sort of men, men with what powers ? The result of our exam- 
ination, so far, is that in savage opinion sky, wind, sun, sea and 
many other phenomena have, being personal, all the powers 
attributed to real human persons. These powers and qualities 
are: (i) relationship to animals and ability to be transformed 
and to transform others into animals and other objects; (2) 
magical accomplishments, as (a) power to visit or to procure 
the visits of the dead; (b) other magical powers, such as control 
over the weather and over the fertility of nature in all depart- 
ments. Once more, the great forces of nature, considered as 
persons, are involved in that inextricable confusion in which 
men, beasts, plants, stones, stars, are all on one level of person- 
ality and animated existence. This is the philosophy of savage 
life, and it is on these principles that the savage constructs his 
myths, while these, again, are all the scientific explanations of 
the universe with which he has been able to supply himself. 

Examples of Mythology. Myths of the origin of the world 
and man are naturally most widely diffused. Man has every- 
where asked himself whence things came and how, and his 
myths are his earliest extant form of answer to this question. 
So confused and inconsistent are the mythical answers that it 
is very difficult to classify them according to any system. If 
we try beginning with myths of creative gods, we find that the 
world is sometimes represented as pre-existent to the divine 
race. If we try beginning with myths of the origin of the world, 
we frequently find that it owes its origin to the activity of pre- 
existent supernatural beings. According to all modern views 
of creation, the creative mind is prior to the universe which it 
created. There is no such consistency of opinion in myths, 
whether of civilized or savage races. Perhaps the plan least open 
to objection is to begin with myths of the gods. But when we 
speak of gods, we must not give to the word a modern signifi- 
cance. As used here, gods merely mean non-natural and 
powerful beings, sometimes " magnified non-natural men," 
sometimes beasts, birds or insects, sometimes the larger forces 
and phenomena of the universe conceived of as endowed with 
human personality and passions. When Plutarch examined 
the Osirian myth (De Isid. xxv.) he saw that the " gods " in 
the tale were really " demons," " stronger than men, but 
having the divine part not wholly unalloyed " " magnified non- 
natural men," in short. And such are the gods of mythology. 

In examining the myths of the gods we shall begin with the 
conceptions of the most backward tribes, and advance to the 
divine legends of the ancient civilized races. It will appear that, 
while the non-civilized gods are often theriomorphic, made in 
accordance with the ideas of non-civilized men, the civilized 
gods retain many characteristics of the savage gods, and these 
characteristics are the " irrational element " in the divine myths. 

Myths of Gods: Savage Ideas. It is not easy to separate the dis- 
cussion of savage myths of gods from the problem, Whence and how 
arose the savage belief in gods ? The orthodox anthropological 
explanation has been that of E. B. Tylor, which closely resembles 
Herbert Spencer's " ghost theory." By reflection on dreams, in 
which the self, or " spirit," of the savage seems to wander free from 
the bounds of time and space, to see things remote, and to meet 
and recognize dead friends or foes ; by speculation on the experiences 
of trance and of phantasms of the dead or living, beheld with waking 
eyes; by pondering on the phenomena of shadows, of breath, of 
death and life, the savage evolved the idea of a separable soul or 
spirit capable of surviving bodily death. The spirit of the dead may 
tenant a material object, a " fetish," or may roam hungry and 
comfortless and need propitiation by food, for unpropitiated it is 
dangerous, or may be reincarnated, or may " go to its own herd " 



in another world. Again, it is naturally kind to its living kinsfolk, 
and so may be addressed in prayer. These are the doctrines of 
animism (g.t).), and, according to the usual anthropological theory, 
these spirits come to thrive to god's estate in favourable circum- 
stances, as where the dead man, when alive, had great mana or wakan, 
a great share of the ether, so to speak, which, in savage metaphysics, 
is the viewless vehicle of magical influences. Thus the ghost of the 
hero or medicine man .of a km or tribe may be raised to divine rank, 
while again the doctrine of spirits once developed, and spirits once 
allotted to the great elemental forces and phenomena of nature, sky, 
thunder, the sea, the forests we have the beginnings of depart- 
mental deities, such as Agni, gjod of fire; Poseidon, god of the sea; 
Zeus, god of the sky though in recent theories Zeus appears to be 
regarded as primarily the god of the oak tree, a spirit of vegetation. 

On this theory animism, the doctrine of spirits, is the source of 
all belief in gods. But it is found that among the lowest or least 
cultured races, such as the south-eastern tribes of Australia, who 
do not propitiate ancestral spirits by offerings of food, or address 
them in prayer, there often exists a belief in an " All-Father," to 
use Howitt's convenient expression. This being cannot have been 
evolved out of the cult of ancestors, where ancestors are not wor- 
shipped; and he is not even regarded as a spirit, but, in Matthew 
Arnold's phrase, as " a magnified non-natural man." He existed 
before death came into the world, and he still exists. His home is in 
or above the sky, but there was a time when he walked the earth, a 
potent magic-worker; endowed mankind with such arts and institu- 
tions as they possess; and left to them certain rules of life, ethics 
and ritual. Often he is regarded as the maker of things, or of most 
things, and of mankind; or mankind are his children, descended 
from disobedient sons of his, whom he cast out of heaven. Very 
frequently he is the judge of souls, and sends the good and bad to 
their own places of reward and punishment. He is usually supposed 
to watch over human conduct, but this is by no means invariably 
the case. Sometimes he, like the Atnatu of the Kaitish tribe of 
central Australia, is only vigilant in matters of ritual, such as cir- 
cumcision, subincision and the use of the sacred bull-roarer, the 
Greek ^/i/3oj. As an almost universal rule, in the lowest culture, 
no prayers are addressed to this being; he has no sacrifices, no dwell- 
ing made with hands; and the images of him, in clay, that are made 
and danced round with invocations of his name at the tribal cere- 
monies of initiation, are destroyed at the close of the performances. 
If the name of " god " is denied to such beings because they receive 
little cult, it may still be admitted that the belief might easily develop 
into a form of theism, independent of and underived from animism, 
or the ghost theory. 

The best account of this All-Father belief in the lowest culture is 
to be read in R. Howitt's Native Races of South-East A ustralia. Under 
the names of Baiame, Pundjel, Mulkari, Daramulun 
and many others, the south-eastern tribes (both those Australian 
who reckon descent in the female and those who reckon Savages. 
by the male line) have this faith in an All-Father, the 
attributes varying in various communities. The most highly 
developed All-Father is the Baiame or Byamee of the Euahlayi 
tribe of north-western New South Wales, to whom prayers for the 
welfare of the souls of the dead are, or recently were, addressed the 
tribe dwelling a hundred miles away from the nearest missionary 
station (Protestant). 1 

In the centre of Australia, Atnatu, self-created, is known, as has 
been said, to the Kaitish tribe, next neighbours of the Arunta of the 
Macdonnell Hills. Among the Arunta, Mr Strehlow (Globus, May 
1907) finds such a being as Atnatu, and also among some other 
adjacent tribes, as the Luritja. See, too, Strehlow and von Leon- 
hardi, in Veroffentlichungen aus dent stddlischen Volker-Museum 
(Frankfurt-am-Main, 1907, vol. i.). But Messrs B. Spencer and 
F. J. Gillen, who discovered Atnatu, did not find any trace of an 
All-Father among the Arunta, or any other of the tribes to the north 
and north-east of the centre. Mr Strehlow's branch of the Arunta 
they did not examine. 

It is plain that the All-Father belief, in favourable circumstances, 
especially if ghost worship remained undeveloped, might be evolved 
into theism. But all over the savage world, especially in Africa, 
spirit _worship has sprung up and choked the All-Father, who, how- 
ever, in most savage regions, abides as a name, receiving no sacrifice, 
and, save among the Masai, seldom being addressed in prayer. 
A list of such otiose great beings in the background of religion is 
given in Lang's The Making of Religion (1898). Since the publica- 
tion of that book much additional evidence has accrued from Africa 
and Melanesia, where the belief occurs in a few islands, but, in the 
majority, is absent or unrecorded. Most of the fresh evidence is 
given in La Notion de I'etre supreme chez les peuples non-civilises, 
by Ren6 Hoffmann (Geneva, 1907). See also the Journal of the 
Anthropological Institute (1899-1907), vols. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv., 
xxxv., and the works of Miss Mary Kingsley, and Spieth, Die Evie- 
Stamme, Reimer (Berlin, 1906), and Sundermann in Warneck's 
Allgemeine Missionszeilschrift, vol. xi. An excellent statement is that 
of Pere Schmidt, S.V.D., in Anthropos, Bd. III., Hft. 3 (1908), pp. 
559/-6II. Tylor's efforts to show that these All-Fathers were 
derived from missionary or other European influences (Nineteenth 

1 See Mrs Langloh Parker's The Euahlayi Tribe. 



MYTHOLOGY 



Century, 1892) have not been successful (see Lang,.WagJC and Religion, 
" The Theory of Loan Gods ") and N.W.Thomas in Man (1905), v., 49 
et seq. The All-Father belief is most potent among the lowest 
races, and always tends to become obsolete under the competition 
of serviceable ancestral spirits, or gods made in the image of such 
spirits, who can be bribed by sacrifices or induced by prayers to help 
man in his various needs. 

The belief in the All-Father in south-eastern Australia is concealed 
from the women and children who, at most, know his exoteric 
name, often meaning " Our Father," and is revealed only to the 
initiate, among whom are a very few white men, like Howitt. Mrs 
Langloh Parker, of course, was not initiated (indeed, no white man 
has gone through the actual and very painful rites), but confidences 
were made to her with great secrecy. The All-Father, even at his 
best, among the Kurnai, Kamilaroi and Euahlayi, is the centre of 
many grotesque and sportive myths. He usually has a wife and 
children, not in all cases born, but rather they are emanations. 
One of these children is often his mediator with men, and has the 
charge of the rites and the mystic bull-roarer. The relation is that 
of Apollo to Zeus in Greek myth. 

Many of the wilder myths are the expressions of the sportive and 
humorous faculties. Some arise naturally thus: Baiame, say, 
originated everything, therefore he originated the grotesque 
mummeries and dances of the mysteries. To explain these, myths 
have been developed to show that they arose in some grotesque 
incident of Baiame's personal existence on earth. Many Greek 
myths, most derogatory to the dignity of Demeter, Dionysus, Zeus 
or Hera, arose in the same way, as explanations of buffooneries in 
the Eleusinian or other mysteries. In medieval literature the most 
sacred persons of our religion have grotesque associations attached 
to them in the same manner. 

While the All-Father belief is common in the tribes of south- 
eastern Australia, the tribes round Lake Eyre, the Arunta (as 
known to Messrs Spencer and Gillen), and the other central and 
northern tribes, are credited with no germs of belief in what is called 
a supreme, and may truly be styled a superior being. That being, 
in many cases, but not so commonly in Australia, has a malevolent 
opposite who thwarts his work, an Ahriman to his Ormuzd. In 
one district, where the superior being is a crow, his opposite is an 
eagle-hawk. These two birds in many tribes give names to the two 
great exogamous and intermarrying divisions ; in their case there is a 
va et vient of divine, human and theriomorpnic elements, just as in 
the Greek myths of Zeus. As a rule, however, the Australian All- 
Father is anthropomorphic, and fairly well described in the native 
term when they speak English as " the Big Man," powerful, death- 
Jess, friendly, " able to go everywhere and do everything," " to see 
whatever you do." The existence of the belief in this being was 
accepted by T. Waitz, and, though disputed by many squatters and 
most anthropologists, is now admitted on the strength of the evidence 
of Howitt, Cameron, Mrs Langloh Parker, Dawson, W. E. Roth in 
Ethnological Studies, and many other close observers. The belief 
being esoteric, a secret of the initiated, necessarily escaped casual 
inquirers. 

Meanwhile, among some of the Arunta of the centre, among the 
Dieri and Urabunna tribes near Lake Eyre and their congeners, 
and among the tribes north by east of the Arunta, no such belief 
has been discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, from whom the 
tribes kept no secrets, or by Mr Siebert, a missionary among the now 
all but extinct Dieri. There is just a trace of a dim sky-dwelling 
being, Arawotja, possibly an all but obliterated survival of an All- 
Father. Howitt speaks too of the Dieri Kutchi, who inspires 
medicine-men with ideas, but about him our information is scanty. 
Among all these tribes religion now takes another line, the belief 
in a supernormal race of Titanic beings, with no superior, who were 
the first dwellers on earth ; who possessed powers far exceeding those 
of the medicine-men of to-day; and who, in one way or another, 
were connected with, or developed from, the totem animals,vege- 
tables and other objects. These beings modified the face of the 
country; in Arunta belief rocks and trees arose to mark the places 
where they finally " went into the ground " (Oknanikilla), and their 
spirits still haunt certain places such as these ; and are reincarnated 
in native women who pass by. These beings, in Arunta called 
" the people of the Alcheringa, or dream time " (but cf. Strehlow 
in Globus, ut supra), originated the tribal rites of initiation. In 
Dieri they are called M ura-Mura, and to them prayers are made for 
rain, accompanied by rain-making magic ceremonies, which in this 
case may be a symbolical expression of the prayers. There is a 
large body of myths about the Alcheringa folk, or Mura-Mura 
(see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Native 
Tribes of Northern Australia, and Howitt, Native Tribes of South- 
Eastern Australia), and the myths of their wanderings, prodigies 
and institution of rites and magic are represented in the dances of 
the mysteries. Most of the magic is worked (Intichiuma in Arunta) 
by the members of each totem kin or group for the behoof of the 
totem as an article of food supply. These rites are common in 
North America, but are worked, by members of gilds or societies, 
not by totem kins. 

The belief in these Mura-Mura or Alcheringa folk may obviously 
develop, in favourable circumstances, into a polytheism like that of 
Greece, or of Egypt, or of the Maoris. The old Irish gods in the 



poetic romances appear to have the same origin and shade away 
into the fairies. The baser Greek myths of the wanderings, 
amours and adventures of the gods, myths ignored by Homer, are 
parallel to ^he adventures of the Alcheringa people, and the fable of 
the mutilation of Osiris and the search for the lost organ by Isis, 
actually occurs among the Alcheringa tales of Messrs Spencer and 
Gillen. Among the Arunta, the Alcheringa folk are part of a 
strangely elaborate theory of evolution and of animism, which leaves 
no room for a creative being, or for a future life of the spirit, which 
is merely reincarnated at intervals. 

Thus the doctrines of evolution and of creation, or the making of 
things, stand apart, or blend, in the metaphysics and religion of the 
lowest and least progressive of known peoples. The question as to 
which theory came first, whether Alcheringaism is a scientific 
effort that swept away All-Fatherism, or whether All-Fatherism is 
a religious reaction in despair of science and of the evolutionary 
doctrine, is settled by each inquirer in accordance with his personal 
bias. It has been argued that All-Fatherism is an advance, con- 
ditioned by coastal influences more rain and more food con- 
comitant with a social advance to individual marriage, and reckon- 
ing of kin in the male line. But tribes far from the sea, as in northern 
New South Wales and Queensland, have the All-Father belief, with 
individual marriage and female descent, while tribes of the north 
coast, with male descent, are credited with no All-Father; and the 
Arunta, as far as possible from the sea, have no All-Father (save in 
Strehlow's district), and have individual marriage and male reckon- 
ing of descent in matters of inheritance; while the Urabunna and 
Dieri, with female descent and the custom of pirrauru (called " group 
marriage " by Howitt), are not credited with the All-Father belief. 
Thus coastal conditions have clearly no causal influence on the 
development of the All-Father belief. If they had, the natives of 
central Queensland, remote from the sea, should not have their 
All-Father (Mulkari), and the natives of the northern and north- 
eastern coasts should have an All-Father, who is still to seek. The 
Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen may have possessed and deposed 
the Altjira superior being of the Arunta known to Mr Strehlow, 
like the Atnatu of the adjacent Kaitish, or the All-Father of the 
neighbouring Luritja; or these beings may be more recent diver- 
gences of doctrine, departures from pure Alcheringaism with no All- 
Father. At present, at least, it is premature to dogmatize on these 
problems. 1 

The chief being among the supernatural characters of Bushman 
mythology is the insect called the Mantis. 1 Cagn or Ikaggen, the 
Mantis, is sometimes regarded with religious respect as 
a benevolent god. But his adventures are the merest 
nightmares of puerile fancy. He has a wife, an adopted 
daughter, whose real father is the " swallower " in Bushman swallow- 
ing myths, and the daughter has a son, who is the Ichneumon. 
The Mantis made an eland out of the shoe of his son-in-law. The 
moon was also created by the Mantis out of his shoe, and it is red, 
because the shoe was covered with the red dust of Bushman-land. 
The Mantis is defeated in an encounter with a cat which happened 
to be singing a song about a lynx. The Mantis (like Poseidon, 
Hades, Metis and other Greek gods)was once swallowed, butdis- 

Ejrged alive. The swallower was the monster Ilkhwai-hemm. 
ike Heracles when he leaped into the belly of the monster which 
was about to swallow Hesione, the Mantis once jumped down the 
throat of a hostile elephant, and so destroyed him. The heavenly 
bodies are gods among the Bushmen, but their nature and adventures 
must be discussed among other myths of sun, moon and stars. As 
a creator Cagn is sometimes said to have " given orders, and caused 
all things to appear to be made." He struck snakes with his staff 
and turned them into men, as Zeus did with the ants in Aegina. 
But the Bushmen's mythical theory of the origin of things must, 
as far as possible, be kept apart from the fables of the Mantis, the 
Ichneumon and other divine beings. Though animals, these gods 
have human passions and character, and possess the usual magical 
powers attributed to sorcerers. 

Concerning the mythology of the Hottentots and Namas, we have 
a great deal of information in a book named Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme 
BeingoftheKhoi-Khoi(i88i),byDrT.Hahn. This author collected 
the old notices of Hottentot myths, and added material from his 
own researches. The chief god of the Hottentots is a being named 
Tsuni-Goam, who is universally regarded by his worshippers as a 
deceased sorcerer. According to one old believer, " Tsui-Goab " 
(an alternative reading of the god's name) " was a great powerful 
chief of the Khoi-Khoi in fact, he was the first Khoi-Khoib from 
whom all the Khoi-Khoi tribes took their name." He is always 



African 
Savages. 



l The drawback to knowledge is the rarity of full acquaintance 
with native languages. Strehlow, Roth and Ridley seem best 
equipped on the linguistic side. Spencer and Gillen do not tell us 
that they have a colloquial knowledge of any Australian language. 
Gason, author of a work on the Dieri tribe, knew their language 
well, but several of his statements appear to be inaccurate. Mrs 
Langloh Parker describes her methods of checking and controlling 
native statements made in English. 

J Accounts of the Mantis and of his performances will be found 
in the Cape Monthly Magazine(July 1874), and in Dr Bleek's Brief 
Account of Bushman Folk-Lore. 



136 



MYTHOLOGY 



represented as at war (in the usual crude dualism of savages) with 
" another chief " named Gaunab. The prayers addressed to Tsui- 
Goab are simple and natural in character, the " private ejaculations " 
of men in moments of need or distress. As usual, religion is more 
advanced than mythology. It appears that, by some accounts, 
Tsui-Goab lives in the red sky and Gaunab in the dark sky. The 
neighbouring race of Namas have another old chief for god, a being 
called Heitsi Eibib. His graves are shown in many places, like those 
of Osiris, which, says Plutarch, abounded in Egypt. He is propi- 
tiated by passers-by at his sepulchres. He has intimate relations 
in peace and war with a variety of animals whose habits are some- 
times explained (like those of the serpent in Genesis) as the result 
of the curse of Heitsi Eibib. Heitsi Eibib was born in a mysterious 
way from a cow, as Indra in the Black Yaji'r-Veda entered >nto and 
was born from the womb of a being who also bore a cow. The 
Rig-Veda (iv. 18, i) remarks, " His mother, a cow, bore Indra, an 
unlicked calf " probably a metaphorical way of speaking. Heitsi 
Eibib, like countless other gods and herpes, is also said to have been 
the son of a virgin who tasted a particular plant, and so became 
pregnant, as in the German and Gallophrygian marchen of the 
almond tree, given by Grimm and Pausanias. Incest is one of the 
feats of Heitsi Eibib. Tsui-Goab, in the opinion of his worshippers, 
as we have seen, is a deified dead sorcerer, whose name means 
Wounded Knee, the sorcerer having been injured in the knee by an 
enemy. Dr Hahn tries to prove (by philology's " artful aid ") 
that the name really means " red dawn," and is a Hottentot way of 
speaking of the infinite. The philological arguments advanced 
are extremely weak, and by no means convincing. If we grant, 
however, for the sake of argument, that the early Hottentots wor- 
shipped the infinite under the figure of the dawn, and that, by for- 
getting their own meaning, they came to believe that the words 
which really meant " red dawn" meant " wounded knee " we must 
still admit that the devout have assigned to their deity all the attri- 
butes of an ancestral sorcerer. In short, " their Red Dawn," if 
red dawn he be, is a person, and a savage person, adored exactly as 
the actual fathers and grandfathers of the Hottentots are adored. 
We must explain this legend, then, on these principles, and not as an 
allegory of the dawn as the dawn appears to civilized people. About 
Gaunab (the Ahriman to Tsui-Goab's Ormuzd) Dr Hahn gives two 
distinct opinions. " Gaunab was at first a ghost, a mischief-maker 
and evil-doer " (op. cit. p. 85). But Gaunab he declares to be 
" the night-sky " (p. 126). Whether we regard Gaunab, Heitsi 
Eibib and Tsui-Goab as originally mythological representations of 
natural phenomena, or as deified dead men, it is plain that they are 
now venerated as non-natural human beings, possessing the custom- 
ary attributes of sorcerers. Thus of Tsui-Goab it is said, " He could 
do wonderful things which no other man could do, because he was 
very wise. He could tell what would happen in future times. 
He died several times, and several times he rose again " (statement 
of old Kxarab in Hahn, p. 61). 

The my thology of the Zulus as reported by H. Callaway (Unkulun- 
kulu, 1868-1870) is very thin and uninteresting. The Zulus are 
great worshippers of ancestors (who appear to men in the form of 
snakes), and they regard a being called Unkulunkulu as their first 
ancestor, and sometimes as the creator, or at least as the maker of 
men. It does not appear they identify Unkulunkulu, as a rule, 
with " the lord of heaven," who, like Indra, causes the thunder. 
The word answering to our lord is also applied," even to beasts, 
as the lion and the boa." The Zulus, like many distant races, 
sometimes attribute thunder to the " thunder-bird," which, as in 
North America, is occasionally seen and even killed by men. " It 
is said to have a red bill, red legs and a short red tail like fire. The 
bird is boiled for the sake of the fat, which is used by the heaven- 
doctors to puff on their bodies, and to anoint their lightning-rods." 
The Zulus are so absorbed in propitiating the shades of their dead 
(who, though in serpentine bodies, have human dispositions) that 
they appear to take little pleasure in mythological narratives. At 
the same time, the Zulus have many " nursery tales," the plots and 
incidents of which often bear the closest resemblance to the heroic 
myths of Greece, and to the marchen of European peoples. 1 These 
indications will give a general idea of African divine myths. On 
the west coast the " ananzi " or spider takes the place of the mantis 
insect among the Bushmen. For some of his exploits Dasent's Tales 
from the Norse (2nd ed., Appendix) may be consulted. For South 
African religion see Lang. Magic and Religion; Dennett, At the 
Back of the Black Man's Mind; Junod, Les Barotsa; Spieth, Die 
Ewe-Stamme; Frazer, The Golden Bough. 

Turning from the natives of Australia, and from African races 
of various degrees of culture, to the Papuan inhabitants of Melanesia, 
.. . , we find that mythological ideas are scarcely on a higher 
Sava s leve '- A" excellent account of the myths of the Banks 
Islanders and Solomon Islanders was given in Journ. 
Anthropol. Inst. (Feb. 1881) by the Rev. R. H. Codrington. The 
article contains a critical description of the difficulty with which mis- 
sionaries obtain information about the prior creeds. The people of the 



These are collected by Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales (1868). 
Similar Kafir stories, also closely resembling the popular fictions of 
European races, have been published by Theal. Many other examples 
are published in the South African Folk-Lore Journal (1879, 1880). 



Banks Islands are chiefly ancestor-worshippers, but they also believe 
in, and occasionally pray to, a being named I Qat, one of the prehuman 
race endowed with supernatural powers who here, as elsewhere, do 
duty as gods. Here is an example of a prayer to Qat the devotee 
is supposed to be in danger with his canoe: " Qate! Marawa! look 
down on me, smooth the sea for us two that I may go safely on the sea. 
Beat down for me the crests of the tide-rip ; let the tide-rip settle 
down away from me, beat it down level that it may sink and roll 
away, and I may come to a quiet landing-place." Compare the 
prayer of Odysseus to the river, whose mouth he had reached after 
three days' swimming on the tempestuous sea. " ' Hear me, 
O king, whosoever thou art, unto thee I am come as to one to whom 
prayer is made . . . nay, pity me, O king, for I avow myself thy 
suppliant.' So spake he, and the god stayed his stream, and with- 
held his waves, and made the water smooth before him " (Odyssey 
v. 450). The prayer of the Melanesian is on rather a higher religious 
level than that of the Homeric hero. The myths of Qat's adventures, 
however, are very crude, though not so wild as some of the Scan- 
dinavian myths about Odin and Loki, while they are less immoral 
than the adventures of Indra and Zeus. Qat was born in the isle 
of Vanua Levu; his mother was either a stone at the time of his 
birth, or was turned into a stone afterwards, jike Niobe. The mother 
of Apollo, according to Aelian, had the misfortune to be changed 
into a wolf. Qat had eleven brothers, not much more reputable 
than the Osbaldistones in Rob Roy. The youngest brother was 
" Tangaro Loloqong, the Fool." His pastime was to make wrong 
all that Qat made right, and he is sometimes the Ahriman to Qat's 
Ormuzd. The creative achievements of Qat must be treated of in 
the next section. Here it may be mentioned that, like the hero 
in the Breton marchen, Qat " brought the dawn " by introducing 
birds whose notes proclaimed the coming of morning. Before 
Qat's time there had been no night, but he purchased a sufficient 
allowance of darkness from I Qong, that is, night considered as a 
person in accordance with the law of savage thought already ex- 
plained. Night is a person in Greek mythology, and in the four- 
teenth book of the Iliad we read that Zeus abstained from punishing 
Sleep " because he feared to offend swift Night." Qat produced 
dawn, for the first time, by cutting the darkness with a knife of red 
obsidian. Afterwards " the fowls and birds showed the morning." 
On one occasion an evil power (Vui) slew all Qat's brothers, and 
hid them in a food-chest. As in the common " swallowing-myths " 
which we have met among bushmen and Australians, and will find 
among the Greeks, Qat restored his brethren to life. Qat is always 
accompanied by a powerful supernatural spider named Marawa. 
He first made Marawa's acquaintance when he was cutting down 
a tree for a canoe. Every night (as in the common European story, 
about bridge-building and church-building) the work was all undone 
by Marawa, whom Qat found means to conciliate. In all his future 
adventures the spider was as serviceable as the cat in Puss in Boots 
or the other grateful animals in European legend. Qat's great 
enemy, Qasavara, was dashed against the hard sky, and was turned 
into stone, like the foes of Perseus. The stone is still shown in Vanua 
Levu, like the stone which was Zeus in Laconia. Qat, like so many 
other " culture-heroes," disappeared mysteriously, and white men 
arriving in the island have been mistaken for Qat. His departure 
is sometimes connected with the myth of the deluge. In the New 
Hebrides, Tagar takes the rfile of Qat, and Suqe of the bad principle, 
Loki, Ahriman, Tangaro Loloqong, the Australian Crow and so 
forth. These are the best known divine myths of the Melanesians. 
For their All-Fathers see Holmes, /. A. I., vol. xxxv., and O'Farrell, 
J. A. I., vol. xxxiv., with Sundermann in Warneck's Allgemeine 
Missionszeitschrift, vol. xi. 1884. 

It is " a far cry " from Vanua Levu to Vancouver Island, and, 
ethnologically, the Ahts of the latter region are extremely remote 
from the Papuans with their mixture of Malay and , me _/can 
Polynesian blood. The Ahts, however, differ but little savas7 
in their mythological beliefs from the races of the Banks 
Islands or of the New Hebrides. In Sproat's Scenes from Savage 
Life (1868) there is a good account of Aht opinions by a settler who 
had won the confidence of the natives between 1860 and 1868. 
" There is no end to the stories which an old Indian will relate," says 
Mr Sproat, when " one quite possesses his confidence." "The first 
Indian who ever lived " is a divine being, something of a creator, 
something of a first father, like Unkulunkulu among the Zulus. 
His name is Quawteaht. He married a pre-existent bird, the thunder- 
bird Tootah (we have met him among the Zulus), and by the 
bird he became the father of Indians. Wispohahp is the Aht 
Noah, who, with his wife, his two brothers and their wives escaped 
from the deluge in a canoe. Quawteaht is inferior as a deity to the 
Sun and Moon. He is the Yama of an Aht paradise, or home of the 
dead, where " everything is beautiful and abundant." From all 
that is told of Quawteaht he seems to be an ideal and powerful Aht, 
imaginatively placed at the beginning of things, and quite capable 
of intermarriage with a bird. His creative exploits must be con- 
sidered later. Quawteaht is the Aht Prometheus Purphoros, or 
fire-stealer. 

Passing down the American continent from the north-west, we 
find Yehl the chief hero-god and mythical personage among the 
Tlingits. Like many other heroes or gods, Yehl had a miraculous 
birth. His mother, a Tlingit woman, whose sons had all been 



MYTHOLOGY 



slain, met a friendly dolphin, which advised her to swallow a pebble 
and a little sea-water. The birth of Yehl was the result. In his 
youth he shot a supernatural crane, and can always fly about in its 
feathers, like Odin and Loki in Scandinavian myth. He is usually, 
however, regarded as a raven, and holds the same relation to men 
and the world as the eagle-hawk Pund-jel does in Australia. His 
great opponent (for the eternal dualism comes in) is Khanukh, who 
is a wolf, and the ancestor or totem of the wolf-race of men as Yehl 
is of the raven. The opposition between the Crow and Eagle-hawk 
in Australia will be remembered. Both animals or men or gods 
take part in creation. Yehl is the Prometheus Purphoros of the 
Tlingits, but myths of the fire-stealer would form matter for a 
separate section. Yehl also stole water, in his bird-shape, exactly 
as Odin stole " Suttung's mead " when in the shape of an eagle. 1 
Yehl's powers of metamorphosis and of flying into the air are the 
common accomplishments of sorcerers, and he is a rather crude form 
of first father, culture-hero " and creator. 2 

Among the Karok Indians we find the great hero and divine 
benefactor in the shape of, not a raven, nor an eagle-hawk, nor a 
mantis insect, nor a spider, but a coyote. Among both Karok 
and Navaho the coyote is the Prometheus Purphoros, or, as the 
Aryans of India call him, Matarisvan the fire-stealer. Among the 
Papagos, on the eastern side of the Gulf of California, the coyote or 
prairie wolf is the creative hero and chief supernatural being. In 
Oregon the coyote is also the " demiurge," but most of the myths 
about him refer to his creative exploits, and will be more appro- 
priately treated in the next section. 

Moving up the Pacific coast to British Columbia, we find the 
musk-rat taking the part played by Vishnu, when in his avatar as a 
boar he fished up the earth from the waters. Among the Tinneh a 
miraculous dog, who, like an enchanted fairy prince, could assume 
the form of a handsome young man, is the chief divine being of the 
myths. He too is chiefly a creative or demiurgic being, answering 
to Purusha in the Rig Veda. So far the peculiar mark of the wilder 
American tribe legends is the bestial character of the divine beings, 
which is also illustrated in Australia and Africa, while the bestial 
clothing, feathers or fur, drops but slowly off Indra, Zeus and the 
Egyptian Ammon, and the Scandinavian Odin. All these are more 
or less anthropomorphic, but retain, as will be seen, numerous relics 
of a theriomorphic condition. 

See C. Hill-Tout and F. Boas in various publications, and, generally, 
the volumes of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 
U.S.A. For Ti-ra-wa, " the Ruler of the Universe," also styled 
A-ti-us, " father," among the Pawnees, see G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee 
Hero Stories (1893). 

Maori and Polynesian Beliefs. Passing from the lower savage 
myths, of which space does not permit us to offer a larger selection, 
we turn to races in the upper strata of barbarism. Among these 
the Maoris of New Zealand, and the Polynesian people generally, 
are remarkable for a mythology largely intermixed with early 
attempts at more philosophical speculation. The Maoris and 
Mangaians, and other peoples, have had speculators among them 
not very far removed from the mental condition of the earliest Greek 
philosophers, Empedocles, Anaximander, and the rest. In fact the 
process from the view of nature which we call personalism to the 
crudest theories of the physicists was apparently begun in New 
Zealand before the arrival of Europeans. In Maori mythology it 
is more than usually difficult to keep apart the origin of the world 
and the origin and nature of the gods. Long traditional hymns give 
an account of the " becoming out of nothing " which resulted in 
the evolution of the gods and the world. In the beginning (as in the 
Greek myths of Uranus and Gaea), Heaven (Rangi, conceived of as 
a person) was indissolubly united to his wife Earth (Papa), and be- 
tween them they begat gods which necessarily dwelt in darkness. 
These gods were some m vegetable, some in animal form; some 
traditions place among these gods Tiki the demiurge, who (like 
Prometheus) made men out of clay. The offspring of Rangi and 
Papa (kept in the dark as they were) held a council to determine 
how they should treat their parents, " Shall we slay them, or shall 
we separate them?" In the Hesiodic fable, Cronus separates 
the heavenly pair by mutilating his oppressive father Uranus. 
Among the Maoris the god Tutenganahan cut the sinews which 
united Earth and Heaven, and Tane Mahuta wrenched them apart, 
and kept them eternally asunder. The new dynasty now had 
earth to themselves, but Tawhiramatea, the wind, abode aloft with 
his father. Some of the gods were in the forms of lizards and fishes ; 
some went to the land, some to the water. As among the gods 
and Asuras of the Vedas, there were many wars in the divine race, 
and as the incantations of the Indian Brahmanas are derived from 
those old experiences of the Vedic gods, so are the incantations of 
the Maoris. The gods of New Zealand, the greater gods at least, 
may be called " departmental "; each person who is an elementary 
force is also the god of that force. As Te Heu, a powerful chief, 
said, there is division of labour among men, and so there is among 
gods. " One made this, another that; Tane made trees, Ru moun- 
tains, Tanga-roa fish, and so forth." * The " departmental " 
arrangement prevails among the polytheism of civilized peoples, 



1 Dasent, Bragi's Telling: Younger Edda, p. 94. 

1 Bancroft, vol. iv. ' Taylor, New Zealand, p. 108 



and is familiar to all from the Greek examples. Leaving the high 
gods whose functions are so large, while their forms (as of lizard, 
fish and tree) are often so mean, we come to Maui, the great divine 
hero of the supernatural race in Polynesia. Maui in some respects 
answers to the chief of the Adityas in Vedic mythology ; in others he 
answers to Qat, Quawteaht, and other savage divine personages. 
Like the son of the Vedic Aditi, 4 Maui is a rejected and abortive 
child of his mother, but afterwards attains to the highest reputation. 
As Qat brought the hitherto unknown night, so Maui settled the sun 
and moon in their proper courses. He induced the sun to move 
orderly by giving him a violent beating. A similar feat was per- 
formed by the Sun- trapper, a famous Red Indian chief. These 
tales belong properly to the department of solar myths. Maui him- 
self is thought by E. B. Tylor to be a myth of the sun, but the sun 
could hardly give the sun a drubbing. Maui slew monsters, invented 
barbs for fish-hooks, frequently adopted the form of various birds, 
acted as Prometheus Purphoros the fire-stealer, drew a whole island 
up from the bottom of the deep ; he was a great sorcerer and magician. 
Had Maui succeeded in his attempt to pass through the body of 
Night (considered as a woman) men would have been immortal. 
But a little bird which sings at sunset wakened Night, she snapped up 
Maui, and men die. This has been called a myth of sunset, but the 
sun does what Maui failed to do, he passes through the body of Night 
unharmed. The adventure is one of the myths of the origin of 
death, which are almost universally diffused. Maui, though regarded 
as a god, is not often addressed in prayer. 6 

The whole system, as far as it can be called a system, of Maori 
mythology is obviously based on the savage conceptions of the 
world which have already been explained. The Polynesian system 
differs mainly in detail; we have the separation of heaven and earth, 
the animal-shaped gods, the fire-stealing, the exploits of Maui, and 
scores of minor myths in W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs of the South 
Pacific, in the researches of W. Ellis, of Williams, in G. Turner's 
Polynesia, and in many other accessible works. 

Mexican and Peruman Beliefs. The Maoris and other Polynesian 
peoples are perhaps the best examples of a race which has risen far 
above the savagery of Bushmen and Australians, but has not yet 
arrived at the stage in which great centralized monarchies appear. 
The Mexican and Peruvian civilizations were far ahead of Maori 
culture, in so far as they possessed the elements of a much more 
settled and highly-organized society. Their religion had its fine 
lucid intervals, but their mythology and ritual were little better 
than savage ideas, elaborately worked up by the imagination of a 
cruel and superstitious priesthood. In cruelty the Aztecs surpassed 
perhaps all peoples of the Old World, except certain Semitic stocks, 
and their gods, of course, surpassed almost all other gods in blood- 
thirstiness. But in grotesque and savage points of faith the ancient 
Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Vedic Indians ran even the Aztecs 
pretty close. 

Bernal Diaz, the old " conquistador," has described the hideous 
aspect of the idols which Cortes destroyed, " idols in the shape of 
hideous dragons as big as calves," idols half in the form of men, 
half of dogs, and serpents which were worshipped as divine. The 
old contemporary missionary Sahagun has left one of the earliest 
detailed accounts of the natures and myths of these gods, but, though 
Sahagun took great pains in collecting facts, his speculations must 
be accepted with caution. He was convinced (like Caxton in his 
Destruction of Troy, and like St Augustine) that the heathen gods 
were only dead men worshipped. Ancestor-worship is a great force 
in early religion, and the qualities of dead chiefs and sorcerers are 
freely attributed to gods, but it does not follow that each god was 
once a real man, as Sahagun supposes. Euemerism cannot be 
judiciously carried so far as this. Of Huitzilopochtli, the famed 
god, Sahagun says that he was a necromancer, loved " shape- 
shifting," like Odin, metamorphosed himself into animal forms, was 
miraculously conceived, and, among animals, is confused with the 
humming-bird, whose feathers adorned his statues."' This hum- 
ming-bird god should be compared with the Roman Picus (Servius, 
189). That the humming-bird (Nuitziton), which was the god's 
old shape, should become merely his attendant (like the owl of Pallas, 
the mouse of Apollo, the goose of Priapus, the cuckoo of Hera), when 
the god received anthropomorphic form, is an example of a process 
common in all mythologies. Plutarch observes that the Greeks, 
though accustomed to the conceptions of the animal attendants 
of their own gods, were amazed when they found animals worshipped 
as gods by the Egyptians. Miiller 7 mentions the view that the 
humming-bird, as the most beautiful flying thing, is a proper symbol 
of the heaven, and so of the heaven-god, Huitzilopochtli. This 
vein of symbolism is so easy to work that it must be regarded with 
distrust. Perhaps it is safer to attribute theriomorphic shapes of 

* Rig Veda, x. 72, I, 8; Muir, Sanskrit Texts, iv. 13, where the fable 
from the Satapatha-Brahmana is given. 

6 The best authorities for the New Zealand myths are the old 
traditional priestly hymns, collected and translated in the works of 
Sir George Grey, in Taylor's New Zealand, in Shortland's Traditions 
of New_ Zealand (1857), in Bastian's Heilige Sage der Polynesier, and 
in White's Ancient History of the Maori, i. 8-13. 

6 See also Bancroft, iii. 288-290, and Acosta, pp. 352-361. 

T Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 592. 



MYTHOLOGY 



gods, not to symbolism (Zeus was a cuckoo), but to survivals from 
that quality of early thought which draws no line between man and 
god and beast and bird and fish. If spiders may be great gods, why 
not the more attractive humming-birds ? Like many other gods, 
Huitzilopochtli slew his foes at his birth, and hence received names 
analogous to AMOS and 4>6/3os: Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii. 
307) calls Huitzilopochtli an " inextricable compound partheno- 
genetic god." His sacrament, when paste idols of him were eaten 
by the communicants, was at the winter solstice, whence it may, 
perhaps, be inferred that Huitzilopochtli was not only a war-god 
but a nature-god in both respects anthropomorphic, and in both 
bearing traces of the time when he was but a humming-bird, as Yehl 
was a raven (Muller, op. cit. p. 595). As a humming-bird, Huitzilo- 
pochtli led the Aztecs to a new home, as a wolf led the Hirpini, and 
as a woodpecker led the Sabines. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec deity, 
is as much a sparrow (or similar small bird) as Huitzilopochtli is a 
humming-bird. Acosta says he retained the sparrow's head in his 
statue. For the composite character of Quetzalcoatl as a "culture- 
hero " (a more polished version of Qat), as a " nature-god," and 
as a theriomorphic god see Muller (op. cit. pp. 583-584). Muller 
frankly recognizes that not only are animals symbols of deity and 
its attributes, not only are they companions and messengers of deity 
(as in the period of anthropomorphic religion), but they have been 
divine beings in and for themselves during the earlier stages of 
thought. The Mexican " departmental " gods answer to those of 
other polytheisms; there is an Aztec Ceres, an Aztec Lucina, an 
Aztec Vulcan, an Aztec Flora, an Aztec Venus. The creative myths 
and sun myths are crude and very early in character. 

Egyptian Myths. On a much larger and more magnificent scale, 
and on a much more permanent basis, the society of ancient Egypt 
somewhat resembled that of ancient Mexico. The divine myths of 
the two nations had points in common, but there are few topics 
more obscure than Egyptian mythology. Writers are apt to speak 
of Egyptian religion as if it were a single phenomenon of which all 
the aspects could be observed at a given time. In point of fact 
Egyptian religion (conservative though it was) lasted through per- 
haps five thousand years, was subject to innumerable influences, 
historical, ethnological, philosophical, and was variously represented 
by various schools of priests. We cannot take the Platonic specula- 
tions of lamblichus about the nature and manifestations of Egyptian 
godhead as evidence for the belief of the peoples who first worshipped 
the Egyptian gods an innumerable series of ages before lamblichus 
and Plutarch. Nor can the esoteric and pantheistic theories of 
priests (according to which the various beast-gods were symbolic 
manifestations of the divine essence) be received as an historical 
account of the origin of the local animal-worships. It has already 
been shown that the lowest and least intellectual races indulge in 
local animal-worship, each stock having its parent bird, beast, fish, 
or even plant, or inanimate object. It has also been shown that 
these backward peoples recognize a non-natural race of men or 
animals, or both, as the first fathers, heroes, and, in a sense, gods. 
Such ideas are consonant with, and may be traced to the confused 
and nebulous condition of, savage thought. Precisely the same 
ideas are found at various periods among the ancient Egyptians. 
If we are to regard the Egyptian myths about the gods in animal 
shape, and about the non-natural superhuman heroes, and their 
wars and loves, as esoteric allegories devised by civilized priests, 
perhaps we should also explain Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, the Mantis 
god, the Spider creator, the Coyote and Raven gods as priestly 
inventions, put forth in a civilized age, and retained by Australians, 
Bushmen, Hottentots, Ahts, Thlinkeets, Papuans, who preserve 
no other vestiges of high civilization. Or we may take the opposite 
view, and regard the story of Osiris and his war with Seth (who shut 
him up in a box and mutilated him) as a dualistic myth, originally 
on the level of the battle between'Gaunab andTsui-Goab, or between 
Tagar and Suqe. We may regard the local beast- and plant-gods 
of Egypt as survivals of totems and totem-gods like those of Australia, 
India, America, Africa, Siberia and other countries. In this article 
the latter view is adopted. The beast-gods and dualistic and creative 
myths of savages are looked on as the natural product of the savage 
reason and fancy. The same beast-gods and myths in civilized 
Egypt are looked on as survivals from the rude and early condition 
of thought to which such conceptions are natural. 

In the most ancient Egyptian records the gods are not pictorially 
represented, and we have not obtained from these records any 
descriptions of adoration and sacrifice. There is a prayer to the 
Sky on the coffin of the king of Dynasty IV., known as Mycerinus 
to the Greeks. The king describes himself as the child of Sky and 
Earth. He also somewhat obscurely identifies himself with Osiris. 

We thus find Osiris very near the beginning of what is known 
about Egyptian religion. This being is rather a culture-hero, a 
member of a non-natural race of men like Qat or Manabozho, than a 
god. His myth, to be afterwards narrated, is found pictorially 
represented in a tomb and in the late temple of Philae, is frequently 
alluded to in the litanies of the dead about 1400 B.C., is indicated 
with reverent awe by Herodotus, and after the Christian era is 
described at full length by Plutarch. Whether the same myth was 
current in the far more distant days of Mycerinus, it is, of course, 
impossible to say with dogmatic certainty. The religious history 
of Egypt, from perhaps Dynasty X. to Dynasty XX., is interrupted 



by an invasion of Semitic conquerors and Semitic ideas. Prior to 
that invasion the gods, when mentioned in monuments, are always 
represented by animals, and these animals are the object of strictly 
local worship. The name of each god is spelled in hieroglyphs beside 
the beast or bird. The jackal stands for Anup, the hawk for Har, 
the frog for Hekt, the baboon for Tahuti, and Ptah, Asiri, Hesi, 
Nebhat, Hat-hor, Neit, Khnum and Amun-hor are all written out 
phonetically, but never represented in pictures. Different cities 
had their different beast-gods. Pasht, the cat, was the god of 
Bubastis; Apis, the bull, of Memphis; Hapi, the wolf , of Sioot; Ba, 
the goat, of Mendes. The evidence of Herodotus, Plutarch and the 
other writers shows that the Egyptians of each district refused to 
eat the flesh of the animal they held sacred. So far the identity of 
custom with savage totemism is absolute. Of all the explanations, 
then, of Egyptian animal-worship, that which regards the practice 
as a survival of totemism and of savagery seems the most satis- 
factory. So far Egyptian religion only represented her gods in 
theriomorphic shape. Beasts also appeared in the royal genealogies, 
as if the early Egyptians had filled up the measure of totemism by 
regarding themselves as actually descended from animals. 

With one or two exceptions, " the first (semi-anthropomorphic) 
figures of gods known in the civilized parts of Egypt are on the granite 
obelisk of Bezig in the Fayyiim, erected by Usertesen I. of Dynasty 
XII., and here we find the forms all full-blown at once. The first 
group of deities belongs to a period and a district in which Semitic 
influences had undoubtedly begun to work " (Petrie). From this 
period the mixed and monstrous figures, semi-theriomorphic, semi- 
anthropomorphic, hawk-headed and ram-headed and jackal-headed 
gods become common. This may be attributed to Semitic influence, 
or we may suppose that the process of anthropomorphizing therio- 
morphic gods was naturally developing itself; for Mexico has shown 
us and Greece can show us abundant examples of these mixed 
figures, in which the anthropomorphic god retains traces of his 
theriomorphic past. The heretical worship of the solar disk inter- 
rupted the course of Egyptian religion under some reforming kings, 
but the great and glorious Ramesside Dynasty (XIX.) restored 
" Orus and Isis and the dog Anubis " with the rest of the semi- 
theriomorphic deities. These survived even their defeat by the 
splendid human gods of Rome, and only " fled from the folding 
star of Bethlehem." 

Though Egypt was rich in gods, her literature is not fertile in 
myths. The religious compositions which have survived are, as a 
rule, hymns and litanies, the funereal service, the " Book of the 
Dead." In these works the myths are taken for granted, are 
alluded to in the course of addresses to the divine beings, but, 
naturally, are not told in full. As in the case of the Vedas, hymns 
are poor sources for the study of mythology, just as the hymns of 
the Church would throw little light on the incidents of the gospel 
story or of the Old Testament. The " sacred legends " which the 
priests or temple servants freely communicated to Herodotus 
are lost through the pious reserve of the traveller. Herodotus 
constantly alludes to the most famous Egyptian myth.that of Osiris, 
and he recognizes the analogies between the Osirian myth and 
mysteries and those of Dionysus. But we have to turn to the very late 
authority of Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride) for an account, confessedly 
incomplete and expurgated, of what mythology had to tell about 
the great Egyptian " culture-hero," " daemon, and god. Osiris, 
Horus, Typhon (Seth), Isis and Nephthys were the children of Seb 
(whom the Greeks identified with Cronus) ; the myths of their birth 
were peculiarly savage and obscene. Osiris introduced civilization 
into Egypt, and then wandered over the world, making men 
acquainted with agriculture and the arts, as Pund-jel in his humbler 
way did in Australia. On his return Typhon laid a plot for him. 
He had a beautiful carved chest made which exactly fitted Osiris, 
and at an entertainment offered to give it to any one who could lie 
down in it. As soon as Osiris tried, Typhon had the box nailed up, 
and threw it into the Tanaite branch of the Nile. Isis wandered, 
mourning, in search of the body, as Demeter sought Persephone, 
and perhaps in Plutarch's late version some incidents may be 
borrowed from the Eleusinian legend. At length she found the 
chest, which in her absence was again discovered by Typhon. He 
mangled the body of Osiris (as so many gods of all races were mangled), 
and tossed the fragments about. Wherever Isis found a portion 
of Osiris she buried it ; hence Egypt was as rich in graves of Osiris as 
Namaqualand in graves of Heitsi Eibib. The phallus alone she did 
not find, but she consecrated a model thereof ; hence (says the myth) 
came the phallus-worship of Egypt. Afterwards Osiris returned 
from the shades, and (in the form of a wolf) urged his son Hprus to 
revenge him on Typhon^ The gods fought in animal shape (Birch, in 
Wilkinson, 




mous 
oft 

also show the stars into which they were metamorphosed, as the 
Eskimo and Australians and Aryans of India and Greeks have recog- 
nized in the constellations their ancient heroes. Plutarch remarked 
the fact that the Greek myths of Cronus, of Dionysus, of Apollo and 
the Python, and of Demeter, " all the things that are shrouded in 
mystic ceremonies and are presented in rites," " do not fall short in 
absurdity of the legends about Osiris and Typhon." Plutarch 
naturally presumed that the myths which seem absurd shrouded 



MYTHOLOGY 



139 



some great moral or physical mystery. But we apply no such 
explanation to similar savage legends, and our theory is that the 
Osirian myth is only one of these retained to the time of Plutarch by 
the religious conservatism of a race which, to the time of Plutarch, 
preserved in full vigour most of the practices of totemism. As a 
slight confirmation of the possibility of this theory we may mention 
that Greek mysteries retained two of the features of savage mysteries. 
The first was the rite of daubing the initiated with clay. 1 This 
custom prevails in African mysteries, in Guiana, among Australians, 
Papuans, and Andaman Islanders. The other custom is the use of 
the turndun, as the Australians call a little fish-shaped piece of 
wood tied to a string, and waved so as to produce a loud booming 
and whirring noise and keep away the profane, especially women. 
It is employed in New Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand and 
Australia. This instrument, the KWTOJ, was also used in Greek 
mysteries.* Neither the use of the KUTOS nor of the clay can very 
well be regarded as a civilized practice retained by savages. The 
hypothesis that the rites and the stories are savage inventions 
surviving into civilized religion seems better to meet the difficulty. 
That the Osirian myth (much as it was elaborated and allegorized) 
originated in the same sort of fancy as the Tacullie story of the 
dismembered beaver out of whose body things were made is a con- 
clusion not devoid of plausibility. Typhon's later career, " commit- 
ting dreadful crimes out of envy and spite, and throwing all things 
into confusion," was parallel to the proceedings of most of the divine 
beings who put everything wrong, in opposition to the being who 
makes everything right. This is perhaps an early " dualist ii: " 
myth. 

Among other mythic Egyptian figures we have Ra, who once 
destroyed men in his wrath with circumstances suggestive of the 
Deluge; Khnum, a demiurge, is represented at Philae as making man 
out of clay on a potter's wheel. Here the wheel is added to the 
Maori conception of the making of man. Khnum is said to have 
reconstructed the limbs of the dismembered Osiris. Ptah is the 
Egyptian Hephaestus; he is represented as a dwarf; men are said 
to have come out of his eye, gods out of his mouth a story like that 
of Purusha in the Rig Veda. As creator of man, Ptah is a frog. 
Bubastis became a cat to avoid the wrath of Typhon. Ra, the sun, 
fought the big serpent Apap, as Indra fought Vrittra. Seb is a 
goose, called the great cackler "; he laid the creative egg. 3 

Divine Myths of the Aryans of India. Indra. The gods of the 
Vedas and Brahmanas (the ancient hymns and canonized ritual-books 
of Aryan India) are, on the whole, of the usual polytheistic type. 
More than many other gods they retain in their titles and attributes 
the character of elemental phenomena personified. That personifica- 
tion is, as a rule, anthropomorphic, but traces of theriomorphic 
personification are still very apparent. The ideas which may be 
gathered about the gods from the hymns are (as is usual in heathen 
religions) without consistency. There is no strict orthodoxy. As 
each bard of each bardic family celebrates his favourite god he is apt 
to make him for the moment the pre-eminent deity of all. This way 
of thinking about the gods leads naturally in the direction of a 
pantheistic monotheism in which each divine being may be regarded 
as a manifestation of the one divine essence. No doubt this point 
of view was attained in centuries extremely remote by sages of the 
civilized Vedic world. It is easy, however, to detect certain peculiar 
characteristics of each god. As among races much less advanced 
in civilization than the Vedic Indians, each of the greater powers 
has his own separate department, however much his worshippers 
may be inclined to regard him as an absolute premier with undisputed 
latitude of personal government. Thus Indra is mainly concerned 
with thunder and other atmospheric phenomena; but Vayu is the 
wind, the Maruts are wind-gods, Agni is fire or the god of fire, and 
so connected with lightning. Powerful as Indra is in the celestial 
world, Mitra and Varuna preside over night and day. Ushas is 
the dawn, and Tvashtri is the mechanic among the gods, correspond- 
ing to the Egyptian Ptah and the Greek Hephaestus. Though 
lofty moral qualities and deep concern about the conduct of men 
are attributed to the gods in the Vedic hymns, yet the hymns contain 
traces (and these are amplified in the ritual books) of a divine 
chronique scandaleuse. In this chronique the gods, like other gods, 
are adventurous warriors, adulterers, incestuous, homicidal, given 
to animal transformations, cowardly, and in fact charged with all 
human vices, and credited with magical powers. 4 It would be 
difficult to speak too highly of the ethical nobility of many Vedic 
hymns. The " hunger and thirst after righteousness " of the sacred 



1 Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313, uoi naBalpav rows Tt\ovnkvo\n nal 

iiTOIiiiTTtjlV T<J> HTjXlJ Kdl TOIS XlTUpOlS. 

2 KWTOS uXApioc ow 4ijrrai fi> avaprlov, nal iv TaTs TeXtTais tioPtiro 
iKafioifjj. Quoted by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. 700, from Bastius 
ad Gregor., 241, anil from other sources; cf. Arnobius, v. c. 19, 
where the word turbines is the Latin term. 

' Wilkinson, iii. 62, see note by Dr Birch. A more detailed 
account of Egyptian religion is given under EGYPT. Unfortunately 
Egyptologists have rarely a wide knowledge of the myths of the lower 
races, while anthropologists are seldom or never Egyptologists. 

4 For examples of the lofty morality sometimes attributed to the 
gods, see Max Miiller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 284; Rig-Veda, ii. 28; 
iv. 12, 4; viii. 93 seq. ; Mutr, Sanskrit Texts, v. 218. 



poet recalls the noblest aspirations and regrets of the Hebrew 
psalmist. But this aspect of the Vedic deities is essentially matter 
for the science of religion rather than of mythology, which is con- 
cerned with the stories told about the gods. Religion is always 
forgetting, or explaining away, or apologizing for these stories. 
Now the Vedic deities, so imposing when regarded as vast natural 
forces (as such forces seem to us), so benignant when appealed to 
as forgivers of sins, have also their mythological aspect. In this 
aspect they are natural phenomena still, but phenomena as originally 
conceived of by the personifying imagination of the savage, and 
credited, like the gods of the Maori or the Australian, with all 
manner of freaks, adventures and disguises. The Veda, it is true, 
does not usually dilate much on the worst of these adventures. 
The Veda contains devotional hymns; we can no more expect much 
narrative here than in the Psalms of David. Again, the religious 
sentiment of the Veda is half-consciously hostile to the stories. As 
M. A. Barth says, " Le sentiment religieux a ecarte la plupart de 
ces mythes, mais il ne les a ecartes tous." The Brahmanas, on the 
other hand, later compilations, canonized books for the direction 
of ritual and sacrifice, are rich in senseless and irrational myths. 
Sometimes these myths are probably later than the Veda, mere 
explanations of ritual incidents devised by the priests. Sometimes 
a myth probably older than the Vedas, and maintained in popular 
tradition, is reported in the Brahmanas. The gods in the Veda are 
by no means always regarded as equal in supremacy. There were 
great and small, young and old gods (R. V. i. 27, 13). Elsewhere 
this is flatly contradicted: " None of you, oh gods, is small or young, 
ye are all great " (R. V. viii. 30, i). As to the immortality and the 
origin of the gods, there is no orthodox opinion in the Veda. Many 
of the myths of the origin of the divine beings are on a level with the 
Maori theory that Heaven and Earth begat them in the ordinary way. 
Again, the gods were represented as the children of Aditi. This may 
be taken either in a refined sense, as if Aditi were the " infinite 
region from which the solar deities rise, 6 or we may hold with the 
Taittirya-Brahmana* that Aditi was a female who, being desirous 
of offspring, cooked a brahmandana offering for the Sadhyas. 
Various other fathers and mothers of the gods are mentioned. 
Some gods, particularly Indra, are said to have won divine rank by 
" austere fervour " and asceticism, which is one of the processes 
that makes gods out of mortals even now in India. 7 The gods are 
not always even credited with inherent immortality. Like men, 
they were subject to death, which they overcame in various ways. 
Like most gods, they had struggles for pre-eminence with Titanic 
opponents, the Asuras, who partly answer to the Greek Titans and 
the Hawaiian foes of the divine race, or to the Scandinavian giants 
and the enemies who beset the savage creative beings. Early man, 
living in a state of endless warfare, naturally believes that his gods 
also nave their battles. The chief foes of Indra are Vrittra and Ahi, 
serpents which swallow up the waters, precisely as frogs do in Austra- 
lian and Californian and Andaman myths. It has already been 
shown that such creatures, thunder-birds, snakes, dragons, and what 
not, people the sky in the imagination of Zulus, Red Men, Chinese, 
Peruvians, and all the races who believe that beasts hunt the sun 
and moon and cause eclipses. 8 Though hostile to Asuras, Indra 
was once entangled in an intrigue with a woman of that race, accord- 
ing to the Athania-Veda (Muir, 5. T. \. 82). The gods were less 
numerous than the Asuras, but by a magical stratagem turned some 
bricks into gods (like a creation of new peers to carry a vote) so says 
the Black Yajur-Veda.' 

Turning to separate gods, Indra first claims attention, for stories 
of Heaven and Earth are better studied under the heading of myths 
of the origin of things. Indra has this zoomorphic feature in common 
with Heitsi Eibib, the Namaqua god, 10 that his mother, or one of 
his mothers, was a cow (R. V. iv. 18, i). This statement may be 
a mere way of speaking in the Veda, but it is a rather Hottentot way. 11 
Indra is also referred to as a ram in the Veda, and in one myth this 
ram could fly, like the Greek ram of the fleece of gold. He was 
certainly so far connected with sheep that he and sheep and the 
Kshatriya caste sprang from the breast and arms of Prajapati, a 
kind of creative being. Indra was a great drinker of spma juice; 
a drinking-song by Indra, much bemused with soma, is in R. V. x. 
1 19. On one occasion Indra got at the soma by assuming the shape 
of a quail. In the Taitt. Sarah, (ii. 5; i. i) Indra is said to have been 
guilty of that most hideous crime, the killing of a Brahmana." u 
Once, though uninvited, Indra drank some soma that had been 
prepared for another being. The soma disagreed with Indra; part 
of it which was not drunk up became Vrittra the serpent, Indra's 

6 Miiller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 230. 

Muir, 5. T., v. 55; i. 27. 

7 See Sir A. Lyall, Asiatic Studies. For Ve^ic examples, see R.-V. 
x. 167, i ; x. 159, 4; Muir, 5. T. v. 15. 

8 See Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. 288, 329, 356. 

The chief authority for the constant strife between gods and 
Asuras is the Satapatha-Brahmana, of which one volume is translated 
in Sacred Books of the East (vol. xii.). 

10 Hahn, Tsunt-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Hottentots, p. 68. 

11 See Muir, 5. T., v. 16, 17, for Indra's peculiar achievements 
with a cow. 

a Sacred Books of the East, xii. i, 48. 



140 



MYTHOLOGY 



enemy. Indra cut him in two, and made the moon out of half of 
his body. This serpent was a universal devourer of everything and 
everybody, like Kwai Hemm, the all-devourer in Bushman mytho- 
logy. If this invention is a late priestly one, the person who intro- 
duced it into the Satapatha-Brahmana must have reverted to the 
intellectual condition of Bushmen. In the fight with Vrittra, Indra 
lost his energy, which fell to the earth and produced plants and 
shrubs. In the same way plants, among the Iroquois, were made of 
pieces knocked off Chokampok in his fight with Manabozho. Vines, 
in particular, are the entrails of Chokanipok. In Egypt, wine was 
the blood of the enemies of the gods. The Aryan versions of this 
sensible legend will be found in Satapatha-Brahmana. 1 The civilized 
mind soon wearies of this stuff, and perhaps enough has been said 
to prove that, in the traditions of Vedic devotees, Indra was not a 
god without an irrational element in his myth. Our argument is, 
that all these legends about Indra, of which only a sample is given, 
have no necessary connexion with the worship of a pure nature-god 
as a nature-god would now be constructed by men. The legends 
are survivals of a time in which natural phenomena were regarded, 
not as we regard them, but as persons, ana savage persons, Alcheringa 
folk, in fact, and became the centres of legends in the savage manner. 
Space does not permit us to recount the equally puerile and barbarous 
legends of Vishnu, Agni, the loves of Vivasvat in the form of a horse, 
the adventures of Soma, nor the Vedic amours (paralleled in several 
savage mythologies) of Pururavas and Urvasi. 2 

Divine Myths of Greece. If any ancient people was thoroughly 
civilized the Greeks were that people. Yet in the mythology and 
religion of Greece we find abundant survivals of savage manners and 
of savage myths. As to the religion, it is enough to point to the 
traces of human sacrifice and to the worship of rude fetish stones. 
The human sacrifices at Salamis in Cyprus and at Alos in Achaia 
Phthiotis may be said to have continued almost to the conversion 
of the empire (Grote i. 125, ed. 1869). Pausanias seems to have 
found human sacrifices to Zeus still lingering in Arcadia in the 2nd 
century of our era. " On this altar on the Lycaean hill they sacrifice 
to Zeus in a manner that may not be spoken, and little liking had I 
to pry far into that sacrifice. But let it be as it is, and as it hath 
been from the beginning." Now " from the beginning " the sacrifice, 
according to Arcadian tradition, had been a human sacrifice. In 
other places there were manifest commutations of human sacrifice, 
as at the altar of Artemis the Implacable at Patrae, where Pausanias 
saw the wild beasts being driven into the_ flames. 3 Many other exam- 
ples of human sacrifice are mentioned in Greek legend. Pausanias 
gives full and interesting details of the worship of rude stones, 
the oldest worship, he says, among the Greeks. Almost every 
temple had its fetish stone on a level with the pumice stone, which is 
the Poseidon of the Mangaians. 4 The Argives had a large stone 
called Zeus Cappotas. The oldest idol of the Thespians was a rude 
stone. Another has been found beneath the pedestal of Apollo 
in Delos. In Achaean Pharae were thirty squared stones, each 
named by the name of a god. Among monstrous images of the gods 
which Pausanias, who saw them, regarded as the oldest idols, were 
the three-headed Artemis, each head being that of an animal, the 
Demeter with the horse's head, the Artemis with the fish's tail, the 
Zeus with three eyes, the ithyphallic Hermes, represented after the 
fashion of the Priapic figures in paintings on the walls of caves 
among the Bushmen. We also hear of the bull and the bull-footed 
Dionysus. Phallic and other obscene emblems were carried abroad 
in processions in Attica both by women and men. The Greek 
custom of daubing people all over with clay in the mysteries 
results as we saw in the mysteries of negroes, Australians and 
American races, while the Australian turndun was exhibited 
among the toys at the mysteries of Dionysus. The survivals 
of rites, objects of worship, and sacrifices like these prove that 
religious conservatism in Greece retained much of savage practice, 
and the Greek mythology is not less full of ideas familiar to the 
lowest races. The authorities for Greek mythology are numerous 
and various in character. The oldest sources as literary docu- 
ments are the Homeric and Hesiodic poems. In the Iliad and 
Odyssey the gods and goddesses are beautiful, powerful and immortal 
anthropomorphic beings. The name of Zeus (Skr. Dyaus) clearly 
indicates his connexion with the sky. But in Homer he has long 
ceased to be merely the sky conceived of as a person; he is the 

1 Sacred Books of the East, xii. 176, 177. 

1 On the whole subject, Dr Muir's Ancient Sanskrit Texts, with 
'translations, Lud wig's translation of the Rig Veda, the version 
of the Satapatha-Brahmana already referred to, and the translation 
of the Aitareya-Brahmana by Haug, are the sources most open to 
English readers. Max Miiller's translation of the Rig Veda unfor- 
tunately only deals with the hymns to the Maruts. The Indian 
epics and the Puranas belong to a much later date, and are full of 
deities either unknown to or undeveloped in the Rig Veda and the 
Brahmanas. _ It is much to be regretted that the Atharva-Veda, 
which contains the magical formulae and incantations of the Vedic 
Indians, is still untranslated, though, by the very nature of its theme, 
it must contain matter of extreme antiquity and interest. 

8 Pausanias iii. 16; vii. 18. Human sacrifice to Dionysus, Paus. 
vii. 21 ; Plutarch, De Is. el Os. 35; Porphyry, De Abst. ii. 55. 

4 Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 60. 



chief personage in a society of immortals, organized on the type of 
contemporary human society. " There is a great deal of human 
nature ' in his wife Hera (Skr. Svar, Heaven). 6 It is to be remem- 
bered that philologists differ widely as to the origin and meaning of 
the names of almost all the Greek gods. Thus the light which the 
science of language throws on Greek myths is extremely uncertain. 
Hera is explained as " the feminine side of heaven " by some authori- 
ties. The quarrels of Hera with Zeus (which are a humorous 
anthropomorphic study in Homer) are represented as a way of speak- 
ing about winter and rough weather. The other chief Homeric 
deities are Apollo and Artemis, children of Zeus by Leto, a mortal 
mother raised to divinity. Apollo is clearly connected in some way 
with light, as his name <oi/Jos seems to indicate, and with purity. 6 
Homer knows the legend that a giant sought to lay violent hands on 
Leto (Od. xi. 580). Smintheus, one of Apollo's titles in Homer, is 
connected with the field-mouse (anlvOos), one of his many sacred 
animals. His names, AUMOS, tviantviis, were connected by an- 
tiquity with the wolf, by most modern writers with the light. 
According to some legends Leto had been a were-wolf .' The whole 
subject of the relations of Greek gods to animals is best set forth in 
the words of Plutarch (De Is. et Os. Ixxi.), where he says that the 
Egyptians worship actual beasts, " whereas the Greeks both speak 
and believe correctly, saying that the dove is the sacred animal of 
Aphrodite, the raven of Apollo, the dog of Artemis," and so forth. 
Each Greek god had a small menagerie of sacred animals, and it 
may be conjectured that these animals were originally the totems 
of various stocks, subsumed into the worship of the anthropomorphic 
god. For the new theory of vegetation spirits and corn spirits see 
The Golden Bough. Apollo, in any case, is the young and beautiful 
archer-god of Homer; Artemis, his sister, is the goddess of archery, 
who takes her pastime in the chase. She holds no considerable place 
in the Iliad ; in the Odyssey, Nausicaa is compared to her, as to the 
pure and lovely lady of maidenhood. Her name is commonly 
connected with 4/>rc^s pure, unpolluted. Her close relations 
(un-Homeric) with the bear and bear-worship have suggested a 
derivation from op/cros "ApxTejus. In Homer her " gentle shafts " 
deal sudden and painless death ; she is a beautiful Azrael. A much 
more important daughter of Zeus in Homer is Athene, the " grey- 
eyed " or (as some take y\avKunra, rather improbably) the " owl- 
headed "goddess. Her birth from the head of Zeus is not explicitly 
alluded to in Homer. 8 In Homer, Athene is a warlike maiden, the 
patron-goddess of wisdom and manly resolution. In the twenty- 
second book of the Odyssey she assumes the form of a swallow, and 
she can put on the shape of any man. She bears the aegis, the awful 
shield of Zeus. Another Homeric child of Zeus, or, according to 
Hesiod (Th. 927), of Hera alone, is Hephaestus, the lame craftsman 
and artificer. In the Iliad* will be found some of the crudest 
Homeric myths. Zeus or Hera throws Hephaestus or Ate out of 
heaven, as in the Iroquois myth of the tossing from heaven of 
Ataentsic. There is, as usual, no agreement as to the etymology of 
the name of Hephaestus. Preller inclines to a connexion with 
fifflai, to kindle fire, but Max Muller differs from this theory. 
About the close relations of Hephaestus with fire there can be no 
doubt. He is a rough, kind, good-humoured being in the Iliad. 
In the Odyssey he is naturally annoyed by the adultery of his wife, 
Aphrodite, with Ares. Ares is a god with whom Homer has no 
sympathy. He is a son of Hera, and detested by Zeus (Iliad, v. 890). 
He is cowardly in war, and on one occasion was shut up for years 
in a huge brazen pot. This adventure was even more ignominious 
than that of Poseidon and Apollo when they were compelled to serve 
Laomedon for hire. The payment he refused, and threatened to 
" cut off their ears wjth the sword " (Iliad, xxi. 455). Poseidon is to 
the sea what Zeus is to the air, and Hades to the underworld in 
Homer. 10 His own view of his social position may be stated in his 
own words (Iliad, xv. 183, 211). " Three brethren are we, and sons 
of Cronus, sons whom Rhea bare, even Zeus and myself, and Hades 
is the third, the ruler of the people in the underworld. And in 
three lots were all things divided, and each drew a lot of his own, 11 and 
to me fell the hoary sea, and Hades drew the mirky darkness, and 
Zeus the wide heaven in clear air and clouds, but the earth and high 
Olympus are yet common to all." 

Zeus, however, is, as Poseidon admits, the elder-born, and there- 
fore the revered head of the family. Thus Homer adopts the system 



6 Cf . Preller, Griechische Mythologie,-\. 128, note I, for this and 
other philological conjectures, 

6 The derivation of 'AiriXXui' remains obscure. The derivation 
of Leto from XoOtiv, and the conclusion that her name means " the 
concealer " that is, the night, whence the sun is born is disputed 
by Curtius (Preller i. 190, 191, note 4), but appears to be accepted 
by Max Mtiller (Selected Essays, i. 386) Latinos being derived from 
the same root as Leto, Latona, the night. 

7 Aristotle, H. An. 6; Aelian, N. A. iv. 4. 

Her name, as usual, is variously interpreted by various etymolo- 
gists. 

9 xiv. 257; xviii. 395; xix. pi, 132. 

10 The root of his name is sought in such words as x6roi and 
irora/xAs. 

u We learn from the Odyssey (xiv. 209) that this was the custom 
of sons on the death of their father. 



MYTHOLOGY 



141 



of primogeniture, while Hesiod is all for the opposite and probably 
earlier custom of Jiingsten-recht, and makes supreme Zeus the 
youngest of the sons of Cronus. Among the other gods Dionysus 
is but slightly alluded to in Homer as the son of Zeus and Semele, 
as the object of persecution, and as connected with the myth of 
Ariadne. The name of Hermes is derived from various sources, as 
from ipnav and Apuri, or, by Max Muller, the name is connected 
with Sarameya (Sky). If he had originally an elemental character, 
it is now difficult to distinguish, though interpreters connect him 
with the wind. He is the messenger of the gods, the bringer of good 
luck, and the conductor of men's souls down the dark ways of death. 
In addition to the great Homeric gods, the poet knows a whole 
" Olympian consistory " of deities, nymphs, nereids, sea-gods and 
goddesses, river-gods, Iris the rainbow goddess, Sleep, Demeter 
who lay with a mortal, Aphrodite the goddess of love, wife of Hephaes- 
tus and leman of Ares, and so forth. As to the origin of the gods, 
Homer is not very explicit. He is acquainted with the existence 
of an older dynasty now deposed, the dynasty of Cronus and the 
Titans. In the Iliad (viii. 478) Zeus says to Hera, " For thine anger 
reck I not, not even though thou go to the nethermost bounds of 
earth and sea, where sit lapetus and Cronus . . . and deep Tartarus 
is round about them." " The gods below that are with Cronus " are 
mentioned (//. xiv. 274; xv. 225). Rumours of old divine wars 
echo in the Iliad, as (i. 400) where it is said that when the other 
immortals revolted against and bound Zeus, The f is brought to his 
aid Aegaeon of the hundred arms. The streams of Oceanus (//. xiv. 
246) are spoken of as the source of all the gods, and in the same book 
(290) " Oceanus and mother Tethys " are regarded as the parents 
of the immortals. Zeus is usually called Cronion and Cronides, 
which Homer certainly understood to mean " son of Cronus," yet it 
is expressly stated that Zeus " imprisoned Cronus beneath the earth 
and the unvintaged sea." The whole subject is only alluded to 
incidentally. On the whole it may be said that the Homeric deities 
are powerful anthropomorphic beings, departmental rulers, united 
by the ordinary social and family ties of the Homeric age, capable 
of pain and pleasure, living on heavenly food, but refreshed by the 
sacrifices of men (Od. v. 100, 102), able to assume all forms at will, 
and to intermarry and propagate the species with mortal men and 
women. Their past has been stormy, and their ruler has attained 
power after defeating and mediatizing a more ancient dynasty of his 
own kindred. 

From Hesiod we receive a much more elaborate probably a 
more ancient, certainly a more barbarous story of the gods and 
their origin. In the beginning the gods (here used in a wide sense 
to denote an early non-natural race) were begotten by Earth and 
Heaven, conceived of as beings with human parts and passions 
(Hesiod, Theog. 45). This idea recurs in Maori, Vedic and Chinese 
mythology. Heaven and Earth, united in an endless embrace, 
produced children which never saw the light. In New Zealand, 
Chinese, Vedic, Indian and Greek myths the pair had to be sundered. 1 
Hesiod enumerates the children whom Earth bore " when couched 
in love with Heaven." They are Ocean, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, 
lapetus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys and the 
youngest, Cronus, " and he hated his glorious father." Others of 
this early race were the Cyclopes, Bronte, Sterope and Arge, and 
three children of enormous strength, Cottus, Briareus (Aegaeon) 
and Gyes, each with one hundred hands and fifty heads. Uranus 
detested his offspring, and hid them in crannies of Earth. Earth 
excited Cronus to attack the father, whom he castrated with a 
sickle. From the blood of Uranus (this feature is common in Red 
Indian and Egyptian myths) were born furies, giants, ash-nymphs 
and Aphrodite. A number of monsters, as Echidna, Geryon and 
the hound of hell, were born of the loves of various | elemental 
powers. The chief stock of the divine species was continued by 
the marriage of Rhea (probably another form of the Earth) with 
Cronus. . Their children were Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and 
Poseidon. All these Cronus swallowed; and this " swallow-myth " 
occurs in Australia, among the Bushmen, in Guiana, in Brittany 
(where Gargantua did the swallow-trick) and elsewhere. At last 
Rhea bore Zeus, and gave Cronus a stone in swaddling bands, 
which he disposed of in the usual way. Zeus grew up, administered 
an emetic to Cronus (some say Metis did this), and had the satis- 
faction of seeing all his brothers and sisters disgorged alive. The 
stone came forth first, and Pausanias saw it at Delphi (Paus. x. 24). 
Then followed the wars between Zeus and the gods he had rescued 
from the maw of Cronus against the gods of the elder branch, the 
children of Uranus and Gaea Heaven and Earth. The victory 
remained with the younger branch, the immortal Olympians of 
Homer. The system of Hesiod is a medley of later physical 
speculation and of poetic allegory, with matter which we, at least, 
regard as savage survivals, like the mutilation of Heaven and the 
swallow-myth. 2 

1 See Tylor, Prim. Cult. i. 326. 

s Bleek, Bushman Folk-Lore, pp. 6-8. Max Muller suggests 
another theory (Selected Essays, i. 460) : " Kpwos did not exist 
till long after Zfcs in Greece." The name KporUav, or Kpovl&Tis, 
looks like a patronymic. Muller, however, thinks it originally 
meant only connected with time, existing through all time. 
Very much later the name was mistaken for a genuine patronymic, 



In Homer and in Hesiod myths enter the region of literature, 
and become, as it were, national. But it is probable that the local 
myths of various cities and temples, of the " sacred chapters " 
which were told by the priests to travellers and in the mysteries to 
the initiated, were older in form than the epic and national myths. 
Of these " sacred chapters " we have fragments and hints in Hero- 
dotus, Pausanias, in the mythographers, like Apollodorus, in the 
tragic poets, and in the ancient scholia or notes on the classics. 
From these sources come almost all the more inhuman, bestial 
and discreditable myths of the gods. In these we more distinctly 
perceive the savage element. The gods assume animal forms: 
Cronus becomes a horse, Rhea a mare; Zeus begets separate families 
of men in the shape of a bull, an ant, a serpent, a swan. His mistress 
from whom the Arcadians claim descent becomes a she-bear. It 
is usual with mythologists to say that Zeus is the " All-Father," and 
that his amours are only a poetic way of stating that he is the parent 
of men. But why does he assume so many animal shapes ? Why 
did various royal houses claim descent from the ant, the swan, the 
she-bear, the serpent, the horse and so forth ? We have already 
seen that this is the ordinary pedigree of savage stocks in Asia, 
Africa, Australia and America, while animals appear among Irish 
tribes and in Egyptian and ancient English genealogies.* It is a 
plausible hypothesis that stocks which once claimed descent from 
animals, sans phrase, afterwards regarded the animals as avatars 
of Zeus. In the same way " the Minas, a non-Aryan tribe of Rajpu- 
tana, used to worship the pig; when the Brahmans got a turn at 
them, the pig became an avatar of Vishnu " (Lyall, Asiatic Studies). 
The tales of divine cannibalism to which Pindar refers with awe, 
the mutilation of Dionysus Zagreus, the unspeakable abominations 
of Dionysus, the loves of Hera in the shape of a cuckoo, the divine 
powers of metamorphosing men and -women into beasts and stars 
these tales come to us as echoes of the period of savage thought. 
Further evidence on this point will be given below in a classification 
of the principal mythic legends. The general conclusion is that 
many of the Greek deities were originally elemental, the elements 
being personified in accordance with the laws of savage imagina- 
tions. But we cannot explain each detail in the legends as a myth 
of this or that natural phenomenon or process as understood by 
ourselves. Various stages of late and early fancy have contributed 
to the legends. Zeus is the sky, but not our sky ; he had originally 
a personal character, and that a savage or barbarous character. 
He probably attracted into his legend stories that did not origi- 
nally belong to him. He became anthropomorphic, and his myth 
was handled by local priests, by family bards, by national poets, 
by early philosophers. His legend is a complex embroidery on a 
very ancient tissue. The other divine myths are equally complex. 

See L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Miss Jane Harrison, 
Prolegomena to Greek Religion; and Frazer, The Golden Bough, 
especially as regards the vegetable or " probably arboreal " aspect 
of Zeus. 

Scandinavian Divine Myths. The Scandinavian myths of the 
gods are numerous and interesting, but the evidence on which they 
have reached us demands criticism for which we lack space. That 
there are in the Eddas and Sagas early ideas and later ideas tinged 
by Christian legend seems indubitable, but philological and historical 
learning has by no means settled the questions of relative purity 
and antiquity lin the myths. The Eddie songs, according to F. Y. 
Powell, one of the editors of the Corpus poeticum septenirionale 
(the best work on the subject), " cannot date earlier " in their 
present form " than the 9th century," and may be vaguely placed 
between A.D. 800-1100. The collector of the fEdda probably 
had the old poems recited to him in the ijth century, and where 
there was a break in the memory of the reciters the lacuna was 
filled up in prose. " As one goes through the poems, one is ever 
and anon face to face with a myth of the most childish and barbaric 
type," which " carries one back to prae-Aryan days." Side by 
side with these old stories come fragments of a different stratum 
of thought, Christian ideas, the belief in a supreme God, the notion 
of Doomsday. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth (with its 
parallels among races sayage and civilized) is given elsewhere. 
The most important god is Odin, the son of Bestla and Bor, the 
husband of Frigg, the father of Balder and many other sons, the 
head of the Aesir stock of gods. Odin's name is connected with 
that of Wuotan, and referred to the Old High-German verb watan 
wuot meare, cum impetu ferri (Grimm, Tent. Myth., Eng. transl., 



and " Zeus the ancient of days " became " Zeus the son of Cronus." 
Having thus got a Cronus, the Greeks and " the misunderstanding 
could nave happened in Greece only " needed a myth of Cronus. 
They therefore invented or adapted the " swallow-myth " so 
familiar to Bushmen and Australians. This singular reversion to 
savagery itself needs some explanation. But the hypothesis that 
Cronus is a late derivation from KpowSijs and fLpovluv is by no 
means universally accepted. Others derive Kp&mt from upaLva, 
and connect it with icpAwa, a kind of harvest-home festival. 
Schwartz (Prdhistorisch-anthropologische Studien) readily proves 
Cronus to be the storm, swallowing the clouds. Perhaps we may 
say of Schwartz's view, as he says of Preller's " das ist Gedanken- 
spiel, aber nimmermehr Mythologie." 

1 Elton, Origins of English History, pp. 298-301. 



142 



MYTHOLOGY 



i. 131). Odin would thus (if we admit the etymology) be the 
swift goer, the " ganger," and it seems superfluous to make him 
(with Grimm) " the all-powerful, all-permeating being," a very 
abstract and scarcely an early conception. Odin's brethren (in 
Gylfi's Mocking) are Vile and Ve, who with him slew Ymir the 
giant, and made all things out of the fragments of his body. They 
also made man out of two stocks. In the Haya-Mal Odin claims 
for himself most of the attributes of the medicine-man. In Loka 
Senna, Loki, the evil god, says that " Odin dealt in magic in 
Samsey." The goddess Frigg remarks, " Ye should never talk of 
your old doings before men, of what ye two Aesir went through in 
old times." But many relics of these " old times," many traces 
of the medicine-man and the " skin-shifter," survive in the myth of 
Odin. When he stole Suttung's mead (which answers somewhat 
to nectar and the Indian soma), he flew away in the shape of an 
eagle. 1 The hawk is sacred to Odin ; one of his names is " the 
Raven-god." He was usually represented as one-eyed, having 
left an eye in pawn that he might purchase a draught from Mimir's 
well. This one eye is often explained as the sun. Odin's wife 
was Frigg; their sons were Thor (the thunder-god) and Balder, 
whose myth is well known in English poetry. The gods were 
divided into two not always friendly stocks, the Aesir and Vanir. 
Their relations are, on the whole, much more amicable than those 
of the Asuras and Devas in Indian mythology. Not necessarily 
immortal, the gods restored their vigour by eating the apples of 
Iduna. Asa Loki was a being of mixed race, half god, half giant, 
and wholly mischievous ana evil. His legend includes animal 
metamorphoses of tht most obscene character. In the shape of 
a mare he became the mother of the eight-legged horse of Odin. 
He borrowed the hawk-dress of Freya, when he recovered the 
apples of Iduna. Another Eddie god, Hoene, is described in 
phrases from lost poems as " the long-legged one," " lord of the 
ooze," and his name is connected with that of the crane. The con- 
stant enemies of the gods, the giants, could also assume animal 
forms. Thus in Thiodolf's Haust-long (composed after the settle- 
ment of Iceland) we read about a shield on which events from myth- 
ology were painted; among these was the flight of " giant Thiazzi 
in an ancient eagle's feathers." The god Herindal and Loki once 
fought a battle in the shapes of seals. On the whole, the Scan- 
dinavian gods are a society on an early human model, of beings 
indifferently human, animal and divine some of them derived 
from elemental forces personified, holding sway over the elements, 
and skilled in sorcery. Probably after the viking days came in the 
conceptions of the last war of gods, and the end of all, and the theory 
of Odin All-Father as a kind of emperor in the heavenly world. 
The famous tree that lives through all the world is regarded as 
" foreign, Christian, and confined to few poems." There is, almost 
undoubtedly, a touch of the Christian dawn on the figure and 
myth of the pure and beloved and ill-fated god Balder, and his 
descent into hell. The whole subject is beset with critical diffi- 
culties, and we have chiefly noted features which can hardly be 
regarded as late, and which correspond with widely distributed 
mythical ideas. 

Dasent's Prose or Younger Edda (Stockholm, 1842) ; the Corpus 
Septentrionale already referred to; C. F. Keary's Mythology of the 
Eddas (1882) ; Pigott's Manual of Scandinavian Mythology (1838) ; 
and Laing's Early Kings of Norway may be consulted by English 
students. 

Classification of Myths. It is now necessary to cast a hasty 
glance over the chief divisions of myths. These correspond to 
the chief problems which the world presents to the curiosity of 
untutored men. They ask themselves (and the answers are 
given in myths) the following questions: What is the Origin 
of the World ? The Origin of Man ? Whence came the Arts 
of Life? Whence the Stars? Whence the Sun and Moon? 
What is the Origin of Death? How was Fire procured by Man? 
The question of the origin of the marks and characteristics of 
various animals and plants has also produced a class of myths 
in which the marks are said to survive from some memorable 
adventure, or the plants and animals to be metamorphosed 
human beings. Examples of all these myths are found among 
savages and in the legends of the ancient civilizations. A few 
such examples may now be given. 

Myths of the Origin of the World. We have found it difficult to 
keep myths of the gods apart from myths of the origin of the world 
ana of man, because gods are frequently regarded as creative 
powers. The origin of things is a problem which has everywhere 

1 Indra was a hawk when, " being well-winged, he carried to 
men the food tasted by the gods " (R. V. iv. 26, 4). Yehl, the 
Tlingit god-hero, was a raven or a crane when he stole the water 
(Bancroft iii. 100-102). The prevalence of animals, or of god- 
animals, in myths of the stealing of water, soma and fire, is very 
remarkable. Among the Andaman Islanders, a kingfisher steals 
fire for men from the god Puluga (Anthrop. Journal, November 
1882). 



exercised thought, and been rudely solved in myths. These vary 
in quality with the civilization of the races in which they are current, 
but the same ideas which we proceed to state pervade all cosmo- 
gonical myths, savage and civilized. All these legends waver 
between the theory of creation, or rather of manufacture, and the 
theory of evolution. The earth, as a rule, is supposed to have 
grown out of some original matter, perhaps an animal, perhaps an 
egg which floated on the waters, perhaps a fragment of soil fished 
up out of the floods by a beast or a god. But this conception does 
not exclude the idea that many of the things in the world minerals, 
plants, people, and what not are fragments of the frame of an 
animal or non-natural magnified man, or are excretions from the 
body of a god. We proceed to state briefly the various forms of 
these ideas. The most backward races usually assume the prior 
existence of the earth. 

The aborigines of the northern parts of Victoria (Australia) 
believe that the earth was made by Pund-jel, the bird-creator, 
who sliced the valleys with a knife. Another Australian theory is 
that the men of a previous race, the Nooralie (very old ones), made 
the earth. 

The problem of the origin of the world seems scarcely to have 
troubled the Bushmen. They know about " men who brought 
the sun," but their doctrines are revealed in mysteries, and Qing, 
the informant of Mr Orpen (Cape Monthly Magazine, July 1874), 
" did not dance that dance " that is, had not been initiated into 
all the secret doctrines of his tribe. According to Qing, creation 
was the work of Cagn (the mantis insect), " he gave orders and 
caused all things to appear." Elsewhere in the myth Cagn made 
or manufactured things by his skill. 

As a rule the most backward races, while rich in myths of the 
origin of men, animals, plants, stones and stars, do not say much 
about the making of the world. Among people a little more ad- 
vanced, the earth is presumed to have grown out of the waters. In 
the Iroquois myth (Lafitau, Mcsurs des sauvages, 1724), a heavenly 
woman was tossed out of heaven, and fell on a turtle, which 
developed into the world. Another North-American myth assumes 
a single island in the midst of the waters, and this island grew into 
the world. The Navaho and the Digger Indians take earth for 
granted as a starting-point in their myths. The Winnebagos, not 
untouched by Christian doctrine, do not go farther back. The 
Great Manitou awoke and found himself alone. He took a piece of 
his body and a piece of earth and made a man. Here the existence 
of earth is assumed (Bancroft iv. 228). Even in Guatemala, 
though the younger sons of a divine race succeed in making the 
earth where the elder son (as usual) failed, they all had a supply of 
clay as first material. The Pima, a Central-American tribe, say 
the earth was made by a powerful being, and at first appeared 
" like a spider's web." This reminds one of the Ananzi or spider 
creator of West Africa. The more metaphysical Tacullies of 
British Columbia say that in the beginning nought existed but 
water and a musk-rat. The musk-rat sought his food at the 
bottom of the water, and his mouth was frequently filled with mud. 
This he kept spitting out, and so formed an island, which developed 
into the world. Among the Tinneh, the frame of a dog (which 
could assume the form of a handsome young man) became the first 
material of most things. The dog, like Osiris, Dionysus, Purusha 
and other gods, was torn to pieces by giants; the fragments became 
many of the things in the world (Bancroft i. 106). Even here the 
existence of earth for the dog to live in is assumed. 

Coming to races more advanced in civilization, we find the New 
Zealanders in possession of ancient hymns in which the origin of 
things is traced back to nothing, to darkness, and to a metaphysical 
process from nothing to something, from being to becoming. The 
hymns may be read in Sir George Grey's Polynesian Mythology, and 
in Taylor's New Zealand. It has been suggested that these hymns 
bear traces of Buddhist and Indian influence ; in any case, they are 
rather metaphysical than mystical. Myth comes in when the 
Maoris represent Rangi and Papa, Heaven and Earth, as two vast 
beings, male and female, united in a secular embrace, and finally 
severed by their children, among whom Tane Mahuta takes the 
part of Cronus in the Greek myth. The gods were partly elemental, 
partly animal in character; the lists of their titles show that every 
human crime was freely attributed to them. In the South Sea 
Islands, generally, the fable of the union and separation of Heaven 
and Earth is current; other forms will be found in Gill's Myths and 
Songs from the South Pacific. 

The cosmogonic myths of the Aryans of India are peculiarly 
interesting, as we find in the Vedas and Brahmanas and Puranas 
almost every fiction familiar to savages side by side with the most 
abstract metaphysical speculations. We have the theory that 
earth grew, as in the Iroquois story of the turtle, from a being 
named Uttanapad (Muir v. 335). We find that Brahmanaspati 
" blew the gods forth from his mouth," and one of the gods, 
Tvashtri, the mechanic among the deities, is credited with having 
fashioned the earth and the heaven (Muir v. 354). The " Purusha 
Sukta," the 9Oth hymn of the tenth book of the Rig Veda, gives us 
the Indian version of the theory that all things were made out of 
the mangled limbs of Purusha, a magnified non-natural man, who- 
was_sacnficed by the gods. As this hymn gives an account of the 
origin of the castes (which elsewhere are scarcely recognized in the 



MYTHOLOGY 



Rig Veda), it is sometimes regarded as a late addition. But we can 
scarcely think the main conception late, as it is so widely scattered 
that it meets us in most mythologies, including those of Chaldaea 
and Egypt, and various North-American trioes. Not satisfied 
with this myth, the Aryans of India accounted for the origin of 
species in the following barbaric style. A being named Purusha 
was alone in the world. He differentiated himself into two beings, 
husband and wife. The wife, regarding union with her producer 
as incest, fled from his embraces as Nemesis did from those of 
Zeus, and Rhea from Cronus, assuming various animal disguises. 
The husband pursued in the form of the male of each animal, and 
from these unions sprang the various species of beasts (Satapatha- 
Brahmana, xiv. 4, 2 ; Muir i. 25). The myth of the cosmic egg 
from which all things were produced is also current in the Brah- 
manas. In the Puranas we find the legend of many successive 
creations and destructions of the world a myth of world-wide 
distribution. 

As a rule, destruction by a deluge is the most favourite myth, 
but destructions by fire and wind and by the wrath of a god are 
common in Australian, Peruvian and Egyptian tradition. The 
idea that a boar, or a god in the shape of a boar, fished up a bit of 
earth, which subsequently became the world, out of the waters, is 
very well known to the Aryans of India, and recalls the feats of 
American musk-rats and coyotes already described. 1 The tortoise 
from which all things sprang, in a myth of the Satapatha-Brahmana, 
reminds us of the Iroquois turtle. The Greek and Mangaian myth 
of the marriage of Heaven and Earth and its dissolution is found 
in the Aitareya-Brahmana (Haug's trans, ii. 308; Rig Veda, i. Ixii.). 

So much for the Indian cosmogonic myths, which are a collection 
of ideas familiar to savages, blended with sacerdotal theories and 
ritual mummeries. The philosophical theory of the origin of things, 
a hymn of remarkable stateliness, is in Rig Veda, x. 129. The 
Scandinavian cosmogonic myth starts from the abyss, Ginnungagap, 
a chaos of ice, from which, as it thawed, was produced the giant 
Ymir. Ymir is the Scandinavian Purusha. A man and woman 
sprang from his armpit, like Athene from the head of Zeus. A 
cow licked the hoar-frost, whence rose Bur, whose children, Odin, 
Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymir. " Of his flesh they formed the 
earth, of his blood seas and waters, of his bones mountains, of his 
teeth rocks and stones, of his hair all manner of plants." This is 
the story in the Prose Edda, derived from older songs, such as the 
Grimnersmal. However the distribution of this singular myth may 
be explained, its origin can scarcely be sought in the imagination 
of races higher in culture than the Tinneh and Tacullies, among 
whom dogs and beavers are the theriomorphic form of Purusha or 
Ymir. , - . ^ 

Myths of the Origin oj Man. These partake of the conceptions 
of evolution and of creation. Man was made out of clay by a super- 
natural being. Australia: man was made by Pund-jel. New 
Zealand: man was made by Tiki; " he took red clay, and kneaded 
it with his own blood." Mangaia: the woman of the abyss made 
a child from a piace of flesh plucked out of her own side. Melanesia: 
" man was made of clay, red from the marshy side of Vanua Levu"; 
woman was made by Qat of willow twigs. Greece: men were 
irXdoTiara mjXoO, figures baked in clay by Prometheus. 8 India: 
men were made after many efforts, in which the experimental 
beings did not harmonize with their environment, by Prajapati. 
In another class of myths, man was evolved out of the lower animals 
lizards in Australia; coyotes, beavers, apes and other beasts in 
America. The Greek myths of the descent of the Arcadians, 
Myrmidons, children of the swan, the cow, and so forth, may be 
compared. Yet again, men came out of trees or plants or rocks: 
as from the Australian wattle-gum, the Zulu bed of reeds, the great 
tree of the Ovahereros, the rock of the tribes in Central Africa, the 
cave of Bushman and North-American and Peruvian myth, " from 
tree or stone " (Odyssey, xix. 163). This view was common among 
the Greeks, who boasted of being autochthonous. The Cephisian 
marsh was one scene of man's birth according to a fragment of 
Pindar, who mentions Egyptian and Libyan legends of the same 
description. 

Myths of the Arts of Life. These are almost unanimously 
attributed to " culture-heroes," beings theriomorphic or anthropo- 
morphic, who, like Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, Prometheus, 
Manabozho, Quetzalcoatl, Cagn and the rest, taught men the use 
of the bow, the processes (where known) of pottery, agriculture 
(as Demeter), the due course of the mysteries, divination, and 
everything else they knew. Commonly the teacher disappears 
mysteriously. He is often regarded by modern mythologists as 
the sun. 

Star Myths. " The stars came otherwise," says Browning's 
Caliban. In savage and civilized myths they are usually meta- 
morphosed men, women and beasts. In Australia, the Pleiades, 
as in Greece, were girls. Castor and Pollux in Greece, as in Australia, 
were young men. Our Bear was a bear, according to Charlevoix 
and Lafitau, among the North-American Indians; the Eskimo, 



1 Black Yajur-Veda and Satapatha-Brahmana; Muir, i. 52. 

'Aristophanes, Aves, 686; Etym. Magn., s.v. 'lubvwv. Pausanias 
saw the clay (Paus. x. iv.). The story is also quoted by Lactantius 
from Hesiod. 



according to Egede, who settled the Danish colony in Greenland, 
regarded the stars " very nonsensically," as " so many of their 
ancestors"; the Egyptian priests showed Plutarch the stars that 
had been Isis and Osiris. Aristophanes, in the Pax, shows us that 
the belief in the change of men into stars survived in his own day 
in Greece. The Bushmen (Bleek) have the same opinion. The 
Satapatlia-Brahmana (Sacred Books of the East, xii. 284) shows 
how Prajapati, in his incestuous love, turned himself into a roe- 
buck, his daughter into a doe, and how both became constellations. 
This is a thoroughly good example of the savage myths (as in Peru, 
according to Acosta) by which beasts and anthropomorphic gods 
and stars are all jumbled together. 1 The Rig Veda contains 
examples of the idea that the good become stars. 

Solar and Lunar Myths. These are universally found, and are 
too numerous to be examined here. The sun and moon, as in the 
Bulgarian ballad of the Sun's Bride (a mortal girl), are looked on 
as living beings. In Mexico they were two men, or gods of a human 
character who were burned. The Eskimo know the moon as a 
man who visits earth, and, again, as a girl who had her face spotted 
by ashes which the Sun threw at her. The Khasias make the sun 
a woman, who daubs the face of the moon, a man. The Homeric 
hymn to Helios, as Max Miiller observes, " looks on the sun as a 
half-god, almost a hero, who had once lived on earth." This is 
precisely the Bushman view; the sun was a man who irradiated 
light from his armpit. In New Zealand and in North America 
the sun is a beast, whom adventurers have trapped and beaten. 
Medicine has been made with his blood. In the Andaman Islands 
the Sun is the wife of the Moon (Jour, of A nth. Soc., 1882). Among 
aboriginal tribes in India (Dalton, p. 186) the Moon is the 'Sun's 
bride; she was faithless and he cut her in two, but occasionally 
lets her shine in full beauty. The Andaman Islanders account for 
the white brilliance of the moon by saying that he is daubing 
himself with white clay, a custom common in savage and Greek 
mysteries. The Red Men accounted to the Jesuits for the spherical 
forms of sun and moon by saying that their appearance was caused 
by their bended bows. The Moon in Greek myths loved Endymion, 
and was bribed to be the mistress of Pan by the present of a 
fleece, like the Dawn in Australia, whose unchastity was rewarded 
by a gift of a red cloak of opossum skin. Solar and lunar myths 
usually account for the observed phenomena of eclipse, waning 
and waxing, sunset, spots on the moon, and so forth by various 
mythical adventures of the animated heavenly beings. In modern 
folk-lore the moon is a place to which bad people are sent, rather 
than a woman or a man. The mark of the hare in the moon has 
struck the imagination of Germans, Mexicans, Hottentots, Sinhalese, 
and produced myths among all these races. 4 

Myths of Death. Few savage races regard death as a natural 
event. All natural deaths are supernatural with them. Men are 
assumed to be naturally immortal, hence a series of myths to 
account for the origin of death. Usually some custom or " taboo " 
is represented as having been broken, when death has followed. 
In New Zealand, Maui was not properly baptized. In Australia, 
a woman was told not to go near a certain tree where a bat lived ; 
she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and men died. 
The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise and became mortal, 
because one of them bathed in water which had been tabooed 
(Dalton, p. 13). In the Atharua Veda, Yama, like Maui in New 
Zealand, first " spied out the path to the other world," which all 
men after him have taken. In the Rig Veda (x. 14), Yama " sought 
out a road for many." In the Solomon Islands (Jour. Anth, Inst., 
Feb. 1 880, " Koevari was the author of death, by resuming her 
cast-off skin." The same story is told in the Banks Islands. In 
the Greek myth (Hesiod, Works and Days, 90), men lived without 
" ill diseases that give death to men " till the cover was lifted 
from the forbidden box of Pandora. As to the myths of Hades, 
the place of the dead, they are far too many to be mentioned in 
detail. In almost all the gates of hell are guarded by fierce beasts, 
and in Ojibway, Finnish, Greek, Papuan and Japanese myths no 
mortal visitor may escape from Hades who has once tasted the 
food of the dead. 

Myths of Fire-stealing. Those current in North America (where 
an animal is commonly the thief) will be found in Bancroft, vol. iv. 
The Australian version, singularly like one Greek legend, is given 
by Brough Smyth. Stories of the theft of Prometheus are recorded 
by Hesiod, Aeschylus, and their commentators. Muir and Kuhn 
may be consulted for Vedic fire-stealing. 

Heroic and Romantic Myths. In addition to myths which are 
clearly intended to explain facts of the universe, most nations have 
their heroic and romantic myths. Familiar examples are the 
stories of Perseus, Odysseus, Sigurd, the Indian epic stories, the 
adventures of Ilmarinen and Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, and 
so forth. To discuss these myths as far as they can be considered 
apart from divine and explanatory tales would demand more space 
than we have at our disposal. It will become evident to any 
student of the romantic myths that they consist of different arrange- 

1 See also Vishnu Purana, i. 131. 

4 See Cornhill Magazine, " How the Stars got their Names " 
(1882, p. 35), and " Some Solar and Lunar Myths " (1882, p. 440); 
Max Miiller, Selected Essays, i. 609-611. 



144 



MYXOEDEMA MYZOSTOMIDA 



ments of a rather limited set of incidents. These incidents have 
been roughly classified by Von Hahn. 1 We may modify his arrange- 
ment as follows. 

There is (i) the story of a bride or bridegroom who transgresses 
a commandment of a mystic nature, and disappears as a result of 
the sin. The bride sins as in Eros and Psyche, Freja and Oddur, 
Pururavas and Urvasi. 2 The sin of Urvasi and Psyche was seeing 
their husbands naked in the latter case. The sin was against 
" the manner of women." Now the rule of etiquette which forbids 
seeing or naming the husband (especially the latter) is of the widest 
distribution. The offence in the Welsh form of the story is naming 
the partner a thing forbidden among early Greeks and modern 
Zulus. Presumably the tale (with its example of the sanction) sur- 
vives the rule in many cases. (2) " Penelope formula." The man 
leaves the wife and returns after many years. A good example 
occurs in Chinese legend. (3) Formula of the attempt to avoid 
fate or the prophecy of an oracle. This incident takes numerous 
shapes, as in the story of the fatal birth of Perseus, Paris, the 
Egyptian prince shut up in a tower, the birth of Oedipus. (4) 
Slaughter of a monster. This is best known in the case of Andro- 
meda and Perseus. (5) Flight, by aid of an animal usually, from 
cannibalism, human sacrifice, or incest. The Greek example is 
Phrixus, Helle, and the ram of the golden fleece. (6) Flight of a 
lady and her lover from a giant father or wizard father. Jason 
and Medea furnish the Greek example. (7) The youngest brother 
the successful adventurer, and the head of the family. We have 
seen the example of Greek mythic illustrations of " Jungsten- 
recht," or supremacy of the youngest, in the Hesiodic myth of 
Zeus, the youngest child of Cronus. (8) Bride given to whoever 
will accomplish difficult adventures or vanquish girl in race. The 
custom of giving a bride without demanding bride-price, in reward 
for a great exploit, is several times alluded to in the Iliad. In 
Greek heroic myth Jason thus wins Medea, and (in the race) Milanion 
wins Atalanta. In the Kalewala much of the Jason cycle, including 
this part, recurs. The rider through the fire wins Brunhild but 
this may belong to another cycle of ideas. (9) The grateful beasts, 
who, having been aided by the hero, aid him in his adventures. 
Melampus and the snakes is a Greek example. This story is but 
one specimen of the personal human character of animals in myths, 
already referred to the intellectual condition of savages. (10) 
Story of the strong man and his adventures, and stories of the 
comrades Keen-eye, Quick-ear, and the rest. Jason has comrades 
like these, as had Ilmarinen and Heracles, the Greek " strong man." 
(ll) Adventure with an ogre, who is blinded and deceived by a 
pun of the hero's. Odysseus and Polyphemus is the Greek ex- 
ample. (12) Descent into Hades of the hero. Heracles, Odysseus, 
Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, are the best-known examples in 
epic literature. These are twelve specimens of the incidents, to 
which we may add (13) " the false bride," as in the poem of Berte 
aux grans Pi6s, and (14) the legend of the bride said to produce 
beast-children. The belief in the latter phenomenon is very common 
in Africa, and in the Arabian Nights, and we have seen it in America. 

Of these formulae (chosen because illustrated by Greek heroic 
legends) (l) is a sanction of barbarous nuptial etiquette; (2) is an 
obvious ordinary incident; (3) is moral, and both (3) and (i) may 
pair off with all the myths of the origin of death from the infringe- 
ment of a taboo or sacred command; (4) would naturally occur 
wherever, as on the West Coast of Africa, human victims have 
been offered to sharks or other beasts; (5) the story of flight from 
a horrible crime, occurs in some stellar myths, and is an easy and 
natural invention; (6) flight from wizard father or husband, is 
found in Bushman and Namaqua myth, where the husband is an 
elephant; (7) success of youngest brother, may have been an ex- 
planation and sanction of " Jiingsten-recht " Maui in New Zealand 
is an example, and Herodotus found the story among the Scythians; 
(8) the bride given to successful adventurer, is consonant with 
heroic manners as late as Homer; (9) is no less consonant with the 
belief that beasts have human sentiments and supernatural powers; 
(10) the " strong man," is found among Eskimo and Zulus, and was 
an obvious invention when strength was the most admired of 
qualities; (n) the baffled ogre, is found among Basques and Irish, 
and turns on a form of punning which inspires an " ananzi " story 
in West Africa; (12) descent into Hades, is the natural result of 
the savage conception of Hades, and the tale is told of actual living 
people in the Solomon Islands and in New Caledonia; Eskimo 
Angekoks can and do descend into Hades it is the prerogative of 
the necromantic magician; (13) "the false bride," found among 
the Zulus, does not permit of such easy explanation naturally, 
in Zululand, the false bride is an animal; (14) the bride accused of 
bearing beast-children, has already been disposed of; the belief is 
inevitable where no distinction worth mentioning is taken between 
men and animals. English folk-lore has its woman who bore 
rabbits. 

The formulae here summarized, with others, are familiar in the 
marchen of Samoyeds, Zulus, Bushmen, Hottentots and Red 
Indians. For an argument intended to show that Greek heroic 


1 Griechische und albanesische Marchen, i. 45. 

'Tenth Book of Rig Veda and " Brahmana " of Yajur-Veda; 
Muller, Selected Essays, i. 410. 



myths may be adorned and classified marchen, in themselves 
survivals of savage fancy, see Fortnightly Review, May 1872, " Myths 
and Fairy Tales." The old explanation was that marchen are 
degenerate heroic myths. This does not explain the marchen of 
African, and perhaps not of Siberian races. 

In this sketch of mythology that of Rome is not included, because 
its most picturesque parts are borrowed from or adapted into 
harmony with the mythology of Greece. Greece, India and Scandi- 
navia will supply a fair example of Aryan mythology (without 
entering on the difficult Slavonic and Celtic fields). (A. L.) 

MYXOEDEMA (or athyrea), the medical term for a constitu- 
tional disease (see METABOLIC DISEASES) due to the degeneration 
of the thyroid gland, and occurring in adults; it may be con- 
trasted with cretinism, which is a condition appearing in early 
childhood. There are two forms, myxoedema proper and opera- 
tive myxoedema (cachexia sirumipriiia) . (i) Myxoedema has 
been termed " Gull's Disease" from Sir William Gull's observa- 
tions in. 1873. Women are more often the victims than men, in 
a ratio of 6 to i. It frequently affects members of the same 
family and may be transmitted through the mother, and it has 
been observed sometimes to follow exophthalmic goitre. The 
symptoms are a marked increase in bulk and weight of the body, 
puffy appearance of skin which does not pit on pressure, the line 
of the features becoming obliterated and getting coarse and 
broad, the lips thick and nostrils enlarged, with loss of hair, 
subnormal temperature and marked mental changes. There is 
striking slowness of thought and action, the memory becomes 
defective, and the patient becomes irritable and suspicious. 
In some instances the condition progresses to that of dementia. 
The thyroid gland itself is diminished in size, and may become 
completely atrophied and converted into a fibrous mass. The 
untreated disease is progressive, but the course is slow and the 
symptoms may extend over 12 to 15 years, death from asthenia 
or tuberculosis being the most frequent ending. (2) Symptoms 
similar to the above may follow complete removal of the thyroid 
gland. Kocher of Bern found that, in the total removal of the 
gland by operation, out of 408 cases operative myxoedema 
occurred in 69, but it is thought that if a small portion of the 
gland is left, or if accessory glands are present, these symptoms 
will not develop. The treatment of myxoedema is similar to 
that of cretinism. 

MYZOSTOMIDA, a remarkable group of small parasitic 
worms which live on crinoid echinoderms; they were first dis- 
covered by Leuckart in 1827. Some species, such as Myzostoma 
cirriferum, move about on the host; others, such as M . glabrum, 
remain stationary with the pharynx inserted in the mouth of the 
crinoid. M . deformator gives rise to a " gall " on the arm of the 
host, one joint of the pinnule growing round the worm so as to 
enclose it in a cyst (see fig. E) ; whilst M . pulvinar lives actually 
in the alimentary canal of a species of Antedon. 

A typical myzostomid (see A, B, C) is of a flattened rounded 
shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating cirri. 
The skin is ciliated. The dorsal surface is smooth ; ventrally there 
are five pairs of parapodia, armed with supporting and hooked 
setae, by means of which the worm adheres to its host. Beyond 
the parapodia are four pairs of organs, often called suckers, but 
probably of sensory nature, and comparable to the lateral sense 
organs of Capitellids (Wheeler). The mouth and cloacal aperture 
are generally at opposite ends of the ventral surface. The former 
leads to a protrusible pharynx (B), from which the oesophagus 
opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral diver- 
ticula. There appears to be no vascular system. The nervous 
system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differ- 
entiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass no doubt 
representing many fused ganglia (B). The dorsoventral and the 
parapodial muscles are much developed, whilst the coelom is re- 
duced mostly to branched spaces in which the genital produces 
ripen. Full-grown myzostomids are hermaphrodite. The male 
organ (C) consists of a branched sac opening to the exterior on 
each side. The paired ovaries discharge their products into a 
median coelemic chamber with lateral branches (C), otten called 
the uterus, from which the ripe ova are discharged by a median 
dorsal pore into the terminal region of the rectum (cloaca). Into 
this same cloacal chamber open ventrally a pair of ciliated tubes 
communicating by funnels with the coelom (Nansen and Wheeler) ; 
these are possibly nephridia, and excretory in function. 

The Myzostomida are protandric hermaphrodites, being 
functional males when small, Hermaphrodite later, and finally 



MZABITES 



functional females (Wheeler). Small " males " are in some 
species constantly associated with large hermaphrodites, but 
according to Beard there are in some cases true dwarf males, 
comparable to the complementary males described by Darwin 
in the Cirripedia. The embryology of Myzostoma has been 




A, Ventral view of Myzostoma. 

B, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- 

ing the nervous and alimen- 
tary systems. 

C, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- 

ing the genital organs (from 
v. Graf and Wheeler). 

a, Cloacal aperture. 
ar, Arm. 

c. Cirrus. 

d, " Cloaca." 
coe.Coelom. 

ct, Swollen pinnule forming a 

cyst. 

f, Intestine and its caeca. 
Is, Larval setae. 
m, Mouth. 



D, Larva of Myzostoma glabrum. 

(After Beard.) 

E, Portion of the arm of Penta- 

crinus, showing a cyst 
containing Myzostoma. 



n, Ciliated tube (nephfidium?). 
o, Opening. 
ov, Ovary. 

f, Parapodium. 
, Pharynx. 
s, Sense organ. 
sp, Sperm-sac. 
vn, Ventral ganglionic mass. 
cf, Male opening. 
S , Female opening. 



studied by Metchnikoff and Beard. Cleavage leads to the 
formation of an epibolic gastrula and ciliated embryo which 
hatches as a free-swimming larva remarkably like that of a 
Polychaete worm (D). The larva is provided with postoral 
and perianal ciliated bands, and on either side with a bunch of 



long provisional setae. The mesoderm becomes segmented, 
and the parapodia subsequently develop from before backwards; 
but almost all internal traces of segmentation are lost in the 
adult. The structure and development of the Myzostomida 
seem to show that they are nearly related to Polychaeta (see 
CHAETOPODA), though highly modified in relation to their 
parasitic mode of life. 

AUTHORITIES. L. v. Graff, Das Genus Myzostoma (Leipzig, 
1877); and " The Myzostomida," Challenger Reports (1884), vol. x. ; 
E. Metchnikoff, Zeit. Wiss. Zool. (1866), vols. v., xvi.; J. Beard, 
Mittk. Z. St Neapel (1884), vol. v.; W. M. Wheeler, ibid. (1896), 
vol. xii. (E. S. G.) 

MZABITES, or BENI-MZAB, a .confederation of Berber tribes, 
now under the direct authority of France. Of all the Berber 
peoples the Mzabites have remained freest from foreign admix- 
ture. Their own country is a region of the Algerian Sahara, 
about ico m. south of El-Aghuat. It consists of five oases close 
together, viz. Ghardaia, Beni-Isguen, El-Ateuf, Melika and 
Bu Nura, and two isolated oases farther north, Berrian and 
Guerrara. The total population numbered at the 1906 census 
45,996, of whom about 100 were Europeans and a very small 
proportion Arabs and Jews. The Mzabites are of small and 
slender figure, with very short necks and under-developed legs. 
Their faces are flat, with short nose, thick lips and very deep-set 
eyes, and their complexion pale. Their dress is a shirt of thick 
wool, usually many-coloured. They are agriculturists, and are 
also famed as traders. The butchers, fruiterers, bath-house 
keepers, road-sweepers and carriers of the African littoral from 
Tangier to Tripoli are nearly all Mzabites. Their industries, too, 
are highly organized. The Mzabite burnouses and carpets are 
found throughout North Africa. Their commercial honesty is 
proverbial. Nearly all read and write Arabic, though in talking 
among themselves they use the Zenata dialect of the Berber 
language, for which, in common with other Berber peoples, 
they have no written form surviving. They are Mahomme- 
dans, of the Ibadite sect, and are regarded as heretics by the 
Sunnites. 

According to tradition the Ibadites, after their overthrow at 
Tiaret by the Fatimites, took refuge during the loth century 
in the country to the south-west of Wargla, where they founded 
an independent state. In 1012, owing to further persecutions, 
they fled to their present quarters, where they long remained 
invulnerable. After the capture of El-Aghuat by the French, 
the Mzabites concluded with the Algerian government, in 1853, 
a convention by which they engaged to pay an annual con- 
tribution of 1800 in return for their independence. In Novem- 
ber 1882 the Mzab country was definitely annexed to Algeria. 
Ghardaia (pop. 7868) is the capital of the confederation, and 
next in importance is Beni-Isguen (4916), the chief commercial 
centre. Since the establishment of French control, Beni-Isguen 
has become the dep6t for the sale of European goods. French 
engineers have rendered the oases much more fertile than they 
used to be by a system of irrigation works. (See also ALGERIA.) 

See A. Coyne, Le Mzab (Algiers, 1879); Rinn, Occupation du 
Mzab (Algiers, 1885); Amat, Le M'Zab et les M'Zabites (Paris, 
1888). Also ALGERIA and BERBERS. 



14-6 



N NABATAEANS 



NA letter which regularly follows M in the alphabet, and, 
like it in its early forms has the first limb longer than 
the others; thus, written from right to left, V\. The 
Semitic languages gradually diminish the size of the 
other two limbs, while the Greek and Latin alphabets tend to 
make all three of equal length. The earliest name of the symbol 
was Nun, whence comes the Greek ny (vv). The sound of 
varies according to the point at which the contact of the tongue 
with the roof of the mouth is made; it may be dental, alveolar, 
palatal or guttural. In Sanskrit these four sounds are dis- 
tinguished by different symbols; the last two occur in com- 
bination with stops or affricates of the same series. The French 
or German n when standing by itself is dental, the English 
alveolar, i.e. pronounced like the English t and d against the 
sockets of the teeth instead of the teeth themselves. The guttural 
nasal is written in English ng as in ring; for. the palatal n as 
in lynch there is no separate symbol. The sound of n stands in the 
same relation to d as m stands to b; both are ordinarily voiced 
and the mouth position for both is the same, but in pronouncing 
n the nasal passage is left open, so that the sound of n can be 
continued while that of d cannot. This is best observed by 
pronouncing syllables where the consonant comes last as in and 
id. When the nasal passage is closed, as when one has a bad cold, 
m and n cannot be pronounced; attempts to pronounce moon 
result only hi hood. Two important points arise in connexion 
with nasals: (i) sonant nasals, (2) nasalization of vowels. The 
discovery of sonant nasals by Dr Karl Brugman in 1876 (Curtius, 
Studien, 9, pp. 285-338) explained many facts of language which 
had been hitherto obscure and elucidated many difficulties in 
the Indo-European vowel system. It had been observed, for ex- 
ample, that the same original negative prefix was represented in 
Sanskrit by a, Greek by a, in Latin by in and in Germanic by un, 
and these differences had not been accounted for satisfactorily. 
Dr Brugman argued that in these and similar cases the syllable 
was made by the consonant alone, and the nasal so used was 
termed a sonant nasal and written n. In most cases Sanskrit 
and Greek lost the nasal sound altogether and replaced it by a 
vowel a, a, while in Latin and Germanic a vowel was developed 
independently before the nasal. In the accusative singular of 
consonant stems Sans, pddant, Gr. irbSa, Lat. pedem, Sanskrit 
and Greek did not, as generally, agree, but it was shown that 
in such cases there were originally two forms according to the 
nature of the sound beginning the next word in the sentence. 
Thus an original Indo-European *pedm, would not be treated 
precisely in the same way if the next word began with a vowel 
as it would when a consonant followed. Sanskrit had adopted 
the form used before vowels, Greek the form before consonants 
and each had dropped the alternative form. The second point 
the nasalizing of vowels is difficult for an Englishman to under- 
stand or to produce, as the sounds do not exist in his language. 
Thus in learning to pronounce French he tends to replace the 
nasalized vowels by the nearest sounds in English, making 
the Fr. on a nasalized vowel (o), into Eng. ong, a vowel 
followed by a guttural consonant. The nasalized vowels are 
produced by drawing forward the uvula, the " tab " at the end 
of the soft palate, so that the breath escapes through the nose as 
well as the mouth. In the French nasalized vowels, however, 
many phoneticians hold that, besides the leaving of the nasal 
passage open, there is a change in the position of the tongue in 
passing from a to a. The nasalized vowels are generally written 
with a hook below, upon the analogy of the transliteration of 
such sounds in the Slavonic languages, but as the same symbol is 
often used to distinguish an " open " vowel from a " close " one, 
the use is not without ambiguity. On the other hand, it is not 
admissible to write a for the nasalized vowel in languages which 
have accent signs, e.g. Lithuanian. It is possible to nasalize 
some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an 



important part in the so-called " Yankee " pronunciation of 
Americans. (P. Gi.) 

NAAS (pron. Nace, as in place), a market town of Co. 
Kildare, Ireland, 20 m. S.W. from Dublin on branches of the 
Great Southern and Western railway and of the Grand Canal. 
Pop. (1901) 3836. It is situated among the foothills of the 
Wicklow Mountains, close to the river Liffey. The town is of 
great antiquity, and was a residence of the kings of Leinster, the 
place of whose assemblies is marked by a neighbouring rath or 
mound. Naas returned two members to the Irish parliament 
from 1559 until the union in 1800. Of a castle taken by Cromwell 
in 1650, and of several former abbeys, there are no remains. 
Punchestown racecourse, 2^ m. S.E., is the scene of well-known 
steeplechases. 

NABATAEANS, a people of ancient Arabia, whose settlements 
in the time of Josephus (Ant. i. 12. 4; comp. Jerome, Quaesl. 
in Gen. xxv.) gave the name of Nabatene to the border-land 
between Syria and Arabia from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. 
Josephus suggests, and Jerome, apparently following him, 
affirms, that the name is identical with that of the Ishmaelite 
tribe of Nebaioth (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. Ix. 7), which in later Old 
Testament times had a leading place among the northern Arabs, 
and is associated with Kedar (Isa. Ix. 7) much as Pliny v. u (12) 
associates Ndbataei and Cedrei. The identification is rendered 
uncertain by the fact that the name Nabataean is properly 
spelled with t not / (on the inscriptions, cf. also Arabic Nabat, 
Nabit, &c.). Thus the history of the Nabataeans cannot certainly 
be carried back beyond 312 B.C., at which date they were attacked 
without success by Antigonus I. Cyclops in their mountain 
fortress of Petra. They are described by Diodorus (xix. 94 seq.) 
as being at this time a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, 
pre-eminent among the nomadic Arabs, eschewing agriculture, 
fixed houses and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits 
a profitable trade with the seaports in myrrh and spices from 
Arabia Felix, as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from 
the Dead Sea. Their arid country was the best safeguard of their 
cherished liberty; for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water 
which they excavated in the rocky or argillaceous soil were 
carefully concealed from invaders. Petra (q.v.) or Sela' was the 
ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied 
the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after 
the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to 
press forward into southern Judaea. 1 This migration, the date 
of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the 
shores of the Gulf of 'Akaba and the important harbour of 
Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides (Geog. Gr. Min., i. 
178), they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers 
and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and 
the East, till they were chastised by the Greek sovereigns of 
Alexandria. 

The Nabataeans had already some tincture of foreign culture 
when they first appear in history. That culture was naturally 
Aramaic; they wrote a letter to Antigonus " in Syriac letters," 
and Aramaic continued to be the language of their coins and 
inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom, and profited 
by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward 
over the more fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupied 
IJauran, and about 85 B.C. their king Aretas (Haritha) 
became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria. Allies of the first 
Hasmonaeans in their struggles against the Greeks (i Mace, 
v. 25, ix. 35; 2 Mace. v. 8), they became the rivals of the Judaean 
dynasty in the period of its splendour, and a chief element in 
the disorders which invited Pompey's intervention in Palestine. 
The Roman arms were not very successful, and King Aretas 
retained his whole possessions, including Damascus, as a Roman 

1 See EDOM, and (for the view that Mai. i. 1-5, refers to the 
expulsion of Edomites from their land) MALACHI. 



NABBES NACHMANIDES 



vassal. 1 As " allies " of the Romans the Nabataeans continued to 
flourish throughout the first Christian century. Their power 
extended far into Arabia, particularly along the Red Sea; and 
Petra was a meeting-place of many nations, though its commerce 
was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from 
Myoshormus to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Roman peace 
they lost their warlike and nomadic habits, and were a sober, 
acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agri- 
culture (Strabo xvi. 4). They might have long been a bulwark 
between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert but for the^short- 
sighted cupidity of Trajan, who reduced Petra and broke up the 
Nabataean nationality (105 A.D.). The new Arab invaders who 
soon pressed forward into their seats found the remnants of the 
Nabataeans transformed into fellahin, and speaking Aramaic 
like their neighbours. Hence Nabataeans became the Arabic 
name for Aramaeans, whether in Syria or Irak, a fact which has 
been incorrectly held to prove that the Nabataeans were origin- 
ally Aramaean immigrants from Babylonia. It is now known, 
however, that they were true Arabs as the proper names on their 
inscriptions show who had come under Aramaic influence. 

See especially on this last point (against Quatremere, Journ. 
asiat. xv., vol. ii., 1835), Noldeke in Zeit. d. morgenldnd. Gesell. 
xvii. 705 seq., xxv. 122 seq. The so-called " Nabataean Agriculture " 
(Falaha Nabaflya), which professes to be an Arabic translation by 
Ibn Wabshiya from an ancient Nabataean source, is a forgery of 
the loth century (see A. von Gutschmid, Z. d. morgenl. Ges. xv. 
i seq.; Noldeke, ib. xxix. 445 seq.). Complete bibliographical 
information is given by E. Schurer in his sketch of Nabataean 
history appended to Gesch. d. Jud. Volkes (1901, vol. i. ; cf. Eng. 
edition, 1890, i. 2, pp. 345 sqq.) ; to this may be added the article 
by H. Vincent, Rev. bibl. vii. 567 sqq., and, for more general informa- 
tion, R. Dussaud, Les Arabes en Syrie (1907). For early external 
evidence see H. Winckler, Keil. u. Alte Test.* p. 151 seq.; M. Streck, 
Mitten, d. vorderasial. Gesell. (1906). pt. iii., and Klio, 1906, p. 206 seq. 
The Nabataean inscriptions (see SEMITIC LANGUAGES) are collected 
in the Corpus Inscr. Semiticarum of the French Academy, pt. ii. ; 
see also the Academy's Repertoire d'epigr. sent. ; and the discussions, 
&c., in the writings of Clermont-Ganneau (Rec. d'archeol. Orient.) 
and M. Lidzbarski (Handbuch d. nord-semit. Epig.; Ephemeris f. 
sent. Epig.). For English readers the selection in G. A. Cooke, 
North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) is the most useful. 

(W. R. S.;S. A. C.) 

NABBES, THOMAS (b. 1605), English dramatist, was born in 
humble circumstances in Worcestershire. He entered Exeter 
College, Oxford, in 1621, but left the university without taking a 
degree, and about 1630 began a career in London as a dramatist. 
His works include: Covent Garden (acted 1633, printed 1638), 
a prose comedy of small merit; Tottenham Court (acted 1634, 
printed 1638), a comedy the scene of which is laid in a holiday 
resort of the London tradesmen; Hannibal and Scipio (acted 
1635, printed 1637), a historical tragedy; The Bride (1638), a 
comedy; The Unfortunate Mother (1640), an unacted tragedy; 
Microcosmus, a Morall Maske (printed 1637) ; two other masques, 
Spring's Glory and Presentation intended for the Prince his 
Highnesse on his Birthday (printed together in 1638); and a 
continuation of Richard Knolles's Generall Historic of the Turkes 
(1638). His verse is smooth and musical, and if his language 
is sometimes coarse, his general attitude is moral. The masque 
of Microcosmus really a morality play, in which Physander 
after much error is reunited to his wife Bellanima, who personifies 
the soul is admirable in its own kind, and the other two masques, 
slighter in construction but ingenious, show Nabbes at his best. 

Nabbes's plays were collected in 1639; and Microcosmus was 
printed in Dodsley's Old Plays (1744). All his works, with the 
exception of his continuation of Knolles's history, were reprinted 
by A. H. Bullen in his Old English Plays (second series, 1887). 
See also F. G. Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the English Drama (1891). 

NABHA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, 
966 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 297,949. Its territories are scattered; 
one section, divided into twelve separate tracts, lies among the 
territories of Patiala and Jind, in the east and south of the 
Punjab; the other section is in the extreme south-east. The 
whole of the territories belong physically to a plain; but they 
vary in character from the great fertility of the Pawadh region 
to the aridity of the Rajputana desert. Nabha is one of the Sikh 

1 Compare 2 Cor. xi. 32. The Nabataean Aretas or Aeneas there 
mentioned reigned from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. 



states, founded by a member of the Phulkian family, which estab- 
lished its independence about 1763. The first relations of the 
state with the British were in 1807-1808, when the raja obtained 
protection against the threatened encroachments of Ranjit 
Singh. During the Mutiny in 1857 the raja showed distinguished 
loyalty, and was rewarded by grants of territory to the value of 
over 10,000. The imperial service troops of the raja Hira 
Singh (b. c. 1843; succeeded in 1871) did good service during the 
Tirah campaign of 1897-98. The chief products of the state are 
wheat, millets, pulses, cotton and sugar. The estimated gross 
revenue is 100,000; no tribute is paid. The territory is crossed 
by the main line and also by several branches of the North- 
Western railway, and is irrigated by the Sirhind canal. 

The town of Nabha, founded in 1755, has a station on the 
Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the North-Western railway. Pop. 
(1901) 18,468. 

See Phulkian States Gazetteer (Lahore, 1909). 

NABIGHA DHUBYANl [Ziyad ibn Mu'awlyya] (6th and 7th 
centuries), Arabian poet, was one of the last poets of pre-Islamic 
times. His tribe, the Bani Dhubyan, belonged to the district near 
Mecca, but he himself spent most of his time at the courts of 
Hira and Ghassan. In Hira he remained under Mondhir (Mund- 
hir) III., and under his successor in 562. After a sojourn at the 
court of Ghassan, he returned to Hira under Nu'man. He was, 
however, compelled to flee to Ghassan, owing to some verses 
he had written on the queen, but returned again about 600. 
When Nu'man died some five years later he withdrew to his own 
tribe. The date of his death is uncertain, but he does not seem 
to have known Islam. His poems consist largely of eulogies and 
satires, and are concerned with the strife of Hira and Ghassan, 
and of the Bani Abs and the Bani Dhubyan. He is one of the 
six eminent pre-Islamic poets whose poems were collected before 
the middle of the 2nd century of Islam, and have been regarded 
as the standard of Arabian poetry. Some writers consider him 
the first of the six. 

His poems have been edited by W. Ahlwardt in the Diwans of the 
six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and separately by H. 
Derenbourg (Paris, 1869, a reprint from the Journal asiatique for 
1868). (G.W.T.) 

NABOB, a corruption of the Hindostani nawab, originally used 
for native rulers. In the i8th century, when Clive's victories 
made Indian terms familiar in England, it began to be applied 
to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East. 

NABUA, a town in the extreme S. of the province of Ambos 
Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 
22 m. S.S.E. of Nueva Caceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,893. 
Nabua is in the district known as La Rinconada a name 
originally given to it on account of its inaccessibility. It is 
connected by road, railway and the Bicol river (navigable for 
light-draft boats) with Nueva Caceres. Nabua is the centre of 
an agricultural region, which produces much rice and some 
Indian corn, sugar and pepper. The language is Bicol. 

NACAIRE, NAKER, NAQUAIRE (Arab, naqara), the medieval 
name for the kettledrum, the earliest representation of which 
appears in the unique MS. known as the Vienna Genesis (sth or 
6th century). The nacaire was, according to Froissart, among the 
instruments used at the triumphal entry of Edward III. into 
Calais. The Chronicles of Joinville describe the instrument as 
a kind of drum: " Lor il fist sonner les labours que 1'on appelle 
nacaires." Chaucer, in his description of the tournament in the 
Knight's Tale, line 1653, also refers to this early kettledrum. 

NACHMANIDES (NA^MANIDES), the usual name of MOSES 
BEN NAHMAN (known also as RAMBAN), Jewish scholar, was born 
in Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine c. 1270. His chief work, 
the Commentary on the Pentateuch, is distinguished by originality 
and charm. The author was a mystic as well as a philologist, 
and his works unite with peculiar harmony the qualities of reason 
and feeling. He was also a Talmudist of high repute, and wrote 
glosses on various Tractates, Responsa and other legal works. 
Though not a philosopher, he was drawn into the controversy 
that arose over the scholastic method of Maimonides (?..). 
He endeavoured to steer a middle course between the worshippers 



148 



NACHOD NADIA 



and the excommunicators of Maimonides, but he did not succeed 
in healing the breach. His homiletic books, Epistle on Sanctity 
(Iggereth ha-qodesh) and Law of Man (Torath ha-Adam), which 
deal respectively with the sanctity of marriage and the solemnity 
of death, are full of intense spirituality, while at the same time 
treating of ritual customs a combination which shows essential 
Rabbinism at its best. He occupies an important position in the 
history of the acceptance by medieval Jews of the Kabbala 
(q.v.); for, though he made no fresh contributions to the philo- 
sophy of mysticism, the fact that this famous rabbi was himself 
a mystic induced a favourable attitude in many who would other- 
wise have rejected mysticism as Maimonides did. In 1263 
Nahmanides was forced to enter into a public disputation with 
a Jewish-Christian, Pablo Christiani, in the presence of King 
James of Aragon. Though Nachmanides was assured that 
perfect freedom of speech was conceded to him, his defence was 
pronounced blasphemous and he was banished for life. In 1267 
he went to Palestine and settled at Acre. He died about 1270. 
See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, first series, pp. 120 seq.; 
Graetz, History of the Jews (English translation vol. iii. ch. xvi. 
and xvii.). (I. A.) 

NACHOD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 109 m. E.N.E. of 
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9899, mostly Czech. It is situated 
on the Mettau river, at the entrance of the Lewin-Nachod pass. 
The old castle contains a collection of historical paintings and 
archives, and there are several old churches, of which that of 
St Lawrence is mentioned as the parish church in 1350. The 
town originally gathered round the castle of Nachod, of which 
the first lord was a member of the powerful family of Hron, 
in the middle of the i3th century. It suffered much during the 
Hussite Wars, and in 1437 was captured by the celebrated robber 
knight Kolda of 2ampach, and retaken by George of Podebrad 
in 1456 and included in his estates. It was sold in 1623, and in 
1634 given to Ottavio Piccolomini; finally, after many changes 
of ownership, the castle and titular lordship came in 1840 to 
the princes of Schaumburg-Lippe. The important engagements 
fought near the town on the 27th and 28th of June 1866 opened 
Bohemia to the victorious Prussians. 

NACHTIGAL, GUSTAV (1834-1885), German explorer in 
Central Africa, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at Eichstedt 
in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 23rd of February 1834. 
After medical study at the universities of Halle, Wurzburg 
and Greifswald, he practised for a few years as a military 
surgeon. Finding the climate of his native country injurious 
to his health, he went to Algiers and Tunis, and took part, as a 
surgeon, in several expeditions into the interior. Commissioned 
by the king of Prussia to carry gifts to the sultan of Bornu in 
acknowledgment of kindness shown to German travellers, he 
set out in 1869 from Tripoli, and succeeded after two years' 
journeyings in accomplishing his mission. During this period 
he visited Tibesti and Borku, regions of the central Sahara 
not previously known to Europeans. From Bornu he went 
to Bagirmi, and, proceeding by way of Wadai and Kordofan, 
emerged from darkest Africa, after having been given up for 
lost, at Khartum in the winter of 1874. His journey, graphically 
described in his Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., 1879-1889), placed 
the intrepid explorer in the front rank of discoverers. On the 
establishment of a protectorate over Tunisia by France, Nachtigal 
was sent thither as consul-general for the German empire, and 
remained there until 1884, when he was despatched by Prince 
Bismarck to West Africa as special commissioner, ostensibly 
to inquire into the condition of German commerce, but really 
to annex territories to the German flag. As the result of his 
mission Togoland and Cameroon were added to the German 
empire. On his return voyage he died at sea off Cape Palmas 
on the 2oth of April 1885, and was buried at Grand Bassam. 

Nachtigal's travels are summarized in Gustav Nachtigal's Reisen 
in der Sahara und im Sudan, by Dr Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). 
A French translation, by J. van Vollenhoven, of that part of his 
work concerning Wadai, appeared in the Butt, du comite del'Afriq. 
frangaise for 1903 under the title of " Le Voyage de Nachtigal au 
Ouadai." Nachtigal died before transcribing his notes on Wadai, 
and they were edited in the German edition by E. Groddeck. 



NADASDY, TAMAS I., COUNT, called the great palatine 
(1498-1562), Hungarian statesman, was the son of Francis I. 
Nadasdy and was educated at Graz, Bologna and Rome. In 
1521 he accompanied Cardinal Cajetan (whom the pope had sent 
to Hungary to preach a crusade against the Turks) to Buda as 
his interpreter. In 1525 he became a member of the council of 
state and was sent by King Louis II. to the diet of Spires to ask 
for help in the imminent Turkish war. During his absence the 
Mohacs catastrophe took place, and Nadasdy only returned 
to Hungary in time to escort the queen-widow from Komarom 
to Pressburg. He was sent to offer the Hungarian crown to 
the archduke Ferdinand, and on his coronation (Nov. 3rd, 1527) 
was made commandant of Buda. On the capture of Buda by 
Suleiman the Magnificent, Nadasdy went over to John Zapolya. 
In 1530 he successfully defended Buda against the imperialists. 
In 1533 his jealousy of the dominant influence of Ludovic 
Gritti caused him to desert John for Ferdinand, to whom he 
afterwards remained faithful. He was endowed with enormous 
estates by the emperor,'- and from 1537 onwards became 
Ferdinand's secret but most influential counsellor. Subsequently, 
as ban of Croatia-Slavonia, he valiantly defended that border 
province against the Turks. He did his utmost to promote 
education, and the school which he founded at tJj-Sziget, where 
he also set up a printing-press, received a warm eulogy from 
Philip Melanchthon. In 1 540 Nadasdy was appointed grand- 
justiciar; in 1547 he presided over the diet of Nagyszombat, 
and finally, in 1 5 59, was elected palatine by the diet of Pressburg. 
In his declining years he aided the heroic Miklos Zrinyi against 
the Turks. 

See Mihaly Horvath, The Life of Thomas Nddasdy (Hung.) (Buda, 
1838) ; T. Nadasdy, Family correspondence of Thomas Nddasdy 
(Hung.) (Budapest, 1882). ' (R. N. B.) 

NADEN, CONSTANCE CAROLINE WOODHILL (1858-1889), 
English author, was born at Edgbaston, on the 24th of January 
1858, her father being an architect. Her mother died just after 
the child's birth, and Constance was brought up in the home of 
her grandfather. In 1881 she began to study physical science 
at Mason College, Birmingham. In 1881 she published Songs 
and Sonnets of Springtime; in 1887, A Modern Apostle, and other 
Poems. Her poems made such an impression on W. E. Gladstone 
that he included her, in an article in the Speaker, among the fore- 
most English poetesses of the day. After her grandfather's 
death Miss Naden found herself rich, and she travelled in the 
East and then (1888) settled in London. She died on the 23rd 
of December 1889. After 1876 she had paid increasing attention 
to philosophy, with her friend Dr Robert Lewins, and the two 
had formulated a system of their own, which they called " Hylo- 
Idealism." Her main ideas on the subject are contained in a 
posthumous volume of her essays (Induction and Deduction, 
1890), edited by Dr Lewins. 

NADIA, or NUDDEA, a district of British India, in the 
Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative head- 
quarters are at Krishnagar. Area, 2793 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 
1,667,491. It is a district of great rivers. Standing at the head 
of the Gangetic delta, its alluvial surface, though still liable to 
periodical inundation, has been raised by ancient deposits of 
silt sufficiently high to be permanent dry land. Along the entire 
north-eastern boundary flows the main stream of the Ganges 
or Padma, of which all the remaining rivers of the district 
are offshoots. The Bhagirathi on the eastern border, and the 
Jalangi and the Matabhanga meandering through the centre 
of the district, are the chief of those offshoots, called distinctively 
the " Nadia rivers." But the whole surface of the country 
is interlaced with a network of minor streams, communicating 
with one another by side channels. All the rivers are navigable 
in the rainy season for boats of the largest burthen, but during 
the rest of the year they dwindle down to shallow streams, with 
dangerous sandbanks and bars. In former times the Nadia 
rivers afforded the regular means of communication between 
the upper valley of the Ganges and the seaboard; and much 
of the trade of the district still comes down to Calcutta by this 
route during the height of the rainy season. But the railways, 



NADIM NAEVIUS 



149 



with the main stream of the Ganges and the Sundarbans route, 
now carry by far the larger portion of the traffic. Rice is the 
staple crop; but the district is not as a whole fertile, the soil 
being sandy and the methods of cultivation backward. It is 
traversed by the main line and also by several branches of the 
Eastern Bengal railway. The battlefield of Plassey was situated 
in this district, but the floods of the Bhagirathi have washed 
away some part of it. 

NADIA or NABADWIP, an ancient capital of Bengal, was formerly 
situated on the east bank of the Bhagirathi, which has since 
changed its course. Pop. (1901) 10,880. It is celebrated for 
the sanctity and learning of its pundits, and as the birthplace 
of Chaitanya, the Vaishnav reformer of the i6th century. Its 
Sanskrit schools, called Ms, are well known and of ancient 
foundation. 

NADIM [Abulfaraj Mahommed ibn Ishaq ibn abi Ya'qub 
un-Nadim] (d. 995), of Bagdad, the author of one of the most 
interesting works in Arabic literature, the Fihrist ul-*Ulum 
(" list of the books of all nations that were to be found in Arabic ") 
with notices of the authors and other particulars, carried down 
to the year 988. A note in the Leiden MS. places the death of 
the author eight years later. Of his life we know nothing. His 
work gives us a complete picture of the most active intellectual 
period of the Arabian empire. He traces the rise and growth of 
philology and belles-lettres, of theology, orthodox and heretical, 
of law and history, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine 
and alchemy; he does not despise the histories of knights errant, 
the fables of Kalila and Dimna, the facetiae of the " boon com- 
panions." the works of magic and divination. But to us no 
part of his work is more interesting than his account of the 
beliefs of sects and peoples beyond Islam. Here, fortunately, 
still more than in other parts of his work, he goes beyond the 
functions of the mere cataloguer; he tells what he learned of 
China from a Christian missionary of Nejran, of India from a de- 
scription of its religion compiled for the Barmecide Yahya; his full 
accounts of the Sabians of Harran and of the doctrines of Mani 
are of the first importance for the historian of Asiatic religions. 

Imperfect manuscripts of the Fihrist exist in Paris, Leiden and 
Vienna. The text was prepared for publication by G. Flugel, and 
edited after his death by J. Rodiger and A. Miiller (2 vols., Leipzig, 
1871-1872). Fliigel had already given a full analysis of the work 
in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol. xiii. (1859), pp. 
559-650; cf. E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (London, 
1902), pp. 383-587. T. Houtsma supplied a lacuna in Fliigel's 
edition in the Vienna Oriental Journal, vol. iv. pp. 217 sqq. 

NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for 
nafir-es-semt, " opposite to the zenith "), a term used in astronomy 
for the point in the heavens exactly opposite to the zenith, the 
zenith and nadir being the two poles of the horizon. It is thus 
used figuratively of the lowest depth of a person's spirits or the 
lowest point in a career. 

NAEGELI, KARL WILHELM VON (1817-1891), Swiss 
botanist, was born on the 27th of March 1817 near Zurich. He 
studied botany under A. P. de Candolle at Geneva, and graduated 
with a botanical thesis at Zurich in 1840. His attention having 
been directed by M. J. Schleiden, then professor of botany at 
Jena, to the microscopical study of plants, he engaged more 
particularly in that branch of research. Soon after graduation 
he became Privat dozent and subsequently professor extra- 
ordinary, in the university of Zurich; in 1852 he was called 
to fill the chair of botany in the university of Freiburg-in- 
Breisgau; and in 1857 he was promoted to Munich, where he 
remained as professor until his death on the nth of May 1891. 
Among his more important contributions to science were a series 
of papers in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftlicke Botanik (1844- 
1846); Die neuern Algensysteme (1847); Gattungen einzelliger 
A I gen (1849); Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen (1855- 
1858), with C. E. Cramer; Beitrage zur wissenschaftlichen 
Botanik (1858-1868); a number of papers contributed to the 
Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, forming three volumes of 
Botanische Mitteilungen (1861-1881); and, finally, his volume, 
Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre, pub- 
lished in 1884. 



The more striking of his many and varied discoveries are embodied 
in the Zeitsch.fiir iviss. Bot. In this we begin with Naegeli's extension 
of Robert Brown's discovery of the nucleus to the principal families 
of Cryptogams, and the assertion of its universal occurrence in plants, 
together with the recognition of its vesicular structure. There is 
further his investigation of the " mucous layer " (Schleimschicht) 
lining the wall of all normal cells, where he shows that it consists of 
granular " mucus," which, at an earlier stage, filled the cell-cavitv, 
and which differs chemically from the cell-wall in that it is nitro- 
genous. This layer he proved to be never absent from living cells 
to be, in fact, itself the living part of the cell, a discovery which was 
simultaneously (1846) made by Hugo von Mohl (1805-1872), who 
gave to the living matter of the plant-body the name " protoplasm." 
In connexion with these discoveries, Naegeli controverted Schleiden's 
view of the universality of free-cell-formation as the mode of cell- 
multiplication, and showed that in the vegetative organs, at least, 
new cells are formed by division. In the Zeitschrift, too, is Naegeli's 
most important algological work such as the paper on Caulerpa, 
which brought to Tight the remarkable unseptate structure of the 
Siphoneae, and his research on Delesseria, which resulted in the 
discovery of growth by a single apical cell. This discovery led 
Naegeli on to the study of the growing-point in other plants. He 
consequently gave the first accurate account of the apical cell, and 
of the mode of growth of the stem in various Mosses and Liverworts. 
Subsequently he observed that in Lycopodium and in Angiosperms 
the growing-point has no apical cell, but consists of a small-celled 
meristem, in which the first differentiation of the permanent tissues 
can be traced. One of the most remarkable discoveries recorded in 
the Zeitschrift is that of the antheridia and spermatozoids of Ferns 
and of Pilularia. The Beitrage zur miss. Botanik consists almost 
entirely of researches into the anatomy of vascular plants, while 
the main feature of the Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen is 
the exhaustive work on the structure, development and various 
forms of starch-grains. The Botanische Mitteilungen include a 
number of papers in all departments of botany, many of them being 
continuations and extensions of his earlier work. In his Theorie der 
Abstammungslehre Naegeli introduced the idea of a definite material 
basis for heredity; the substance he termed " idioplasm." His 
theory of evolution is that the idioplasm of any one generation is 
not identical with that of either its progenitors or its progeny: 
it is always increasing in complexity, with the result that each succes- 
sive generation marks an advance upon its predecessor. Hence 
variation takes place determinately, and in the higher direction only ; 
while variability is the result of internal causes, and natural selection 
plays but a small part in evojution. Whereas, on the Darwinian 
theory, all organization is adaptive, according to Naegeli the develop- 
ment of higher organization is the outcome of the spontaneous 
evolution of the idioplasm. 

More detailed accounts of Naegeli's life and work are to be found 
in Nature, i6th October 1891, and in Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. li. 

(S. H. V.*) 

NAESTVED, a town of Denmark, in the ami (county) of 
Praesto, near the S.W. coast of Zealand, 59 m. by rail S.W. of 
Copenhagen. Pop. (1901) 7162. From 1140 to the Reformation 
it was one of the most important towns of the kingdom, though 
dependent upon the monastery of St Peter (founded here in 
1135). North of the town (ij m.) lies Herlufsholm, where 
Admiral Herluf Trolle founded a Latin school in 1567, still 
extant. 

NAEVIUS, GNAEUS (c. 264-? 194 B.C.), Latin epic poet and 
dramatist. There is great uncertainty in regard to his life. 
From the expression of Gellius (i. 24. i) characterizing his 
epitaph as written in a vein of " Campanian arrogance " it has 
been inferred that he was born in one of the Latin communities 
settled in Campania. But the phrase " Campanian arrogance " 
seems to have been used proverbially for "gasconade"; and, 
as there was a plebeian gens Naevia in Rome, it is quite as 
probable that he was by birth a Roman citizen. He served either 
in the Roman army or among the socii in the first Punic War, 
and thus must have reached manhood before 241. His career 
as a dramatic author began with the exhibition of a drama in 
or about the year 235, and continued for thirty years. Towards 
the close he incurred the hostility of some of the nobility, espe- 
cially, it is said, of the Metelli, by the attacks which he made 
upon them on the stage, and at their instance he was imprisoned 
(Plautus, Mil. Glor. 211). After writing two plays during his 
imprisonment, in which he is said to have apologized for his 
former rudeness (Gellius iii. 3. 15), he was liberated through the 
interference of the tribunes of the commons; but he had shortly 
afterwards to retire from Rome (in or about 204) to Utica. 
It may have been during his exile, when withdrawn from his 
active career as a dramatist, that he composed or completed his 



NAEVUS NAGA HILLS 



poem on the first Punic war. Probably his latest composition 
was the epitaph already referred to, written like the epic in 
Saturnian verse: 

" Immortales mortales si foret fas flere, 
Flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam ; 
Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro 
Obhti sunt Romai loquier lingua Latina." l 

If these lines were dictated by a jealousy of the growing ascend- 
ancy of Ennius, the life of Naevius must have been prolonged 
considerably beyond 204, the year in which Ennius began his 
career as an author in Rome. As distinguished from Livius 
Andronicus, Naevius was a native Italian, not a Greek; he was 
also an original writer, not a mere adapter or translator. If it 
was due to Livius that the forms of Latin literature were, from 
the first, moulded on those of Greek literature, it was due to 
Naevius that much of its spirit and substance was of native 
growth. 

Like Livius, Naevius professed to adapt Greek tragedies and 
comedies to the Roman stage. Among the titles of his tragedies are 
Aegisthus, Lycurgus, Andromache or Hector Proficiscens, Equus 
Trojanus, the last named being performed at the opening of Pompey's 
theatre (55). The national cast of his genius and temper was shown 
by his deviating from his Greek originals, and producing at least 
two specimens of the fabula praetexta (national drama) one founded 
on the childhood of Romulus and Remus (Lupus or Alimonium 
Rpmuli et Remi), the other called Clastidium, which celebrated the 
victory of M. Claudius Marcellus over the Celts (222). But it was. 
as a writer of comedy that he was most famous, most productive 
and most original. _While he is never ranked as a writer of tragedy 
with Ennius, Pacuvius or Accius, he is placed in the canon of the 
grammarian Vplcacius Sedigitus third (immediately after Caecilius 
and Plautus) in the rank of Roman comic authors. He is there 
characterized as ardent and impetuous in character and style. He 
is also appealed to, with Plautus and Ennius, as a master of his 
art in one of the prologues of Terence. His comedy, like that of 
Plautus, seems to have been rather a free adaptation of his originals 
than a rude copy of them, as those of Livius probably were, or an 
artistic copy like those of Terence. The titles of most of them, like 
those of Plautus, and unlike those of Caecilius and Terence, are 
Latin, not Greek. He drew from the writers of the old political 
comedy of Athens, as well as from the new comedy of manners, and he 
attempted to make the stage at Rome, as it had been at Athens, an 
arena of political and personal warfare. A strong spirit of partisanship 
is recognized in more than one of the fragments; and this spirit 
is thoroughly popular and adverse to the senatorial ascendancy 
which became more and more confirmed with the progress of the 
second Punic war. Besides his attack on the Metelli and other 
members of the aristocracy, the great Scipio is the object of a 
censorious criticism on account of a youthful escapade attributed to 
him. Among the few lines still remaining from his lost comedies, we 
seem to recognize the idiomatic force and rapidity of movement 
characteristic of the style of Plautus. There is also found that 
love of alliteration which is a marked feature in all the older 
Latin poets down even to Lucretius. In one considerable comic 
fragment attributed to him the description of a coquette there 
is great truth and shrewdness of observation. But we find no 
trace of the exuberant comic power and geniality of his great con- 
temporary. 

He was not only the oldest native dramatist, but the first author 
of an epic poem (Bellum Punicum) which, by combining the 
representation of actual contemporary history with a mythical 
background, may be said to have created the Roman type of epic 
poetry. The poem was one continuous work, but was divided into 
seven books by a grammarian of a later age. The earlier part of it 
treated of the mythical adventures of Aeneas in Sicily, Carthage 
and Italy, and borrowed from the interview of Zeus and Thetis in the 
first book of the Iliad the idea of the interview of Jupiter and Venus; 
which Virgil has made one of the cardinal passages in the Aeneid. 
The later part treated of the events of the first Punic war in the style 
of a metrical chronicle. An important influence in Roman literature 
and belief, which had its origin in Sicily, first appeared in this 
poem the recognition of the mythical connexion of Aeneas and 
his Trojans with the foundation of Rome. The few remaining 
fragments produce the impression of vivid and rapid narrative, to 
which the flow of the native Saturnian verse, in contradistinction 
to the weighty and complex structure of the hexameter, was naturally 
adapted. 

The impression we get of the man is that, whether or not he 
actually enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, he was a 

1 " If it were permitted that immortals should weep for mortals, 
the divine Camenae would weep for Naevius the poet; for since he 
hath passed into the treasure-house of death men have forgotten 
at Rome how to speak in the Latin tongue." 



vigorous representative of the bold combative spirit of the ancient 
Roman commons. He was one of those who made the Latin 
language into a great organ of literature. The phrases still 
quoted from him have nothing of an antiquated sound, while they 
have a genuinely idiomatic ring. As a dramatist he worked more 
in the spirit of Plautus than of Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius or 
Terence; but the great Umbrian humorist is separated from his 
older contemporary, not only by his breadth of comic power, but 
by his general attitude of moral and political indifference. The 
power of Naevius was the more genuine Italian gift the power of 
satiric criticism which was employed in making men ridiculous, 
not, like that of Plautus, in extracting amusement from the 
humours, follies and eccentricities of life. Although our means of 
forming a fair estimate of Naevius are scanty, all that we do 
know of him leads to the conclusion that he was far from being 
the least among the makers of Roman literature, and that 
with the loss of his writings there was lost a vein of national 
feeling and genius which rarely reappears. 

Fragments (dramas) in L. Miiller, Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi 
Fabularum Reliquiae (1885), and (Bellum Punicum) in his edition 
of Ennius (1884); monographs by E. Klussmann (1843); M. J. 
Berchem (1861); D. de Moor (1877); Mommsen, History of Rome, 
bk, iii., ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Naevius and Ennius, 
see V. Crivellari, Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et Ennio 
(1889). 

NAEVUS, a term in surgery signifying that form of tumour 
which is almost entirely composed of enlarged blood-vessels. 
There are three principal varieties: (i) the capillary naevus, 
consisting of enlarged capillaries, frequently of a purplish colour, 
hence the term " port-wine stain "; (2) the venous naevus, in 
which the veins are enlarged, of a bluish colour; (3) the arterial 
naevus, in which there is distinct pulsation, it being composed 
of enlarged and tortuous arteries. The naevus can be lessened 
in size by pressure. It generally occurs in the skin or immediately 
under it; sometimes it lies in the mouth in connexion with the 
mucous membrane. It is often congenital, hence the term 
" mother's mark," or it may appear in early childhood. It often 
grows rapidly, sometimes slowly, and sometimes growth is 
checked, and it may gradually diminish in size, losing its vascu- 
larity and becoming fibrous and non-vascular. This natural cure 
is followed by less deformity than a cure by artificial means. 
Various methods are used by surgeons when an operation is 
called for: (i) the tumour may be excised; (2) a ligature tightly 
tied may be applied to the base of the tumour; (3) inflammation 
may be set up in the growth by the injection of irritating agents, 
in this way its vascularity may be checked and the formation 
of fibrous tissue encouraged; (4) the blood in the enlarged vessels 
may be coagulated by the injection of coagulating agents or by 
electrolysis. 

NAGA HILLS, a district of British India in the Hills division 
of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It forms part of the mountainous 
borderland lying between the Brahmaputra valley and Upper 
Burma. Area, 3070 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 102,402. Towards the 
N. lie the Patkoi hills, over which British jurisdiction has never 
been extended; but since 1904 the southern tract, formerly 
known as the " area of political control," has been incorporated 
in the district, thus extending its E. boundary from the Dikho 
to the Tizic river. The whole country forms a wild expanse of 
forest, mountain and stream. The valleys are covered with 
dense jungle, dotted with small lakes and marshes. Coal is 
known to exist in many localities, as well as iron ore and petro- 
leum. The administrative headquarters of the district are at 
Kohima (pop. 3093), which is garrisoned by two companies of 
native infantry and a battalion of military police. The Dimapur- 
Manipur cart-road crosses the hills, connecting Kohima with 
the Assam-Bengal railway. 

Naga means " naked," and is the term applied by the Assamese 
to the wild tribes of the hills, of which the chief clans are called 
Angami, Ao, Shota, Sema and Rengma. These tribes have 
shown extraordinary obstinacy in their resistance to the British 

ms. Between 1832 and 1849 ten armed expeditions were 
despatched to chastise them, and from 1866 to 1887 there were 
eight more, a record which exceeds that of the most turbulent 



NAGAR NAGOYA 



tribes on the North-West Frontier. Since 1892, however, little 
trouble has been experienced. 

See Naga Hills District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905). 

NAGAR, formerly BEDNUR, a village and ruined city of Mysore, 
India; pop. (1901) 715. About 1640 the seat of government of 
the rajas of Keladi was transferred to this place. When taken 
by Hyder Ali in 1763, it is said to have yielded a plunder of 
twelve millions. In 1783 it surrendered to a British detachment 
under General Matthews, but being shortly after invested by 
Tippoo Sultan, the garrison capitulated on condition of safe 
conduct to the coast. Tippoo violated the stipulation, put 
General Matthews and the principal officers to death, and 
imprisoned the remainder of the force. 

NAGARJUNA, a celebrated Buddhist philosopher and writer. 
He is constantly quoted in the literature of the later schools 
of Buddhism, and a very large number of works in Sanskrit is 
attributed to him. None of these has been critically edited or 
translated; and there is much uncertainty as to the exact date 
of his career, and as to his opinions. The most probable date 
seems to be the early part of the 3rd century A.D. He seems to 
have been born in the south of India, and to have lived under the 
patronage of a king of southern Kosala, the modem Chattisgarh. 
Chinese and Tibetan authorities differ as to the name of this 
monarch; but it apparently is meant to represent an Indian 
name Satavahana, which is a dynastic title, not a personal name. 
Of the works he probably wrote one was a treatise advocating 
the Madhyamaka views of which he is the reputed founder; 
another a long and poetical prose work on the stages of the 
Bodhisattva career; and a third a voluminous commentary on 
the Mahaprajna-paramita Sutra. Chinese tradition ascribes 
to him special knowledge of herbs, of astrology, of alchemy 
and of medicine. Two medical treatises, one on prescriptions in 
general, the other on the treatment of eye-disease, are said, by 
Chinese writers, to be by him. Several poems of a didactic 
character are also ascribed to him. The best known of these 
poems is The Friendly Epistle addressed to King Udayana. 
A translation into English of a Tibetan version of this piece has 
been published by Dr Wenzel. 

AUTHORITIES. H. Wenzel, Journal of the Pali Text Society 
(1866), pp. 1-32; T. Walters, On Yuan Chwdne, ed. by Rhys Davids 
and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905). Taranatha's Geschichte 
des Buddhismus in Indien, trans. Anton Schiefner (Leipzig, 1869); 
W. Wassiljew, Der Buddhismus (Leipzig, 1860). (T. W. R. D.) 

NAGASAKI, a town on the south-west of the island of Kiushiu, 
Japan, in 32 44' N., 129 51' E., with 163,324 (1905) inhabitants, 
and a foreign settlement containing a population of 400 (ex- 
cluding Chinese). The first port of entry for ships coming from 
the south or the west to Japan, it lies at the head of a beautiful 
inlet some 3 m. long, which forms a splendid anchorage, and is 
largely used by ships coming to coal and by warships. Marine 
products, coal and cotton goods are the chief exports, and raw 
cotton, iron, as well as other metals and materials used for ship- 
building, constitute the principal imports. The value of imports 
approaches 2,000,000 annually. That of exports has fluctuated 
considerably. In 1889 it was 1,005,367, but in 1894 it was only 
444,839, and does not generally exceed 450,000. The most 
important industries of the town are represented by the engine 
works of Aka-no-ura, three large docks and a patent slip, the 
property of the Mitsu Bishi Company. Steamers of over 6000 
tons have been constructed at these docks, which, as well as the 
engine works, are situated on the western shore of the inlet. 
The brisk atmosphere of business that pervades them does not 
reach the town on the eastern side, which lies under the shadow of 
forests of tombstones that cover the over-looking hills. Nagasaki 
is noted as a coaling station. The coal is obtained chiefly from 
Takashima, an islet 8 m. S.E. of the entrance to the harbour, 
and in lesser quantities from two other islets, Naka-no-shima 
and Ha-shima, which lie about i m. farther out. These sources 
of supply, however, show signs of exhaustion. There are several 
favourite health resorts in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, 
notably Unzen, with its sulphur springs. 

Nagasaki owed its earliest importance to foreign intercourse. 
Originally called Fukae-no-ura (Fukae Bay), it was included in 



the fief of Nagasaki Kotaro in the I2th century, and from him 
it took its name. But it remained an insignificant village until 
the 1 6th century, when, becoming the headquarters of Japanese 
Christianity, and subsequently the sole emporium of foreign 
trade in the hands of the Dutch and the Chinese, it developed 
considerable prosperity. The opening of the port of Moji for 
export trade deprived Nagasaki of its monopoly as a coaling 
station, and the visits of war vessels were reduced when Russia 
acquired Port Arthur, Great Britain Wei-hai-wei and Germany 
Kiaochow. On the north side of the channel by which the 
harbour is entered there stands a cliff called Takaboko, which, 
under the name of Pappenberg, has long been rendered notorious 
by a tradition that thousands of Christians were precipitated 
from it in the I7th century because they refused to trample on 
the Cross. It has been conclusively proved that the legend 
is untrue. 

NAGAUft or NAGORE, a town in India, in Jodhpur state of 
Rajputana, with a station on the Jodhpur-Bikanir railway. 
Pop. (1901) 13,377. Nagaur is surrounded by a wall more than 
4 m. in circuit. It has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. 

NAGELSBACH,' CARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1859), German 
classical scholar, was born at Wohrd near Nuremburg on the 28th 
of March 1806. After studying at Erlangen and Berlin, he 
accepted in 1827 an appointment at the Nuremberg gymnasium, 
and was professor of classics at Erlangen from 1842 till his death 
on the 2ist of April 1859. Nagelsbach is chiefly known for his 
excellent Lateinische Stilistik (1846; gth ed. by Ivan Miiller, 
1905). Two other important works by him are Die Homerische 
Theologie (1840; 3rd ed. by G. Autenrieth, 1886) and Die 
Nachhonterische Theologie (1857). 

See J. L. Doederlein, Gedachtnissrede fur Herrn K. F. Nagelsbach 
(1859); article by G. Autenrieth in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, 
xxiii. (1886). 

NAGINA, a town of British India, in Bijnor district of the 
United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 48 m. 
N.W. of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 21,412. There is considerable 
trade in sugar, besides manufactures of guns, glassware (especially 
bottles for the use of pilgrims carrying the sacred water of the 
Ganges from Hardwar), ebony wares, hemp-sacking and cotton 
cloth. 

NAGODE, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand 
agency. Area, 501 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 67,092, showing a de- 
crease of 20% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, 
11,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Parihar 
clan. The town of NAGODE is 17 m. W. of the British station of 
Sutna. Pop. (1901) 3887. It was formerly a military canton- 
ment, and has an Anglo-vernacular school and dispensary. 
The former capital (until 1720) was Unchahra. 

NAGOYA, the capital of the province of Owari, Japan, on 
the great trunk railway of Japan, 235 m. from Tokyo and 94 m. 
from Kioto. Pop. (1903) 284,829. It is the fifth of the chief 
cities in Japan. It lies near the head of the shallow Isenumi 
Bay, about 30 m. from the port of Yokkaichi, with which it 
communicates by light-draught steamers and by rail. The 
castle of Nagoya, erected in 1610, never suffered in war, but in 
modern times became a military dep6t; the interior contains 
much splendid decoration. The central keep of the citadel is 
a remarkable structure, covering close upon half an acre, but 
rapidly diminishing in each of its five storeys till the top room 
is only about 12 yds. square. Gabled roofs and hanging rafters 
break the almost pyramidal outline; and a pair of gold-plated 
dolphins 8 ft. high form a striking finial. Both were removed 
in 1872, and one of them was at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873; 
but they have been restored to their proper site. The religious 
buildings of Nagoya include a very fine Buddhist temple, Higashi 
Hongwanji. Nagoya is well known as one of the great seats of the 
pottery trade; 13^ m. distant are the potteries of Seto, where 
the first glazed pottery made in Japan was produced by Kato 
Shirozaemon, after a visit to China in 1229. From Kato's time 
Seto continued, during several centuries, to be the chief centre 
of ceramic production in Japan, the manufacture of porcelain 
being added to that of pottery in the i9th century. All the 



152 



NAGPUR NAGY-VARAD 



products of the flourishing industry now carried on there and at 
other places in the province are transported to Nagoya, for sale 
there or for export. Cotton mills have been established, and an 
extensive business is carried on in the embroidery of handker- 
chiefs. Another of its celebrated manufactures is arimatsu- 
shibori, or textile fabrics (silk or cotton), dyed so as to show spots 
in relief from which the colour radiates. It is further distin- 
guished as the birthplace of cloisonne enamelling in Japan, all 
work of that nature before 1838 when a new departure was made 
by Kaji Tsunekichi having been for purposes of subordinate 
decoration. Quantities of doisonnS enamels are now produced 
in the town. 

NAGPUR, a city, district and division of British India, in the 
Central Provinces. The city is 1125 ft. above the sea; railway 
station, 520 m. E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 127,734. The town 
is well laid out, with several parks and artificial lakes, and has 
numerous Hindu temples. The prettily wooded suburb of Sita- 
baldi contains the chief government buildings, the houses of 
Europeans, the railway station and the cantonments, with fort 
and arsenal. In the centre stands Sitabaldi Hill, crowned with 
the fort. Beyond the station lies the broad sheet of water 
known as the Jama Talao,and farther east is the city, completely 
hidden in a mass of foliage. Handsome tanks and gardens, 
constructed by the Mahratta princes, lie outside the city. The 
palace, built of black basalt and profusely ornamented with 
wood carving, was burnt down in 1864, and only the great gate- 
way remains. The garrison consists of detachments of European 
and native infantry from Kampti. Nagpur is the headquarters 
of two corps of rifle volunteers. It is the junction of two im- 
portant railway systems the Great Indian Peninsula tojiombay 
and the Bengal-Nagpur to Calcutta. The large weaving popu- 
lation maintain their reputation for producing fine fabrics. 
There are steam cotton mills and machinery for ginning and 
pressing cotton. The gaol contains an important printing 
establishment. Education is provided by two aided colleges 
the Hislop and the Morris, called after a missionary and a former 
chief commissioner; four high schools; a law school; an 
agricultural school, with a class for the scientific training of 
teachers; a normal school; a zenana mission for the manage- 
ment of girls' schools; an Anglican and two Catholic schools for 
Europeans. There are several libraries and reading rooms, 
and an active Anjuman or Mahommedan society. 

The DISTRICT or NAGPUR has an area of 384 sq. m. Pop. 
(1901) 751,844. It lies immediately below the great tableland 
of the Satpura range. A second line of hills shuts in the district 
on the south-west, and a third runs from north to south, parting 
the country into two plains of unequal size. These hills are all 
offshoots of the Satpuras, and nowhere attain any great ele- 
vation. Their heights are rocky and sterile, but the valleys and 
lowlands yield rich crops of corn and garden produce. The 
western plain slopes down to the river Wardha, is watered by the 
Jam and Madar, tributaries of the Wardha, and contains the 
most highly-tilled land in the district, abounding in fruit trees 
and the richest garden cultivation. The eastern plain (six times 
the larger), stretching away to the confines of Bhandara and 
Chanda, consists of a rich undulating country, luxuriant with 
mango groves and dotted towards the east with countless small 
tanks. It is watered by the Kanhan, with its tributaries, which 
flows into the Wainganga beyond the district. The principal 
crops are millets, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. There are steam 
factories for ginning and pressing cotton at the military canton- 
ment of Kampti, which was formerly the chief centre of trades. 
An important new industry is manganese mining. The district 
is traversed by the two lines of railway which meet at Nagpur 
city, and several branches are under construction. 

The DIVISION OF NAGPUR comprises the five districts of Nagpur, 
Bhandara, Chanda, Wardha and Balaghat. Area, 23,521 sq. m. 
Pop. (1901) 3,728,063, showing a decrease of 9% in the decade. 

See Nagpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1908). 

NA6YKANIZSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Zala, 
137 m. S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1000) 23,255. It 
possesses distilleries and brick-making factories, and has trade 



in cereals and cattle. Nagykanizsa once ranked as the second 
fortress of Hungary, and consequently played an important part 
during the wars with the Turks, who, having gained possession 
of it in 1600, held it until, in 1690, after a siege of two years, 
it was recovered by the Austrian and Hungarian forces. In 
1702 the fortifications were destroyed. 

NAG YKIKINDA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Torontal, 
152 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,843, of which 
about 60% are Servians. Being one of the centres of production 
of the famous wheat of the Banat, its flour industry is important. 
Fruit-farming and cattle-rearing are extensively carried on in the 
neighbourhood. 

NAGYSZEBEN (Ger. Hermannstadt, Rumanian Sibiu), a town 
of Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of 
Szeben, 122 m. S.S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 26,077, 
of whom 16,141 were Saxons (Germans), 7106 Rumanians, 
and 5747 Magyars. It is beautifully situated at an altitude 
of 1411 ft. in the fertile valley of the Cibin (Hungarian, Szeben), 
encircled on all sides by the Transylvanian Alps. It is the seat 
of a Greek Orthodox (Rumanian) archbishop, and of the super- 
intendent of the Protestants for the Transylvanian circle. Some 
parts of Nagyszeben have a medieval appearance, with houses 
built in the old German style. The most noteworthy of its public 
buildings is the handsome Protestant Church, begun in the I4th 
century and finished in 1520, in the Gothic style, containing a 
beautiful cup-shaped font, cast by Meister Leonhardus in 1438, 
and a large mural painting of the Crucifixion by Johannes von 
Rosenau (1445). In the so-called New Church, comprising the 
west part of the whole building, which is an addition of the 
1 6th century, are many beautiful memorials of Saxon notables. 
Other buildings are: the Roman Catholic parish church, founded 
in 1726; the church of the Ursuline nuns, built in 1474; the 
town hall, an imposing building of the 1 5th century, purchased 
by the municipality in 1545 and containing the archives of the 
" Saxon nation." The Brukenthal palace, built in 1777-1787 
by Baron Samuel von Brukenthal (1721-1803), governor of 
Transylvania, contains an interesting picture-gallery with good 
examples of the Dutch school, and a library. The museum 
contains a natural history section with the complete fauna 
and flora of Transylvania, and a rich ethnographical section. 
Nagyszeben has a law academy, a seminary for Greek Orthodox 
priests, a military academy and several secondary schools. 
There are manufactures of cloth, linen, leather, caps, boots, 
soap, candles, ropes, as well as breweries and distilleries. 

The German name of the town is traceable to Hermann, a 
citizen of Nuremberg, who about the middle of the 1 2th century 
established a colony on the spot. In the I3th century it bore 
the name of Villa Hermanni. Under the last monarchs of the 
native Magyar dynasty Hermannstadt enjoyed exceptional 
privileges, and its commerce with the East rose to importance. 
In the course of the isth and i6th centuries it was several 
times besieged by the Turks. At the beginning of 1849 it was 
the scene of several engagements between the Austrians and 
Hungarians; and later in the year it was several times taken 
and retaken by the Russians and Hungarians. 

NAGYSZOMBAT (Ger. Tyrnau), a town of Hungary, in the 
county of Pozsony, 115 m. N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. 
(1900) 12,422. It is situated on the Trnava, and has played an 
important r61e in the ecclesiastical history of Hungary. It 
gained prominence after 1543, when the archbishop of Esztergom 
and primate of Hungary made it his residence after the capture 
of Esztergom by the Turks. In consequence numerous churches 
and convents were built, and the town acquired the title of " Little 
Rome." It possesses a Roman Catholic seminary for priests, 
and was the seat of a university founded in 1635, which was 
transferred to Budapest in 1777. In 1820 the archbishop's 
residence was again removed to Esztergom. It has an active 
trade in cereals and cattle. 

NAGY-VARAD (Ger. Grosswardein) , a town of Hungary, 
capital of the county of Bihar, 153 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by 
rail. Pop. (1900) 47,018. It is situated in a plain on both banks 
of the river Sebeskoros, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic 



NAHE NAIL 



153 



and of a Greek (Old-United) bishopric. Among its principal 
buildings are the St Ladislaus parish church, built in 1723, 
which contains the remains of the king St Ladislaus (d. 1095), 
the Roman Catholic cathedral, built in 1752-1779, the Greek 
cathedral, the large palace of the Roman Catholic bishop, built 
in 1778 in the rococo style, the archaeological and historical 
museum, with an interesting collection of ecclesiastical art, and 
the county and town hall. Among the educational establishments 
are a Jaw academy, a seminary for priests, a modern school, 
a Roman Catholic and a Calvinistic gymnasium, a commercial 
academy, a training school for teachers and a secondary school 
for girls. Nagy-Varad is an important railway junction; it 
possesses extensive manufactures of pottery and large distilleries, 
and carries on a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, horses, 
fruit and wine. About 6 m. S. of the town is the village of Hajo, 
which contains the Piispok Fiirdo or Bishop's Baths, with warm 
saline and sulphurous waters (92 to 103 F.), used both for 
drinking and bathing in cases of anaemia and scrofula. 

Nagy-Varad is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. Its 
bishopric was founded by St Ladislaus in 1080. The town 
was destroyed by the Tatars in 1241. Peace was concluded 
here on the 24th of February 1538 between Ferdinand I. of 
Austria and his rival John Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania. 
In 1556 it passed into the possession of Transylvania, but 
afterwards reverted to Austria. In 1598 the fortress was un- 
successfully besieged by the Turks, but it fell into their hands 
in 1660 and was recovered by the Austrians in 1692. The 
Greek Old-United or Catholic bishopric was founded in 1776. 

NAHE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of.the Rhine, 
rises near Selbach in the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld. 
For some distance it forms the boundary between the Bavarian 
Palatinate and the Prussian Rhine Province, and it falls into the 
Rhine at Bingen. Its length is 78 m., but it is too shallow and 
rocky to be navigable. Its picturesque valley, through which 
runs the railway from Bingerbriick to Neunkirchen, is largely 
visited by tourists. 

See Schneegans, Ceschichte des Nahelals (Kreuznach, 1890). 

NAHUATLAN STOCK, a North and Central American Indian 
stock. Nahuas or Nahuatlecas was the collective name for the 
dominant Indian peoples of Mexico at the time of the Spanish 
conquest, and the Nahuatlan stock consisted of the Nahuas (or 
Aztecs) and a few scattered tribes in Central America. 

NAHUM (Hebrew for " rich in comfort [is God] "), an Old 
Testament prophet. The name occurs only in the book of Nahum ; 
in Nehemiah vii. 7 it is a scribal error for " Rehum." Of the 
prophet himself all that is known is the statement of the title 
that he was an Elkoshite. But the locality denoted by the 
designation is quite uncertain. Later tradition associated 
Nahum with the region of Nineveh, against which he prophesied, 
and hence his tomb has been located at a place bearing the name 
of Alkush near Mosul (anc. Nineveh) and is still shown. 1 Accord- 
ing to Jerome, the prophet was a native of a village in Galilee, 
which bore the name of Elkesi in the 4th century A.D. (the Galilean 
town of Capernaum, which probably means " village of Nahum," 
may also point in the same direction; but cf. John vii. 29, 
which seems to imply that in the time of Christ no prophet 
was supposed to have come out of Galilee). E. Nestle has 
proposed to locate Elkesi " beyond Betogabra " (i.e. Eleuthero- 
polis, mod. Beit Jibrin) in the tribe of Simeon (cf. Pal. Expl. 
Fund Quart. Statement, 1879, pp. 136-138). 

BOOK OF NAHUM. The original heading of Nahum's prophecy 
is contained in the second part of the superscription: " [The 
book of] the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite " (cf. the similar 
headings in Isaiah, Obadiah and Habakkuk). The first part 
(" Oracle concerning Nineveh ") is a late editorial insertion, but 
correctly describes the main contents of the little book. 

Contents of the Book, (i) Chapters i. and ii. The prophecy 
against Nineveh in its present form really begins with chap. ii. i, 
followed immediately by tf. 3, and readily falls into three parts, 
viz. (a) ii. i, 3-10; (b) ii. U-J3; and (c) iii. Here (a) describes in 
language of considerable descriptive power the assault on Nineveh 

1 Jonah's grave has been located similarly in Nineveh itself. 



the city is mentioned by name in ii. 8 (9 Heb. text) its capture 
and sack; (b) contains an oracle of Yahweh directed against the 
king of Assyria (" Behold, I am against th'ee, saith the Lord of 
Hosts," v. 13) ; (c) again gives a vivid picture of war and desolation 
which are to overtake and humiliate Nineveh, as they have already 
overtaken No-Amon (i.e. Egyptian Thebes, w. 8-10); the defence 
is pictured as futile and the ruin complete. The absence of dis- 
tinctly religious motive from these chapters is remarkable; the 
divine name occurs only in the repeated refrain, " Behold, I am 
against thee, saith the Lord of Hosts," ii. 13, iii. 5. They express 
little more than merely human indignation at the oppression of 
the world-power, and picture with undisguised satisfaction the 
storm of war which overwhelms the imperial city. 

(2) Chapter i. forms the exordium to the prophecy of doom 
against Nineveh in the book as it lies before us. Its tone is exalted, 
and a fine picture is given of Yahweh appearing in judgment: 
"The Lord (Yahweh) is a jealous God and avengeth; the Lord 
avengeth and is full of wrath." The effects of the divine anger on 
the physical universe are forcibly described (w. 3-6); on the 
other hand, God cares for those " that put their trust in Him " 
(. 7), but overwhelms His enemies (m. 8-120); in the following 
verses (126-15) the joyful news is conveyed to Judah of*the fall of 
the oppressor: " Behold upon the mountains the feet of him that 
bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace! Keep thy feasts, O 
Judah, perform thy vows; for the wicked one shall no more pass 
through thee; he is utterly cut off" (v. 15). 

Regarding chap. i. and ii. 2( = i. and ii. I, 3, Heb. text) there has 
been much discussion in recent years. It was long ago noticed that 
traces of an alphabetic acrostic survive in this section of the book; 
throughout the whole of chap. i. there is no reference to Nineveh, 
though in some of the verses (8-l2a, 14) the enemies of Yahweh are 
addressed, who have usually been identified with the people or city 
of Nineveh; in m. 126, 13 and (certainly) v. 15 ( = ii. I Heb.) 
Judah appears to be addressed. The text of i. 1-15, ii. 1-2 has been 
reconstructed by H. Gunkel and G. Bickell so as to form a complete 
alphabetic psalm with contents of an eschatological character, and 
is regarded by them as a later addition to the book. It may be a 
" generalizing supplement " prefixed by the editor, possibly because 
the original introduction to the oracle had been mutilated. It is 
generally held by critical scholars that i. 1-8, 13, 15, and ii. 2 cer- 
tainly do not proceed from Nahum; i. 9-12 may, however, belong 
to the prophet. The phenomena are conflicting and a completely 
satisfactory solution seems to be impossible. 

Date of Nahum's Oracle. The date of the composition of 
Nahum's prophecy must lie between 607-606, when Nineveh was 
captured and destroyed by the Babylonians and Medes, and the 
capture of Thebes (No-Amon) which is alluded to in iii. 8 10. 
This was effected for the second time and most completely by 
Assur-bani-pal in 663 or 662 B.C. The tone of the prophecy 
suggests, on the one hand, that the fall of Nineveh is imminent, 
while, on the other, the reference to Thebes suggests that the 
disaster that had befallen it was still freshly remembered. On 
the whole a date somewhat near 606 is more probable. It is 
noteworthy that no reference is made to the restoration of the 
northern kingdom of Israel, or the return of its exiles. The poetry 
of the book is of a high order. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Commentaries on the Minor Prophets, 
especially those of 1. Wellhausen, D. W. Nowack and K. Marti 
(all German) ; G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (2 vols.) ; 
A. B. Davidson, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah (Camb. Bible, 
1896). (G. H. Bo.) 

NAIK, or NAYAK, from a Sanskrit word meaning a leader, a 
title used in India in various senses. In the army it denotes a 
rank corresponding to that of corporal; and Hyder Ali of Mysore 
was proud of being called Haidar Naik, analogous to " le petit 
caporal " for Napoleon. It was also the title of the petty 
dynasties that arose in S. India on the downfall of the Hindu 
empire of Vijayanagar in the i6th century. 

NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger.,S wed. nagel; the word is 
also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. owl;, Sans, nakhds) a word applied 
both to the horny covering to the upper surface of the extremities 
of the fingers and toes of man and the Quadrumana (see SKIN 
and DERMAL SKELETON), and also to a headed pin or spike of 
metal, commonly of iron. The principal use of nails is in wood- 
work (joinery and carpentery), but they are also employed in 
numerous other trades. Size, form of head, nature of point, and 
special uses all give names to different classes of nails. Thus we 
have tacks, sprigs and brads for very small nails; rose, clasp 
and clout, according to the form of head; and flat points or 
sharp points according to the taper of the spike. According to 



NAIL VIOLIN NAIRNE 



the method of manufacture nails fall into four principal classes: 
(i) hand-wrought nails; (2) machine-wrought and cut nails; 
(3) wire or French nails; and (4) cast nails. 

The nailer handicraft was formerly a great industry in the 
country around Birmingham. The nails 'are forged from nail- 
rods heated in a small smith's hearth, hammered on an anvil, the 
nail length cut off on a chisel and the head formed by dropping 
the spike into a hole in a " bolster " of steel, from which enough 
of the spike is left projecting to form the head. In the case of 
clasp nails the head is formed with two strokes of the hammer, 
while rose nails require four. The heads of the larger-sized nails 
are made with an " Oliver " or mechanical hammer, and for 
ornamental or stamped heads " swages " or dies are employed. 
The conditions of h'fe and labour among the hand nailers in 
England were exceedingly unsatisfactory: married women and 
young children of both sexes working long hours in small filthy 
sheds attached to their dwellings; their employment was con- 
trolled by middle-men or nail-masters, who supplied them with 
the nail-rods and paid for work done, sometimes in money and 
sometimes in kind on the truck system. Machine- wrought and cut 
nails have supplanted most corresponding kinds of hand-made 
nails. Horse nails are still made by hand-labour. These are 
made from the finest Swedish charcoal iron, hammered out to a 
sharp point. They must be tough and homogeneous throughout, 
so that there may be no danger of their breaking over and leaving 
portions in the hoof. 

In 1617 Sir D. Bulmer devised a machine for cutting nail-rods, 
and in 1 790 T. Clifford patented a device for shaping the rods, but 
the credit of perfecting machinery mainly belongs to American 
enterprise (the first American patent appears to be that of 
Ezekiel Reed, dated 1786). The machine, fed with heated (to 
black heat only) strips of metal, usually mild steel, having a 
breadth and thickness sufficient for the nail to be made, shears 
off by its slicer the " nail blank," which, falling down, is firmly 
clutched at the neck till a heading die strikes against its upper 
end and forms the head, ths completed nail passing out through 
an inclined shoot. In large nails the taper of the shank and 
point is secured by the sectional form to which the strips are 
rolled; brads, sprigs and small nails, on the other hand, are cut 
from uniform strips in an angular direction from head to point, 
the strip being turned over after each blank is cut so that the 
points and heads are taken from opposite sides alternately, and 
a uniform taper on two opposite sides of the nail, from head to 
point, is secured. The machines turn out nails with wonderful 
rapidity, varying with the size of the nails produced from about 
100 to 1000 per minute. Wire or French nails are made from 
round wire, which is unwound, straightened, cut into lengths and 
headed by a machine either by intermittent blows or by pressure, 
but the pointing is accomplished by the pressure of dies. Cast 
nails, which are cast in sand moulds by the ordinary process, are 
used principally for horticultural purposes, and the hob-nails or 
tackets of shoemakers are also cast. 

See Peter Barlow, Encyclopaedia of Arts, Manufactures and 
Machinery (1848); Bucknall Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture and 
Uses (New York, 1891). 

NAIL VIOLIN (Ger. Nagdgeige, Nagelharmonica), a musical 
curiosity invented by Johann Wilde, a musician in the imperial 
orchestra at St Petersburg. The nail violin or harmonica consists 
of a wooden soundboard about i ft. long and i ft. wide bent into 
a semicircle. In this soundboard are fixed a number of iron or 
brass nails of different lengths, tuned to give a chromatic scale. 
Sound is produced by friction with a strong bow, strung with 
black horsehair. An improved instrument, now in the collection 
of the Hochschule in Berlin, has two half-moon sound-chests of 
different sizes, one on the top of the other, forming terraces. In 
the rounded wall of the upper sound-chest are two rows of iron 
staples, the upper giving the diatonic scale, and the lower the 
intermediate chromatic semitones. History records the name of 
a single virtuoso on this instrument, which has a sweet bell-like 
tone but limited technical possibilities; he was a Bohemian 
musician called Senal, who travelled all over Germany with his 
instrument about 1780-1790. (K. S.) 



NAINI TAL, a town and district of British India, in the 
Kumaon division of the United Provinces. The town is 6400 ft. 
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7609. Naini Tal is a popular 
sanatorium for the residents in the plains, and the summer head- 
quarters of the government of the province. It is situated on a 
lake, surrounded by high mountains, and is subject to landslides; 
a serious catastrophe of this kind occurred in September 1880. 
The approach from the plains is by the Rohilkhand and Kumaon 
railway from Bareilly, which has its terminus at Kathgodam, 
22 m. distant by cart road. There are several European schools, 
besides barracks and convalescent dep6t for European soldiers. 

The DISTRICT OF NAINI TAL comprises the lower hills of 
Kumaon and the adjoining Tarai or submontane strip. Area, 
2677 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 311,237, showing a decrease of 15-4% 
in the decade. The district includes the Gagar and other 
foothills of the Himalayas, which reach an extreme height of 
nearly 9000 ft. The Bhabar tract at their base consists of boulders 
from the mountains, among which the hill streams are swallowed 
up. Forests cover vast tracts of the hill-country and the Bhabar. 
Beyond this is the Tarai, moist and extremely unhealthy. Here 
the principal crops are rice and wheat. In the hills a small 
amount of tea is grown, and a considerable quantity of fruit. 
The only railway is the line to Kathgodam. 

See Naini Tal District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904). 

NAIRN, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town 
of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of the royal burgh (1901) 5089. 
It is situated on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Nairn and 
on its left bank, 151 m. N.E. of Inverness by the Highland 
railway. The town, though of immemorial age, shows no signs 
of its antiquity, being bright, neat and modern. It attracts 
many summer visitors by its good sea bathing and excellent 
golf-course. The industries include salmon fishing, deep-sea 
fishing, the making of rope and twine and the freestone quarries 
of the neighbourhood. There is a commodious harbour with 
breakwater and pier. Nairn belongs to the Inverness district 
group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and 
Nairn). Nairn was originally called Invernarne (the mouth of 
the Nairn) . It was made a royal burgh by Alexander I. (d. 1 1 24) , 
but this charter having been lost it was confirmed by James VI. 
in 1589. 

NAIRNE, CAROLINA, BARONESS (1766-1845), Scottish song 
writer, was born in the " auld hoose " of Gask, Perthshire, on 
the 1 6th of August 1766. She was descended from an old family 
which had settled in Perthshire in the I3th century, and could 
boast of kinship with the royal race of Scotland. Her father, 
Laurence Oliphant, was one of the foremost supporters of the 
Jacobite cause, and she was named Carolina in memory of Prince 
Charles Edward. In the schoolroom she was known as " pretty 
Miss Car," and afterwards her striking beauty and pleasing 
manners earned for her the name of the " Flower of Strathearn." 
In 1806 she married W. M. Nairne, who became Baron Nairne 
(see below) in 1824. Following the example set by Burns in the 
Scots Musical Museum, she undertook to bring out a collection 
of national airs set to appropriate words. To the collection she 
contributed a large number of original songs, adopting the 
signature " B. B." " Mrs Bogan of Bogan." The music was 
edited by R. A. Smith, and the collection was published at 
Edinburgh under the name of the Scottish Minstrel (1821- 
1824). After her husband's death in 1830 Lady Nairne took 
up her residence at Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow, but she spent 
much time abroad. She died at Gask on the 26th of October 
1845. 

Her songs may be classed under three heads: (i) those 
illustrative of the characters and manners of the old Scottish 
gentry, such as " The Laird o' Cockpen," " The Fife Laird," 
and "John Tod "; (2) Jacobite songs, composed for the most 
part to gratify her kinsman Robertson, the aged chief of Strowan, 
among the best known of which are perhaps " Wha '11 be King 
but Charlie? " " Charlie is my darling," " The Hundred Pipers," 
" He's owre the Hills," and " Bonnie Charlie's noo awa "; 
and (3) songs not included under the above heads, ranging over 
a variety of subjects from " Caller Herrin' " to the " Land o' the 



NAIRNSHIRE NAIROBI 



Leal." For vivacity, genuine pathos and bright wit her songs 
are surpassed only by those of Burns. 

Lady Nairne's husband, William Murray Nairne (1757-1830). 
He was descended from Sir Robert Nairne of Strathord (c. 1620- 
1683), a supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Nairne 
in 1681. After his death without issue the barony passed to 
his son-in-law, Lord William Murray (c. 1665-1726), the husband 
of his only daughter Margaret (1660-1747) and a younger son 
of John Murray, ist marquess of Athole. William, who took 
the name of Nairne and became 2nd Baron Nairne, joined the 
standard of the Jacobites in 1715; he was taken prisoner at the 
battle of Preston and was sentenced to death. He was, however, 
pardoned, but his title was forfeited. His son John (c. 1691- 
1770), who but for this forfeiture would have been the 3rd 
Baron Nairne, was also taken prisoner at Preston, but he was 
soon set at liberty. In the rising of 1745 he was one of the 
Jacobite leaders, being present at the battles of Prestonpans, of 
Falkirk and of Culloden, and consequently he was attainted in 
1746; but escaped to France. His son John (d. 1782) was the 
father of William Murray Nairne, who, being restored to the 
barony of Nairne in 1824, became the 5th baron. The male line 
became extinct when his son William, the 6th baron (1808-1837), 
died unmarried. The next heir was a cousin, Margaret, Baroness 
Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1788-1867), wife of Auguste 
Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, but she did 
not claim the title. In 1874, however, the right of her daughter, 
the wife of the 4th marquess of Lansdowne, was allowed by the 
House of Lords. 

For Lady Nairne's songs, see Lays from Strathearn, arranged with 
Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte by Finlay Dun 
(1846); vol. i. of the Modern Scottish Minstrel (1857); Lye and 
Songs of the Baroness Nairne, with a Memoir and Poems of Caroline 
Oliphant the Younger, edited by Charles Rogers (1869, new ed. 
1886). See also T. L. Kington-Oliphant, Jacobite Lairds of Cask 
(1870). 

NAIRNSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded 
W. and S. by Inverness-shire, E. by Elginshire and N. by the 
Moray Firth. It has an area of 103,429 acres or 161-6 sq. m., 
and a coast line of 9 m. and is the fourth smallest county in 
Scotland. The seaboard, which is skirted by sandbanks danger- 
ous to navigation, is lined by low dunes extending into Elginshire. 
Parallel with the coast there is a deposit of sand and gravel 
about 90 ft. high stretching inland for 4 or 5 m. This and the 
undulating plain behind are a continuation westward of the fertile 
Laigh of Moray. From this region southward the land rises 
rapidly to the confines of Inverness-shire, where the chief heights 
occur. Several of these border hills exceed 2000 ft. in altitude, 
the highest being Cam Glas (2162 ft.). The only rivers of 
importance are the Findhorn and the Nairn, both rising in 
Inverness-shire. The Findhorn after it leaves that county 
takes a mainly north-easterly direction down Strathdearn for 
17 m. and enters the sea to the north of Forres in Elginshire 
after a total course of 70 m. The Nairn, shortly after issuing 
from Strathnairn, flows towards the N.E. for 12 m. out of its 
complete course of 38 m. and falls into the Moray Firth at the 
county town. There are eight lochs, all small, but the loch of 
Clans is of particular interest because of its examples of crannogs, 
or lake-dwellings. Nairnshire contains many beautiful woods and 
much picturesque and romantic scenery. 

Geology. The county is divided geologically into two clearly- 
marked portions. The southern and larger portion is composed 
of the eastern, Dalradian or younger Highland schists with associated 
granite masses; this forms all the higher ground. The low-lying 
northern part of the country bordering Moray Firth is occupied by 
Old Red Sandstone. The schistose rocks are mainly thin bedded 
micaceous gneisses, schists and quartzites; between Dallaschyle 
and Creag an Daimb a more massive higher horizon appears in the 
centre of a synclinal fold. Porphyritic gneiss is found on the flanks 
of Carn nan tri-tighearnan. The schists are frequently intersected 
by dikes of granite, amphibplite, &c. Three masses of granite are 
found penetrating the schists; the largest lies on the eastern 
boundary and extends from about Lethen Bar Hill southward by 
Ardclach and Glenferness to the Bridge of Dulsie. The second 
mass on the opposite side of the county belongs mainly to Inverness 
but the granite reaches into Nairn on the slopes of Bein nan Creagan 
and Ben Buidhe Mhor. A smaller mass near Rait Castle, with large 



pink crystals of orthoclase, has been employed as a building stone. 
On the denuded surface of the schists the Old Red Sandstone was 
deposited and formerly doubtless covered most of the county; 
outlying patches still remain near Drynachan Lodge and near 
Highland Boath in Muckle Burn. The Lower Old Red rocks are 
basal breccias followed by shales with calcareous nodules containing 
fossil fish. The Upper Old Red, which is found usually nearer the 
coast, is unconformable on the Lower series; it consists of red 
shales and clays and obliquely bedded sandstones. Glacial deposits 
are widely spread; they comprise a Lower Boulder Clay, a series 
of gravels and sands, followed by an Upper Boulder Clay, above 
which comes a series of gravel deposits forming ridges on the moor- 
land between the Nairn and Findhorn rivers. A fine kame, resting 
on the plain of sand and gravel, lies between Meikle Kildrummie 
and Loch Flemington, south of the railway. Traces of the old 
marine terraces at loo ft., 50 ft. and 25 ft. are found near the coast, 
as well as considerable accumulations of blown sand. 

Climate and Industries. The climate is healthy and equable. 
The temperature for the year averages 47 F., for January 38 F., 
and for July, 58 F. The mean annual rainfall is 25 in. The soil 
of the alluvial plain, or Laigh, is light and porous and careful cultiva- 
tion has rendered it very fertile; and there is some rich land on the 
Findhorn. Although the most advanced methods of agriculture are 
in use, but a small proportion of the surface is capable of tillage, only 
one-fifth of the whole area being under crops. The hills are mostly 
covered with heath and pasture, suitable for sheep, and cattle are 
kept on the lower lying ground. The county accords many facilities 
for sport. A few distilleries, some sandstone and granite quarries 
and the sea and salmon fisheries of the Nairn practically represent 
the industries of the shire, apart from agriculture. The Highland 
Railway from Forres to Inverness crosses the north of the shire. 

Population and Government. In 1891 the population numbered 
9155 and in 1901 it was 9291, or 57 persons to the sq. m. Besides 
the county town of Nairn (pop. 5089), there are the parishes of 
Ardclach (pop. 772), and Auldearn (pop. of parish 1292, of village 
313). Nairn and Elgin shires combine to return one member to 
parliament, arid the county town belongs to the Inverness district 
group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and 
Nairn). The shire forms a sheriffdom with Inverness and Elgin 
and a sheriff -substitute sits alternately at Nairn and Elgin. 

History. The country was originally peopled by the Gaelic 
or northern Picts. Stone circles believed to have been raised 
by them are found at Moyness, Auldearn, Urchany, Ballinrait, 
Dalcross and Croy, the valley of the Nairn being especially rich 
in such relics. To the north of Dulsie Bridge is a monolith 
called the Princess Stone. A greater number of the mysterious 
prehistoric stones with cup-markings occur in Nairn than any- 
where else in Scotland. Mote hills are also common. Whether 
there was any effective Roman occupation of the land so far 
north is an open question, but there is little evidence of it in 
Nairn, beyond the occasional finding of Roman coins. Columba 
and his successors made valiant efforts to Christianize the Picts, 
but it was long before their labours began to tell, although the 
saint's name was preserved late in the igth century in the annual 
fair at Auldearn called " St Colm's Market," while to his 
biographer Adamnan corrupted into Evan or Wean was 
dedicated the church at Cawdor, where an old Celtic bell also 
bears this name. By the dawn of the icth century the Picts had 
been subdued with the help of the Norsemen, and Nairn, which 
was one of the districts colonized by the Scandinavians, as 
part of the ancient province of Moray, soon afterwards became 
an integral portion of the kingdom of Scotland. Macbeth was 
one of the kings that Moray gave to Scotland, and his name and 
memory survive to the present day. Hardmuir, between Brodie 
and Nairn, is the reputed heath where Macbeth met the witches. 
Territorially Moray was greatly contracted in the reign of David I. , 
and thenceforward the history of Nairn merges in the main in 
that of the bishopric and earldom of Moray (see ELGIN). The 
thane of Cawdor was constable of the king's castle at Nairn, 
and when the heritable sheriffdom was established towards the 
close of the I4th century this office was also filled by the thane 
of the time. . 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Charl<s J. G. Rampini, History of Moray and 



1899). 

NAIROBI, capital of the British East Africa protectorate 
and of the province of Ukamba, 327 m. by rail N.W. of Mombasa 
and 257 m. S.E. of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Pop. 



I 5 6 



NAIVASHA NAKSKOV 



(1907) 4737, including 350 Europeans and 1752 Indians. Nairobi 
is built on the Athi plains, at the foot of the Kikuyu hills and 
5450 ft. above the sea; it commands magnificent views of 
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya. It is the headquarters of the 
Uganda railway, of the military forces in the protectorate, and 
of the Colonists' Association. It is divided into European, Indian 
and native quarters. Midway between the European and Indian 
quarters stands the town hall. The other public buildings include 
railway works, places of worship (Protestant, Roman Catholic, 
Mahommedan and Hindu) and schools, an Indian bazaar, a 
general hospital and waterworks the water being obtained 
from springs 13 m. distant. 

The site of Nairobi was selected as the headquarters of the 
Uganda railway, and the first buildings were erected in 1899. 
For some time nearly all its inhabitants were railway officials 
and Indian coolies engaged in the construction of the line. In 
1902 the surrounding highlands were found to be suitable for 
European settlement, and Nairobi speedily grew in importance; 
in 1907 the headquarters of the administration were transferred 
to it from Mombasa. The town is provided with clubs, cricket 
and athletic grounds and a racecourse. 

NAIVASHA, the name of a lake, town and province, in British 
East Africa. The lake, which is roughly circular with a diameter 
of some 13 m., lies at an altitude of 6135 ft. on the crest of the 
highest ridge in the eastern rift-valley between the Kikuyu 
escarpment on the east and the Mau escarpment on the west. 
It is fed from the north by the rivers Gilgal and Morendat, but 
has no known outlet. The rivers, which have a minimum dis- 
charge of too cub. ft. per second, run in deep gullies. The water 
of the lake is fresh; the shore in many places is lined with 
papyrus. North and north-west the lake is closed in by the 
volcanic Buru hills; to the south towers the extinct volcano of 
Longonot. Hippopotami and otters frequent the lake, and on an 
island about i m. from the shore are large numbers of antelopes 
and other game. Naivasha was discovered in 1883 by Gustav 
Adolf Fischer (1848-1886), one of the early explorers of the Tana 
and Masai regions, and the first to demonstrate the continuance 
of the rift-valley through equatorial Africa. Fischer was 
followed later in the same year by Joseph Thomson, the Scottish 
explorer. The railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza 
skirts the eastern side of the lake, and on the railway close to 
the lake is built the town of Naivasha, 6230 ft. above the sea, 
391 m. N.W. by rail of Mombasa and 193 m. S.E. by rail of Port 
Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Naivasha province contains 
much land suitable for colonization by white men, and large areas 
were leased to Europeans by the British authorities in 1903 and 
subsequent years. The East Africa Syndicate acquired a lease 
of 500 sq. m. in the valley of the Gilgal and surrounding country 
north of Lake Naivasha. North-west of the lake and along the 
Molo river the 3rd Lord Delamere obtained a grant of 155 
sq. m. 

NAJARA, ISRAEL BEN MOSES, Hebrew poet, was born in 
Damascus and wrote in the latter part of the i6th century (1587- 
1599). He was inspired by the mystical school, and his poems 
are marked by their bold, sensuous images, as well as by a depth 
of feeling unequalled among the Jewish writers of his age. 
He often adapted his verses to Arabic and Turkish melodies. 
To tunes which had been associated with light and even ribald 
themes, Najara wedded words which reveal an intensity of 
religious emotion which often takes a form indistinguishable 
from love poetry. Some pietist contemporaries condemned his 
work for this reason; but this did not prevent many of his 
poems from attaining wide popularity and from winning their 
way into the prayer-book. In fact, Najara could claim the 
authority of the Biblical " Song of Songs " (mystically inter- 
preted) for his combination of the language of human love with 
the expression of the relationship between God and humanity. 

He published during his lifetime a collection of his poems, Songs 
of Israel (Zemiroth Israel), in Safed in 1587; an enlarged edition 
appeared in Venice (1599-1600). Others of his poems were published 
at various times, and W. Bacher has described some previously 
unknown poems of Najara (Revue des etudes juives, Nos. 116 seq.). 

(I. A.) 



NAJIBABAD, a town of British India, in the Bijnor district 
of the United Provinces, 31 m. S.E. of Hardwar. Pop. (1901) 
19,568. It was founded in the middle of the i8th century by a 
Rohilla chief, and still contains several architectural monuments 
of Rohilla magnificence. It has a station on the Oudh & Rohil- 
khand railway, with a junction for the branch to Kotdwara. 
There is considerable trade in timber, sugar and grain, and 
manufactures of metal-ware, shoes, blankets and cotton cloth. 

NAKHICHEVAN, or NAKHJEVAN, a city of Russian Armenia, 
in the government of Erivan, 85 m. S.E. of the town of Erivan. 
It occupies the brow of a spur of the Kara-bagh mountains, 
2940 ft. above the sea, and looks out over the valley of the Aras. 
Pop. (1863) 6251, (1897) 8845. Built and rebuilt again and 
again, Nakhichevan is full of half-obliterated evidences of former 
prosperity. The present houses have for the most part been 
quarried from ancient ruins; of the palace of the princes of 
Azerbaijan there remains a gateway with a Persian inscription, 
flanked by two brick towers; and at a little distance stands the 
so-called Tower of the Khans, a richly decorated twelve-sided 
structure, 102 ft. in circumference and 75 ft. in height, dating, 
to judge by the inscription which runs around the cornice, 
from the I2th century. There are also ruins of a large mosque. 
Situated on the highroad to Tabriz and Teheran, Nakhichevan 
has a large transit trade. In the Persian period the city is said 
to have had 40,000 inhabitants; the population now consists 
chiefly of Tatars and Armenians, who carry on gardening, make 
wine and produce silk, salt and millstones. 

Armenian tradition claims Noah as the founder of Nakhichevan 
(the Naxuana of Ptolemy), and a mound of earth in the city is still 
visited by many pilgrims as his grave. Laid waste by the Persians 
in the 4th century, Nakhichevan sank into comparative insignificance, 
but by the loth century had recovered its prosperity. In 1064 it 
was taken by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, and in the 
I3th century it fell a prey to the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan. It 
afterwards suffered frequently during the wars between the Persians, 
Armenians and Turks, and it finally passed into Russian possession 
by the peace of Turkman-chai in 1828. 

NAKHICHEVAN-ON-THE-DON, a town of southern Russia, 
in the Don Cossacks territory, 6 m. by rail N.E. of the town of 
Rostov and on the right bank of the Don. Pop. (1900) 30,883. 
It was founded in 1780 by Armenian immigrants. It soon 
became a wealthy place, and still is the administrative centre of 
the " Armenian district," a narrow strip along the banks of the 
Don, with a population of 27,250. The town has tobacco and 
wadding factories, tallow-melting works, soap-works, brickworks 
and tanneries. There is a large trade in cereals and timber. 

NAKHON SRI TAMMARAT (also known as LAKHON and 
formerly as LIGOEE), a town of southern Siam, in the division 
of the same name, about 380 m. S. of Bangkok, on the east 
coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is one of the most ancient cities 
of Siam, and contains many buildings and ruins of antiquarian 
interest. The trade consists chiefly of the export of rice. In the 
bay, a short distance off, ships can lie safely at all seasons. 
The population (7000) is chiefly Siamese, but there is an ad- 
mixture of Burmese, the descendants of prisoners of war and of 
refugees from Tenasserim. The town is the headquarters of a 
governor under the high commissioner at Singora. It has for 
long been a centre of the American Presbyterian Mission to Siam. 
It was once the capital of a feudatory state, the chief of which 
ruled the greater part of the Malay Peninsula in the name of the 
kings of Siam and bore the brunt of all the wars with Malacca 
and other Malay states. It lies, however, north of the limit of 
Malay expansion, and has never at any time come under Malay 
rule. With the fall of the Siamese capital of Ayuthia in 1767 
it became independent, but returned to its allegiance on the 
founding of Bangkok. In the I7th century British, Portuguese 
and Dutch merchants had factories here and carried on an 
extensive trade. 

NAKSKOV, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county) of 
Maribo, on a wide bay of the Laalands belt at the west end of 
the island of Laaland, 31 m. by rail W. of Nykjobing. Pop. 
(1901) 8310. The church dates from the beginning of the 
1 5th century. There is a large sugar factory. A great dike, 



NAMAQU ALAND NAME 



157 



extending S.E. to Rodby (20 m.), protects the coast against 
inundation, a serious inroad of the sea having occurred in 1872. 

NAMAQUALAND, a region of south-western Africa, extending 
along the west coast over 600 m. from Damaraland (22 43' 
S.) on the north to 31 S., and stretching inland 80 to 350 m. 
It is divided by the lower course of the Orange river into two 
portions Little Namaqualand to the south and Great Namaqua- 
land to the north. Little Namaqualand forms part of Cape 
Colony (<?..), and Great Namaqualand is the southern portion 
of German South-West Africa (?..). The people of Namaqua- 
land are the purest surviving type of Hottentots, and number 
some twenty to thirty thousand. 

NAMASUDRA, the name adopted by the great caste or tribe 
who inhabit the swamps of Eastern Bengal, India, whom the 
higher castes are wont to designate by the opprobrious term of 
Chandal. Their number in 1901 exceeded 2 millions; but if 
the cognate Pods and also the Mahommedans of the same 
ethnical stock were to be added, the total would probably 
reach n millions. 

NAME (O. Eng. nama; cognate forms in Teutonic languages 
are Dutch naam, Ger. Name, &c., but the word is common to all 
Indo-European languages; cf. Gr. ovo/ia, Lat. nomen, Sans. 
naman, &c.), the distinguishing appellation by which a person, 
place, thing or class of persons or things is known. 

Local Names. The study of names and of their survival in 
civilization enables us in some cases to ascertain what peoples 
inhabited districts now tenanted by races of far different speech. 
Thus the names of mountains and rivers in many parts of England 
are Celtic for example, to take familiar instances, Usk, Esk 
and Avon. There are also local names (such as Mona, Monmouth, 
Mynwy and others) which seem to be relics of tribes even older 
than the Celtic stocks, and " vestiges of non-Aryan people, 
whom the Celts found in possession both on the Continent and 
in the British Isles." 1 The later English name is sometimes 
the mere translation, perhaps unconscious, of the earlier Celtjc 
appellation, often added to the more ancient word. Penpole 
Point in Somerset is an obvious example of this redoubling of 
names. The pre-Aryan place-names of the Aegean are much 
discussed by philologists. Such a name as Corinthos, with all 
other words in nthos, as hyacinthos, is thought to be pre-Hellenic. 
The river-names Gade, Ver, Test and many other monosyllabic 
river-names in the home counties, appear to be neither English 
nor Celtic, but have been neglected, being known to few but 
anglers and rustics. As to the meaning and nature of ancient 
local names, they are as a rule purely descriptive. A rive'r is 
called by some word which merely signifies " the water "; a 
hill has a name which means no more than " the point," " the 
peak," " the castle." Celtic names are often of a more romantic 
tone, as Ardnamurchan, " the promontory by the great ocean," 
an admirable description of the bold and steep headland which 
breasts the wash of the Atlantic. As a general rule the surviving 
Celtic names, chiefly in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, all contain 
some wide meaning of poetic appropriateness. The English 
names, on the other hand, commonly state some very simple 
fact, and very frequently do no more than denote property, 
such and such a town or hamlet, " ton " or " ham," is the property 
of the Billings, Uffings, Toolings, or whoever the early English 
settlers in the district may have been. The same attachment 
to the idea of property is exhibited in even the local names of 
petty fields in English parishes. Occasionally one finds a bit of 
half-humorous description, as when a sour, starved and weedy 
plot is named " starvacre "; but more usually fields are known 
as "Thompson's great field," "Smith's small field," "the 
fouracre," or the like. The name of some farmer or peasant 
owner or squatter of ancient date survives for centuries, attached 
to what was once his property. Thus the science of local names 
has a double historical value. The names indicate the various 
races (Celtic, Roman and English in Great Britain) who have 
set in the form of names the seal of their possession on the soil. 
Again, the meanings of the names illustrate the characters of 

'Elton, Origins of English History, p. 165; Rhys, Lectures on 
Celtic Philology, pp. 181, 182. 



the various races. The Romans have left names connected 
with camps (castra, chesters) and military roads; the English 
have used simple descriptions of the baldest kind, or have ex- 
hibited their attachment to the idea of property; the Celtic 
names (like those which the red men have left in America, or 
the blacks in Australia) are musical with poetic fancy, and filled 
with interest in the aspects and the sentiment of nature. The 
British race carries with it the ancient names of an older people 
into every continent, and titles perhaps originally given to places 
in the British Isles by men who had not yet learned to polish 
their weapons of flint may now be found in Australia, America, 
Africa and the islands of the farthest seas. Local names were 
originally imposed in a handy local manner. The settler or the 
group of cave-men styled the neighbouring river " the water," 
the neighbouring hill " the peak," and these terms often still 
survive in relics of tongues which can only be construed by the 
learned. 

Personal Names. The history of personal names is longer 
and more complex, but proceeds from beginnings almost as 
simple. But in personal names the complexity of human 
character, and the gradual processes of tangling and disentangling 
the threads of varied human interest, soon come in, and per- 
sonal names are not imposed once and for all. Each man in 
very early societies may have many names, in different char- 
acters and at different periods of his life. The oldest personal 
names which we need examine here are those which indicate, 
not an individual, but a group, held together by the conscious 
sense or less conscious sentiment of kindred, or banded together 
for reasons of convenience. An examination of customs prevalent 
among the most widely separated races of Asia, Africa, Australia 
and America proves that groups conceiving themselves to be 
originally of the same kin are generally styled by the name 
of some animal or other object (animate or inanimate) from 
which they claim descent. This object is known as the " totem " 
(see TOTEMISM). The groups of supposed kin, however widely 
scattered in local distribution, are known as wolves, bears, 
turtles, suns, moons, cockatoos, reeds and what not, according 
as each group claims descent from this or that stock, and some- 
times wears a mark representing this or that animal, plant or 
natural object. Unmistakable traces of the same habit of 
naming exist among Semitic and Teutonic races, and even among 
Greeks and Romans. The names chosen are commonly those 
of objects which can be easily drawn in a rude yet recognizable 
way, and easily expressed in the language of gesture. In addition 
to the totem names (which indicate, in each example, supposed 
blood-kindred), local aggregates of men received local names. 
We hear of the " hill-men," " the cave-men," " the bush-men," 
" the coast-men," the " men of the plain," precisely as in the 
old Attic divisions of Aktaioi, Pediaioi and so forth. When a 
tribe comes to recognize its own unity, as a rule it calls itself 
by some term meaning simply " the men," all other tribes being 
regarded as barbarous or inferior. Probably other neighbouring 
tribes also call themselves " the men " in another dialect or 
language, while the people in the neighbourhood are known 
by an opprobrious epithet, as Rakshasas among the early Aryan 
dwellers in India, or Eskimo (raw-eaters) in the far north of the 
American continent. Tribal names in Australia are often taken 
from the tribal term for " yes " or " no "; cf. Languedoc. 

Leaving social for personal names, we find that, among most 
uncivilized races, a name (derived from some incident or natural 
object) is given at the time of birth by the parents of each new- 
born infant. Occasionally the name is imposed before the child 
is born, and the proud parents call themselves father and mother 
of such an one before the expected infant sees the light. In 
most cases the name (the earliest name) denotes some phenomenon 
of nature; thus Dobrizhofer met in the forests a young man 
styled " Gold flower of day," that is, " Dawn," his father 
having been named " Sun." Similar names are commonly 
given by the natives of Australia, while no names are more 
common among North-American Indians than those derived 
from sun, moon, cloud and wind. 

The names of savage persons are not permanent. The name 



i 5 8 



NAME 



first given is ordinarily changed (at the ceremony answering to 
confirmation in the church) for some more appropriate and 
descriptive nickname, and that, again, is apt to be superseded 
by various " honour-giving names " derived from various 
exploits. The common superstition against being " named " 
has probably produced the custom by which each individual 
has a secret name and is addressed, when possible, by some 
wide term of kinship " brother," " father " and the like. 
The bad luck which in Zulu customs as in Vedic myths attends 
the utterance of the real name is evaded by this system of 
addresses. Could we get a savage an Iroquois, for example 
to explain his titles, we would find that he is, say, " Morning 
Cloud " (by birth-name), " Hungry Wolf " (by confirmation 
name), " He that raises the white fellow's scalp " (by honour- 
giving name), of the Crane totem (by kinship and hereditary 
name, as understood by ourselves). When society grows so 
permanent that male kinship and paternity are recognized, the 
custom of patronymics is introduced. The totem name gives 
place to a gentile name, itself probably a patronymic in form; 
or, as in Greece, the gentile name gives place to a local name, 
derived from the deme. Thus a Roman is called Caius; Julius 
is his gentile name (of the Julian clan); Caesar is a kind of 
hereditary nickname. A Greek is Thucydides (the name usually 
derived from the grandfather), the son of Olorus, of the deme 
of Halimusia. 

This system of names answered the purposes of Greek and 
Roman civilization. In Europe, among the Teutonic races, the 
stock-names (conceivably totemistic in origin) survive in English 
local names, which speak of the " ton " or " ham " of the Billings 
or Toolings. An examination of these names, as collected in 
Kemble's Anglo-Saxons, proves that they were frequently derived 
from animals and plants. Such English names as " Noble 
Wolf " (Ethelwulf), " Wolf of War " and so forth, certainly 
testify to a somewhat primitive and fierce stage of society. 
Then came more vulgar nicknames and personal descriptions, 
as " Long," " Brown," " White " and so forth. Other names 
are directly derived from the occupation or craft (Smith, Fowler, 
Sadler) of the man to whom they were given, and yet other 
names were derived from places. The noble and landowner was 
called " of " such and such a place (the German von and French 
de). while the humbler man was called not " of " but " at " 
such a place, as in the name " Attewell," or merely by the local 
name without the particle. The " de " might also indicate 
merely the place of a person's birth or residence; it was not a 
proof of noblesse. If we add to these names patronymics formed 
by the addition of " son," and terms derived from Biblical 
characters (the latter adopted after the Reformation as a re- 
action against the names of saints in the calendar), we have 
almost exhausted the sources of modern English and European 
names. A continual development of custom can be traced, and 
the analysis of any man's family and Christian names will lead 
us beyond history into the manners of races devoid of literary 
records. (A. L.) 

Greek Names. The Greeks had only one, and no family, name; 
hence the name of a child was left to the discretion of the parents. 
The eldest son generally took the name of his paternal grand- 
father, girls that of their grandmother. Genuine patronymics 
(Phocion, son of Phocus), analogous compounds (Theophrastus, 
son of Theodoras), or names of similar meaning (Philumenus, 
son of Eros) also occur. Athenaeus divides names generally into 
(i) 6eo4>opa. chiefly derivatives or compounds of the names of 
gods (Demetrius, Apollonius, Theodoras, Diodotus, Heraclitus, 
Diogenes); (2) fiflta, simple or variously compounded names, 
especially such as were of good omen for a son's future career 
(Aristides, Pericles, Sophocles, Alexander), although such hopes 
were frequently belied by the results. Instances of a subsequent 
change of name are not uncommon; thus, Plato and Theo- 
phrastus were originally Aristocles and Tyrtamus. 

To obviate the ambiguity and confusion arising from the use 
of a single name, various expedients were adopted, the commonest 
being to add the father's name Arj^ioff^eyrp AquoaOtvovs, 
6 KXttwou. Sometimes the birthplace was added 



'Hp66oros 'AXiKapi'ao'crew, 0oy<cu5i5ijs 6 'Aft/vaTos, and some- 
times the name of the deme (see CLEISTHENES), e.g. Aij/ocxrflcn^ 
Kaiavefc , Nicknames denoting mental or bodily defects 
or striking peculiarities (e.g. colour of hair) were also favourite 
methods of discrimination (e.g. 3,av66s, yellow). 

Roman Names. Towards the end of the republic free-born 
Romans were distinguished by three names and two (or even four) 
secondary indications. In an inscription the name of Cicero is 
given in the following form: M. Tullius M.f. M.n. M.pr. Cor(nelia 
tribu) Cicero. M ( = Marcus) is the praenomen; Tullius, the 
nomen, the gentile or family name; Cicero, the cognomen. 
This order, always preserved, is the correct one. M.f. ( = Marci 
films), M.n. ( = Marci nepos), M.pr. ( = Marci pronepos),Cor(nelia 
tribu) are only used in formal description. 

Praenomen (corresponding to the modern Christian name). 
Varro gives a list of 32 praenomina, of which 14 had fallen out of use 
in Sulla's time, the remaining 18 being confined to patrician families. 
Some of these appear to have been appropriated by particular 
families, e.g. Appius by the Claudii, Mamercus by the Aemilii. In 
the case of plebeian families there was greater latitude and a larger 
variety of names, but those which became ennobled followed the 
patrician usage. After the time of Sulla some of the old praenomina 
were revived, unless they are rather to be regarded as cognomina, 
which in some families displaced the praenomen proper, as in the case 
of a certain Africanus Aemilius Regulus. ' 

The nomen (gentile, gentilicium) belonged to all the individual 
members of the gens and those in any way connected with it (wives, 
clients, freedmen). In patrician gentes the nomina nearly all ended in 
-ius (-aeus, -eius, -eus), and are perhaps a sort of patronymic (lulius 
from lulus). In some cases the name indicates the place of origin 
(Norbanus, Acerranus); -acus (Divitiacus) is peculiar to Game, 
-na (Caecina, Perperna) to Etruscan, -enus (Arulenus) to Umbrian 
names. Verres as a gentile name stands by itself; perhaps it was 
originally a cognomen. 

The cognomen (" surname ") was the name given to a Roman 
citizen as a member of a familia or branch of the gens, whereby the 
family was distinguished from other families belonging to the same 
gens . Cognomina were either of local origin (Calatinus, Sabinus) ; or 
denoted physical peculiarities or moral characteristics (Crassus, 
Lqngus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Calvus, Naso); or they were really 
praenomina (Cossus, Agrippa) or derivatives from praenomina or 
cognomina (Sextinus, Corvinus, Laevinus). The tria nomina (" three 
names ") in the well-known passage of Juvenal (v. 127) was 
probably a.t that time a mark of ingenuitas rather than of nobilitas. 

In addition to these three regular names, many Romans had a 
fourth, cognomen secundum (agnomen was an introduction of the 
grammarians of the 4th century). These " second surnames " were 
chiefly bestowed in recognition of great achievements Asiaticus, 
Africanus, Creticus, or were part of the terminology in cases of 
adoption. 

Persons adopted took all the three names of their adoptive father, 
but at the same time, to keep his origin in mind, they added a second 
cognomen, a derivative in -anus or -inus from his old gentile name; 
thus, Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, son of Lucius Aemilius 
Paullus, adopted by Publius Cornelius Scipio. After the time of 
Sulla, the derivative was no longer used, one of the old names being 
substituted without change Marcus Terentius Varro ' Lucullus. 
Under the empire no fixed rule was observed, the most remarkable 
thing being the very large number of names borne by one person (as 
many as ?6 occur on an inscription). Especially in the army and 
amongst the lower orders, nicknames (signa, vocabula) are of frequent 
occurrence. Well-known examples are: Caligula; cedo alteram 
(" another stick, please! "), given to a centurion of flogging pro- 
pensities; manus ad ferrum ( hand on sword,") of Aurelian when 
tribune. 

Women originally took the name of the head of the family 
Caecilia (filia) Metelli, Metella Crassi (uxor). Later, f. ( = filia) was 
added after the name of a daughter. Towards the end of the republic 
women are denoted by their gentile name alone, while under the 
empire they always have two the nomen and cognomen of the father 
(Aemilia Lepida, daughter of Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus), or 
the nomen of both father and mother (Valeria Attia, daughter of 
Attius Atticus and Valeria Sextina). 

Slaves originally had no name, but simply took their master's 
praenomen in the genitive followed by -por ( = puer): Marcipor, 
Publipor, Quintipor. Later, when the number of slaves was largely 
increased, by way of distinction names similar to those common in 
Greece (national, physical or moral qualities) or simply foreign names 
were given them. The word puer was subsequently replaced by 
servus and the form of the name ran: Aphrodisius Plot! Gai servus; 
under the empire, Eleutherus C. Julii Florentini (the natural order 
being preserved in the master's name). When a slave exchanged 
one master for another, he adopted the name of his old master in an 
adjectival form in -anus: Cissus Caesaris (servus) Maecenatianus 
(formerly a slave of Maecenas). Freedmen used their own name as 
a cognomen and took the nomen of him who gave them their freedom 



NAMUR 



and any praenomen they pleased: L. Livius Andronicus, freedman 
of M. Livius Salinator. In the time of Caesar, the freedman took the 
praenomen of the patronus and the gentile name of one of the friends 
of the latter; thus, Cicero calls his stave Dionysius M. Pomponius 
Dionysius as a token of friendship for T. Pomponius Atticus. 

a- H. F.) 

Law. The Christian name, i.e. the name given to a person on 
admission to baptism into the Christian church, dates back to the 
early history of the Church. It has been said that the practice 
of giving a name on baptism was possibly imitated from the 
Jewish custom of giving a personal name at circumcision. In 
England individuals were for long distinguished by Christian 
names only, and the surname (see below) or family name is still 
totally ignored by the Church. As population increased and 
intercourse became general, it became necessary to employ some 
further name by which one man might be known from another, 
and in process of time the use of surnames became universal, the 
only exceptions in England being the members of the royal 
family, who sign by their baptismal names only. 

Where the ecclesiastical law does not come into conflict with the 
common law or has not been changed by it, it still prevails, and 
therefore it may be said that the name given at baptism may be 
regarded as practically unalterable. But that a baptismal, name is 
not altogether unalterable hms been a matter of contention. A 
constitution of Archbishop Peckham (ob. 1292) directs that " ministers 
shall take care not to permit wanton names to be given to children 
baptized, and if otherwise it be done, the same shall be changed 
by the bishop at confirmation." And before the Reformation the 
Office for Confirmation must have contemplated the possibility of 
such a change, as the bishop is directed therein to ask the child's 
name before anointing him with the chrism, and afterwards, naming 
him, to sign him with the cross. But in the second and subsequent 
Prayer-books all mention of the name in the Office for Confirmation 
is omitted. Lord Coke was of opinion that such a change was 
permissible and gives examples (i Inst. p. 3), but Dr Burn (Ecc. 
Law, i. 80) held a contrary opinion. Phillimore, however, gives 
several instances when such a change was made, one, in the diocese 
of Liverpool, on the nth of June 1886 (see Phillimore, Ecc. Law, 
' 5 1 /- 5j8; and also Notes and Queries, 4th ser. vol. vi. p. 17, 7th 
ser. vol. ii. p. 1 7). In the case of those who have not been baptized, but 
have a name (other than a surname) given them by their parents, 
such a name acquires force only by repute. The Registration of 
Births Act, which requires the registration of every birth, makes 
provision for the insertion of a name, but such provision is purely 
permissive, and the only object of entering a name on the register 
is to have an authoritative record of the commencement of repute. 

A clergyman of the Church of England is compelled to perform the 
ceremony of baptism when required by a parishioner, and to give 
whatever name or names the godparents select, but although the 
rubrics do not expressly say so, he can object to any name on religious 
or moral grounds. 

The freedom enjoyed in England and the United States as to the 
kind of Christian name which may be given to a child is somewhat 
limited in France and Germany. In France, by a decree of the n 
Germinal, an XI ., the only names permitted to be recorded in the civil 
register as Christian names (prenoms) of children were those of 
saints in the calendar and the names of personages known in ancient 
history. Even at the present day an official list is issued (revised 
from time to time) containing a selection of forenames, and no 
name of a child will be registered unless it occurs in this list. A 
limitation more or less similar prevails in Germany and other 
European countries. 

As regards the surname (Fr. surnom, name in addition), custom 
has universally decreed that a man shall be known by the name 
of his father. But in England and the United States, at least, this 
custom is not legally binding; there is no law preventing a man 
from taking whatever name he has a fancy for, nor are there any 
particular formalities required to be observed on adopting a fresh 
surname; but, on the other hand, if a man has been known for a 
considerable time by the name of his father, or by a name of repute, 
and he changes it for another, he cannot compel others to address 
him or designate him by the new one. Neither does the English 
law recognize the absolute right of any person in any particular name 
to the extent of preventing another person from assuming it (Du 
Boulay v. Du Boulay, 1860., L.R. 2 P.C. 430). If, however, a person 
adopts a new name and wishes to have it publicly notified and recog- 
nized in official circles, the method of procedure usually adopted 
is that by royal licence. This is by petition, prepared and presented 
through the Heralds' Office. If granted, the royal licence is given 
under the sign manual and privy seal of the sovereign, counter- 
signed by the home secretary. In wills and settlements a clause is 
often inserted whereby a testator or settler imposes upon the takers 
of the estate an obligation to assume his name and bear his arms. 
The stamp duty payable for a royal licence in this case is fifty 
pounds, but if the application is merely voluntary the stamp duty 
is ten pounds. Where there is a more formal adoption of a surname, 



it is usual, for purposes of publicity and evidence, to advertise the 
change of name in the newspapers and to execute a deed poll setting 
out the change, and enrol the same in the central office of the Supreme 
Court. 

Both in France and Germany official authorization must be ob- 
tained for any change of name. By the German Code 1900 (s. 12) 
if the right to a new name is disputed by another or his interest is 
injured thereby, the person entitled can compel the abandonment 
of the new name. 

In England, a wife on marriage adopts the surname of her husband, 
disregarding entirely her maiden surname; in Scotland the practice 
usually is for the wife to retain her maiden name for all legal purposes, 
adding the name of her husband as an alias. On remarriage the rule 
is for the wife to adopt the name of the new husband, but an ex- 
ception to this is tacitly recognized in the case of a title acquired by 
marriage when the holder remarries a commoner. This exception 
was very fully discussed in Cowley v. Cowley, 1901 , A.C. 450. 

Peers of the United Kingdom when signing their names use only 
their surnames or peerage designations. It is merely a privileged 
custom, which does not go back further than the Stuart period. 
Peeresses sign by their Christian names or initials followed by their 
peerage designation. Bishops sign by their initials followed by 
the name of the see. In Scotland it is very usual for landowners 
to affix to their names the designation of their lands, and this was 
expressly sanctioned by an act of 1672. 

See Ency. Eng. Law, tits. "Christian Name," "Surname"; 
W. P. W. Phillimore, Law and Practice of Change of Name; Fox- 
Davies and Carlyon-Britton, Law concerning Names and Changes of 
Name. (T. A. I.) 

NAMUR, one of the nine provinces of Belgium. It lies between 
Hainaut on the one side and Liege and Luxemburg on the other, 
and extends from Brabant up the Meuse valley to the French 
frontier. Area, 1414 sq. m.; pop. (1904) 357,759. The part 
north of the Meuse is very fertile, but the rest is covered with 
forest and is little suited for agriculture. There are a few iron 
and coal-mines between the Sambre and Meuse, and the quarries 
are of great importance. Arboriculture, and especially fruit-tree 
plantation, is on the increase. The province is divided into 
the three arrondissements of Namur, Dinant and Philippeville, 
and there are fifteen cantons for judicial purposes. 

NAMUR (Flemish, Namen), a town of Belgium, capital of 
the province of Namur. Pop. (1904) 31,940. It is most pictur- 
esquely situated at the junction of the rivers Sambre and Meuse, 
the town lying on the left banks of the two rivers, while the rocky 
promontory forming the fork between them is crowned with the 
old citadel. This citadel is no longer used for military purposes, 
and the hill on which it stands has been converted into a public 
park, while the crest is occupied by an enormous hotel to which 
access is gained by a cogwheel railway. Namur is connected 
with the citadel by two bridges across the Sambre, and from the 
east side of the promontory there is a fine stone bridge to the 
suburb of Jambes. This bridge was constructed in the nth 
century and rebuilt in the reign of Charles V. It is the only old 
bridge in existence over the Meuse in the Belgian portion of its 
course. The cathedral of St Aubain or Albin was built in the 
middle of the i8th century. The church of St Loup is a century 
older, and is noticeable for its columns of red marble from the 
quarry at St Remy near Rochefort. There is a considerable local 
industry in cutlery, and there are numerous tanneries along the 
river-side. 

The hill of the citadel is perhaps identical with Aduaticum, 
the fortified camp of the Aduatici captured and destroyed by 
Julius Caesar after the defeat of the Nervii, although many 
authorities incline to the plateau of Hast6don, north of the 
Sambre and of Namur itself, as the more probable site of the 
Belgic position. Many antiquities of the Roman-Gallic period 
have been discovered in the neighbourhood and are preserved 
in the local archaeological museum. Here also are deposited the 
human fossils of the Stone Age discovered at Furfooz on the Lesse. 
In the feudal period Namur was always a place of some import- 
ance, and long formed a marquisate in the Courtenay family. 
One institution of the medieval period came down to modern 
times, and was only discontinued in consequence of the fatalities 
with which it was generally accompanied. This was the annual 
encounter on the Place d'Armes of rival parties mounted on 
stilts. Galliot, the historian of Namur, says the origin of these 
jousts is lost in antiquity, but considers the use of stilts was due 



i6o 



NANA FARNA VIS NANCY 



to the frequency with which the town was flooded before the 
rivers were embanked. Don John of Austria made Namur his 
headquarters during the greater part of his stay in the Nether- 
lands, and died here in 1578. As a fortress Namur did not 
attain the first rank until after its capture by Louis XIV. in 
1692, when Vauban endeavoured to make it impregnable; but 
it was retaken by William III. in 1695. The French recaptured 
it in 1 702 and retained possession for ten years. In 181 5 Marshal 
Grouchy on his retreat into France fought an action here with 
the Prussians under General Pirch. In 1888, under the new 
scheme of Belgian defence, the citadel and its detached works 
were abandoned, and in their place nine outlying forts were 
constructed at a distance of from 3 to 5 m. round the town. 
All these forts are placed on elevated points. They are in their 
order, beginning on the left bank of the Meuse and ending on 
the right bank of the same river: (i) St Heribert, (2) Malonne, 
(3) Suarlee, (4) Emines, (5) Cognelee, (6) Gelbressee, (7) Maizeret, 
(8) Andoy and (9) Dave. The whole position is correctly de- 
scribed as the " tte de pont " of Namur, and in addition to its 
strong bomb-proof forts it possesses great natural advantages for 
the defence of the intervals. 

NANA FARNA VIS (1741-1800), the great Mahratta minister 
at Poona at the end of the i8th century. His real name was 
Balaji Janardhan Bhanu; but, like many other Mahrattas, he 
was always known by a kind of nickname. Nana properly means 
a maternal grandfather; Farnavis is the official title of the 
finance minister, derived from fard=a.n account and navis = 
a writer. He was born at Satara on the 4th of May 1741, and 
was the son of a Chitpavan Brahman, of the same class as the 
Peshwa, who held the hereditary office of Farnavis. He escaped 
from the fatal battle of Panipat in 1761; and from about 1774 
was the leading personage in directing the affairs of the Mahratta 
confederacy, though never a soldier. This was the period when 
Peshwas rapidly succeeded one another, and there was more 
than one disputed succession. It was the policy of Nana Farnavis 
to hold together the confederacy against both internal dissensions 
and the growing power of the British. He died at Poona on 
the i3th of March 1800, just before the Peshwa placed himself 
in the hanis of the British and thus broke up the Mahratta 
confederacy. In an extant letter to the Peshwa, the Marquess 
Wellesley thus describes him: " The able minister of your state, 
whose upright principles and honourable views and whose zeal 
for the welfare and prosperity both of the dominions of his own 
immediate superiors and of other powers were so justly cele- 
brated." 

See Captain A. Macdonald, Memoir of Nana Furnuwees (Bombay, 
1851). 

NANAIMO, a city of British Columbia, on the east coast of 
Vancouver Island. Pop. (1906) about 6500. It is connected 
with Victoria by the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway, and has 
a daily steamer service to Vancouver, as well as to Comox, 
Sydney and other points on the coast. It is favourably situated 
for growing fruit, and mixed farming is carried on to a consider- 
able extent. There is a large export trade in coal from the 
neighbouring mines, which is gent chiefly to San Francisco. 

NANA SAHIB, the common designation of Dandu Panth, an 
adopted son of the ex-peshwa of the Mahrattas, Baji Rao, 
who took a leading part in the great Indian Mutiny, and was 
proclaimed peshwa by the mutineers. Nana Sahib had a griev- 
ance against the British government because they refused to 
continue to him the pension of eight lakhs of rupees (80,000) 
which was promised to Baji Rao by Sir John Malcolm on his 
surrender in 1818. This pension, however, was only intended 
to be a life grant to Baji Rao himself. For this refusal the Nana 
bore the British a lifelong grudge, which he washed out in the 
blood of women and children in the massacres at Cawnpore. 
In 1859, when the remnants of the rebels disappeared into 
Nepal, the Nana was among the fugitives. His death was reported 
some time afterwards, but his real fate remains obscure. 

NANCY, a town of north-eastern France, the capital formerly 
of the province of Lorraine, and now of the department of 
Meurthe-et-Moselle, 219 m. E. of Paris on the railway to Strass- 



burg. Pop. (1906), town, 98,302; commune (including troops), 
110,570. Nancy is situated on the left bank of the Meurthe 
6 m. above its junction with the Moselle and on the Marne- 
Rhine canal. The railway from Paris to Strassburg skirts the 
city on the south-west side; other railways to Metz, to Epinal 
by Mirecourt, to Chateau Salins join the main line near Nancy, 
and make it an important junction. The town consists of two 
portions the Ville-Vieitte in the north-west between the Cours 
Leopold and the Pepiniere gardens, with narrow and winding 
streets, and the Ville-Neuve in the south-east with wide straight 
streets, allowing views of the hills around the city. Between the 
two lies, the Place Stanislas, a square worthy of a capital city: 
in the centre stands the statue of Stanislas Leczinski, ruler of 
Lorraine, and on all sides rise imposing buildings in the i8th- 
century style the town hall, episcopal palace, theatre, &c. 
A fine triumphal arch erected by Stanislas in honour of Louis XV. 
leads from the Place Stanislas to the Place Carriere, which forms 
a beautiful tree-planted promenade, containing at its further end 
the government palace (1760) now the residence of the general 
commanding the XX. army corps, and adjoins the so-called 
Pepiniere (nursery) established by Stanislas. Other open spaces 
in the city are the Place d'Alliance^ (formed by Stanislas, with 
a fountain in memory of the alliance between Louis XV. 
and Maria Theresa in 1756), the Place de 1' Academic, 
the Place St Epvre with a statue of Duke Rene II., the 
Place Dombasle and the Place de Thiers, the two latter 
embellished with the statues of Mathieu Dombasle, the agri- 
culturist, and Adolphe Thiers. The cathedral in the Ville- 
Neuve, built in the i8th century, has a wide facade flanked by 
two dome-surmounted towers, and a somewhat frigid and sombre 
interior. Of particular interest is the church of the Cordeliers, in 
the old town, built by Rene II. about 1482 to commemorate his 
victory over Charles the Bold. Pillaged during the Revolution 
period, but restored to religious uses in 1825, it contains the 
tombs of Antony of Vaudemont and his wife Marie d'Harcourt, 
Philippe of Gueldres, second wife of Rene II., Henry III., count 
of Vaudemont, and Isabella of Lorraine his wife, Rene II. (a 
curious monument raised by his widow in 1515) and Cardinal 
de Vaudemont (d. 1587). Here also is a chapel built at the 
beginning of the i7th century to receive the tombs of the princes 
of the house of Lorraine. The church of St Epvre, rebuilt 
between 1864 and 1874 on the site of an old church of the I3th, 
1 4th and i5th centuries, has a fine spire and belfry and good 
stained glass windows. Bonsecours Church, at the end of the 
St Pierre Faubourg, contains the mausoleums of Stanislas (by 
whom it was built) and his wife Catherine, and the heart of their 
daughter Marie, queen of France, as well as the statue of Notre- 
Dame de Bonsecours, the object of a well-known pilgrimage. 
Of the old ducal palace, begun in the i$th century by Duke 
Raoul and completed by Ren6 II., there remains but a single wing, 
partly rebuilt after a fire in 1871. The entrance to this wing, 
which contains the archaeological museum of Lorraine, is a 
beautiful specimen of the late Gothic of the beginning of the 
1 6th century. One of the greatest treasures of the collection is 
the tapestry found in the tent of Charles the Bold after the 
battle of Nancy. Of the old gates of Nancy the most ancient 
and remarkable is the Porte de la Craffe (1463). The town hall 
contains a museum of painting and sculpture, and there is a rich 
municipal library. A monument to President Carnot, and 
statues of Jacques Callot, the engraver, and of General Drouot, 
both natives of Nancy, and of Claude Gellee stand in various 
parts of the town. 

Nancy is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and 
a court of assizes, headquarters of the XX. army corps, and centre 
of an academic (educational division) with a university comprising 
faculties of law, medicine, science and letters, and a higher school 
of pharmacy. There are also tribunals of first instance and of 
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, lycees and training 
colleges for both sexes, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a school 
of agriculture, the national school of forestry, a higher school 
of commerce, a technical school (ecole professionnelle), a school of 
arts and crafts (icole preparatoire des arts et metiers), a chamber 



NANDAIR NANKEEN 



161 



of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The industries 
of Nancy include printing, brewing, cotton- and wool-spinning 
and the weaving of cotton and woolleii goods, and the manufacture 
of tobacco (by the State), of boots and shoes, straw hats, pottery, 
casks, embroidery, machinery, engineering material, larm im- 
plements and iron goods. 

At the close of the nth century Odelric of Nancy, brother 
of Gerard of Alsace, possessed at Nancy a castle which enabled 
him to defy the united assaults of the bishops of Metz and Treves 
and the count of Bar. In the I2th century the town was sur- 
rounded with walls, and became the capital of the dukes of 
Lorraine; but its real importance dates from the isth century, 
when on the 5th of January 1477 Charles the Bold was defeated 
by Rene II. and perished at its gates. 1 Enlarged, embellished 
and admirably refortified by Charles III., it was taken by the 
French in 1633 (Louis XIII. and Richelieu being present at the 
siege). After the peace of Ryswick in 1697 it was restored and 
Duke Leopold set himself to repair the disasters of the past. 
He founded academies, established manufactures and set 
about the construction of the new town. But it was reserved 
for Stanislas Leczinski, to whom Lorraine and Bar were assigned 
in 1736, to carry out the plans of improvement in a style which 
made Nancy one of the palatial cities of Europe, and rendered 
himself the most popular as he was the last of the dukes of 
Lorraine. The city, which became French in 1766, was occupied 
by the allies in 1814 and 1815, and put to ransom by the Prussians 
in 1870. After the Franco-German war the population was 
greatly increased by the immigration of Alsatians and of people 
from Metz and its district. 

See C. Pfister, Histoire de Nancy (Paris and Nancy, 1902) ; J. Cayon, 
Histoire physique, civile, morale et politique de Nancy (Nancy, 1846). 

NANDAIR, or NANDER, a town of India, in the state of 
Hyderabad, on the left bank of the Godaveri, with a station 
on the Hyderabad-Godaveri valley railway, 174 m. N.E. of 
Hyderabad city. Pop. (1901) 14,184. It is a centre of local 
trade, with a special industry of fine muslin and gold bordered 
scarves. As the scene of the murder of Guru Govind, it contains 
a shrine visited by Sikhs from all parts of India. 

NANDGAON, a feudatory state of India, in the Chhattisgarh 
division of the Central Provinces. Area, 871 sq. m.; pop. 
(1901) 126,356, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade, due 
to famine; estimated revenue 23,000; tribute 4600. The 
state has a peculiar history. Its foundation is traced to a religious 
celibate, who came from the Punjab towards the end of the i8th 
century. From the founder it passed through a succession of 
chosen disciples until 1879, when the British government 
recognized the ruler as an hereditary chief and afterwards 
conferred upon his son the title of Raja Bahadur. The state 
has long been well administered, and has derived additional 
prosperity from the construction of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, 
which has a station at Raj-Nandgaon, the capital (pop. 11,094). 
Here there is a steam cotton mill. 

NANOI, an East African tribe of mixed Nilotic, Bantu and 
Hamitic origin. With them are more or less closely allied the 
Lumbwa (correctly Kipsikis), Buret (or Puret) and Sotik 
(Soot) tribes, as well as the Elgonyi (properly Kony) of Mount 
Elgon. They have also affinities with the Masai tribes. The 
Nandi-Lumbwa peoples inhabit the country stretching south 
from Mount Elgon to about i S. and bounded east by the escarp- 
ment of the eastern rift-valley and west by the territory of the 
tribes, such as the Kavirondo, dwelling round the Victoria 
Nyanza. They have given their name to the Nandi plateau. 
The Hamitic strain in these allied tribes is derived from the Galla; 
they also exhibit Pygmy elements. Their original home was 
in the north, and they probably did not reach their present home 
until the beginning of the i gth century. They differ considerably 

1 The battle raged in the district to the S., E. and N. of the town, 
the operations extending from St Nicolas du Port (S.) to the bridge 
of Bouxieres (N.). The chief struggle took place on the banks of the 
stream of Bon Secours, which now runs entirely underground, 
flowing from the S.W. into the Meurthe. Much of the battlefield is 
now covered by modern buildings, but S.W. of the town a cross 
marks the spot where the body of Charles the Bold was discovered. 

XDC. 6 



in physical appearance; some resemble the Masai, being men 
of tall stature with features almost Caucasian, other are dwarfish 
with markedly negro features. Like the Masai, Turkana and 
Suk, the Nandi-Lumbwa tribes were originally nomadic, but they 
have become agriculturists. They own large herds of cattle. 
They have a double administrative system, the chief medicine 
man or Orkoiyol being supreme chief and regulating war affairs, 
while representatives of the people, called Kiruogik, manage 
the ordinary affairs of the tribe. The medicine men are of 
Masai origin and the office is hereditary. The young men form 
a separate warrior class to whom is entrusted the care of the 
country. A period of about 7^ years is spent in this class, and 
the ceremony of handing over the country from one " age " 
to the succeeding " age " is of great importance. The arms of 
the warriors are a stabbing spear, shield, sword and club. Many 
also possess rifles. All the Nandi are divided into clans, each 
having its sacred animal or totem. They have no towns, each 
family living on the land it cultivates. The huts are of circular 
pattern. The Nandi believe in a supreme deity Asis who 
takes a benevolent interest in their welfare, and to whom 
prayers are addressed daily. They also worship ancestors and 
consider earthquakes to be caused by the spirits moving in the 
underworld. They practise circumcision, and girls undergo 
a similar operation. Spitting is a sign of blessing. Their scanty 
clothing consists chiefly of dressed skins. The tribal mark is 
a small hole bored in the upper part of the ear. Their language 
is Nilotic and in general construction resembles the Masai. 
It has been slightly influenced by the Somali tongue. The 
primitive hunting tribe known as the Wandorobo speak a 
dialect closely resembling Nandi. 

The Nandi at one time appear to have been subject to the 
Masai, but when the country was first known to Europeans 
they were independent and occupied the plateau which bears 
their name. Hardy mountaineers and skilful warriors, they 
closed their territory to all who did not get special permission, 
and thus blocked the road from Mombasa to Uganda alike to 
Arab and Swahili. Caravans that escaped the Masai frequently 
fell victims to the Nandi, who were adepts at luring them to 
destruction. When the railway to the Victoria Nyanza was 
built it had to cross the Nandi country. The tribesmen, who 
had already shown hostility to the whites, attacked both the 
railway and the telegraph line and raided other tribes. Eventually 
(1905-1906) the Nandi were removed by the British to reserves 
somewhat north of the railway zone (see BRITISH EAST AFRICA). 
The Lumbwa reserve lies south of the railway, and farther south 
still are the reserves of the Buret and Sotik. 

See A. C. Hollis, The Nandi: Their Language and Folk-lore, with 
introduction by Sir Charles Eliot (Oxford, 1909), and the works 
there cited. 

NANDIORU6, a hill fortress of southern India, in the Kolar 
district of Mysore, 4851 ft. above the sea. It was traditionally 
held impregnable, and its storming by Lord Cornwailis in 1791 
was one of the most notable incidents of the first war against 
Tippoo Sultan. It was formerly a favourite resort for British 
officials during the hot season. 

NANGA, the most primitive form of the ancient Egyptian 
harp. The nanga consisted of a boat-shaped or vaulted body of 
wood, the back of which was divided down the centre by a sound 
bar built into the back; on this bar was fixed a cylindrical stick 
round which one end of the strings was wound, the soundboard 
or parchment being stretched over the back without interfering 
with the stick. The other end of the strings was fastened to pegs 
set in the side of a curved neck, so that the strings did not lie 
directly over the soundboard. There were but 3 or 4 strings, one 
note only being obtained from each. Some of these nangas are 
to be seen at the British Museum. 

NANKEEN, a cotton cloth originally made in China, and now 
imitated in various countries. The name is derived from 
Nanking, the city in which the cloth is said to have been originally 
manufactured. The characteristic yellowish colour of nankeen 
is attributed to the peculiar colour of the cotton from which it 
was originally made. 



NANKING NANSEN, F. 



NANKING (" the southern capital "), the name by which 
Kiang-ning, the chief city in the province of Kiangsu, China, has 
been known for several centuries. Pop. about 140,000. The 
city stands in 32 5' N., 118 47' E., nearly equidistant between 
Canton and Peking, on the south bank of the Yangtsze Kiang. 
It dates only from the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368), 
although it is built on the site of a city which for more than two 
thousand years figured under various names in the history of the 
empire. The more ancient city was originally known as Kin-ling ; 
under the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 25) its name was con- 
verted into Tan-yang; by the T'ang emperors (A.D. 618-907) 
it was styled Kiang-nan and Sheng Chow; by the first sovereign 
of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644) it was created the " southern 
capital " (Nan-king), and was given the distinctive name of 
Ying-t'ien; and since the accession to power of the present 
Manchu rulers it has been officially known as Kiang-ning, 
though still popularly called Nan-king. It was the seat of the 
imperial court only during the reigns of the first two emperors of 
the Ming dynasty, and was deserted for Shun-t'ien (Peking) by 
Yung-lo, the third sovereign of that line, who in 1403 captured 
the town and usurped the crown of his nephew, the reigning 
emperor. 

The T'aip'ing rebels, who carried the town by assault in 
1853, swept away all the national monuments and most of the 
more conspicuous public buildings it contained, and destroyed the 
greater part of the magnificent wall which surrounded it. This 
wall is said by Chinese topographers to have been 96 li, or 32 m., 
in circumference. This computation has, however, been shown 
to be a gross exaggeration, and it is probable that 60 li, or 20 m., 
would be nearer the actual dimensions. The wall, of which only 
small portions remain, was about 70 ft. in height, measured 30 ft. 
in thickness at the base, and was pierced by thirteen gates. 
Encircling the north, east, and south sides of the city proper was a 
second wall which enclosed about double the space of the inner 
enclosure. In the north-east corner of the town stood the 
imperial palace reared by Hung-wu, the imperial founder of the 
modern city. After suffering mutilation at the overthrow of the 
Ming dynasty, this magnificent building was burnt to the ground 
on the recapture of the city from the T'aip'ing rebels in 1864. 
But beyond comparison the most conspicuous public building at 
Nanking was the famous porcelain tower, which was designed 
by the emperor Yung-lo (1403-1428) to commemorate the 
virtues of his mother. Twelve centuries previously an Indian 
priest deposited on the spot where this monument afterwards 
stood a relic of Buddha, and raised over the sacred object a small 
pagoda of three stories in height. During the disturbed times 
which heralded the close of the Yuen dynasty (1368) this pagoda 
was utterly destroyed. It was doubtless out of respect to the relic, 
which then perished that Yung-lo chose this site for the erection 
of his " token-of-gratitude " pagoda. The building was begun 
in 1413. But before it was finished Yung-lo had passed away, 
and it was reserved for his successor to see the final pinnacle 
fixed in its place, after nineteen years had been consumed in 
carrying out the designs of the imperial architect. In shape the 
pagoda was an octagon, and was about 260 ft. in height, or, as 
the Chinese say, with that extraordinary love for inaccurate 
accuracy which is peculiar to them, 32 chang (a chang equals 
about i ?o in.) 9 ft. 4 in. and -fy of an inch. The outer walls were 
cased with bricks of the finest white porcelain, and each of the 
nine stories into which the building was divided was marked by 
overhanging eaves composed of green glazed tiles of the same 
material. The summit was crowned with a gilt ball fixed on the 
top of an iron rod, which in its turn was encircled by nine iron 
rings. Hung on chains which stretched from this apex to the 
eaves of the roof were five large pearls of good augury for the 
safety of the city. One was supposed to avert floods, another 
to prevent fires, a third to keep dust-storms at a distance, a 
fourth to allay tempests, and a fifth to guard the city 
against disturbances. From the eaves of the several stories 
there hung one hundred and fifty-two bells and countless 
lanterns. In bygone days Nanking was one of the chief 
literary centres of the empire, besides being famous for 



its manufacturing industries. Satin, crape, nankeen, cloth, 
paper, pottery, and artificial flowers were among its chief 
products. 

At Nanking, after its capture by British ships in 1842, Sir 
Henry Pottinger signed the " Nanking treaty." It was made a 
treaty port by the French treaty of 1858, but was not formally 
opened. Its proximity to Chinkiang, where trade had established 
itself while Nanking was still in the hands of the rebels, made its 
opening of little advantage, and the point was not pressed. In 
1899 it was voluntarily thrown open to foreign trade by the 
Chinese government, and in 1909 it was connected by railway 
(192 m. long) with Shanghai. 

Since 1880 Nanking has been slowly recovering from the ruin 
caused by the T'aip'ing rebellion. Barely one-fourth of the area 
within the walls has been reoccupied, and though its ancient 
industries are reviving, no great progress has been made. As the 
seat of the provincial government of Kiang-nan, however, 
which embraces the three provinces of Kiang-su, Kiang-si, 
and Ngan-hui, Nanking is a city of first-class importance. The 
viceroy of Kiang-nan is the most powerful of all the provincial 
satraps, as he controls a larger revenue than any other, and has 
the command of larger forces both naval and military. He is 
also superintendent of foreign trade for the southern ports, 
including Shanghai, a position which gives him great weight in 
all political questions. The city contains an arsenal for the 
manufacture of munitions of war, also powder-mills. A naval 
college was opened in 1890, and an imperial military college a 
few years later under foreign instructors. The only foreign 
residents are missionaries (mostly American), and employes of 
the Chinese government. The only remaining features of interest 
in Nanking are the so-called Ming Tombs, being the mausolea 
of Hung-wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, and of one or two 
of his successors, which lie outside the eastern wall of the city. 
They are ill cared for and rapidly going to decay. Since 1899 the 
foreign trade has shown a steady increase. 

NANNING. a treaty port in the province of Kwangsi, China, 
on the West river, 250 m. above Wuchow and 470 m. from 
Canton. Pop. about 40,000. It is the highest point accessible 
for steam traffic on the West river. From Canton to Wuchow 
the river has a minimum depth of 8 ft., but on the section from 
Wuchow to Nanning not more than 3 or 4 ft. are found during 
winter. The town is the chief market on the southern frontier. 
Its opening was long opposed by the French government, who 
had acquired the right to build a railway to it from Tongking, 
by which they hoped to divert the trade through their own 
possessions. Navigation by small native boats is open west- 
wards as far as Paise. 

NANSEN, FRIDTJOF (1861- ), Norwegian scientist, ex- 
plorer and statesman, was born at Froen near Christiania on 
the loth of October 1861. His childhood was spent at this place 
till his fifteenth year, when his parents removed to Christiania, 
where he' went to school. He entered Christiania university in 
1880, where he made a special study of zoology; in March 1882 
he joined the sealing-ship " Viking " for a voyage to Greenland 
waters. On his return in the same year he was appointed 
curator of the Bergen Museum, under the eminent physician 
and zoologist Daniel Cornelius Danielssen (1815-1894). In 1886 
he spent a short time at the zoological station at Naples. During 
this time he wrote several papers and memoirs on zoological and 
histological subjects, and for one paper on " The Structure and 
Combination of the Histological Elements of the Central Nervous 
System " (Bergen, 1887) the Christiania university conferred 
upon him the degree of doctor of philosophy. But his voyage in 
the " Viking " had indicated Greenland as a possible field for 
exploration, and in 1887 he set about preparations for a crossing 
of the great ice-field which covers the interior of that country. 
The possibility of his success was discountenanced by many 
Arctic authorities, and a small grant he had asked for was refused 
by the Norwegian government, but was provided by Augustin 
Gamel, a merchant of Copenhagen, while he paid from his private 
means the greater part of the expenses of the expedition. As 
companions Nansen had Otto Neumann Sverdrup (b. 1855), 



NANSEN, H. 



163 



Captain O. C. Dietrichson (b. 1856), a third compatriot, and 
two Lapps. The expedition started in May 1888, proceeding 
from Leith to Iceland, and there joining a sealing-ship bound 
for the east coast of Greenland. On the i7th of July Nansen 
decided to leave the ship and force a way through the ice-belt 
to the land, about 10 m. distant, but the party encountered 
great difficulties owing to ice-pressures, went adrift with the ice, 
and only reached the land on the 29th, having been carried far 
to the south in the interval. They made their way north again, 
along the coast inside the drift ice, and on the i6th of August 
began the ascent of the inland ice. Suffering severely from 
storms, intense cold, and other hardships, they reached the 
highest point of the journey (8920 ft.) on the 5th of September, 
and at the end of the month struck the west coast at the Ameralik 
Fjord. On reaching the settlement of Godthaab it was found 
that the party must winter there, and Nansen used the oppor- 
tunity to study the Eskimos and gather material for his book, 
Eskimo Life (English translation, London, 1893). The party 
returned home in May 1889, and Nansen's book, The First 
Crossing of Greenland (English translation, London, 1890), 
demonstrates the valuable scientific results of the journey. A 
report of the scientific results was published in Petermanns 
Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892). On his return from Greenland 
Nansen accepted the curatorship of the Zootomic Museum of 
Christiania university. In September 1889 he married Eva, 
daughter of Professor Michael Sars of Christiania university, 
and a noted singer (d. 1907). 

In 1890 he propounded his scheme for a polar expedition 
before the Norwegian Geographical Society, and in 1892 he 
laid it before the Royal Geographical Society in London (see 
" How can the North Polar Region be crossed ? " Geogr. Journal, 
vol. i.), by which time his preparations were well advanced. 
His theory, that a drift-current sets across the polar regions 
from Bering Strait and the neighbourhood of the New Siberia 
Islands towards the east coast of Greenland, was based on a 
number of indications, notably the discovery (1884), on drift 
ice off the south-west coast of Greenland, of relics of the American 
north polar expedition in the ship " Jeannette," which sank 
N.E. of the New Siberia Islands in 1881. His intention was 
therefore to get his vessel fixed in the ice to the north of Eastern 
Siberia and let her drift with it. His plan was adversely criticized 
by many Arctic authorities, but it succeeded. The Norwegian 
parliament granted two-thirds of the expenses, and the rest was 
obtained by subscription from King Oscar and private indi- 
viduals. His ship, the " Fram " (i.e. " Forward "), was specially 
built of immense strength and peculiar form, being pointed at 
bow and stern and having sloping sides, so that the ice-floes, 
pressing together, should tend, not to crush, but merely to slip 
beneath and lift her. She sailed from Christiania on the 24th of 
June 1893. Otto Sverdrup was master; Sigurd Scott Hansen, 
a Norwegian naval lieutenant, was in charge of the astronomical 
and meteorological observations; Henrik Greve Blessing was 
doctor and botanist; and among the rest was Frederik Hjalmar 
Johansen, lieutenant in the Norwegian army, who shipped as 
fireman. On the 22nd of September the " Fram " was made 
fast to a floe in 78 50' N., 133 37' E.; shortly afterwards she 
was frozen in, and the long drift began. She bore the pressure 
of the ice perfectly. During the whiter of 1894-1895 it was 
decided that an expedition should be made northward over 
the ice on foot in the spring, and on the I4th of March 1895 
Nansen, being satisfied that the " Fram " would continue to 
drift safely, left her in 84 N., 101 55' E., and started northward 
accompanied by Johansen. On the 8th of April they turned 
back from 86 14' N., the highest latitude then reached by man; 
and they shaped their course for Franz Josef Land. They 
suffered many hardships, including shortage of food, and were 
compelled to winter on Frederick Jackson Island (so named 
by Nansen) in Franz Josef Land from the 26th of August 1895 
to the igth of May 1896. They were uncertain as to the locality, 
but, after having reached 80 N. on the south coast of the islands, 
they were travelling westward to reach Spitsbergen, when, on 
the 1 7th of June 1896, they fell in with Frederick Jackson and 



his party of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, and returned 
to Norway in his ship, the " Windward," reaching Vardo on the 
1 3th of August. A week later the " Fram " also reached Norway 
in safety. She had drifted north after Nansen had left her, 
to 85 57', and had ultimately returned by the west coast of 
Spitsbergen. An unprecedented welcome awaited Nansen. In 
England he gave the narrative of his journey at a great meeting 
in the Albert Hall, London, on the 8th of February 1897, 
and elsewhere. He received a special medal from the Royal 
Geographical Society, honorary degrees from the universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge, and a presentation of books (the " Chal- 
lenger " Reports) from the British government, and similar 
honours were paid him in other countries. The English version 
of the narrative of the expedition is entitled Farthest North 
(London, 1897), and the scientific results are given in The 
Norwegian North Polar Expedition 1893-1896; Scientific Rssulls 
(London, &c., 1900 sqq.). 

In 1905, in connexion with the crisis between Norway and 
Sweden, which was followed by the separation of the kingdoms, 
Nansen for the first time actively intervened in politics. He 
issued a manifesto and many articles, in which he adopted an 
attitude briefly indicated by the last words of a short work 
published later in the year: "Any union in which the one 
people is restrained in exercising its freedom is and will remain 
a danger " (Norway and the Union -with Sweden, London, 1905). 
On the establishment of the Norwegian monarchy Nansen was 
appointed minister to England (1906), and in the same year he 
was created G.C.V.O.; but in 1908 he retired from his post, 
and became professor of oceanography in Christiania university. 

NANSEN, HANS (1598-1667), Danish statesman, son of the 
burgher Evert Nansen, was born at Flensburg on the 28th of 
November 1598. He made several voyages to the White Sea 
and to places in northern Russia, and in 1621 entered the service 
of the Danish Icelandic Company, then in its prime. For 
many years the whole trade of Iceland, which he frequently 
visited, passed through his hands, and he soon became equally 
well known at Gliickstadt, then the chief emporium of the 
Iceland trade, and at Copenhagen. In February 1644, at the 
express desire of King Christian IV., the Copenhagen burgesses 
elected him burgomaster. During his northern voyages he had 
learnt Russian, and was employed as interpreter at court when- 
ever Muscovite embassies visited Copenhagen. His travels had 
begotten in him a love of geography, and he published in 1633 
a " Kosmografi," previously revised by the astronomer Longo- 
montanus. During the siege of Copenhagen by the Swedes in 
1658 he came prominently forward. At the meeting between the 
king and the citizens to arrange for the defence of the capital, 
Nansen urged the necessity of an obstinate defence. It was he 
who on this occasion obtained privileges for the burgesses of 
Copenhagen which placed them on a footing of equality with 
the nobility; and he was the life and soul of the garrison till 
the arrival of the Dutch fleet practically saved the city. These 
eighteen months of storm and stress established his influence 
in the capital once for all and at the same time knitted him 
closely to Frederick III., who recognized in Nansen a man 
after his own heart, and made the great burgomaster bis chief 
instrument in carrying through the anti-aristocratic Revolution 
of 1660. Nansen used all the arts of the agitator with 
extraordinary energy and success. His greatest feat was the 
impassioned speech by which, on October 8th, he induced the 
burgesses to accede to the proposal of the magistracy of Copen- 
hagen to offer Frederick III. the realm of Denmark as a purely 
hereditary kingdom. How far Nansen was content with the 
result of the Revolution absolute monarchy it is impossible 
to say. It appears to be pretty certain that, at the beginning, 
he did not want absolutism. Whether he subsequently regarded 
the victory of the monarchy and its corollary, the admittance 
of the middle classes to all offices and dignities, as a satisfactory 
equivalent for his original demands; or whether he was so 
overcome by royal favour as to sacrifice cheerfully the political 
liberties of his country, can only be a matter for conjecture. 
After the Revolution Nansen continued in high honour, but 



164 



NANTERRE NANTES 



he chiefly occupied himself with commerce, and was less and less 
consulted in purely political matters. He died on the I2th of 
November 1667. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Oluf Nielsen, Kjobenhavns Historic, iii. (Copen- 
hagen, 1877) ; Julius Albert Fridericia, Adelsvaeldens sidste Dage 
(Copenhagen, 1894); Danmarks Riges Historic, v. (Copenhagen, 
1897-1905). (R. N. B.) 

NANTERRE, a town of northern France, with a port on the 
Seine, in the department of Seine, at the foot of Mount Valerien, 
8 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to St Germain. Pop. (1906), 
town, 11,874; commune, 17,434. The principal manufactures 
are chemicals, tallow and aluminium; stone quarried in the 
vicinity; the town is noted also for its cakes. The combined 
prison and mendicity depot for the department is a large 
institution, about 2 m. from the town. Nanterre (the ancient 
Nemptodurum or Nemetodurum) owes its origin to the shrine 
of Ste Genevieve (420-512), the patron-saint of Paris, whose 
name is still associated with various places in the town and 
district. The shrine is the object of a pilgrimage in September. 

NANTES, a city of western France, capital of the department 
of Loire-Inferieure, on the right bank of the Loire, 35 m. above 
its mouth, at the junction of the Orleans, Western and State 
railways, 55 m. W.S.W. of Angers by rail. In population 
(town, 118,244; commune, 133,247, in 1906) Nantes is the first 
city of Brittany. The Loire here divides into several branches 
forming islands over portions of which the city has spread. 
It receives on the left hand the Sevre Nantaise, and on the right 
the Erdre, which forms the outlet of the canal between Nantes 
and Brest. The maritime port of Nantes is reached by way of 
the Loire and the ship canal between the island of Garnet and 
La Martiniere (9! m.). Vessels drawing as much as 20 ft. 8 in., 
and at spring tides, 22 ft., can reach the port, which extends over 
a length of about 15 m. The outer port as far as the industrial 
suburb of Chantenay has a length of over half a mile. The 
principal quays extend along the right bank of the branch 
which flows past the town, and on the western shore of the island 
of Gloriette. Their total length used for trading purposes is 
5 m., and warehouses cover an area of 17 acres. A slipway 
facilitates the repairing of ships. The river port occupies the 
St Felix and Madeleine branches, and has quays extending for 
half a mile. Finally, on the Erdre is a third port for inland 
navigation. The quays are bounded by railway lines along the 
right bank of the river, which the railway to St Nazaire follows. 
The older quarter of Nantes containing the more interesting 
buildings is situated to the east of the Erdre. 

The cathedral, begun in 1434 in the Gothic style, was unfinished 
till the igth century when the transept and choir were added. 
There are two interesting monuments in the transept on the 
right Michel Colomb's tomb of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and 
his second wife Marguerite de Foix (1507), and on the left that of 
General Juchault de Lamoriciere, a native of Nantes, by Paul 
Dubois (1879). Of the other churches the most interesting is 
St Nicolas, a modern building in the style of the I3th century, 
on the right bank of the Erdre. Between the cathedral and the 
Loire, from which it is separated only by the breadth of the quay, 
stands the castle of Nantes, founded in the gth or loth century. 
Rebuilt by Francis II. and the duchess Anne, it is flanked by 
huge towers and by a bastion erected by Philip Emmanuel 
duke of Mercceur in the time of the League. A fine facade in 
the Gothic style looks into the courtyard. From being the 
residence of the dukes of Brittany, the castle became a state 
prison in which Jean-Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal de Retz, 
Nicholas Fouquet, and Marie Louise of Naples, duchess of 
Berry, were 'at different times confined; it is now occupied as the 
artillery headquarters. The chapel in which the marriage of 
Louis XII. with Anne of Brittany was celebrated was destroyed 
by an explosion in 1800. The Exchange (containing the tribunal 
and chamber of commerce), the Grand Theatre, the Prefecture 
and the town hall are buildings of the last half of the i8th or 
early igth century; the law courts date from the middle of the 
i9th century. Nantes has an archaeological collection in the 
Dobree Museum, and in the museum of fine arts a splendid 



collection of paintings, modern French masters being well 
represented; it also has a natural history museum, a large library 
rich in manuscripts and a botanical garden to the east. The 
Pommeraye Passage, which connects streets on different levels 
and is built in stages connected by staircases, dates from 1843. 
Between the Loire and the Erdre run the Cours St Pierre and 
the Cours St Andre, adorned at the two ends of the line by 
statues of Anne of Brittany and Arthur III., Bertrand du 
Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson, and separated by the Place 
Louis XVI., with a statue of that monarch on a lofty column. 
The Place Royale, to the west of the Erdre, the great meeting- 
place of the principal thoroughfares of the city, contains a 
monumental fountain with allegorical statues of Nantes and the 
Loire and its affluents. A flight of steps at the west end of the 
town leads up from the quay to the colossal cast-iron statue of 
St Anne, whence a splendid view may be obtained over the 
valley of the Loire. Several old houses of the isth and i6th 
centuries, the fish market and the Salorges (a vast granite 
building now used as a bonded warehouse) are of interest. 
Nantes has two great hospitals St Jacques on the left bank of 
the Loire, and the Hotel-Dieu in Gloriette Island. It is the seat 
of a bishopric and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the* 
XI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance and of 
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce 
and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institu- 
tions include lycees for both sexes, a training college for girls, 
schools of medicine and pharmacy and law, a preparatory school 
to higher instruction, science and letters, schools of music, art and 
navigation, technical and commercial schools, and a school for 
deaf-mutes and the blind. 

Among the more important industries of Nantes are sugar- 
refining, flour-milling, rice-husking, the manufacture of oil, 
soap, flour pastes and biscuits, and the preparation of tinned 
provisions (sardines, vegetables, &c.); the manufacture of tin 
boxes, tiles, chemical manures, acid from chestnut bark, tobacco, 
leather, wood-pulp for paper, rope, boots and shoes, brushes 
and glass; saw-milling, shipbuilding, metal founding and the 
construction of engineering material; and wool and cotton- 
spinning and the manufacture of cotton and other fabrics, 
hosiery and knitted goods. Coal and patent fuel (chiefly from 
Great Britain) are the most important imports; next come 
phosphates and pyrites; other imports are timber and pulp-wood. 
The principal exports are bunker-coal (to French colonies), 
pyrites, slate, hoops and provisions. In the ten years 1898- 
1907 the average annual value of the imports was 2,657,000; 
of the exports 795,000. In 1907 there entered from foreign 
countries 738 vessels (209 British) with tonnage of 584,850, 
and cleared 778 with 154,720 tons of cargo, and 458,538 tons 
of ballast. Reckoning ships carrying cargo only the figures for 
the first and last years of the decade 1898-1907 were: 1898, 
ships entered, French 209 (tonnage 75,249), foreign 250 (tonnage 
!S4>936); ships cleared, French 173 (tonnage 32,591), foreign 
97 (tonnage 27,836). 1907, ships entered, French 186 (tonnage 
127,635), foreign 419 (tonnage 361,002); ships cleared, French 
126 (tonnage 81,299), foreign 128 (tonnage 45,181). 

Before the Roman occupation Nantes was the chief town of 
the Namnetes and consisted of Condovicnum, lying on the hills 
away from the river, and of Portus Namnelum, on the river. 
Under the Romans it became a great commercial and admini- 
strative centre, though its two parts did not coalesce till the 3rd 
or 4th century. In the middle of the 3rd century Christianity 
was introduced by St Clair. Clotaire I. got possession of the 
city in 560, and placed it under the government of St Felix 
the bishop, who executed enormous works to cause the Loire 
to flow under the walls of the castle. After being several times 
subdued by Charlemagne, Brittany revolted under his successors, 
and Nominoe, proclaimed king in 842, ordered the fortifications 
of Nantes to be razed because it had sided with Charles the Bald. 
The Normans held the town from 843 to 936. About this time 
began the rivalry between Nantes and Rennes, whose counts 
disputed the sovereignty of Brittany. Pierre de Dreux, declared 
duke of Brittany by Philip Augustus, made Nantes his capital, 



NANTES, EDICT OF NANTICOKE 



165 



surrounded it with fortifications and defended it valiantly 
against John of England. During the Breton wars of succession 
Nantes took part first with Jean de Montfort, but afterwards 
with Charles of Blois, and did not open its gates to Monfort 
till his success was assured and his English allies had retired. 
In 1560 Francis II. granted Nantes a communal constitution. 
In the course of the isth and i6th centuries the city suffered 
from several epidemics. Averse to Protestantism, it joined the 
League along with the duke of Mercceur, governor of Brittany, 
who helped to raise the country into an independent duchy; 
and it was not till 1598 that it opened its gates to Henry IV., 
who here signed on the and of May of that year the famous 
Edict of Nantes which until its revocation by Louis XIV. in 
1685 was the charter of Huguenot liberties in France. It was 
at Nantes that Henry de Talleyrand, count of Chalais, was 
punished in 1626 for plotting against Richelieu, that Fouquet 
was arrested in 1661, and that the Cellamare conspirators were 
executed under the regent Philip of Orleans. Having warmly 
embraced the cause of the Revolution in 1789, the city was in 
1793 treated with extreme rigour by J. B. Carrier, envoy of 
the Committee of Public Safety, whose noyad.es or wholesale 
drownings of prisoners became notorious. Nantes on more than 
one occasion vigorously resisted the Vendeans. It was here 
that the duchess of Berry was arrested in 1832 while trying to 
stir up La Vendee against Louis Philippe. 

NANTES, EDICT OF, the law promulgated in April 1598 by 
which the French king, Henry IV., gave religious liberty to his 
Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The story of the struggle 
for the edict is part of the history of France, and during the 
thirty-five years of civil war which preceded its grant, many 
treaties and other arrangements had been made between the 
contending religious parties, but none of these had been satis- 
factory or lasting. The elation of the Protestants at the accession 
of Henry IV. in 1589 was followed by deep depression, when it 
was found that not only did he adopt the Roman Catholic faith, 
but that his efforts to redress their grievances were singularly 
ineffectual. In 1594 they took determined measures to protect 
themselves; in 1597, the war with Spain being practically over, 
long negotiations took place between the king and their repre- 
sentatives, prominent among whom was the historian J. A. de 
Thou, and at last the edict was drawn up. It consisted of 95 
general articles, which were signed by Henry at Nantes on the 
i3th of April 1598, and of 56 particular ones, signed on the 
2nd of May. There was also some supplementary matter. 

The main provisions of the edict of Nantes may be briefly 
summarized under six heads: (i) It gave liberty of conscience 
to the Protestants throughout the whole of France. (2) It 
gave to the Protestants the right of holding public worship in 
those places where they had held it in the year 1576 and in the 
earlier part of 1577; also in places where this freedom had been 
granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) and the treaties of Nerac 
(1579) and of Felix (1580). The Protestants could also worship 
in two towns in each bailliage and senechausee. The greater 
nobles could hold Protestant services in their houses; the 
lesser nobles could do the same, but only for gatherings of not 
more than thirty people. Regarding Paris, the Protestants 
could conduct worship within five leagues of the city; previously 
this prohibition had extended to a distance of ten leagues. 
(3) Full civil rights were granted to the Protestants. They could 
trade freely, inherit property and enter the universities, colleges 
and schools. All official positions were open to them. (4) To 
deal with disputes arising out of the edict a chamber was estab- 
lished in the parlement of Paris (le chambre de I' edit). This 
was to be composed of ten Roman Catholic, and of six Protestant 
members. Chambers for the same purpose, but consisting of 
Protestants and Roman Catholics in equal numbers, were estab- 
lished in connexion with the provincial parlements. (5) The 
Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state and to be freed 
from certain burdens, their position being made practically 
equal to that of the Roman Catholic clergy. (6) A hundred 
places of safety were given to the Protestants for eight years, 
the expenses of garrisoning them being undertaken by the king. 



In many ways the terms of the edict were very generous to 
the Protestants, but it must be remembered that the liberty 
to hold public worship was made the exception and not the rule; 
this was prohibited except in certain specified cases, and in this 
respect they were less favourably treated than they were under 
the arrangement made in 1576. 

The edict was greatly disliked by the Roman Catholic clergy 
and their friends, and a few changes were made to conciliate them. 
The parlement of Paris shared this dislike, and succeeded in 
reducing the number of Protestant members of the chambre 
de I'edit from six to one. Then cajoled and threatened by Henry, 
the parlement registered the edict on the 25th of February 
1 599. After similar trouble it was also registered by the provincial 
parlements, the last to take this step being the parlement of 
Rouen, which delayed the registration until 1609. 

The strong political position secured to the French Protestants 
by the edict of Nantes was very objectionable, not only to the 
ardent Roman Catholics, but also to more moderate persons, 
and the payments made to their ministers by the state were 
viewed with increasing dislike. Thus about 1660 a strong move- 
ment began for its repeal, and this had great influence with the 
king. One after another proclamations and declarations were 
issued which deprived the Protestants of their rights under the 
edict; their position was rendered intolerable by a series of 
persecutions which culminated in the dragonnades, and at length 
on the i8th of October 1685 Louis revoked the edict, thus depriv- 
ing the Protestants in France of all civil and religious liberty. 
This gave a new impetus to the emigration of the Huguenots, 
which had been going on for some years, and England, Holland 
and Brandenburg received numbers of thrifty and industrious 
French families. 

The history of the French Protestants, to which the edict of Nantes 
belongs, isdealt with in thearticles FRANCE: History,a.nA HUGUENOTS. 
For further details about the edict see the papers and documents 
published as Le Trpisieme centenaire de I'edit de Nantes (1898); 
N. A. F. Puaux, Histoire du Protestantisme franfais (Paris, 1894); 
H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
(London, 1895) ; C. Benoist, La Condition des Protestants sous le 
regime de I'edit de Nantes et apres sa revocation (Paris, 1900) ; A. Lods, 
L'Edit de Nantes deyant le parlement de Paris (1899) ; and the Bulletin 
historique et litteraire of the Socie'te' de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme 
Frangais. 

NANTEUIL, ROBERT (1623-1678), French line-engraver, was 
born about 1623, or, as other authorities state, in 1630, the 
son of a merchant of Reims. Having received an excellent 
classical education, he studied engraving under his brother-in- 
law, Nicholas Regnesson; and, his crayon portraits having 
attracted attention, he was pensioned by Louis XIV. and 
appointed designer and engraver of the cabinet to that monarch. 
It was mainly due to his influence that the king granted the 
edict of 1660, dated from St Jean de Luz, by which engraving 
was pronounced free and distinct from the mechanical arts, and 
its practitioners were declared entitled to the privileges of other 
artists. He died at Paris in 1678. The plates of Nanteuil, 
several of them approaching the scale of life, number about three 
hundred. In his early practice he imitated the technique of 
his predecessors, working with straight lines, strengthened, but 
not crossed, in the shadows, in the style of Claude Mellan, and 
in other prints cross-hatching like Regnesson, or stippling in the 
manner of Jean Boulanger; but he gradually asserted his full 
individuality, modelling the faces of his portraits with the utmost 
precision and completeness, and employing various methods 
of touch for the draperies and other parts of his plates. Among 
the finest works of his fully developed period may be named 
the portraits of Pomponne de Bellievre, Gilles Menage, Jean 
Loret, the due de la Meilleraye and the duchess de Nemours. 

A list of his works will be found in Dumesnil's Le Peintre-graveur 
franqais, vol. iv. 

NANTICOKE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite 
West Nanticoke, and 8 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1880), 
3884; (1890), 10,044; (1900), 12,116, of whom 5055 were 
foreign-born; (1910 census) 18,877. It is served by the 
Pennsylvania, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the 



i66 



NANTUCKET 



Central of New Jersey railways, and by an interurban electric 
line. Nant.icoke is situated in the anthracite coal region, is 
surrounded by mines, and its industries consist chiefly in mining 
and shipping coal; it also has various manufactures, and in 
1905 the factory product was valued at $358,091. Nanticoke 
was laid out in 1793, and was incorporated as a borough in 1874. 
The name is that of an Algonquian tribe of Indians, conspicuous 
for their dark complexion, who originally lived in Maryland, 
were conquered by the Iroquois in 1678 and subsequently 
scattered; the main body removed to lands along the eastern 
branch of the Susquehanna, where some of them became merged 
with the Iroquois, and others removed to the Ohio and became 
merged with the Delaware. 

NANTUCKET, a county and township (coextensive) of Massa- 
chusetts, U.S.A. Its principal part is an island of the same 
name, 28 m. S. of Cape Cod peninsula; it also includes the 
island of Tuckernuck, which has an area of 1-97 sq. m., and is 
used for sheep grazing; Muskeget Island, which has excellent 
hunting, and of which about one-half is a public park; and the 
Gravel Islands and other islets. Pop. of the county (1905 
state census), 2930; (1910) 2962. 

The island, with a minimum length of 15 m., an average width 
of 2| m., and an area of about 47 sq. m., has a coast-line of 
88 m.; it lies within the lo-fathom line, but is separated from 
the mainland by Nantucket Sound, which is 25 to 30 m. across 
and has a maximum depth of 50 ft. The surface of Nantucket 
Island is open, nearly treeless, with a few hills, the highest being 
91 ft. above sea-level. The soil is sandy but affords good pasture 
in some places, and has been farmed with some success; the 
flora is rich, and includes some rare species. There are a score 
of fresh-water ponds, the largest being Hummock (320 acres). 
Copaum (21 acres) was, at the time of the first settlement, a bay 
and the commonly used harbour, but the present harbour (6 m. 
long) is that formed by Coatue Beach, a long narrow tongue of 
land on the N. side of the island. The northern part of Coatue 
Beach is known as Coskata Beach, and curves to the N.W.; 
near its tip is Great Point, where a lighthouse was first built in 
1784. There have been many terrible wrecks on the coast, 
and there are life-saving stations on Muskeget Island, near 
Maddaket, at Surfside and on Coskata Beach. At the W. end 
of the island is Tuckernuck Bank, a broad submarine platform, 
on whose edge are the island of Tuckernuck, on which is a village 
of the same name, and Muskeget Island. In the S.E. extremity 
of Nantucket Island is Siasconset (locally 'Sconset), a summer 
resort of some vogue; it has a Marconi wireless telegraph 
station, connecting with incoming steamers, the Nantucket 
shoals lightship and the mainland. On a bluff on the S. is the 
small village of Surfside. Other hamlets are Maddaket, at the 
W. end of the island; and Polpis, Quidnet and Wauwinet (at 
the head of Nantucket harbour) in its E. part. 

The principal settlement and summer resort is the town of 
Nantucket (on the S.W. end of the harbour), which is served by 
steamers from New Bedford, Martha's Vineyard and Wood's 
Hole, and is connected with Siasconset by a primitive narrow- 
gauge railway. Here there are large summer hotels, old resi- 
dences built in the prosperous days of whaling, old lean-to houses, 
old graveyards and an octagonal towered windmill built in 1746. 
There are two libraries; one founded in 1836, and now a public 
library in the Atheneum building; and the other in what is 
now the School of Industrial and Manual Training (1904), founded 
in 1827 as a Lancasterian school by Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin 
(1759-1839), whose ancestors were Nantucket people. The 
Jethro Coffin House was built in 1686, according to tradition; 
the Old North Vestry, the first Congregational meeting-house, 
built in 1711, was moved in 1767, and again in 1834 to its present 
site on Beacon Hill. The old South Church Tower, a steeple and 
clock tower, 144 ft. above sea-level, has a fine Portuguese bell, 
made in 1810. Another old house, built in 1725, was the home 
of Elihu Coleman, an anti-slavery minister of the Society of 
Friends, who were very strong here until the close of the first 
quarter of the igth century. Near the old Friends' School is 
the building of the Nantucket Historical Society, which has a 



collection of relics. Nantucket was the home of Benjamin 
Franklin's mother, Abiah, whose father, Peter Folger, was one 
of the earliest settlers (1663); of Maria Mitchell, and of Lucretia 
Mott. Adjoining the Maria Mitchell homestead is a memorial 
astronomical observatory and library, containing the collections 
of Miss Mitchell and of her brother, Professor Henry Mitchell 
(1830-1902), a distinguished hydrographer. The industries of 
the island are unimportant; there is considerable cod and scallop 
fishing. Sheep-raising was once an important industry. Nan- 
tucket was long famous as a whaling port. As early as the 
beginning of the i8th century its fleets vied with those of eastern 
Long Island. In 1 7 1 2 a Nantucket whaler, Christopher Hussey, 
blown out to sea, killed some sperm whales and thus introduced 
the sperm-oil industry and put an end to the period in which 
only drift- and shore- or boat-whaling had been carried on 
the shore fishery died out about 1760. In 1757 whaling was the 
only livelihood of the people of Nantucket; and in 1750-1775, 
although whaling fleets were in repeated danger from French 
and Spanish privateers, the business, with the allied coopers 
and other trades, steadily increased. In 1775 the Nantucket 
fleet numbered 150, and the population was between 5000 and 
6000, about 90% being Quakers; but by 1785 the fleet had 
been shattered, 134 ships being destroyed or captured during 
the war. Tallow candles as a substitute for whale-oil had been 
introduced, and the British market was closed by a duty of 
18 a ton on oil; a bounty offered by the Massachusetts legis- 
lature (5 on white and 3 on yellow or brown spermaceti, 
and 2 on whale-oil per ton) was of slight assistance. During the 
war of 1812 the Nantucket fleet was the only one active; it 
suffered severely during the war, and in the decade 1820-1830 
Nantucket lost its primacy to New Bedford, whose fleet in 1840 
was twice as large. Nantucket's last whaler sailed in 1869. 
Subsequently the island has been chiefly important as a summer 
resort. 

Title to Nantucket and the neighbouring islands was claimed 
under grants of the Council for New England both by William 
Alexander, Lord Stirling, and by Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Lord 
Stirling's agent sold them in 1641 to Thomas Mayhew (1592- 
1682) of Watertown, Mass., and his son Thomas (c. 1616- 
1657) for 40, and a little later the elder Mayhew obtained 
another deed for Martha's Vineyard from Gorges. In 1659 the 
elder Mayhew sold a joint interest in the greater part of the 
island of Nantucket for 30 and two beaver hats to nine partners; 
early in the following year the first ten admitted ten others as 
equal proprietors, and later, in order to encourage them to settle 
here, special half-grants were offered to tradesmen. The original 
twenty proprietors, however, endeavoured to exclude the trades- 
men from any voice in the government, and this caused strife. 
Both factions appealed to the governor of New York, that pro- 
vince having claimed jurisdiction over the islands under the 
grant to the duke of York in 1664, and, becoming increasingly 
dissatisfied with that government, sought a union with Massa- 
chusetts until the islands were annexed to that province by its 
new charter of 1691. The town of Nantucket was settled in 
1661 and was incorporated in 1671. By order of Governor 
Francis Lovelace it was named Sherburne in 1673, but in 1795 
the present name was adopted. Its original site was Maddaket 
on the W. end of the island; in 1672 it was moved to its present 
site, then called Wescoe. When counties were first organized in 
New York, in 1683, Nantucket and the neighbouring islands 
were erected into Dukes county, but in 1695, after annexation 
to Massachusetts,' Nantucket Island, having been set apart from 
Dukes county, constituted Nantucket county, and in 1713 
Tuckernuck Island was annexed to it. 

See the bulletins (1896 sqq.) of the Nantucket Historical Society, 
established in 1894; F. B. Hough, Papers relating to the Island of 
Nantucket . . . while under the Colony of New York (Albany, N.Y., 
1856); M. S. Dudley, Nantucket Centennial Celebration; Historic 
Sites and Historic Buildings (Nantucket, 1895) ; Obed Macy, History 
of Nantucket (Boston, 1835); L. S. Hinchman, Early Settlers of 
Nantucket (Philadelphia, 1896; 2nd ed., 1901); W. S. Bliss, Quaint 
Nantucket (Boston, 1896) ; and N. S. Shaler, Geology of Nantucket 
(Washington, 1889), being U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, No. 53. 






NANTWICH NAPHTHALENE 



167 



NANTWICH, a market town in the Crewe parliamentary 
division of Cheshire, England, 161 m. N.W. of London, on the 
London & North-Western and Great Western railways. Pop. 
of urban district (1901) 7722. It lies on the river Weaver, in the 
upper part of its flat, open valley. The church of St Mary and 
St Nicholas is a cruciform building in red sandstone, of the 
Decorated and Perpendicular periods, with a central octagonal 
tower. The fine old carved stalls are said to have belonged to 
Vale Royal Abbey, near Winsford in this county. Nantwich re- 
tains not a few old timbered houses of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, 
but the town as a whole is modern in appearance. The grammar 
school was founded in 161 1. The salt industry, still the staple of 
several towns lower down the vale of the Weaver, was so 
important here in the time of Henry VIII. that there were three 
hundred salt-works. Though this industry has lapsed, there are 
brine baths, much used in cases of rheumatism, gout and general 
debility, and the former private mansion of Shrewbridge Hall is 
converted into a hotel with a spa. Nantwich has tanneries, a 
manufacture of boots and shoes, and clothing factories; and 
corn-milling and iron-founding are carried on. The town is one 
of the best hunting centres in the county, being within reach 
of several meets. 

From the traces of a Roman road between Nantwich and Middle- 
wich, and the various Roman remains that have been found in the 
neighbourhood, it has been conjectured that Nantwich was a salt- 
town in Roman times, but of this there is no conclusive evidence. 
The Domesday Survey contains a long account of the laws, customs 
and values of the salt-works at that period, which were by far the 
most profitable in Cheshire. The salt-houses were divided between 
the king, the earl of Chester and certain resident freemen of the 
neighbourhood. The name of the town appears variously as Wych 
Manbank, Wie Malban, Nantwich, Lache Mauban, Wysmanban, 
Wiens Malbanus, Namptewiche. About the year 1070 William 
Malbedeng or Malbank was created baron of Nantwich, which barony 
he held of the earl of Chester. In the I3th century the barony fell 
to three daughters and co-heiresses, and further subdivisions followed. 
This probably accounts for the lack of privileges belonging to Nant- 
wich as a corporate town. The only town charter is one of 1567 
1568, in which Queen Elizabeth confirms an ancient privilege of 
the burgesses that they should not be upon assizes or juries with 
strangers, relating to matters outside the town. It is stated in the 
charter that the right to this privilege had been proved by an in- 
quisition taken in the I4th century, and had then already been held 
from time immemorial. There was a gild merchant and also a town 
bailiff, but the latter office was of little real significance and was 
soon dropped. There is documentary evidence of a castle at Nant- 
wich in the I3th century. There is a weekly market on Saturday, 
held by prescription. In 1283 a three-days fair to be held at the 
feast of St Bartholomew was granted to Robert Burnell, bishop of 
Bath and Wells (then holder of a share of the barony of Nantwich). 
This is the " Old Fair " or " Great Fair " now held on the ^th of 
September. Earl Cholmondeley received a grant of two fairs in 
1723. Fairs are now held on the first Thursday in April, June, 
September and December, and a cheese fair on the first Thursday in 
each month except January. The salt trade declined altogether in 
the 1 8th century, with the exception of one salt-works, which was 
kept open until 1856. There was a shoe trade in the town as early 
as the I7th century, and gloves were made from the end of the 
l6th century until about 1863. Weaving and stocking trades also 
flourished in the l8th century. The one corn-mill of Nantwich was 
converted into a cotton factory in 1789, but was closed in 1874. 

See James Hall, A History of Nantwich or Wich Milbank (1883). 

NAOROJI, DADABHAI (1825- ), Indian politician, was 
born at Nasik on the 4th of September 1825, the son of a Parsi 
priest. During a long and active life, he played many parts: 
professor of mathematics at the Elphinstone college (1854); 
founder of the Rast Goftar newspaper; partner in a Parsi business 
firm in London (1855); prime minister of Baroda (1874); 
member of the Bombay legislative council (1885); M.P. for 
Central Finsbury (1892-1895), being the first Indian to be elected 
to the House of Commons; three times president of the Indian 
National Congress. Many of his numerous writings are collected 
in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901). 

NAP, the pile on cloth, the surface of short fibres raised by 
special processes, differing with the various fabrics, and then 
smoothed and cut. Formerly the word was applied to the 
roughness on textiles before shearing. " Nap " in this sense 
appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Noppe, Dutch nop, 
Nor. napp; the verbal form is noppen or nappen, to trim, cut 



short. The word nap also means a short sleep or doze (O. Eng. 
hnappian). In " napkin," a square of damask or other linen, 
used for wiping the hands and lips or for protecting the clothes 
at meals, the second part is a common English suffix, sometimes 
of diminutive force, and the first is from " nape," * Low Lat. 
napa or nappa, a corrupt form of mappa, table-cloth. Nape still 
survives in " napery," a name for household linen in general. 

NAPHTALI, in the Bible, the name of an Israelite tribe, the 
" son " of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the uterine 
brother of Dan (Gen. xxx. 8). It lay to the south of Dan in the 
eastern half of upper Galilee (Josh. xix. 32-39), a fertile mountain- 
ous district (cf. Gen. xlix. 21; Deut. xxxiii. 23), open to the 
surrounding influences of Phoenicia and Aram. Apart from its 
share in the war against Sisera (Judg. iv. seq., see DEBORAH), 
little is known of it. It evidently suffered in the bloody conflicts 
of Damascus with Israel (i Kings xv. 20), and was depopulated 
by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (2 Kings xv. 29; Isa. ix. i). Naphtali and 
Dan are " brothers," perhaps partly on geographical grounds, 
but Dan also had a seat in the south (south-west of Ephraim), 
and the name of the " mother " Bilhah is apparently connected 
with Bilhan, an Edomite and also a Benjamite name (Gen. 
xxxvi. 27; i Chron. vii. 10). 

For the view connecting Naphtali (perhaps a geographical rather 
than a tribal term), or rather its Israelite inhabitants, with the south 
see the full discussion by H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. iii. col. 3332 sqq. 
with references. 

NAPHTHA, a word originally applied to the more fluid kinds of 
petroleum, issuing from the ground in the Baku district of 
Russia and in Persia. It is the va<t>9a of Dioscorides, and the 
naphtha, or bitumen liquidum candidum of Pliny. By the alchemists 
the word was used principally to distinguish various highly 
volatile, mobile and inflammable liquids, such as the ethers, 
sulphuric ether and acetic ether having been known respectively 
as naphtha sulphurici and naphtha aceti. 

The term is now seldom used, either in commerce or in science, 
without a distinctive prefix, and we thus have the following: 

1. Coal-tar Naphtha. A volatile commercial product obtained by 
the distillation of coal-tar (see COAL-TAR). * 

2. Shale Naphtha. Obtained by distillation from the oil pro- 
duced by the destructive distillation of bituminous shale (see 
PARAFFIN). 

3. Petroleum Naphtha. A name sometimes given (e.g. in the 
United States) to a portion of the more volatile hydrocarbons 
distilled from petroleum (see PETROLEUM). 

4. Wood Naphtha. Methyl alcohol (q.v.). 

5. Bone Naphtha. Known also as bone oil or Dippel's oil. A 
volatile product of offensive odour obtained in the carbonization of 
bones for the manufacture of animal charcoal. 

6. Caoutchouc Naphtha. A volatile product obtained by the 
destructive distillation of rubber. (B. R.) 

NAPHTHALENE, CioH 8 , a hydrocarbon discovered in the 
" carbolic " and " heavy oil " fractions of the coal-tar distillate 
(see COAL-TAR) in 1819 by A. Garden. It is a product of the 
action of heat on many organic compounds, being formed when 
the vapours of ether, camphor, acetic acid, ethylene, acetylene, 
&c., are passed through a red-hot tube (M. Berthelot, Jahresb., 
1851), or when petroleum is led through a red-hot tube packed 
with charcoal (A. Letny, Ber., 1878, n, p. 1210). It may be 
synthesized by passing the vapour of phenyl butylene bromide 
over heated soda lime (B. Aronheim, Ann., 1874, 171, p. 219); 
and by the action of ortho-xylylene bromide on sodium ethane 
tetracarbexylic ester, the resulting tetra-hydronaphthalene 
tetracarboxylic ester being hydrolysed and heated, when it 
yields hydronaphthalene dicarboxylic acid, the silver, salt of 
which decomposes on distillation into naphthalene and other 
products (A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin, junr., Ber., 1884, 
17, P- 451): 



r 



r H 



, Na-C(CO 2 R)i 
" 






CH S -CH-CO,H 



r ^CH 2 -C(COH), 
lH4 <CH 2 .C(C0 2 H), 



1 " Nape," the back of the neck, is of doubtful origin; it may be 
a variant of " knap," a knob or protuberance. 



i68 



NAPHTHOLS 



It is a colourless solid, which melts at 80 C., and boils at 
218 C. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system; it is to be 
noted that a- and /3-naphthol assume almost identical forms, so 
that these three compounds have been called isomorphous. It is 
insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in alcohol, and ether. 
It has a characteristic smell, and is very volatile, distilling 
readily in a current of steam. It acts as a weak antiseptic. It is 
used for enriching coal gas, as a vermin killer, in the manufacture 
of certain azo dyes, and in the preparation of phthalic acid (q.v.). 
When passed through a red-hot tube packed with carbon it 
yields j3/3-dinaphthyl, (CioH 7 ) 2 . It forms a crystalline compound 
with picric acid. It readily forms addition products with 
chlorine and with hydrogen; the dichloride, CioH 8 Cl 2 , is obtained 
as a yellow liquid by acting with hydrochloric acid and potassium 
chlorate; the solid tetrachloride, CK> H 8 CU, results when chlorine 
is passed into naphthalene dissolved in chloroform. Numerous 
hydrides are known; heated with red phosphorus and hydriodic 
acid the hydrocarbon yields mixtures of hydrides of composition 
CioHio to CioH 20 . Sodium in boiling ethyl alcohol gives the 
a-dihydride, Ci Hi (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1705); 
and with boiling amyl alcohol the /3-tetrahydride, Ci Hi 2 
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1561). The a-tetrahydro- 
naphthalene is formed when naphthalene is heated with phos- 
phonium iodide at i7o-i9O (A. v. Baeyer). Structurally 
naphthalene may be represented as a fusion of two benzene 
nuclei, the hydrogen atoms being numbered as in the inset 



formula 



i, 4, 5, 8 are o-positions, 2, 3, 6, 7 are /3; 



1-5 or 4-8 diderivatives are ana, whilst 1-8 or 4-5 are peri (see 
CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC). 

a-Nitronaphthalene, CioH 7 'NO 2 , is formed by the direct nitration of 
naphthalene. For its commercial preparation see O. Witt, Die 
chemische Industrie, 1887, 10, p. 215. It crystallizes in yellow 
needles, which melt at 61 C., and are readily soluble in alcohol. 
By the action of nitro-sulphuric acid it is converted into a mixture 
of 1-5 and 1-8 dinitronaphthalenes (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1809,32, 
P- 353 ') When heated with aniline and its salts it yields phenyl- 
rosmdulin (German patent 67339 ( l888 ))- 0-Nitronaphthalene is 
prepared by acting with ethyl nitrite on an alcoholic solution of 
2-nitro-o-naphthylamine in the presence of sulphuric acid (E. Lell- 
' mann and A. Remy, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 237), or with freshly prepared 
potassium cupronitrite on ^-naphthalene diazonium sulphate 
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2553). It crystallizes in small 
yellow needles which melt at 78 C. and are volatile in steam. 

Sulphonic Acids. Two monosulphonic acids (o and /3) result by 
acting with sulphuric acid on the hydrocarbon, the a-acid pre- 
dominating at low temperatures (80 C. and under) and the /3-acid 
at higher temperatures (i7o-2OO C.). They are crystalline, hygro- 
scopic compounds and are employed for the manufacture of the 
naphthols. Numerous di- and /ri-sulphonic acids are known. 

a- Naphthoquinone, CioHeOa, resembles benzoquinone, and is formed 
by the oxidation of many o-derivatives of naphthalene with^chromic 
acid. It crystallizes in yellow needles which melt at 125 C. It 
sublimes readily, is volatile in steam and reduces to 
the corresponding dihydroxynaphthalene. /3 Naphtho- 
quinone is formed by oxidizing 2-amino-a-naphthol 
(from/S-naphthol-orangebyreduction) withferric chlo- 
ride. It crystallizes in red needles, which melt at 115 
C; it has no smell and is non-volatile (cf. phenan- 



NAPHTHOLS, or HYDROXYNAPHTHALENES, Ci H 7 OH, the 
naphthalene homologues of the phenols. The hydroxyl group 
is more reactive than in the phenols, the naphthols being con- 
verted into naphthylamines by the action of ammonia, and 
forming ethers and esters much more readily. 

a-Naphthol may be prepared by fusing sodium-a-naphthalene 
sulphonate with caustic soda; by heating a-naphthylamine 
sulphate with water to 200 C. (English Patent 14301 (1892)); 
and by heating phenyl isocrotonic acid (R. Fittig and H. 
Erdmann, Ann. 1885, 227, p. 242): C 6 H 6 CH:CH-CH 2 -CO2H 
= CioH 7 OH+H 2 0. It forms colourless needles which melt at 
94 C.; and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, 
and caustic alkalis. It is volatile in steam. With ferric 
chloride it gives a dark-blue precipitate of a-dinaphthol, 
HOCioHe-CioHe-OH. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxi- 
dizes it to phenyl-glyoxyl-ortho-carboxylic acid, HC^C-CeHvCO- 
CO 2 H. It is reduced by sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution 
to " aromatic " tetrahydro-a-naphthol (reduction occurring in 
the ring which does not contain the hydroxyl group). When 
heated with hydrazine hydrate at 160 C. it gives a-naphthyl 
hydrazine, CioH 7 NH-NH2(L. Hoffmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2909). 
Nitric acid converts it into nitro-compounds, which are occasion- 
ally used for dyeing silk and wool. 

Marlius yellow, CioH^NC^ONa-HzO, the sodium salt of 2-4 
dinitro-o-naphthol (for notation see NAPHTHALENE), is prepared 
by the action of nitric acid on a-naphthol-2-4-disulphonic acid. It 
forms orange-yellow plates and dyes wool a golden yellow (from an 
acid bath). Naphthol yellow S., CioH 4 (ONa)(NO2) 2 SO 3 Na, prepared 
by the action of nitric acid on a-naphthol-2-4-7-trisulphonic acid, 
is an orange-yellow powder which dyes wool and silk yellow (from 
an acid bath). 

Numerous mono-, di- and trisulphonic acids of o-naphthol are 
employed in the preparation of azo dyes. The most important is 
Nevile and Winther's acid, CioH c (OH)(SO3H)(i-4), formed when 
diazotized naphthionic acid (a-naphthylamine-4-sulphonic acid) is 
boiled with dilute sulphuric acid (Nevile and Winther, Ber., 1880, 
13, p. 1949), or when sodium naphthionate is heated with concen- 
trated caustic soda solution under pressure at 240 "-260 C. (German 
patent 46307 (1888)). It melts at 170 C., and is readily soluble in 
water. With ferric chloride it gives a blue coloration. 

fi-Naphthol, CioH 7 OH, prepared by fusing sodium j3-naphtha- 
lene sulphonate with caustic soda, crystallizes in plates which 
melt at 122 C. With ferric chloride it gives a green colouration, 
and after a time a white flocculent precipitate of a dinaphthol. 
With sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution it gives a mixture 
of alicyclic and aromatic tetrahydro-jS-naphthols (E. Bamberger, 
Ber., 1890, 23, p. 197). When heated with ammonium formate 
to 150 C. it forms /3-naphthylamine. With nitrosodimethy- 
laniline hydrochloride it forms Meldola's Blue (dimethylamino- 
naphthophenoxazonium chloride), CisHis^OCl (R. Meldola, 
Ber., 1879, 12, p. 2065). 

The |8-naphthol sulphonic acids find extensive application in the 
colour industry. The most important members are shown in the 
table : 



the sodium bisulphite compound of 7-8 dioxy-a- 
naphthoquinone, is a dyestuff used for printing on 
cotton in the presence of a chromium mordant. 
The naphthoquinone is prepared by the action 
of zinc and concentrated sulphuric acid on o-di- 
nitronaphthalene. A 2-6 naphthoquinone results 
on oxidizing 2-6 dihydroxynaphthalene with lead 
peroxide. 

a-Naphthoic acid, CioHT-COsH, is formed by hydro- 
. lysis of the nitrile, obtained by distilling potassium- 
o-naphthalene sulphonate with potassium cyanide (V. 
Merz, Zeit. f. Chemie, 1868, p. 34), or by heating the 
sulphonate withsodiumformate (V.Meyer, Ann. ,1870, 
156, p. 274). It forms needles which melt at 160 C. 
ft-Naphthoic acid, obtained by boiling j3-methylnaph- 
thalene with dilute nitric acid, or by hydrolysis of 
its nitrile (formed when formyl-/3-naphthalide is 
heated with zinc dust), crystallizes from alcohol in 
melt at 184 C. 



FORMULA. 


METHOD OF PREPARATION. 


REMARKS. 


2-oxy-8-sulphonic 
(Baeyer's acid) 


From /3-naphthol and concen- 
trated sulphuric acid at 
5 o-6o C. 


Sodium salt soluble in 
strong alcohol. 


2-oxy-6-sulphonic 
(Schaffer's acid) 


From /3-naphthol and concen- 
trated sulphuric at 100 C. 


Sodium salt insoluble in 
alcohol. 


2-oxy-7-sulphonic 
(F-acid) 


By fusion of naphthalene 2-7- 
disulphonic acid with caustic 
soda at 200 "-250 C. 


Very soluble in water 
and alcohol. 


2-oxy-3'6-disulphonic 
(R-acid) 


Both R- and G-acid from /3- 
naphthol and concentrated 
sulphuric acid at ioo- 
noC. 


The sodium salts separ- 
ated by crystalliza- 
tion. R-salt insoluble 
in alcohol ; G-salt 
soluble. 


2-oxy-6-8-disulphonic 
(G-acid) 


2-oxy-3-6-8-trisulphonic 


From /3-naphthol and fuming 
sulphuric acid at l4O-l6oC. 


Alkaline solutions show 
green fluorescence. 



needles which I Nitrosonaphthols or naphthoquinone-oximes, CioH 6 (OH)(NO) or 
I CioH(:NOH):O. Two are known, namely 4-nitroso-a-naphthol or 



NAPHTHYLAMINES NAPIER, SIR C. J. 



169 



a-naphthoquinone-oxime, formed by the action of nitrous acid on 
o-naphthol or of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on a-naphthoquinone 
(H. Goldschmidt and H. Schmidt, Ber., 1884, 17 p. 2064); and 
2-nitroso-a-naphthol (/3-naphthoquinone-oxime), formed by the action 
of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on /3-naphthoquinone, 

NAPHTHYLAMINES, or AMINONAPHTHALENES, C 10 HvNH 2 , 
the naphthalene homologues of aniline, in contrast to which 
they may be prepared by heating the naphthols with ammonia- 
zinc chloride. 

a-Naphthylamine is prepared by reducing a-nitronaphthalene 
with iron and hydrochloric acid at about 70 C., the reaction 
mixture being neutralized with milk of lime, and the naphthy- 
lamine steam-distilled. It may also be prepared (in the form of 
its acetyl derivative) by heating a-naphthol with sodium acetate, 
ammonium chloride and acetic acid (A. Calm, Ber., 1882, 15, 
p. 6 1 6); by heating a-naphthol with calcium chloride-ammonia 
to 270 C.; and by heating pyromucic acid, aniline, zinc chloride 
and lime to 300 C. (F. Canzonieri and V. Oliveri, Gazz., 1886, 16, 
p. 493). It crystallizes in colourless needles which melt at 50 C. 
It possesses a disagreeable faecal odour, sublimes readily, and 
turns brown on exposure to air. Oxidizing agents (ferric 
chloride, &c.) give a blue precipitate with solutions of its salts. 
Chromic acid converts it into a-naphthoquinone. Sodium in boil- 
ing amyl alcohol reduces it to aromatic tetrahydro-a-naphthyl- 
amine, a substance having the properties of an aromatic amine, 
for it can be diazotized and does not possess an ammoniacal 
smell. Since it does not form an addition product with bromine, 
reduction must have taken place in one of the nuclei only, and 
on account of the aromatic character of the compound it must be 
in that nucleus which does not contain the amino group. This 
tetrahydro compound yields adipic acid, (CI^MCC^HJj, when 
oxidized by potassium permanganate. The a-naphthylamine 
sulphonic acids are used for the preparation of azo dyes, these 
dyes possessing the important property of dyeing unmordanted 
cotton. The most important is naphthionic acid, i-amino-4- 
sulphonic acid, produced by heating a-naphthylamine and 
sulphuric acid to 170-180 C. with about 3% of crystallized 
oxalic acid. It forms small needles, very sparingly soluble in 
water. With diazotized benzidine it gives Congo red. 

0-Naphl/iylamine is prepared by heating /3-naphthol with zinc 
chloride-ammonia to 200-210 (V. Merz and W. Weith, Ber., 
1880, 13, 1300); or in the form of its acetyl derivative by 
heating /3-naphthol with ammonium acetate to 270-280 C. 
It forms odourless, colourless plates which melt at 111-112 C. 
It gives no colour with ferric chloride. When reduced by sodium 
in boiling amyl alcohol solution it forms alicyclic tetrahydro-/3- 
naphthylamine, which has most of the properties of the aliphatic 
amines; it is strongly alkaline in reaction, has an ammoniacal 
odour and cannot be diazotized. On oxidation it yields 
ortho-carboxy-hydrocinnamic acid, I^C-CeHcCI^-CHa-COsH. 
Numerous sulphonic acids derived from /3-naphthylamine are 
known, the more important of which are the 2-8 or Badische, 
the 2-5 or Dahl, the 2-7 or 5, and the 2-6 or Bronner acid. Of 
these, the5-acid and Brenner's acid are of more value technically, 
since they combine with ortho-tctrazoditolyl to produce fine red 
dye-stuffs. 

NAPIER, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860), British admiral, was 
the second son of Captain the Hon. Charles Napier, R.N., and 
grandson of Francis, fifth Lord Napier. He was born at 
Merchiston Hall, near Falkirk, on the 6th of March 1786. He 
became a midshipman in 1800, and was promoted lieu tenant 
in 1805. He was appointed to the " Courageux " (74), and was 
present in her at the action in which the squadron under Sir J. B. 
Warren took the French " Marengo " (80) and " Belle Poule " 
(40), on the 1 3th of March 1806 in the West Indies. After re- 
turning home with Warren he went back to the West Indies in the 
'' St George " and was appointed acting commander of the 
"Pultusk" brig. The rank was confirmed on the 3Oth of 
November 1807. In August 1808 he was moved into the " Re- 
cruit " (18), and in her fought an action with the " Diligent " 
(18), in which his thigh was broken. In April 1809 he took 
part in the capture of the " Hautpoult " (74), and was promoted 



acting post captain. His rank was confirmed, but he was put on 
half -pay, when he came home with a convoy. He spent some time 
at the university of Edinburgh, and then went to Portugal to 
visit his cousins in Wellington's army. In 1811 he served in 
the Mediterranean, and in 1813 on the coast of America and in the 
expedition up the Potomac. The first years of his leisure he 
spent in Italy and in Paris, but speculated so much in a steamboat 
enterprise that by 1827 he was quite ruined. In that year he was 
appointed to the " Galatea " (42), and was at the Azores when 
they were held by the count de Villa Flor for the queen of 
Portugal. He so much impressed the constitutional leaders that 
they begged him to take command of the fleet, which offer he 
accepted in February 1833. With it he destroyed the Miguelite 
fleet off Cape St Vincent on July 5, and on the demand of 
France was struck off the English navy list. Continuing his 
Portuguese services, he commanded the land forces on the success- 
ful defence of Lisbon in 1834, when he was made Grand Com- 
mander of the Tower and Sword, and Count Cape St Vincent in 
the peerage of Portugal. On his return to England he was re- 
stored to his former rank in the navy 1836, and received 
command of the " Powerful " (84), in 1838. When troubles 
broke out in Syria he was appointed second in command, and 
distinguished himself by leading the storming column at Sidon on 
September 26, 1840, and by other services, for which he was made 
a K.C.B. He went on half-pay in 1841, and was in 1842 elected 
M.P. for Marylebone in the Liberal interest, but lost his seat in 
1846. He was promoted rear-admiral the same year, and com- 
manded the Channel fleet from 1846 to 1848. On the outbreak of 
the Russian War he received the command of the fleet destined 
to act in the Baltic, and hoisted his flag in February 1854. 
He refused to attack Cronstadt, and a great outcry was raised 
against him for not obeying the orders of the Admiralty and 
attempting to storm the key of St Petersburg; but his inaction 
has been thoroughly justified by posterity. On his return in 
December 1854 he was not again offered a command. He was 
elected M.P. for Southwark in February 1855, and maintained 
his seat, though broken in health, until his death on the 6th of 
November 1860. Sir Charles Napier was a man of undoubted 
energy and courage, but of no less eccentricity and vanity. 
He caused great offence to many of his brother officers by his 
behaviour to his superior, Admiral Stopford, in the Syrian War, 
and was embroiled all his life in quarrels with the Admiralty. 

See Major-General E. Napier's Life and Correspondence of Admiral 
Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B. (2 vols., London, 1862); Napier's own 
War in Syria (2 vols., 1842); The Navy: its past and present state, 
in a series of letters, edited by Sir W. F. P. Napier (1851); and 
The History of the Baltic Campaign of 1854, from documents and 
oilier materials furnished by Vice-Admiral Sir C. Napier, K.C.B. 
(1857). See also The Life and Exploits of Commodore Napier (1841) ; 
and Life of Vice-Admiral Sir C. Napier (1854). 

NAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMES (1782-1853), British soldier 
and statesman, was born at Whitehall, London, in 1782, being 
the eldest son of Colonel George Napier (a younger son of the 
fifth lord Napier), and of his wife, the Lady Sarah Lennox 
who had charmed King George III. After the custom of those 
times Charles Napier had been gazetted an ensign in the 33rd 
regiment in 1794, and in 1797 his father secured for him the 
appointment of aide-de-camp to Sir James Duff, commanding 
the Limerick district. Longing for more active service, Napier 
obtained a commission as lieutenant in the 95th Manningham's 
Rifles (Rifle Brigade) in 1800. This newly formed corps was 
designed to supply a body of light troops for the English army 
fit to cope with the French voltigeurs . and tirailleurs, and was 
specially trained, at first under the eye of Colonel Coote Manning- 
ham, and then at Shorncliffe under the immediate supervision 
of Sir John Moore. Moore speedily perceived the military 
qualities of the Napiers, and inspired the three brothers 
Charles of the Rifles, George of the 52nd and William of the 
43rd with an enthusiasm which lasted all their lives; but, 
though happy in his general, Charles Napier quarrelled bitterly 
with William Stewart, the lieutenant-colonel, and in 1803 left 
the regiment to accompany General H. E. Fox to Ireland as 
aide-de-camp. The great influence of his uncle, the duke of 



iyo 



NAPIER, SIR C. J. 



Richmond, and of his cousins, Charles James Fox and the general, 
procured him in 1804 a captaincy in the staff corps, and in the 
beginning of 1806 a majority in the Cape regiment. On his way 
to the Cape, however, he exchanged into the soth regiment, 
with which he served in the short Danish campaign under Lord 
Cathcart in 1807. Shortly after his return from Denmark the 
5Oth was ordered to Portugal, and in command of it Napier 
shared all the glories of the famous retreat to Corunna. At the 
battle of Corunna, one of the last sights of Sir John Moore before 
he fell mortally wounded was the advance of his own old regiment 
under the command of Charles Napier and Edward Stanhope, 
and almost his last words were " Well done, my majors!" The 
5oth suffered very severely and both the majors were left "for dead 
upon the field. Napier's life was saved by a French drummer 
named Guibert, who brought him safely to the headquarters 
of Marshal Soult. Soult treated him with the greatest kindness, 
and he was allowed by Ney to return to England to his " old 
blind mother " instead of being interned. After about a year 
he heard that his exchange had been arranged, and, volunteering 
for the Peninsula, he joined the light division before Ciudad 
Rodrigo. As a volunteer he served in the actions on the Coa, 
and again at Busaco, where he was badly wounded in the face. 
He was ordered to England, but refused to go, and in March 181 1 , 
though barely recovered, he hurried to the front to take part 
in the pursuit of Massena. After the battle of Fuentes d'Onor, 
he received the lieutenant-colonelcy of the io2nd regiment, 
which had become entirely demoralized at Botany Bay, and when 
he joined it at Guernsey in 1811 was one of the worst regiments 
in the service. When he left it in 1813 it was one of the best. 
He accompanied it in June 1812 from Guernsey to Bermuda, 
where he wrought a wonderful change in the spirit both of officers 
and men. By treating his men as friends he won their love and 
admiration, and became in a peculiar degree the hero of the 
British soldiers. After seeing further active service against the 
United States in September 1813 he exchanged back into the 
5oth regiment, and in December 1814, believing all chance of 
active service to be at an end, went on half -pay. He was gazetted 
one of the first C.B.'s on the extension of the order of the Bath 
in 1 8 1 4, and was present as a volunteer at the capture of Cambray , 
but he just missed the great battle of Waterloo. Though an 
officer of some experience and more than thirty years of age, 
he now entered the military college at Farnham, and completed 
his military education. In 1819 he was appointed inspecting 
field officer at Corfu, in 1820 was sent on a mission to Ali Pasha 
at lannina, and in 1821 visited Greece, where he became an ardent 
supporter of the patriot party. From Corfu he was moved in 
1822 to Cephalonia, where he remained for eight years as governor 
and military resident. He was the model of an absolute colonial 
governor, and showed all the qualities of a benevolent despot. 
He made good roads and founded great institutions, but every- 
thing must be done by him, and he showed himself averse to 
interference, whether from the high commissioner of the Ionian 
Islands, whom it was his duty to obey, or from the feudal magnates 
of his own little colony, over whom it was his duty to exercise 
strict supervision. An interesting episode in his command was 
his communication with Lord Byron when he touched at 
Cephalonia on his way to take part in the Greek War of Inde- 
pendence. Byron sent a letter to the Greek committee in London 
recommending Napier's appointment as commander-in-chief. 
But after many negotiations the scheme came to nothing. 
In 1827 Napier, who had two years before been made a colonel 
in the army, quarrelled with Sir Frederick Adam, the new high 
commissioner, and in 1830, when Napier was in England on leave, 
Adam seized his papers and forbade him to return. Napier 
-thereupon, refusing promotion to the residency of Zante, retired 
in disgust, living for some years in the south of England and, 
after the death of his wife in 1833, in Normandy. Here he wrote 
his work on the colonies, and also an historical romance on 
William the Conqueror. Another work, entitled Harold, has 
disappeared. In 1834 he refused the governorship of Australia, 
still hoping for military employment. In 1837 he was promoted 
major-general with his brother George, in 1838 he returned to 



England and was made a K.C.B.; but he was to wait till 1839 
before he received an offer of employment. In that year he was 
made commanding officer in the northern district, and found his 
command no sinecure, owing to the turbulent state of the 
Chartists in the towns of Yorkshire, Lancashire and the Midlands. 
His behaviour during the tenure of his command is described 
by William Napier in his life of his brother, and his inability to 
hold a command which did not carry supreme authority is plainly 
portrayed. In this particular instance his sympathies were 
on the popular side, and, though he maintained law and order 
with the necessary rigour, he resigned as soon as the crisis had 
passed, and went to India. He was stationed at Poona, and 
in September 1842, when troubles were expected there, was 
ordered to Sind. 

His command in Sind from 1842 till August 1847 is the period 
of his life during which, according to his brother, he made good 
his title to fame, but his acts, more especially at first, have been 
most severely criticized. There can be little doubt that from 
the moment he landed in the province he determined to conquer 
the amirs, and to seek the first opportunity of doing so. He 
was to be accompanied by James Outram (q.v.), who had been 
resident in Sind during the Afghan War, and who felt a great 
admiration for him, but who had also a warm affection for the 
amirs, and believed that he could put off the day of their destruc- 
tion. On the isth of February 1843, Outram was treacherously 
assailed at Hyderabad, and on the i7th Napier attacked the 
Baluch army 30,000 strong with but 2800 men. With these 
2800 men, including the 22nd regiment, which would do anything 
for him, he succeeded in winning the brilliant and decisive 
victory of Meeanee, one of the most amazing in the history of 
the British army, in which generals had to fight like privates, 
and Sir Charles himself engaged in the fray. In the March 
following, after marching without transport in the most intense 
heat, he finally destroyed the army of the amirs at the battle 
of Hyderabad. His success was received with enthusiasm both 
by the governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, and by the English 
people, and he was at once made a G.C.B. Whether or not the 
conquest of Sind at that particular period can be justified, 
there can be no doubt that Charles Napier was the best adminis- 
trator who could be found for the province when conquered. 
Sind, when it carne under English rule, was in a state of utter 
anarchy, for the Baluchis had formed a military government 
not unlike that of the Mamelukes in Egypt, which had been 
extremely tyrannical to the native population. This native 
population was particularly protected by Sir Charles Napier, 
who completed the work of the destruction of the Baluch 
supremacy which he had commenced with the victory of Meeanee. 
The labour of administration was rendered more difficult by the 
necessity of repressing the hill tribes, which had been encour- 
aged to acts of lawlessness by the licence which followed the 
Afghan War. The later years of his administration were made 
very stormy by the attacks on the policy of the conquest which 
had been made in England. He left Sind, after quarrelling with 
every authority of the presidency of Bombay, and nearly every 
authority of the whole of India, in August 1847, and received a 
perfect ovation on his return from all the hero-worshippers 
of the Napiers, of whom there were many in England. His short 
stay in England was occupied with incessant struggles with the 
directors of the East India Company; but the news of the 
indecisive victory of Chillianwalla created a panic in England, 
and the East India Company was obliged by public opinion to 
summon the greatest general of the day to command its armies. 
Sir Charles started almost at a moment's notice, but on reaching 
India found that the victory of Gujrat had been won and the 
Sikh War was over. No taint of envy was in his nature, and he 
rejoiced that he had not had to supersede Lord Gough in the 
moment of defeat. His restless and imperious spirit was met 
by one equally imperious in the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie. 
The two men were good friends until, in the absence of Dalhousie 
at sea, Napier took upon himself to alter the regulations regarding 
the allowances to native troops; the occasion was urgent, as 
the troops were in a state of mutiny, but on his return Dalhousie 



NAPIER, JOHN 



171 



reprimanded the commander-in-chief and reversed his decision. 
Napier immediately handed in his resignation, and when the 
duke of Wellington supported Lord Dalhousie and repeated the 
reprimand he returned to England. He had been credited 
with foreseeing the Mutiny of 1857, and on the whole with 
justice. On one occasion he wrote that mutiny was " one of the 
greatest, if not the greatest, danger threatening India a danger 
that may come unexpectedly, and if the first symptoms be not 
carefully treated, with a power to shake Leadenhall." On the 
mutiny of the 66th native regiment at Govindgarh he disbanded 
it, and handed its colours over to a Gurkha regiment, thus 
showing that he distrusted the high-class Brahman, and recognized 
the necessity of relying upon a more warlike and more disciplined 
race. His constitution was undermined by the Indian climate, 
especially by his fatiguing command in Sind, and on the 2gth 
of August 1853 he died at Portsmouth. The bronze statue 
of him by G. G. Adams, which stands in Trafalgar Square, 
London, was erected by public subscription, by far the greater 
number of the subscribers being, as the inscription records, 
private soldiers. 

The chief authority for Sir Charles Napier's life is his Life and 
Opinions by his brother (1857); consult also MacColl, Career and 
Character of C. J. Napier (1857); M'Dougall, General Sir C. J. 
Napier, Conqueror and Governor of Scinde (1860); W. N. Bruce, 
Sir Charles Napier (1855) ; and T. R. E. Holmes, Four Famous 
Soldiers (1889). His own works are Memoir on the Roads of Cepha- 
lonia (1825) ; The Colonies, treating of their value generally and of the 
Ionian Islands in particular; Strictures on the Administration of 
Sir F. Adam (1833); Colonization, particularly in Southern Australia 
(1835) ; Remarks on Military Law and the Punishment of Flogging 
(1837); A Dialogue on the Poor Laws (1838?); A Letter on the De- 
fence of England by Corps of Volunteers and Militia (1852); Lights 
and Shadows of Military Life (trans, from the French, 1840) ; and 
A Letter to the Right Honourable Sir J. C. Hobhouse on the Baggage 
of the Indian Army (1849); Defects, Civil and Military, of the Indian 
Government (1853); William the Conqueror, a Historical Romance, 
edited by Sir W. Napier (1858). On Sind, consult primarily Sir 
W. Napier, The Conques' of Scinde (1845); The Administration of 
Scinde (1851); Compilation of General Orders issued by Sir C. Napier 
(1850); and Outram, The Conquest of Scinde, a Commentary (1846). 
For his command-in-chief , and the controversy about his resignation, 
consult J. Mawson, Records of the Indian Command of General Sir 
C. J. Napier (Calcutta, 1851) ; Minutes on the Resignation of the late 
General Sir C. Napier, by Field-Marshal the Duke of Wellington, &c. 
(1854); Comments by Sir W. Napier on a Memorandum of the Duke 
of Wellington (1854); Sir William Napier, General Sir C. Napier 
and the Directors of the East India Company (1857); Sir W. Lee 
Warner, Life of Lord Dalhousie (1904). 

NAPIER, JOHN (1550-1617), Scottish mathematician and 
inventor of logarithms, was born at Merchiston near Edinburgh 
in 1550, and was the eighth Napier of Merchiston. The first 
Napier of Merchiston, " Alexander Napare," acquired the 
Merchiston estate before the year 1438, from James I. of Scotland. 
He was provost of Edinburgh in 1437, and was otherwise dis- 
tinguished. His eldest son Alexander, who succeeded him in 
1454, was provost of Edinburgh in 1455, 1457 and 1469; he 
was knighted and held various important court offices under 
successive monarchs; at the time of his death in 1473 he was 
master of the household to James III. His son, John Napier 
of Rusky , the third of Merchiston, belonged to the royal household 
in the lifetime of his father. He also was provost of Edinburgh 
at various times, and it is a remarkable instance of the esteem 
in which the lairds of Merchiston were held that three of them 
in immediate lineal succession repeatedly filled so important an 
office during perhaps the most memorable period in the history 
of the city. He married a great-granddaughter of Duncan, 
8th earl of Levenax (or Lennox), and besides this relationship 
by marriage the Napiers claimed a lineal male cadency from the 
ancient family of Levenax. His eldest son, Archibald Napier 
of Edinbellie, the fourth of Merchiston, belonged to the house- 
hold of James IV. He fought at Flodden and escaped with his 
life, but his eldest son Alexander, (fifth of Merchiston) was killed. 
Alexander's eldest son (Alexander, sixth of Merchiston) was born 
in 1513, and fell at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. His eldest son 
was Archibald, seventh of Merchiston, and the father of John 
Napier, the subject of this article. 

In 1549 Archibald Napier, at the early age of about fifteen, 



married Janet, daughter of Francis Bothwell, and in the following 
year John Napier was born. In the criminal court of Scotland, 
the earl of Argyll, hereditary justice-general of the kingdom, 
sometimes presided in person, but more frequently he delegated 
his functions; and it appears that in 1561 Archibald Napier 
was appointed one of the justice-deputes. In the register of 
the court, extending over 1563 and 1564, the justice-deputes 
named are " Archibald Naper of Merchistoune, Alexander 
Bannatyne, burgess of Edinburgh, James Stirling of Keir and 
Mr Thomas Craig." About 1565 he was knighted at the same 
time as James Stirling, his colleague, whose daughter John 
Napier subsequently married. In 1582 Sir Archibald was 
appointed master of the mint in Scotland, with the sole charge 
of superintending the mines and minerals within the realm, and 
this office he held till his death in 1608. His first wife died in 
1563, and in 1572 he married a cousin, Elizabeth Mowbray, 
by whom he had three sons, the eldest of whom was named 
Alexander. 1 

As already stated, John Napier was born in 1550, the year 
in which the Reformation in Scotland may be said to have 
commenced. In 1563, the year in which his mother died, he 
matriculated at St Salvator's College, St Andrews. He early 
became a Protestant champion, and the one extant anecdote 
of his youth occurs in his address " to the Godly and Christian 
reader " prefixed to his Plaine Discovery. He writes: 

" In my tender yeares, and barneage in Sanct-Androis at the 
Schooles, having, on the one parte, contracted a loving familiaritie 
with a certaine Gentleman, &c. a Papist; And on the other part, 
being attentive to the sermons of that worthie man of God, Maister 
Christopher Goodman, teaching upon the Apocalyps, I was so mooved 
in admiration, against the blindnes of Papists, that could not most 
evidently see their seven hilled citie Rome, painted out there so 
lively by Saint John, as the mother of all spiritual whoredome, that 
not onely bursted I out in continual reasoning against my said 
familiar, but also from thenceforth, I determined with my selfe (by 
the assistance of Gods spirit) to employ my studie and diligence to 
search out the remanent mysteries of that holy Book: as to this 
houre (praised be the Lorde) I have bin doing at al such times as 
conveniently I might have occasion." 

The names of nearly all Napier's classfellows can be traced 
as becoming determinantes in 1566 and masters of arts in 1568; 
but his own name does not appear in the lists. The necessary 
inference is that his stay at the university was short, and that 
only the groundwork of his education was laid there. Although 
there is no direct evidence of the fact, there can be no doubt 
that he left St Andrews to complete his education abroad, and 
that he probably studied at the* university of Paris, and visited 
Italy and Germany. He did not, however, as has been supposed, 
spend the best years of his manhood abroad, for he was certainly 
at home in 1571, when the preliminaries of his marriage were 
arranged at Merchiston; and in 1572 he married Elizabeth, 
daughter of Sir James Stirling of Keir. About the end of the 
year 1579 his wife died, leaving him one son, Archibald (who in 
1627 was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Napier), 
and one daughter, Jane. A few years afterwards he married 
again, his second wife being Agnes, daughter of Sir James 

1 The descent of the first Napier of Merchiston has been traced to 
" Johan le Naper del Counte de Dunbretan," who was one of those 
who swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296 and defended the castle of 
Stirling against him in 1304; but there is no authority for this genea- 
logy. The legend with regard to the origin of the name Napier was 
given by Sir Alexander Napier, eldest son of John Napier, in 1625, in 
these words: " One of the ancient earls of Lennox in Scotland had 
issue three sons: the eldest, that succeeded him to the earldom of 
Lennox; the second, whose name was Donald; and the third, named 
Gilchrist. The then king of Scotland having wars, did convocate his 
lieges to battle, amongst whom that was commanded was the earl of 
Lennox, who, keeping his eldest son at home, sent his two sons to 
serve for him with the forces that were under his command. . . . 
After the battle, as the manner is, every one drawing and setting 
forth his own acts, the king said unto them, ye have all done valiantly, 
but there is one amongst you who hath Na-Peer (i.e. no equal); 
and calling Donald into his presence commanded him, in regard to 
hjs worthy service, and in augmentation of his honour, to change 
his name from Lennox to Napier, and gave him the lands of Gosford, 
and lands in Fife, and made him his own servant, which discourse is 
confirmed by evidences of mine, wherein we are called Lennox alias 
Napier." 



172 



NAPIER, JOHN 



Chisholm of Cromlix, who survived him. By her he had five 
sons and five daughters. 

In 1588 he was chosen by the presbytery of Edinburgh one 
of its commissioners to the General Assembly. 

On the 1 7th of October 1593 a convention of delegates was 
held at Edinburgh at which a committee was appointed to follow 
the king and lay before him in a personal interview certain 
instructions relating to the punishment of the rebellious Popish 
earls and the safety of the church. This committee consisted of 
six members, two barons, two ministers and two burgesses 
the two barons selected being John Napier of Merchiston and 
James Maxwell of Calderwood. The delegates found the king at 
Jedburgh, and the mission, which was a dangerous one, was 
successfully accomplished. Shortly afterwards another con- 
vention was held at Edinburgh, and it was resolved that the 
delegates sent to Jedburgh should again meet the king at Lin- 
lithgow and repeat their former instructions. This was done 
accordingly, the number of members of the committee being, 
however, doubled. These interviews took place in October 
1593, and on the 29th of the following January Napier wrote 
to the king the letter which forms the dedication of the Plaine 
Discovery. 

The full title of this first work of Napier's is given below. 1 
It was written in English instead of Latin in order that " hereby 
the simple of this Iland may be instructed "; and the author 
apologizes for the language and his own mode of expression in 
the following sentences: 

" Whatsoever therfore through hast, is here rudely and in base 
language set downe, I doubt not to be pardoned thereof by all 
good men, who, considering the necessitie of this time, will esteem 
it more meete to make hast to prevent the rising againe of Anti- 
christian darknes within this Iland, then to prolong the time in 
painting of language "; and " I graunt indeede, and am sure, that 
in the style of wordes and utterance of language, we shall greatlie 
differ, for therein I do judge my selfe inferiour to all men: so that 
scarcely in these high matters could I with long deliberation finde 
wordes to expresse my minde." 2 

Napier's Plaine Discovery is a serious and laborious work, to 
which he had devoted years of care and thought. In one sense 
It may be said to stand to theological literature in Scotland in 
something of the same position as that occupied by the Canon 
Mirificus with respect to the scientific literature, for it is the first 
published original work relating to theological interpretation, 
and is quite without a predecessor in its own field. Napier lived 
in the very midst of fiercely contending religious factions; there 
was but little theological teaching of any kind, and the work 
related to what were then the leading political and religious 
questions of the day. 

1 A Plaine Discovery of the whole Revelation of Saint lohn: set 
downe in two treatises: The one searching and proving the true inter- 
pretation thereof: The other applying the same paraphrastically and 
historically to the text. Set foorth by John Napier L. of Marchistoun 
younger. Whereunto are annexed certaine Oracles of Sibylla, agreeing 
with the Revelation and other places of Scripture. Edinburgh, printed 
by Robert Walde-grave, prinier to the King's Majestie, 1593. Cum 
privilegio Regali. 

1 A Dutch translation was published at Middelburg in 1600 and a 
second edition in 1607. The work was translated into French by 
George Thomson, a naturalized Scotsman residing in La Rochelle, 
and published by him at that town in 1602, under the title Ouverture 
de tous les secrets de V Apocalypse. . . . Par Jean Napeir (c. a. d.) 
Nonpareil, Sieur de Merchiston, reveue par lui-mesme, et mise en 
Francois par Georges Thomson, Escossois. Subsequent editions were 
published in 1603, 1605 and 1607. German translations were pub- 
lished at Gera in 1611 and at Frankfort in 1605 and 1627. The 
second edition in English appeared at Edinburgh in 1611, and in the 
preface to it Napier states he intended to have published an edition 
in Latin soon after the original publication in 1593, but that, as the 
work had now been made public by the French and Dutch trans- 
lations, besides the English editions, and as he was " advertised 
that our papistical adversaries wer to write larglie against the said 
editions that are alreadie set put," he defers the Latin edition " till 
haying first seene the adversaries objections, I may insert in the Latin 
edition an apologie of that which is rightly done, and an amends of 
whatsoever is amisse." No criticism on the work was published, 
and there was no Latin edition. A third edition appeared at Edin- 
burgh in 1645. Corresponding to the first two Edinburgh editions, 
copies were issued bearing the London imprint and dates 1594 and 
1611. 



After the publication of the Plaine Discovery, Napier seems to 
have occupied himself with the invention of secret instruments of 
war, for in the Bacon collection at Lambeth Palace there is a 
document, dated the 7th of June 1596 and signed by Napier, 
giving a list of his inventions for the defence of the country 
against the anticipated invasion by Philip of Spain. The docu- 
ment is entitled " Secrett Inventionis, proffitabill and necessary 
in theis dayes for defence of this Iland, and withstanding of 
strangers, enemies of God's truth and religion," 3 and the in- 
ventions consist of (i) a mirror for burning the enemies' ships 
at any distance, (2) a piece of artillery destroying everything 
round an arc of a circle, and (3) a round metal chariot, so con- 
structed that its occupants could move it rapidly and easily, 
while firing out through small holes in it. It has been asserted 
(by Sir Thomas Urquhart) that the piece of artillery was actually 
tried upon a plain in Scotland with complete success, a number 
of sheep and cattle being destroyed. 

In 1614 appeared the work which in the history of British 
science can be placed as second only to Newton's Principia. 
The full title is as follows: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis 
descriptio, Ejusque usus, in utraque Trigonometria; ut etiam in 
omni Logistica Malhematica, Amplissimi, Facillimi, & expeditis- 
simi explicatio. Authors ac Inventore loanne Nepero, Barone 
Merchistonii, &c., Scoto. Edinburgi, ex officind Andreae Hart 
Bibliopolae, CID.DC.XIV, This is printed on an ornamental 
title-page. The work is a small-sized quarto, containing fifty- 
seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables. 

The nature of logarithms is explained by reference to the 
motion of points in a straight line, and the principle upon which 
they are based is that of the correspondence of a geometrical 
and an arithmetical series of numbers. The table gives the 
logarithms of sines for every minute to seven figures. This work 
contains the first announcement of logarithms to the world, the 
first table of logarithms and the first use of the name logarithm, 
which was invented by Napier. 

In 1617 Napier published his Rabdologia* a duodecimo of one 
hundred and fifty-four pages; there is prefixed to it as preface 
a dedicatory epistle to the high chancellor of Scotland. The 
method which Napier terms " Rabdologia " consists in the use 
of certain numerating rods for the performance of multiplica- 
tions and divisions. These rods, which were commonly called 
" Napier's bones," will be described further on. The second 
method, which he calls the " Promptuarium Multiplicationis " on 
account of its being the most expeditious of all for the perform- 
ance of multiplications, involves the use of a number of lamellae 
or little plates of metal disposed in a box. In an appendix of 
forty-one pages he gives his third method, " local arithmetic," 
which is performed on a chess-board, and depends, in principle, 
on the expression of numbers in the scale of radix 2. In the 
Rabdologia he gives the chronological order of his inventions. 
He speaks of the canon of logarithms as " a me longo tempore 
elaboratum." The other three methods he devised for the sake 
of those who would prefer to work with natural numbers; and 
he mentions that the promptuary was his latest invention. In 
the preface to the appendix containing the local arithmetic 
he states that, while devoting all his leisure to the invention of 
these abbreviations of calculation, and to examining by what 
methods the toil of calculation might be removed, in addition 
to the logarithms, rabdologia and promptuary, he had hit upon 
a certain tabular arithmetic, whereby the more ' troublesome 
operations of common arithmetic are performed on an abacus 
or chess-board, and which may be regarded as an amusement 

8 A facsimile of this document is given by Mark Napier in his 
Memoirs of John Napier (1834), p. 248. 

* Rabdologiae, seu Numerationis per vir galas Libri duo: Cum 
Appendice de expeditissimo Multiplicationis promptuario. Quibus 
accessit & Arithmeticae Localis Liber unus. Authore ff Inventore 
loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c., Scoto. Edinburgi, Excu- 
debat Andreas Hart (1617). Foreign editions were published in Italian 
at Verona in 1623, in Latin at Leiden in 1626 and 1628, and in Dutch 
at Gouda in 1626. In 1623 Ursinus published Rhabdologia Neperiana 
at Berlin, and the rods or bones were described in several other 
works. 



NAPIER, JOHN 



rather than a labour, for, by means of it, addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, division and even the extraction of roots are 
accomplished simply by the motion of counters. He adds that 
he has appended it to the Rabdologia, in addition to the promp- 
tuary, because he did not wish to bury it in silence nor to publish 
so small a matter by itself. With respect to the calculating rods, 
he mentions in the dedication that they had already found so 
much favour as to be almost in common use, and even to have 
been carried to foreign countries; and that he has been advised 
to publish his little work relating to their mechanism and use, 
lest they should be put forth in some one else's name. 

John Napier died on the 4th of April 1617, the same year 
as that in which the Rabdologia was published. His will, which 
is extant, was signed on the fourth day before his death. 
No particulars are known of his last illness, but it seems likely 
that death came upon him rather suddenly at last. In both the 
Canonis descriplio and the Rabdologia, however, he makes refer- 
ence to his ill-health. In the dedication of the former he refers 
to himself as " mihi jam morbis pene confecto," and in the 
" Admonitio " at the end he speaks of his " infirma valetudo "; 
while in the latter he says he has been obliged to leave the 
calculation of the new canon of logarithms to others "ob in- 
firmam corporis nostri valetudinem." 

It has been usually supposed that John Napier was buried in 
St Giles's church, Edinburgh, which was certainly the burial- 
place of some of the family, but Mark Napier (Memoirs, p. 426) 
quotes Professor William Wallace, who, writing in 1832, gives 
strong reasons for believing that he was buried in the old church 
of St Cuthbert. 

Professor Wallace's words are 

" My authority for this belief is unquestionable. It is a Treatise 
on Trigonometry, by a Scotsman, James Hume of Godscroft, 
Berwickshire, a place still in possession of the family of Hume. 
The work in question, which is rare, was printed at Paris, and has the 
date 1636 on the title-page, but the royal privilege which secured 
it to the author is dated in October 1635, and it may have been 
written several years earlier. In his treatise (page 116) Hume 
says, speaking of logarithms, ' L'inuenteur estoit un Seigneur 
de grande condition, et duquel la posterity est aujourd'huy en 
possession de grandes dignitez dans le royaume, qui estant sur 
f'age, et grandement trauailte des gouttes ne pouvait faire autre 
chose que de s'adonner aux sciences, et principalment aux mathe- 
matiques et a la logistique, a quoy il se plaisoit mfiniment, et auec 
estrange peine, a construict ses Tables des Logarymes, imprimees 
a Edinbourg en 1'an 1614. ... II mourut 1'an 1616, et fut enterre 
hors la Porte Occidentale d'Edinbourg, dans 1'Eglise de Sainct 
Cudbert.' " 

There can be no doubt that Napier's devotion to mathematics 
was not due to old age and the gout, and that he died in 1617 
and not in 1616; still these sentences were written within eighteen 
years of Napier's death, and their author seems to have had 
some special sources of information. Additional probability is 
given to Hume's assertion by the fact that Merchiston is situated 
in St Cuthbert's parish. It is nowhere else recorded that Napier 
suffered from the gout. It has been stated that Napier's mathe- 
matical pursuits led him to dissipate his means. This is not so, 
for his will (Memoirs, p. 427) shows that besides his large estates 
he left a considerable amount of personal property. 

The Canonis Descriptio on its publication in 1614, at once 
attracted the attention of Edward Wright, whose name is known 
in connexion with improvements in navigation, and Henry 
Briggs, then professor of geometry at Gresham College, London. 
The former translated the work into English, but he died in 
1615, and the translation was published by his son Samuel 
Wright in 1616. Briggs was greatly excited by Napier's invention 
and visited him at Merchiston in 1615, staying with him a whole 
month; he repeated his visit in 1616 and, as he states, " would 
have been glad to make him a third visit if it had pleased God 
to spare him so long." The logarithms introduced by Napier 
in the Descriptio are not the same as those now in common use, 
nor even the same as those now called Napierian or hyperbolic 
logarithms. The change from the original logarithms to common 
or decimal logarithms was made by both Napier and Briggs, 
and the first tables of decimal logarithms were calculated by 



173 

Briggs, who published a small table, extending to 1000, in 
1617, and a large work, Arithmetica Logarilhmica, 1 containing 
logarithms of numbers to 30,000 and from 00,000 to 100,000, in 
1624. (See LOGARITHM.) 

Napier's Descriptio of 1614 contains no explanation of the 
manner in which he had calculated his table. This account he 
kept back, as he himself states, in order to see from the reception 
met with by the Descriptio, whether it would be acceptable. 
Though written before the Descriptio it had not been prepared 
for press at the time of his death, but was published by his son 
Robert in 1619 under the title Mirifici Logarilhmorum Canonis 
Construction In this treatise (which was written before Napier 
had invented the name logarithm) logarithms are called " arti- 
ficial numbers." 

The different editions of the Descriptio and Construct, as well 
as the reception of logarithms on the continent of Europe, and 
especially by Kepler, whose admiration of the invention almost 
equalled that of Briggs, belong to the history of logarithms (q.v.). 
It may, however, be mentioned here that an English translation 
of the Constructio of 1619 was published by W. R. Macdonald 
at Edinburgh in 1889, and that there is appended to this edition 
a complete catalogue of all Napier's writings, and their various 
editions and translations, English and foreign, all the works 
being carefully collated, and references being added to the 
various public libraries in which they are to be found. 

Napier's priority in the publication of the logarithms is un- 
questioned and only one other contemporary mathematician 
seems to have conceived the idea on which they depend. There 
is no anticipation or hint to be found in previous writers, 3 and it 
is very remarkable that a discovery or invention which was to 
exert so important and far-reaching an influence on astronomy 
and every science involving calculation was the work of a single 
mind. 

The more one considers the condition of science at the time, 
and the state of the country in which the discovery took place, 
the more wonderful does the invention of logarithms appear. 
When algebra had advanced to the point where exponents were 
introduced, nothing would be more natural than that their utility 
as a means of performing multiplications and divisions should be 
remarked; but it is one of the surprises in the history of science 
that logarithms were invented as an arithmetical improvement 
years before their connexion with exponents was known. It is 
to be noticed also that the invention was not the result of any 
happy accident. Napier deliberately set himself to abbreviate 
multiplications and divisions operations of so fundamental a 
character that it might well have been thought that they were 
in rerum natura incapable of abbreviation; and he succeeded in 
devising, by the help of arithmetic and geometry alone, the one 

'The title runs as follows: Arilhmetica Logarithmica, sive Log- 
arithmorum chUiades triginta. . . . Has numeros primus invenit 
clarissimus vir lohannes Neperus Baro Merchistonij; eos autem ex 
eiusdem sententia mutavit, eorumque ortum et usum illustravit Henricus 
Briggius. . . . 

! The full title was: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio; 
Et eorum ad naturales ipsorum numeros habitudines; und cum Appen- 
dice, de alid edque praestantiore Logarithmorum specie condendd. 
Quibus accessere Propositiones ad triangula sphaerica faciliore r.alculo 
resolvenda: Un& cum Annotalionibus aliquot doctissimi D. Henrici 
Briggii, in eas & memoratam appendicem. Authore & Inventore 
loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistomi, &c. Scoto. Edinburgi, Excude- 
bat Andreas Hart, Anno Domini 1619. There is also preceding this 
title-page an ornamental title-page, similar to that of the Descriptio 
of 1614; the words are different, however, and run Mirifici 
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio . . . Accesserunt Opera Posthuma: 
Primo, Mirifici ipsius canonis ccnstructio, & Logarithmorum ad 
naturales ipsorum numeros habitudines. Secundd, Appendix de alid, 
edque praestantiore Logarithmorum specie construenda. Tertib, Pro- 
positiones quaedam eminentissimae, ad Triangula sphaerica mirA 

facilitate resolvenda It would appear that this title-page was 

to be substituted for the title-page of the Descriptio of 1614 by those 
who bound the two books together. 

* The work of Justus Byrgius is described in the article LOGA- 
RITHM. In that article it is mentioned that a Scotsman in i$94. in a 
letter to Tycho Brahe held out some hope of logarithms; it is likely 
that the person referred to is John Craig, son of Thomas Craig, who 
has been mentioned as one of the colleagues of John Napier's father 
as justice-depute. 



174 



NAPIER, JOHN 



great simplification of which they were susceptible a simplifica- 
tion to which nothing essential has since been added. 

When Napier published the Canonis Descriptio England had 
taken no part in the advance of science, and there is no British 
author of the time except Napier whose name can be placed in 
the same rank as those of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, 
Galileo, or Stevinus. In England, Robert Recorde had indeed 
published his mathematical treatises, but they were of trifling 
importance and without influence on the history of science. 
Scotland had produced nothing, and was perhaps the last country 
in Europe from which a great mathematical discovery would 
have been expected. Napier lived, too, not only in a wild country, 
which was in a lawless and unsettled state during most of his 
life, but also in a credulous and superstitious age. Like Kepler 
and all his contemporaries he believed in astrology, and he 
certainly also had some faith in the power of magic, for there is 
extant a deed written in his own handwriting containing a con- 
tract between himself and Robert Logan of Restalrig, a turbulent 
baron of desperate character, by which Napier undertakes " to 
serche and sik out, and be al craft and ingyne that he dow, to 
tempt, trye, and find out " some buried treasure supposed to be 
hidden in Logan's fortress at Fastcastle, in consideration of 
receiving one-third part of the treasure found by his aid. Of 
this singular contract, which is signed, " Robert Logane of 
Restalrige " and " Jhone Neper, Fear of Merchiston," and is 
dated July 1 594, a facsimile is given in Mark Napier's Memoirs. 
As the deed was not destroyed, but is in existence now, it is to 
be presumed that the terms of it were not fulfilled; but the fact 
that such a contract should have been drawn up by Napier 
himself affords a singular illustration of the state of society and 
the kind of events in the midst of which logarithms had their 
birth. Considering the time in which he lived, Napier is singu- 
larly free from superstition: his Plaine Discovery relates to a 
method of interpretation which belongs to a later age; he shows 
no trace of the extravagances which occur everywhere in the 
works of Kepler; and none of his writings contain allusions to 
astrology or magic. 

After Napier's death his manuscripts and notes came into the 
possession of his second son by his second marriage, Robert, who 
edited the Constructio ; and Colonel Milliken Napier, Robert's lineal 
male representative, was still in the possession of many of these 
private papers at the close of the i8th century. On one occasion 
when Colonel Napier was called from home on foreign service, these 
papers, together with a portrait of John ;Napier and a Bible with his 
autograph, were deposited for safety in a room of the house at Milli- 
ken, in Renfrewshire. During the owner's absence the house was 
burned to the ground, and all the papers and relics were destroyed. 
The manuscripts had not been arranged or examined, so that the 
extent of the loss is unknown. Fortunately, however, Robert Napier 
had transcribed his father's manuscript De Arte Logistica, and the 
copy escaped the fate of the originals in the manner explained in the 
following note, written in the volume containing them by Francis, 
seventh Lord Napier: "John Napier of Merchiston, inventor of 
the logarithms, left his manuscripts to his son Robert, who appears 
to have caused the following pages to have been written out fair 
from his father's notes, for Mr Briggs, professor of geometry at 
Oxford. They were given to Francis, the fifth Lord Napier, by 
William Napier of Culcreugh, Esq., heir-male of the above-named 
Robert. Finding them in a neglected state, amongst my family 
papers, I have bound them together, in order to preserve them 
entire. NAPIER, 7th March 1801." 

An account of the contents of these manuscripts was given by 
Mark Napier in the appendix to his Memoirs of John Napier, and 
the manuscripts themselves were edited in their entirety by him 
in 1839 under the title De Arte Logistica Joannis Naperi Mer- 
chistonii Baronis Libri qui supersunt. Impressum Edinburgi 
M.DCCC.XXX.IX., as one of the publications of the Bannatyne Club. 
The treatise occupies one hundred and sixty-two pages, and there 
is an introduction by Mark Napier of ninety-four pages. The 
Arithmetic consists of three books, entitled (l) De Computationibus 
Quantitatum omnibus Logisticae speciebus communium; (2) De 
Logistica Arithmetical (3) De Logistica Geometrica. At the end 
of this book occurs the note-^-" I could find no more of this geo- 
metrical! pairt amongst all his fragments." The Algebra Joannis 
Naperi Merchislonii Baronis consists of two books: (i) " De nomi- 
nata Algebrae parte; (2) De positiva sive cossica Algebrae parte," 
and concludes with the words, " There is no more of his algebra 
orderlie sett dpun." The transcripts are entirely in the handwriting 
of Robert Napier himself, and the two notes that have been quoted 
prove that they were made from Napier's own papers. The title, 



which is written on the first leaf, and is also in Robert Napier's 
writing, runs thus : " The Baron of Merchiston his booke of Arith- 
meticke and Algebra. For Mr Henrie Briggs, Professor of Geometric 
at Oxforde." 

These treatises were probably composed before Napier had 
invented the logarithms or any of the apparatuses described in the 
Rabdologia; for they contain no allusion to the principle of loga- 
rithms, even where we should expect to find such a reference, and 
the one solitary sentence where the Rabdologia is mentioned ("sive 
omnium facillime per ossa Rhabdologiae nostrae ") was probably 
added afterwards. It is worth while to notice that this reference 
occurs in a chapter " De Multiplications et Partitionis compendiis 
miscellaneis," which, supposing the treatise to have been written in 
Napier's younger days, may have been his earliest production on a 
subject over which his subsequent labours were to exert so enormous 
an influence. 

Napier uses abundantes and defectivae for positive and negative, 
defining them as meaning greater or less than nothing (" Abun- 
dantes sunt quantitates majores nihilo: defectivae sunt quantitates 
minores nihilo "). The same definitions occur also in the Canonis 
Descriptio (1614), p. 5: " Logarithmos sinuum, qui semper majores 
nihilo sunt, abundantes vocamus, et hoc signo +, aut nullo praeno- 
tamus. Logarithmos autem minores nihilo defectives vocamus, 
praenotantes eis hoc signum -." Napier may thus have been the 
first to use the expression " quantity less than nothing." He uses 
" radicatum " for_power (for root, power, exponent, his words are 
radix, radicatum, index). 

Apart from the interest attaching to these manuscripts as the 
work of Napier, they possess an independent value as affording 
evidence of the exact state of his algebraical knowledge at the time 
when logarithms were invented. There is nothing to show whether 
the transcripts were sent to Briggs as intended and returned by him, 
or whether they were not sent to him. Among the Merchiston 
papers is a thin quarto volume in Robert Napier's writing contain- 
ing a digest of the principles of alchemy; it is addressed to his son, 
and on the first leaf there are directions that it is to remain in his 
charter-chest and be kept secret except from a few. This treatise 
and the transcripts seem to be the only manuscripts which have 
escaped destruction. 

The principle of " Napier's bones " may be easily explained by 
imagining ten rectangular slips of cardboard, each divided into 
nine squares. In the top squares of the 
slips the ten digits are written, and each 
slip contains in its nine squares the first 
nine multiples of the digit which appears 
in the top square. With the exception of 
the top squares, every square is divided 
into two parts by a diagonal, the units 
being written on one side and the tens on 
the other, so that when a multiple consists 
of two figures they are separated by the 
diagonal. Fig. I shows the slips corre- 
sponding to the numbers 2, o, 8, 5 placed 
side by side in contact with one another, 
and next to them is placed another slip 
containing, in squares without diagonals, 
the first nine digits. The slips thus placed 
in contact give the multiples of the number 
2085, the digits in each parallelogram being 
added together; for example, correspond- 
ing to the number 6 on the right-hand slip, 
we have o, 8+3, 0+4, 2, I ; whence we find 
o, i, 5, 2, i as the digits, written backwards, 



8 



1 



FIG. i. 



of 6X2085. The use of the slips for the purpose of multiplication is 
now evident; thus to multiply 2085 by 736 we take out in this 
manner the multiples corresponding to 6, 3, 7, and set down the digits 
as they are obtained, from right to left, shifting them back one place 
and adding up the columns as in ordinary multiplication, viz. the 
figures as written down are 

12510 

6255 
H595 

1534560 

Napier's rods or bones consist of ten oblong pieces of wood or 
other material with square ends. Each of the four faces of each rod 
contains multiples of one of the nine digits, and is similar to one of 
the slips just described, the first rod containing the multiples of 
o, i, 9, 8, the second of o, 2, 9, 7, the third of o, 3, 9, 6, the fourth 
of o, 4, 9, 5, the fifth of i, 2, 8, 7, the sixth of 1,3, 8, 6, the seventh 
of 1,4, 8, 5, the eighth of 2, 3, 7, 6, the ninth of 2, 4, 7, 5, and the 
tenth of 3, 4, 6, 5. Each rod therefore contains on two of its faces 
multiples of digits which are complementary to those on the other 
two faces; and the multiples of a digit and of its complement are 
reversed in position. The arrangement of the numbers on the rods 
will be evident from fig. 2, which represents the four faces of the 
fifth rod. The set of ten rods is thus equivalent to four sets of slips 
as described above, and by their means we may multiply every 
number less than 11,111, and also any number (consisting of course 



NAPIER, SIR W. F. P. 



175 



of not more than ten digits) which can be formed by the top digits 
of the bars when placed side by side. Of course two sets of rods 
may be used, and by their means we may multiply every number 
less than 1 11,111,1 1 1 and so on. It will be noticed that the rods 
only give the multiples of the number which is to be multiplied, or 
of the divisor, when they are used for division, and it is evident that 
they would be of little use to any one who 
knew the multiplication table as far as 9X9. 



In multiplications or divisions of any length it 
is generally convenient to begin by forming a 
table of the first nine multiples of the multi- 
plicand or divisor, and Napier's bones at best 
merely provide such a table, and in an incom- 
plete form, for the additions of the two figures 
in the same parallelogram have to be performed 
each time the rods are used. The Rabdologia 
attracted more general attention than the loga- 
rithms, and as has been mentioned, there were 
several editions on the Continent. Nothing shows 
more clearly the rude state of arithmetical know- 
ledge at the beginning of the I7th century than 
the universal satisfaction with which Napier's 
invention was welcomed by all classes and re- 
garded as a real aid to calculation. Napier also 
describes in the Rabdologia two other larger rods 
to facilitate the extraction of square and cube 
roots. In the Rabdologia the rods are called 
" virgulae," but in the passage quoted above 
manuscript on arithmetic they are referred to as 



8 



FIG. 2. 



from the 

" bones " (ossa). 

Besides the logarithms and the calculating rods or bones, Napier's 
name is attached to certain rules and formulae in spherical trigono- 
metry. " Napier's rules of circular parts," which include the com- 
plete system of formulae for the solution of right-angled triangles, 
may be enunciated as follows. Leaving the right angle out of 
consideration, the sides including the right angle, the complement of 
the hypotenuse, and the complements of the other angles are called 
the circular parts of the triangle. Thus there are five circular parts, 
a, 6, 90 A, 90 c, 90 B, and these are supposed to be arranged 
in this order (i.e. the order in which they occur in the triangle) 
round a circle. Selecting any part and calling it the middle part, 
the two parts next it are called the adjacent parts and the remaining 
two parts the opposite parts. The rules then are 

sine of the middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts 
= product of cosines of opposite parts. 

These rules were published in the Canonis Descriptio (1614), and 
Napier has there given a figure, and indicated a method, by means 
of which they may be proved directly. The rules are curious and 
interesting, but of very doubtful utility, as the formulae are best 
remembered by the practical calculator in their unconnected form. 

" Napier's analogies " are the four formulae 

""- ^ *JC, tanHA-B)= si "^-*X 




They were first published after his death in the Constructio among 
the formulae in spherical trigonometry, which were the results of 
his latest work. Robert Napier says that these results would have 
been reduced to order and demonstrated consecutively but for 
his father's death. Only one of the four analogies is actually 
given by Napier, the other three being added by Briggs in the 
remarks which are appended to Napier's results. The work left 
by Napier is, however, rough and unfinished, and it is uncertain 
whether he knew of the other formulae or not. They are, however, 
so simply deducible from the results he has given that all the four 
analogies may be properly called by his name. An analysis of the 
formulae contained in the Descriptio and Constructio is given by 
Delambre in vol. i. of his Histoire de V Astronomic moderne. 

To Napier seems to be due the first use of the decimal point in 
arithmetic. Decimal tractions were first introduced by Stevinus in 
his tract La Disme, published in 1585, but he used cumbrous ex- 
ponents (numbers enclosed in circles) to distinguish the different 
denominations, primes, seconds, thirds, &c. Thus, for example, he 
would have written 123-456 as 123(0)4(1)5(2)6(3). In the Rab- 
dologia Napier gives an " Admonitio pro Decimal! Arithmetica," in 
which he commends the fractions of Stevinus and gives an example 
of their use, the division of 861094 by 432. The quotient is written 
1993,273 in the work, and I993,2'7'3" in the text. This single 
instance of the use of the decimal point in the midst of an arith- 
metical process, if it stood alone, would not suffice to establish a 
claim for its introduction, as the real introducer of the decimal 
point is the person who first saw that a point or line as separator 
was all that was required to distinguish between the integers and 
fractions, and used it as a permanent notation and not merely in the 
course of performing an arithmetical operation. The decimal point 
is, however, used systematically in the Constructio (1619), there 
being perhaps two hundred decimal points altogether in the book. 



The c'g^ynal point is defined on p. 6 of the Constructio in the 
words: \- n>. /eris periodo sic in se distinctis, quicquid post 
periodum notatur fnctio est, cujus denominator est unitas cum tot 
cyphris post se, quot sunt figurae post periodum. Ut 10000000-04 
valet idem, quod iooooooo T J B . Item 25-803, idem quod 25 1 % S 5 
Item 9999998-0005021, idem valet quod 9999998 nHHHiira. & sic de 
caetens. ' On p. C 10-502 is multiplied by 3-216, and the resr.lt 
found to be 33-774432; and on pp. 23 and 24 occur decimals not 
attached to integers, viz. -4999712 and -0004950. These examples 
show that Napier was in possession of all the conventions and attri- 
butes that enable the decimal point to complete so symmetrically 
our system of notation, viz. (l) he saw that a point or separatrix was 
quite enough to separate integers from decimals, and that no signs 
to indicate primes, seconds, &c., were required; (2) he used ciphers 
after the decimal point and preceding the first significant figure; 
and (3) he had no objection to a decimal standing by itself without 
any integer. Napier thus had complete command over decimal 
fractions and the use of the decimal point. Briggs also used deci- 
mals, but in a form not quite so convenient as Napier. Thus he 
prints 63-0957379 as 630957379, viz. he prints a bar under the 
decimals; this notation first appears without any explanation in 
his " Lucubrationes " appended to the Constructio. Briggs seems 
to have used the notation all his life, but in writing it, as appears 
from manuscripts of his, he added also a small vertical line just 
high enough to fix distinctly which two figures it was intended to 
separate : thus he might have written 63_oojj7379. The vertical line 
was printed by Oughtred and some of Briggs's successors. It was a 
long time before decimal arithmetic came into general use, and all 
through the I7th century exponential marks were in common use. 
There seems but little doubt that Napier was the first to make use of 
a decimal separator, and it is curious that the separator which he 
used, the point, should be that which has been ultimately adopted, 
and after a long period of partial disuse. 

The hereditary office of king's poulterer (Pultrie Regis) was for 
many generations in the family of Merchiston, and descended to 
John Napier. The office, Mark Napier states, is repeatedly men- 
tioned in the family charters as appertaining to the " pultre landis " 
near the village of Dene in the shire of Linlithgow. The duties 
were to be performed by the possessor or his deputy; and the king 
was entitled to demand the yearly homage of a present of poultry 
from the feudal holder. The pultrelands and the office were sold 
by John Napier in 1610 for 1700 marks. With the exception of the 
pultrelands all the estates he inherited descended to his posterity. 

With regard to the spelling of the name, Mark Napier states 
that among the family papers there exist a great many documents 
signed by John Napier. His usual signature was " Jhone Neper," 
but in a letter written in 1608, and in all deeds signed after that date, 
he wrote " Jhone Nepair." His letter to the king prefixed to the 
Plaine Discovery is signed " John Napeir." His own children, who 
sign deeds along with him, use every mode except Napier, the form 
now adopted by the family, and which is comparatively modern. 
In Latin he always wrote his name " Neperus." The form " Neper " 
is the oldest, as John, third Napier of Merchiston, so spelt it in the 
1 5th century. 

Napier frequently signed his name " Jhone Neper, Fear of Mer- 
chistc" " He was " Fear of Merchiston " because, more majorum, 
he had been invested with the fee of his paternal barony during the 
lifetime of his father, who retained the liferent. He has been some- 
times erroneously called " Peer of Merchiston," and in the 1645 
edition of the Plaine Discovery he is so styled (see Mark Napier's 
Memoirs, pp. 9 and 173, and Libri qui supersunt, p. xciv.). 

The bibliographv o f Napier's work attached to W. R. Macdonald's 
translation of the Canonis Constructio (1889) is complete and valuable. 
Napier's three mathematical works are reprinted by N. L. W. A. 
Gravelaar in Verhandelingen der Kon. Akad. van Wet te Amsterdam, 
i. sectie, deel 6 (1899). (J. W. L. G.) 

NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860), 
British soldier and military historian, third son of Colonel 
George Napier (1751-1804), and brother of Sir Charles James 
Napier (see above), was born at Celbridge, near Dublin, on the 
I7th of December 1785. He became an ensign in the Royal 
Irish Artillery in 1800, but at once exchanged into the 62nd, and 
was put on half-pay in 1802. He was afterwards made a cornet 
in the Blues by the influence of his uncle the duke of Richmond, 
and for the first time did actual military duty in this regiment, 
but he soon fell in with Sir John Moore's suggestion that he should 
exchange into the 52nd, which was about to be trained in the 
famous camp of Shorncliffe. Through Sir John Moore he soon 
obtained a company in the 43rd, joined that regiment at Shorn- 
cliffe and became a great favourite with Moore. He served in 
Denmark, and was present at the engagement of Kioge, and, 
his regiment being shortly afterwards sent to Spain, he bore 
himself nobly through the retreat to Corunna, the hardships of 
which permanently impaired his health. In 1809 he became 



NAPIER, SIR W. F. P. 



aide-de-camp to the duke of Richmond, lord lie^ufjant of 
Ireland, but joined the 43rd when that regiment was ordered 
again to Spain. With the light brigade (the 43rd, 52nd, and 95th), 
under the command of General Crauf urd, he marched to Talavera 
in the famous forced march which he has described in his History, 
and had a violent attack of pleurisy on the way. He, however, 
refused to leave Spain, was wounded on the Coa, and shot near 
the spine at Cazal Nova. His conduct was so conspicuous during 
the pursuit of Massena after he left the lines of Torres Vedras 
that he as well as his brother George was recommended for a 
brevet majority. He became brigade major, was present at 
Fuentes d'Onor, but had so bad an attack of ague that he was 
obliged to return to England. In England he married Caroline 
Amelia Fox, daughter of General Henry Fox and niece of the 
statesman Fox. Three weeks after his marriage he again started 
for Spain, and was present at the storming of Badajoz, where 
his great friend Colonel M'Leod was killed. In the absence of the 
new lieutenant-colonel he took command of the 43rd regiment 
(he was now a substantive major) and commanded it at the 
battle of Salamanca. After a short stay at home he again 
joined his regiment at the Pyrenees, and did his greatest military 
service at the battle of the Nivelle, where, with instinctive 
military insight, he secured the most strongly fortified part of 
Soult's position, practically without orders. He served with his 
regiment at the battles of the Nive, where he received two wounds, 
Orthes, and Toulouse. For his services he was made brevet 
lieutenant-colonel, and one of the first C.B.'s. Like his brother 
Charles he then entered the military college at Farnham. He 
commanded his regiment in the invasion of France after Waterloo, 
and remained in France with the army of occupation until 1819, 
when he retired on half-pay. As it was impossible for him to 
live on a major's half-pay with a wife and family, he determined 
to become an artist, and took a house in Sloane Street, where he 
studied with George Jones, the academician. 

The years he had spent in France he had occupied in improving 
his general education, for, incredible as it seems, the author of the 
History of the War in the Peninsula could not spell or write 
respectable English till that time. But his career was to be great 
in literature, not in art. The tendency appeared in an able 
review of Jomini's works (Edinburgh Rev.) in 1821, and in 1823 
Mr Bickersteth (afterwards Lord Langdale) suggested to him 
the expediency of writing a history of the Peninsular War. For 
some time he did not take kindly to the suggestion, but at last 
determined to become an author in order to defend the memory 
of Sir John Moore, and to prevent the glory of his old chief being 
overshadowed by that of Wellington. The duke of Wellington 
himself gave him much assistance, and handed over to him the 
whole of Joseph Bonaparte's correspondence which had been 
taken at the battle of Vittoria; this was all in cipher, but Mrs 
Napier, with great patience, discovered the keys. Marshal Soult 
also took an active interest hi the work and arranged for the 
French translation of Mathieu Dumas. In 1828 the first volume 
of the History appeared. The publisher, John Murray, indeed, 
was disappointed in the sale of the first volume and Napier 
published the remainder himself. But it was at once seen that 
the great deeds of the Peninsular War were about to be fitly 
commemorated. The excitement which followed the appearance 
of each volume is proved by the innumerable pamphlets issued 
by those who believed themselves to be attacked, and by personal 
altercations with many distinguished officers. But the success 
of the book was proved still more by the absence of competition 
than by these bitter controversies. The histories of Southey and 
Lord Londonderry fell still-born, and Sir George Murray, 
Wellington's quartermaster-general, who had determined to pro- 
duce the history, gave up the attempt in despair. This success was 
due to a combination of qualities which have justly secured for 
Napier the title of being the greatest military historian England 
has produced. When in 1840 the last volume of the History was 
published, his fame not only in England but in France and 
Germany was safely established. 

His life during these years had been chiefly absorbed in his 
History, but he had warmly sympathized with the movement 



for political reform which was agitating England. The Radicals 
of Bath and many other cities and towns pressed him to enter 
parliament, and Napier was actually invited to become the 
military chief of a national guard to obtain reforms by force of 
arms. He refused the dangerous honour on the ground that he 
was in bad health and had a family of eight children. In 1830 
he had been promoted colonel, and in 1842 he was made a major- 
general and given the lieutenant-governorship of Guernsey. 
Here he found plenty of occupation in controlling the relations 
between the soldiers and the inhabitants, and also in working 
out proposals for a complete scheme of reform in the government 
of the island. While he was at Guernsey his brother Charles 
had conquered Sind, and the attacks made on the policy of that 
conquest brought William Napier again into the field of literature. 
In 1845 he published his History of the Conquest of Scinde, and in 
1851 the corresponding History of the Administration of Scinde 
books which in style and vigour rivalled the great History, but 
which, being written for controversial purposes, were not likely 
to maintain enduring popularity. In 1847 he resigned his 
governorship, and in 1848 was made a K.C.B., and settled at 
Scinde House, Clapham Park. In 1851 he was promoted lieu- 
tenant-general. His time was fully occupied in defending his 
brother, in revising the numerous editions of his History which 
were being called for, and in writing letters to The Times on every 
conceivable subject, whether military or literary. His energy 
is the more astonishing when it is remembered that he never 
recovered from the effects of the wound he had received at 
Cazal Nova, and that he often had to lie on his back for months 
together. His domestic life was shadowed by the incurable 
affliction of his only son, and when his brother Charles died in 
1853 the world seemed to be darkening round him. He devoted 
himself to writing the life of that brother, which appeared in 
1857, and which is in many respects his most characteristic book. 
In the end of 1853 his younger brother, Captain Henry Napier, 
R.N., died, and in 1855 his brother Sir George (see below). 
Inspired by his work, he lived on till the year 1860, when, broken 
by trouble, fatigue and ill-health, he died (February 12) at 
Clapham. Four months earlier he had been promoted to the 
full rank of general. 

As a military historian Sir William Napier is incomparably 
superior to any other English writer, and his true compeers are 
Thucydides, Caesar and Davila. All four had been soldiers in the 
wars they describe; all four possessed a peculiar insight into the 
mainsprings of action both in war and peace; and each possessed 
a peculiar and inimitable style. Napier always wrote as if he was 
burrting with an inextinguishable desire to express what he was 
feeling, which gives his style a peculiar spontaneity, and yet he 
rewrote the first volume of his History no less than six times. His 
descriptions of sieges and of battles are admirable by themselves, 
and his analyses of the peculiarly intricate Spanish intrigues are 
even more remarkable, while the descriptions and analyses are 
both lit up with flashes of political wisdom and military insight. 
It is to be noted that he displays the spirit of the partisan, even 
when most impartial, and defends his opinions, even when most 
undoubtedly true, as if he were arguing some controverted question. 
If his style was modelled on anything, it was on Caesar's comment- 
aries, and a thorough knowledge of the writings of the Roman 
general will often explain allusions in Napier. The portraits of 
Sir John Moore and Colonel M'Leod, and the last paragraphs de- 
scriptive of the storming of Badajoz, may be taken as examples 
of his great natural eloquence. 

His brother, SIR GEORGE THOMAS NAPIER (i 784-1855), entered 
the army in 1800, and served with distinction under Moore and 
Wellington in the Peninsula and lost his right arm at the 
storming of Badajoz. He became major-general in 1837, K.C.B. 
in 1838 and lieutenant-general in 1846. He was governor and 
commander-in-chief at the Cape from 1839 to 1843, during which 
time the abolition of slavery and the expulsion of the Boers from 
Natal were the chief events. He was offered, but declined, the 
chief command in India after Chillianwalla, and also that of the 
Sardinian army in 1849. He became full general in 1854. He 
died at Geneva on the i6th of September 1855. His auto- 
biography, Passages in the Early Military Life of General Sir 
G. T. Napier, was published by his surviving son, General 
W. C. E. Napier (the author of an important work on outpost 
duty), in 1885. 



NAPIER AND ETTRICK NAPIER OF MAGDALA 



177 



The youngest brother, HENRY EDWARD NAPIER (1789-1853), 
served in the navy during the Napoleonic wars, retired as a 
captain, and wrote a learned Florentine History from the earliest 
authentic Records to the Accession of Ferdinand III. of Tuscany 
(1846-1847). 

For Sir William Napier's life, see his Life and Letters, edited by the 
Right Honourable H. A. Bruce (Lord Aberdare) (2 vols., 1862). 

NAPIER AND ETTRICK, FRANCIS NAPIER, BARON (1819- 
1898), British diplomatist, was descended from the ancient 
Scottish family of Napier of Merchistoun, his ancestor Sir 
Alexander Napier (d. c. 1473) being the elder son of Alexander 
Napier (d. c. 1454), provost of Edinburgh, who obtained lands 
at Merchistoun early in the isth century. Sir Alexander was 
comptroller of the household of the king of Scotland, and was 
often sent to England and elsewhere on public business. Of 
his descendants one Napier of Merchistoun was killed at Sauchie- 
burn, another fell at Flodden and a third at Pinkie. The seventh 
Napier of Merchistoun was Sir Archibald Napier (1534-1608), 
master of the Scottish mint, and the eighth was John Napier 
(q.v.) the inventor of logarithms. John's eldest son, Sir Archibald 
Napier (c. 1576-1645), was treasurer-depute of Scotland from 
1622 to 1631, and was created Lord Napier of Merchistoun in 
1627. He married Margaret Graham, sister of the great marquess 
of Montrose, whose cause he espoused, and he wrote some 
Memoirs which were published in Edinburgh in 1793. His son 
Archibald, the 2nd lord (1625-1658), fought under Montrose at 
Auldearn, at Alford, at Kilsyth and at Philiphaugh, and was 
afterwards with his famous uncle on the continent of Europe. 
His son, Archibald, the 3rd lord (d. 1683), was succeeded by 
special arrangement in the title, first by bis nephew, Thomas 
Nicolson (1660-1686), a son of his sister Jean and her husband 
Sir Thomas Nicolson, Bart. (d. 1670), and then by his sister 
Margaret (d. 1706), the widow of John Brisbane (d. 1684). The 
6th lord was Margaret's grandson Francis Scott (c. 1702-1773), a 
son of Sir William Scott, Bart., of Thirlestane (d. 1725). Francis 
Scott, who took the additional name of Napier, had a large 
family, his sons including William, the yth lord, and Colonel 
George Napier (1751-1804). His famous grandsons are dealt 
with above. Another literary member of the family was Mark 
Napier (1798-1879), called by Mr Andrew Lang " the impetuous 
biographer of Montrose," who wrote Memoirs of John Napier 
of Merchislon (1834), Montrose and the Covenanters (1838), 
Memoirs of Montrose (1856), Memorials of Graham of Claverhouse 
(1859-1862), and a valuable legal work, The Law of Prescription 
in Scotland (1839 and again 1854). William, 7th Lord Napier 
(1730-1775), was succeeded as 8th lord by his son Francis (1758- 
1823), who, after serving in the English army during the American 
War of Independence, was lord high commissioner to the general 
assembly of the Church of Scotland, and compiled a genealogical 
account of his family which is still in manuscript. His son 
William John, the 9th lord (1786-1834), who was present at the 
battle of Trafalgar, was the father of Francis Napier, Lord Napier 
and Ettrick. 

Born on the isth of September 1819 Francis entered the 
diplomatic service in 1840, and was employed in successive posts 
at Vienna, Constantinople, Naples, Washington and the Hague. 
During this time he earned the highest opinions both at home 
and abroad. In 1860 he became ambassador at St Petersburg, 
and in 1864 at Berlin. In 1866 he was appointed governor of 
Madras, and was at once confronted with a serious famine in the 
northern districts. In dealing with this and other problems he 
showed great activity and practical sense, and he encouraged 
public works, particularly irrigation. In 1872 he acted for a few 
months as Viceroy, after Lord Mayo's assassination; and on 
Lord Northbrook's appointment to the office he returned to 
England, being created a baron of the United Kingdom (Baron 
Ettrick of Ettrick) for his services. He continued, both in 
England and in Scotland, to take great interest in social questions. 
He was for a time a member of the London School Board, and 
he was chairman of the Crofters' Commission in 1883, the result 
of which was the appointment of a permanent body to deal with 
questions affecting the Scottish crofters and cottars. He died at 



Florence on the igth of December 1898, leaving a widow and 
three sons, the eldest of whom, William John George (b. 1846), 
succeeded to his titles. 

NAPIER OF MAGDALA, ROBERT CORNELIS NAPIER, 
IST BARON (1810-1890), British field-marshal, son of Major 
Charles Frederick Napier, who was wounded at the storming of 
Meester Cornells (Aug. 26, 1810) in Java and died some months 
later, was born at Colombo, Ceylon, on the 6th of December 
1810. He entered the Bengal Engineers from Addiscombe 
College in 1826, and after the usual course of instruction at 
Chatham, arrived in India in November 1828. For some years 
he was employed in the irrigation branch of the public works 
department, and in 1838 he laid out the new hill station at 
Darjeeling. Promoted captain in January 1841, he was ap- 
pointed to Sirhind, where he laid out cantonments on a new 
principle known as the Napier system for the troops returning 
from Afghanistan. In December 1845 he joined the army of 
the Sutlej, and commanded the Engineers at the battle of Mudki, 
where he had a horse shot under him. At the battle of Ferozeshah 
on the 3ist December he again had his horse shot under him, and, 
joining the 3ist Regiment on foot, was severely wounded in 
storming the entrenched Sikh camp. He was present at the 
battle of Sobraon on loth February 1846, and in the advance to 
Lahore; was mentioned in despatches for his services in the 
campaign, and received a brevet majority. He was chief engineer 
at the reduction of Kote-Kangra by Brigadier-General Wheeler 
in May 1846, and received the thanks of government. He was 
then appointed consulting engineer to the Punjab resident and 
council of regency, but was again called to the field to direct the 
siege of Multan. He was wounded in the attack on the entrenched 
position in September 1848, but was present at the action of 
Shujabad, the capture of the suburbs, the successful storm of 
Multan on 23rd January 1849, and the surrender of the fort of 
Chiniot. He then joined Lord Gough, took part, as commanding 
engineer of the right wing, in the battle of Gujrat in February 
1849, accompanied Sir W. R. Gilbert in his pursuit of the Sikhs 
and Afghans, and was present at the passage of the Jhelum, the 
surrender of the Sikh army, and the surprise of Attock. For his 
services he was mentioned in despatches and received a brevet 
lieutenant-colonelcy. At the close of the war Napier was 
appointed civil engineer to the board of administration of the 
annexed Punjab province, and carried out many important 
public works during his tenure of office. In December 1852 he 
commanded a column in the first Hazara expedition, and in the 
following year against the Boris; and for his services in these 
campaigns was mentioned in despatches, received the special 
thanks of government and a brevet-colonelcy. He was 
appointed military secretary and adjutant-general to Sir James 
Outram's force for the relief of Lucknow in the Indian Mutiny 
in 1857, and was engaged in the actions which culminated in the 
first relief of Lucknow. He directed the defence of Lucknow until 
the second relief, when he was severely wounded in crossing a 
very exposed space with Outram and Havelock to meet Sir Colin 
Campbell. He was chief of the staff to Outram in the defence of 
the Alambagh position, and drew up the plan of operations for 
the attack of Lucknow, which was approved by Sir Colin Camp- 
bell and carried out by Napier, as brigadier-general commanding 
the Engineers, in March 1858. On the fall of Lucknow Napier 
was most favourably mentioned in despatches, and made C.B. 
He joined Sir Hugh Rose as second-in-command in his march on 
Gwalior, and commanded the 2nd brigade at the action of Morar 
on the 1 6th June. On the fall of Gwalior he was entrusted with 
the task of pursuing the enemy. With only 700 men he came up 
with Tantia Tppi and 1 2,000 men on the plains of Jaora Alipur, and 
completely defeated him, capturing all his guns (25), ammunition 
and baggage. On Sir Hugh Rose's departure he took command of 
the Gwalior division, captured Paori in August, routed Ferozeshah, 
a prince of the house of Delhi, at Ranode in December, and, 
in January 1859, succeeded in securing the surrender of Man 
Singh and Tantia Topi, which ended the war. For his services 
Napier received the thanks of parliament and of the Indian 
government, and was made K.C.B. 



i 7 8 



NAPIER NAPLES 



In January 1860 Napier was appointed to the command of 
the 2nd division of the expedition to China under Sir Hope Grant, 
and took part in the action of Sinho, the storm of the Peiho 
forts, and the entry to Peking. For his services he received the 
thanks of parliament, and was promoted major-general for 
distinguished service in the field. For the next four years Napier 
was military member of the council of the governor-general 
of India and, on the sudden death of Lord Elgin, for a short 
time acted as governor-general, until the arrival of Sir W. T. 
Denison from Madras. In January 1865 he was given the com- 
mand of the Bombay army, in March 1867 he was promoted 
lieutenant-general, and, later in that year, appointed to command 
the expedition to Abyssinia, selecting his own troops and making 
all the preparations for the campaign. He arrived at Annesley 
Bay in the Red Sea early in January 1868, reached Magdala, 
420 m. from the coast, in April; stormed the stronghold, freed 
the captives, razed the place to the ground, returned to the 
coast, and on the i8th June the last man of the expedition had 
left Africa. He received for his services the thanks of parlia- 
ment, a pension, a peerage, the G.C.B. and the G.C.S.I. The 
freedom of the cities of London and Edinburgh was conferred 
upon him, with presentation swords, and the universities 
bestowed upon him honorary degrees. In 1869 he was elected 
a fellow of the Royal Society. He held the command-in-chief 
in India for six years from 1870, during which he did much to 
benefit the army and to encourage good shooting. He was 
promoted general in 1874, and appointed a colonel-commandant 
of the Royal Engineers. In 1876 he was the guest of the German 
crown prince at the military manoeuvres, and from that year 
until 1883 hdd the government and command of Gibraltar. 
In the critical state of affairs in 1877 he was nominated com- 
mander-in-chief of the force which it was proposed to send to 
Constantinople. In 1879 he was a member of the royal com- 
mission on army organization, and in November of that year 
he represented Queen Victoria at Madrid as ambassador extra- 
ordinary on the occasion of the second marriage of the king of 
Spain. On the ist of January 1883 he was promoted to be field- 
marshal, and in December 1886 appointed Constable of the 
Tower of London. He died in London on the i4th of January 
1890. His remains received a state funeral, and were buried 
in St Paul's Cathedral on the zist of January. He was twice 
married, and left a large family by each wife, his eldest son, 
Robert William (b. 1845), succeeding to his barony. A statue 
of him on horseback by Boehm was erected at Calcutta when 
he left India, and a replica of it was afterwards set up to his 
memory in Waterloo Place, London. 

NAPIER, a seaport on the east coast of North Island, New 
Zealand, capital of the provincial district of Hawke's Bay, 
200 m. by rail N.E. of Wellington. Pop. (1906) 9454. The 
main portion of the town stretches along the flat shoreland of 
Hawke's Bay, while the suburbs extend over the hills to the north. 
The site consists of a picturesque peninsula known as Scinde 
Island. The harbour (Port Ahuriri) is sheltered by a break- 
water. The cathedral church of St John (1888) for the bishopric 
of Waiapu, is one of the finest ecclesiastical buildings in New 
Zealand, imitating the Early English style in brick. An 
athenaeum, a small hospital, a lunatic asylum, a philosophical 
society and an acclimatization society are among the public 
institutions. The town (named after Sir Charles James Napier) 
is under municipal government, and returns a member to the 
New Zealand House of Representatives. The district is agri- 
cultural, and large quantities of wool and tinned and frozen 
meats are exported. There is railway communication with 
Wellington, New Plymouth, and the Wairarapa, Wanganui 
and Manawatu districts. Numerous old native pas or fortified 
villages are seen in the neighbourhood. 

NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis), formerly the capital 
of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and since 1860 the chief town 
of the province which bears its name, the smallest province 
in the kingdom of Italy. It is the largest city in the country, 
containing 547,503 inhabitants in 1901. It is a prefecture; 
the see of a cardinal archbishop; the residence of the general 



commanding the tenth Army Corps and of the admiral com- 
manding the second Naval Department of Italy; and it 
possesses also an ancient and important university. 

Naples disputes with Constantinople the claim of occupying 
the most beautiful site in Europe. It is situated on the northern 
shore of the Bay of Naples (Sinus Cumanus), in 40 52' N., 
14 15' 45" E., as taken from the lighthouse on the mole. By 
rail it is distant 151 m. from Rome, but the line is circuitous, 
and a direct electric line was contemplated in 1907, to run nearer 
the coast and shorten the distance from the capital by more than 
30 m. (For map, see ITALY.) The circuit of the bay is about 
35 m. from the capo di Miseno on the north-west to the Punta 
della Campanella on the south-east, or more than 52 m. if the 
islands of Ischia, at the north-west, and of Capri, at the south 
entrance, be included. At its opening between these two islands 
it is 14 m. broad; while another 4 m. separates Capri from the 
mainland at the Punta della Campanella, and from the opening 
to its head at Portici the distance is 15 m. It affords good 
anchorage, with nearly 7 fathoms of water, and is well sheltered, 
except from winds which blow from points between south-east 
and south-west. In the latter winds Sorrento should be especially 
avoided, as no safe anchorage can be found there at less than 
15 fathoms, and the same remark applies to Capri with winds 
from S.W. to N.W. There is a perceptible tide of nearly 9 in. 

On the north-east shore east of Naples is an extensive flat, forming 
part of the ancient Campania Felix, and watered by the small stream 
Sebeto and by the Sarno, which last in classical times formed the 
port of Pompeii. From this flat, between the sea and the range of the 
Apennines, rises Mount Vesuvius, at the base of which, on or near the 
sea-shore, are the populous villages of San Giovanni Teduccio, 
Portici, Resina, Torre del Greco, Torre dell' Annunziata, &c., and the 
classic sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii. At the south-east 
extremity of the plain, 3 m. beyond the outlet of the Sarno, a great 
offshoot of the Apennines, branching from the main range near Cava, 
and projecting as a peninsula more than 12 m. west, divides the 
Bay of Naples from the bay of Salerno (Sinus Paestanus), and ends 
in the bold promontory of the Punta della Campanella (Promon- 
torium Minervae), which is separated by a strait of 4 m. from Capri. 
On the north slope of this peninsula, where the plain ends and the 
coast abruptly bends to the west, stands the town of Castellammare, 
near the site of Stabiae, at the foot of Monte Sant' Angelo, which 
rises suddenly from the sea to a height of 4722 ft. Farther west, 
and nearly opposite to Naples across the bay, are Vico, Meta, 
Sorrento, Massa and many villages. 

The north-west shore to the west of Naples is more broken 
and irregular. The promontory of Posilipo, which projects due south, 
divides this part of the bay into two smaller bays the eastern, with 
the city of Naples, and the western, or Bay of Baiae, which is sheltered 
from all winds. A tunnel through the promontory, 2244 ft. long, 
21 ft. broad, and in some places as much as 70 ft. high, possibly 
constructed by Marcus Agrippa in 27 B.C., forms the so-called grotto 
of Posilipo; at the Naples end stands the reputed tomb of Virgil. 
Beyond Posilipo is the small island of Nisida (Nesis) ; and at a short 
distance inland are the extinct craters of Solfatara and Astroni and 
the lake of Agnano. Farther west, on the coast, and provided with a 
convenient harbour, stands Pozzuoli (Puteoli), a city containing 
many Roman remains, but now chiefly remarkable for the large gun- 
works erected by Messrs Armstrong & Co. ; and beyond it, round the 
Bay of Baiae, are Monte Nuoyo, a hill thrown up in a single night 
in September 1538; the classic site of Baiae; the Lucrine Lake; 
Lake Avernus; the Lake of Fusaro (Acherusia Palus); the Elysian 
Fields; and the port and promontory of Misenum. Still farther to 
the south-west lie the islands of Procida (Prochyta) and Ischia 
(Pilhecusa, Aenaria or Inarime), which divide the Bay of Naples 
from the extensive Bay of Gaeta. All this country was comprised 
in classical times under the title of the Phlegrean Fields, and was 
certainly then more actively volcanic than it now is, although the 
severe shock of earthquake which occurred in the island of Ischia in 
1883 completely destroyed Casamicciola, and did serious damage 
to Forio, Lacco Ameno and Serrara Fontana, shows that there is 
great seismic activity in the locality. The whole region abounds 
with fissures from which steam highly charged with hydrochloric 
acid is continually issuing, and in many places boiling water is found 
at a very few feet below the surface. 

The city of Naples is built at the base and on the slopes of a 
range of volcanic hills, and, rising from the shore like an amphi- 
theatre, is seen to best advantage from the sea. From the summit 
occupied by the castle of St Elmo a transverse ridge runs south 
to form the promontory of Pizzofalcone, and divides the city into 
two natural crescents. The western crescent, known as the 
Chiaja ward, though merely a long narrow strip between the sea 



NAPLES 



179 



and Vomero hill, is the fashionable quarter most frequented 
by foreign residents and visitors. A fine broad street, the Riviera 
di Chiaja, begun in the dose of the i6th century by Count 
d'Olivares, and completed by the duke de Medina Celi (1695- 

1700), runs for a mile and a half from east to west, ending in 
the quarter of Mergellina and Piedigrotta at the foot of the hill 
of Posilipo. In front lie the Villa Communale (first called Reale 
and subsequently Nazionale) public gardens, the chief promenade 
of the city, which were first laid out in 1780, and have been 
successively extended in 1807, in 1834, and again in recent years; 
and the whole edge of the bay from the Castel dell' Ovo to 
Mergellina is lined by a massive embankment and carriage- 
way, the Via Caracciolo, constructed in 1875-1881. The eastern 

crescent includes by far the largest as well as the oldest portion 
of Naples the ports, the arsenal, the principal churches, &c. 
The best-known thoroughfare is the historic Toledo (as it is 
still popularly called, though the official name is Via Roma) 
which runs almost due north from the Piazza (Largo) del 
Plebiscite in front of the Palazzo Reale, till, as Strada Nuova 
Di Capodimonte, crossing the Ponte della Sanita (constructed 
by Murat across the valley between Santa Teresa and Capodi- 
monte), it reaches the gates of the Capodimonte palace. A 
drive, the Corso Vittorio Emmanucle, winds along the slopes 
behind the city from the Str. di Piedigrotta (at the west end of 
the Riv. di Chiaja) till it reaches the museum by the Via Salvator 
Rosa. The character of the shore of the eastern crescent has been 
much altered by the new harbour works, which with the wharves 
and warehouses have absorbed the Villa del Popolo, or People's 
Park, originally constructed on land reclaimed from the bay. 

The streets of Naples are generally well-paved with large 
blocks of lava or volcanic basalt. In the older districts there is 
a countless variety of narrow gloomy streets, many of them 
steep. The houses are mostly five or six storeys high, are 
covered with stucco made of a kind of pozzolana which hardens 
by exposure, and have large balconies and flat roofs. The castle 
of S. Elmo (S. Ermo, S. Erasmus), which dominates the whole 
city, had its origin in a fort (Belforte) erected by King Robert 
the Wise in 1543. The present building, with its rock-hewn 
fosses and massive ramparts, was constructed by Don Pedro de 
Toledo at the command of Charles V. in 1535, and was long 
considered practically impregnable. Damaged by lightning in 
1857, it was afterwards restored, and is now a military prison. 
On a small island (I. del Salvatore, the Megaris of Pliny), now 
joined to the shore at the foot of the Pizzofalcone by an arch- 
supported causeway, stands the Castel dell' Ovo (so called from 
its shape, though medieval legend associates the name with the 
enchanted egg on which the magician Virgil made the safety of 
the city to depend), which dates from 1154. The walls of its 
chapel were frescoed by Giotto; but the whole building was 
ruined by Ferdinand II. in 1495, and had to be restored in the 
1 6th century. Castel Nuovo, a very picturesque building con- 
structed near the harbour in 1283 by Charles I. of Anjou, contains 
between the round towers of its facade the triumphal arch 
erected in 1470 to Alphonso I. and renovated in 1905. It 
numbers among its chambers the Gothic hall of Giovanni Pisano 
in which Celestine V. abdicated the papal dignity. Castel del 
Carmine, founded by Ferdinand I. in 1484, was occupied by the 
populace in Masaniello's insurrection, was used as a prison for 
the patriots of 1796, became municipal property in 1878, and is 
now a prison. The royal palace, begun in 1600 by the Count de 
Lemos, from designs by Domenico Fontana, partly burned in 
1837, and since repaired and enlarged by Ferdinand II., is an 
enormous building with a sea frontage of 800 ft. and a main 
facade 554 ft. long and 95 ft. high, exhibiting the Doric, Ionic 
and Composite orders in its three storeys. The statues on the 
facade of the palace were erected by King Humbert I. in 1885, 
and represent the titular heads of the various dynasties which 
have reigned at Naples, beginning with Ruggiero the Norman 
(1130); followed by Frederick II. of.Suabia (1197); Charles I. 
of Anjou (1266); Alfonso of Aragon (1442); Charles V. of Spain 
(1527); Charles III. (Bourbon) of Naples (1744); Gioacchino 
Murat (1808); and Victor Emmanuel II. (1861). 



Naples is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop, always a 
cardinal. The cathedral has a chapter of thirty canons, and of 
the numerous religious houses formerly existing very few have 
in whole or in part survived the suppression in 1868. The city is 
divided into fifty parishes purely for ecclesiastical purposes, and 
there are 237 Roman Catholic churches and 57 chapels. 

Most of the churches are remarkable rather for richness in internal 
decoration than for architectural beauty. The cathedral of St 
Januarius, occupying the site of temples of Apollo and Neptune, 
and still containing some of their original granite columns, was- 
designed by Nicola Pisano, and erected between 1272 and 1316. 
Owing to frequent restorations occasioned by earthquakes, it now 
presents an incongruous mixture of different styles. The general 
plan is that of a basilica with a nave and two (Gothic vaulted) 
aisles separated by pilasters. The western facade is of marble and 
was completed in 1906. Beneath the high altar is a subterranean 
chapel containing the tomb of St Januarius (San Gcnnaro), the 
patron saint of the city ; in the right aisle there is a chapel (Cappella 
del Tespro) built between 1608 and 1637 in popular recognition of 
his having saved Naples in 1527 " from famine, war, plague and the 
fire of Vesuvius "; and in a silver tabernacle behind the high altar 
of this chapel are preserved the two phials partially filled with his 
blood, the periodical liquefaction of which forms a prominent feature 
in the religious life of the city. Accessible by a door in the left 
aisle of the cathedral is the church of Sta Restituta, a basilica of 
the 7th century, and the original cathedral. Santa Chiara (i4th 
century) is interesting for a fresco ascribed to Giotto (at one time 
there were many more), and monuments to Robert the Wise, his 
queen Mary of Valois and his daughter Mary, empress of Constanti- 
nople. San Domenico Maggiore, founded by Charles II. in 1285, 
but completely restored after 1445, has an effective interior particu- 
larly rich in Renaissance sculpture. In the neighbouring monastery 
is shown the cell of Thomas Aquinas. San Filippo Neri or dei 
Gerolomini, erected in the close of the l6th century, has a white 
marble facade and two campaniles, and contains the tombstone of 
Giambattista Vico. Sta Maria del Parto, in the Chiaja, occupies 
the site of the house of Sannazaro, and is named after his poem De 
Partu Virginis. San Francesco di Paolo, opposite the royal palace, 
is an imitation of the Pantheon at Rome by Pietro Bianchi di Lugano 
(1815-1837), and its dome is one of the boldest in Europe. The 
church of the Certosa (Carthusian monastery) of San Martino, on 
the hill below St Elmo's castle, has now become in name, as so 
many of the churches are in reality, a museum. Dating from the 
idth century, and restored by Fonsega in the J7th, it is a building 
of extraordinary richness of decoration, with paintings and sculpture 
by Guido Reni, Lanfranco, Caravaggio, D'Arpino, Solimene, Luca 
Giordano and notably a " Descent from the Cross " by Ribera, con- 
considered the finest work of this master. The monastery has been 
transformed into a medieval museum, where many specimens 
illustrating the modern history of Naples may be studied, and some 
fine specimens of majolica from the southern provinces can be 
inspected. The view from the south-western balcony is incompar- 
able. The marble cloister by Fpnsega, though rather flamboyant in 
character, is one of the finest of its kind in existence. Other churches 
with interesting monuments are Sant" Anna dei Lombardi, built 
in 1411 by Guerrello Origlia, which contains some splendid marble 
sculpture, especially Rosellino's " Nativity "in the Cappella Picco- 
lomini; Sant Angelo a Nilo, which contains the tomb of Cardinal 
Brancaccio, the joint work of Donatello and Michelozzo; San 
Giovanni a Carbonara, built in 1344 and enlarged by King Ladislaus 
in 1400, which contains among much other remarkable sculpture the 
tomb of the king, the masterpiece of Andrea Ciccione (1414), and 
that of Sergiami Caracciolo, the favourite of Joanna II., who was 
murdered in 1432 (the chapel in which it stands is paved with one 
of the earliest majolica pavements in Italy); San Lorenzo (1324), 
the Royal Church of the House of Anjou; and, for purely archaeo- 
logical interest, the Church of Sant' Aspreno, thought to be the oldest 
Christian church in Italy, in the crypt of the new Borsa or exchange. 
Persons interested in frescoes will admire those in the former monas- 
tery at the back of the church of S. Maria Donna Regina and those in 
the cloister of S. Severino and Sossio. A more ancient Christian 
monument than any of the convents or churches is the catacombs, 
which extend a great distance underground and are in many respects 
finer than those at Rome. The entrance is at the Ospizio dei Poveri 
di San Gennaro (see Schulze's monograph, Jena, 1877). 

Of the secular institutions in Naples none is more remarkable 
than the National Museum, formerly known as the Museo 
Borbonico. The building, begun in 1586 for vice-regal stables, 
and remodelled in 1615 for the university, was put to its present 
use in 1790, when Ferdinand IV. proclaimed it his private 
property independently of the crown, placed in it the Farnese 
collection which he had inherited from his father, and all the 
specimens from Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae, Puteoli, 
Paestum, &c., which till then had been housed in the palace at 
Portici, and gave it the name of Real Museo Borbonico. In 1860 



i8o 



NAPLES 



Garibaldi, when dictator at Naples, proclaimed the museum 
and the territory devoted to excavation to be the property of 
the nation, since which time it has been called the National 
Museum. Vast numbers of specimens have since been added to 
it both by purchase and from excavations, and it is now unique 
as a treasure house of Italo-Greek and Roman antiquities, 
besides containing a fine library and an important collection of 
pictures. 

A large additional space for exhibits was made in 1904, when the 
western half of the second floor was added, and the building as now 
arranged contains the large bronzes and statues on the ground 
floor; a gallery of Pompeian frescoes in the entresol; the library, 
picture gallery and small bronzes on the first floor; and the glass, 
jewelry, arms, papyri, gems, and the unique collection of Italo- 
Greek vases, on the second floor. The large bronzes are almost the 
only ones which have survived from classical times, the most famous 
of them being the seated Mercury and the dancing Faun; 
the marbles reckon among their vast number the Psyche, the 
Capuan Venus, the portraits of Homer and Julius Caesar, as well 
as the huge group called the Toro Farnese (Amphion and Zethus 
tying Dirce to its horns), the Farnese Hercules, the excellent 
though late statues of the Balbi on horseback and a very fine 
collection of ancient portrait busts. 

Modern Buildings. The Galleria Umberto I. is a large cruci- 
form arcade opened in 1890. It somewhat resembles the Milan 
arcade, and has an octagon in the centre, with a cupola. It is 
highly ornamented with gilt and stucco. A music-hall occupies 
the basement. The Galleria Principe di Napoli is in a smaller 
arcade opposite to the National Museum, mainly occupied by 
shops where reproductions from the museum are sold. The 
Galleria Vittoria, opened in 1907, is a circular building with 
handsome dome, situated near the main entrance of the Villa 
Communale. It is in great part occupied by offices and shops. 
The Anglican church in Vico San Pasquale was built in 1862 on 
ground given to the British community by Garibaldi when 
dictator, and was the first Protestant church erected in Naples. 
Since the granting of religious liberty evangelical churches have 
been built by the Presbyterians, Wesleyans, French, Germans and 
Italians. A Greek church and a Jewish synagogue have also 
been opened. The Borsa (or exchange) is a fine building in the 
Piazza of the same name, built over the remains of the very 
ancient church of Sant' Aspreno, which are still preserved in the 
crypt. In front of it is the fine 16th-century Fontana Medina. 

Educational and Learned Institutions. The university of Naples 
is one of the oldest in Italy, having been founded by Frederick II. 
in the first half of the I3th century. It had fallen to insignificance 
under the Bourbons, but since 1860 it has rapidly recovered. It 
comprises five faculties (literature and philosophy, jurisprudence, 
mathematics, natural science and medicine), and is well equipped 
with zoological, mineralogical and geological museums, a physio- 
logical institute, a cabinet of anthropology, and botanical gardens. 
Originally erected in 1557 for the use of the Jesuits, the university 
buildings are regarded as the best work of Marco di Pino; the 
quadrangle, surrounded by a simple but effective peristyle, contains 
statues of Pietro della Vigna (Frederick's chancellor), Thomas 
Aquinas and Giordano Bruno. The new building, the shell of which 
was completed in 1906, faces the Rettifilo, a new wide street which 
leads from the Borsa in a straight line to the railway station; at 
the back it joins the former building, which is at a higher level. 
On the other or north side of the ancient building, and at the back of 
the Strada Constantinopoli, very large annexes have been formed 
for the medical school. The famous zoological station at Naples, 
whose aquarium is the principal building in the Villa Communale, 
is not connected with the university. It was founded by Dr Dohrn 
in 1872; a large annexe was added to it a few years later on its 
western side, and a larger annexe on the eastern side was completed 
in 1907. The aquarium was originally established at Naples because 
the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood are more varied than 
those of any district in Europe. Its Mittheilungen began to be pub- 
lished in 1878, and portions of a great work on the flora and fauna 
of Naples come out year by year. It is justly considered the first 
as well as the oldest of the zoological stations of the world, and the 
chief universities pay 100 a year for tables to which they send 
-students. At these tables every necessary is provided, each student 
having his own tanks with salt water laid on for keeping his speci- 
mens, and all necessary chemicals being provided. Of other scientific 
institutions we .may mention the observatory on Vesuvius, which is 
'supported entirely by funds from the government, but is annexed 
informally to the university. Its object is to record earth-movements 
and volcanic phenomena. The Specola or astronomical observatory 
is also a government institution, and forms no official part of the 
university. It is situated on the hill of Capodimonte. 

The Royal Society of Naples, dating from 1756, was reconstituted 



in 1861, and is divided into three academies, namely: moral and 
political; physical and mathematical; letters, archaeology and 
fine arts. The famous Accademia Ppntaniana, founded by Antonio 
Becardella (surnamed Panormita owing to his origin from Palermo) 
and J. J. Pontanus in 1442, was restored in 1808 and still exists. 
The Royal School for Oriental Languages owes its existence to 
Matteo Ripa.who in 1732 established a school for Chinese mission- 
aries. The Royal Conservatory of Music in S. Pietro a Majella has 
existed in one form or other since 1760, and has had many famous 
pupils. 

Elementary education has proceeded with great rapidity, and 
there are ninety public elementary shools in the city, twenty-three 
ecclesiastical gratuitous schools and many evangelical schools at a 
very small payment. The higher grade schools are also numerous, 
and there are special foreign schools established by private enterprise 
for the education of the children of foreign residents. There are three 
schools for the blind and two for deaf-mutes. 

Libraries The state archives in Vico San Severo e Sossio contain 
all. the records of past governments; the Notarial archives in Via 
San Paolo contain all the original notarial acts from 1450 onwards, 
to the number of 800,000. The Royal national library in the building 
of the national museum contains 364,000 volumes and 7835 manu- 
scripts, many of which are of great value. The musical archives are 
kept here as a separate department. The Royal library of San 
Giacomo (100,000 vols.) had its origin in the Palace library of the 
Bourbon times. There may also be mentioned the Royal University 
library, the Royal Brancacciana library in Via Donnaromita, with 
125,000 vols. and 2000 important MSS., the Gerolomini library, 
mainly of ecclesiastical books and codices, and the Provincial library 
in Via Duomo, consisting mainly of technical books. The Biblioteca 
Communale, and the rich collection of seismic and vulcanological 
books made by the Italian Alpine Club, are both in charge of the 
Societa di Storia Patria. This literary society was established in 
1875, by a committee of private gentlemen anxious to record all 
possible details of the history of the locality. It has a good though 
not perfect collection of the early Neapolitan newspapers, a complete 
file of the principal modern ones and many interesting MSS. The 
society is governed by a council of literary men, and issues publi- 
cations from time to time. The Zoological Station or Aquarium 
has a very fine biological library. 

Theatres. The San Carlo opera-house, with its area of 5157 sq. 
yds. and its pit capable of seating 1000 spectators, is one of the 
largest in Europe. It was originally built in 1737 under Charles III., 
but was destroyed by fire in 1816 and completely rebuilt. It was 
heavily subsidized in the Bourbon times, but now, except for giving 
the house, which is the property of the municipality, no assistance 
is granted from the public funds. The Mercadante is also a municipal 
theatre, but has no subsidy. The Bellini is a fine opera-house near 
the museum, and the other chief theatres are the Sannazzaro, 
Politeama and Fiorentini. Numerous music halls have sprung up 
of late years, of which the principal is the Salone Marghenta in the 
basement of the Galleria Umberto Primo. 

Charities. Charitable institutions are numerous in Naples. The 
Reclusorio or poorhouse was founded in the l8th century, and besides 
being a refuge for the indigent poor has a series of industrial schools 
attached, at which foundling boys are educated and taught trades. 
The principal hospitals are the Incurabili, Gesu e Maria, Santa Maria 
della Pace and a hospital for poor priests, which are all under the 
same management. The Pellegrini is exclusively surgical; the Santa 
Maria di Loreto is especially for the inmates of the Reclusorio and 
for street accidents; the Qspedale Lina for children; and the 
Ospedale Cotugno for infectious diseases. There is also an Inter- 
national hospital for the treatment of others than Italians, which 
was built by Lady Harriet Bentinck and is managed by an inter- 
national committee; a German hospital; and a hospital erected 
by the representatives of Baron Adolphe de Rothschild. There are 
two public lunatic asylums in the city, and another at the neighbour- 
ing town of Aversa; and many private asylums, among which 
Fleurent, Miano and Ponti Rossi may be mentioned. 

Harbour. At a very early date the original harbour at Naples, 
now known in its greatly reduced state as Porto Piccolo, and fit only 
for boats and lighters, became too small. In 1302 Charles II. of 
Anjou began the construction of the Porto Grande by forming the 
Molo Grande or San Gennaro, which stretched eastward into the 
bay, and was terminated by a lighthouse in the I5th century. By 
the addition of a new pier running north-east from the lighthouse, 
and protected by a heavily armed battery, Charles III. in 1740 
a'dded greatly to the safety of the harbour. In 1826 the open area 
to the south of the Porto Grande was formed 'into the Porto Militare 
by the construction of the Molo San Vincenzo, 1200 ft. long. Shortly 
after the formation of the new kingdom of Italy attention was called 
to the insufficiency of the harbour for modern wants ; and new works 
were begun in 1862. Besides the lengthening of the Molo San 
Vincenzo to a total of more than 5000 ft., the scheme as now carried 
out has completely revolutionized the harbour. A cross piece at the 
end of the Molo San Vincenzo has made the head of that structure 
into the form of the Greek letter gamma, thus affording considerable 
protection to the anchorage. New quays have been made all the 
way from the old Immacolatella landing-place to the new and 
spacious Capitaneria di Porto, on the eastern side of which is a new 



NAPLES 



181 



harbour used mainly for the coal trade, and piers such that the largest 
liner can lie alongside the jetty. The outer mole of this harbour runs 
out from the Castel del Carmine towards the south for some 1500 ft. 
and forms the inner side of the new steam basin, which when nearly 
completed in 1906 fell in on the farther side, and had to be re- 
constructed. The depth of this new harbour is from 25 to 30 ft. 
There are two projecting moles, one to the inner harbour and the 
second to the steam basin. In 1905 the total tonnage entering the 
port amounted to 4,698,872 tons, of which the Italians (including 
their coasting trade) carried 1,410,192 tons in 3687 vessels; the 
Germans 1,391,585 tons in 356 vessels; the British 1,136,345 tons 
in 402 vessels; and the French 245,206 tons in 161 vessels. Naples 
is the principal port for emigration, chiefly to North and South 
America; 281 emigrant ships sailed in 1905, carrying 216,103 emi- 
grants. The total imports for that year reached the sum of 5,397,918, 
and the exports 3,367,805. The articles dealt in are wine, oil, 
spirits, drugs, tobacco, chemicals, hemp, cotton, wool, silk, timber, 
paper, leather and hides, metal, glass, cereals and live animals. 
The largest export was to the United States (864,562), the next to 
Great Britain (701,387), while the largest imports were from Great 
Britain (1,233,410) and the United States (807,564). The speciali- 
ties of Naples are the manufacture of coral, tortoise-shell, kid gloves 
and macaroni, but it has been growing also as an industrial centre. 
The port of Naples is second in the kingdom, and owns no rival save 
Genoa. 

Water Supply. Since 1884 Naples has had as fine a water supply 
as any city in Europe. It is derived from the hills in the neighbour- 
hood of Avellino, and is thought to be the effluent of an underground 
lake. It rushes out from the hillside and is received in a covered 
masonry canal, whence it flows in large iron pipes till it reaches five 
enormous reservoirs constructed just opposite to the entrance gates 
of the royal palace at Capodimonte. Hence it comes by natural 
gravitation into the town at a pressure of five atmospheres, so that it 
supplies the highest parts of the town with abundant water. The 
water is so cold that in the hottest summer perishable articles can be 
preserved by merely securing them in a closed vessel and allowing 
the water to drip upon it. The supply was brought into the town 
just after the terrible cholera outbreak of 1884, and as each new 
standpipe was erected in the streets every well within 200 yds. of 
it was closed, so that in a short time no well remained in the town; 
and thus a fertile source of infection was eliminated. Every house 
in the town and suburbs is now supplied with a constant supply of 
pure water. The effect on the health of the city has been extra- 
ordinary. Cholera epidemics, which used to be frequent, have 
become things of the past, and there is now abundant water for public 
fountains, washing the streets and watering gardens both public 
and private. The old sewers were found quite inadequate to carry 
off the large increase of water, and besides they all led directly into 
the bay, causing a terrible odour and rendering the water near the 
town unwholesome for bathing. This has been remedied by a 
system of sewers, which after passing by a tunnel through the hill of 
Posilipo cross the plain beyond and discharge their contents into the 
open sea on the deserted coast of Cumae, 1 7 m. from the city of Naples. 
The old aqueduct, which was constructed in the I7th century by_ 
Carnignanp and Criminelli and taps the Isclero at Sant" Agata dei 
Goti, is still available to a certain extent, but its water was never 
very wholesome, and as it was not laid on to houses but only supplied 
fountains and house cisterns which have since been filled up, no 
account need be taken of it. The solitary Leone fountain, a spring 
which supplied drinking water to the west end of the town, has been 
dry for many years. 

Modern Growth. Naples, the most densely peopled city in 
Europe, has increased in modern times at an enormous rate. 
On the large areas reclaimed from the sea, vast hotels and 
mansions let in flats have been erected. The gardens at the west 
end of the town are all built over. The Vomero, once merely a 
scattered village, is now an important suburb, and a large 
workmen's quarter has sprung up beyond the railway station to 
house the populace which was turned out from the centre of the 
town when the works of the risanamento were undertaken. The 
increase in population between the census of 1881, when it was 
461,962, and the census in 1901 was 85,521. The commune, 
which includes not only the urban districts (sezioni) of San 
Ferdinando, Chiaja, S. Giuseppe, Monte Calvario, Awocata, 
Stella, San Carlo all' Arena, Vicaria, San Lorenzo, Mercato, 
Pendino and Porto, but also the suburban districts of Vomero, 
Posilipo, Fuorigrotta, Miano and Piscinola, has been built over 
in every direction, one great incentive being the creation of an 
industrial zone to the eastward of the city. This zone has been 
set aside for the purpose of industrial development, and all persons 
or companies who set up industrial concerns on it have grants 
of land at a nominal price, are free of taxes for ten years and 
have electric force supplied to them at a very low figure. The 
law came into force in 1906, and was immediately followed by 



the erection of a large number of factories, for spinning silk, 
cotton, jute and wool, and the making of railway plant, auto- 
mobiles, the building of ships, and in fact almost every kind of 
industry. After the cholera epidemic of 1884, M. Depretis, then 
premier, visited Naples, and in the course of a public speech 
gave vent to the famous dictum " Bisogna sventrare Napoli "- 
" Naples must be disembowelled! " Plans were at once made to 
pull down all the worst slums, and as these lay between the 
centre of the town and the railway station, a wide street was 
constructed from the centre of the town to the eastward, and 
on each side of it wide strips of ground were cleared to afford 
building sites for shops and offices. The funds for this vast 
undertaking were found partly by the state, which voted 
3,000,000, and as to the rest by the Risanamento Company, 
which had a capital of 1,200,000. Before beginning operations 
of demolition it was obviously necessary to provide homes for 
the poor people who would be turned out, and a large working- 
class quarter was erected to the north and beyond the railway 
station. This quarter has wide airy streets and lofty houses, 
and though perhaps the houses were let at prices which were 
beyond the purses of the lowest class, the result of their erection 
was to cause a number of the poorer houses in the old town to 
be vacated, thus giving an opportunity to the lowest class to 
be at any rate better housed than they were before. The quarter 
described above is known as the Rione Vasto. There are also 
new middle-class quarters at Santa Lucia, Vomero Nuovo and 
Sant' Efremo, and better houses in the Via Sirignano, on the 
Riviera di Chiaja, Via Elena and Via Caracciolo at Mergellina, 
Via Partenope near the Chiatamone, and an aristocratic quarter 
in the large extensions made in the Rione Amedeo. The narrow 
alleys of Porto, Pendino and Mercato have nearly all disappeared, 
and old Naples has been vanishing day by day. One notable 
result of the widening of the streets has been the spread of the 
electric tramways, which traverse the town in various directions 
and are admirably served by a Belgian company. The city is 
mainly lighted by electricity, which has also found its way into 
all the public edifices and most private houses. 

Folk-lore. The attention of antiquarians to the charms against 
the Evil Eye used by the inhabitants of the Neapolitan provinces 
was first drawn in 1888, when it was shown that they were all 
derived from the survival of ancient classical legends which had 
sprung from various sources in connexion with classical sites in the 
neighbourhood. These may be divided into three classes: first, 
the sprig of rue in silver, with sundry emblems attached to it, all 
of which refer to the worship of Diana, whose shrine at Capua was 
of considerable importance; secondly, the serpent charms, which 
formed part of the worship of Aesculapius, and were no doubt derived 
largely from the ancient eastern ophiolatry; and lastly charms 
derived from the legends of the Sirens. A special confirmation is 
given in this case, as the Siren is represented mounted on her sea- 
horse crossing the Styx upon the vase of Pluto and Proserpine in the 
collection of the Naples Museum. This vase dates about 250 B.C., 
and the Siren charms represent her in the same way, but usually 
mounted on two sea-horses. The sea-horse and the Siren alone are 
commonly found as charms; the Siren being sometimes in her 
fishtail form and sometimes in the form of a harpy. 

History. All ancient writers agree in representing Naples as 
a Greek settlement, though its foundation is obscurely and 
differently narrated. The earliest Greek settlement in the 
neighbourhood was at Pithecusa (Ischia), but the colonists, 
being driven out of the island by the frequent earthquakes, 
settled on the mainland at Cumae, where they found a natural 
acropolis of great strategic value. From Cumae they colonized 
Dikearchia (Pozzuoli) and probably subsequently Palaeopolis. 
The site of Palaeopolis has given rise to much discussion, but the 
researches by R. T. Giinther open completely new ground, and 
seem to be the correct solution of the problem. He places 
Palaeopolis at Gaiola Point and has discovered the remains of 
the harbour, the town hall and various other rudiments of the 
ancient city. This site, moreover, corresponds with Livy's 
testimony, and would account for his statement that the towns 
of Palaeopolis and Neapolis were near together and identical in 
language and government. This opinion about the site of Palae- 
opolis has been based on the very considerable alterations which 
are known to have taken place in the level of the land, and the 



182 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



extensive submerged foundations of buildings off the southern ex- 
tremity of Posilipo have been identified with those of the old city. 

Parthenope, as well as Dikearchia, was formed as a new colony 
from Cumae, and was so called from a legendary connexion of 
the locality with the siren of that name, whose tomb was still 
shown in the time of Strabo. Parthenope was situated where 
Naples now stands, upon the splendid natural acropolis formed 
by the hill of Pizzofalcone, and defended on the land side by a 
fosse which is now the Strada di Chiaja, and a massive wall, of 
which remains may still be traced at the back of the existing 
houses. To the colonists of Parthenope there came afterwards 
a considerable addition from Athens and Chalcis, and they 
built themselves a town which they called Neapolis, or the " new 
city," in contradistinction to the old settlement, which- in con- 
sequence was styled Palaeopolis or the " old city." The name 
of Parthenope became lost, and the city of Palaeopolis fell into 
gradual decadence. 

In 328 B.C. the Palaeopolitans having provoked the hostility 
of Rome by their incursions upon her Campanian allies, the 
consul Publilius Philo marched against them, and having taken 
his position between the old and the new city, laid regular siege 
to Palaeopolis. By the aid of a strong Samnite garrison which 
they received, the Palaeopolitans were long able to withstand the 
attacks of the consul; but at length the city was betrayed into 
the hands of the Romans by two of her citizens. Neapolis 
possibly surrendered to the consul without any resistance, as it 
was received on favourable terms, had its liberties secured by 
a treaty, and obtained the chief authority, ' which previously 
seems to have been enjoyed by the older city. From that time 
Palaeopolis totally disappeared from history, and Neapolis 
became an allied city (Joederata civitas) a dependency of Rome, 
to whose alliance it remained constantly faithful, even in the 
most trying circumstances. In 280 B.C. Pyrrhus unsuccessfully 
attacked its walls; and in the Second Punic War Hannibal was 
deterred by their strength from attempting to make himself 
master of the town. During the civil wars of Marius and Sulla 
a body of partisans of the latter, having entered it by treachery 
(82 B.C.), made a general massacre of the inhabitants; but 
Neapolis soon recovered, as it was again a flourishing city in the 
time of Cicero. It became a municipium after the passing of the 
lex Julia; under the empire it is noticed as a colonia, but the 
time when it first obtained that rank is uncertain possibly 
under Claudius. 

Though a municipal town, Neapolis long retained its Greek 
culture and institutions; and even at the time of Strabo it 
had gymnasia and quinquennial games, and was divided into 
phratriae after the Greek fashion. When the Romans became 
masters of the world, many of their upper classes, both before 
the close of the republic and under the empire, from a love of 
Greek manners and literature or from indolent and effeminate 
habits, resorted to Neapolis, either for the education and the 
cultivation of gymnastic exercises or for the enjoyment of music 
and of a soft and luxurious climate. Hence we find Neapolis 
variously styled by Horace otiosa Neapolis, by Martial docta 
Parthenope, by Ovfd in otia natam Parthenopen. It was the 
favourite residence of many of the emperors; Nero made his 
first appearance on the stage in one of its theatres; Titus assumed 
the office of its archon; and Hadrian became its demarch. It 
was chiefly at Neapolis that Virgil composed his Georgia; and 
he was buried on the hill of Pausilypus, the modern Posilipo, in 
its neighbourhood. It was also the favourite residence of the 
poets Statius (A.D. 61) and Silius Italicus (A.D. 25), the former 
of whom was a Neapolitan by birth. 

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Neapolis suffered severely 
during the Gothic wars. Having espoused the Gothic cause in 
the year 536, it was taken, after a protracted siege, by Belisarius, 
who turned aside an aqueduct, marched by surprise into the city 
through its channel, and put many of the inhabitants to the 
sword. In 542 Totila besieged it and compelled it to surrender, 
but being soon after recovered by Narses, it remained long a 
dependency of the exarchate of Ravenna, under the immediate 
government of a duke, appointed by the East Roman emperors. 



When the Lombards invaded Italy and pushed their conquests 
in the southern provinces, the limits of the Neapolitan duchy 
were considerably narrowed. In the beginning of the 8th century, 
at the time of the iconoclastic controversy, the emperor Leo 
the Isaurian having forced compliance to his edict against the 
worshipping of images, the Neapolitans, encouraged by Pope 
Gregory HI., threw off their allegiance to the Eastern emperors, 
and established a republican form of government under a duke 
of their own appointment. Under this regime Neapolis retained 
independence for nearly four hundred years, though constantly 
struggling against the powerful Lombard dukes of Benevento, who 
twice unsuccessfully besieged it. In 1027, however, Pandulf IV'., 
a Lombard prince of Capua, succeeded in making himself 
master of it; but he was expelled in 1030 by Duke Sergius, 
chiefly through the aid of a few Norman adventurers. The 
Normans, in their turn, gradually superseded all powers, whether 
Greek, Lombard or republican, which had previously divided 
the south of Italy, and furthermore checked the Saracens in the 
advances they were making through Apulia. 

From the date at which the south of Italy and Sicily were 
subjugated by the Normans the history of Naples ceases to be 
the history of a republic or a city, and becomes that of a kingdom, 
sometimes separate, sometimes merged, with the kingdom of 
Sicily, in that of the Two Sicilies. The city of Naples hence- 
forth formed the metropolis of the kingdom to which it gave its 
name, owing this pre-eminence to its advantageous position on 
the side of Italy towards Sicily, and to the favour of successive 
princes (see NAPLES, KINGDOM OF). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ackerman, Naples and the Campagna Felice 
(1816); Craven, Tour through the Southern Provinces of Naples 
(1821); R. T. Gunther, Earth Movements in the Bay of Naples 
(Oxford, 1905); Rolfe and Ingleby, Naples in 1888 (London, 1888); 
Black, Naples in the Nineties (1897); Arthur Norway, Naples, Past 
and Present (London, 1901); Miss Jex Blake, The Elder Pliny's 
Chapters on the History of Art (London, 1896). (E. N.-R.) 

NAPLES, KINGDOM OF, the name conventionally given to the 
kingdom of Sicily on the Italian mainland (Sicily beyond the 
Pharos), to distinguish it from that of Sicily proper (Sicily on 
this side of the Pharos, i.e. Messina), the title of "King of 
Naples " having only actually been borne by Philip II. of Spain 
in the i6th century (" King of England and Naples ") and by 
Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat in the igth. The history 
of the kingdom of Naples is inextricably interwoven with that of 
Sicily, with which for long periods it was united as the kingdom 
of the Two Sicilies. 

For the earlier history of Naples and its territory, as a republic 
and a dukedom, see NAPLES above, and for the coming of the 
Normans see SICILY and NORMANS. It is sufficient here to state 
that the leaders of the house of Hauteville, Robert Guiscard and 
Richard of Aversa, in 1059 did homage to Pope Nicholas II. (<?..) 
for all conquests they had made both in the island and upon the 
mainland, and that in 1130 Roger de Hauteville (Roger II. as 
" great count " of Sicily) assumed the style of king as Roger I. 
In this way the south of Italy, together with the adjacent island 
of Sicily, was converted into one political body, which, owing to 
the peculiar temper of its Norman rulers and their powerful 
organization, assumed a more feudal character than any other 
part of the peninsula. The regno, as it was called by the Italians, 
constituted a state apart, differing in social institutions, foreign 
relations, and type of home government, from the commonwealths 
and tyrannies of upper Italy. The indirect right acquired by 
the popes as lords paramount over this vast section of Italian 
territory gave occasion to all the most serious disturbances of 
Italy between the end of the I3th and the beginning of the i6th 
centuries, by the introduction of the house of Anjou into Naples 
and the disputed succession of Angevin and Aragonese princes. 

Roger I. was succeeded in 1154 by William I. "the Bad," 
who died in 1 166, being succeeded by his son William II. " the 
Good," on whose death in 1189 the crown passed to 
his illegitimate son Tancred. After the death of Hohea . 
Tancred the emperor Henry VI., of the house of staufcas. 
Hohenstaufen, who by his marriage with Constance 
or Costanza d' Altavilla, daughter of Roger I. (d. 1154), was 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



183 



Tancred's rival for the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, de- 
scended into Italy in 1194. He easily conquered both the 
mainland and the island, and Tancred's only son William III. 
surrendered the crown to him. But with the excuse of a pre- 
tended plot he put a number of the most conspicuous persons 
in the kingdoms to death, and had William himself blinded. 
He then returned to Germany, and during his absence an agita- 
tion broke out, proyjaked by the cruelty of his lieutenants and 
encouraged by his Norman wife. He hurried back to Italy, 
and repressed the movement with his usual ferocity, but died 
The in 1197. Costanza then had her son Frederick 

emperor (b. 1194) proclaimed king, and obtained the support 
Frederick o f tne Holy See on condition that the kingdom should 
be once more recognized as a fief of the church. The 
whole history of the ensuing period of south Italian history 
turns on the claims of the papacy over the kingdoms of Naples 
and Sicily, based on the recognition of papal suzerainty in 1053. 
The Hohenstaufen kings refused to admit this claim; hence the 
persistent hostility of the popes and the calling in of foreign 
potentates and armies. Costanza died in 1198, leaving Pope 
Innocent III. regent and tutor to her son; the pope's authority 
was contested by various nobles, but in 1209 Frederick married 
Costanza, daughter of the king of Aragon, with whose help he 
succeeded in reducing a large part of Sicily to obedience. Two 
years later he was elected king of the Romans at the diet 
of Nuremberg in opposition to Otto IV., and in 1220 he was 
crowned emperor in Rome by pope Honorius III., but continued 
to reside in Sicily. He quelled a rising of Sicilian barons and 
Saracens, and confined 60,000 of the latter at Lucera in Capi- 
tanata, where they ended by becoming a most loyal colony. 
After the death of Frederick's wife Pope Honorius III. arranged 
a marriage for him with Yolande, daughter of John of Brienne 
(1225). But in 1227 Gregory IX. excommunicated him because 
he delayed the crusade which he had promised to undertake; 
and although he sailed the following year, and concluded a 
treaty with the sultan of Egypt whereby the kingdom of 
Jerusalem was re-established, the pope was not satisfied and 
sent an army into Neapolitan territory. On his return Frederick 
defeated the pontificals, and in 1230 peace was made at San 
Germane and the excommunication withdrawn. In 1231 he 
issued the celebrated Constitutions of the Sicilian kingdom at 
the parliament of Melfi. He had further quarrels with successive 
pontiffs, and was excommunicated more than once. In 1246 a 
number of his own barons and officials of the mainland conspired 
against his rule, but were crushed with great ferocity, and even 
his faithful secretary, Pietro della Vigna, fell a victim to the 
emperor's suspicions. Frederick's last years were embittered 
by the hostilities following on the crusade which the pope pro- 
claimed against him and by rebellions in Naples and Sicily. 
He died in 1250. His policy was anti-feudal and fended to 
concentrate power into his own hands; hence the frequent 
risings of the barons. His court at Palermo had been pne of the 
most brilliant in Europe, and attracted learned men from all 
over the then known world; his somewhat pagan philosophy 
was afterwards regarded as marking the beginnings of modern 
rationalism. He opened schools and universities, and he himself 
wrote poetry in Sicilian dialect. 

His son Conrad IV. succeeded to the empire, while to his 
illegitimate son Manfred he left the principality of Taranto 
Manfred an< ^ tne re g encv f tne southern kingdom, to be held 
in Conrad's name. By his political sagacity and 
moderation Manfred won a strong party to his side and helped 
Conrad to subjugate the rebellious barons. The emperor died in 
1254, leaving an infant son, Conradin (b. 1252), and Manfred was 
appointed vicar-general during the latter's minority. Manfred, 
too, encountered the hostility of the popes, against whom he had 
to wage war, generally with success, and of some of the barons 
whom the papacy encouraged to rebel; and in 1258, on a rumour 
of Conradin's death, he was offered and accepted the crown of 
Naples and Sicily. The rumour proved false, but he retained 
the crown, promising to leave the kingdom to Conradin at his 
death and to defend his rights. He now became head of 



the Ghibellines or Imperialists of Italy, and his position was 
strengthened by the marriage of his daughter Costanza to Peter, 
son of King James of Aragon. But he met with opposition from 
the turbulent nobility and the clergy, who had been deprived 
of many privileges, and he failed to conciliate the communes, 
which were oppressed by taxes and beginning to aspire to 
autonomy. Innocent IV., in his determination to crush the 
Hohenstaufens, offered the kingdom in turn to Richard, earl 
of Cornwall, to Edward, son of Henry III. of England, and to 
Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France. After long 
negotiations -with successive popes, Charles was finally induced 
by Clement IV. to come to Italy in 1265, agreeing to accept 
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies as a fief of the church, and 
in 1266 he marched southward with the privileges of -.. . 
a crusader (see CHARLES I., king of Naples and Sicily). 
The defection of many cities and nobles facilitated his task, 
and Manfred was forced to retire on Benevento, where, on the 
26th of February, owing to the treachery of a part of his troops, 
he was defeated and killed. As a result of this victory Charles 
was soon master of almost the whole kingdom, and he entered 
Naples, which now became the capital instead of Palermo. 
He persecuted the nobles who had sided with Manfred, and 
established a military despotism which proved more oppressive 
than that of the Hohenstaufens had ever been. Old laws, 
customs "and immunities were ruthlessly swept away, the people 
were ground down with taxes, and the highest positions and 
finest estates conferred on French and Provencal nobles. Al- 
though the southern Italians had long been ruled by foreigners, 
it was the Angevin domination which thoroughly denationalized 
them, and initiated that long period of corruption, decadence 
and foreign slavery which only ended in the igth century. 

Invited by Sicilian malcontents and Ghibellines, Conradin 
(Ital. Corradino), the last surviving Hohenstaufen, descended 

into Italy in 1 267 at the head of a small army collected ., 

' . , , Coaradla. 

in Germany, and he found many supporters; but 

King Charles on hearing of his arrival abandoned the siege 
of Lucera and came to intercept him. A battle took place 
at Tagliacozzo (August 23rd, 1268), in which the Imperialists 
were defeated, and Conradin himself was subsequently caught 
and handed over to Charles, who had him tried for high treason 
and beheaded (see CONRADIN). All who had assisted the un- 
fortunate youth were cruelly persecuted, and the inhabitants 
of Agosta put to the sword. Thus ended the power of the 
Hohenstaufens. Although the picturesque figures of Manfred 
and Conradin awakened sympathy among the people of the 
kingdom, their authority was never really consolidated and their 
German knights were hated; which facts rendered the enterprise 
of another foreigner like the Angevin comparatively easy. 

In Sicily, however, Charles's government soon made itself 
odious by its exactions, the insolence and cruelty of the king's 
French officials and favourites, the depreciation of 
the currency, and the oppressive personal services, Sicilian 
while the nobles were incensed at the violation of vespers. 
their feudal constitution. Just as Charles was con- 
templating an expedition to the East, the Sicilians rose in revolt, 
massacring the French throughout the island. The malcontents 
were led by the Salernitan noble Giovanni da Procida, a friend 
of the emperor Frederick and of Manfred, who had taken refuge 
at the court of Peter III. of Aragon, husband of Manfred's 
daughter Costanza. He had induced Peter to make good his 
somewhat shadowy claims to the crown of Sicily, but while 
preparations were being made for the expedition, the popular 
rising known as the Sicilian Vespers, which resulted in the mass- 
acre of nearly all the French in the island, broke out at Palermo 
on Easter Day 1282. Peter reached Palermo in September, 
and by the following month had captured Messina, the last 
French stronghold. Pope Martin IV. now proclaimed a crusade 
against the Aragonese, and the war continued for many years. 
The Sicilian fleet under Ruggiero di Lauria defeated that of 
the Angevins at Malta in 1283, and 1284 in the Bay of Naples, 
where the king's son, Charles the Lame, was captured. Charles I. 
died in 1 286, and, his heir being a prisoner, his grandson, Charles 



1 84 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



' 



Robert. 



Martel (d. 1295), assumed the regency. Peter died the same 
year, leaving Aragon to his son Alphonso III. and Sicily to his 
son James, who was consecrated king in spite of the interdict. 
The war went on uninterruptedly, for the 'popes prevented all 
attempts to arrive at an understanding, as they were determined 
that the rights of the church should be fully recognized. Charles 
Chariesli t ^ le Lame, wno had been liberated in 1288, having 

renounced his rights on Sicily, was absolved from 
his oath by Pope Nicholas IV., who crowned him king of 
the Two Sicilies and excommunicated Alphonso. The latter's 
successor James made peace with Boniface VIII. by renouncing 
Sicily (in exchange for Sardinia and Corsica and the hand of 
Charles's daughter) and promising to help the Angevins to 
reconquer the island. But the Sicilians, led by James's brother, 

Frederick III., 1 who had been governor of the island 

and was now proclaimed king, determined to resist. 

The war went on with varying success, until Charles 
of Valois, summoned by the pope to conduct the campaign, 
landed in Sicily and, his army being decimated by disease, 
made peace with Frederick at Caltabellotta (1302). The 
Angevins renounced Sicily in favour of Frederick, who was 
recognized as king of Trinacria (a name adopted so as not to 
mention that of Sicily), and he was to marry Leonora, daughter 
of Charles of Valois; at his death the island would revert to 
the Angevins, but his children would receive compensation else- 
where. In 1303 the pope unwillingly ratified the treaty. (See 
CHARLES II., king of Naples and Sicily, and FREDERICK III., 
king of Sicily.) 

Charles II. died in 1309 and was succeeded by his second son 
Robert. (His eldest son had predeceased him, leaving a son, 

Charles Robert, or Caroberto, at this time king of 

Hungary.) Robert now became leader of the Guelphs 
in Italy, and war between Naples and Sicily broke out once more, 
when Frederick allied himself with the emperor Henry VII. 
on his descent into Italy, and proclaimed his own son Peter 
heir to the throne. Robert led or sent many devastating expedi- 
tions into Sicily, and hostilities continued under King Peter 
even after Frederick's death in 1337. Peter died in 1342, leaving 
an infant son Louis; but just as Robert was preparing for 
another expedition he too died_in the same year. Robert had 
been a capable ruler, a scholar and a friend of Petrarch, but he 
lost influence as a Guelph leader owing to the rise of other power- 
ful princes and republics, while in Naples itself his authority 
was limited by the rights of a turbulent and rebellious baronage 
(see ROBERT, king of Naples). His son Charles had died -in 
1328 and he was succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna, 
wife of Andrew of Hungary, but the princes of the blood 
Joanna I an( ^ tne Darons stirred up trouble, and in 1345 Andrew 

was assassinated by order of Catherine, widow of 
Philip, son of Charles II., and of several nobles, not without 
suspicion of Joanna's complicity. 

Andrew's brother Louis, king of Hungary, now came to Italy 
to make good his claims on Naples and avenge the murder of 
Andrew. With the help of some of the barons he drove Joanna 
and her second husband, Louis of Taranto, from the kingdom, 
and murdered Charles of Durazzo; but as Pope Clement refused 
to recognize his claims he went back to Hungary in 1348, and 
the fickle barons recalled Joanna, who returned and carried on 
desultory warfare with the partisans of Louis of Hungary. 
Louis of Taranto and Joanna were crowned at Naples by the 
pope's legate in 1352, but Niccolo Acciaiuoli, the seneschal, 
became the real master of the kingdom. In 1374 Joanna made 
peace with Frederick of Sicily, recognizing him as king of 
Trinacria on condition that he paid her tribute and recognized 
the pope's suzerainty. She nominated Louis of Anjou her 
heir, but while the latter was recognized by the antipope 
Clement VII,, Pope Urban VI. declared Charles of Durazzo 
(great-grandson of Charles II.) king of Sicily ol di qua del 
Faro (i.e. of Naples). Charles conquered the kingdom and took 
Joanna prisoner in 1381, and had her murdered the following 

1 He was the second king of that name in Sicily, but was known as 
Frederick III. because he was the third son of King Peter. 



year. Louis, although assisted by Amadeus VI. of Savoy, failed 
to drive out Charles, and died in 1384. Charles III. died two 
years later and the kingdom was plunged into anarchy 
once more, part of the barons siding with his seven- yyy" 
year-old son Ladislas, and part with Louis II. of 
Anjou. The latter was crowned by the antipope Clement, 
while Urban regarded both him and his rival as usurpers. On 
Urban's death in 1389 Boniface IX. crowned Ladislas . adlslas 
king of Naples, who by the year 1400 had expelled 
Louis and made himself master of the kingdom. In 1407 he 
occupied Rome, which Gregory XII. could not hold. But 
Alexander V., elected pope by the council of Pisa, turned against 
Ladislas and recognized Louis. Ladislas was defeated in 1411 
and driven from Rome, but reoccupied the city on Louis's 
return to France. He died in 1414, and was succeeded by his 
sister Joanna II. (q.v.), during whose reign the kingdom Joaaaa u 
sank to the lowest depths of degradation. In 1415 
Joanna married James of Bourbon, who kept his wife in a state 
of semi-confinement, murdered her lover, Pandolfo Alopo, and 
imprisoned her chief captain, Sforza; but his arrogance drove 
the barons to rebellion, and they made him renounce the royal 
dignity and abandon the kingdom. The history of the next 
few years is a maze of intrigues between Joanna, Sforza, Giovanni 
Caracciolo, the queen's new lover, Alphonso of Aragon, whom 
she adopted as her heir, and Louis III. of Anjou, whom we find 
pitted against each other in every possible combination. Louis 
died in 1434 and Joanna in 1435 (see JOANNA II., queen of Naples). 
The succession was disputed by Rene of Anjou and Alphonso, 
but the former eventually renounced his claims and Alphonso 
was recognized as king of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV. in 1443. 

Under Alphonso, surnamed "the Magnanimous," Sicily was 
once more united to Naples and a new era was inaugurated, for 
the king was at once a brilliant ruler, a scholar and 
a patron of letters. He died in 1458, leaving Naples 
to his illegitimate son Ferdinand I. (Don Ferrante), 
and Sicily, Sardinia and Aragon to his brother John. 
Ferdinand found, however, that Alphonso had not really con- 
solidated his power, and he had practically to reconquer the 
whole country. By 1464 he was master of the situa- 
tion, in spite of the attempt of Pope Calixtus III. y en 
to enforce the claims of the papacy, and that of 
John of Anjou to enter into the heritage of^his ancestors. In 
alliance with Pope Sixtus IV. and the Milanese he waged war 
on Lorenzo de' Medici in 1479; but that astute ruler, by 
visiting Ferdinand in person, obtained peace on favourable 
terms (1479). In 1485 the disaffection of the barons, due to 
the king's harshness and the arrogance and cruelty of his son, 
found vent in a revolt led by Roberto Sanseverino and Francesco 
Coppola, which was crushed by means of craft and treachery. 
Ferdinand died in 1494 full of forebodings as to the probable 
effects of the in vasioTT of "Charles VIII. of France, and Tlle 
was succeeded by Alphonso (see FERDINAND I., king of invasion 
Naples). The French king entered Italy in September of Charles 
1495, and conquered the Neapolitan kingdom without V7 "' 
much difficulty. Alphonso abdicated, his son Ferrandino and 
his brother Frederick withdrew to Ischia, and only a few towns 
in Apulia still held out for the Aragonese. But when the pope, 
the emperor, Spain and Venice, alarmed at Charles's progress, 
formed a defensive league against him, he quitted Naples, and 
Ferrandino, with the help of Ferdinand II. of Spain, was able 
to reoccupy his dominions. He died much regretted in 1496 
and was succeeded by Frederick. The country was torn by 
civil war and brigandage, and the French continued to press 
their claims; and although Louis XII. . (who had succeeded 
Charles VIII.) concluded a treaty with Ferdinand of Spain for 
the partition of Naples, France and Spain fell out in 1502 over 
the division of the spoils., and with Gonzalo de Cordoba's victory 
on the Garigliano in December 1502, the whole kingdom was 
in Spanish hands. 

On the death of Ferdinand in 1516, the Habsburg Charles 
became king of Spain, and three years later was elected emperor 
as Charles V.; in 1522 he appointed John de Lannoy viceroy of 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



185 



Revolu- 
tions. 



Masaalello. 



Naples, which became henceforth an integral part of the Spanish 
dominions. The old divisions of nobility, clergy and people were 
Na lesa maintained and their mutual rivalry encouraged; the 
Spanish nobles were won over by titles and by the splendour 
posses- of the viceregal court, but many persons of low birth 
sl - who showed talent were raised to high positions. 

The viceroy was assisted by the Collateral Council and the Sacred 
College of Santa Chiara, composed of Spanish and Italian 
members, and there was an armed force of the two nationalities. 
Spanish rule on the whole was oppressive and tyrannical, and 
based solely on the idea that the dependencies must pay tribute 
to the dominant kingdom. During the rule of Don Pedro de 
Toledo (one of the best viceroys) Naples became the centre of 
a Protestant movement which spread to the rest of Italy, but 
was ultimately crushed by the Inquisition. In Sicily Spanish 
rule was less absolute, for the island had not been conquered, 
but had given itself over voluntarily to the Aragonese; and the 
parliament, formed by the three breed or orders (the militare 
consisting of the nobility, the ecclesiastico, of the clergy, and the 
demaniale, of the communes), imposed certain limitations on 
the viceroy, who had to play off the three bracci against each 
other. But the oppressive character of the government provoked 
several rebellions, In 1598 an insurrection, headed 
by the philosopher Tommaso Campanella, broke out 
in Calabria, and was crushed with great severity. 
In 1647, during the viceroyalty of the marquis de Los Leres in 
Sicily, bread riots in Palermo became a veritable revolution, 
and the people, led by the goldsmith Giovanni d' Alessio, drove 
the viceroy from the city; but the nobles, fearing for their 
privileges, took the viceroy's part and turned the people against 
d' Alessio, who was murdered, and Los Leres returned. On the 
7th of July 1647, tumults occurred at Naples in consequence of 
a new fruit tax, and the viceroy, Count d' Arcos, was forced 
to take refuge in the Castelnuovo. The populace, led by an 
Amalfi fisherman, known as Masaniello (g.v.), obtained 
arms, erected barricades, and, while professing loyalty 
to the king of Spain, demanded the removal of the oppressive 
taxes and murdered many of the nobles. D' Arcos came to terms 
with Masaniello; but in spite of this, and of the assassination 
of Masaniello, whose arrogance and ferocity had made him 
unpopular, the disturbances continued, and again the viceroy 
had to retire to Castelnuovo and make concessions. Even the 
arrival of reinforcements from Spain failed to restore order, and 
the new popular leader, Gennaro Annese, now sought assistance 
from the French, and invited the duke of Guise to come to Naples. 
The duke came with some soldiers and ships, but failed to effect 
anything; and after the recall of d' Arcos the new viceroy, 
Count d'Ognate, having come to an arrangement with Annese 
and got Guise out of the city, proceeded to punish all who had 
taken part in the disturbances, and had Annese and a number 
of others beheaded. 

In 1670 disorders broke out at Messina. They began with a 
riot between the nobles and the burghers, but ended in an anti- 
Spanish movement; and while the inhabitants called 
at ' n tne F renc h > tne Spaniards, who could not crush the 
Messina, rising, called in the Dutch. Louis XIV. sent a fleet 
under the due de Vivonne to Sicily, which defeated 
the Dutch under de Ruyter in 1676. But at the peace of 
Nijmwegen (1679) Louis treacherously abandoned the Messinese, 
who suffered cruel persecution at the hands of the Spaniards 
and lost all their privileges. An anti-Spanish conspiracy of 
Neapolitan nobles, led by Macchia, with the object of proclaiming 
the archduke Charles of Austria king of Naples, was discovered; 
but in 1707 an Austrian army conquered the kingdom, and 
Spanish rule came to an end after 203 years, during which it had 
succeeded in thoroughly demoralizing the people. 

In Sicily the Spaniards held their own until the peace of 

Utrecht in 1 7 1 3 , when the island was given over to Duke 

Matter Victor of Savoy, who assumed the title of king. In 

Savoy. 1718 he had to hand back his new possession to 

Spain, who, in 1720, surrendered it to Austria and gave 

Sardinia to Victor Amadeus. In 1733 the treaty of the Escurial 






Charles 
111. 



between France, Spain and Savoy against Austria was signed. 
Don Carlos of Bourbon, son of Philip V. of Spain, easily conquered 
both Naples and Sicily, and in 1738 he was recognized as king 
of the Two Sicilies, Spain renouncing all her claims. 
Charles was well received, for the country now was an 
independent kingdom once more. With the Tuscan 
Bernardo Tanucci as his minister, he introduced many useful 
reforms, improved the army, which was thus able to repel an 
Austrian invasion in 1744, embellished the city of Naples and 
built roads. In 1759 Charles III., having succeeded to the 
Spanish crown, abdicated that of the Two Sicilies in favour of his 
son Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III. 
of Sicily. Being only eight years old, a regency under Tanucci 
was appointed, and the young king's education was 
purposely neglected by the minister, who wished to y v _ 
dominate him completely. The regency ended in 1767, 
and the following year Ferdinand married the masterful and 
ambitious Maria Carolina, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. 
She had Tanucci dismissed and set herself to the task of making 
Naples a great power. With the help of John Acton, an English- 
man whom she made minister in the place of Tanucci, she freed 
Naples from Spanish influence and secured a rapprochement 
with England and Austria. 

On the outbreak of the French Revolution the king and queen 
were not at first hostile to the new movement; but after the 
fall of the French monarchy they became violently opposed to 
it, and in 1793 joined the first coalition against France, instituting 
severe persecutions against all who were remotely suspected of 
French sympathies. Republicanism, however, gained ground, 
especially among the aristocracy. In 1796 peace with France 
was concluded, but in 1798, during Napoleon's absence in Egypt 
and after Nelson's victory at Aboukir, Maria Carolina induced 
Ferdinand to go to war with France once more. Nelson arrived 
in Naples in September, where he was enthusiastically received. 
The king, after a somewhat farcical occupation of Rome, which 
had been evacuated by the French, hurried back to Naples as 
soon as the French attacked his troops, and although the lazzaroni 
(the lowest class of the people) were devoted to the dynasty 
and ready to defend it, he fled with the court to Palermo in a 
panic on board Nelson's ships. The wildest confusion prevailed, 
and the lazzaroni jnassacred numbers of persons suspected of 
republican sympathies, while the nobility and the educated 
classes, finding themselves abandoned by their king in this 
cowardly manner, began to contemplate a republic under French 
auspices as their only means of salvation from anarchy. In 
January 1799 the French under Championnet reached 
Naples, but the lazzaroni, ill-armed and ill-disciplined "$e ach la 
as they were, resisted the enemy with desperate Naples 
courage, and it was not until the 2oth that the invaders ana the 
were masters of the city. On the 23rd the Partheno- 
paean republic was proclaimed. The Republicans were 
men of culture and high character, but doctrinaire and 
unpractical, and they knew very little of the lower classes of 
their own country. The government soon found itself in financial 
difficulties, owing to Championnet 's demands for money; it 
failed to organize the army, and met with scant success in its 
attempts to "democratize " the provinces. Meanwhile the court 
at Palermo sent Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, a wealthy 
and influential prelate, to Calabria, to organize a 
counter-revolution. He succeeded beyond expectation, ana the 
and with his " Christian army of the Holy Faith " Sa " m 
(Esercito Cristiano della Santa Fede), consisting of 
brigands, convicts, peasants and some soldiers, marched through 
the kingdom plundering, burning and massacring. An English 
squadron approached Naples and occupied the island of Procida, 
but after a few engagements with the Republican fleet com- 
manded by Caracciolo, an ex-officer in the Bourbon navy, it was 
recalled to Palermo, as the Franco-Spanish fleet was expected. 
Ruffo, with the addition of some Russian and Turkish allies, 
now marched on the capital, whence the French, save for a 
small force under Mejean, withdrew. The scattered Republican 
detachments were defeated, only Naples and Pescara holding 



i86 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



out. On the I3th of June Ruffo and his hordes reached Naples, 
and after a desperate battle at the Ponte della Maddalena, 
entered the city. For weeks the Calabresi and lazzaroni continued 
to pillage and massacre, and Ruffo was unable, even if willing, 
to restrain them. But the Royalists were not masters of the city, 
for the French in Castel Sant' Elmo and the Republicans in 
Castelnuovo and Castel dell' Uovo still held out and bombarded 
the streets, while the Franco-Spanish fleet might arrive at any 
moment. Consequently Ruffo was desperately anxious to come 
to terms with the Republicans for the evacuation of the castles, 
in spite of the queen's orders to make no terms with the rebels. 
After some negotiation an armistice was concluded and a capitu- 
lation agreed upon, whereby the castles were to be evacuated, 
the hostages liberated and the garrisons free to remain in Naples 
unmolested or to sail for Toulon. 

While the vessels were being prepared for the voyage to 
Toulon all the hostages in the castles were liberated save four; 

but on the 24th of June Nelson arrived with his fleet, 
/Vap/es. a ano< on hearing of the capitulation he refused to 

recognize it save in so far as it concerned the French. 
Ruffo indignantly declared that once the treaty was signed, 
not only by himself but by the Russian and Turkish commandants 
and by the British captain Foote, it must be respected, and on 
Nelson's refusal he said that he would not help him to capture 
the castles. On the 26th Nelson changed his attitude and 
authorized Sir William Hamilton, the British minister, to inform 
the cardinal that he (Nelson) would do nothing to break the 
armistice; while Captains Bell and Troubridge wrote that they 
had Nelson's authority to state that the latter would not oppose 
the embarcation of the Republicans. Although these expressions 
were equivocal, the Republicans were satisfied and embarked 
on the vessels prepared for them. But on the 28th Nelson 
received despatches from the court (in reply to his own), in conse- 
quence of which he had the vessels brought under the guns of his 
ships, and many of the Republicans were arrested. Caracciolo, 
who had been caught whilst attempting to escape from Naples, 
was tried by a court-martial of Royalist officers under Nelson's 
auspices on board the admiral's flagship, condemned to death 
and hanged at the yard arm. For the part played by Nelson 
in these transactions see the articles CARACCIOLO and NELSON. 
On the 8th of July, King Ferdinand arrived from Palermo, 
and the state trials, conducted in the most arbitrary fashion, 

resulted in wholesale butchery; hundreds of persons 
vengeance. were executed, including some of the best men in the 

country, such as the philosopher Mario Pagano. the 
scientist Cirillo, Manthone, the minister of war under the re- 
public, Massa, the defender of Castel dell' Uovo, and Ettore 
Caraffa, the defender of Pescara, who had been captured by 
treachery, while thousands of others were immured in horrible 
dungeons or exiled. 

War with France continued until March 1801, when peace 
was made, and after the peace of Amiens in 1802 the court 
returned to Naples, where it was well received. But when the 
European war broke out again in the following year, Napoleon 
(then first consul) became very exacting in his demands on 
King Ferdinand, who consequently played a double game, 
appearing to accede to these demands while negotiating with 
England. After Austerlitz Napoleon revenged himself by de- 
claring that " the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign," and 
sent an army under his brother Joseph to occupy the kingdom. 

Ferdinand and Maria Carolina fled to Palermo in January 
1805; in February 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples 

as king. A cultivated, well-meaning, not very in- 
Booaparte. telligent man, he introduced many useful reforms on 

a basis of benevolent despotism, abolished feudalism 
and built roads, but the taxes and forced contributions which 
he levied proved very burdensome. Joseph's authority did not 
exist throughout a large part of the kingdom, where royalist 
risings, led by brigand chiefs, maintained a state of anarchy, 
and a British force under Sir John Stuart, which landed in 
Calabria from Sicily, defeated the French at Maida (July 6th, 
1806). Both the French and the royalists committed atrocities, 



and many conspirators in Naples were tried by the French 
state courts and shot. 

In 1808 Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on Joseph, 
and appointed Joachim Murat king of Naples. Murat continued 
Joseph's reforms, swept away many old abuses and 
reorganized the army; and although he introduced 
the French codes and conferred many appointments 
and estates on Frenchmen, his administration was more or less 
native, and he favoured the abler Neapolitans. His attempts 
to attack the English in Sicily ended disastrously, but he succeeded 
in crushing brigandage in Calabria by means of General Manhes, 
who, however, had to resort to methods of ferocity in order to 
do so. The king, owing to his charm of manner, his handsome 
face, and his brilliant personality, gained many sympathies, 
and began to aspire to absolute independence. He gradually 
became estranged from Napoleon, and although he followed 
him to Russia and afterwards took part in the German campaign, 
he secretly opened negotiations with Austria and Great Britain. 
In January 1814 he signed a treaty with Austria, each power 
guaranteeing the dominions of the other, while Sicily was to 
be left to Ferdinand. The following month he proclaimed 
his separation from Napoleon and marched against Eugene 
Beauharnais, the French viceroy of Lombardy. But no important 
engagements took place, and when Napoleon escaped from Elba, 
Murat suddenly returned to the allegiance of his old chief. He 
marched at the head of 35,000 men into northern Italy, and 
from Rimini issued his famous proclamation in favour of Italian 
independence, which at the time fell on deaf ears (March 3Oth, 
1815). He was subsequently defeated by the Austrians several 
times and forced to retreat, and on the i8th of May he sailed from 
Naples for France (see MURAT, JOACHIM). Generals Guglielmo 
Pepe and Carrascosa now concluded a treaty with the Austrians 
at Casalanza on favourable terms, and on the 23rd the Austrians 
entered Naples to restore Bourbon rule. 

Ferdinand and Maria Carolina had continued to reign in Sicily, 
where the extravagance of the court and the odious Neapolitan 
system of police espionage rendered their presence 
a burden instead of a blessing to the island. The king ao u r6ons 
obtained a subsidy from Great Britain and allowed in Sicily. 
British troops to occupy Messina and Agosta, so that 
they might operate against the French on the mainland. A 
bitter conflict broke out between the court and the parliament, 
and the British minister, Lord William Bentinck, favoured the 
opposition, forced Ferdinand to resign his authority and appoint 
his son regent and introduced many valuable reforms. The 
queen perpetually intrigued against Bentinck, and jj>e 
even negotiated with the French, but in 1812 a more English 
liberal constitution on British lines was introduced, and constitu~ 
a Liberal ministry under the princes of Castelnuovo 
and Belmonte appointed, while the queen was exiled in the 
following year. But after the fall of Napoleon Sicily ceased to 
have any importance for Great Britain, and Bentinck, whose 
memory is still cherished in the island, departed in 1814. 
Ferdinand succeeded in getting a reactionary ministry appointed, 
and dissolved parliament in May 1815, after concluding a treaty 
with Austria now freed by Murat's defection from her engage- 
ments with him for the recovery of his mainland dominions 
by means of an Austrian army paid for by himself. On the 
9th of June Ferdinand re-entered Naples and bound fae 
himself in a second treaty with Austria not to introduce restora- 
a constitutional government; 1 but at first he abstained 
from persecution and received many of Murat's old 
officers into his army in accordance with the treaty of Casalanza. 
In October 1815 Murat, believing that he still had a strong 
party in the kingdom, landed with a few companions at Pizzo 

1 The secret article of the treaty of June 12, 1815, runs as follows: 
" H.M. the King of the Two Sicilies, in re-establishing the govern- 
ment of the kingdom, will not agree to any changes irreconcilable 
either with the ancient institutions of the monarchy or with the 
principles adopted by H.I. and R. Austrian Majesty for the internal 
regime of his Italian provinces." It is to be noted that this did not 
involve the obligation of interfering with the ancient constitution of 
Sicily, which Metternich desired to see remain undisturbed. 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



187 



di Calabria, but was immediately captured by the police and the 
peasantry, court-martialled and shot. 

Ferdinand to some extent maintained French legislation, 
but otherwise reorganized the state with Metternich's approval 
on Bourbon lines; he proclaimed himself king of the Two Sicilies 
at the congress of Vienna, incorporating Naples and Sicily into 
one state, and abolished the Sicilian constitution (December 
1816). In 1818 he concluded a Concordat with the Church, 
by which the latter renounced its suzerainty over the kingdom, 
but was given control over education, the censorship and many 
other privileges. But there was much disaffection throughout 

the country, and the Carbonarist lodges, founded in 
The Murat's time with the object of freeing the country 

f rom foreign ru le and obtaining a constitution, had 

made much progress (see CARBONARI). The army 
indeed was honeycombed with Carbonari, and General Pepe, 
himself a member of the society, organized them on a military 
basis. In July 1820 a military mutiny broke out at Caserta, 
led by two officers and a priest, the mutineers demanding a 
constitution although professing loyalty to the king. Ferdinand, 
feeling himself helpless to resist, acceded to the demand, appointed 
a ministry composed of Murat's old adherents, and entrusted 
his authority to his son. The ultra-democratic single-chamber 
Spanish constitution of 1812 was introduced, but proved utterly 
unworkable. The new government's first difficulty was Sicily, 
where the people had risen in rebellion demanding their own 
charter of 1812, and although the Neapolitan troops quelled 
the outbreak with much bloodshed the division proved fatal 
to the prospects of'liberty. 

The outbreak of the military rising in Naples, following so 
shortly on that in Spain, seriously alarmed the powers responsible 
for the preservation of the peace in Europe. The position was 
complicated by the somewhat enigmatic attitude of Russia; 
for the Neapolitan Liberals, with many of whom Count Capo 
d' Istria, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, had been on 
friendly terms, proclaimed that they had the " moral support " 
of the tsar. This idea, above all, it was necessary for Austria 
to destroy once for all. The diplomatic negotiations are discussed 
in the article on the history of Europe (q.v.). Here it suffices to 
say that these issued in the congress of Troppau (October 1820) 
and the proclamation of the famous Troppau protocol affirming 
the right of collective/' Europe " to interfere to crush dangerous 
internal revolutions. Both France and Great Britain protested 
against the general principle laid down in this instrument; but 
neither of them approved of the Neapolitan revolution, and 
neither of them was opposed to an intervention in Naples, 
provided this were carried out, not on the ground of a supposed 
right of Europe to interfere, but by Austria for Austrian ends. 
By general consent King Ferdinand was invited to attend the 
adjourned congress, fixed to meet at Laibach in the spring of 
the following year. Under the new constitution, the permission 
of parliament was necessary before the king could leave Neapolitan 
territory; but this was weakly granted, after Ferdinand had 
sworn the most solemn oaths to maintain the constitution. He 
was scarcely beyond the frontiers, however, before he repudiated 
his engagements, as exacted by force. A cynicism so unblushing 
shocked even the seasoned diplomats of the congress, who would 
have preferred that the king should have made a decent show 
of yielding to force. The result was, however, that the powers 
authorized Austria to march an army into Naples to restore 
the autocratic monarchy. This decision was notified to the 
Neapolitan government by Russia, Prussia and Austria Great 
Britain and France maintaining a strict neutrality. Meanwhile 
the regent, in spite of his declaration that he would lead the 
Neapolitan army against the invader, was secretly undermining 
the position of the government, and there were divisions of opinion 

in the ranks of the Liberals themselves. General Pepe 
Austrians was sent to t ^ le f ron ti er at the head of 8000 men, but 
la Naples, was completely defeated by the Austrians at Rieti 

on the 7th of March. On the 23rd the Austrians 
entered Naples, followed soon afterwards by the king; every 
vestige of freedom was suppressed, the reactionary Medici 



ministry appointed, and the inevitable state trials instituted 
with the usual harvest of executions and imprisonment. Pepe 
saved himself by flight. (See FERDINAND IV., king of Naples.) 

Ferdinand died in 1825, and his son and successor, Francis I., 
an unbridled libertine, at once threw off the mask of Liberalism; 
the corruption of the administration under Medici 
assumed unheard-of proportions, and every office was 
openly sold. The Austrian occupation lasted until 1827, having 
cost the state 310,000,000 lire; but in the meanwhile the 
Swiss Guard had been established as a further protection for 
autocracy, and the revolutionary outbreak at Bosco on the 
Cilento was suppressed with the usual cruelty. (See FRANCIS 
I., king of the Two Sicilies.) 

Francis died in 1830 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand 
II., who at first awoke hopes that the conditions of the country 
would be improved. He was not devoid of good 
qualities, and took an interest in the material welfare Wi 
of the country, but he was narrow-minded, ignorant 
and bigoted; he made the administration more efficient, and re- 
organized the army which became purged of Carbonarism, and 
such Carbonarist plots as there were in the 'thirties were not 
severely punished. Ferdinand was impatient of Austrian in- 
fluence, but on the death of his first wife, Cristina of Savoy, he 
married Maria Theresa of Austria, who encouraged him in his 
reactionary tendencies and brought him closer to Austria. An 
outbreak of cholera in 1837 led to disorders in Sicily, which, 
having assumed a political character, were repressed by Del 
Caretto with great severity. The government tended to become 
more and more autocratic and to rely wholly on the all-powerful 
police, the spies and the priests; and, although the king showed 
some independence in foreign affairs, his popularity waned; the 
desire for a constitution was by no means dead, and the survivors 
of the old Carbonari gathered round Carlo Poerio, while the 
Giovane Italia society (independent of Mazzini) , led by Benedetto 
Musolino, took as its motto " Unity, Liberty and Independence." 
But as yet the idea of unity made but little headway, for southern 
Italy was too widely separated by geographical conditions, 
history, tradition and custom from the rest of the peninsula, 
and the majority of the Liberals themselves a minority of the 
population merely aspired to a constitutional Neapolitan 
monarchy, possibly forming part of a confederation of Italian 
states. The attempt of the Giovane Italia to bring about a 
general revolution in 1843 only resulted in a few sporadic out- 
breaks easily crushed. The following year the Venetian brothers 
Bandiera, acting in concert with Mazzini, landed in 
Calabria, believing the whole country to be in a state '* 
of revolt; they met with little local support and were a umpi" 
quickly captured and shot, but their death aroused 
much sympathy, and the whole episode was highly significant 
as being the first attempt made by north Italians to promote 
revolution in the south. In 1847 a pamphlet by L. Settembrini, 
entitled " A Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies," appeared 
anonymously and created a deep impression as a most scathing 
indictment of the government; and at the same time the 
election of Pius IX., a pope who was believed to be a Liberal, 
caused widespread excitement throughout Italy. Conspiracy 
was now rife both in Naples and Sicily, but as yet there was no 
idea of deposing the king. Many persons were arrested, including 
Carlo Poerio, who, however, continued to direct the agitation. 

On the I2th of January 1848 a revolution under the leadership 
of Ruggiero Settimo broke out at Palermo to the cry of " in- 
dependence or the 1812 constitution," and by the end 
of February the whole island, with the exception of The 
Messina, was in the hands of the revolutionists. These ^ giciiy. 
events were followed by demonstrations at Naples; 
the king summoned a meeting of generals and members of his 
family on the 27th of January, and on the advice of Filangieri 
(q.v.), who said that the army was not to be relied upon, he 
dismissed the Pietracatella ministry and Del Caretto, and 
summoned the duke of Serracapriola to form another administra- 
tion. On the 28th he granted the constitution, and the Liberals 
Bozzelli and Carlo Poerio afterwards joined the cabinet. The 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



The 15th 
of May. 



popular demand was now that Naples should assist the Lombards 
in their revolt against Austria, for a feeling of Italian solidarity 
Tlle was growing up. The ministry of Carlo Troya suc- 

constitu- ceeded to that of Serracapriola, and after the parlia- 
tion of mentary elections, in which many extreme Radicals 
*' were elected, Ferdinand declared war against Austria 

(April 7th, 1848). After considerable delay a Neapolitan army 
under General Pepe marched towards Lombardy in May, while 
the fleet sailed for Venice. But a dispute between the king and 
the parliament concerning the form of the royal oath having 
arisen, a group of demagogues with criminal folly provoked 
disturbances and erected barricades (May I4th). The king 
refused to open parliament unless the barricades were removed, 
and while the moderate elements attempted to bring about 
conciliation, the ministry acted with great weakness. A few 
shots were fired it is not known who fired first on 
the 1 5th, the Swiss regiments stormed the barricades 
and street fighting lasted all day. By the evening the 
Swiss and the royalists were masters of the situation. A new 
ministry under Prince Cariati was appointed. Parliament was 
dissolved, the National Guard disbanded and the army recalled 
from the Po. Fresh elections were held and the new parliament 
met on the isth of July, but it had the king, the army and the 
mob against it, and anti-constitutionalist demonstrations became 
frequent. After a brief session it was prorogued to the ist of 
February 1849, and when it met on that date a deadlock between 
king and parliament occurred. The Austrian victories in Lom- 
bardy had strengthened the court party, or Camarilla as it was 
called, and on the I3th of March the assembly was again dissolved, 
and never summoned again. The king was at Gaeta, whither 
the grand-duke of Tuscany and Pius IX. had also repaired to 
escape from their rebellious subjects, and the city became the 
headquarters of Italian reaction. 

In Sicily the revolutionists were purely insular in their aspira- 
tions and bitterly hostile to the Neapolitans, and the attempts 
at conciliation, although favoured by Lord Minto, 
failed, for Naples wanted one constitution and one 
parliament, whereas Sicily wanted two, with only the king in 
common. The Sicilian assembly met in March 1848, and Settimo 
in his inaugural speech declared that the Bourbon dynasty had 
ceased to reign, that the throne was vacant and that Sicily united 
her destinies to those of Italy. Settimo was elected president of 
the government, but the administration was lacking in states- 
manship, the treasury was empty, and nothing was done to raise 
an army. After the Austrian victories King Ferdinand sent a 
Neapolitan army of 20,000 men under Filangieri to subjugate 
the island. The troops landed at Messina, of which the citadel 
had been held by the royalists throughout, and after three days' 
desperate fighting the city itself was captured and sacked. 
The British and French admirals imposed a truce with a view to 
conciliation, and the king offered the Sicilians the Neapolitan 
constitution and a separate parliament, which they refused. 
Sicilian troops were now levied throughout the island and the 
chief command given to the Pole Mieroslawski, but it was too 
late. Filangieri marched forward taking town after town, and 
committing many atrocities. In April he reached Palermo while 
the fleet appeared in the bay; tumults having broken out within 
the city, the government surrendered on terms which granted 
amnesty for all except Settimo and forty-two others. 

For a few months after the dissolution of the Neapolitan 
parliament the government abstained from persecution, but 
with the crushing of the Sicilian revolution its hands 
Neapolitan were ^ ree; an( * wnen tne commission oh the affair of 
prisons. the 1 5th of May had completed its labours the state 
trials and arrests began. The arrest of S. Faucitano 
for a demonstration at Gaeta led to the discovery of the UnilA 
Itoliana society, whose object was to free Italy from domestic 
tyranny and foreign domination. Thousands of respectable 
citizens were thrown into prison, such as L. Settembrini, Carlo 
Poerio and Silvio Spaventa. The trials were conducted with the 
most scandalous contempt of justice, and moral and physical 
torture was applied to extort confessions. The abominable con- 



Skily. 



ditions of the prisons in which the best men of the kingdom were 
immured, linked to the vilest common criminals, was made 
known to the world by the famous letters of W. E. Gladstone, 
which branded the Bourbon regime as " the negation of God 
erected into a system of government." The merest suspicion of 
unorthodox opinions, the possession of foreign newspapers, the 
wearing of a beard or an anonymous denunciation, sufficed for 
the arrest and condemnation of a man to years of imprisonment, 
while the attendibili, or persons under police surveillance liable 
to imprisonment without trial at any moment, numbered 50,000. 
The remonstrances of Great Britain and France met with no 
success. Ferdinand strongly resented foreign interference, and 
even rejected the Austrian proposal for a league of the Italian 
despots for mutual defence against external attacks and internal 
disorder. In 1856 his life was unsuccessfully attempted by a 
soldier, and the same year Baron Bentivegna organized a revolt 
near Palermo, which was quickly suppressed. In 1857 Carlo 
Pisacane, an ex-Neapolitan officer who had taken part 
in the defence of Rome, fitted out an expedition, with a t t *mj>t. * 
Mazzini's approval, from Genoa, and landed at Sapri 
in Calabria, where he hoped to raise the flag of revolution; but 
the local police assisted by the peasantry attacked the band, 
killing many, including Pisacane himself, and capturing most of 
the rest. The following year, at the instance of Great Britain 
and France, Ferdinand commuted the sentences of some of the 
political prisoners to exile. (See FERDINAND II., king of the Two 
Sicilies). 

In May 1859 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his son, 
Francis II., who came to the throne just as the Franco-Sardinian 
victories in Lombardy were sounding the death-knell Praacls n 
of Austrian predominance and domestic despotism in 
Italy (see ITALY: History). But although there was much 
activity and plotting among the Liberals, there was as yet no 
revolution. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, wrote to the 
new king proposing an alliance for the division of Italy, but 
Francis refused. In June part of the Swiss Guard mutinied 
because the Bernese government not having renewed the conven- 
tion with Naples the troops were deprived of their cantonal flag. 
The mutinous regiments, however, were surrounded by loyal 
troops and shot down; and this affair resulted in the disbanding 
of the whole force the last support of the autocracy. Political 
amnesties were now decreed, and in September 1859 Filangieri was 
made prime minister. The latter favoured the Sardinian alliance 
and the granting of the constitution, and so did the king's uncle, 
Leopold, count of Syracuse. But Francis rejected both proposals 
and Filangieri resigned and was succeeded by A. Statella. In 
April 1860 Victor Emmanuel again proposed an alliance whereby 
Naples, in return for help in expelling the Austrians from 
Venetia, was to receive the Marche, while Sardinia would annex 
all the rest of Italy except Rome. But Francis again refused, 
and in fact was negotiating with Austria and the pope for a 
simultaneous invasion of Modena, Lombardy and Romagna. 

In the meantime, however, events in Sicily were reaching a 
crisis destined to subvert the Bourbon dynasty. The Sicilians, 
unlike the Neapolitans, were thoroughly alienated from 
the Bourbons, whom they detested, and after the 
peace of Villafranca (July 1859) Mazzini's emissaries, Thousand. 
F. Crispi and R. Pilo, had been trying to organize a 
rising in favour of Italian unity; and although they merely 
succeeded in raising a few squadre, or armed bands, in the 
mountainous districts, they persuaded Garibaldi (q.v.), without 
the magic of whose personal prestige they knew nothing im- 
portant could be achieved, that the revolution which he knew 
to be imminent had broken out. The authorities at Palermo, 
learning of a projected rising, attacked the convent of La Gangia, 
the headquarters of the rebels, and killed most of the inmates; 
but in the meanwhile Garibaldi, whose hesitation had been 
overcome, embarked on the 5th of May 1860, at Quarto, near 
Genoa, with 1000 picked followers on board two steamers, and 
sailed for Sicily. On the nth the expedition reached Marsala 
and landed without opposition. Garibaldi was somewhat coldly 
received by the astonished population; but he set forth at once for 



NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 



189 



Salemi, whence he issued a proclamation assuming the dictator- 
ship of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, with Crispi as 
secretary of state. He continued his march towards Palermo, 
where the bulk of the 30,000 Bourbon troops were concentrated, 
gathering numerous followers on the way. On the isth he 
attacked and defeated 3000 of the enemy under General Landi 
at Calatafimi; the news of this brilliant victory revived the 
revolutionary agitation throughout the island, and Garibaldi 
was joined by Pilo and his bands. By a cleverly devised ruse he 
avoided General Colonna's force, which expected him on the 
j Monreale road, and entering Palermo from Misilmeri 

received an enthusiastic welcome. The Bourbonists, 
although they bombarded the city from the citadel and the 
warships in the harbour, gradually lost ground, and after three 
days' street fighting their commander, General Lanza, not 
knowing that the Garibaldians had scarcely a cartridge left, 
asked for arid obtained a twenty-four hours' armistice (May 3oth). 
Garibaldi went on board the British flagship to confer with the 
Neapolitan generals Letizia and Chretien; Letizia's proposal 
that the municipality should make a humble petition to the 
king was indignantly rejected by Garibaldi, who merely agreed 
to the extension of the armistice until next day. Then he 
informed the citizens by means of a proclamation of what he had 
done, and declared that, knowing them to be ready to die in the 
ruins of their city, he would renew hostilities on the expiration 
of the armistice. Although unarmed, the people rallied to him 
as one man, and Lanza became so alarmed that he asked for 
an unconditional extension of the armistice, which 'Garibaldi 
granted. The dictator now had time to collect ammunition, and 
the Neapolitan government having given Lanza full powers to 
treat with him, 15,000 Bourbon troops embarked for Naples on 
the yth of June, leaving the revolutionists masters of the situation. 
The Sardinian Admiral Persano's salute of nineteen guns on the 
occasion of Garibaldi's official call constituted a practical recogni- 
tion of his dictatorship by the Sardinian (Piedmontese) govern- 
ment. In July further reinforcements of volunteers under Cosenz 
and Medici, assisted by Cavour, arrived at Palermo with a good 
supply of arms furnished by subscription in northern Italy. Gari- 
baldi's forces were now raised to 12,000 men, besides the Sicilian 
squadre. Cavour's attempt to bring about the annexation of 
Sicily to Sardinia failed, for Garibaldi wished to use the island as 
a basis for an invasion of the mainland. Most of the island had 
now been evacuated by the Bourbonists, but Messina and a few 
other points still held out, and when the Garibaldians advanced 
eastward they encountered a force of 4000 of the enemy under 
Colonel Bosco at Milazzo; on the 2Oth of July a desperate 
battle took place resulting in a hard-won Garibaldian victory. 
The Neapolitan government then decided on the evacuation of 
the whole of Sicily except the citadel of Messina, which did not 
surrender until the following year. 

The news of Garibaldi's astonishing successes entirely changed 
the situation in the capital, and on the 25th of June 1860 the 
The king, after consulting the ministers and the royal 

Neapolitan family, granted a constitution, and appointed A. 
coastitu- Spinelli prime minister. Disorders having taken 

place between Liberals and reactionaries, Liberio 
Romano was made minister of police in the place of Aiossa. 
Sicily being lost, the king directed all his efforts to save Naples; 
he appealed to Great Britain and France to prevent Garibaldi 
from crossing the Straits of Messina, and only just failed (for this 
episode see under LACAITA, G.). Victor Emmanuel himself 
wrote to Garibaldi urging him to abstain from an attack on 
Naples, but Garibaldi refused to obey, and on the ipth of August 
he crossed with 4500 men and took Reggio by storm. He was 
soon joined by the rest of his troops, 15,000 in all, and although 
the Neapolitan government had 30,000 men in Calabria alone, the 

army collapsed before Garibaldi's advance, and the 
on7fte /<H P e P' e rose i n his favour almost everywhere. Francis 
mainland, offered Garibaldi a large sum of money if he would 

abstain from advancing farther, and 50,000 men to 
fight the Austrians and the pope; but it was too late, and on the 
6th of September the king and queen sailed for Gaeta. The 






40,000 Bourbon troops between Salerno and Avellino fell back 
panic-stricken, and on the 7th Garibaldi entered Naples alone, 
although the city was still full of soldiers, and was received with 
delirious enthusiasm. On the nth a part of the royalists 
capitulated and the rest retired on Capua. Cavour now decided 
that Sardinia must take part in the liberation of southern Italy, 
for he feared that Garibaldi's followers might induce him to 
proclaim the republic and attack Rome, which would have 
provoked French hostility; consequently a Piedmontese army 
occupied the Marche and Umbria, and entered Neapolitan 
territory with Victor Emmanuel at its head. On the ist and 2nd 
of October 1860 a battle was fought on the Volturno victor 
between 20,000 Garibaldians, many of them raw Emmanuel 
levies, and 35,000 Bourbon troops, and although at**"' 
first a Garibaldian division under Turr was repulsed, aartbttUI - 
Garibaldi himself arrived in time to turn defeat into victory. 
On the 26th he met Victor Emmanuel at Teano and hailed him 
king of Italy, and subsequently handed over his conquests to 
him. On the 3rd of November a plebiscite was taken, which 
resulted in an overwhelming majority in favour of union with 
Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi departed for his 
island home at Caprera, while L.C. Farini was appointed viceroy 
of Naples and M. Cordero viceroy of Sicily. The last remnant of 
the Bourbon army was concentrated at Gaeta, the siege of which 
was begun by Cialdinion the 5th of November; on the 
roth of January 1861 the French fleet, which Napoleon 
III. had sent to Gaeta to delay the inevitable fall of the 
dynasty, was withdrawn at the instance of Great Britain; and 
although the garrison fought bravely and the king and queen 
showed considerable courage, the fortress surrendered on the 
1 3th of February and the royal family departed by sea. (See 
FRANCIS II., King of the Two Sicilies.) The citadel of Messina 
capitulated a month later, and Civitella del Tronto on the 2ist 
of March. On the i8th of February the first Italian parliament 
met at Turin and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. 
Thus Naples and Sicily ceased to be a separate political entity 
and were absorbed into the united Italian kingdom. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. General works: F. Carta, Storia del regno delle 
Due Sicilie (Naples, 1848); F. Pagano, Istoria del regno di Napoli 
(Naples and Palermo, 1832, &c.) ; J. Albini, De gestis regum Neapplit. 
ab Aragonia (Naples, 1588); several chapters in the Storia politica 
d' Italia (Milan, 1875-1882); F. Lanzani, Storia dei comuni Italiani 
. . . fino al 1313; C. Cipolla, Storia delle signorie Italiane dal 1313 
al 1530; Cosci, L' Italia durante le preponderant straniere, 1530- 
1780; A. Franchetti, Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799; G. de Castro, 
Storia d' Italia dal 1799 al 1814; F. Bertolini, Storia d' Italia dal 
1814 al 1878. For the more recent history P. Colletta's Storia del 
rearm di Napoli (Florence, 1848) will be found very useful, though 
not without bias, and G. Pepe's Memorie (Paris, 1847) are also im- 
portant, both authors having played an important part in the events 
of 1809-1815 and 1820-1821; N. Nisco, Gli ultimi 36 anni del 
reame di Napoli (Naples, 1889). On the subject of the revolution 
of 1799 and the Nelson episode there is quite a library. The docu- 
ments are mostly to be found in Nelson and the Neapolitan Jacobins 
(Navy Records Society, London, 1903), edited by H. C. Gutteridge, 
with an introduction, where Nelson's action is defended, and a 
bibliography. A. T. Mahan in his Life of Nelson (2nd ed., London, 
1899), and in the English Historical Review for July 1899 and October 
1900, takes the same view; for the other side see C. Giglioli, Naples 
in 1799 (London, 1903), which is impartial and well written; F. P. 
Badham, Nelson at Naples (London, 1900); P. Villari, " Nelson, 
Caracciolo e la Repubblica Napolitana " (Nuova Antologia, February 
16, 1899); A. Maresca, Gli avvenimenti di Napoli dal jj giugno al 
12 lugho, 1799 (Naples, 1900) ; B. Croce, Studii storici sulla rivo- 
luzione Napoletana del 1799 (Rome, 1897); Freiherr von Helfert has 
attempted the impossible task of whitewashing Queen Mary Caroline 
in his Konigin Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien (Vienna, 1878) and 
Maria Karolina von Osterreich (Vienna, 1884), while in his Fabrizio 
Ruffo (Italian edition, Florence, 1885) he gives a rose-coloured 
portrait of that prelate and his brigand bands; see also H. Buffer's 
Die neapolitanische Republik des Jahres 1799 (Leipzig, 1884). For a. 
general account of the French period see C. Auriol, La France, 
I' Angleterre, et Naples (Paris, 1906), and R. M. Johnston, The Napole- 
onic Empire in South Italy (London, 1904), both based on documents. 
For the latest period see N. Nisco, Gli ultimi 36 anni del reame di 
Napoli (Naples, 1889) ; H. R. Whitehouse, The Collapse of the Kingdom 
of Naples (New York, 1899), and R. de Cesare, La Fine d' un regno 
(Citti di Castello.'igoo), which contains much information but is not 
always accurate. For the British occupation of Sicily see G. Bianco, 
La Sicilia durante I' occupazione Inglese (Palermo, 1902); and for 



NAPOLEON I. 



Sicily from 1830 to 1861, Francesco Guardione's II Dominio dei 
Borboni in Sicilia (Turin, 1908) will be found useful. The best 
account of Garibaldi's expedition is G. Trevelyan's Garibaldi and the 
Thousand (London, 1909). (L. V.*) 

NAPOLEON I. (1769-1821), Emperor of the French. Napoleon 
Bonaparte (or Buonaparte, as he almost always spelt the name 
down the year 1796) was born at Ajaccio in Corsica on the 
iSth of August 1769. The date of his birth has been disputed, 
and certain curious facts have been cited in proof of the assertion 
that he was born on the 7th of January 1768, and that his brother 
Joseph, who passed as the eldest surviving son, was in reality 
his junior. Recent research has, however, explained how it came 
about that a son born on the earlier date received the name 
Nabulione (Napoleon). The father, Carlo Maria da Buonaparte 
(Charles Marie de Bonaparte), had resolved to call his three first 
sons by the names given by his great-grandfather to his sons, 
namely Joseph, Napoleon and Lucien. This was done; but on 
the death of the eldest (Joseph) the child first baptized Nabulion 
received the name Joseph; while the third son (the second 
surviving son) was called Napoleon. The baptismal register of 
Ajaccio leaves no doubt as to the date of his birth as given above. 
For his parents and family see BONAPARTE. The father's 
literary tastes, general inquisitiveness, and powers of intrigue 
reappeared in Napoleon, who, however, derived from his mother 
Letizia (a descendant of the Ramolino and Pietra Santa families) 
the force of will, the power of forming a quick decision and of 
maintaining it against all odds, which made him so terrible an 
opponent both in war and in diplomacy. The sterner strain in 
the mother's nature may be traced to intermarriage with the 
families of the wild interior of Corsica, where the vendetta was 
the unwritten but omnipotent law of the land. The Bonapartes, 
on the other hand", had long concernetl themselves with legal 
affairs at Ajaccio or in the coast towns of the island. They 
traced their descent to ancestors who had achieved distinction 
in the political life of medieval Florence and Sarzana; Francesco 
Buonaparte of Sarzana migrated to Corsica early in the i6th 
century. What is equally noteworthy, as explaining the 
characteristics of Napoleon, is that his descent was on both 
sides distinctly patrician. He once remarked that the house of 
Bonaparte dated from the coup d'etat of Brumaire (November 
1799); but it is certain the de Buonapartes had received the 
title of nobility from the senate of the republic of Genoa which, 
during the i8th century, claimed to exercise sovereignty over 
Corsica. 

It was in the midst of the strifes resulting from those claims 
that Napoleon Bonaparte saw the light in 1769. His compatriots 
had already freed themselves from the yoke of Genoa, thanks to 
Pasquale Paoli; but in 1764 that republic appealed to Louis XV. 
of France for aid, and in 1 768 a bargain was struck by which the 
French government succeeded to the nearly bankrupt sovereignty 
of Genoa. In the campaigns of 1768-69 the French gradually 
overcame the fierce resistance of the islanders; and Paoli, after 
sustaining a defeat at Ponte-Novo (gth of May 1769), fled to the 
mainland, and ultimately to England. Napoleon's father at first 
sided with Paoli, but after the disaster of Ponte-Novo he went 
over to the conquerors, and thereafter solicited places for himself 
and for his sons with a skill and persistence which led to a close 
union between the Bonapartes and France. From the French 
governor of Corsica, the comte de Marbeuf, he procured many 
favours, among them being the nomination of the young Napoleon 
to the military school at Brienne in the east of France. 

Already the boy had avowed his resolve to be a soldier. In 
the large playroom of the house at Ajaccio, while the others 
amused themselves with ordinary games, Napoleon delighted 
most in beating a drum and wielding a sword. His elder brother, 
Joseph, a mild and dreamy boy, had to give way before him; 
and it was a perception of this difference of temperament which 
decided the father to send Joseph into the church and Napoleon 
into the army. Seeing that the younger boy was almost entirely 
ignorant of French, he took him with Joseph to the college at 
Autun at the close of the year 1778. After spending four months 
at Autun, Napoleon entered the school at Brienne in May 1779. 



The pupils at Brienne, far from receiving a military education, 
were grounded in ordinary subjects, and in no very efficient 
manner, by brethren of the order, or society, of Minims. The 
moral tone of the school was low; and Napoleon afterwards 
spoke with contempt of the training of the " monks " and the 
manner of life of the scholars. Perhaps his impressions were too 
gloomy; his whole enthusiasm had been for the Corsicans, who 
still maintained an unequal struggle against the French; he 
deeply resented his father's espousal of the French cause; and 
dislike of the conquerors of his native island made him morose 
and solitary. Apart from decided signs of proficiency in mathe- 
matics, he showed no special ability. Languages he disliked, but 
he spent much of his spare time in reading history, especially 
Plutarch. The firmness of character which he displayed caused 
him to be recommended in 1782 for the navy by one of the 
inspectors of the school; but a new inspector, who was appointed 
in 1783, frustrated this plan. In October 1784 Bonaparte and 
three other Briennois were authorized, by a letter signed by 
Louis XVI., to proceed as gentlemen cadets to the military school 
at Paris. There the education was more thorough, and the 
discipline stricter, than at Brienne. Napoleon applied himself 
with more zest to his studies, in the hope of speedily qualifying 
himself for the artillery. In this he succeeded. As the result of 
an examination conducted in September 1785 by Laplace, Bona- 
parte was included among those who entered the army without 
going through an intermediate stage. 

At the end of October 1785 he closed a scholastic career which 
had beefKcreditable but not brilliant. He now entered the 
artillery regiment, La Fere, quartered at Valence, and went 
through all the duties imposed on privates, and thereafter those 
of a corporal and a sergeant. Not until January 1786 did he 
actually serve as junior lieutenant. A time of furlough in Corsica 
from September 1786 to September 1787 served to strengthen his 
affection for his mother, and for the island which he still hoped 
to free from the French yoke. The father having died of cancer 
at Montpellier in 1785, Napoleon felt added responsibilites, which 
he zealously discharged. In order to push forward a claim which 
Letizia urged on the French government, he proceeded to Paris 
in September 1787, and toyed for a time with the pleasures of the 
Palais Royal, but failed to make good the family claim. After 
gaining a further extension of leave of absence from his regiment 
he returned to Ajaccio and spent six months more in the midst 
of family and political affairs. Rejoining his regiment, then in 
the garrison at Auxonne, after a furlough of twenty-one months, 
the young officer went through a time of much privation, 
brightened only by the study of history and cognate subjects. 
Many of the notes and essays written by him at Auxonne bear 
witness to his indomitable resolve to master all the details of his 
profession and the chief facts relating to peoples who had struggled 
successfully to achieve their liberation. Enthusiasm for Corsica 
was a leading motive prompting him to this prolonged exertion. 
His notes on English history (down to the time of the revolution 
of 1688) were especially detailed. Of Cromwell he wrote: 
" Courageous, clever, deceitful, dissimulating, his early principles 
of lofty republicanism yielded to the devouring flames of his 
ambition; and, having tasted the sweets of power, he aspired to 
the pleasure of reigning alone." At Auxonne, as previously at 
Valence, Napoleon commanded a small detachment of troops 
sent to put down disturbances in neighbouring towns, and carried 
out his orders unflinchingly. To this period belongs his first 
crude literary effort, a polemic against a Genevese pastor who 
had criticized Rousseau. 

In the latter part of his stay at Auxonne (June 1788- 
September 1 789) occurred the first events of the Revolution which 
was destined to mould anew his ideas and his career. But his 
preoccupation about Corsica, the privations to which he and his 
family were then exposed, and his bad health, left him little 
energy to expend on purely French affairs. He read much of the 
pamphlet literature then flooding the country, but he still pre- 
ferred the more general studies in history and literature, Plutarch, 
Caesar, Corneille, Voltaire and Rousseau being his favourite 
authors. The plea of the last named on behalf of Corsica served 



NAPOLEON I. 



191 



to enlist the sympathy of Napoleon in his wider speculations, 
and so helped to bring about that mental transformation which 
merged Buonaparte the Corsican in Bonaparte the Jacobin 
and Napoleon the First Consul and Emperor. 

Family influences also played their part in this transformation. 
On proceeding to Ajaccio in September 1789 for another furlough, 
he found his brother Joseph enthusiastic in the democratic 
cause and acting as secretary of the local political club. Napoleon 
seconded his efforts, and soon they had the help of the third 
brother, Lucien, who proved to be most eager and eloquent. 
Thanks to the exertions of Saliceti, one of the two deputies sent 
by the tiers etat of Corsica to the National Assembly of France, 
that body, on the 3Oth of November 1789, declared the island to 
be an integral part of the kingdom with right to participate in 
all the reforms then being decreed. This event decided Napoleon 
to give his adhesion to the French or democratic party; and 
when, in July 1790, Paoli returned from exile in England (receiv- 
ing on his way the honours of the sitting by the National 
Assembly) the claims of nationality and democracy seemed to 
be identical, though the future course of events disappointed 
these hopes. Shortly before returning to his regiment in the 
early weeks of 1791 he indited a letter inveighing in violent 
terms against Matteo Buttafuoco, deputy for the Corsican 
noblesse in the National Assembly of France, as having betrayed 
the cause of insular liberty in 1768 and as plotting against it 
again. 

The experiences of Bonaparte at Auxonne during his second 
stay in garrison were again depressing. With him in his poorly 
furnished lodgings was Louis Bonaparte, the fourth surviving 
son, whom he carefully educated and for whom he predicted a 
brilliant future. For the present their means were very scanty, 
and, as the ardent royalism of his brother officers limited his 
social circle, he plunged into work with the same ardour as before, 
frequently studying fourteen or fifteen hours a day. Then it 
was, or perhaps at a slightly later date, that he became interested 
in the relations subsisting between political science and war. From 
L' Esprit des lois of Montesquieu he learnt suggestive thoughts 
like the following: " L'objet def la guerre, c'est la victoire; 
celui de la victoire, la conquete; celui de la conquete, 1'occupa- 
tion." MachiaveUi taught him the need of speed, decision 
and unity of command, in war. From the Traite de tactique 
(1772) of Guibert he caught a glimpse of the power which a 
patriotic and fully armed nation might gain amidst the feeble 
and ill-organized governments of that age. 

External events served to unite him more closely to France. 
The reorganization of the artillery, which took place in the spring 
of 1791, brought Bonaparte to the rank of lieutenant in the 
regiment of Grenoble, then stationed at Valence. He left the 
regiment La Fere with regret on the i4th of June 1791; but at 
Valence he renewed former friendships and plunged into politics 
with greater ardour. Most of his colleagues refused to take 
the oath of obedience to the Constituent Assembly, after the 
attempted escape of Louis XVI. to the eastern frontier at mid- 
summer. Bonaparte took the oath on the 4th of July, but said 
later that the Assembly ought to have banished the king and 
proclaimed a regency for Louis XVII. In general, however, 
his views at that time were republican; he belonged to the club 
of Friends of the Constitution at Valence, spoke there with much 
acceptance, and was appointed librarian to the club. 

At Valence also he wrote an essay for a prize instituted by 
his friend and literary adviser, Raynal, at the academy of 
Lyons. The subject was " What truths and sentiments is it 
most important to inculcate to men for their happiness? " 
Bonaparte's essay bore signs of study of Rousseau and of the 
cult of Lycurgus which was coming into vogue. The Spartans 
were happy, said the writer, because they had plenty of good, 
suitable clothing and lodging, robust women, and were able to 
meet their requirements both physical and mental. Men should 
live according to the laws and dictates of nature, not forgetting 
the claims of reason and sentiment. The latter part of the 
essay is remarkable for its fervid presentment of the charms of 
scenery and for vigorous declamation against the follies and 



crimes of ambitious men. The judges at Lyons placed 'it 
fifteenth in order of merit among the sixteen essays sent in. 

Thanks to the friendly intervention of the marechal du camp, 
baron Duteil, Bonaparte once more gained leave of absence 
for three months and reached Corsica in September 1791. Opinion 
there was in an excited state, the priests and the populace being 
inflamed against the anti-clerical decrees of the National Assembly 
of France. Paoli did little to help on the Bonapartes; and 
the advancement of Joseph Bonaparte was slow. Napoleon's 
admiration for the dictator also began to cool, and events began 
to point to a rupture. The death of Archdeacon Lucien Bona- 
parte, the recognized head of the family, having placed property 
at the disposal of the sons, they bought a house, which became 
the rendezvous of the democrats and of a band of volunteers 
whom they raised. In the intrigues for the command of this 
body Napoleon had his rival, Morati, carried off by force 
his first coup d'etat. The incident led to a feud with the supporters 
of Morati, among whom was Pozzo di Borgo (destined to be his 
life-long enemy), and opened a breach between the Bonapartes 
and Paoli. Bonaparte's imperious nature also showed itself 
in family matters, which he ruled with a high hand. No one, 
said his younger brother Lucien, liked to thwart him. 

Further discords naturally arose between so masterful a 
lieutenant as Bonaparte and so autocratic a chief as Paoli. 
The beginnings of this rupture, as well as a sharp affray between 
his volunteers and the townsfolk of Ajaccio, may have quickened 
Bonaparte's resolve to return to France in May 1792, but there 
were also personal and family reasons for this step. Having 
again exceeded his time of furlough, he was liable to the severe 
penalties attaching to a deserter and an emigre; but he saw 
that the circumstances of the time would help to enforce the 
appeal for reinstatement which he resolved to make at Paris. 
His surmise was correct. The Girondin ministry then in power 
had brought Louis XVI. to declare war against Austria (2oth 
of April 1792) and against Sardinia (isth of May 1792). The 
lack of trained officers was such as to render the employment 
and advancement of Bonaparte probable in the near future, 
and on the 3oth of August, Servan, the minister for war, issued 
an order appointing him to be captain in his regiment and to 
receive arrears of pay. During this stay at Paris he witnessed 
some of the great " days " of the Revolution; but the sad 
plight of his sister, Marianna Elisa, on the dissolution of the 
convent of St Cyr, where she was being educated, compelled 
him to escort her back to Corsica shortly after the September 
massacres. 

His last time of furlough in Corsica is remarkable for the 
failure of the expedition in which he and his volunteers took 
part, against la Maddalena, a small island off the coast of 
Sardinia. The breach between Paoli and the Bonapartes now 
rapidly widened, the latter having now definitely espoused the 
cause of the French republic, while Paoli, especially after the 
execution of Louis XVI., repudiated all thought of political 
connexion with the regicides. Ultimately the Bonapartes had 
to flee from Corsica (nth of June 1793), an event which clinched 
Napoleon's decision to identify his fortunes with those of the 
French republic. His ardent democratic opinions rendered 
the change natural when Paoli and his compatriots declared for 
an alliance with England. 

The arrival of the Bonapartes at Toulon coincided with a time 
of acute crisis in the fortunes of the republic. Having declared 
war on England and Holland (ist of February 1793), and against 
Spain (9th of March), France was soon girdled by foes; and the 
forces of the first coalition invaded her territory at several points. 
At first the utmost efforts of the republic failed to avert disaster; 
for the intensely royalist district of la Vendee, together with 
most of Brittany, burst into revolt, and several of the northern, 
central and southern departments rose against the Jacobin rule. 
The struggle which the constitutionalists and royalists of 
Marseilles made against the central government furnished 
Bonaparte with an occasion for writing his first important 
political pamphlet, entitled " Le Souper de Beaucaire." It 
purports to be a conversation at the little town of Beaucaire 



192 



NAPOLEON I. 



between a soldier (obviously the writer himself) and three men, 
citizens of Marseilles, Nimes and Montpellier, who oppose the 
Jacobinical government and hope for victory over its forces. 
The officer points out the folly of such a course, and the 
certainty that the republic, whose troops had triumphed over 
those of Prussia and Austria, will speedily disperse the untrained 
levies of Provence. The pamphlet closes with a passionate 
plea for national unity. 

He was now to further the cause of the republic one and 
indivisible in the sphere of action. The royalists of Toulon had 
admitted British and Spanish forces to share in the defence of 
that stronghold (29th of August 1793). The blow to the re- 
publican cause was most serious: for from Toulon as a centre 
the royalists threatened to raise a general revolt throughout the 
south of France, and Pitt cherished hopes of dealing a death-blow 
to the Jacobins in that quarter. But fortune now brought 
Bonaparte to blight those hopes. Told off to serve in the army 
of Nice, he was detained by a special order of the commissioners 
of the Convention, Saliceti and Gasparin, who, hearing of the 
severe wound sustained by Dommartin, the commander of the 
artillery of the republican forces before Toulon, ordered Bona- 
parte to take his place. He arrived at the republican head- 
quarters, then at Ollioules on the north-west of Toulon, on the 
i6th of September; and it .is noteworthy that as early as Sep- 
tember loth the commissioners had seen the need of attacking 
the allied fleet and had paid some attention to the headland 
behind 1'Eguillette, which commanded both the outer and the 
inner harbour. But there is no doubt that Bonaparte brought 
to bear on the execution of this as yet vague and general proposal 
powers of concentration and organization which ensured its 
success. In particular he soon put the artillery of the besiegers 
in good order. Carteaux, an ex-artist, at first held the supreme 
command, but was superseded on the 23rd of October. Doppet, 
the next commander, was little better fitted for the task; but 
his successor, Dugommier, was a brave and experienced soldier 
who appreciated the merits of Bonaparte. Under their direction 
steady advance was made on the side which Bonaparte saw to 
be all important; a sortie of part of the British, Spanish and 
Neapolitan forces on the 3oth of November was beaten back 
with loss, General O'Hara, their commander, being severely 
wounded and taken prisoner. On the night of the i6th-i7th 
December, Dugommier, Bonaparte, Victor and Muiron headed 
the storming column which forced its way into the chief battery 
thrown up by the besieged on the height behind 1'Eguillette; 
and on the next day Hood and Langara set sail, leaving the 
royalists to the vengeance of the Jacobins. General du Teil, 
the younger, who took part in the siege, thus commented on 
Bonaparte's services: " I have no words in which to describe 
the merit of Bonaparte: much science, as much intelligence and 
too much bravery. ... It is for you, Ministers, to consecrate 
him to the glory of the republic." At Toulon Bonaparte made 
the acquaintance of men who were to win renown under his 
leadership) Desaix, Junot, Marmont, Muiron, Suchet and 
Victor. 

It is often assumed that the fortunes of Bonaparte were made 
at Toulon. This is an exaggeration. True, on the 22nd of 
December 1793 he was made general of brigade for his services; 
and in February 1794 he gained the command of the artillery 
in the French army about to invade Italy; but during the 
preliminary work of fortification along the coast he was placed 
under arrest for a time owing to his reconstruction of an old fort 
at Marseilles which had been destroyed during the Revolution. 
He was soon released owing to the interposition of the younger 
Robespierre and of Saliceti. Thereafter he resided successively 
at Toulon, St Tropez and Antibes, doing useful work in fortifying 
the coast and using his spare time in arduous study of the science 
of war. This he had already begun at Auxonne under the in- 
spiring guidance of the baron du Teil. General du Teil, younger 
brother of the baron, had recently published a work, L' Usage de 
I'artiUerie noitvelle; and it is now known that Bonaparte derived 
from this work and from those of Guibert and Bourcet that lead- 
ing principle, concentration of effort against one point of the 



enemy's line, which he had advocated at Toulon and which he 
everywhere put in force in his campaigns. 

On or about the 2oth of March 1794 he arrived at the head- 
quarters of the army of Italy. At Colmars, on the 2ist of May 
1794, he drew up the first draft of his Italian plan of campaign 
for severing the Piedmontese from their Austrian allies and for 
driving the latter out of their Italian provinces. A secret mission 
to Genoa enabled him to inspect the pass north of Savona, and 
the knowledge of the peculiarities of that district certainly helped 
him in maturing his plan for an invasion of Italy, which he put 
into execution in 1796. For the present he experienced a sharp 
rebuff of fortune, which he met with his usual fortitude. He 
was suddenly placed under arrest owing to intrigues or suspicions 
of the men raised to power by the coup d'etat of Thermidorg-io 
(July 27-28) 1794. The commissioners sent by the Convention, 
Albitte, Laporte and Saliceti, suspected him of having divulged 
the plan of campaign, and on the 6th of August ordered his 
arrest as being the " maker of plans " for the younger Robes- 
pierre. On a slighter accusation than this many had perished; 
but an examination into the details of the mission of Bonaparte 
to Genoa and the new instructions which arrived from Carnot, 
availed to procure his release on the 2oth of August. It came in 
time to enable him to share in the operations of the French army 
against the Austrians that led to the battle of Dego, north of 
Savona (2ist of September), a success largely due to his skilful 
combinations. But the decline in the energies of the central 
government at Paris and the appointment of Scherer as com- 
mander-in-chief of the army of Italy frustrated the plans of a 
vigorous offensive which Bonaparte continued to develop and 
advocate. 

Meanwhile he took part in an expedition fitted out in the 
southern ports to drive the English from Corsica. It was a 
complete failure, and for a time his prospects were overclouded. 
In the spring of 1795 he received an order from Paris to proceed 
to la Vendee in command of an infantry brigade. He declined 
on the score of ill-health, but set out for Paris in May, along with 
Marmont, Junot and Louis Bonaparte. At the capital he found 
affairs quickly falling back into the old ways of pleasure and 
luxury. " People," he wrote, " remember the Terror only as a 
dream." That he still pursued his studies of military affairs is 
shown by the compilation of further plans for the Italian cam- 
paign. The news of the ratification of peace with Spain brought 
at once the thought that an offensive plan of campaign in Pied- 
mont was thenceforth inevitable. Probably these plans gained 
for him an appointment (2oth of August) in the topographical 
bureau of the committee of Public Safety. But, either from 
weariness of the life at Paris, or from disgust at clerical work, 
he sought permission to go to Turkey in order to reorganize the 
artillery of the Sultan. But an inspection of his antecedents 
showed the many irregularities of his conduct as officer and led 
to his name being erased from the list of general officers (Sep- 
tember isth). 

Again the difficulty of the republic was to be his opportunity. 
The action of the Convention in perpetuating its influence by 
the imposition of two-thirds of its members on the next popularly 
elected councils, aroused a storm of indignation in Paris, where 
the " moderate " and royalist reaction was already making 
headway. The result was the massing of some 30,000 National 
Guards to coerce the Convention. Confronted by this serious 
danger, the Convention entrusted its defence to Barras, who 
appointed the young officer to be one of the generals assisting 
him. The vigour and tactical skill of Bonaparte contributed 
very largely to the success of the troops of the Convention over 
the Parisian malcontents on the famous day of 13 Vendemiaire 
(October 5th, 1795), when the defenders of the Convention, 
sweeping the quays and streets near the Tuilleries by artillery 
and musketry, soon paralysed the movement at its headquarters, 
the church of St Roch. The results of this day were out of all 
proportion to the comparatively small number of casualties. 
With the cost of about 200 killed on either side, the Convention 
crushed the royalist or malcontent reaction, and imposed on 
France a form of government which ensured the perpetuation of 



NAPOLEON I. 



193 



democracy though in a bureaucratic form the first of those 
changes which paved the way to power for Bonaparte. For the 
constitution of the year 1795 which inaugurated the period of 
the Directory (1795-1799) see FRENCH REVOLUTION. Here we 
may notice that the perpetuation of the republic by means of 
the armed forces tended to exalt the army at the expense of the 
civil authorities. The repetition of the same tactics by Bonaparte 
in Fructidor, 1797, served still more decidedly to tilt the balance 
in favour of the sword, with results which were to be seen at the 
coup d'ftat of Brumaire 1799. 

The events which helped the disgraced officer of August 1795 
to impose his will on France in November 1799 now claim our 
attention. The services which he rendered to the republic at 
Vendemiaire brought as their reward the hand of Josephine 
de Beauharnais. The influence of Barras with this fashionable 
lady helped on the match. At the outset she felt some repugnance 
for the thin sallow-faced young officer, and was certainly terrified 
by his ardour and by the imperious egoism of his nature; but 
she consented to the union, especially when he received the 
promise of the command of the French army of Italy. The story 
that he owed this promotion solely to the influence of Barras 
and Josephine is, however, an exaggeration. It is now known that 
the plans of campaign which he had drawn up for that army 
had enlisted the far more influential support of Carnot on his 
behalf. In January 1796 he drew up another plan for the 
conquest of Italy, which gained the assent of the Directory. 
Vendemiaire and the marriage with Josephine (gth of March 
1796) were but stepping-stones to the attainment of the end 
which he had kept steadily in sight since the spring of the year 
1794. For the events of this campaign in Italy see FRENCH 
REVOLUTIONARY WARS. The success at the bridge of Lodi ( toth of 
May) seems first to have inspired in the young general dreams of a 
grander career than that of a successful general of the Revolution; 
while his narrow escape at the bridge of Arcola in November 
strengthened his conviction that he was destined for a great 
future. The means whereby he engaged the energies of the 
Italians on behalf of the French Republic and yet refrained 
from persecuting the Roman Catholic Church in the way only 
too common among revolutionary generals, bespoke political 
insight of no ordinary kind. From every dispute which he had 
with the central authorities at Paris he emerged victorious; 
and he took care to assure his ascendancy by sending presents 
to the Directors, large sums to the nearly bankrupt treasury 
and works of art to the museums of Paris. Thus when, after the 
crowning victory of Rivoli (i4th of January 1797), Mantua 
surrendered and the Austrian rule in Italy for the time collapsed, 
Bonaparte was virtually the idol of the French nation, the 
master of the Directory and potentially the protector of the 
Holy See. 

It may be well to point out here the salient features in Bona- 
parte's conduct towards the states of northern Italy. While 
arousing the enthusiasm of their inhabitants on behalf of France, 
he in private spoke contemptuously of them, mercilessly sup- 
pressed all outbreaks caused by the exactions and plundering 
of his army, and carefully curbed the factions which the new 
political life soon developed. On his first entry into Milan 
(iSth of May 1796) he received a rapturous welcome as the 
liberator of Italy from the Austrian yoke; but the instructions 
of the Directory allowed him at the outset to do little more than 
effect the organization of consultative committees and national 
guards in the chief towns of Lombardy. The successful course 
of the campaign and the large sums which he sent from Italy to 
the French exchequer served to strengthen his hold over' the 
Directors, and his constructive policy grew more decided. 
Thus, when the men of Reggio and Modena overthrew the rule 
of their duke, he at once accorded protection to them, as also to 
the inhabitants of the cities of Bologna and Ferrara when they 
broke away from papa) authority. He even allowed the latter 
to send delegates to confer with those of the duchy at Modena, 
with the result that a political union was decreed in a state 
called the Cispadane Republic (i6th of October 1706). This 
action was due in large measure to the protection of Bonaparte, 
xix. 7 



The men of Lombardy, emboldened by his tacit encouragement, 
prepared at the close of the year to form a republic, which 
assumed the name of Transpadane, and thereafter that of 
Cisalpine. Its constitution was drawn up in the spring of 
1797 by committees appointed, and to some extent supervised, 
by him; and he appointed the first directors, deputies and chief 
administrators of the new state (July 1797). The union of these 
republics took place on the isth of July 1797. The bounds 
of the thus enlarged Cisalpine Republic were afterwards ex- 
tended eastwards to the banks of the Adige by the terms of 
the treaty of Campo Formio; and in November 1797 Bonaparte 
added the formerly Swiss district of the Valtelline, north-east 
of Lake Como, to its territory. Much of this work of reorganiza- 
tion was carried on at the castle of Montebello, or Mombello, 
near Milan, where he lived in almost viceregal pomp (May-July, 
1797). Taking advantage of an outbreak at Genoa, he over- 
threw that ancient oligarchy, replaced it by a form of government 
modelled on that of France (June 6th); and subsequently it 
adopted the name of the Ligurian Republic. 

Concurrently with these undertakings, he steadily prepared to 
strengthen his position in the political life of France; and it will 
be well to notice the steps by which he ensured the defeat of the 
royalists in France and the propping up of the directorial system 
in the coup d'etat of Fructidor 1797. The unrest in France in the 
years 1795-1797 resulted mainly from the harshness, incom- 
petence and notorious corruption of the five Directors who, 
after the i3th of Vendemiaire 1795, practically governed France. 
All those who wished for peace and orderly government came by 
degrees to oppose the Directors; and, seeing that the latter clung 
to Jacobinical catchwords and methods, public opinion tended 
to become " moderate " or even royalist. This was seen in the 
elections for one-third of the 750 members composing the two 
councils of the nation (the Anciens and the Council of Five 
Hundred); they gave the moderates a majority alike in that 
of the older deputies and in that of the younger deputies (April 
1797), and that majority elected Barthelemy, a well-known 
moderate, as the fifth member of the Directory. Carnot, the 
ablest administrator, but not the strongest man, soon joined 
Barthelemy in opposing their Jacobinical colleagues Barras, 
Rewbell and Larevelliere-Lepeaux. Time was on the side of 
the moderates; they succeeded in placing General Pichegru, 
already known for his tendencies towards constitutional monarchy, 
in the presidential chair of the Council of Five Hundred; and 
they proceeded to agitate, chiefly through the medium of a 
powerful club founded at Clichy, for the repeal of the revolu- 
tionary and persecuting laws. The three Jacobinical Directors 
thereupon intrigued to bring to Paris General Lazarre Hoche 
and his army destined for the invasion of Ireland for the purpose 
of coercing their opponents; but these, perceiving the danger, 
ordered Hoche to Paris, rebuked him for bringing his army 
nearer to the capital than was allowed by law, and dismissed 
him in disgrace. 

The failure of Hoche led the three Directors to fix their hopes 
on Bonaparte. The commander of the ever-victorious army of 
Italy had recently been attacked by one of the moderates in the 
councils for proposing to hand over Venice to Austria. This 
cession was based on political motives, which Bonaparte judged 
to be of overwhelming force; and he now decided to support 
the Directors and overthrow the moderates. Prefacing his action 
by a violent tirade against the royalist conspirators of Clichy, 
he sent to Paris General Augereau, well known for his brusque 
behaviour and demagogic Jacobinism. This officer rushed to 
Paris, breathing out threats of slaughter against all royalists, 
and entered into close relations with Barras. In order to dis- 
count the chances of failure, Bonaparte warned the three Directors 
that Augereau was a turbulent politician, not to be trusted over- 
much. Events, indeed, might readily have gone in favour of 
the moderates had Carnot acted with decision; but he relapsed 
into strange inactivity, while Barras and his military tool 
prepared to coerce the majority. Before dawn of September 
the 4th (18 Fructidor) Augereau with 2000 soldiers marched 
against the Tuileries, where the councils were sitting, dispersed 



NAPOLEON I. 



their military guards, arrested several deputies and seized 
Barthelemy in his bed. Carnot, on receiving timely warning, 
fled from the Luxemburg palace and made his way to Switzer- 
land. The remembrance of the fatal day of Vendemiaire 1795 
perhaps helped to paralyse the majority. In any case exile, and 
death in the prisons of Cayenne, now awaited the timid champions 
of law and order; while parliamentary rule sustained a shock 
from which it never recovered. The Councils allowed the elec- 
tions to be annulled in forty-nine departments of France, and 
re-enacted some of the laws of the period of the Terror, notably 
those against non-juring priests and returned emigres. The 
election of Merlin of Douay and Francois of Neufchatel as 
Directors, in place of Carnot and Barth61emy, gave to that body 
a compactness which enabled it to carry matters with a high 
hand, until the hatred felt by Frenchmen for this soulless revival 
of a moribund Jacobinism gradually endowed the Chambers 
with life and strength sufficient to provoke a renewal of strife 
with the Directory. These violent oscillations not only weakened 
the fabric of the Republic, but brought about a situation in 
which Bonaparte easily paralysed both the executive and the 
legislative powers so ill co-ordinated by the constitution of the 
year 1795. 

In the sphere of European diplomacy, no less than in that 
of French politics, the results of the coup d'ttat of Fructidor 
were momentous. The Fructidorian Directors contemptuously 
rejected the overtures for peace which Pitt had recently made 
through the medium of Lord Malmesbury at Lille; and they 
further illustrated their desire for war and plunder by initiating 
a forward policy in central Italy and Switzerland which opened 
up a new cycle of war. The coup d'Stat was favourable to Bona- 
parte; it ensured his hold over the Directors and enabled him 
to impose his own terms of peace on Austria; above all it left 
him free for the prosecution of his designs in a field of action 
which now held the first place in his thoughts the Orient. 
Having rivalled the exploits of Caesar, he now longed to follow 
in the steps of Alexander the Great. 

At the time of his first view of the Adriatic (February 1797) 
he noted the importance of the port of Ancona for intercourse 
with the Sultan's dominions; and at that city fortune placed 
in his hands Russian despatches relative to the designs of the 
Tsar Paul on Malta. The incident reawakened the interest 
which had early been aroused in the young Corsican by converse 
with the savant Volney, author of Les Ruines, ou meditation sur 
les revolutions des empires. The intercourse which he had with 
Monge, the physicist and ex-minister of marine, during the 
negotiations with Austria, served to emphasize the orientation 
of his thoughts. This explains the eagerness with which he now 
insisted on the acquisition of the Ionian Isles by France and the 
political extinction of their present possessor, Venice. That city 
had given him cause for complaint, of which he made the most 
unscrupulous use. Thanks to the blind complaisance of its 
democrats and the timid subserviency of its once haughty 
oligarchs, he became master of its fleet and arsenal (i6th of May 
1797). Already, as may be seen by his letters to the Directory, 
he had laid his plans for the bartering away of the Queen of the 
Adriatic to Austria; and throughout the lengthy negotiations of 
the summer and early autumn of 1797 which he conducted with 
little interference from Paris, he adhered to his plan of gaining 
the fleet and the Ionian Isles; while the house of Habsburg 
was to acquire the city itself, together with all the mainland 
territories of the Republic as far west as the River Adige. In 
vain did the Austrian envoy, Cobenzl, resist the cession of the 
Ionian Isles to France; in vain did the Directors intervene in the 
middle of September with an express order that Venice must 
not be ceded to Austria, but must, along with Friuli, be included 
ia the Cisalpine Republic. To the subtle tenacity of Cobenzl he 
opposed a masterful violence: he checkmated the Directors, 
when they sought to thwart him in this and in other directions, 
by sending in once more his resignation with a letter hi which he 
accused them of " horrible ingratitude." He was successful 
at all points. The Directors feared a rupture with the man 
to whom they owed their existence; and the house of Austria 



was fain to make peace with the general rather than expose itself 
to harder terms at the hands of the Directory. 

The treaty of Campo Formic, signed on the I7th of October 
1797, was therefore pre-eminently the work of Bonaparte. 
Already at Cherasco and Leoben he had dictated the preliminaries 
of peace to the courts of Turin and Vienna quite independently 
of the French Directory. At Campo Formio he showed himself 
the first diplomatist of the age, and the arbiter of the destinies 
of Europe. The terms were on the whole unexpectedly favour- 
able to Austria. In Italy she was to acquire the Venetian lands 
already named, along with Dalmatia and Venetian Istria. The 
rest of the Venetian mainland (the districts between the rivers 
Adige and Ticino) went to the newly constituted Cisalpine 
republic, France gaining the Ionian Isles and the Venetian fleet. 
The Emperor Francis renounced all claims to his former Nether- 
land provinces, which had been occupied by the French since 
the summer of 1794; he further ceded the Breisgau to the dis- 
possessed duke of Modena, agreed to summon a congress at 
Rastatt for the settlement of German affairs, and recognized the 
independence of the Cisalpine republic. In secret articles the 
emperor bound himself to use his influence at the congress of 
Rastatt in order to procure the cession to France of the Germanic 
lands west of the Rhine, while France promised to help him to 
acquire the archbishopric of Salzburg and a strip of land on the 
eastern frontier of Bavaria. 

After acting for a brief space as one of the French envoys to the 
congress of Rastatt, Napoleon returned to Paris early in December 
and received the homage of the Directors and the acclaim of the 
populace. The former sought to busy him by appointing him 
commander-in-chief of the Army of England, the island power 
being now the only one which contested French supremacy in 
Europe. In February 1 798 he inspected the preparations for the 
invasion of England then proceeding at the northern ports. 
He found that they were wholly inadequate, and summed up his 
views in a remarkable letter to the Directory (23rd of February), 
wherein he pointed out two possible alternatives to an invasion of 
England, namely, a conquest of the coast of the north-west of 
Germany, for the cutting off of British commerte with central 
Europe, or the undertaking of an expedition to the Orient which 
would be equally ruinous to British trade. The inference was 
inevitable that, as German affairs were about to be profitably 
exploited by France in the bargains then beginning at Rastatt, 
she must throw her chief energies into the Egyptian expedition. 

One of the needful preliminaries of this enterprise' had already 
received his attention. In November 1797 he sent to Malta 
Poussielgue, secretary of the French legation at Genoa, on busi- 
ness which was ostensibly commercial but (as he informed the 
Directory) " in reality to put the last touch to the design that 
we have on that island." The intrigues of the French envoy 
in corrupting the knights of the order of St John were completely 
successful. It remained, however, to find the funds needful 
for the equipment of a great expedition. Here the difficulties 
were great. The Directory, after the coup d'etat of Fructidor, 
had acknowledged a state of bankruptcy by writing off two- 
thirds of the national debt in a form which soon proved to be a 
thin disguise for repudiation. The return of a large part of the 
armed forces from Italy and Germany, where they had lived on 
the liberated inhabitants, also threw new burdens on the Republic; 
and it was clear that French money alone would not suffice to 
fit out an armada. Again, however, the financial situation was 
improved by conquest. The occupation of Rome in February 
1798 enabled Berthier to send a considerable sum to Paris and 
to style himself " treasurer to the chest of the Army of England." 
The invasion of Switzerland, which Bonaparte had of late 
persistently pressed on the Directory, proved to be an equally 
lucrative device, the funds in several of the cantonal treasuries 
being transferred straightway to Paris or Toulon. The conquest 
of north and central Italy also placed great naval resources at 
the disposal of France, Venice alone providing nine sail of the 
line and twelve frigates (see Bonaparte's letter of the isth of 
November 1797), Genoa, Spezzia, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia 
and Ancona also supplied their quota in warships, transports, 



NAPOLEON I. 



'95 



stores and sailors, with the result that the armada was ready 
for sea by the middle of May 1798. The secrecy maintained as 
to its destination was equally remarkable. The British govern- 
ment inclined to the belief that it was destined either for Ireland 
or for Naples. As the British fleet had abandoned the Mediter- 
ranean since November 1 796 and had recently been disorganized 
by two serious mutinies, Bonaparte's plan of conquering Egypt 
was by no means so rash as has sometimes been represented. 

The ostensible aims of the expedition, as drawn up by him, 
and countersigned by the Directory on the I2th of April, were 
the seizure of Egypt, the driving of the British from all their 
possessions in the East and the cutting of the Suez canal. But 
apart from these public aims there were private motives which 
weighed with Bonaparte. His relations to the Directors were 
most strained. They feared his ability and ambition; while 
he credited them with the design of poisoning him. Shortly 
before his starting, an open rupture was scarcely averted; 
and he and his brothers allowed the idea to get abroad that he 
was being virtually banished from France. It is certain, however, 
that his whole heart was in the expedition, which appealed to 
his love of romance and of the gigantic. His words to Joseph 
Bonaparte shortly before sailing are significant: " Our dreams 
of a republic were youthful illusions. Since the 9th of Thermidor, 
the republican instinct has grown weaker every day. To-day 
all eyes are on me: to-morrow they may be on another. ... I 
depart for the Orient with all the means of success at my disposal. 
If my country needs me, if there are additions to the number 
of those who share the opinion of Talleyrand, Sieyes and Roederer, 
that war will break out again and that it will be unsuccessful 
for France, I will return, more sure of the feeling of the nation." 
He added, however, that if France waged a successful war, he 
would remain in the East, and do more damage to England 
there than by mere demonstrations in the English Channel. 

The Toulon fleet set sail on the igih of May; and when the 
other contingents from the ports of France and Italy joined the 
flag, the armada comprised thirteen sail of the line, fourteen 
frigates, many smaller warships and some three hundred trans- 
ports. An interesting feature of the expedition was the presence 
on board of several savants who were charged to examine the 
antiquities and develop the resources of Egypt. The chief had 
lately become a member of the Institute, and did his utmost 
to inflame in France that love of art and science which he had 
helped to kindle by enriching the museums of Paris with the 
treasures of Italy. By good fortune the armada evaded Nelson 
and arrived safely off Malta. Thanks to French intrigues, the 
Knights of Malta offered the tamest defence of their capital. 
During the week which he spent there, Bonaparte displayed 
marvellous energy in endowing the city with modern institutions; 
he even arranged the course of studies to be followed in the 
university. Setting sail for Egypt on the I9th of June, he 
again had the good fortune to elude Nelson and arrived off 
Alexandria on the 2nd of July. For an account of the Egyptian 
and Syrian campaigns see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. 
But here we may point out the influence of the expedition on 
Egypt, on European politics and on the fortunes of Bonaparte. 
The chief direct result in the life of the Egyptian people was the 
virtual destruction of the governing caste of the Mamelukes, 
the Turks finding it easy to rid themselves of their surviving 
chiefs and to re-establish the authority of the Sultan. As for the 
benefits which Bonaparte and his savants helped to confer on 
Egypt, they soon vanished. The great canal was not begun ; 
irrigation works were started but were soon given up. The 
letters of Kleber and Menou (the successors of Bonaparte) 
show that the expenditure on public works had been so reckless 
that the colony was virtually bankrupt at the time of Bonaparte's 
departure; and William Hamilton, who travelled through Egypt 
in 1802, found few traces, other than military, of the French 
occupation. The indirect results, however, were incalculably 
great. Though for the present the Sultan regained his hold 
upon Egypt, yet in reality Bonaparte set in motion forces which 
could not be stayed until the ascendancy of one or other of the 
western maritime powers in that land was definitely decided. 



The effects of the expedition in the sphere of world-politics 
were equally remarkable and more immediate. The British 
government, alarmed by Bonaparte's attempt to intrigue with 
Tippoo Sahib, put forth all its strength in India and destroyed 
the power of that ambitious ruler. Nelson's capture of Malta 
(5th of September 1800) also secured for the time a sure base 
for British fleets in the Mediterranean. A Russo-Turkish fleet 
wrested Corfu from the French; and the Neapolitan Bourbons, 
emboldened by the news of the battle of the Nile, began hostilities 
with France which preluded the war of the Second Coalition. 
In the domain of science the results of the expedition were of 
unique interest. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone furnished 
the key to Egyptian hieroglyphics; and archaeology, no less 
than the more practical sciences, acknowledges its debt of grati- 
tude to the man who first brought the valley of the Nile into close 
touch with the thought of the West. 

Finally, it should be noted that, amid the failure of the national 
aims which the Directory and Bonaparte set forth, his own 
desires received a startlingly complete fulfilment. The war of 
the Second Coalition having brought about the expulsion of 
the French from Italy, the Directors were exposed to a storm 
of indignation in France, not unmixed with contempt; and this 
state of public opinion enabled the young conqueror within a 
month of his landing at Frejus (gth of October 1799) easily to 
prevail over the Directory and the elective councils of the nation. 
In the spring of 1798 he had judged the pear to be not ripe; 
in Brumaire 1799 it came off almost at a touch. 

In order to understand the sharp swing of the political pendulum 
back from republicanism to autocracy which took place at 
Brumaire, it is needful to remember that the virtual failure of 
the Egyptian Expedition was then unknown. The news of 
Bonaparte's signal victory over the Turkish army at Aboukir 
aroused general rejoicings undimmed by any save the vaguest 
rumours of his reverse at Acre. In the popular imagination he 
seemed to be the only possible guarantor of victory abroad and 
order at home. This was unjust to the many men who were 
working, not without success, to raise the Republic out of its 
many difficulties. Massena's triumph at Zurich (September 
25th-26th, 1799) paralysed the Second Coalition; and, though 
the Austrians continued to make progress along the Italian 
riviera, the French Republic was in little danger on that side 
so long as it held Switzerland. 

The internal condition of France was also not so desperate 
as has often been represented. True, the Directory seemed on 
the point of collapse; it had been overcome by the popularly 
elected Chambers in the insignificant coup d'etat of 30 Prairial 
(i8th of June) 1799; when Larevelliere-Lepeaux and Merlin 
were compelled to resign. The retirement of Rewbell a short 
time previously also rid France of a turbulent and corrupt 
administrator. His place was now filled by Sieyes. This ex- 
priest, this disillusioned Jacobin and skilful spinner of cobweb 
constitutions, enjoyed for a time the chief reputation in France. 
His oracular reserve, personal honesty and consistency of aim 
had gained him the suffrages of all who hoped to save France 
from the harpies of the Directory and the violent rhetoricians 
of the now reconstituted Jacobin Club. He was known to dis- 
approve of the Directory both as an institution in the making of 
which he had had no hand, and of its personnel, with one excep- 
tion. This was natural. The new Directors, Gohier and Moulin, 
were honest but incapable and narrow-minded. As for Barras, 
his venality and vices outweighed even his capacity for successful 
intrigue. The fifth Director, Ducos, an ex-Girondin, was sure to 
swim with the stream. Clearly, then, the Directory was doomed. 

It was far otherwise with the Councils. A majority of the 
Ancients was ready to support Sieyes and make drastic changes 
in the constitution; but in the Council of Five Hundred the 
prevalent feeling was democratic or even Jacobinical. The 
aim of Sieyes was to perpetuate the republic, but in a bureau- 
cratic or autocratic form. With this aim in view he sought to 
find a man possessing ability in war and probity in civil affairs, 
who would act as figure-head to his long projected constitution. 
For a time affairs moved as he wished. The Jacobin Club was 



NAPOLEON I. 



closed, thanks to the ability of Fouch6, the new minister of 
Police; but the hopes of Sieyes were dashed by the death of 
General Joubert, commander of the Army of Italy, at the 
disastrous battle of Novi (isth of August). The dearth of ability 
among the generals left in France (Kleber and Desaix were in 
Egypt) was now painfully apparent. Moreau was notoriously 
lethargic in civil affairs. Bernadotte, Jourdan and Augereau 
had compromised themselves by close association with the 
Jacobins. The soldiery had never forgiven Massena his pecula- 
tions after the capture of Rome. One name, and one alone, 
leaped to men's thoughts, that of Bonaparte. 

He arrived from Egypt at the psychological moment,and his 
journey from Frejus to Paris resembled a triumphant procession. 
Nevertheless he acted with the utmost caution. A fortnight 
passed before he decided to support Sieyes in effecting a change 
in the constitution; and by then he had captivated all men 
except Bernadotte and a few intransigeant Jacobins. Talleyrand, 
Roederer, Cambaceres and Real were among his special con- 
fidants, his brothers Joseph and Lucien also giving useful 
advice. Of the generals, Murat, Berthier, Lannes and Leclerc 
were those who prepared the way for the coup d'etat. Fouche, 
pulling the wires through the police, was an invaluable helper. 
The conduct of Barras was known to depend on material 
considerations. 

All being ready, the Ancients on the 18 Brumaire (pth of 
November) decreed the transference of the sessions of both 
Councils to St Cloud, on the plea of a Jacobin plot which 
threatened the peace of Paris. They also placed the troops in 
Paris and its neighbourhood under the cpmmand of Bonaparte. 
Thereupon Sieyes and Ducos resigned office. Barras, after a cal- 
culating delay, followed suit. Gohier and Moulin, on refusing 
to retire, were placed under a military guard; and General 
Moreau showed his political incapacity by discharging this duty, 
for the benefit of Bonaparte. 

Nevertheless the proceedings of St Cloud on the day following 
bade fair to upset the best-laid schemes of Bonaparte and his 
coadjutors. The Five Hundred, meeting in the Orangerie of 
the palace, had by this time seen through the plot ; and, on the 
entrance of the general with four grenadiers, several deputies 
rushed at him, shook him violently, while others vehemently 
demanded a decree of outlawry against the new Cromwell. He 
himself lost his nerve, stammered, nearly fainted, and was dragged 
out by the soldiers in a state of mental and physical collapse. 
The situation was saved solely by the skill of his brother Lucien, 
then president of the Council. He refused to put the vote of 
outlawry, uttered a few passionate words, cast off his official 
robes, declared the session at an end, and made his way out under 
protection of a squad of grenadiers. The coup d'etat seemed to 
have failed. In reality matters now rested with the troops out- 
side. Stung to action by some words of Sieyes, Bonaparte 
appealed to the troops of the line in terms which provoked a 
ready response. Imprecations uttered by Lucien against 
the brigands and traitors in the pay of England decided the 
grenadiers of the Council to march against the deputies whom 
it was their special duty to protect. Drums beat the charge, 
Murat led the way through the corridors of the palace to the 
Orangerie, and levelled bayonets ended the existence of the 
Council. Within the space of ten and a half years from the 
summoning of the States-General at Versailles (May 1789), 
parliamentary government fell beneath the sword. 

Lucien now consolidated the work of the soldiery by procuring 
from the Ancients a decree which named Bonaparte, Sieyes and 
Ducos as provisional consuls, while a legislative commission was 
appointed to report on necessary changes in the constitution. 
Lucien also gathered together a small group of the younger 
deputies to throw the cloak of legality over the events of the 
day. The Rump proceeded to expel sixty-one Jacobins from 
the Council of Five Hundred, adjourned its sessions until the ipth 
of February 1800, and appointed a commission of twenty-five 
members with power to act in the meantime. Clearly the success 
of the coup d'etat of Brumaire was due in the last resort to Lucien 
Bonaparte. 



The Parisians received the news of the event with joy, be- 
lieving that freedom was now at last to be established on a firm 
basis by the man whose name was the synonym for victory in the 
field and disinterestedness in dvil affairs. " People are full of 
mirth " (wrote Madame Reinhard, wife of the minister for 
Foreign Affairs, four days later) " believing that they have 
regained liberty." She added that all the parties except the 
Jacobins were full of confidence; and that the nobles now 
cherished hopes of a reaction, seeing that the reduction of the 
number of rulers from five to three pointed towards monarchy. 
Her comment on this delusion is instructive. Three consuls 
had been appointed, she remarked, precisely in order that power 
might not be vested in the hands of one man. 

Only by degrees did the events of the ipth of Brumaire stand 
out in their real significance; for the new consuls, installed at 
the Luxemburg palace, and somewhat later at the Tuileries, 
took care that the new constitution, which they along with the 
two commissions were now secretly drawing up, should not be 
promulgated until Paris and France had settled down to the 
ordinary life of pleasure and toil. In the meantime they won 
credit by popular measures such as the abolition of forced loans 
and of the objectionable habit of seizing hostages from the 
districts of the west where the royalist ferment was still strongly 
working. 

The feelings of suprise at the clemency and moderation 
with which the victors used their powers predisposed men every- 
where to accept their constitution. Sieyes now sketched its out- 
lines in vaguely republican forms; thereupon Bonaparte freely 
altered them and gave them strongly personal touches. The 
theorist laid before the joint commission his projet, the result of 
five years of cogitation, only to have it ridiculed by the great 
soldier. In one respect alone did it suit him. While restoring 
the principle of universal suffrage, which had been partially 
abrogated in 1795, Sieyes rendered this system of election 
practically a nullity. The voters were to choose one-tenth of 
their number (notabilities of the commune) ; one-tenth of these 
would form the notabilities of the department; while by a 
similar decimal sifting, the notabilities of the nation were selected. 
The final and all-important act of selection from among these 
men was, however, to be made by a personage, styled the pro- 
clamateur-electeur , who chose all the important functionaries, and , 
conjointly with the notabilities of the nation, chose the members 
for the Council of State (wielding the chief executive powers), 
the Tribunate and the Senate. The latter body would, however, 
have the power to " absorb " the head of the state if he showed 
signs of ambition. Against this power of absorption Bonaparte 
declaimed vehemently, asserting also that the prodamateur- 
electeur would be a mere cochon a I'engrais. In vain did Sieyes 
modify his scheme so as to provide for two consuls, one holding 
the chief executive powers for war, the other for peace. This 
division of powers was equally distasteful to Bonaparte: he 
formed a kind of cabal within the joint commission, and there 
intimidated the theorist, with the result already foreseen by the 
latter. Sieyes, conscious that his political mechanism would 
merely winnow the air, until the profoundly able and forceful 
man at his side adapted it to the w6rk of government, relapsed 
into silence; and his resignation of the office of consul, together 
with that of Ducos, was announced as imminent. Bonaparte 
further brushed aside a frankly democratic constitution pro- 
posed by Daunou, and intimidated his opponents in the joint 
commission by a threat that he would himself draft a constitution 
and propose it to the people in a mass vote. 

This was what really happened. They looked on helplessly 
while he refashioned the scheme of Sieyes. Keeping the electoral 
machinery almost unchanged (save that the lists of notables 
were to be permanent) Bonaparte entirely altered the upper parts 
of the constitutional pyramid reared by the philosopher. Improv- 
ing upon the procedure of the Convention in Vendemiaire 1795, 
Bonaparte procured the nomination of three consuls in an 
article of the new constitution; they were Bonaparte (First 
Consul), Cambac6res and Lebrun. The latter two, uniting with 
the two retiring consuls, Sieyes and Ducos, were to form the 



NAPOLEON I. 



197 



nucleus of the senate and choose the majority among its full 
complement of sixty members, the minority being thereafter 
chosen by co-optation. To the senate, thus chosen " from 
above," was allotted the important task of supervising the 
constitution, and of selecting, from among the notabilities of 
the nation, the members of the Corps Ligislalij 'and the Tribunate. 
These two bodies nominally formed the legislature, the Tribunate 
merely discussing the bills sent to it by an important body, the 
Council of State; while the Corps LSgislalif, sitting in silence, 
heard them defended by councillors of state and criticized by 
members of the Tribunate; thereupon it passed or rejected 
such proposals by secret voting. Thus, the initiative in law- 
making lay with the Council of State; but, as its members were 
all chosen by the First Consul, it is clear that that important 
duty was vested really in him. The executive powers were 
placed almost entirely in his hands, as will be seen by the terms of 
article 41 which defined his functions: " The First Consul 
promulgates the laws; he appoints and dismisses at will the 
members of the Council of State, the ministers, the ambassadors 
and other leading agents serving abroad, the officers of the army 
and navy, the members of local administrative bodies and the 
commissioners of government attached to the tribunals. He 
names all the judges for criminal and civil cases, other than the 
juges de paix (magistrates) and the judges of the Cour de cassation, 
without having the power to discharge them." As for the second 
and third consuls, their functions were almost entirely con- 
sultative and formal, their opposition being recorded, but 
having no further significance against the fiat of the First Consul. 
Bonaparte's powers were subsequently extended in the years 
1802, 1804 and 1807; but it is clear that autocracy was prac- 
tically established by his own action in the secret commission 
of 1799. The new constitution was promulgated on the isth of 
December 1799 and in a plebiscite held during January 1800 it 
received the support of 3,011,007 voters, only 1562 persons 
voting against it. The fact that the three new consuls had 
entered upon office and set the constitutional machinery in 
motion fully six weeks before the completion of the plebiscite, 
detracts somewhat from the impressiveness of the vox populi 
on that occasion. 

Bonaparte selected his ministers with much skill. They were 
Talleyrand, Foreign Affairs; Berthier, War; Abrial, Justice; 
Lucien Bonaparte, Interior; Gaudin, Finance; Forfait, Navy 
and Colonies. Maret became secretary of state to the consuls. 
Bonaparte's selection gave general satisfaction, as also did the 
personnel of the Council of State (divided into five sections for 
the chief spheres of government) and of the other organs of state. 
Many of the furious Terrorists now became quiet and active 
councillors or administrators, the First Consul adopting the plan 
of multiplying " places," of overwhelming all officials with work, 
and of busying the watch-dogs of the Jacobinical party by 
" throwing them bones to gnaw." 

In our survey of the career of Napoleon, we have now reached 
the time of the Consulate (November i799-May 1804), which 
marks the zenith of his mental powers and creative activity. 
Externally, and in a personal sense, the period falls into two 
parts. The former of these extends to August 1802, when the 
powers of the First Consul, which had been decreed for ten years, 
were prolonged to the duration of his life. But in another and 
wider sense the Consulate has a well-defined unity; it is the 
time when France gained most of her institutions and the essentials 
of her machinery of government. 

The reader is referred to the article FRANCE (Law and Institutions) 
for the information respecting the various codes dating from this 
period, and to the article CONCORDAT for the famous measure 
whereby Napoleon re-established official relations between the state 
and the church in France. More pressing even than that question 
was the regulation of local government. Bonaparte's action in this 
matter was so characteristic as to deserve close attention. Un- 
doubtedly the question was one of great importance; for local affairs 
had fallen into chaos. The aim of the constituent assembly in its 
departmental system (1789-1790) had been to vest local affairs 
ultimately in councils elected by universal suffrage, alike in the 
department and in the three smaller areas within it. These councils 
3 ui executive officers dependent on them soon proved to be un- 
able to manage even local affairs efficiently, while they were very 



lax in the collection of the national taxes unwisely entrusted to them. 
Lack of central control over the virtually independent communes 
(over forty thousand in number) led to a sharp rebound under the 
Convention, when all matters of importance were disposed of by 
commissioners appointed by that body. The relations between 
national and local authorities fluctuated considerably during the 
Directory; and it is noteworthy that the constitution of December 
1 799 placed local administration merely under the control of ministers 
at Paris. Everything, therefore, portended a change in this sphere, 
but few persons expected a change so drastic as that which Bonaparte 
now brought about in the measure of 28 Pluvi&se, year VIII. (i6th 
of February 1800). Certainly no measure marked more clearly the 
abandonment of democratic ideals. The powers formerly vested in 
elective bodies were now to be wielded by prefects and sub-prefects, 
nominated by the First Consul and responsible to him. The elective 
councils for the department and for the arrondissement (a new area 
which replaced the " districts " of the year 1795) continued to exist, 
but they sat only for a fortnight in the year and had to deal mainly 
with the assessment of taxes for their respective areas. They might 
be consulted by the prefect or sub-prefect; but they had no hold 
over him. The municipal councils had slightly larger powers, 
relating to loans, octrois, &c. But the chief municipal officer, the 
mayor, was chosen by the prefect. The police of all towns containing 
more than 100,000 inhabitants was controlled by the central 
government. 

It is significant that Bonaparte proposed this bill (drafted in the 
Council of State) to the Tribunate and the Corps Legislatif on the 
very day on which it was first certainly known that France had 
accepted the new constitution. The opposition in the Tribunate 
was sharp, but was paralysed by the knowledge of the fact just 
named and by the lack of a free press. The bill passed there by 
71 votes to 25; and in the Corps Ltgislatif by 217 to 68. The 
acquiescence of these bodies in the transition to despotic methods 
predisposed the public to a similar attitude of rr.ind. At first the 
sharpness of the change was not fully apparent owing to the tactful 
choice of prefects made by the First Consul; but before long their 
very extensive powers were seen to form an important part of the 
new machinery of autocracy. In this connexion we may note that 
the disturbances, mainly royalist but sometimes Jacobinical, in 
several districts of France enabled Bonaparte to propose the estab- 
lishment in the troubled districts of special tribunals for the trial of 
all offences tending to disturb the general peace. Here again the 
Tribunate offered a vehement opposition to the measure, and in 
spite of official pressure passed the bill only by a majority of eight. 
Becoming law on 18 Pluvi&se, year IX. (6th of February 1801), it 
enabled the government to supersede the ordinary judicial machinery 
for political offences in no fewer than thirty-two departments. 

Bonaparte signalized his tenure of power by no very important 
developments in the sphere of elementary education. This was left 
to the local authorities, and led to little result. The more advanced 
schools, known as Scales centrales, were reconstituted either as ecoles 
secondaires or as lycees by the law of the 3oth of April 1802. The 
former of these were designed for the completion of the training of 
the most promising pupils in the communal elementary schools, 
and were left to local control or even to management by private 
individuals. Far more important, however, were the lycees, where 
an excellent education was imparted, semi-military in form and 
under the control of government. It gained valuable powers of 
patronage by founding 6400 exhibitions (bourses) in connexion with 
the lycees; 2400 of which were reserved for the sons of soldiers and 
government officials. The same centralizing tendency is strongly 
marked in the organization of the university of France, the general 
principle of which was set forth in May 1806, while the details were 
arranged by that of March the I7th, 1808. It was designed to control 
all the educational institutions of France, both public and private; 
and it did so with two exceptions, the Museum and the College de 
France. The discipline was strict. Fidelity to the emperor and to 
the teaching of the Roman Catholic doctrine formed part of the aims 
of this comprehensive corporation. Its officers were required to 
obey " the statutes of the teaching body, which have for their object 
uniformity of instruction, and which tend to form for the state 
citizens attached to their religion, their prince, their country and 
their family." These words sufficiently illustrate the essentially 
political character of the institution. Its organization was com- 
pleted by the decree of the 15th of November 1811. Napoleon's 
ideas on the education of girls may be judged by this extract from 
his speech at the Council of State on the 1st of March 1806: " I 
do not think that we need trouble ourselves with any plan of in- 
struction for young females: they cannot be better brought up than 
by their mothers. Public education is not suitable for them, because 
they are never called upon to act in public. Manners are all in all 
to them, and marriage is all they look to." 

Returning to the period of the Consulate, we notice the founding 
of an institution which also had its complete development during 
the Empire, namely, the Legion of Honour (igth of May 1802). 
Napoleon intended it as a protest against the spirit of equality 
which pervaded revolutionary thought. In one respect the new 
institution marked an enormous advance on titles of nobility, which 
had been granted nearly always for warlike exploits, or merely 
as a mark of the favour of the sovereign. The First Consul, on the 



198 



NAPOLEON I. 



other hand, sought to recognize and reward merit in all walks of life. 
Nevertheless his proposal met with strong opposition in the Corps 
Legislatif and Tribunate, where members saw that it portended 
a revival of the older distinction. This was so: abolished in 1790 
by the constituent assembly, titles of nobility were virtually restored 
by Napoleon in 1806 and legally in 1808. Side by side with them 
there continued to exist the Legion of Honour. It was organized 
in fifteen cohorts, each comprising seven grand officers, twenty com- 
manders, thirty officers and 350 legionaries. A stipend, ranging 
from 5000 francs a year to 250 francs, was attached to each grade of 
the institution. The benefits attaching to membership and the 
number of the members were increased during the Empire, when the 
average number somewhat exceeded thirty thousand. Napoleon's 
aim of bidding for the support of all able men is disagreeably promi- 
nent in all details of this institution, which may be looked upon as 
the tangible outcome of the conviction which he thus frankly ex- 
pressed: " In ambition is to be found the chief motive-force of 
humanity; and a man puts forth his best powers in proportion to 
his hopes of advancement." 

The success of Bonaparte in reorganizing France may be ascribed 
to his determined practicality and to his perception of the needs 
of the average man. Since the death of Mirabeau no one had 
appeared who could strike the happy mean and enforce his will on 
the extremes on either side. Bonaparte did so with a forcefulness 
rarely possessed by that usually mediocre creature, the moderate 
man. 

It is time now to notice the chief events which ensured the 
ascendancy of Bonaparte. Military, diplomatic and police affairs 
were skilfully made to conduce to that result. In the first of 
these spheres the victory of Marengo (i4th of June 1800) was of 
special importance, as it consolidated the reputation of Bonaparte 
at a time when republican opposition was gathering strength. As 
Lucien Bonaparte remarked, if Marengo had been lost and it 
was saved only by Desaix and Kellermann the Bonaparte 
family would have been proscribed. Negotiations for peace now 
followed; but they led to nothing, until Moreau's triumph at 
Hohenlinden (December and, 1800) brought the court of Vienna 
to a state of despair. By the treaty with Austria, signed by 
Joseph Bonaparte at Luneville on the Qth of February 1801, 
France regained all that she had won at Campo Forrnio, much 
of which had been lost for a time in the war of the Second Coali- 
tion. True, she now agreed to recognise the independence of the 
Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetic and Batavian (Dutch) republics; 
but the masterful acquisitiveness of the First Consul and the 
weak conduct of Austrian and British affairs at that time soon 
made that clause of the treaty a dead letter. Bonaparte mean- 
while, by dexterous behaviour to Paul I. of Russia, had won 
the friendship of that potentate, whose resentment against his 
former allies, Austria and England, facilitated a re-grouping of 
the Powers. The new Franco-Russian entente helped on the 
formation of the Armed Neutrality League and led to the con- 
coction of schemes for the driving of the British from India. 
But these undertakings were thwarted in March-April 1801 by 
the murder of the tsar Paul and by Nelson's victory at Copen- 
hagen. The advent of the more peaceful and Anglophile tsar, 
Alexander I. (q.v.), brought about the dissolution of the League, 
and the abandonment of the oriental schemes which Bonaparte 
had so closely at heart. Another disappointment befel him in the 
same quarter, the surrender of the French forces in Egypt to 
the British expedition commanded first by General Abercromby 
and afterwards by General John Hely-Hutchinson (soth of 
August 1801). 

These events disposed both Bonaparte and the British cabinet 
towards peace. He was all powerful on land, they on the sea; 
and for the present each was powerless to harm the other. 
Bonaparte in particular discerned the advantages which peace 
would bring in the consolidation of his position. The beginning 
of negotiations had been somewhat facilitated by the resignation 
. of Pitt (4th of February 1801) and the advent to office of Henry 
Addington. Bonaparte, perceiving the weakness of Addington, 
both as a man and as a minister, pressed him hard; and both the' 
Preliminaries of Peace, concluded at London on the ist of October 
1801, and the terms of the treaty of Amiens (27th of March i8oa) 
were such as to spread through the United Kingdom a feeling of 
annoyance. In everything which related to the continent of 
Europe and to the resumption of trade relations between Great 
Britain and France, Bonaparte had his way; and he abated 



his demands only in a few questions relating to India and New- 
foundland. 

The terms of the treaty of Amiens may be thus summarized: 
Great Britain restored to France the colonial possessions (almost 
the whole of the French colonial empire) conquered in the late 
war. Of their many maritime conquests the British retained 
only the Spanish island of Trinidad and the Dutch settlements 
in Ceylon. Their other conquests at the expense of these allies 
of France were restored to them, including the Cape of Good 
Hope to the Dutch. France recognized the integrity of the 
Turkish Empire and promised an indemnity to the House of 
Orange exiled from the Batavian (Dutch) Republic since 1704. 
She further agreed to evacuate the papal states, Taranto and 
other towns in the Mediterranean coasts which she had occupied. 
The independence of the Ionian Isles (now reconstituted as the 
Republic of the Seven Islands) was guaranteed. As to Malta, 
the United Kingdom was to restore it to the order of St John 
(its possessors previous to 1798) when the Great Powers had 
guaranteed its independence. It was to receive a Neapolitan 
garrison for a year, and, if necessary, for a longer time. 

No event in the life of Bonaparte was more auspicious than the 
conclusion of this highly advantageous bargain. By retaining 
nearly all the continental conquests of France, and by recovering 
every one of those which the British had made at her expense 
beyond the seas, he achieved a feat which was far beyond the 
powers even of Louis XIV. The gratitude of the French for 
this triumph found expression in a proposal, emanating from the 
Tribunate, that the First Consul should receive a pledge of the 
gratitude of the nation. When referred to the senate, the 
matter underwent secret manipulation, largely through the in- 
fluence of Cambaceres; but the republican instinct even in the 
senate was sufficiently strong to thwart the intrigues of the second 
consul; and that body on the 8th of May merely re-elected 
Bonaparte for a second term of ten years after the expiration 
of the first decennial term for which he was chosen. This fell 
far short of his desires, and he now dexterously referred the 
whole question to the nation at large. The Council of State, 
acting on a suggestion made by Cambaceres, now intervened with 
telling effect. It altered the wording of the senatorial proposal 
in such a way that the nation was asked to vote on the question: 
" Is Napoleon Bonaparte to be made Consul for Life ? " France 
responded by an overwhelming affirmative, 3,568,885 votes being 
cast for the proposal and only 8374 against it. 

Napoleon (who now used his Christian name instead of the 
surname Bonaparte) thereupon sent proposals for various changes 
in the constitution, which were at once registered by the obsequious 
Council of State and the Senate on the 4th of August (16 Ther- 
midor) 1802. Besides holding his powers for life, he now gained 
the right of nominating his successor. He alone could ratify 
treaties of peace and aUiance, and on his nomination fifty-four 
senators were added to the senate, which thereafter numbered 
one hundred and twenty members appointed by him alone. 
This body received the right of deciding by senatus consulla all 
questions not provided for by the constitution; the Corps 
Ligislatif and Tribunate might also thenceforth be dissolved at 
its bidding. In short, the First Consul now became the irre- 
sponsible ruler of France, governing the country through the 
ministry, the Council of State and the Senate. As for the 
chambers, based avowedly on universal suffrage, their existence 
thenceforth was ornamental or sepulchral. The constitutional 
changes of August 1802, initiated solely by Bonaparte, made 
France an absolute monarchy. The name of Empire was not 
adopted until nearly two years later; but the change then 
brought about was scarcely more than titular. 

In order to understand the utter inability of the old republican 
party to withstand these changes, it is needful to retrace our steps 
and consider the skilful use made by Bonaparte of plots and disturb- 
ances as they occurred. As was natural, when he sought to steer a 
middle course between the Scylla of royalism and the Charybdis of 
Jacobinism, disturbances were to be expected on both sides of the 
consular ship of state. The first of these was an unimportant affair, 
probably nursed by the agents provocateurs of Fouche's ubiquitous 
police. It purported to be an undertaking entered into by a few 



NAPOLEON I. 



199 



Jacobins, among them Arena, a Corsican, for the murder of Bona- 
parte at the opera. Arena and his supposed accomplice were arrested 
(loth of October 1800); and that was virtually the beginning and 
the end of the plot. Far more serious was the danger to be appre- 
hended from the royalists. Enraged by Bonaparte's contemptuous 
refusal to encourage the return of" Louis XVIII." to his own, the 
royalists began to compass the death of the man whom they had at 
first naively looked on as a potential General Monk to their Charles 1 1 . 
Their chief man of action was a sturdy Breton peasant, Georges 
Cadoudal, whose zeal and courage served to bring to a head plans 
long talked over by the confidants of the Comte d'Artois (the future 
Charles X. of France) in London. The outcome of it was the des- 
patch of some five or six Chouan desperadoes to Paris, three of whom 
exploded an infernal machine close to Bonaparte's carriage in the 
narrow streets near the Tuileries (3rd Niv6se [24th of December] 
1800). Bonaparte and Josephine escaped uninjured, but several 
bystanders were killed or wounded. Napoleon's vengeance at once 
took a strongly practical turn. Despite the evidence which Fouche 
and others brought forward to incriminate the royalists, the First 
Consul persisted in attributing the outrage to the Jacobins, had a 
list of suspects drawn up, and caused the Council of State to declare 
that a special precautionary measure was necessary. The measure 
proved to be the deportation of the leading Jacobins; and a cloak 
of legality was cast over this extraordinary proceeding by a special 
decree of the senate (avowedly the guardian of the constitution) 
that this act of the government was a " measure tending to preserve 
the constitution " (5th of January 1801). The body charged with 
the guarding of the constitution was thus brought by Bonaparte 
to justify its violation; and a way was thus opened for the legalizing 
of further irregularities. For the present the connivance of the 
senate at his coup d'etat of Nivdse led to the deportation of one 
hundred and thirty Jacobins; some were interned in the islands of 
the Bay of Biscay, while fifty were sent to the tropical colonies of 
France, whence few of them ever returned. It is to be observed that, 
before the punishment was inflicted, evidence was forthcoming which 
brought home the outrage of Niv6se to the royalists; but this was 
all one to Bonaparte; his aim was to destroy the Jacobin party, 
and it never recovered from the blow. The party which had set up 
the Committee of Public Safety was now struck down by the very 
man who through the Directory inherited by direct lineal descent 
the dictatorial powers instituted in the spring of 1793 for the salva- 
tion of the republic. It remains to add that the suspects in the plot 
of October 1800 were now guillotined (3ist of January 1801), and 
that two of the plotters closely connected with the affair of Niv6se 
were also executed (2ist of April). The institution of the special 
tribunals (already referred to), which enabled Bonaparte to supersede 
local government in thirty-two of the departments, was another 
outcome of the bomb conspiracy. 

Far more lenient was Bonaparte's conduct towards a knot of dis- 
contented officers who, in April-May 1802, framed a clumsy plot, 
known as the " Plot of the Placards," for arousing the soldiery 
against him. He disgraced or imprisoned the ringleaders, ordered 
Bernadotte (perhaps the fountain head of the whole affair) to take 
the waters at Plombieres and drove from office Fouchd, who had 
sought to screen the real offenders by impugning the royalists. 

Bonaparte's action in the years 1800-1802 showed that he feared 
the old republican party far more than the royalists. In April 1802 
he procured the passing of a senatus consultum granting increased 
facilities for the return of the emigres; with few exceptions they were 
allowed to return, provided that it was before the 23rd of September 
1802, and, after swearing to obey the new constitution, they entered 
into possession of their lands which had not been alienated; but 
barriers were raised against the recovery of their confiscated lands. 
Very many accepted these terms, rallied to the First Consul with 
more or less sincerity; and their return to France to strengthen 
the conservative elements in French society. The promulgation of 
the Concordat (i8th of April 1802) and the institution of what was 
in all but name a state religion tended strongly in the same direction, 
the authority of the priests being generally used in support of the 
man to whom Chateaubriand applied the epithet " restorer of the 
altars." Nevertheless, despite Bonaparte's marvellous skill in 
rallying moderate men of all parties to his side, there remained 
an unconvinced and desperate minority, whose clumsy procedure 
enabled the great engineer to hoist them with their own petard 
and to raise himself to the imperial dignity. But before referring 
to this last proof of the Machiavellian skill of the great Corsican in 
dealing with plots, it is needful to notice the events which brought 
him into collision with the British nation. 

The treaty of Amiens had contained germs which ensured its 
dissolution at no distant date; but even more serious was the 
conduct of Bonaparte after the conclusion of peace. He carried 
matters with so high a hand in the affairs of Holland, Switzerland 
and Italy as seriously to diminish the outlets for British trade in 
Europe. His action in the matters just named, as also in the 
complex affair of the secularizations of clerical domains in 
Germany (February 1803), belongs properly to the history of 
those countries; but we may here note that, even before the 



signature of the_peace of Amiens (2;th of March 1802), he had 
effected changes in the constitution of the Batavian (Dutch) 
republic, which placed power in the hands of the French party 
and enabled him to keep French troops in the chief Dutch 
fortresses, despite the recently signed treaty of Luneville which 
guaranteed the independence of that republic. His treatment 
of the Italians was equally high-handed. In September 1801 he 
bestowed on the Cisalpine republic a constitution modelled on 
that of France. Next, he summoned the chief men of the Franco- 
phile party in that republic to Lyons in the early days of 1802, 
in order to arrange with them the appointment of the chiefs of 
the executive. It soon appeared that the real aim of the meeting 
was to make Bonaparte president. He let it be known that 
he strongly disapproved of their proposal to elect Count Melzi, 
the Italian statesman most suitable for the post; and a hint 
given by Talleyrand showed the reason for his disapproval. 
The deputies thereupon elected Bonaparte. As for the neighbour- 
ing land, Piedmont, it was already French in all but name. On 
the 2ist of April 1801 he issued a decree which constituted 
Piedmont as a military district dependent on France; for 
various reasons he postponed the final act of incorporation to 
the 2tst of September 1802. The Genoese republic a little earlier 
underwent at his hand changes which made its doge all-powerful 
in local affairs, but a mere puppet in the hands of Bonaparte. 
In central Italy the influence of the First Consul was paramount; 
for in 1801 he transformed the grand duchy of Tuscany into the 
kingdom of Etruria for the duke of Parma; and, seeing that that 
promotion added lustre to the fortunes of the duchess of Parma 
(a Spanish infanta), Spain consented lamely enough to the cession 
of Louisiana to France. The effect of these extraordinary 
changes, then, was the carrying out of Napoleonic satrapies in 
the north and centre of Italy in a way utterly inconsistent with 
the treaty of Luneville; and the weakness with which the courts 
of London and Vienna looked on at these singular events con- 
firmed Bonaparte in the belief that he could do what he would 
with neighbouring states. The policy of the French revolutionists 
had been to surround France with free and allied republics. The 
policy of the First Consul was to transform them into tributaries 
which copied with chameleonic fidelity the political fashions he 
himself set at Paris. 

Of all these interventions the most justifiable and beneficent, 
perhaps, was that which related to the Swiss cantons. Whether 
his agents did, or did not, pour oil on the flames of civil strife, 
which he thereupon quenched by his Act of Mediation, igth of 
February 1803, is a complex question. The settlement which 
he thereby imposed was in many ways excellent; but it was 
dearly purchased by the complete ascendancy of Bonaparte 
in all important affairs, and by the claim for the services of a 
considerable contingent of Swiss troops which he thereafter 
rigorously enforced. 

The re-occupation of Switzerland by French troops in October 
1802 wrought English opinion to a state of indignation against 
the autocrat who was making conquests more quickly in time 
of peace than he had done by his sword; and the irritation 
increased when, on the 2pth of January 1803, he publicly stated: 
" It is recognized by Europe that Italy and Holland, as well as 
Switzerland, are at the disposal of France." Another act of 
his at that time made still more strongly for war. On the 3oth 
of January he caused the official French paper, the Monileur, 
to publish in exlenso a confidential report sent by Colonel 
Sebastiani describing his so-called commercial mission to the 
Levant. In it there occurred the threatening phrase: " Six 
thousand French would at present be enough to conquer Egypt." 
An equally significant hint, that the Ionian Isles might easily 
be regained by France, further helped to open the eyes of the 
purblind Addington ministry to the resolve of Napoleon to make 
the Mediterranean a French lake. Ministers were also deeply 
concerned at the continued occupation of Holland by French 
troops, which made that country and, therefore, the Cape of 
Good Hope, absolutely dependent on France. They accordingly 
resolved not to give up Malta unless Lord Whitworth, the British 
ambassador at Paris, " received a satisfactory explanation " 



2OO 



NAPOLEON I. 



relative to the Sebastiani report. Napoleon's refusal to give this, 
and his complaint that Great Britain had neglected to comply 
with some of the provisions of the treaty of Amiens, brought 
Anglo-French relations to an acute phase. By great dexterity 
he succeeded in turning public attention almost solely to the 
fact that Britain had not evacuated Malta. This is probably 
the sense in which we may interpret his tirade against Lord 
Whitworth at the diplomatic circle on the i3th of March. While 
not using threats of personal violence, as was generally reported 
at the time, his language was threatening and offensive. Annoyed 
by Whitworth's imperturbable demeanour, he ended with these 
words: " You must respect treaties, then: woe to those who do 
not respect treaties. They shall answer for it to all Europe." 
The news of the strengthening of the British army and navy 
lately announced in the king's speech had perhaps annoyed him; 
but seeing that his outbursts of passion were nearly always the 
result of calculation he once stated, pointing to his chin, that 
temper only mounted that high with him his design, doubtless, 
was to set men everywhere talking about the perfidy of Albion. 
If so, he succeeded. His own violations of the treaties of Luneville 
and Amiens were overlooked; and in particular men forgot 
that the weakening of the Knights of St John by the recent 
confiscation of their lands in France and Spain, and the pro- 
tracted delay of Russia and Prussia to guarantee their tenure 
of power in Malta, furnished England with good reasons for 
keeping her hold on that island. On the 4th of April the 
Addington cabinet made proposals with a view to compensation. 
In return for the great accessions of power to France since the 
treaty of Amiens (Elba, it may be noted, was annexed in August 
1802) Great Britain was to retain Malta for ten years and to 
acquire the small island of Lampedusa in perpetuity. French 
troops were also required to withdraw from Holland and Switzer- 
land, and thus fulfil the terms of the treaty of Luneville. Despite 
the urgent efforts of Joseph Bonaparte and Talleyrand to bend 
the First Consul, he refused to listen to these proposals. Finally, 
on the 7th of May, the British government sent a secret offer 
to withdraw from Malta as soon as the French evacuated Holland. 
To this also Napoleon demurred. The rupture, therefore, took 
place in the middle of May; and on a flimsy pretext the First 
Consul ordered the detention in France of all English persons. 
The reasons for his annoyance are now well known. It is 
certain that he was preparing to renew the struggle for the 
mastery of the seas and of the Orient, which must break out 
if he held to his present resolve to found a great colonial empire. 
But he needed time in order to build a navy and to prepare for 
the execution of the schemes for the overthrow of the British 
power in India, which he had lately outlined to General Decaen, 
the new governor of the French possessions in that land. The 
sailing of Decaen's squadron early in March 1803 had alarmed 
the British ministers and doubtless confirmed their resolve to 
have the question of peace or war settled speedily. Whitworth 
also warned them on the 2oth of April that " the chief motives 
for delay are that they (the French) are totally unprepared for a 
naval war." This was quite correct. Napoleon wished to post- 
pone the rupture for fully eighteen months, as is shown by his 
secret instructions to Decaen. The British government did not 
know the whole truth; but, knowing the character of Napoleon, 
it saw that peace was as dangerous as war. In any case, it sent 
the proposals of the 4th of April in order to test the sincerity of 
his recent offer of compensation to England. He refused them, 
mainly, it would seem, because he could not believe that the 
Addington ministry could be firm; and in his rage at the dis- 
covery of his error he revenged himself ignobly on British 
tourists and traders in France. 

. He now threw all his energies into the task of marshalling the 
forces of France and his vassal states for the overthrow of 
" perfidious Albion." Naval preparations went on apace at 
all the dockyards, and numbers of flat-bottomed boats were 
built or repaired at the northern harbours. Disregarding the 
neutrality of the Germanic System, Napoleon sent a strong 
French corps to overrun Hanover, while he despatched General 
Gouvion St Cyr to occupy Taranto and other dominating 



positions in the south-east of the kingdom of Naples. Exactions 
at the expense of Hanover and Naples helped to lighten the 
burdens of French finance; Napoleon's sale of Louisiana to 
the United States early in 1803 for 60,000,000 francs brought 
further relief to the French treasury; and by pressing hard on 
his ally, Spain, he compelled her to exchange the armed help 
which he had a right to claim, for an annual subsidy of 2,880,000. 
Through Spain he then threatened Portugal with extinction 
unless she too paid a heavy subsidy, a demand with which the 
court of Lisbon was fain to comply. 

Thus the first months of the war served to differentiate the 
two belligerents. England made short work of the French 
squadrons and colonies, particularly in the West Indies, while 
Napoleon became more than ever the master of central and 
southern Europe. The whole course of the war was to emphasize 
this distinction between the Sea Power and the Land Power; 
and in this fact lay the source of Napoleon's ascendancy in France 
and neighbouring lands, as also of his final overthrow. 

Napoleon's utter disregard of the neutrality of neighbouring 
states was soon to be revealed in the course of a royalist plot 
which helped him to the imperial title. Georges Cadoudal, 
General Pichegru and other devoted royalists had concocted 
with the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France) in 
London a scheme for the kidnapping (or more probably the 
murder) of the First Consul. The French police certainly knew 
of the plot, allowed the conspirators to come to Paris, arrested 
them there, and also on the i6th of February 1804 General 
Moreau, with whom Pichegru had two or three secret conferences. 
This was much; for Moreau, though indolent and incapable in 
political affairs, was still immensely popular in the army (always 
more republican than the civilians) and might conceivably head 
a republican movement against the autocrat. But far more was 
to follow. Failing through his police to lure the comte d'Artois 
to land in Normandy, Napoleon pounced on a scion of the House 
of Bourbon who was within his reach. The young due d'Enghien 
was then residing at Ettenheim in Baden near the bank of the 
Rhine. He had served in the army of his grandfather, the prince 
of Conde, during the recent war; and Bonaparte believed for 
a time that he was an accomplice to the Cadoudal- Pichegru plot. 
He therefore sent orders to have him seized by French soldiers 
and brought to Vincennes near Paris. The order was skilfully 
obeyed, and the prince was hurried before a court-martial hastily 
summoned at that castle. Before they passed the verdict, 
Napoleon came to see that his victim was innocent of any 
participation in the plot. Nevertheless he was executed (2ist 
of March 1804). It is noteworthy that though Napoleon at 
times sought to shift the responsibility for this deed on Talleyrand 
or Savary, yet during his voyage to St Helena, as also in his will, 
he frankly avowed his responsibility for it and asserted that in 
the like circumstances he would do the same again. 

The horror aroused by this crime did not long deaden the feeling, 
at least in official circles, that something must be done to intro- 
duce the principle of heredity, as the surest means of counteract- 
ing the aims of conspirators. The senate, as usual, took the 
lead in suggesting some such change in the constitution; and 
it besought Napoleon " to complete his work by rendering it, like 
his glory, immortal." Other official addresses of the same 
general tenour flowed in; and even the tribunate showed its 
docility by proposing that the imperial dignity should be declared 
hereditary in the family of Bonaparte (3rd of May). Napoleon 
thereupon invited the senate to " make known to him its thoughts 
completely." The senate and the tribunate each appointed a 
commission to deal with the matter, with the result which every 
one foresaw. Carnot alone in the tribunate protested against 
the measure. The other councils adopted it almost unanimously. 
The Senatus Consultant of the i8th of May 1804 awarded to 
Napoleon the title of emperor, the succession (in case he had no 
heir) devolving in turn upon the descendants of Joseph and 
Louis Bonaparte (Lucien and Jerome were for the present ex- 
cluded from the succession owing to their having contracted 
marriages displeasing to Napoleon). In a plebiscite taken on the 
subject of the imperial title and the law of succession, there were 



NAPOLEON I. 



20 1 



3,572,329 affirmative votes and only 2569 negatives. In this vote 
lay the justification of the acts of the First Consul and the pledge 
for the greatness of the emperor Napoleon. The republicans 
in nearly every case voted for him: and it is significant of the 
curious trend of French thought that the new imperial con- 
stitution of the 1 8th of May 1804 opened with the words: 
" The government of the Republic is confided to an emperor, 
who takes the title Emperor of the French." 

The changes brought about by this constitution were mainly 
titular. Napoleon's powers as First Consul for Life were so wide 
as to render much extension both superfluous and impossible; but 
we may note here that the senate now gained a further accession 
ot authority at the expense of the two legislative bodies: and 
practically legislation rested with the emperor, who sent his decrees 
to the senate to be registered as senatus consulta. Napoleon's chief 
aversion, the tribunate, was also divided into three sections, dealing 
with legislation, home affairs and finance a division which preluded 
its entire suppression in 1807. More important were the titular 
changes Napoleon, as we have seen, did not venture to create an 
order of nobility until 1808, but he at once established an imperial 
hierarchy. First came the French princes, namely, the brothers of 
the emperor; six grand imperial dignities were also instituted, viz. 
those of the grand elector (Joseph Bonaparte), arch-chancel'or of the 
empire (CambacSres), arch-chancellor of state (Eugene de Beau- 
harnais). arch-treasurer (Lebrun), constable (Louis Bonaparte), 
grand admiral (Murat). These six formed the emperor's grand 
council. Next came the marshals, namely, Berthier, Murat, Masse'na, 
Augereau, Lannes, Jourdan, Ney, Soult, Brune, Davout, Bessieres, 
Moncey, Mortier and Bernadotte. Four generals Kellermann, 
Lefebvre, PeVignon, Serrurier received the titles of honorary 
marshals. Next came dignities of a slightly lower rank, such as 
those of grand almoner (Fesch), grand marshal of the palace (Duroc), 
grand chamberlain (Talleyrand), grand master of the horse (Caulain- 
court), grand huntsman (Berthier), grand master of ceremonies 
(S6gur). These with a host of lesser dignities built up the imperial 
hierarchy and enabled the court quickly to develop on the lines of 
the old monarchy, so far as rules of etiquette and self-conscious 
efforts could reproduce the courtly graces of the ancien regime, 

Meanwhile Napoleon was triumphing over the last of the republican 
generals. Moreau's trial for treason promised to end with an ac- 
quittal; but the emperor brought severe pressure to bear on the 
judges (one of whom he dismissed), with the result that the general 
was declared guilty of participating in the royalist plot. Thereupon 
Napoleon, in order to grace the new regime by an act of clemency, 
pardoned Moreau, it being understood that he must leave France. 
He left immediately for the United States. Sentence of death was 
passed on the royalist conspirators. On Josephine's entreaties, the 
emperor commuted the sentence for eight of the well-connected men 
among them ; Cadoudal and others of lower extraction were executed 
on the 24th of June. The brave Breton peasant thus summed up 
the results of his plot : " We meant to give France a king and we 
have given her an emperor." The mot was literally true. Victories 
in the field were not more effective in consolidating Napoleon's 
power than were his own coups d'etat and the supremely skilful use 
which he made of conspiracies directed against him. He showed his 
sense of the value of Fouch<'s services in exploiting the royalist 
plot of 1 803-1 804 by reconstituting the ministry of police and bestow- 
ing it upon him. Thenceforth plots were few. Would-be plotters 
remained quiet from sheer terror of his power and ability, or from a 
conviction that conspiracies redounded to his advantage. 

Napcleon was now able by degrees to dispense with all re- 
publican forms (the last to go was the Republican Calendar, 
which ceased on the ist of January 1806), and the scene at the 
coronation in Notre Dame on the 2nd of December 1804 was 
frankly imperial in splendour and in the egotism which led 
Napoleon to wave aside the pope, Pius VII., at the supreme 
moment and crown himself. It is worthy of note that Josephine 
then won a triumph over Joseph Bonaparte and his sisters, 
who had been intriguing to effect a divorce. Napoleon, though 
he did not bar the door absolutely against such a proceeding, 
granted her her heart's desire by secretly going through a religious 
ceremony on the evening before the coronation. It was performed 
by Fesch, now a cardinal; but Napoleon could afterwards urge 
the claim that all the legal formalities had not teen complied 
with; and the motive for the marriage may probably be found 
in the refusal of the pope to appear at the coronation unless the 
former civil contract was replaced by the religious rite. 

As happened at every stage of Napoleon's advancement, 
the states tributary to France underwent changes corresponding 
to those occurring at Paris. The most important of these was 
the erection of monarchy in North Italy. The Italian republic 
(formerly the Cisalpine republic) became the kingdom of Italy. 



At first Napoleon desired to endow Joseph, or, on his refusal, 
Louis, with the crown of the new kingdom. They, however, 
refused to place themselves out of the line of direct succession 
in France, as Napoleon required, in case they accepted this new 
dignity. Finally, he resolved to take the title himself. The 
obsequious authorities at Milan at once furthered his design bv 
sending an address to him, by requesting the establishment of 
royalty, and on the 15th of March 1805 by offering the crown to 
him. On the 26th of May he crowned himself in the cathedral 
at Milan with the iron crown of the old Lombard kings, amidst 
surroundings of the utmost splendour. On the 7th of June 
he issued a decree conferring the dignity of viceroy on Eugene de 
Beauharnais, his stepson ; but everything showed that Napoleon's 
will was to be law; and the great powers at once saw that 
Napoleon's promise to keep the crowns of France and Italy separate 
was meaningless. The matter was of international importance; 
for by the treaty of Luneville (February 1801) he had bound 
himself to respect the independence of the two republics of North 
Italy, the Cisalpine and the Ligurian. The defiance to Austria 
was emphasized when, on the 4th of June, he promised a deputa- 
tion from Genoa that he would grant their request (prompted 
by his agents) of incorporating the Genoese (or Ligurian) republic 
in the French empire. In the same month he erected the re- 
public of Lucca into a principality for Bacciochi and his consort, 
Elisa Bonaparte. 

These actions proclaimed so unmistakably Napoleon's in- 
tention of making Italy an annexe of France as to convince 
Francis of Austria and Alexander of Russia that war with him 
was inevitable. The tsar, as protector of the Germanic System, 
had already been so annoyed by the seizure of the due d'Enghien 
on German territory, and by other high-handed actions against 
the Hanse cities, as to recall his ambassador from Paris. 
Napoleon showed his indifference to the opinion of the tsar by 
ordering the seizure of the British envoy at Hamburg, Sir George 
Rumbold (24th of October) ; but set him free on the remonstrance 
of the king of Prussia, with whom he then desired to remain on 
friendly terms. Nevertheless, the general trend of his policy 
was such as powerfully to help on the formation of the Third 
Coalition against France a compact which Pitt (who returned 
to power in May 1804) had found it very difficult to arrange. 
Disputes with Russia respecting Malta and the British maritime 
code kept the two states apart for nearly a year; and Austria 
was too timid to move. But Napoleon's actions, especially the 
annexation of Genoa, at last brought the three powers to accord, 
with the general aim of re-establishing the status quo ante in Ger- 
many, Holland, Switzerland and Italy, or, in short, of restoring 
the balance of power which Napoleon had completely upset. 

Military affairs in this period are dealt with under NAPOLEONIC 
CAMPAIGNS; but it may be noted here that during the anxious 
days which Napoleon spent at the camp of Boulogne in the 
second and third weeks of August 1805, uncertain whether to 
risk all in an attack on England in case Villeneuve should arrive, 
or to turn the Grand Army against Austria, the only step which 
he took to avert a continental war was the despatch of General 
Duroc to Berlin to offer Hanover to Prussia on consideration of 
her framing a close alliance with France. It was very unlikely 
that that peace-loving Court would take up arms against its 
powerful neighbours on behalf of Napoleon, and his proceedings 
in the previous months had been so recklessly provocative as 
to arouse doubts whether he intended to invade England and 
did not welcome the outbreak of a continental war. But in the 
case of a man so intensely ambitious, determined and egoistic as 
Napoleon, a decision on this interesting question is hazardous. 
Little reliance can be placed on his subsequent statements (as, 
for instance, to Metternich in 1810) that the huge preparations 
at Boulogne and the long naval campaign of Villeneuve were a 
mere ruse whereby to lure the Austrians into a premature 
declaration of war. It is, however, highly probable that he meant 
to strike at London if naval affairs went well, but that he was 
glad to have at hand an alternative which would shroud a 
maritime failure under military laurels. If so, he succeeded. 
His habit was, as he said, faire son thlme en deux fafons, and he 



202 



NAPOLEON I. 



now took the second alternative. On or about the 2Sth-27th 
of August he resolved to strike at Austria. He did so with 
masterly skill and swiftness, and the triumphs of Ulm and 
Austerlitz hid from view the disaster of Trafalgar; and the only 
official reference to that crushing defeat was couched in these 
terms: " Storms caused us to lose some ships of the line after a 
fight imprudently engaged " (speech to the Legislature, and of 
March 1806). 

The glamour of Austerlitz had very naturally dazzled all 
Frenchmen. Its results indeed were not only astounding at the 
time, but were such as to lead up to a new cycle of wars. By 
the peace of Presburg (26th of December 1805) Napoleon com- 
pelled Austria to recognize all the recent changes in Italy, and 
further to cede Venetia, Istria and Dalmatia to the new kingdom 
of Italy. The Swabian lands of the Habsburgs went to the South 
German states (allies of Napoleon), while Bavaria also received 
Tirol and Vorarlberg. The Electors of Bavaria and Wiirttem- 
berg were recognized as kings. 

Nor was this all. Napoleon pressed almost equally hard upon 
Prussia. That power had been on the point of offering her 
armed mediation in revenge for his violation of her territory of 
Anspach; but she was fain to accept the terms which he offered 
at the sword's point. When modified in February 1806, after 
Prussia's demobilization, they comprised the occupation of 
Hanover by Prussia, with the proviso, however, that she should 
exclude British ships and goods from the whole of the north- 
west coast of Germany. To this demand (the real commence- 
ment of the " Continental System ") the Berlin government had 
to accede, though at the cost of a naval war with England, and the 
ruin of its maritime trade. Anspach and Bayreuth were also 
to be handed over to Bavaria, it now being the aim of Napoleon 
to aggrandize the South German princes who had fought on his 
side in the late war. In order to strengthen this compact, he 
arranged a marriage between the daughter of the king of Bavaria 
and Eugene Beauharnais; and he united the daughter of the 
Elector of Wiirttemberg in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, who 
had now divorced his wife, formerly Miss Paterson of Baltimore, 
at his brother's behests. Stephanie de Beauharnais, niece of 
Josephine, was also betrothed to the son of the duke (now grand 
duke) of Baden. By these alliances the new Charlemagne 
seemed to have founded his supremacy in South Germany on 
sure foundations. 

Equally striking was his success in Italy. The Bourbons of 
Naples had broken their treaty engagements with Napoleon, 
though in this matter they were perhaps as much sinned against 
as sinning. After Austerlitz the conqueror fulminated against 
them, and sent southwards a strong column which compelled 
an Anglo-Russian force to sail away and brought about the flight 
of the Bourbons to Sicily (February 1806). This event opened 
a new and curious chapter in the history of Europe, that of the 
fortunes of the Napoleonides. True to his Corsican instinct of 
attachment to the family, and contempt for legal and dynastic 
claims, he now began to plant his brothers and other relatives 
in what had been republics established by the French Jacobins. 
Eugene Beauharnais had been established at Milan. Joseph 
Bonaparte was now advised to take the throne of Naples, and 
without any undue haggling as to terms, for "those who will 
not rise with me shall no longer be of my family. I am making 
a family of kings attached to my federative system." At the 
end of March 1806 Joseph became king of the Two Sicilies. A 
little later the emperor bestowed the two papal enclaves of 
Benevento and Ponte-Corvo on Talleyrand and Bernadotte 
respectively, an act which emphasized the hostility which had 
been growing between Napoleon and the papacy. Because 
Pius VII. declined to exclude British goods from the Papal 
States, Napoleon threatened to reduce the pope to the level 
merely of bishop of Rome. He occupied Ancona and seemed 
about to annex the Papal States outright. That doom was 
postponed; but Catholics everywhere saw with pain the harsh 
treatment accorded to a defenceless old man. The prestige 
which the First Consul had gained by the Concordat was now lost 
by the overweening emperor. 



But it was on the banks of the Rhine that the Napoleonic 
system received its most signal developments. The duchy of 
Berg, along with the eastern part of Cleves and other annexes, 
now went to Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon (March 1806); 
and that melodramatic soldier at once began to round off his 
eastern boundary in a way highly offensive to Prussia. She was 
equally concerned by Napoleon's behaviour in the Dutch Nether- 
lands, where her influence used to be supreme. On the $th of 
June 1806 the Batavian republic completed its chrysalis-like 
transformations by becoming a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte. 
" Never cease to be a Frenchman " was the pregnant advice 
which he gave to his younger brother in announcing the new 
dignity to him. In that sentence lay the secret of all the dis- 
agreements between the two brothers. Louis resolved to govern 
for the good of his subjects. Napoleon determined that he, like 
all the Bonapartist rulers, should act merely as a Napoleonic 
satrap. They were to be to him what the counts of the marches 
were to Charlemagne, warlike feudatories defending the empire 
or overawing its prospective foes. 

Far more was to follow. On the 1 7th of July Napoleon signed 
at Paris a decree that reduced to subservience the Germanic 
System, the chaotic weakness of which he had in 1797 foreseen 
to be highly favourable to France. He now grouped together the 
princes of south and central Germany in the Confederation of 
the Rhine, of which he was the protector and practically the ruler 
in all important affairs. The logical outcome of this proceeding 
appeared on the ist of August, when Napoleon declared that he 
no longer recognized the existence of the Holy Roman Empire. 
The head of that venerable organism, the emperor Francis II., 
bowed to the inevitable and announced that he thenceforth 
confined himself to his functions as Francis I., hereditary emperor 
of Austria, a title which he had taken just two years previously. 
This tame acquiescence of the House of Habsburg in the re- 
organization of Germany seemed to set the seal on Napoleon's 
work. He controlled all the lands from the Elbe to the Pyrenees, 
and had Spain and Italy at his beck and call. Power such as this 
was never wielded by his prototype, Charlemagne. 

But now came a series of events which transcended all that 
the mind of man had conceived. As the summer of 1806 wore 
on, his policy perceptibly hardened. Negotiations with England 
and Russia served to show the extent of his ambition. Sicily 
he was determined to have, and that too despite of all the efforts 
of the Fox-Grenville cabinet to satisfy him in every other direc- 
tion. In his belief that he could ensnare the courts of London 
and St Petersburg into separate and proportionately disadvan- 
tageous treaties, he overreached himself. The tsar indignantly 
repudiated a treaty which his envoy, Oubril, had been tricked 
into signing at Paris; and the Fox-Grenville cabinet (as also 
its successor) refused to bargain away Sicily. War, therefore, 
went on. What was more, Prussia, finding that Napoleon had 
secretly offered to the British Hanover (that gilded hook by 
which he caught her early in the year), now resolved to avenge 
this, the last of several insults. Napoleon was surprised by the 
news of Prussia's mobilization; he had come to regard her as 
a negligible quantity, and now he found that her unexpected 
sensitiveness on points of honour was about to revivify the 
Third Coalition against France. 

The war which broke out early in October 1806 (sometimes 
known as the war of the Fourth Coalition) ran a course curiously 
like that of 1805 in its main outlines. For Austria we may 
read Prussia; for Ulm, Jena-Auerstadt ; for the occupation of 
Vienna, that of Berlin; for Austerlitz, Friedland, which again 
disposed of the belated succour given by Russia. The parallel 
extends even to the secret negotiations; for, if Austria could 
have been induced in May 1807 to send an army against Napoleon's 
communications, his position would have been fully as dangerous 
as before Austerlitz if Prussia had taken a similar step. Once 
more he triumphed owing to the timidity of the central power 
which had the game in its hands; and the folly which marked 
the Russian tactics at Friedland (i4th of June 1807), as at 
Austerlitz, enabled him to close the campaign in a blaze of 
glory and shiver the coalition in pieces. 



NAPOLEON I. 



203 



Now came an opportunity far greater than that which occurred 
after Austerlitz. The Peace of Presburg was merely continental. 
That of Tilsit was of world-wide importance. But before refer- 
ring to its terms we must note an event which indicated the lines 
on which Napoleon's policy would advance. After occupying 
the Prussian capital he launched against England the famous 
Berlin Decree (2ist of November 1806), declaring her coasts 
to be in a state of blockade, and prohibiting all commerce with 
them. No ship coming thence was to be admitted into French 
or allied harbours; ships transgressing the decree were to be 
good prize of war; and British subjects were liable to imprison- 
ment if found in French or allied territories. This decree is 
often called the basis of the Continental System, whereby 
Napoleon proposed to ruin England by ruining her commerce. 
But even before Trafalgar he had begun to strike at that most 
vulnerable form of wealth, as the Jacobins had done before him. 
Nelson's crowning triumph rendered impossible for the present 
all other means of attack on those elusive foes; and Napoleon's 
sense of the importance of that battle may be gauged, not by 
his public utterances on the subject, but by his persistence in 
forcing Prussia to close Hanover and the whole coastline of 
north-west Germany against British goods. That proceeding, 
in February 1806, constitutes the basis of the Continental 
System. The Berlin Decree gave it a wide extension. By 
the mighty blow of Friedland and the astonishing diplomatic 
triumph of Tilsit, the conqueror hoped speedily to overwhelm 
the islanders beneath the mass of the world's opposition. 
Napoleon at Tilsit resembles Polyphemus seeking to destroy 
Ulysses. The crags which he flung at Britannia did indeed 
graze the stern and graze the prow of her craft. 

The triumph won at Friedland marks in several respects the 
climax of Napoleon's career. The opportunity was unique; 
and he now put forth his utmost endeavours to win over to his 
side the conquered but still formidable tsar. In their first inter- 
view, held on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen at Tilsit 
on the 25th of June, the French emperor, by his mingled strength 
and suppleness of intellect, gained an easy mastery over the 
impressionable young potentate. Partly from fear of a national 
Polish rising which Napoleon held in reserve as a last means of 
coercion, and partly from a subtle resolve to use the French 
alliance as a means of securing rich domains at the expense of 
Turkey, Prussia, Sweden and England, Alexander decided to 
throw over his allies, Prussia and England, and to seize the 
spoils to which the conqueror pointed as the natural sequel of 
a Franco-Russian alliance. Napoleon, therefore, had Prussia 
completely at his mercy; and his conditions to that power bore 
witness to the fact. The prayers of Queen Louisa of Prussia 
failed to bend him from his resolve. He refused even to grant 
her tearful request for Magdeburg. At a later time he reproached 
himself for not having dethroned the Hohenzollerns outright; 
but it is now known that Alexander would have forbidden this 
step, and that he dissuaded Napoleon from withdrawing Silesia 
from the control of the House of Hohenzollern. Even so, Prussia 
was bereft of half of her territories; those west of the river 
Elbe went to swell the domains of Napoleon's vassals or to form 
the new kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte; while 
the spoils which the House of Hohenzollern had won from Poland 
in the second and third partitions were now to form the duchy 
of Warsaw, ruled over by Napoleon's ally, the elector (now 
king) of Saxony. Danzig became nominally a free city, but was 
to be occupied by a French garrison until the peace. The tsar 
acquired a frontier district from Prussia, recognized the changes 
brought about by Napoleon in Germany and Italy, and agreed 
by a secret article that the Cattaro district on the east coast of 
the Adriatic should go to France. Equally important was the 
secret treaty of alliance between France and Russia signed on 
that same day. By it Napoleon brought the tsar to agree to 
make war on England in case that power did not accept the 
tsar's mediation for the conclusion of a general peace. Failing 
the arrival of a favourable reply from London by the ist of 
December 1807, the tsar would help Napoleon to compel 
Denmark, Sweden and Portugal to close their ports against, and 



make war on, Great Britain. Napoleon also promised to mediate 
between Russia and Turkey in the interests of the former, 
and (in case the Porte refused to accept the proffered terms) 
to help Russia to drive the Turks from Europe, "the city of 
Constantinople and the province of Rumelia alone excepted." 
This enterprise and the acquisition of Finland from Sweden, 
which Napoleon also dangled before the eyes of the tsar, formed 
the bait which brought that potentate into Napoleon's Continental 
System. Both Russia and Prussia now agreed rigorously to 
exclude British ships and goods from their dominions. 

The terms last named indicate the nature of the aims which 
Napoleon had in view at Tilsit. That compact was not, as has 
often been assumed, merely the means of assuring to Napoleon 
the mastery of the continent and the control of a cohort of kings. 
That eminence he enjoyed before the collision with Prussia 
in the autumn of 1806; and he frequently, and no doubt sincerely, 
expressed contempt of conquests dans cette vieille Europe. 
The three coalitions against France had not produced a single 
warrior worthy of his steel. The treaty of Tilsit may more 
reasonably be looked on as an expedient for piling up enormous 
political resources with a view to the coercion of Great Britain. 
If that end could not be achieved by massing the continental 
states against her in a solid phalanx of commercial war, then 
Napoleon intended to ensure her ruin by that other enterprise 
which he had in view early in 1798 (see his letter of the 23rd of 
February 1798), namely the conquest of the Orient. An expedi- 
tion against India had recently occupied his thoughts, as may 
be seen by the instructions which he issued on the loth of May 
1807 to General Gardane for his mission to Persia. The Orient 
was, indeed, ever the magnet which attracted him most ; and his 
hostility to England may be attributed to his perception that 
she alone stood in the way of his most cherished schemes. The 
treaty of Tilsit, then, far from being merely a European event, 
was an event of the first importance in what may be termed 
the Welt-politik of Napoleon. His confidence that his vastly 
enhanced powers would enable him first to coerce, and there- 
after to overthrow, the British empire may be illustrated by his 
allowing the appearance in 1807 of an official atlas of Australia 
in which about one-third of that continent figures as "Terre 
Napoleon." 

As usually happened in this strife of the land power and the 
sea power, Napoleon's continental policy attained an almost 
complete success, while the naval and oriental schemes which 
he had more nearly at heart utterly miscarried. The continent 
accepted the new development of his System. After some 
diplomatic fencing Russia and Prussia broke with England 
and entered upon what was, officially at least, a state of war 
with her. Further, owing to the carelessness of the Prussian 
negotiator, Napoleon was able to require the exaction of im- 
possibly large sums from that exhausted land, and therefore 
to keep his troops in her chief fortresses. The duchy of Warsaw 
and the fortress of Danzig formed new outworks of his power 
and enabled him to overawe Russia. In home affairs as in 
foreign affairs his actions bespoke the master. On returning 
from Tilsit to Paris he relieved Talleyrand of the ministry of 
foreign affairs, softening the fall by creating him a grand 
dignitary of the empire. The more subservient Champagny 
now became what was virtually the chief clerk in the French 
foreign office; and other changes placed in high station men 
who were remarkable for docility rather than originality and 
power. Napoleon also suppressed the Tribunate; and in the 
year 1808 instituted an order of nobility. During the course 
of a tour in Italy in December 1807 he gave a sharp turn to that 
world-compelling screw, the Continental System. By the Milan 
Decree of the I7th of December 1807, he ordained that every 
ship which submitted to the right of search now claimed by 
Great Britain would be considered a lawful prize. The imperious 
terms in which this decree was couched and its misleading 
reference to the British maritime code showed that Napoleon 
believed in the imminent collapse of his sole remaining enemy. 
This was natural. Britain, it was true, acting on the initiative 
of George Canning, had seized the Danish fleet, thus forestalling 



204 



NAPOLEON I. 



an action which Napoleon certainly contemplated; but on the 
other hand Denmark now allied herself with him; and while 
in Lombardy he heard of the triumphant entry of his troops 
into Lisbon an event which seemed to prelude his domination 
in the Iberian Peninsula and thereafter in the Mediterranean. 

The occupation of Lisbon, which led on to Napoleon's inter- 
vention in Spanish affairs, resulted naturally from the treaty 
of Tilsit. The coercion of England's oldest ally had long been 
one of Napoleon's most cherished aims, and was expressly pro- 
vided for in that compact. To this scheme he turned with a 
zeal whetted by consciousness of his failure respecting the Danish 
fleet. On the 27th of October 1807 he signed with a Spanish 
envoy at Fontainebleau a secret convention with a view to the 
partitioning of Portugal between France and Spain. Another 
convention of the same date allowed him to send 28,00x3 French 
troops into Spain for the occupation of Portugal, an enterprise 
in which a large Spanish force was to help them; 40,000 French 
troops were to be cantonned at Bayonne to support the first 
corps. Seeing that Godoy, the all-powerful minister at Madrid, 
had given mortal offence to Napoleon early in the Prussian 
campaign of 1806 by calling on Spain to arm on behalf of her 
independence, it passes belief how he could have placed his 
country at the mercy of Napoleon at the end of the year 1807. 
The emperor, however, successfully gilded the hook by awarding 
Algarve, the southern province of Portugal, to Godoy. The north 
of Portugal was to go to the widow of the king of Etruria (a 
Spanish Infanta); her realm now passing into the hands of 
Napoleon. Thus Portugal in 1807, like Venice in 1797, was to 
provide the means for widely extending the operations of his 
statecraft. 

The natural result followed. Portugal was easily overrun 
by the allies; but Junot's utmost efforts failed to secure the 
Portuguese fleet, which, under the protection of a British 
squadron, sailed away to Brazil with the royal family, the 
ministers and chief grandees of the realm. In other respects 
all went well. The French reinforcements which entered 
Spain managed to secure some of the strongholds of the northern 
provinces; and the disgraceful feuds in the royal family left 
the country practically at the emperor's mercy. 

The situation was such as to tempt Napoleon on to an under- 
taking on which he had probably set his heart in the autumn 
of 1806, that of dethroning the Spanish Bourbons and of replacing 
them by a Bonaparte. Looking at the surface of the life of 
Spain, he might well believe in its decay. The king, Charles IV., 
looked on helplessly at the ruin wrought by the subservience of 
his kingdom to France since 1796, and he was seemingly blind 
to the criminal intrigues between his queen and the prime minister 
Godoy. His senile spite vented itself on his son Ferdinand, 
whose opposition to the all-powerful favourite procured for him 
hatred at the palace and esteem everywhere else. Latterly 
the prince had fallen into disgrace for proposing, without the 
knowledge of Charles IV., to ally himself with a Bonaparte 
princess. Here, then, were all the conditions which favoured 
Napoleon's intervention. He allowed the prince to hope for 
such a union, and thus enhanced the popularity of the French 
party at Madrid. Godoy, having the prospect of the Algarve 
before him, likewise offered no opposition to the advance of 
Napoleon's troops to the capital; and so it came about that 
Murat, named by Napoleon his Lieutenant in Spain, was able 
to enter Madrid in force and without opposition from that 
usually clannish populace. The course of events, and especially 
the anger of the people, now began to terrify Charles IV., the 
queen and Godoy. They prepared for flight to America a 
step which Napoleon took care to prevent; and a popular 
outbreak at Aranjuez decided the king then and there to abdicate 
(ipth of March 1808). Murat, now acting very warily in the 
hope of gaining the crown of Spain for himself, refused to 
recognize this act as binding, still more so the accession of 
Ferdinand VII. Charles thereupon declared his abdication to 
have been made under duress and therefore null and void. 
The young king, still hoping for Napoleon's favour, now responded 
to the suggestion, forwarded by Savary, that an interview with 



the emperor would clear up the situation. The same prospect 
was held out to Charles IV., the queen and Godoy, with the 
result that the rivals for the throne proceeded to the north of 
Spain to meet the arbiter of their destinies. Napoleon journeyed 
to Bayonne and remained there. The claimants, each not know- 
ing of the movements of the other, crossed the Pyrenees, and 
Ferdinand on his arrival at Bayonne found himself to be virtually 
a prisoner in the hands of the emperor. Napoleon had little 
difficulty in disposing of the father, whose rage against his son 
blunted his senses in every other direction. As for Ferdinand, 
the emperor, on hearing the news of a rising in Madrid on the 
2nd of May, overwhelmed him with threats, until he resigned 
the crown into the hands of his father, who had already bargained 
it away to Napoleon in return for a pension (sth of May 1808). 
Princely abodes in France and annuities (the latter to be paid 
by Spain) such was the price at which Napoleon bought the 
crown of Spain and the Indies. Naturally nothing more was 
heard of the partition of Portugal. According to outward ap- 
pearance nothing was wanting to complete the emperor's 
triumph. He is said to have remarked with an oath after Jena 
that he would make the Spanish Bourbons pay for their recent 
bellicose proclamation. If the story is correct, his acts at 
Bayonne showed once more his custom of biding his time in 
order to take an overwhelming revenge. That the son of a 
Corsican notary should have been able to dispose of the Spanish 
Bourbons in this contemptuously easy way is one of the marvels 
of history. 

But even in this crowning triumph the cramping egotism 
of his nature a mental vice which now grew on him rapidly 
fatally narrowed his outlook and led him to commit an irre- 
trievable blunder. In his contempt for the rulers of Spain he 
forgot the Spanish people. In all the genuine letters of the 
spring of 1808 that of March 29th to Murat, no. 13,696 of the 
Correspondence, is acknowledged to be a forgery there is not a 
sign that he regarded the Spaniards as of any account. On the 
27th of March he offered the crown of Spain to his brother Louis, 
king of Holland, in these terms: " The climate of Holland does 
not suit you; besides Holland can never rise from its ruins. 
I think of you for the throne of Spain. You will be the sovereign 
of a generous nation of eleven millions of men and of important 
colonies." On Louis declining the honour, it devolved on 
Joseph, king of Naples, who vacated that throne for the benefit 
of Murat a source of disappointment and annoyance to both. 
The emperor pushed on his schemes regardless of everything. 
The first signs of the rising ferment in Spain were wasted on him. 
He believed that the arrival of so benevolent a king as Joseph, 
and the promulgation of a number of useful reforms based on 
those of the French Revolution, would soothe any passing 
irritation. If not, then his troops could deal with it as Murat 
had dealt with the men of Madrid on the 2nd of May. He, 
therefore, pressed on the march of a corps of French and Swiss 
troops under Dupont towards Cadiz, in order to take possession 
of the French sail of the line, five in number, which had been 
in that harbour since Trafalgar. The importance which he 
then assigned to naval affairs appears in many letters of the 
months May to June 1808. He intended that Spain should 
very soon have ready twenty-eight sail of the line " ce qui est 
certes bien peu de chose " so as to drive away the British 
squadrons, and then he would strike " de grands coups " in 
the autumn. Evidently then the Spanish dockyards and warships 
(when vigorously organized) were to count for much in the 
schemes for assuring complete supremacy in the Mediterranean 
and the ultimate overthrow of the British and Turkish empires, 
which he then had closely at heart. 

The Spanish rising of May- June 1808 ruined these plans 
irretrievably. The men of Cadiz compelled the French warships 
to surrender, and the levies of Andalusia, closing around Dupont, 
compelled him and some 23,000 men to lay down their arms 
at Baylen (23rd of July). This disaster, the most serious suffered 
by the French since Rossbach, sent a thrill through the Napoleonic 
vassal states and aroused in Napoleon transports of anger 
against Dupont. " Everything is connected with this event," 



NAPOLEON I. 



205 



he wrote on the 2nd of August, " Germany, Poland, Italy." 
Indeed, along with other serious checks in Spain, which involved 
the conquest of that land, it cut through the wide meshes of his 
policy both in Levantine, Central European and commercial 
affairs. The partition of Turkey had to be postponed; the 
financial collapse of England could not be expected now that 
she framed an alliance with the Spanish patriots and had their 
markets and those of their colonies opened to her ; and the 
discussions with the tsar Alexander, which had not gone quite 
smoothly, now took a decidedly unfavourable turn. The tsar 
saw his chance of improving on the terms arranged at Tilsit; 
and obviously Napoleon could not begin the conquest of Spain 
until he felt sure of the conduct of his nominal ally. Still worse 
was the prospect when Sir Arthur Wellesley with a British force 
landed in Portugal, gained the battle of Vimiero (2ist of August), 
and brought the French commander, Junot, by the so-called 
convention of Cintra, to agree to the evacuation of the country 
by all the French troops. The sea power thus gained what had 
all along been wanting, a sure basis for the exercise of its force 
against the land power, Napoleon. Still more important, perhaps, 
was the change in moral which the Spanish rising brought about. 
Napoleon's perfidy at Bayonne was so flagrant as to strip from 
him the mask of a champion of popular liberty which had 
previously been of priceless worth. Now he stood forth to the 
world as an unscrupulous aggressor; moral force, previously 
marshalled on the side of France, now began to pass to the side of 
his opponents. The value of that unseen ally he well knew: 
" Once again, let me tell you," he wrote to General Clarke on 
the loth of October 1809, " in war moral and opinion are more 
than half of the reality." 

Such were the discouraging conditions which weighed him 
down at the time of the interview with the tsar at Erfurt 
(September 27th-October lath, 1808). That event was so 
important as to require some preliminary explanation. For 
some five months past the two emperors had been exchanging 
their views as to the future of the world. Stated briefly they 
were these. Napoleon desired to press on the partition of Prussia, 
Alexander that of Turkey. The tsar, however, was determined 
to save Prussia if he could; and Napoleon after the first disasters 
in Spain saw it to be impossible to uproot the Hohenzollerns; 
while it was clearly to his interest to postpone the partition of 
Turkey until he had conquered Spain and Sicily. Austria 
meanwhile had begun to arm as a precautionary measure; 
and Napoleon, shortly after his return from Bayonne to Paris, 
publicly declared that, if her preparations went on, he would 
wage against her a war of extermination. The threat naturally 
did not tend to reassure statesmen at Vienna; and the tsar 
now resolved to prevent the total wreck of the European system 
by screening the House of Habsburg from the wrath of his ally. 
For the present Napoleon's ire fell upon Prussia. A letter written 
by the Prussian statesman, Baron vom Stein, had fallen into the 
hands of the French and revealed to the emperor the ferment 
produced in Germany by news of the French reverses in Spain. 
In that letter Stein urged the need of a national rising of the 
Germans similar to that of the Spaniards, when the inevitable 
struggle ensued between Napoleon and Austria. The revenge of 
the autocrat was characteristic. Besides driving Stein from 
office, he compelled Prussia to sign a convention(8th of September) 
for the payment to France of a sum of 140,000,000 francs, and 
for the limitation of the Prussian army to 42,000 men. 

Apart from this advantage, placed in his hands by the imprud- 
ence of Stein, Napoleon was heavily handicapped at the Erfurt 
interview. In vain did he seek to dazzle the tsar by assembling 
about him the vassal kings and princes of Germany; in vain did 
he exercise all the intellectual gifts which had captivated the 
tsar at Tilsit; in vain did he conjure up visions of the future 
conquest of the Orient; external display, diplomatic finesse, 
varied by one or two outbursts of calculated violence all was 
useless. The situation now was utterly different from that 
which obtained at Tilsit. Alexander had succeeded in pacifying 
Finland, and his troops held the Danubian provinces of Turkey 
a pledge, as it seemed, for the future conquest of Constantinople. 



Napoleon, on the other hand, had utterly failed in his Spanish 
enterprise; and the tsar felt sure that his rival must soon with- 
draw French garrisons from the fortresses of the Oder to the 
frontier of Spain. These facts, and not, as has often been 
assumed, the treachery of Talleyrand, decided Alexander to 
assume at Erfurt an attitude of jealous reserve. He refused to 
join Napoleon in any proposal for the coercion of Austria or the 
limitation of her armaments. Finally he agreed to join his ally if 
he (Napoleon) were attacked by the Habsburg power. Napoleon 
on his side succeeded in adjourning the question of the partition 
of Turkey; but he awarded the Danubian provinces and Finland 
to his ally and agreed to withdraw the French garrisons from 
the Prussian fortresses on the Oder. On the I2th of October 
both potentates addressed an appeal to George III. to accord 
peace to the world on the basis of uti possidetis. Canning 
assented, provided that envoys of all the states and peoples 
concerned took part in the negotiations. Whereupon a reply 
came from Paris (a8th of November) that the French emperor 
refused to admit the envoys of " the king who reigns in Brazil, 
the king who reigns in Sicily or the king who reigns in Sweden." 
The " Spanish insurgents " were equally placed out of court. 
Clearly, then, Napoleon's desire for peace was conditional 
on his being allowed to dictate terms to the rulers and peoples 
concerned. 

Already he had shown that the sword must decide affairs in 
Spain. After spending a short time in Paris in order to supervise 
the transfer of his forces from Germany to the Pyrenees, he 
journeyed swiftly southwards, burst upon the Spaniards, and 
on the 3rd of December received the surrender of Madrid. There, 
on the ilth of December, he issued a decree (omitted from the 
official Correspondence) declaring le nommS Stein an enemy of 
France and confiscating his property in the lands allied to France. 
The great statesman barely succeeded in escaping to Austria, a 
land in which the hopes of German patriots now centred. En- 
couraged by the sympathy of all patriotic Germans and the newly 
found energy of its own subjects, the House of Habsburg now 
began to prepare for war. Napoleon was then in the midst of 
operations against Sir John Moore, whose masterly march on 
Sahagun (near Valladolid) had thwarted the emperor's plans for 
a general " drive " on to Lisbon. Hoping to punish Moore for 
his boldness, Napoleon struck quickly north at Astorga, but found 
that he was too late to catch his foe. At that town he also heard 
news on the ist of January 1809, which portended trouble in 
Germany and perhaps also at Paris. Austria was continuing to 
arm; and the emperor perceived that the diplomatic failure at 
Erfurt was now about to entail on him another and more serious 
struggle. His anxiety was increased by news of sinister import 
respecting frequent interviews between those former rivals, 
Talleyrand and Fouche, in which Murat was said to be concerned. 
Handing over the command to Soult, he hurried back to Paris 
to trample on the seeds of sedition and to overwhelm Austria by 
the blows which he showered upon her in the valley of the 
Danube. Sir John Moore and the statesmen of Austria the 
heroic Stadion at their head failed in their enterprise; but at 
least they frustrated the determined effort of Napoleon to stamp 
out the national movement in the Iberian Peninsula. Thereafter 
he never entered Spain; and the French operations suffered 
incalculably from the want of one able commander-in-chief. 

In the Danubian campaign of 1809 he succeeded; but the 
stubborn defence of Austria, the heroic efforts of the Tirolese 
and the spasmodic efforts which foreboded a national rising in 
Germany, showed that the whole aspect of affairs was changing; 
even in central Europe, where rulers and peoples had hitherto 
been as wax under the impress of his will. The peoples, formerly 
so apathetic, were now the centre of resistance, and their efforts 
failed owing to the timidity or sluggishness of governments 
and the incompetence of some of their military leaders. The 
failure of the archduke John to arrive in time at Wagram (sth 
of July), the lack of support accorded by the Spaniards to 
Wellesley before and after the battle of Talavera (28th of July), 
and the slowness with which the British government sent forth 
its great armada. against Flushing and Antwerp, a fortnight after 



206 



NAPOLEON I. 



Austria sued for an armistice from Napoleon, enabled that superb 
organizer to emerge victorious from a most precarious situation. 
The hatred felt for him by Germans found expression in a 
daring attempt to murder him made by a well-bred youth named 
Staps on the 1 2th of October. 

Two days later Napoleon, by means of unworthy artifices, 
hurried the Austrian plenipotentiaries into signing the treaty of 
peace at Schonbrunn. The House of Habsburg now ceded 
Salzburg and the Inn-Viertel to Napoleon (for his ally, the king 
of Bavaria) ; a great portion of the spoils which Austria had torn 
from Poland in 1795 went to the grand duchy of Warsaw, or 
Russia; and the cession of her provinces Carinthia, Carniola 
and Istria to the French empire cut her off from all access to the 
sea. After imposing these harsh terms on his enemy, the con- 
queror might naturally have shown clemency to the Tirolese 
leader, Andreas Hofer; but that brave mountaineer, when 
betrayed by a friend, was sentenced to death at Mantua owing 
to the arrival of a special message to that effect from Napoleon. 

In other quarters he achieved for the present a signal success. 
It was his habit to issue important decrees from the capitals of 
his enemies; and on the I7th of May 1809 he signed at Vienna 
an edict abolishing the temporal power of the pope and annexing 
the Papal States, which the French troops had occupied early 
in the previous year. On the 6th of July 1809 Pius VII. was 
arrested at Rome for presuming to excommunicate the successor 
of Charlemagne, and was deported to Grenoble and later on to 
Savona. The same year witnessed the downfall of Napoleon's 
persistent enemy, Gustavus IV. of Sweden, who was dethroned 
by a military movement (29th of March 1809). His successor, 
Charles XIII., made peace with France on the 6th of January 
1810, and agreed to adopt the provisions of the Continental 
System. The aim in all these changes, it will be observed, was 
to acquire control over the seaboard, or, failing that, the com- 
merce of all European states. 

As happened in the years 1802-1803, Napoleon extended his 
" System " as rapidly in time of peace as during war. The year 
1810 saw the crown set to that edifice by the annexations of 
Holland and of the north-west coast of Germany. In both cases 
the operative cause was the same. Neither Louis Bonaparte nor 
German douaniers could be trusted to carry out in all their 
stringency the decrees for the entire exclusion of British commerce 
from those important regions. In the case of King Louis, family 
quarrels embittered the relations between the two brothers; 
but it is clear from Napoleon's letters of November-December 
1809 that he had even then resolved to annex Holland in order 
to gain complete control of its customs and of its naval resources. 
The negotiations which he allowed to go on with England in 
the spring of 1810, mainly respecting the independence of 
Holland, are now known to have been insincere. Fouche, for 
meddling in the negotiations through an agent of his own, was 
promptly disgraced; and, when neither England was moved by 
diplomatic cajolery nor Louis Bonaparte by threats, French 
troops were sent against the Dutch capital. Louis fled from his 
kingdom, and on the 9th of July 1810 Holland became part of 
the French empire. In the next months Napoleon promulgated 
a series of decrees for effecting the ruin of British commerce, 
and in December 1810 he decreed the annexation of the north- 
west coast of Germany, as also of Canton Valais, to the French 
empire. This now stretched from Liibeck to the Pyrenees, 
from Brest to Rome; while another arm (only nominally severed 
from the empire by the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy) extended 
down the eastern shore of the Adriatic to Ragusa and Cattaro, 
threatening the Turkish empire with schemes of partition always 
imminent but never achieved. 

. It is time now to notice two important events in the life of the 
emperor, namely his divorce of Josephine and his union with 
Marie Louise of Austria. The former of these had long been 
foreseen. The Bonapartes had intrigued for it with their usual 
persistence, and Napoleon was careful never to make it im- 
possible. His triumph over Austria in 1809, and especially the 
attempt of Staps to murder him, clinched his determination to 
found a dynasty in his own direct line. From Josephine he could 



not expect to have an heir. Accordingly, on his return to Paris 
he caused the news to be broken to her that reasons of state of 
the most urgent kind compelled him to divorce her. An affecting 
scene took place between them on the 3oth of November 1809; 
but Napoleon, though moved by her distress, remained firm; 
and though the clerics made a difficulty about dissolving the 
religious marriage of the ist of December 1804, the formalities of 
which were complete save that the parish priest was absent, yet 
the emperor instituted a chancery for the archbishop of Paris, 
with the result that that body pronounced the divorce (January 
1 8 1 o) . Josephine retired to her private abode, Malmaison, where 
her patience and serenity won the admiration of all who saw her. 

Meanwhile the deliberations respecting the choice of her 
successor had already begun. Opinions were divided in the 
emperor's circle between a Russian and an Austrian princess; 
but the marked coolness with which overtures for the hand of 
the tsar's sister were received at St Petersburg, and the skill 
with which Count Metternich, the Austrian chancellor, let it be 
known that a union with the archduchess, Marie Louise, would be 
welcomed at Schonbrunn, helped to decide the matter. The 
reasons why the emperor Francis acquiesced in the marriage 
alliance are well known. Only so could his empire survive. 
A marriage between Napoleon and a Russian princess would have 
implied the permanent subjection of Austria. By the proposed 
step she would weaken the Franco-Russian alliance. But why 
did Napoleon fix his choice on Vienna rather than St Petersburg? 
Mainly, it would seem, because he desired hurriedly to screen 
the refusal, which might at any time be expected from the Russian 
court, under the appearance of a voluntary choice of an Austrian 
archduchess. Further, an alliance with the House of Habsburg 
might be expected to wean the Germans from all thought of 
gaining succour from that quarter. The wedding was celebrated 
first at Vienna by proxy, and at Notre Dame by the emperor in 
person on the 2nd of April. Though based on merely political 
grounds, the union was for the time a happy one. He advised 
his courtiers to marry Germans " they are the best wives in the 
world, good, naive and fresh as roses." Metternich, on visiting 
Compiegne and Paris, found the emperor thoroughly devoted to 
his bride. Napoleon told him that he was now beginning to live, 
that he had always longed for a home and now at last had one. 
Metternich thereupon wrote to his master: " He (Napoleon) 
has possibly more weaknesses than many other men, and if the 
empress continues to play upon them, as she begins to realize 
the possibility of doing, she can render the greatest services to her- 
self and all Europe." The surmise was too hopeful. Napoleon, 
though he never again worked as he had done, soon freed himself 
from complete dependence on Marie Louise; and he never allowed 
her to intrude into political affairs, for which, indeed, she had not 
the least aptitude. His real concern for her was evinced shortly 
before the birth of their son, the king of Rome, when he gave orders 
that if the h'fe of both mother and child could not be saved, that 
of the mother should be saved if possible ( 2oth of March 1811). 

This event seemed to place Napoleon's fortunes on a sure 
basis; but already they were being undermined by events. The 
marriage negotiations of 1800-1810 had somewhat offended the 
emperor Alexander; his resentment increased when, at the close 
of 1810, Napoleon dethroned the duke of Oldenburg, brother-in- 
law of the tsar; and the breach in the Franco-Russian alliance 
widened when the French emperor refused to award fit com- 
pensation to the duke or to give to the Russian government an 
assurance that the kingdom of Poland would never be re- 
constituted. The addition of large territories to the grand 
duchy of Warsaw after the war of 1809 aroused the fears of the 
tsar respecting the Poles; and he regarded all Napoleon's 
actions as inspired by hostility to Russia. He, therefore, despite 
Napoleon's repeated demands, refused to subject his empire 
to the hardships imposed by the Continental System; at the 
close of the year 1810 he virtually allowed the entry of colonial 
goods (all of which were really British borne) and little by little 
broke away from Napoleon's system. These actions implied war 
between France and Russia, unless Napoleon allowed such 
modifications of his rules (e.g. under the license system) as would 



NAPOLEON I. 



207 



avert ruin from the trade and finance of Russia; and this he 
refused to do. 

The campaign of 1812 may, therefore, be considered as result- 
ing, firstly, from the complex and cramping effects of the Conti- 
nental System on a northern land which could not deprive itself 
of colonial goods; secondly, from Napoleon's refusal to mitigate 
the anxiety of Alexander on the Polish question; and thirdly, 
from the annoyance felt by the tsar at the family matters 
noticed above. Napoleon undoubtedly entered on the struggle 
with reluctance. He spoke about it as one that lay in the course 
of destiny. In one sense he was right. If the Continental 
System was inevitable the war with Russia was inevitable. But 
that struggle may more reasonably be ascribed to the rigidity 
with which he carried out his commercial decrees and his diplo- 
macy. He often prided himself on his absolute consistency, 
and we have Chaptal's warrant for the statement that, after the 
time of the Consulate, his habit of following his own opinions 
and rejecting all advice, even when he had asked for it, became 
more and more pronounced. It was so now. He took no heed 
of the warnings uttered by those sage counsellors, Cambaceres 
and Talleyrand, against an invasion of Russia, while "the 
Spanish ulcer " was sapping the strength of the empire at the 
other extremity. He encased himself in fatalism, with the result 
that in two years the mightiest empire reared by man broke under 
the twofold strain. His diplomacy before the war of 1812 was 
less successful than that of Alexander, who skilfully ended his 
quarrel with Turkey and gained over to his side Sweden. That 
state, where Bernadotte had latterly been chosen as crown 
prince, decided to throw off the yoke of the Continental System 
and join England and Russia, gaining from the latter power the 
promise of Norway at the expense of Denmark. 

Napoleon on his side coerced Prussia into an offensive alliance 
and had the support of Austria and the states of the Rhenish 
Confederation. At Dresden he held court for a few days in May 
1812 with Marie Louise: the emperor Francis, the king of 
Prussia and a host of lesser dignitaries were present a sign of 
the power of the modern Charlemagne. It was the last time that 
he figured as master of the continent. 

The military events of the years 1812-1814 are described under 
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS; and we need therefore note here only 
a few details personal to Napoleon or some considerations which 
influenced his policy. Firstly we may remark that the Austrian 
alliance furnished one of the motives which led him to refrain 
during the campaign of 1812 from reconstituting the Polish realm 
in its ancient extent. To have done so would have been a mortal 
affront to his ally, Austria. Certainly he needed her support 
during that campaign; but many good judges have inclined 
to the belief that the whole-hearted support of Poles and Lithu- 
anians would have been of still greater value, and that the organi- 
zation of their resources might well have occupied him during the 
winter of 1812-1813, and would have furnished him with a new 
and advanced base from which to strike at the heart of Russia 
in the early summer of 1813. If the Austrian alliance was chiefly 
responsible for his rejection of that statesmanlike plan, which 
he had before him at Smolensk, it certainly deserves all the hard 
things said of it by the champions of Josephine. 

Another consideration which largely conduced to the disasters 
of the retreat was Napoleon's postponement of any movement 
back from Moscow to the date of October ipth, and this is known 
to have resulted from his conviction that the tsar would give 
way as he had done at Tilsit. Napoleon's habit of dinging to his 
own preconceptions never received so strange and disastrous an 
illustration as it did during the month spent at Moscow. - On the 
other hand, his desertion of the army on the 5th of December, 
not long after the crossing of the river Beresina, is a thoroughly 
defensible act. He had recently heard of the attempt of a French 
republican general, Malet, to seize the public offices at Paris, a 
quixotic adventure which had come surprisingly near to success 
owing to the assurance with which that officer proclaimed the 
news of the emperor's death in Russia. In such a case, the best 
retort was to return in all haste in order to put more energy into 
the huge centralized organism which the emperor alone could 



work. His rapid return from Spain early in 1809, and now again 
from Lithuania at the close of 1812, gives an instructive glimpse 
into the anxiety which haunted the mind of the autocrat. He 
believed that, imposing as his position was, it rested on the prestige 
won by matchless triumphs. Witness his illuminating state- 
ment to Volney during the Consulate: " Why should France 
fear my ambition? I am but the magistrate of the republic. 
I merely act upon the imagination of the nation. When that 
fails me I shall be nothing, and another will succeed me." 

To this cause we may ascribe his constant efforts to dazzle 
France by grandiose adventures and by swift, unexpected 
movements. But she had now come profoundly to distrust 
him. Her thirst for glory had long since been slaked, and she 
longed for peaceful enjoyment of the civic boons which he had 
conferred upon her in that greatest period of his life, the Con- 
sulate. That the Russian campaign of 1812 was the last device 
for assuring the success of the Continental System and the ruin 
of England was nothing to the great mass of Frenchmen. They 
were weary of a means of pacification which produced endless 
wars abroad and misery at home. True, England had suffered, 
but she was mistress of the seas and had won a score of new 
colonies. France had subjected half the continent; but her 
hold on Spain was weakened by Wellington's blow at Salamanca; 
and now Frenchmen heard that their army in Russia was " dead." 
At home many industries were suffering from the lack of tropical 
and colonial produce: cane sugar sold at five, and coffee at 
seven, shillings the pound. The constant use of chicory for 
coffee, and of woad for indigo, was apt to produce a reaction 
in favour of a humdrum peaceful policy; and yet, by a recent 
imperial decree, Frenchmen had the prospect of seeing the use 
of the new and imperfectly made beet sugar enforced from the 
ist of January 1813, after which date all cane sugar was_ 
excluded as being of British origin. Shortly before starting 
for the Russian expedition Napoleon vainly tried to reassure the 
merchants and financiers of France then face to face with a 
sharp financial crisis. Now at the close of 1812 matters were 
worse, and Napoleon, on reaching Paris, found the nation 
preoccupied with the task of finding out how many Frenchmen 
had survived the Russian campaign. 

Yet, despite the discontent seething in many quarters, France 
responded to his appeal for troops; but she did so mechanically 
and without hope. Early in January 1813 the senate promised 
that 350,000 conscripts should be enrolled; but 150,000 of them 
were under twenty years of age, and mobile columns had to be 
used to sweep in the recruits, especially in Brittany, the Nether- 
lands and the newly annexed lands of North Germany. 

In the old provinces of France Napoleon's indomitable will over- 
came all difficulties of a material kind. Forces, inexperienced but 
devoted, were soon on foot; and he informed his German allies 
that he would allow the Russians to advance into Central 
Germany so as to ensure their destruction. As for the " treason " 
of General York, who had come to terms with the Russians, it 
moved him merely to scorn and contempt. He altogether 
underrated the importance of the national movement in Prussia. 
If Prussian towns " behaved badly " (he wrote on the 4th of 
March), they were to be burnt; Eugene was not to spare even 
Berlin. Prussia (he wrote on the I4th of March) was a weak 
country. She could not put more than 40,000 men in the field 
(the number to which he had limited her hi September 1808). 
He therefore heard without dismay at the end of March that 
Prussia had joined Russia in a league in which Sweden was now 
an active participant. 

It was clear that the spiritual forces of the time were also 
slipping out of his grasp. Early in January he sought to come 
to terms with the pope (then virtually a captive at Fontainebleau) 
respecting various questions then in debate concerning the 
Concordat. At first the emperor succeeded in persuading the 
aged pontiff to sign the preliminaries of an agreement, known 
as the " Fontainebleau Concordat " (25th of January 1813); 
but, on its insidious character becoming apparent, Pius VII. 
revoked his consent, as having been given under constraint. 
Nevertheless Napoleon ordered the preliminary agreement to be 



208 



NAPOLEON I. 



considered as a definitive treaty, and on the 2nd of April gave 
instructions that one of the refractory cardinals should be 
carried off secretly by night from Fontainebleau, while the pontiff 
was to be guarded more closely than before. On these facts 
becoming known, a feeling of pity for the pope became wide- 
spread; and the opinion of the Roman Catholic world gradually 
turned against the emperor while he was fighting to preserve 
his supremacy in Germany. " I am following the course of 
events: I have always marched with them." Such were his 
words uttered shortly before his departure from Paris (isth of 
April). They proved that he misread events and misunderstood 
his own position. 

The course of the ensuing campaigns was to reveal the harden- 
ing of his mental powers. Early in April he sought to gain the 
help of 100,000 Austrian troops by holding out to Francis of 
Austria the prospect of acquiring Silesia from Prussia. The offer 
met with no response, Austria having received from the allies 
vaguely alluring offers that she might arrange matters as she 
desired in Italy and South Germany. Napoleon began to suspect 
his father-in-law, and still more the Austrian chancellor, 
Metternich; but instead of humouring them, he resolved to 
stand firm. The Austrian demands, first presented to him 
on the i6th of May, shortly after his victory of Liitzen, were 
(i) the dissolution of the grand duchy of Warsaw, (2) the with- 
drawal of France from the lands of north-west Germany annexed 
in 1810 and (3) the cession to Austria of the Illyrian provinces 
wrested from her in 1809. Other terms were held in reserve 
to be pressed if occasion admitted; but these were all that were 
put forward at the moment. On this basis Austria was ready to 
offer her armed mediation to the combatants. Napoleon would 
not hear of the terms. " I will not have your armed mediation. 
You are only confusing the whole question. You say you cannot 
act for me; you are strong, then, only against me." This out- 
burst of temper was a grave blunder. His threats alarmed the 
Austrian court. At bottom the emperor Francis, perhaps also 
Metternich, wanted peace, but on terms which the exhaustion 
of the combatants would enable them to dictate. Yet during the 
armistice which ensued (June 4th- July 2oth; afterwards pro- 
longed to August toth) Napoleon did nothing to soothe the 
Viennese government, and that, too, despite the encouragement 
which the allies received from the news of Wellington's victory 
at Vittoria and the entry of Bernadotte with a Swedish con- 
tingent on the scene. Austria now proposed the terms named 
above with the addition that the Confederation of the Rhine 
must be dissolved, and that Prussia should be placed in a position 
as good as that which she held in 1805, that is, before the 
campaign of Jena. On the 27th of June she promised to join 
the allies in case Napoleon should not accept these terms. 

He was now at the crisis of his career. Events had shown 
that, even after losing half a million of men in Russia, he was 
a match for her and Prussia combined. Would he now accept 
the Austrian terms and gain a not disadvantageous peace, for 
which France was yearning? These terms, it should be noted, 
would have kept Napoleon's empire intact except in Illyria; 
while the peace would have enabled him to reorganize his army 
and recover a host of French prisoners from Russia. His 
signing of the armistice seemed to promise as much. To give 
his enemies a breathing space when they were hard pressed was an 
insane proceeding unless he meant to make^peace. But there is 
nothing in his words or actions at this time to show that he 
desired peace except on terms which were clearly antiquated. 
His letters breathe the deepest resentment against Austria, 
and show that he burned to chastise her for her " perfidy " 
as soon as his cavalry was reorganized. His actions at this time 
have been ascribed to righteous indignation against Metternich's 
double-dealing; and in a long interview at the Marcolini palace 
at Dresden on the 26th of June he asked the chancellor point 
blank how much money England had given him for his present 
conduct. As for himself he cared little for the life of a million 
of men. He had married the daughter of the emperor: it 
was a mistake, but he would bury the world under the ruins. 
Talk in this Ossian-like vein showed that Napoleon's brain no 



longer worked clearly: it was a victim to his egotism and passion. 
July and the first decade of August came and went, but brought 
no sign of pacification. The emperor Francis made a last effort 
to influence his son-in-law through Marie Louise. It was in vain. 
Nothing could bend that cast iron will. Nothing remained but 
to break it. On the expiration of the armistice at midnight of 
August loth-nth Austria declared war. 

After the disastrous defeat of Leipzig (i7th-i9th October 
1813), when French domination in Germany and Italy vanished 
like an exhalation, the allies gave Napoleon another opportunity 
to come to terms. The overtures known as the Frankfort terms 
were ostensibly an answer to the request for information which 
Napoleon made at the field of Leipzig. Metternich persuaded 
the tsar and the king of Prussia to make a declaration that the 
allies would leave to Napoleon the " natural boundaries " of 
France the Rhine, Alps, Pyrenees and Ocean. The main object 
of the Austrian chancellor probably was to let Napoleon once 
more show to the world his perverse obstinacy. If this was his 
aim, he succeeded. Napoleon on his return to St Cloud inveighed 
against his ministers for talking so much about peace and declared 
that he would never give up Holland; France must remain a 
great empire, and not sink to the level of a mere kingdom. He 
would never give up Holland; rather than do that, he would 
cut the dykes and give back that land to the sea. Accordingly 
on the i6th of November he sent a vague and unsatisfactory 
reply to the allies; and though Caulaincourt (who now replaced 
Maret as foreign minister) was on the 2nd of December charged 
to give a general assent to their terms, yet that assent came 
too late. The allies had now withdrawn their offer. Napoleon 
certainly believed that the offer was insincere. Perhaps he was 
right; but even in that case he should surely have accepted 
the offer so as to expose their insincerity. As it was, they were 
able to contrast their moderation with his wrongheadedness, 
and thereby seek to separate his cause from that of France. 
In this they only partially succeeded. Murat now joined the 
allies; Germany, Switzerland and Holland were lost to Napoleon; 
but when the allies began to invade Alsace and Lorraine, they 
found the French staunch in his support. He was still the 
peasants' emperor. The feelings of the year 1792 began to revive. 
Never did Napoleon and France appear more united than in 
the campaign of 1814. 

Nevertheless it led to his abdication. Once more the allies 
consented to discuss the terms of a general pacification; but 
the discussions at the congress of Chatillon (sth of February- 
igth of March) had no result except to bring to light a proof 
of Napoleon's insincerity. Thereupon the allies resolved to have 
no more dealings with him. As his chances of success became 
more and more desperate, he ventured on a step whereby he 
hoped to work potently on the pacific desires of the emperor 
Francis. Leaving Paris for the time to its own resources, he 
struck eastwards in the hope of terrifying that potentate and of 
detaching him from the coalition. The move not only failed, 
but it had the fatal effect of uncovering Paris to the northern 
forces of the allies. The surrender of the capital, where he had 
centralized all the governing powers, was a grave disaster. 
Equally fatal was the blow struck at him by the senate, his own 
favoured creation. Convoked by Talleyrand on the ist of 
April, it pronounced the word abdication on the morrow. For this 
Napoleon cared little, provided that he had the army behind 
him. But now the marshals and generals joined the civilians. 
The defection of Marshal Marmont and his soldiery on the 4th 
of April rendered further thoughts of resistance futile. To 
continue the strife when Wellington was firmly established on 
the line of the Garonne, and Lyons and Bordeaux had hoisted 
the Bourbon flew de lys, was seen by all but Napoleon to be sheer 
madness; but it needed the pressure of his marshals in painful 
interviews at Fontainebleau to bring him to reason. 

At last, on the nth of April, he wrote the deed of abdication. 
On that night he is said to have tried to end his life by poison. 
The evidence is not convincing; and certainly his recovery 
was very speedy. On the 2oth he bade farewell to his guard 
and set forth from Fontainebleau for Elba, which the powers 



NAPOLEON I. 



209 



had very reluctantly, and owing to the pressure of the tsar, 
awarded to him as a possession. He was to keep the title of 
emperor. Marie Louise was to have the duchy of Parma for 
herself and her son. She did not go with her consort. Following 
the advice of her father, she repaired to Vienna along with the 
little king of Rome. As for France, she received the Bourbons, 
along with the old frontiers. 

Meanwhile Napoleon, after narrow escapes from royalist 
mobs in Provence, was conducted in the British cruiser " Un- 
daunted " to Elba. There he spent eleven months in uneasy 
retirement, watching with close interest the course of events in 
France. As he foresaw, the shrinkage of the great empire into 
the realm of old France caused infinite disgust, a feeling fed 
every day by stories of the tactless way in which the Bourbon 
princes treated veterans of the Grand Army. Equally threaten- 
ing was the general situation in Europe. The demands of the 
tsar Alexander were for a time so exorbitant as to bring the powers 
at the congress of Vienna to the verge of war. Thus, everything 
portended a renewal of Napoleon's activity. The return of 
French prisoners from Russia, Germany, England and Spain 
would furnish him with an army far larger than that .which 
had won renown in 1814. So threatening were the symptoms 
that the royalists at Paris and the plenipotentiaries at Vienna 
talked of deporting him to the Azores, while others more than 
hinted at assassination. 

He solved the problem in characteristic fashion. On the 26th 
of February 1815, when the English and French guardships 
were absent, he slipped away from Porto Ferrajo with some 
1000 men and landed near Antibes on the ist of March. Except 
in royalist Provence he received everywhere a welcome which 
attested the attractive power of his personality and the nullity 
of the Bourbons. Firing no shot in his defence, his little troop 
swelled until it became an army. Ney, who had said that Napoleon 
ought to be brought to Paris in an iron cage, joined him with 
6000 men on the I4th of March; and five days later the emperor 
entered the capital, whence Louis XVIII. had recently fled. 

Napoleon was not misled by the enthusiasm of the provinces 
and Paris. He knew that love of novelty and contempt for the 
gouty old king and his greedy courtiers had brought about this 
bloodless triumph; and he felt instinctively that he had to deal 
with a new France, which would not tolerate despotism. On 
his way to Paris he had been profuse in promises of reform and 
constitutional rule. It remained to make good those promises 
and to disarm the fear and jealousy of the great powers. This 
was the work which he set before himself in the Hundred Days 
( 1 9th of March to22ndofjunei8is). Were his powers, physical 
as well as mental, equal to the task ? This is doubtful. Certainly 
the evidence as to his health is somewhat conflicting. Some 
persons (as, for instance, Carnot, Pasquier, Lavalette and 
Thiebault) thought him prematurely aged and enfeebled. Others 
again saw no marked change in him; while Mollien, who knew 
the emperor well, attributed the lassitude which now and then 
came over him to a feeling of perplexity caused by his changed 
circumstances. This explanation seems to furnish a correct 
clue. The autocrat felt cramped and chafed on all sides by the 
necessity of posing as a constitutional sovereign; and, while 
losing something of the old rigidity, he lost very much of the old 
energy, both in thought and action. His was a mind that worked 
wonders in well-worn grooves and on facts that were well under- 
stood. The necessity of devising compromises with men who 
had formerly been his tools fretted him both in mind and body. 
But when he left parliamentary affairs behind, and took the field, 
he showed nearly all the power both of initiative and of endurance 
which marked his masterpiece, the campaign of 1814. To date 
his decline, as Chaptal does, from the cold of the Moscow campaign 
is clearly incorrect. The time of lethargy at Elba seems to 
have been more unfavourable to his powers than the cold of 
Russia. At Elba, as Sir Neil Campbell noted, he became in- 
active and proportionately corpulent. There, too, as sometimes 
in 1815, he began to suffer intermittently from ischury, but to 
no serious extent. On the whole it seems safe to assert that it 
was the change in France far more than the change in his health 



which brought about the manifest constraint of the emperor 
in the Hundred Days. His words to Benjamin Constant " I 
am growing old. The repose of a constitutional king may suit 
me. It will more surely suit my son " show that his mind 
seized the salient facts of the situation; but his instincts struggled 
against them. Hence the malaise both of mind and body. 

The attempts of the royalists gave him little concern: the due 
d'Angouleme raised a small force for Louis XVIII. in the south, 
but at Valence it melted away in front of Grouchy 's command; 
and the duke, on the gth of April, signed a convention whereby 
they received a free pardon from the emperor. The royalists 
of la Vend6e were later in moving and caused more trouble. 
But the chief problem centred in the constitution. At Lyons, 
on the I3th of March, Napoleon had issued an edict dissolving the 
existing chambers and ordering the convocation of a national 
mass meeting, or Champ de Mai, for the purpose of modifying the 
constitution of the Napoleonic empire. That work was carried 
out by Benjamin Constant in concert with the emperor. The 
resulting Acle addilionel (supplementary to the constitutions 
of the empire) bestowed on France an hereditary chamber of 
peers and a chamber of representatives elected by the " electoral 
colleges " of the empire, which comprised scarcely one hundredth 
part of the citizens of France. As Chateaubriand remarked, in 
reference to Louis XVIII. 's constitutional charter, the new 
constitution La Benjamine, it was dubbed was merely a 
slightly improved charter. Its incompleteness displeased the 
liberals; only 1,532,527 votes were given for it in the plebiscite, 
a total less than half of those of the plebiscites of the Consulate. 
Not all the gorgeous display of the Champ de Mai (held on the 
ist of June) could hide the discontent at the meagre fulfilment 
of the promises given at Lyons. Napoleon ended his speech with 
the words: " My will is that of the people: my rights are its 
rights." The words rang hollow, as was seen when, on the 3rd 
of June, the deputies chose, as president of their chamber, 
Lanjuinais, the staunch liberal who had so often opposed the 
emperor. The latter was with difficulty dissuaded from quashing 
the election. Other causes of offence arose, and Napoleon in 
his last communication to them warned them not to imitate the 
Greeks of the later Empire, who engaged in subtle discussions 
when the ram was battering at their gates. On the morrow 
(i2th of June) he set out for the northern frontier. His spirits 
rose at the prospect of rejoining the army. At St Helena he told 
Gourgaud that he intended in 1815 to dissolve the chambers 
as soon as he had won a great victory. 

In point of fact, the sword alone could decide his fate, both in 
internal and international affairs. Neither France nor Europe 
took seriously his rather vague declaration of his contentment 
with the r61e of constitutional monarch of the France of 1815. 
No one believed that he would be content with the " ancient 
limits." So often had he declared that the Rhine and Holland 
were necessary to France that every one looked on his present 
assertions as a mere device to gain time. So far back as the I3th 
of March, six days before he reached Paris, the powers at Vienna 
declared him an outlaw; and four days later Great Britain, 
Russia, Austria and Prussia bound themselves to put 150,000 
men into the field to end his rule. Their recollection of his 
conduct during the congress of Chatillon was the determining 
fact at this crisis; his professions at Lyons or Paris had not the 
slightest effect; his efforts to detach Austria from the coalition, 
as also the feelers put forth tentatively by Fouche at Vienna, 
were fruitless. The coalitions, once so brittle as to break at the 
first strain, had now been hammered into solidity by his blows. 
If ever a man was condemned by his past, Napoleon was so in 
1815. 

On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo he still clung 
to the hope of concerting national resistance; but the temper 
of the chambers and of the public generally forbade any such 
attempt. The autocrat and Lucien Bonaparte were almost alone 
in believing that by dissolving the chambers and declaring 
himself dictator, he could save France from the armies of the 
powers now converging on Paris. Even Davout, minister of 
war, advised him that the destinies of France rested solely with 



2IO 



NAPOLEON I. 



the chambers. That was true. The career of Napoleon, which 
had lured France far away from the principles of 1789, now 
brought her back to that starting-point; just as, in the physical 
sphere, his campaigns from 1796-1814 had at first enormously 
swollen her bulk and then subjected her to a shrinkage still more 
portentous. Clearly it was time to safeguard what remained; 
and that could best be done under Talleyrand's shield of legiti- 
macy. Napoleon himself at last divined that truth. When 
Lucien pressed him to " dare," he replied " Alas, I have dared 
only too much already." On the 22nd of June he abdicated in 
favour of his son, well knowing that that was a mere form, as 
his son was in Austria. On the 2Sth of June he received from 
Fouche, the president of the newly appointed provisional 
government, an intimation that he must leave Paris. He retired 
to Malmaison, the home of Josephine, where she had died shortly 
after his first abdication. On the 29th of June the near approach 
of the Prussians (who had orders to seize him, dead or alive), 
caused him to retire westwards towards Rochefort, whence he 
hoped to reach the United States. But the passports which the 
provisional government asked from Wellington were refused, 
and as the country was declaring for the Bourbons, his position 
soon became precarious. On his arrival at Rochefort (3rd of 
July) he found that British cruisers cut off his hope of escape. 
On the 9th of July he received an order from the provisional 
government at Paris to leave France within twenty-four hours. 
After wavering between various plans, he decided on the i3th 
of July to cast himself on the generosity of the British govern- 
ment, and dictated a letter to the prince regent in which he com- 
pared himself to Themistocles seating himself at the hearth of his 
enemy. His counsellor, Las Cases, strongly urged that step and 
made overtures to Captain Maitland of H.M.S. " Bellerophon." 
That officer, however, was on his guard, and, while offering to 
convey the emperor to England declined to pledge himself in 
any way as to his reception. It was on this understanding (which 
Las Cases afterwards misrepresented) that Napoleon on the 
1 5th of July mounted the deck of the " Bellerophon." No other 
course remained. Further delay after the isth of July would 
have led to his capture by the royalists, who were now every- 
where in the ascendant. In all but name he was a prisoner of 
Great Britain, and he knew it. 

The rest of the story must be told very briefly. The British 
government, on hearing of his arrival at Plymouth, decided to 
send him to St Helena, the formation of that island being such 
as to admit of a certain freedom of movement for the august 
captive, with none of the perils for the world at large which the 
tsar's choice, Elba, had involved. To St Helena, then, he pro- 
ceeded on board of H.M.S. " Northumberland." The title of 
emperor, which he enjoyed at Elba, had been forfeited by the 
adventure of 1815, and he was now treated officially as a general. 
Nevertheless, during his last voyage he enjoyed excellent health 
even in the tropics, and seemed less depressed than his associates, 
Bertrand, Gourgaud, Las Cases and Montholon. He landed at 
St Helena on the I7th of October. He resided first at " The 
Briars " with the Balcombes, and thereafter at Longwood, 
when that residence was ready for him. The first governor of 
the island, General Wilks, was soon superseded, it being judged 
that he was too amenable to influence from Napoleon; his 
successor was Sir Hudson Lowe. 

Napoleon's chief relaxations at St Helena were found in the 
dictation of his memoirs to Montholon, and the compilation of 
monographs on military and political topics. The memoirs 
(which may be accepted as mainly Napoleon's, though Montholon 
undoubtedly touched them up) range over most of the events 
of his life from Toulon to Marengo. The military and historical 
works comprise precis of the wars of Julius Caesar, Turenne and 
Trederick the Great. He began other accounts of the campaigns 
of his own age; but they are marred by his having had few 
trustworthy documents and statistics at hand. On a lower 
level as regards credibility stands the Memorial de Sainte- 
Helene, compiled by Las Cases from Napoleon's conversations 
with the obvious aim of creating a Napoleonic legend. Never- 
theless the Memorial is of great interest e.g. the passage 



(iv. 451-454) in which Napoleon reflects on the ruin wrought 
to his cause by the war in Spain, or that (iii. 130) dealing with 
his fatal mistake in not dismembering Austria after Wagram, and 
in marrying an Austrian princess " There I stepped on to an 
abyss covered with flowers "; or that again (iii. 79) where he 
represented himself as the natural arbiter in the immense 
struggle of the present against the past, and asserted that in ten 
years' time Europe would be either Cossack or republican. It is 
noteworthy that in Gourgaud's Journal de Ste. Hettne there are 
very few reflections of this kind and the emperor appears in a guise 
far more life-like. But in the works edited by Montholon and 
Las Cases, where the political aim constantly obtrudes itself, 
the emperor is made again and again to embroider on the -theme 
that he had always been the true champion of ordered freedom. 
This was the mot d'ordre at Longwood to his companions, who 
set themselves deliberately to propagate it. The folly of the 
monarchs of the Holy Alliance in Europe gained for the writings 
of Montholon and Las Cases (that of Gourgaud was not published 
till 1899) a ready reception, with the result that Napoleon 
reappeared in the literature of the ensuing decades wielding 
an influence scarcely less potent than that of the grey-coated 
figure into whose arms France flung herself on his return from 
Elba. All that he had done for her in the days of the Consulate 
was remembered; his subsequent proceedings his tyranny, 
his shocking waste of human life, his deliberate persistence in 
war when France and Europe called for a reasonable and lasting 
peace all this was forgotten; and the great warrior, 
r ^ fa * tt **fS n f hp 5th of May 1821, was thereafter enshrouded in 
mitts of legend through which nis form loomed as that of a 
Prometheus condemned to a lingering agony for his devotion 
to the cause of humanity. It was this perversion of fact which 
rendered possible the career of Napoleon III. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In the following list only the most helpful and 
accessible works can be enumerated. Asterisks are placed against 
those works which have been translated into English. 

A. General: Histories and Biographies. *A. Thiers, Histoire de 
la Revolution franfaise, du Consulat et de V Empire (many editions 
in French and English); *P. Lanfrey, Histoire de NapoUon I. (5 
vols., Paris, 1867-1875) (incomplete) ', Sir A. Alison, History of 
Europe, 1789-1815 (14 vols., London, 1833-1842); J. Holland Rose, 
The Life of Napoleon I. (2 vols., London; 3rd ed., 1905) ; A. Fournier, 
Napoleon der erste (3 vols., Prague and Vienna, 1889); W. M. 
Sloane, Napoleon: a History (4 vols., London, 1896-1897); O'Connor 
Morris, Napoleon (New York, 1893) ; E. Lavisse and A. N. Rambaud, 
" La Revolution francaise, 1789-1799 " and " Napoleon," vols. viii. 
and ix. of the Histoire ginirale; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. 
viii. (" The French Revolution ") and vol. ix. (" Napoleon ") 
(Cambridge, 1904. and 1006); W. Oncken, Das Zeitalter der Revolu- 
tion, des Kaiserreichs, und der Befreiungskriege (2 vols., Berlin, 1880) ; 
A. T. Mahan, Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution and 
Empire (2 vols., London, 1892); A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution 
fransaise (parts v.-viii. refer to Napoleon) (Paris, 1903-1904); 
F. Masson, Napoleon et sa famitte (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900). 

The great source for Napoleon's life is the Correspondence de 
Napoleon I. (32 vols., Paris, 1858-1869). Though garbled in several 
places by the imperial commission appointed by Napoleon III. to 
edit the letters and despatches, it is invaluable. It has been supple- 
mented by the *Lettres inedites de NapoUon I", edited by L. Lecestre 
(2 vols., Paris, 1897; Eng. ed. I vol., London, 1898), and Lettres 
intdites de Napoleon I", edited by L. de Brotonne (Paris, 1898) 
(with supplement, 1903). 

B. Works dealing mainly with particular periods. 

I. Early years (1769-1795). NapoUon inconnu (1786-1793), 
edited by F. Masson (2 vols., Paris, 1895); A. Chuquet, La Jeunesse 
de NapoUon I. (3 vols., Paris, 1897-1899); T. Nasica, Mempires 



1793 (Paris, 1898) ; H. F. T. Jung, Bonaparte et son temps, 1769^1799 
(3 vols., Paris, 1880-1881); O. Browning, Napoleon: the first 
Phase (London, 1905); H. F. Hall, Napoleon's Notes on English 
History (London, 1905) ; C. J. Fox, Napoleon Bonaparte and the 
Siege of Toulon (Washington, 1902) ; H. Zivy, Le Treize Vendemiaire 
(Paris, 1898). 

II. The Period 1796-1799. (For the campaigns of 1796-1800, 
1805-7, 1808-9, 1812-15, see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS and 
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) The chief works on civil, diplomatic and 
personal affairs in the life of Napoleon for the period 1796-1799 are: 
P. Gaffarel, Bonaparte et Its republiques italiennes, 1796^1799 (Paris, 
1895); C. Tivaroni, Storia cntica del risorgimento italiano (3 vols., 
Turin, 1899 (in progress)) ; E. Bonnal de Ganges, La Chute d'une 
republique (Venise) (Paris, 1885); E. Quinet, Les Revolutions d'ltalie 



NAPOLEON II.-NAPOLEON III. 



211 



(Paris, 1842); J. du Teil, Rome, Naples et le directcire; armistices 
et Iraites, i', 96-1797 (Paris, 1902) ; A. Sorel, Bonaparte et Hoche en 1797 ; 
L. Sciout, Le Directoire (3 vpls., Paris, 1895); F. A. Aulard, Paris 
pendant la reaction thermtdorienne et sous le directoire (5 vols., Paris, 
1898-1902); Comte A. J. C. J. Boulay de la Meurthe, Le Directoire 
et I' expedition d'Egypte (Paris, 1885); E. Driault, La Question 
d' Orient (Paris, 1898) ; D. Lacroix, Bonaparte en Egypte (Paris, 
1899); A. Vandal, L'Avenement de Bonaparte (Paris, 1902-1903); 
F. Rocquain, fiat de France au 18 Brumaire (Paris, 1874); Bona- 
parte d St Cloud (anonymous) (Paris, 1814). 

III. The Consulate and Empire (December 1799- April 1814). 
(a) Family and personal affairs: *F. Masson, NapoUon chez lui (2 
vols., Paris, 1893- ), * NapoUon et lesfemmes (3 vols., Paris, 1893- 
1902), NapoUon et son fils (Paris, 1904) ; M. F. A. de Lescure, 
NapoUon et safamille (Paris, 1867) ; *Lettres de NapoUon a Josephine 
(Paris, 1895) ; A. Guillois, Napoleon, I'homme, le politique, I'orateur 
(2 vols., Paris, 1889); *A. Levy, Napoleon inlime (Paris, 1893); 
Baron C. F. de Meneval, Napoleon et Marie Louise (3 vols., Paris, 
1843-1845) ; Baron A. du Casse, Les Rois, freres de Napolton (Paris, 
1883) ; H. Welschinger, Le Divorce de NapoUon (Paris, 1889). 

(6) Plots against Napoleon: E. Daudet, Histoire de Immigration 
(3 vols., Paris, 1886-1890 and 1904-1905), and La Police et les 
chouans sous le consulat et I' empire (Paris, 1895); G. de Cadoudal, 
Georges Cadoudal et la Chouannerie (Paris, 1887) ; E. Guillen, Les 
Complots militaires sous le consulat et I' empire (Paris, 1894); *G. A. 
Thierry, Le Complot des Libelles, 1802 (Paris, 1903); Memoires 
historiques sur la catastrophe du due d'Enghien (Paris, 1824) ; H. Wel- 
schinger, Le due d'Enghien (Paris, 1888); E. Hamel, Histoire des 
deux conspirations du General Malet (Paris, 1873). 

(c) Administration, Finance, Education. (For the Code NapoUon 
see CODE.) * J. Pelet de la Lozere, Opinions de Napoleon sur divers 
sujets de politique et d' administration (Paris, 1833); Damas-Hinard, 
Napoleon, ses opinions et jugements sur les hommes et sur les chases 
(2 vols., Paris, 1838); L. Aucoc, Le Conseil d'etat avant et depuis 
1789 (Paris, 1876) ; E. Monnet, Histoire de V administration pro- 
vinciale, departmental et communale en France (Paris, 1885); F. A. 
Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat (Paris, 1903, seq.) ; L. de Lanzac de 
Laborie, Paris sous NapoUon (Paris, 1905, seq.) ; A. Edmond- 
Blanc, Napoleon I., ses institutions civiles et administratives (Paris, 
1880); H. Welschinger, La Censure sous le premier Empire (Paris, 
1882) ; C. van Schopr, La Presse sous le consulat et Vempire (Brussels, 
1899) ; M. C. Gaudin (Due de Gaete), Notice historique sur les finances 
de la France, 1800-1814 (Paris, 1818); R. Stourm, Les Finances du 
consulat (Paris, 1902); J. B. G. Fabry, Le Genie de la revolution 
consider^ dans I'education (3 vols., Paris, 1817-1818); F. Guizot, 
Essai sur I'histoire et I'etat actuel de I'instruction publique (Paris, 
1816); C. Schmidt, La Reforme de I'Universite imperiale en 1811 
(Paris, 1905). The memoirs of Chaptal, Meneval, Mollien, Ouvrard 
and Pasquier deal largely with these subjects. Those of Bourrienne 
and Fouchfi are of doubtful authority ; the latter are certainly not 
genuine. 

(d) Diplomacy and General Policy: Besides the works named 
under A, the following may be named as more especially applicable 
to this section : A. Lefebvre, Histoire des cabinets de I' Europe pendant 
le consulat et Vempire (3 vols., Paris, 1845-1847); C. Auriol, La 
France, V Angleterre, et Napoleon, 1803-1806 (Paris, 1905) ; B. Bailleu, 
Preussen und Frankreich von 1795-1807; Diplomatische Corre- 
spondenzen (2 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1887); Comte D. de Barral, 
Etude sur I'histoire diplomatique de I' Europe (2nd part), 1789-1815, 
vol. i. (Paris, 1885) ; O. Browning, England and Napoleon in 1803 
(London, 1887); H. M. Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of 
Amiens (Toronto, 1900) ;*Coquelle, NapoUonetl'Angleterre,i8o3-i8i5 
(Paris, 1904); A. Vandal, Napoleon et Alexandre I" (3 vols., Paris, 
1891-1893); W. Oncken, Oesterreich und Preussen im Befreiungs- 
kriege (2 vols., Berlin, 1876); H. A. L. Fisher, Napoleonic Statesman- 
ship: Germany (Oxford, (1903); A. Rambaud, La Domination 
franchise en Allemagne (2 vols., Paris, 1873-1874); G. Roloff, Die 
Kolonialpolitik Napoleons I. (Munich, 1899) and Politik und Krieg- 
fiihrung wahrend des Feldzuges von 1814 (Berlin, 1891); A. Fournier, 
Der Congress von Ch&tillon (Vienna and Prague, 1900) ; P. Gruyer, 
Napoleon, roi de Vile d'Elbe (Paris, 1906) ; * H. Houssaye, 1815 [(3 
vols., Paris, 1898-1905); C. M. Talleyrand (Prince de Benevento), 
Lettres inedites a Napoleon, 1800-1809 (Paris, 1889). 

IV. Closing Years (from the second abdication, June 22nd 1815, 
to death). Captain F. L. Maitland, Narrative of the Surrender of 
Bonaparte (London, 1826; new ed., 1904); Sir T. Ussher, Napoleon's 
Last Voyages (London, 1895; new ed., 1906); G. Gourgaud, Sainte- 
Htlene: Journal inedite^de 1815 a 1818 (2 vols., Paris, 1899); 
Marquis C. J. de Montholon, Recits de la captivite de I'empereur 
NapoUon a Ste HUene (2 vols., Paris, 1847) ; Comte E. P. D. de 
Las Cases, Memorial de Ste Helene (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823) ; 
Lady Malcolm, A Diary of St Helena (London, 1899); W. Forsyth, 
History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena (3 vols., London 
!853) ; R. C. Seaton, Napoleon's Captivity in Relation to Sir Hudson 
Lowe (London, 1903) ; Basil Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences of a 
Staff Officer (London, 1903) ; Earl of Rosebery, Napoleon: the Last 
Phase (1900) ; J. H. Rose, Napoleonic Studies (London, 1904). 

Many of the works relating to Napoleon's detention at St Helena 
are perversions of the truth, e.g. O'Meara's A Voice from St Helena 
(London, 1822). The works of Las Cases and Montholon should also 



be read with great caution. The same remark applies to Mrs L. A. 
Abell's Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon (London, 1844), 
W. Warden's Letters written on Board H.M.S. " Northumberland " 
(London, 1816) and J. Stokoe's With Napoleon at St Helena (Eng. 
ed., London, 1902). Santini's Appeal to the British Nation (London, 
1817) and the Manuscrit venu de Ste Helene d'une manure inconnue 
(London, 1817) are forgeries. (J. HL. R.) 

NAPOLEON II., emperor of the French, the style given by 
the Bonapartists to the son of Napoleon I., Napoleon Francis 
Joseph Charles, duke of Reichstadt (?..) . The fact that in 
1814, by Napoleon I.'s abdication in his favour, the king of 
Rome (as he was then styled) became for a few days titular 
emperor " by the will of the people," was held 'by Prince Louis 
Napoleon to justify his own assumption of the style of Napoleon 
III. which, as seeming to involve a dynastic claim, gave such 
offence to the legitimist powers, notably the emperor Nicholas I. 
of Russia. 

NAPOLEON HI. [CHARLES Lotus NAPOLEON BONAPARTE] 
(1808-1873), emperor of the French, was born on the 20th of 
April 1808 in Paris at 8 rue Cerutti (now rue Laffitte), and not 
at the Tuileries, as the official historians state. He was the third 
son of Louis Bonaparte (see BONAPARTE), brother of Napoleon I., 
and from 1806 to 1810 king of Holland, and of Hortense de 
Beauharnais, daughter of General (de) Beauharnais and Josephine 
Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards the empress Josephine; hence 
he was at the same time the nephew and the adopted grandson, 
of the great emperor. Of the two other sons of Louis Bonaparte 
and Hortense, the elder, Napoleon Charles (1802-1807), died 
of croup at The Hague; the second, Napoleon Louis (1804-1831), 
died in the insurrection of the Romagna, leaving no children. 
Doubts have been cast on the legitimacy of Louis Napoleon; for 
the discord between Louis Bonaparte, who was ill, restless and 
suspicious, and his pretty and capricious wife was so violent 
and open as to justify all conjectures. But definite evidence, 
in the shape of letters and references in memoirs, enables us 
to deny that the Dutch Admiral Verhuell was the father of Louis 
Napoleon,and there is strong evidence of resemblance in character 
between King Louis and his third son. He early gave signs of a 
grave and dreamy character. Many stories have been told about 
his childhood, for example the remark which Napoleon I. is said 
to have made about him: " Who knows whether the future 
of my race may not lie in this child." It is certain that, after 
the abdication and exile of Louis, Hortense lived in France with 
her two children, in close relation with the imperial court. 
During the Hundred Days, Louis Napoleon, then a child of 
seven, witnessed the presentation of the eagles to 50,000 soldiers; 
but a few weeks later, before his departure for Rochefort, the 
defeated Napoleon embraced him for the last time, and his 
mother had to receive Frederick William III. of Prussia and his 
two sons at the chateau of Saint-Leu; here the victor and the 
vanquished of Sedan met for the first time, and probably played 
together. 

After Waterloo, Hortense, suspected by the Bourbons of having 
arranged the return from Elba, had to go into exile. The ex- 
king Louis, who now lived at Florence, had compelled her by a 
scandalous law-suit to give up to him the elder of her two children. 
With her remaining child she wandered, under the name of 
duchesse de Saint-Leu, from Geneva to Aix, Carlsruhe and 
Augsburg. In 1817 she bought the castle of Arenenberg, in the 
canton of Turgau, on a wooded hill looking over the Lake of 
Constance. Hortense supervised her son's education in person, 
and tried to form his character. His tutor was Philippe Le Bas, 
son of the well-known member of the Convention and follower 
of Robespierre, an able man, imbued with the ideas of the 
Revolution, while Vieillard, who instructed him in the rudiments, 
was a democratic imperialist also inspired with the ideal of 
nationalism. The young prince also studied at the gymnasium 
at Augsburg, where his love of work and his mental qualities were 
gradually revealed; he was less successful in mathematics than 
in literary subjects, and he became an adept at physical exercises, 
such as fencing, riding and swimming. It was at this time that 
he acquired the slight German accent which he never lost. 
Those who educated him never lost sight of the future; but it 



212 



NAPOLEON III. 



was above all his mother, fully confident of the future destiny 
of the Bonapartes, who impressed on him the idea that he would 
be king, or at any rate, that he would accomplish some great 
works. " With your name," she said, " you will always count for 
something, whether in the old world of Europe or in the new." 
If we may believe Mme Cornu, he already at the age of twelve 
had dreams of empire. 

In 1823 he accompanied his mother to Italy, visiting his father 
at Florence, and his grandmother Letitia at Rome, and dreaming 
with Le Bas on the banks of the Rubicon. He returned to 
Arenenburg to complete his military education under Colonel 
Armandi and Colonel Dufour, who instructed him in artillery 
and military engineering. At the age of twenty he was a 
" Liberal," an enemy of the Bourbons and of the treaties of 1815; 
but he was dominated by the cult of the emperor, and for him 
the liberal ideal was confused with the Napoleonic. 

The July revolution of 1830, of which he heard in Italy, 
roused all his young hopes. He could not return to France, for 
the law of 1816 banishing all his family had not been abrogated. 
But the liberal revolution knew no frontiers. Italy shared in 
the agitation. He had already met some of the conspirators 
at Arenenberg, and it is practically established that he now 
joined the associations of the Carbonari. Following the advice 
of his friend the Count Arese and of Menotti, he and his brother 
were among the revolutionaries who in February 1831 attempted 
a rising in Romagna and the expulsion of the pope from Rome. 
They distinguished themselves at Civita Castellana, a little 
town which they took; but the Austrians arrived in force, and 
during the retreat Napoleon Louis, the elder son, took cold, 
followed by measles, of which he died. Hortense hurried to 
the spot and took steps which enabled her to save her second son 
from the Austrian prisons. He escaped into France, where his 
mother, on the plea of his illness, obtained permission from 
Louis Philippe for him to stay in Paris. But he intrigued with 
the republicans, and Casimir-Perier insisted on the departure 
of both mother and son. In May 1831 they went to London, 
and afterwards returned to Arenenberg. 

For a time he thought of responding to the appeal of some of 
the Polish revolutionaries, but Warsaw succumbed (September 
1831) before he could set out. Moreover the plans of this young 
and visionary enfant du siecle were becoming more definite. 
The duke of Reichstadt died in 1832. His uncle, Joseph, and 
his father, Louis, showing no desire to claim the inheritance 
promised them by the constitution of the year XII., Louis 
Napoleon henceforth considered himself as the accredited 
representative of the family. Those who came in contact with 
him noticed a transformation in his character; he tried to hide 
his natural sensibility under an impassive exterior, and concealed 
his political ambitions. He became indeed " doux entete " 
(gentle but obstinate) as his mother called him, persistent in 
his ideas and always ready to return to them, though at the 
same time yielding and drawing back before the force of circum- 
stances. He endeavoured to define his ideas, and in 1833 published 
his Reveries poliiiques, suivies d'un projet de constitution, and 
Considerations politigues et militaires sur la Suisse; in 1836, 
as a captain, in the Swiss service, he published a Manuel 
d'artillerie, in order to win popularity with the French army. 
A phrase of Montesquieu, placed at the head of this work, sums 
up the views of the young theorist: " The people, possessing 
the supreme power, should do for itself all that it is able to do; 
what it cannot do well, it must do through its elected repre- 
sentatives." The supreme authority entrusted to the elect of 
the people was always his essential idea. But the problem was 
how to realize it. Louis Napoleon could feel vaguely the state 
of public opinion in France, the longing for glory from which 
it suffered, and the deep-rooted discord between the nation and 
the king, Louis Philippe, who though sprung from the national 
revolution against the treaties of 1815, was yet a partisan of 
peace at any price. Both Chateaubriand and Carrel had praised 
the prince's first writings. Bonapartists and republicans found 
common ground in the glorious tradition sung by Beranger. 
A military conspiracy like those of Berton or the sergeants 



of La Rochelle, seemed feasible to Napoleon. A new friend of 
his, Fialin, formerly a non-commissioned officer and a journalist, 
an energetic and astute man and a born conspirator, spurred 
him on to action. 

With the aid of Fialin and Eleonore Gordon, a singer, who 
is supposed to have been his mistress, and with the co-operation 
of certain officers, such as Colonel Vaudrey, an old soldier of 
the Empire, commanding the 4th regiment of artillery, and 
Lieutenant Laity, he tried to bring about a revolt of the garrison 
of Strassburg (October 30, 1836). The conspiracy was a failure, 
and Louis Philippe, fearing lest he might make the pretender 
popular either by the glory of an acquittal or the aureole of 
martyrdom, had him taken to Lorient and put on board a ship 
bound for America, while his accomplices were brought before 
the court of assizes and acquitted (February 1837). The prince 
was set free in New York in April; by the aid of a false passport 
he returned to Switzerland in August, in time to see his mother 
before her death on the 3rd of October 1837. 

At any other time this attempt would have covered its author 
with ridicule. Such, at least, was the opinion of the whole of the 
family of Bonaparte. But his confidence was unshaken, and 
in the woods of Arenenberg the romantic-minded friends who 
remained faithful to him still honoured him as emperor. And 
now the government of Louis Philippe, by an evil inspiration, 
began to act in such a way as to make him popular. In 1838 
it caused his partisan Lieutenant Laity to be condemned by the 
Court of Peers to five years' imprisonment for a pamphlet which 
he had written to justify the Strassburg affair; then it demanded 
the expulsion of the prince from Switzerland, and when the Swiss 
government resisted, threatened war. Having allowed the July 
monarch to commit himself, Louis Napoleon at the last moment 
left Switzerland voluntarily. All this served to encourage the 
mystical adventurer. In London, where he had taken up his 
abode, together with Arese, Fialin (says Persigny), Doctor 
Conneau and Vaudrey, he was at first well received in society, 
being on friendly terms with Count d'Orsay and Disraeli, and 
frequenting the salon of Lady Blessington. He met with various 
adventures, being present at the famous tournament given by 
Lord Eglinton, and yielded to the charm of his passionate 
admirer Miss Howard. But it was a studious life, as well as the 
life of a dandy, that he led at Carlton House Terrace. Not for 
a minute did he forget his mission: " Would you believe it," 
the duke of Wellington wrote of him, " this young man will not 
have it said that he is not going to be emperor of the French. 
The unfortunate affair of Strassburg has in no way shaken this 
strange conviction, and his chief thoughts are of what he will 
do when he is on the throne." He was in fact evolving his 
programme of government, and in 1839 wrote and published 
his book: Des Id&es napoUoniennes, a curious mixture of Bona- 
partism, socialism and pacificism, which he represented as the 
tradition of the First Empire. He also followed attentively 
the fluctuations of French opinion. 

Since 1838 the Napoleonic propaganda had made enormous 
progress. Not only did certain newspapers, such as the Capilole 
and the Journal du Commerce, and clubs, such as the Culottes 
de peau carry it on zealously; but the diplomatic humiliation 
of France in the affair of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) in 1840, with the 
outburst of patriotism which accompanied it, followed by the 
concessions made by the government to public opinion, such as, 
for example, the bringing back of the ashes of Napoleon I., 
all helped to revive revolutionary and Napoleonic memories. 

The pretender, again thinking that the moment had come, 
formed a fresh conspiracy. With a little band of fifty-six followers 
he attempted to provoke a rising of the 4znd regiment of the 
line at Boulogne, hoping afterwards to draw General Magnan 
to Lille and march upon Paris. The attempt was made on the 
6th of August 1840, but failed; he saw several of his supporters 
fall on the shore of Boulogne, and was arrested together with 
Montholon, Persigny and Conneau. This time he was brought 
before the Court of Peers with his accomplices; he entrusted 
his defence to Berryer and Marie, and took advantage of his 
trial to appeal to the supremacy of the people, which he alleged, 



NAPOLEON III. 



213 



had been disregarded, even after 1830. He was condemned 
to detention for life in a fortress, his friend Aladenize being 
deported, and Montholon, Parquin, Lombard and Fialin being 
each condemned to detention for twenty years. On the isth of 
December, the very day that Napoleon's ashes were deposited at 
the Invalides, he was taken to the fortress of Ham. The country 
seemed to forget him ; Lamartine alone foretold that the honours 
paid to Napoleon I. would shed lustre on his nephew. His prison 
at Ham was unhealthy, and physical inactivity was painful 
to the prince, but on the whole the regime imposed upon him 
was mild, and his captivity was lightened by Alexandrine 
Vergeot, " la belle sabotiere," or Mdlle Badinguet (he was later 
nicknamed Badinguet by the republicans). His more intel- 
lectual friends, such as Mme Cornu, also came to visit him and 
assisted him in his studies. He corresponded with Louis Blanc, 
George Sand and Proudhon, and collaborated with the journalists 
of the Left, Degeorge, Peauger and Souplet. For six years 
he worked very hard " at this University of Ham," as he said. 
He wrote some Fragments historiques, studies on the sugar- 
question, on the construction of a canal through Nicaragua, 
and on the recruiting of the army, and finally, in the Progres 
du Pas-de-Calais, a series of articles on social questions which 
were later embodied in his Extinction du pauperisme (1844). 
But the same persistent idea underlay all his efforts. " The 
more closely the body is confined," he wrote, " the more the mind 
is disposed to indulge in flights of imagination, and to consider 
the possibility of executing projects of which a more active 
existence would never perhaps have left it the leisure to think." 
On the 25th of May 1846 he escaped to London, giving as the 
reason' for his decision the dangerous illness of his father. On 
the 27th of July his father died, before he could accomplish 
a journey undertaken in spite of the refusal of a passport by 
the representative of Tuscany. 

He was again well received in London, and he " made up for 
his six years of isolation by a furious pursuit of pleasure." The 
duke of Brunswick and the banker Ferrere interested them- 
selves in his future, and gave him money, as did also Miss Howard, 
whom he later made comtesse de Beauregard, after restoring to 
her several millions. He was still full of plans and new ideas, 
always with the same end in view; and for this reason, in spite of 
his various enterprises, which were sometimes ridiculous, some- 
times unpleasant in their consequences, and his unscrupulous- 
ness as to the men and means he employed, he always had a 
kind of greatness. He always retained his faith in his star. 
" They will come to me without any effort of my own," he said 
to Taglioni the dancer; and again to Lady Douglas, who was 
counselling resignation, he replied, " Though fortune has twice 
betrayed me, yet my destiny will none the less surely be fulfilled. 
I wait." He was not to wait much longer. 

As he well perceived, the popularity of his name, the vague 
" legend " of a Napoleon who was at once a democrat, a soldier 
and a revolutionary hero, was his only strength. But by his 
abortive efforts he had not yet been able to win over this immense 
force of tradition and turn it to his own purposes. The events 
which occurred from 1848 to 1852 enabled him to do so. He 
behaved with extraordinary skill, displaying in the heat of the 
conflict all the abilities of an experienced conspirator, knowing, 
" like the snail, how to draw in his horns as soon as he met with 
an obstacle " (Thiers), but supple, resourceful and unscrupulous 
as to the choice of men and means in his obstinate struggle for 
power. 

At the first symptoms of revolutionary disturbance he returned 
to France; on the zsth of February he offered his services to the 
Provisional Government, but, on being requested by it to depart 
at once, resigned himself to this course. But Persigny, Mocquard 
and all his friends devoted themselves to an energetic propaganda 
in the press, by pictures and by songs. After the isth of May 
had already shaken the strength of the young republic, he was 
elected in June 1848 by four departments, Seine, Yonne, Charente- 
Inf6rieure and Corsica. In spite of the opposition of the executive 
committee, the Assembly ratified his election. But he had learnt 
to wait. He sent in his resignation from London, merely hazard- 



ing this appeal: " If the people impose duties on me, I shall 
know how to fulfil them." This time events worked in his favour; 
the industrial insurrection of June made the middle classes and 
the mass of the rural population look for a saviour, while it 
turned the industrial population towards Bonapartism, out of 
hatred for the republican bourgeois. The Legitimists seemed im- 
possible, and the people turned instinctively towards a Bonaparte. 

On the 26th of September he was re-elected by the same 
departments; on the nth of October the law decreeing the 
banishment of the Bonapartes was abrogated; on the 26th he 
made a speech in the Assembly defending his position as a 
pretender, and cut such a sorry figure that Antony Thouret 
contemptuously withdrew the amendment by which he had 
intended to bar him from rising to the presidency. Thus he was 
able to be a candidate for this formidable power, which had just 
been defined by the Constituent Assembly and entrusted to the 
choice of the people, " to Providence," as Lamartine said. 
In contrast to Cavaignac he was the candidate of the advanced 
parties, but also of the monarchists, who reckoned on doing 
what they liked with him, and of the Catholics, who gave him 
their votes on condition of his restoring the temporal power 
to Rome and handing over education to the Church. The former 
rebel of the Romagna, the Liberal Carbonaro, was henceforth to 
be the tool of the priests. In his very triumph appeared the 
ultimate cause of his downfall. On the loth of December he 
was elected president of the Republic by 5,434,226 votes against 
1,448,107 given to Cavaignac. On the 2oth of December he 
took the oath "to remain faithful to the democratic Republic 
... to regard as enemies of the nation all those who may attempt 
by illegal means to change the form of the established govern- 
ment." From this time onward his history is inseparable from 
that of France. But, having attained to power, he still en- 
deavoured to realize his cherished project. All his efforts, from 
the loth of December 1848 to the and of December 1852 tended 
towards the acquisition of absolute authority, which he wished 
to obtain, in appearance, at any rate, from the people. 

It was with this end in view that he co-operated with the 
party of order in the expedition to Rome for the destruction of 
the Roman republic and the restoration of the pope (March 31, 
1849), and afterwards in all the reactionary measures against the 
press and the clubs, and for the destruction of the Reds. But in 
opposition to the party of order, he defined his own personal 
policy, as in his letter to Edgard Ney (August 16, 1849), which 
was not deliberated upon at the council of ministers, and asserted 
his intention " of not stifling Italian liberty," or by the change 
of ministry on the 3ist of October 1849, when, " in order to 
dominate all parties," he substituted for the men coming from 
the Assembly, such as Odilon Barrot, creatures of his own, such 
as Rouher and de Parieu, the Auvergne avocats, and Achille 
Fould, the banker. " The name of Napoleon," he said on this 
occasion, " is in itself a programme; it stands for order, authority, 
religion and the welfare of the people in internal affairs, and in 
foreign affairs for the national dignity." 

In spite of this alarming assertion of his personal policy, he 
still remained in harmony with the Assembly (the Legislative 
Assembly, elected on the 28th of May 1849) in order to carry 
out " a Roman expedition at home," i.e. to clear the administra- 
tion of all republicans, put down the press, suspend the right of 
holding meetings and, above all, to hand over education to the 
Church (law of the ijth of March 1850). But the machiavellian 
pretender, daily growing more skilful at manoeuvring between 
different classes and parties, knew where to stop and how to 
keep up a show of democracy. When the Assembly, by the law 
of the 3ist of May 1850, restricted universal suffrage and reduced 
the number of the electors from 9 to 6 millions, he was able to 
throw upon it the whole responsibility for this coup d'etat bour- 
geois. " I cannot understand how you, the offspring of universal 
suffrage, can defend the restricted suffrage," said his friend Mme 
Cornu. " You do not understand," he replied, " I am preparing 
the ruin of the Assembly." " But you will perish with it," she 
answered. " On the contrary, when the Assembly is hanging 
over the precipice, I shall cut the rope." 



214 



NAPOLEON III. 



In fact, while trying to compass the destruction of the 
republican movement of the Left, he was taking careful steps to 
gain over all classes. " Prince, altesse, monsieur, monseigneur, 
citoyen " (he was called by all these names indifferently at the 
Elysee), he appeared as the candidate of the most incompatible 
interests, flattering the clergy by his compliments and formal 
visits, distributing cigars and sausages to the soldiers, promising 
the prosperous bourgeoisie " order in the street " and business, 
while he posed as the " father of the workers," and won the hearts 
of the peasants. At his side were his accomplices, men ready for 
anything, whose only hopes were bound up with his fortunes, 
such as Morny and Rouher; his paid publicists, such as Romieu 
the originator of the " red spectre "; his cudgel-bearers, the 
" Ratapoils " immortalized by Daumier, who terrorized the 
republicans. From the Elysee by means of the mass of officials 
whom they had at their command, the conspirators extended their 
activities throughout the whole country. 

He next entered upon that struggle with the Assembly, now 
discredited, which was to reveal to all the necessity for a change, 
and a change in his favour. In January 1851 he deprived 
Changarnier of his command of the garrison of Paris. " The 
Empire has come," said Thiers. The pretender would have pre- 
ferred, however, that it should be brought about' legally, the first 
step being his re-election in 1852. The Constitution forbade his 
re-election; therefore the Constitution must be revised. On the 
igth of July the Assembly threw out the proposal for revision, 
thus signing its own death-warrant, and the coup d'etat was 
resolved upon. He prepared for it systematically. The cabinet 
of the a6th of October 1851 gave the ministry for war to his 
creature Saint-Arnaud. All the conspirators were at their 
posts Maupas at the prefecture of police, Magnan at the 
head of the troops in Paris. At the Elysee, Morny, adulterine son 
of Hortense, a hero of the Bourse and successful gambler, 
supported his half-brother by his energy and counsels. The 
ministry proposed to abrogate the electoral law of 1850, and 
restore universal suffrage; the Assembly by refusing made itself 
still more unpopular. By proposing to allow the president 
of the Assembly to call in armed force, the questors revealed 
the Assembly's plans for defence, and gave the Elysee a weapon 
against it (" donnent barre contre elle a 1'Elysee "). The propo- 
sition was rejected (November 17), but Louis-Napoleon saw that 
it was time to act. On the 2nd of December he carried out his 
coup d'ttat. 

But affairs developed in a way which disappointed him. By 
dismissing the Assembly, by offering the people " a strong 
government," and re-establishing " a France regenerated by the 
Revolution of '89 and organized by the emperor," he had hoped 
for universal applause. But both in Paris and the provinces 
he met with the resistance of the Republicans, who had re- 
organized in view of the elections of 1852. He struck at them 
by mixed commissions, deportations and the whole range of 
police measures. The decrets-lois of the year 1852 enabled him 
to prepare the way for the new institutions. On the ist of 
December 1852 he became in name what he was already in deed, 
and was proclaimed Emperor of the French. He was then 44 
years old. " The impassibility of his face and his lifeless glance " 
showed observers that he was still the obstinate dreamer that 
he had been in youth, absorbed in his Idea. His unshaken 
conviction of his mission made him conscious of the responsibility 
which rested on him, but hid from him the hopeless defect in the 
coup d'itat. To carry out his conviction, he had still only a 
timid will, working through petty expedients; but here again 
his confidence in the future made him bold. In a people politically 
decimated and wearied, he was able to develop freely all the 
Napoleonic ideals. Rarely has a man been able to carry out 
his system so completely, though perhaps in these first years he 
had to take more disciplinary measures than he had intended 
against the Reds, and granted more favours than was fitting 
to the Catholics, his allies in December 1848 and December 
1858. 

The aim which the emperor had in view was, by a concentration 
of power which should make him " the beneficent motive force 



of the whole social order " (constitution of the I4th of January 
1852; administrative centralization; subordination of the 
elected assemblies; control of the machinery of universal suffrage) 
to unite all classes in " one great national party " attached to the 
dynasty. His success, from 1852 to 1856, was almost complete. 
The nation was submissive, and a few scattered- plots alone 
showed that republican ideas persisted among the masses. 
As " restorer of the overthrown altars," he won over the " men 
in black," among them Veuillot, editor-in-chief of I'Univers, and 
allowed them to get the University into their hands. By the aid 
of former Orleanists, such as Billault, Fould and Morny, and 
Saint-Simonians such as Talabot and the Pereires, he satisfied 
the industrial classes, extended credit, developed means of 
communication, and gave a strong impetus to the business of 
the nation. By various measures, such as subsidies, charitable 
gifts and foundations, he endeavoured to show that " the idea 
of improving the lot of those who suffer and struggle against the 
difficulties of life was constantly present in his mind." His was 
the government of cheap bread, great public works and holidays. 
The imperial court was brilliant. The emperor, having failed to 
obtain the hand of a Vasa or Hohenzollern, married, on the 2gth 
of January 1853, EugSnie de Montijo, comtesse de Teba, aged 
twenty-six and at the height of her beauty. 

France was " satisfied " in the midst of order, prosperity and 
peace. But a glorious peace was required; it must not be said 
that " France is bored," as Lamartine had said when the 
Napoleonic legend began to spread. The foreign policy of the 
Catholic party, by the question of the Holy Places and the 
Crimean War (1853-1856), gave him the opportunity of winning 
the glory which he desired, and the British alliance enabled him 
to take advantage of it. In the spring of 1855, as a definite success 
was still slow to come, he contemplated for a time taking the 
lead of the expedition in person, but his advisers dissuaded him 
from doing so, for fear of a revolution. In January 1856 he had 
the good fortune to win a diplomatic triumph over the new tsar, 
Alexander II. It was at Paris (February 25~March 30) that the 
conditions of peace were settled. 

The emperor was now at the height of his power. He appeared 
to the people as the avenger of 1840 and 1815, and the birth to 
him of a son, Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, on the i6th of March 
1856, assured the future of the dynasty. It was then that, 
strong in " the esteem and admiration with which he was sur- 
rounded," and " foreseeing a future full of hope for France," he 
dreamed of realizing the Napoleonic ideal in its entirety. This 
disciple of the German philologists, this crowned Carbonaro, 
the friend of the archaeologists and historians who were to help 
him to write the Histoire de Cisar, dreamed of developing the 
policy of nationalism, and of assisting the peoples of all countries 
to enfranchise themselves. 

From 1856 to 1858 he devoted his attention to the Rumanian 
nationality, and supported Alexander Cuza. But it was above 
all the deliverance of Italy which haunted his imagination. 
By this enterprise, which his whole tradition imposed upon him, 
he reckoned to flatter the amour-propre of his subjects, and rally 
to him the liberals and even the republicans, with their passion 
for propagandism. But the Catholics feared that the Italian 
national movement, when once started, would entail the downfall 
of the papacy; and in opposition to the emperor's Italian 
advisers, Arese and Prince Jerome Napoleon, they pitted the 
empress, who was frivolous and capricious, but an ardent Catholic. 
Napoleon III. was under his wife's influence, and could not openly 
combat her resistance. It was the Italian Orsini who, by 
attempting to assassinate him as a traitor to the Italian nation 
on the I4th of January 1858, gave him an opportunity to impose 
his will indirectly by convincing his wife that in the interests 
of his own security he must " do something for Italy." Events 
followed each other in quick succession, and now began the 
difficulties in which the Empire was to be irrevocably involved. 
Not only did the Italian enterprise lead to strained relations with 
Great Britain, the alliance with whom had been the emperor's 
chief support in Europe, and compromised its credit; but the 
claims of parties and classes again began to be heard at home. 



NAPOLEON III. 



215 



The Italian war aroused the opposition of the Catholics. 
After Magenta (June 4, 1859), it was the fears of the Catholics 
and the messages of the empress which, even more than the 
threats of Prussia, checked him in his triumph and forced him 
into the armistice of Villafranca (July n, 1859). But the spread 
of the Italian revolution and the movement for annexation 
forced him again to intervene. He appealed to the Left against 
the Catholics, by the amnesty of the i7th of April 1859. His 
consent to the annexation of the Central Italian states, in 
exchange for Savoy and Nice (Treaty of Turin, March 24, 1860) 
exposed him to violent attacks on the part of the ultramontanes, 
whose slave he had practically been since 1848. At the same 
time, the free-trade treaty with Great Britain (January 5, 
1860) aroused a movement against him among the industrial 
bourgeoisie. 

Thus at the end of 1860, the very time when he had hoped that 
his personal policy was to rally round him once for all the whole 
of France, and assure the future of his dynasty, he saw, on the 
contrary, that it was turning against him his strongest sup- 
porters. He became alarmed at the responsibilities which he saw 
would fall upon him, and imagined that by an appearance of 
reform he would be able to shift on to others the responsibility 
for any errors he might commit. Hence the decrees of the 24th of 
November 1860 (right of address, ministers without portfoh'o) 
and the letter of the i4th of November 1861 (financial reform). 
From this time onward, in face of a growing opposition, anxiety 
for the future of his regime occupied the first place in the 
emperor's thoughts, and paralysed his initiative. Placed 
between his Italian counsellors and the empress, he was ever of 
two minds. His plans for remodelling Europe had a certain 
generosity and grandeur; but internal difficulties forced him into 
endless manoeuvre and temporization, which led to his ruin. 
Thus in October 1862, after Garibaldi's attack on Rome, the 
clerical coterie of the Tuileries triumphed. But the replacing 
of M. Thouvenel by M. Drouin de Lhuys did not satisfy the more 
violent Catholics, who in May 1863 joined the united opposition. 
Thirty-five opposers of the government were appointed, Re- 
publicans, Orleanists, Legitimists or Catholics. The emperor 
dismissed Persigny, and summoned moderate reformers such as 
Duruy and Behic. But he was still possessed with the idea of 
settling his throne on a firm basis, and uniting all France in some 
glorious enterprise which should appeal to all parties equally, and 
" group them under the mantle of imperial glory." From 
January to June 1863 he sought this appearance of glory in 
Poland, but only succeeded in embroiling himself with Russia. 
Then, after Syria and China, it was the " great inspiration of his 
reign," the establishment of a Catholic and Latin empire in 
Mexico, enthusiasm for which he tried in vain from 1863 to 1867 
to communicate to the French. 

But while the strength of France was wasting away at Puebla 
or Mexico, Bismarck was founding German unity. In August 
1864 the emperor, held back by French public opinion, which 
was favourable to Prussia, and by his idea of nationality, allowed 
Prussia and Austria to seize the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. 
After his failure in Poland and Mexico and in face of the alarming 
presence of Germany, only one alliance remained possible for 
Napoleon III., namely with Italy. He obtained this by the 
convention of the isth of September 1864 (involving the with- 
drawal of the French troops from Rome). But the Catholic 
party redoubled its violence, and the pope sent out the encyclical 
Quanta Cura and the Syllabus, especially directed against France. 
In vain the emperor sought in German affairs a definitive solution 
of the Italian question. At Biarritz he prepared with Bismarck 
the Franco-Prussian alliance of April 1866; and hoped to become, 
to his greater glory, arbiter in the tremendous conflict which was 
about to begin. But suddenly, while he was trying to rouse 
public opinion against the treaties of 1815, the news of the battle 
of Koniggratz came as a bolt from the blue to ruin his hopes. 
French interests called for an immediate intervention. But the 
emperor was ill, weary and aged by the life of pleasure which he 
led side by side with his life of work (as is proved by the letters 
to Mdlle Bellanger); he was suffering from a first attack of 



his bladder complaint. He knew, moreover, the insufficiency 
of his troops. After days of terrible suffering, he resigned 
himself to the annexation by Prussia of northern Germany. 
" Now," said M Drouin de Lhuys, " we have nothing left but to 
weep." 

Henceforth the brilliant dream, a moment realized, the realiza- 
tion of which he had thought durable, was at an end. The 
Empire had still an uncertain and troubled brilliancy at the 
Exhibition of 1867. But Berezowski's pistol shot, which accen- 
tuated the estrangement from the tsar, and the news of the death 
of Maximilian at Queretaro, cast a gloom over the later fetes. 
In the interior the industrial and socialist movement, born of 
the new industrial development, added fresh strength to the 
Republican and Liberal opposition. The moderate Imperialists 
felt that some concessions must be made to public opinion. In 
opposition to the absolutist " vice-emperor " Rouher, whose 
influence over Napoleon had become stronger and stronger since 
the death of Morny, Emile Ollivier grouped the Third Party. 
Anxious, changeable and distraught, the emperor made the 
Liberal concessions of the igth of January 1867 (right of inter- 
pellation), and then, when Ollivier thought that his triumph 
was near, he exalted Rouher (July) and did not grant the promised 
laws concerning the press and public meetings till 1868. The 
opposition gave him no credit for these tardy concessions. There 
was an epidemic of violent attacks on the emperor; the publica- 
tion of the Lanterne and the Baudin trial, conducted by Gam- 
betta, were so many death-blows to the regime. The Inter- 
nationale developed its propaganda. The election cf May 1869 
resulted in 4,438,000 votes given for the government, and 
3,355,000 for the opposition, who also gained 90 representatives. 
The emperor, disappointed and hesitating, was slow to return to 
a parliamentary regime. It was not till December that he 
instructed Ollivier to " form a homogeneous cabinet representing 
the majority of the Corps L6gislatif " (ministry of the 2nd of 
January 1870). But, embarrassed between the Arcadiens, 
the partisans of the absolute regime, and the republicans, 
Ollivier was unable to guide the Empire in a constitutional 
course. At the Tuileries Rouher's counsel still triumphed. It 
was he who inspired the ill and wearied emperor, now without 
confidence or energy, with the idea of resorting to the plibiscite. 
" To do away with the risk of a Revolution," " to place order 
and liberty upon a firm footing," " to ensure the transmission of 
the crown to his son," Napoleon III. again sought the approba- 
tion of the nation. He obtained it with brilliant success, for the 
last time, by 7,358,786 votes against 1,571,939, and his work 
now seemed to be consolidated. 

A few weeks later it crumbled irrevocably. Since 1866 he had 
been pursuing an elusive appearance of glory. Since 1866 France 
was calling for " revenge." He felt that he could only rally the 
people to him by procuring them the satisfaction of their national 
pride. Hence the mishaps and imprudences of which Bismarck 
made such an insulting use. Hence the negotiations of Nikols- 
burg, the " note d'aubergiste " (innkeeper's bill) claiming the 
left bank of the Rhine, which was so scornfully rejected; hence 
the plan for the invasion of Belgium (August 1866), the Luxem- 
burg affair (March 1867), from which M. de Moustier's diplomacy 
effected such a skilful retreat; hence the final folly which led 
this government into the war with Prussia (July 1870). 

The war was from the first doomed to disaster. It might 
perhaps have been averted if France had had any allies. But 
Austria, a possible ally, could only join France if satisfied as 
regards Italy; and since Garibaldi had threatened Rome 
(Mentana, 1867), Napoleon III., yielding to the anger of the 
Catholics, had again sent troops to Rome. Negotiations had 
taken place in 1869. The emperor, bound by the Catholics, had 
refused to withdraw his troops. It was as a distant but inevitable 
consequence of his agreement of December 1848 with the Catholic 
party that in 1870 the emperor found himself without an ally. 

His energy was now completely exhausted. Successive 
attacks of stone in the bladder had ruined his physique; while 
his hesitation and timidity increased with age. The influence 
of the empress over him became supreme. On leaving the 



2l6 



NAPOLEON NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



council in which the war was decided upon the emperor threw 
himself, weeping, into the arms of Princess Mathilde. The 
empress was delighted at this war, which she thought would 
secure her son's inheritance. 

On the 28th of July father and son set out for the army. 
They found it in a state of utter disorder, and added to the 
difficulties by their presence. The emperor was suffering from 
stone and could hardly sit his horse. After the defeat of Reichs- 
hoffen, when Bazaine was thrown back upon Metz, he wished to 
retreat upon Paris. But the empress represented to him that 
if he retreated it would mean a revolution. An advance was 
decided upon which ended in Sedan. On the and of September, 
Napoleon III. surrendered with 80,000 men, and on the 4th of 
September the Empire fell. He was taken as a prisoner to the 
castle of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, where he stayed till the 
end of the war. After the intrigues of Bazaine, of Bismarck, 
and of the empress, the Germans having held negotiations 
with the Republic, he was de facto deposed. On the ist of March 
the assembly of Bordeaux confirmed this deposition, and declared 
him " responsible for the ruin, invasion and dismemberment 
of France." 

Restored to liberty, he retired with his wife and son to 
Chislehurst in England. Unwilling even now to despair of the 
future, he still sought to rally his friends for a fresh propaganda. 
He had at his service publicists such as Cassagnac, J. Amigues 
and Hugelmann. He himself also wrote unsigned pamphlets 
justifying the campaign of 1870. It may be noted that, true to 
his ideas, he did not attempt to throw upon others the responsi- 
bility which he had always claimed for himself. He dreamed 
of his son's future. But he no longer occupied himself with any 
definite plans. He interested himself in pensions for workmen 
and economical stoves. At the end of 1872 his disease became 
more acute, and a surgical operation became necessary. He 
died on the pth of January 1873, leaving his son in the charge 
of the empress and of Rouher. The young prince was educated 
at Woolwich from 1872 to 1875, and in 1879 took part in the 
English expedition against the Zulus in South Africa, in which 
he was killed. By his death vanished all hope of renewing the 
extraordinary fortune which for twenty years placed the 
descendant of the great emperor, the Carbonaro and dreamer, 
at once obstinate and hesitating, on the throne of France. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The (Euvres of Napoleon 1 1 1. have been published 
in four volumes (1854-1857) and his Histoire de Jules Cesar in two 
volumes (1865-1869); this latter work has been translated into 
English by T. Wright. See also Ebeling, Napoleon III. und sein 
Hoi (1891-1894); H. Thirria, Napoleon III. atant I'Empire (1895); 
Sylyain-Blot, Napoleon III. (1899); Giraudeau, Napoleon III. 
intime (1895); Sir W. A. Eraser, Napoleon III. (London, 1895); 
A. Forbes, Life of Napoleon III. (1898) ; A. Lebey, Les Trois coups 
d'etat de Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1906); Louis Napoleon Bona- 
parte et la revolution de 1848 (1908) ; and F. A. Simpson, The Rise of 
Louis Napoleon (1909). General works which may be consulted 
are Taxile-Delord, Histoire du second Empire (1868-1875); P- de 
La Gorce, Histoire du second Empire (1894-1905); A. Thomas, Le 
Second Empire (1907); and E. Ollivier, L Empire lileral (14 vols., 
1895-1909). (A. Ts.) 

NAPOLEON, a round game of cards (known colloquially as 
" Nap "). Any number may play. The cards rank as at whist, 
and five are dealt to each player. The deal being completed, 
the player to the dealer's left looks at his hand and declares 
how many tricks he would play to win against all the rest, the 
usual rule being that more than one must be declared; in default 
of declaring he says " I pass," and the next player has a similar 
option of either declaring to make more tricks or passing, and 
so on all round. A declaration of five tricks is called " going 
Nap." The player who declares to make most has to try to 
make them, and the others, but without consultation, to prevent 
him. The declaring hand has the first lead, and the first card 
he leads makes the trump suit. The players, in rotation, must 
follow suit if able. If the declarer succeeds in making at least 
the number of tricks he stood for he wins whatever stakes are 
played for; if not he loses. If the player declaring Nap wins 
he receives double stakes all round; if he loses he only pays 
single stakes all round. Sometimes, however, a player is allowed 
to go "Wellington" over "Nap," and even "Blucher" over 



" Wellington." In these cases the caller of " Wellington " 
wins four times the stake and loses twice the stake, the caller 
of " Blucher " receives six times and loses three times the stake. 
Sometimes a player is allowed to declare misere, i.e. no tricks. 
This ranks, as a declaration, between three and four, but the 
player pays a double stake on three, if he wins a trick, and receives 
a single on three if he takes none. 

NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. i. The era of the Revolutionary 
and Napoleonic Wars falls into two main divisions, the first 
of which (1792-1801) is dealt with under the heading FRENCH 
REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In the present article are described 
the campaigns in central and eastern Europe, directed by 
Napoleon no longer one amongst many French generals, 
nor even a simple primus inter pares, but " Emperor " in the 
fullest sense between the years 1805 and 1814. Napoleon's 
short Spanish Campaign of 1809 is dealt with under PENINSULAR 
WAR (this article covering the campaigns in Spain, Portugal and 
southern France 1808-1814), and for the final drama of Waterloo 
the reader is referred to WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. 

The campaigns described below are therefore 

(a) The Austrian War of 1805 (Ulm and Austerlitz). 

(6) The Conquest of Prussia and the Polish Campaign (Jena, 
Auerstadt, Eylau and Friedland). 

(c) The Austrian War of 1809 (Eckmtihl, Aspern and Wagram). 

(d) The Russian War of 1812 (Borodino and the retreat from 

Moscow). 

(e) The German " War of Liberation," culminating in the Battle 

of the Nations around Leipzig. 

(/) The last campaign in France, 1814. 

The naval history of 1803-1815 includes the culmination and the 
sequel of the struggle for command of the sea which began in 1793 
and reached its maximum intensity on the day of Trafalgar. 

2. The Campaign of 1805 may be regarded as a measure of 
self-defence forced upon Napoleon by the alliance of Russia 
(April nth), Austria (August 9th) and other powers with Great 
Britain. The possibility had long been before the emperor, and 
his intention in that event to march straight on Vienna by the 
valley of the Danube is clearly indicated in his reply (November 
27th, 1803) to a Prussian proposal for the neutralization of the 
South German states. In this he says, "It is on the road from 
Strassburg to Vienna that the French must force peace on 
Austria, and it is this road which you wish us to renounce." 
When, therefore, on the 2Sth of August 1805, he learnt definitely 
that Villeneuve (see Naval operations below) had failed in his 
purpose of securing the command of the Channel, which was 
the necessary preliminary to the invasion of England, it was but 
the affair of a few hours to dictate the dispositions necessary to 
transfer his whole army to the Rhine frontier as the first step 
in its march to the Danube. On this date the army actually 
lay in the following positions: 
I. Corps Bernadotte 
II. Marmont 



III. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 
VII. 
Guard 



Davout 

Soult 

Lannes 

Ney 

Augereau 

Bessieres 



Hanover (Gottingen) 
Holland 



I Camp of Boulogne and 
| other points on the 
J English Channel 

Paris. 



The corps were, however, by no means fit for immediate service. 
Bernadotte's corps in Hanover was almost in the position of a 
beleaguered garrison, and the marshal could only obtain his 
transport by giving out that he was ordered to withdraw to 
France. Marmont and Davout were deficient in horses for 
cavalry and artillery, and the troops in Boulogne, having been 
drawn together for the invasion of England, had hardly any 
transport at all, as it was considered this want could be readily 
supplied on landing. The composition of the army, however, was 
excellent. The generals were in the prime of life, had not yet 
learnt to distrust one another, and were accustomed to work 
under the emperor and with one another. The regimental 
officers had all acquired their rank before the enemy and knew 
how to manage their men, and of the men themselves nearly 
two-thirds had seen active service. The strength of the army 
lay in its infantry, for both cavalry and artillery were short of 
horses, and the latter had not yet acquired mobility and skill 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



217 



in manoeuvring. Napoleon's determination to undertake the 
invasion of England has often been disputed, but it is hard to 
imagine what other operation he contemplated, for the outbreak 
of hostilities with his continental enemies found him ill-supplied 
with intelligence as to the resources of the country he had then 
to traverse. To remedy this, Murat and other general officers 
as well as minor agents were sent ahead and instructed to travel 
through South Germany in plain clothes with a view to collecting 
information and mastering the topography. The emperor 
was, moreover, imperfectly acquainted with the degree of pre- 
paration of his adversaries' designs, and when he dictated his 
preliminary orders he was still unaware of the direction that 
the allies' advance would assume. That he foresaw the march 
of events which ultimately drew Mack to Ulm is inconceivable. 
On the z6th of August, however, he learnt that 100,000 Russians 
were about to enter Bohemia thence to unite with an Austrian 
army of 80,000 near the junction of the Inn and Danube, and 
this information compelled him to alter the general direction 
of his advance so as to traverse the defiles of the Black Forest 
north of the Neckar, cavalry only observing the passes to the 
south. 

3. Austrian Army.-r-The Austrians after the defeats of 1800 
had endeavoured to reorganize their forces on the French model, 
but they were soon to learn that in matters of organization the 
spirit is everything, the letter very little. They had copied 
the organization of the French corps, but could find no corps 
commanders fit to assume the responsibility for these commands. 
As always in such conditions, the actual control of the smallest 
movements was still centralized in the hands of the army com- 
manders, and thus the rate of marching was incredibly slow. 
They had decided that in future their troops in the field should 
live by requisition, and had handed over to the artillery, which 
needed them badly, a large number of horses thus set free from 
the transport service, but they had not realized that men 
accustomed to a regular distribution of rations cannot be trans- 
formed into successful marauders and pillagers by a stroke of 
the pen; and they had sent away the bulk of their army, 120,000 
under their best general, the archduke Charles, into Italy, leaving 
Lieut. Field Marshal Mack von Leiberich in Germany, nominally 
as chief of the staff to the young Prince Ferdinand, but virtually 
in command, to meet the onset of Napoleon at the head of his 
veterans. Mack was a man of unusual attainments. He had 
risen from the ranks in the most caste-ridden army in Europe, 
and against untold opposition had carried through army reforms 
which were correct in principle, and needed only time to develop. 
It was his fate to be made the scapegoat for the disasters which 
followed, though they need no further explanation than that, 
at the head of 80,000 men and exercising only restricted powers 
of command, he was pitted against the greatest strategist of all 
ages who was responsible to no overlord and commanded, in the 
fullest sense of the term, an army considerably more than twice 
as strong. 

4. The March on Ulm. The outbreak of the campaign was 
hastened by the desire of the Austrian government to feed their 
own army and leave a bare country for Napoleon by securing the 
resources of Bavaria. It was also hoped that the Bavarians 
with their army of 25,000 men would join the allies. In the latter 
hope they were deceived, and the Bavarians under General 
Wrede slipped away to Bamberg in time. In the former, how- 
ever, they were successful, and the destitution they left in their 
wake almost wrecked Napoleon's subsequent combinations. 
Mack's march to Ulm was therefore a necessity of the situation, 
and his continuance in this exposed position, if foolhardy against 
such an adversary, was at any rate the outcome of the high 
resolve that even if beaten he would inflict crippling losses upon 
the enemy. Mack knew that the Russians would be late at the 
rendezvous on the Inn. By constructing an entrenched camp 
at Ulm and concentrating all the available food within it, he 
expected to compel Napoleon to invest and besiege him, and 
he anticipated that in the devastated country his adversary 
would be compelled to separate and thus fall an easy prey to the 
Russians. For that blow he had determined to make his own 



army the anvil. But these views obviously could not be pub- 
lished in army orders, hence the discontent and opposition he was 
destined to encounter. 

5. Movements of the French. It was on the 2ist that Napoleon 
learnt of Mack's presence in Ulm. On that date his army had 
crossed the Rhine and was entering the defiles of the Black 
Forest. It was already beginning to suffer. Boots were worn out, 
greatcoats deficient, transport almost unattainable and, accord- 
ing to modern ideas, the army would have been considered 
incapable of action. 





Sept. 28. 


Oct. 6. 


Oct. 9. 


Oct. 1 6. 


Bernadotte . 
Marmont . 
Davout . 
Ney . . 
Lannes . 
Soult . . 


Wurzburg 
Wurzburg 
Mannheim 
Selz 
Strassburg 
Landau 


Anspach 
Anspach 
Mergentheim 
Crailsheira 
Gmund 
Aalen 


Nurnberg 
Nurnberg 
Anspach 
Weissenburg 
Nordlingen 
Donauworth 


Regensburg 
Regensburg 
Dietfurt 
Ingolstadt 
Neuburg 



On the 26th of September, its deployment beyond the mountains 
was complete, and as Napoleon did not know of Mack's intention 
to stay at Ulm and had learned that the Russian advance had 
been delayed, he directed his columns by the following roads on 
the Danube, between Donauworth and Ingolstadt, so as to be 
in a position to intervene between the Austrians and the Russians 
and beat both in detail. On the 7th of October this movement 
was completed the Austrians abandoned the Danube bridges 
after a show of resistance, retreating westward and Napoleon, 
leaving Murat in command of the V. and VI. corps and cavalry 
to observe the Austrians, pressed on to Augsbutg with the others 
so as to be ready to deal with the Russians. Learning, however, 
that these were still beyond striking radius, he determined to deal 
with Mack's army first, having formed the fixed conviction that 
a threat at the latter's communications would compel him to 
endeavour to retreat southwards towards Tirol. Bernadotte 
in his turn became an army of observation, and Napoleon 
joining Murat with the main body marched rapidly westward 
from the Lech towards the Iller. 

6. Austrian Plans. Mack's intentions were not what Napoleon 
supposed. He had meanwhile received (false) information of a 
British landing at Boulogne, and he was seriously deceived as to 
the numbers of Napoleon's forces. He was also aware that the 
exactions of the French had produced deep indignation through- 
out Germany and especially in Prussia (whose neutrality had 
been violated, see 14, below) . All this, and the almost mutinous 
discontent of his generals and his enemies of the court circle, 
shook his resolution of acting as anvil for the Russians, of whose 
delay also he was aware, and about the 8th of October he deter- 
mined to march out north-eastward across the French lines of 
communication and save his sovereign's army by taking refuge 
if necessary in Saxony. Believing implicitly in the rumours of a 
descent on Boulogne and of risings in France which also reached 
him, and knowing the destitution he had left behind him in his 
movement to Ulm, when he heard of the westward march of 
French columns from the Lech he told his army, apparently in 
all good faith, that the Fi ench were in full march for their own 
country. 

Actually the French at this moment were suffering the most 
terrible distress up to the Danube they had still found sufficient 
food for existence, but south of it, in the track of the Austrians, 
they found nothing. All march discipline disappeared, the men 
dissolved into hordes of marauders and even the sternest of the 
marshals wrote piteous appeals to the emperor for supplies, and 
for permission to shoot some of their stragglers. But to all these 
Berthier in the emperor's name sent the stereotyped reply 
" The emperor has ordered you to carry four days' provisions, 
therefore you can expect nothing further you know the 
emperor's method of conducting war." 

7. Action of Albeck or Haslach. Meanwhile Murat, before the 
emperor joined him, had given Mack the desired opening. 
The VI. corps (Ney) should have remained on the left bank of 
the Danube to close the Austrian exit on that side, but by mistake 
only Dupont's division had been left at Albeck, the rest being 



2l8 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



'Campaigns in Germany 
1796-1809 

Scale. 1:2.000.000 

English Miles 
o to ) 30 46 



H \ <, I/ 

"u\ ") yp r 



Geislingea^Pgx.-h, 






.,,, Rottenbur 

enburg bFreudensudt 




brought over the river. Mack on the 8th had determined to 
commence his withdrawal, but fortune now favoured the French. 
The weather during the whole of October had been unusually 
wet, the swollen Danube overflowed the low ground and the 
roads had become quagmires. On the south bank, owing to 
better natural drainage and a drier subsoil, movement was fairly 
easy, but the Austrians found it almost impossible. On the nth 
of October, when they began their march, the road along the 
Danube was swept into the river, carrying with it several guns 
and teams, and hours were consumed in passing the shortest 
distances. At length in the afternoon they suddenly fell upon 
Dupont's isolated division at Albeck, which was completely 
surprised and severely handled. The road now lay completely 
open, but the Austrian columns had so opened out owing to 
the state of the roads that the leading troops could not pursue 
their advantage Dupcnt rallied and the Austrians had actually 
to fall back towards Ulm to procure food. 

8. Elchingen. For three more days Mack struggled with an 
unwilling staff and despondent men to arrange a further advance. 
During these very three days, through a succession of staff 
blunders, the French failed to close the gap, and on the morning 
of the i4th of October both armies, each renewing their advance, 
came in contact at the bridge of Elchingen. This bridge, all 



but a few road-bearers, had been destroyed, but now the French 
gave an example of that individual gallantry which was char- 
acteristic of the old revolutionary armies. Running along the 
beams under a close fire a few gallant men forced their way 
across. The floor of the bridge was rapidly relaid, and presently 
the whole of the VI. corps was deploying with unexampled 
rapidity on the farther side. The Austrians, still in their quag- 
mire, could not push up reinforcements fast enough, and though 
Mack subsequently alleged deliberate obstruction and dis- 
obedience on the part of his subordinates, the state of the roads 
alone suffices to explain their defeat. Only the right column of 
the Austrians was, however, involved; the left under General 
Werneck, to whom some cavalry and the archduke Ferdinand 
attached themselves, did indeed succeed in getting away, but 
without trains or supplies. They continued their march, famished 
but unmolested, until near Heidenheim they suddenly found 
themselves confronted by what from the diversity of uniforms 
they took to be an overwhelming force; at the same time the 
French cavalry sent in pursuit appeared in their rear. Utterly 
exhausted by fatigue, Werneck with his infantry, some 8000 
strong, surrendered to what was really a force of dismounted 
dragoons and foot-sore stragglers improvised by the commanding 
officer on the spot to protect the French treasure chests, which at 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



219 



that moment lay actually in the path of the Austrians. The 
young archduke with some cavalry escaped. 

9. Mack surrounded. The defeat at Elchingen on the I4th of 
October sealed the fate of the Austrians, though Mack was still 
determined to endure a siege. As the French columns coming 
up from the south and west gradually surrounded him, he drew 
in his troops under shelter of the fortress and its improvised 
entrenched camp, and on the isth he found himself completely 
surrounded. On the i6th the French field-guns fired into the 
town, and Mack realized that his troops were no longer under 
sufficient control to endure a siege. When, therefore, next 
morning, negotiations were opened by the French, Mack, still 
feeling certain that the Russians were at hand, agreed to an 
armistice and undertook to lay down his arms if within the next 
twenty-one days no relief should arrive. To this Napoleon 
consented, but hardly had the agreement been signed than he 
succeeded in introducing a number of individual French soldiers 
into the fortress, who began rioting with the Austrian soldiery. 
Then, sending in armed parties to restore order and protect the 
inhabitants, he caused the guards at the gates to be overpowered, 
and Mack was thus forced into an unconditional surrender. 

On the 22nd of October, the day after Trafalgar, the remnant 
of the Austrian army, 23,000 strong, laid down its arms. About 
5000 men under Jellachich had escaped to Tirol, 2000 cuirassiers 
with Prince Ferdinand to Eger in Bohemia, and about 10,000 
men under Werneck, had surrendered at Heidenheim. The 
losses in battle having been insignificant, there remain some 
30,000 to account for most of whom probably escaped individu- 
ally by the help of the inhabitants, who were bitterly hostile to 
the French. 

10. Napoleon's Advance to Vienna. Napoleon now hastened 
to rejoin the group of corps he had left under Bernadotte in 
observation towards the Russians, for the latter were nearer 
at hand than even Mack had assumed. But hearing of his 
misfortune they retreated before Napoleon's advance along the 
right bank of the Danube to Krems, where they crossed the river 
and withdrew to an entrenched camp near Olmtitz to pick up 
fresh Austrian reinforcements. The severe actions of Diirrenstein 
(near Krems) on the nth, and of Hollabriinn on the i6th of 
November, in which Napoleon's marshals learned the tenacity 
of their new opponents, and the surprise of the Vienna bridge 
(November 14) by the French, were the chief incidents of 
this period in the campaign. 

11. Campaign of Austerlitz. Napoleon continued down the 
right bank to Vienna, where he was compelled by the con- 
Austerilt dition of his troops to call a halt to refit his army. 

After this was done he continued his movement to 
Briinn. Thither he succeeded in bringing only 55,000 men. 
He was again forced to give his army rest and shelter, under 
cover of Murat's cavalry. The allies now confronted him with 
upwards of 86,000 men, including 16,000 cavalry. About the 
zoth of November this force commenced its advance, and 
Napoleon concentrated in such a manner that within three days 
he could bring over 80,000 French troops into action around 
Briinn, besides 17,000 or more Bavarians under Wrede. On 
the 28th Murat was driven in by the allied columns. That night 
orders were despatched for a concentration on Briinn in expecta- 
tion of a collision on the following day; but hearing that the 
whole allied force was moving towards him he decided to con- 
centrate south-east of Briinn, covering his front by cavalry on 
the Pratzen heights. Meanwhile he had also prepared a fresh 
line of retreat towards Bohemia, and, certain now of having 
his men in hand for the coming battle, he quietly awaited 
events. 

The allies were aware of his position, and still adhering to the 
old " linear " system, marched to turn his right flank (see 
AUSTERLITZ). As soon as their strategic purpose of cutting him 
off from Vienna became apparent, the emperor moved his troops 
into position, and in the afternoon issued his famous proclamation 
to his troops, pointing out the enemy's mistakes and his plan for 
defeating them. At the same time he issued his orders for his 
first great battle as a supreme commander. The battle of 



Austerlitz began early next morning and closed in the evening 
with the thorough and decisive defeat of the allies. 

12. Jena, 1806. Around the Prussian army, and particularly 
the cavalry, the prestige of Frederick the Great's glory still 
lingered; but the younger generation had little 
experience of actual warfare, and the higher com- 
manders were quite unable to grasp the changes in 

tactics and in the conduct of operations which had grown out 
of the necessities of the French Revolution. The individual 
officers of the executive staff were the most highly trained in 
Europe, but there was no great leader to co-ordinate their 
energies. The total number of men assigned to the field army 
was 110,000 Prussians and Saxons. They were organized in 
corps, but their leaders were corps commanders only in name, 
for none were allowed any latitude for individual initiative. 
Ill-judged economies had undermined the whole efficiency of 
the Prussian army. Two-thirds of the infantry and one-half of 
the cavalry were allowed furlough for from ten to eleven months 
in the year. The men were unprovided with greatcoats. Most 
of the muskets had actually seen service in the Seven Years' War, 
and their barrels had worn so thin with constant polishing that 
the use of full charges at target practice had been forbidden. 
Above all, the army had drifted entirely out of touch with the 
civil population. The latter, ground down by feudal tradition and 
law, and at the same time permeated by the political doctrines 
of the late i8th century, believed that war concerned the govern- 
ments only, and formed no part of the business of the " honest 
citizen." In this idea they were supported by the law itself, 
which protected the civilian against the soldier, and forbade 
even in war-time the requisitioning of horses, provisions and 
transport, without payment. Up to the night of the battle of 
Jena itself, the Prussian troops lay starving in the midst of plenty, 
whilst the French everywhere took what they wanted. This 
alone was a sufficient cause for all the misfortunes which followed. 

13. Outbreak of the War. During the campaign of Austerlitz 
Prussia, furious at the violation of her territory of Aaspach, 
had mobilized, and had sent Haugwitz as ambassador to 
Napoleon's headquarters. He arrived on the 3Oth of November, 
and Napoleon, pleading business, put off his official reception 
till after the battle of Austerlitz. Of course the ultimatum was 
never presented, as may be imagined; Haugwitz returned and 
the king of Prussia demobilized at once. But Napoleon, well 
knowing the man he had to deal with, had determined to force 
a quarrel upon Prussia at the earliest convenient opportunity. 
His troops therefore, when withdrawn from Austria, were can- 
toned in south Germany in such a way that, whilst suspicion 
was not aroused in minds unacquainted with Napoleonic methods, 
they could be concentrated by a few marches behind the 
Thuringian forest and the upper waters of the Main. Here the 
Grand Army was left to itself to recuperate and assimilate its 
recruits, and it is characteristic of the man and his methods 
that he did not trouble his corps commanders with a single 
order during the whole of the spring and summer. 

As the diplomatic crisis approached, spies were sent into 
Prussia, and simultaneously with the orders for preliminary con- 
centration the marshals received private instructions, the pith 
of which cannot be better expressed than in the following two 
quotations from Napoleon's correspondence: 

" Mon intention est de concentrer toutes mes forces sur I'extr6mit 
de ma droite en laissant tout 1'espace entre le Rhin et Bamberg 
entiArement degarni, de manure a avoir pres de 200,000 hommes 
r^unis sur un mSme champ de bataille; mes premieres marches 
'menacent le coeur de la monarchic prussienne " (No. 10,920). 
" Avec cette immense sup^rioritd de forces re'unis sur un espace si 
<5troit, vous sentez que je suis dans la volont6 de ne rien hasarder et 
d'attaquer 1'ennemi partout oft il voudra tenir. Vous pensez bien 
que ce serait une belle affaire que de se porter sur cette place (Dresden) 
en un bataillon carre de 200,000 hommes " (Soult, No. 10,941). 

14. Advance of the Grande Armee. On the vth of October 
the Grande Armee lay in three parallel columns along the roads 
leading over the mountains to Hof, Schleiz and Kronach; 
on the right lay the IV. corps (Soult) about Bayreuth; with his 
cavalry in rear, and behind these the VI. corps (Ney) at Pegnitz; 
in the centre, Bernadotte 's I. corps from Nordhalben, with the 



220 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



III. corps (Davout) Lichtenfels; Guard and headquarters, 
Bamberg. The left column was composed of the V. (Lannes) 



JENA CAMPAIGN 



Halle 



Scale, 




at Hemmendorf, with the VII. (Augereau) extending south to 
the Main at Burgebrach. 

Napoleon's object being surprise, all the cavalry except a 
few vedettes were kept back behind the leading infantry columns 
and these latter were ordered to advance, on the signal being 
given, in " masses of manoeuvre, " so as to crush at once any 
outpost resistance which was calculated upon the time required 
for the deployment of ordinary marching columns. This order 
has never since found an imitator, but deserves attentive study 
as a masterpiece (see H. Bonnal, Manoeuvre d'ltna). 

To meet the impending blow the Prussians had been extended 
in a cordon along the great road leading from Mainz to Dresden, 
Bliicher was at Erfurt, Rtichel at Gotha, Hohenlohe at Weimar, 
Saxons in Dresden, with outposts along the frontier. An 
offensive move into Franconia was under discussion, and for 
this purpose the Prussian staff had commenced a lateral con- 
centration about Weimar, Jena and Naumburg when the storm 
burst upon them. The emperor gathered little from the confused 
reports of their purposeless manoeuvres, but, secure in the midst 
of his " battalion square " of 200,000 men, he remained quite 
indifferent, well knowing that an advance straight on Berlin 
must force his enemy to concentrate and fight, and as they 
would bring at most 127,000 men on to the battlefield the 
result could hardly be doubtful. On the gth of October the cloud 
burst. Out of the forests which clothe the northern slopes of 
the Thuringer Wald the French streamed forth, easily over- 
powering the resistance of the Prussian outposts on the upper 
Saale, 1 and once the open country was reached the cavalry under 
Murat trotted to the front, closely followed by Bernadotte's 
corps as " general advance guard." The result of the cavalry 
scouting was however unsatisfactory. On the night of the loth, 

1 At the action of Saalfeld on the loth, the young and gallant 
Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia was killed. 



the emperor was still unaware of the position of his principal 
foe, and Murat with Bernadotte behind him was directed on 
Gera for the nth, the remainder of the army con- 
tinuing along the roads previously assigned to 
them. 

In the meanwhile, however, the Saxons had been 
moving from Naumburg through Gera on Jena, 
Hohenlohe was near Weimar, and all the other 
divisions of the army had closed in a march 
eastwards, the idea of an offensive to the south- 
ward which Napoleon had himself attributed to 
them having already disappeared. 

Reaching Gera at 9 A.M. Murat reported the 
movement of the Saxons on the previous day, 
but omitted to send a strong detachment in 
pursuit. The traces of the Saxons were lost, and 
Napoleon, little satisfied with his cavalry, author- 
ized Lasalle to offer up to 6000 frs. reward for 
information of the Prussian point of concentration. 
At i A.M. of the 1 2th Napoleon issued his orders. 
Murat and Bernadotte via Zeitz to Naumburg; 
Davout (III. corps and a dragoon division) also to 
Naumburg; Lannes to Jena, Augereau following; 
Soult to Gera. 

15. Prussian Movements. In the meantime 
the Prussians were effecting their concentration. 
Riichel, who with 15,000 men had been sent into 
the mountains as an advanced guard for the pro- 
jected offensive, was recalled to Weimar, which 
he reached on the I3th. The main body were 
between Weimar and Apolda during the i2th, and 
the Saxons duly effected their junction with 
Hohenlohe in the vicinity of Vierzehnheiligen, 
whilst the latter had withdrawn his troops all but 
some outposts from Jena to the plateau about 
Capellendorf, some 4 m. to the N.W. The whole 
army, upwards of 120,000 men, could therefore have 
been concentrated against Lannes and Augereau by 
the afternoon of the i3th, whilst Soult could only 
have intervened very late in the day, and Davout and Berna- 
dotte were still too distant to reach the battlefield before the 
1 4th. All the French corps, moreover, were so exhausted by 
their rapid marches over bad roads that the emperor actually 
ordered (at i A.M. on the I3th) a day of rest for all except 
Davout, Bernadotte, Lannes and Murat. 

The Prussian headquarters, however, spent the I2th and I3th 
in idle discussion, whilst the troop commanders exerted them- 
selves to obtain some alleviation for the suffering of their 
starving men. The defeats undergone by their outpost detach- 
ment had profoundly affected the nerves of the troops, and 
on the afternoon of the nth, on the false alarm of a French 
approach, a panic broke out in the streets of Jena, and it took 
all the energy of Hohenlohe and his staff to restore order. On 
the morning of the I2th the Saxon commanding officers 
approached Hohenlohe with a statement of the famishing 
condition of their men, and threatened to withdraw them 
again to Saxony. Hohenlohe pointed out that the Prussians 
were equally badly off, but promised to do his best to help 
his allies. Urgent messages were sent off to the Commissary 
von Goethe (the poet), at Weimar for permission to requisition 
food and firewood. These requests, however, remained 
unanswered, and the Prussians and Saxons spent the night 
before the battle shivering in their miserable bivouacs. 

16. The ijth of October. During the early morning of the I3th 
the reports brought to Napoleon at Gera partially cleared up 
the situation, though the real truth was very different from 
what he supposed. However, it was evident that the bulk of 
the Prussians lay to his left, and instructions were at once 
despatched to Davout to turn westward from Naumburg towards 
Kosen and to bring Bernadotte with him if the two were still 
together. The letter, however, ended with the words " but I 
hope he is already on his way to Dornburg." Now Bernadotte 



Emery Walker, sc. 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



221 



had neglected to keep the emperor informed as to his where- 
abouts. He was still with Davout, but, concluding that he had 
missed an order directing him to Dornburg, he thought to conceal 
his error by assuming the receipt of the order evidently alluded 
to in the last words, and as a result he marched towards Dorn- 
burg, and his whole corps was lost to the emperor at the crisis 
of the next day's battle. 

On the road from Gera to Jena Napoleon was met by 
intelligence from Lannes announcing his occupation of Jena and 
the discovery of Prussian troops to the northward. Knowing the 
emperor's methods, he wisely restrained the ardour of his sub- 
ordinates and asked for instructions whether to attack or wait. 
The emperor rode forward rapidly, reached Jena about 3 P.M., 
and with Lannes proceeded to the Landgrafenberg to reconnoitre. 
From this point his view was, however, restricted to the im- 
mediate foreground, and he only saw the camps of Hohenlohe's 
left wing. At this moment the Prussians were actually on 
parade and ready to move off to attack, but just then the " evil 
genius " of the Prussian army, von Massenbach, an officer of the 
Headquarter Staff, rode up and claiming to speak with the 
authority of the king and commander-in-chief, induced Hohen- 
lohe to order his troops back to camp. Of all this Napoleon 
saw nothing, but from all reports he came to the conclusion that 
the whole Prussian army was actually in front of him, and at 
once issued orders for his whole army to concentrate towards 
Jena, marching all night if need be. Six hours earlier his con- 
clusion would have been correct, but early that morning the 
Prussian headquarters, alarmed for the safety of their line of 
retreat on Berlin by the presence of the French in Naumburg, 
decided to leave Hohenlohe and Rtichel to act as rear-guard, 
and with the main body to commence their retreat towards 
the river Unstrutt and the Eckhardtsberge where Massenbach 
had previously reconnoitred an " ideal " battlefield. This belief 
in positions was the cardinal principle of Prussian strategy 
in those days. The troops had accordingly commenced their 
march on the morning of the I3th, and now at 3 P.M. were settling 
down into bivouac; they were still but a short march from the 
decisive field. 

17. Battle of Jena. On the French side, Lannes' men were 
working their hardest, under Napoleon's personal supervision, 
to make a practicable road up to the Landgrafenberg, and all 
night long the remaining corps struggled through darkness 
towards the rendezvous. By daybreak on the T4th, the anni- 
versary of Elchingen, upwards of 60,000 men stood densely 



battalions were sent forward, and these, delaying their advance 
till the fog had sufficiently lifted, were met by French skirmishers, 
and small columns, who rapidly overlapped their flanks and 
drove them back in confusion. Hohenlohe now brought up the 
remainder of his command, but in the meanwhile the French 
had poured across the neck between the Landgrafenberg and the 
main plateau, and the troops of Soult and Augereau were working 
up the ravines on either hand. In view of these troops the 
Prussian line, which had advanced faultlessly as if on parade, 
halted to prepare its bayonet attack by fire, and, once halted, it 
was found impossible to get them to go on again. The French 
who had thrown themselves into houses, copses, &c., picked off 
the officers, and the flanks of the long Prussian lines swayed and 
got into confusion. The rival artilleries held each other too 
thoroughly to be able to spare attention to the infantry, whilst 
the Prussian cavalry, which had forgotten how to charge in 
masses of eighty or more squadrons, frittered away their strength 
in isolated efforts. By 10 A.M. the fourteen battalions which had 
initiated this attack were outnumbered by three to one, and 
drifted away from the battlefield. Their places were taken by 
a fresh body, but this was soon outnumbered and outflanked 
in its turn. By 2 P.M. the psychic moment had come, and 
Napoleon launched his guards and the cavalry to complete the 
victory and initiate the pursuit. Ruchel's division now arrived 
and made a most gallant effort to cover the retreat, but their 
order being broken by the 'torrent of fugitives, they were soon 
overwhelmed by the tide of the French victory and all organized 
resistance had ceased by 4 P.M. 

Briefly summarized, the battle came to this in four successive 
efforts the Prussians failed because they were locally out- 
numbered. This was the fault of their leaders solely, for, except 
for the last attack, local superiority was in each case attainable. 
Organization and tactics did not affect the issue directly, for the 
conduct of the men and their junior officers gave abundant proof 
that in the hands of a competent leader the " linear " principle of 
delivering one shattering blow would have proved superior to that 
of a gradual attrition of the enemy here, as on the battlefields of 
the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and this in spite of other defects 
in the training of the Prussian infantry which simultaneously 
caused its defeat on the neighbouring field of Auerstadt. 

18. Battle of Auerstadt. Here the superiority of French 
mobility, a consequence of their training and not necessarily of 
their system, showed its value most conclusively. Davout in 
obedience to his orders of the previous morning was marching 



JENA 

Scale, 1:125,000 

English Miles 




AUERSTADT 

Scale, i: 140,000 

English Mites 




packed on the narrow plateau of the mountain, whilst, below 
in the ravines on either flank, Soult on the right, and Augereau 
on the left, were getting into position. Fortunately a dense 
fog hid the helpless masses on the Landgrafenberg from sight of 
the Prussian gunners. Hohenlohe had determined to drive the 
French into the ravine at daybreak, but had no idea as to the 
numbers in front of him. For want of room, only a few Prussian 



over the Saale at Kosen, when his advanced guard came in 
contact with that of the Prussian main army. The latter with 
at least 50,000 men was marching in two columns, and ought 
therefore to have delivered its men into line of battle twice as 
fast as the French, who had to deploy from a single issue, and 
whose columns had opened out in the passage of the Kosen 
defile and the long ascent of the plateau above. But the Prussians 



222 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



attacked at the old regulation speed of seventy-five paces to 
the minute, and the French manoeuvred at the quick or double 
of 120 or 150. The consequence was that the French always 
succeeded in reinforcing their fighting line in time to avert 
disaster. Nevertheless by mid-day their strength was well-nigh 
exhausted, whilst the Prussian reserve, eighteen battalions 
of guards under Kalckreuth, stood intact and ready to engage. 
But at the critical moment the duke of Brunswick fell mortally 
wounded, and Scharnhorst, his chief of the staff, was at the 
time absent on another part of the field. Meanwhile rumours 
from the battle-field at Jena, magnified as usual, began to 
reach the staff, and these may possibly have influenced 
Kalckreuth, for when appealed to to attack with his eighteen 
battalions and win the day, he declined to move without the 
direct order of the commander-in-chief to do so, alleging that 
it was the duty of a reserve to cover the retreat and he 
considered himself personally responsible to the king for the 
guards entrusted to his care. Even then the day might have 
been saved had Bliicher been able to find even twenty squadrons 
accustomed to gallop together, but the Prussian cavalry had 
been dispersed amongst the infantry commands, and at the 
critical moment it proved impossible for them to deliver a 
united and decisive attack. 

Seeing further efforts hopeless, Scharnhorst in the duke's 
name initiated the retreat and the troops withdrew N.W. 
towards Buttelstedt, almost unmolested by the French, who 
this day had put forth all that was in them, and withstood 
victoriously the highest average punishment any troops of the 
new age of warfare had as yet endured. So desperate had been 
their resistance that the Prussians unanimously stated Davout's 
strength at double the actual figure. Probably no man but 
Davout could have got so much out of his men, but why was he 
left unsupported? 

Bernadotte, we have seen, had marched to Dornburg, or 
rather to a point overlooking the ford across the Saale at the 
village of that name, and reached there in ample time to intervene 
on either field. But with the struggle raging before him he 
remained undecided, until at Jena the decision had clearly 
fallen, and then he crossed the river and arrived with fresh 
troops too late for their services to be required. 

19. Prussian Retreat. During the night the Prussians con- 
tinued their retreat, the bulk of the main body to Sommerda, 
Hohenlohe's corps towards Nordhausen. The troops had got 
much mixed up, but as the French did not immediately press 
the pursuit home, order was soon re-established and a combined 
retreat was begun towards the mouth of the Elbe and Liibeck. 
Here help was expected to arrive from England, and the tide 
might yet have turned, for the Russian armies were gathering 
in the east. It was now that the results of a divorce of the army 
from the nation began to be felt. Instead of seizing all provisions 
and burning what they could not remove, the Prussian generals 
enforced on their men the utmost forbearance towards the 
inhabitants, and the fact that they were obeyed, in spite of the 
inhumanity the people showed to their sick and wounded country- 
men, proves that discipline was by no means so far gone as has 
generally been believed. The French marching in pursuit were 
received with open arms, the people even turning their own 
wounded out of doors to make room for their French guests. 
Their servility awakened the bitterest contempt of their con- 
querors and forms the best excuse for the unparalleled severity 
of the French yoke. On the 26th of October Davout reached 
Berlin, having marched 166 m. in twelve days including two 
sharp rearguard actions, Bernadotte with his fresh troops having 
fallen behind. The inhabitants of Berlin, headed by their mayor, 
came out to meet him, and the newspapers lavished adulation 
on the victors and abuse on the beaten army. On the 28th 
Murat's cavalry overtook the remnant of Prince Hohenlohe's 
army near Prenzlau (N. of Berlin) and invited its capitulation. 
Unfortunately the prince sent Massenbach to discuss the situa- 
tion, and the latter completely lost his head. Murat boasted 
that he had 100,000 men behind him, and on his return Massen- 
bach implored his chief to submit to an unconditional surrender, 



advice which the prince accepted, though as a fact Murat's 
horses were completely exhausted and he had no infantry what- 
ever within call. Only Bliicher now remained in the field, and he 
too was driven at length into Liibeck with his back to the sea. 

20. Campaigns in Poland and East Prussia. Hitherto the 
French had been operating in a rich country, untouched for 
half a century past by the ravages of war, but as the necessity 
for a campaign against the Russians confronted the emperor, 
he realized that his whole supply and transport service must 
be put on a different footing. After the wants of the cavalry 
and artillery had been provided for, there remained but little 
material for transport work. Exhaustive orders to organize 
the necessary trains were duly issued, but the emperor seems to 
have had no conception of the difficulties the tracks there were 
no metalled roads of Poland were about to present to him. 
Moreover, it was one thing to issue orders, but quite another 
to ensure that they were obeyed, for they entailed a complete 
transformation in the mental attitude of the French soldier 
towards all that he had been taught to consider his duties in 
the field. Experience only can teach the art of packing wagons 
and the care of draught animals, and throughout the campaign 
the small ponies of Poland and East Prussia broke down by 
thousands from over loading and unskilful packing. 

21. The Russian Army formed the most complete contrast 
to the French that it is possible to imagine. Though clad, 
armed and organized in European fashion, the soldiers retained 
in a marked degree the traditions of their Mongolian forerunners, 
their transport wagons were in type the survival of ages of 
experience, and their care for their animals equally the result 
of hereditary habit. The intelligence of the men and regimental 
officers was very low, but on the other hand service was practically 
for life, and the regiment the only home the great majority had 
ever known. Hence obedience was instinctive and initiative 
almost undreamt of. Moreover, they were essentially a war- 
trained army, for even in peace time their long marches to and 
fro within the empire had most thoroughly inured them to hard- 
ship and privation. Napoleon might have remembered his own 
saying, " La misere est 1'ecole du bon soldat." In cavalry they 
were weak, for the Russian does not take kindly to equitation 
and the horses were not equal to the accepted European standard 
of weight, while the Cossack was only formidable to stragglers 
and wounded. Their artillery was numerous and for the most 
part of heavy calibre 18- and 24-pounders were common but 
the strength of the army lay in its infantry, with its incomparable 
tenacity in defence and its blind confidence in the bayonet in 
attack. The traditions of Suvarov and his victories in Italy 
(see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) were still fresh, but there 
was no longer a Suvarov to lead them. 

22. Advance to the Vistula. Napoleon had from the first been 
aware of the secret alliance between Prussia and Russia, sworn 
by their respective sovereigns over the grave of Frederick the 
Great, and this knowledge had been his principal reason for 
precipitating hostilities with the former. He remained, however, 
in complete ignorance of the degree of preparation attained on 
the Russian side, and since the seizure of Warsaw together with 
the control of the resources of Poland in men and material its 
occupation would afford, was the chief factor in his calculation, 
he turned at once to the eastward as soon as all further organized 
resistance in Prussia was ended by the surrender of Prenzlau 
and Liibeck. Scarcely leaving his troops time to restore their 
worn-out footgear, or for the cavalry to replace their jaded 
horses from captured Prussian resources, he set Davout in motion 
towards Warsaw on the 2nd of November, and the remainder of 
the army followed in successive echelons as rapidly as they could 
be despatched. 

The cavalry, moving well in advance, dispersed the Prussian 
dep&ts and captured their horses, as far as the line of the Vistula, 
where at last they encountered organized resistance from the 
outposts of Lestocq's little corps of 15,000 men all that was 
left of Frederick the Great's army. These, however, gave way 
before the threat of the advancing French and after a few 
trifling skirmishes. Davout entered Warsaw on the 3oth of 






NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



223 



November, being followed by the V., IV. and Guard corps during 
the succeeding fortnight, whilst the VI. and VII. weie echeloned 
to their left, and the VIII. (Mortier) and IX. (Jerome Napoleon) 
and X. (Lefebvre), all new formations since the outbreak of 
the war, followed some marches in the rear. Jerome's corps was 
composed of the Bavarians, Wurttembergers and Badensers. 

Behind these all Prussia was overrun by newly formed units, 
(3rd and 4th battalions) raised from depot companies, conscripts 
for 1807, and old soldiers rejoining after sickness or wounds. 
Napoleon caused these to be despatched to the front immediately 
after their formation. He had much territory to occupy, and 
in the long march of on an average 85 days, he considered that 
they could be organized, equipped and drilled en route. 

23. Pultusk. The Russians meanwhile had been moving slowly 
forward in two bodies, one under Bennigsen (50,000), the other 
under Buxhowden (25,000), and the French being at this time 
in Warsaw, they took up threatening positions about Pultusk, 
Flock and Prassnitz. From this triangle they harried the French 
communications with Berlin, and to secure a winter's rest for 
his men Napoleon determined to bring them to action. On the 
23rd of December operations were commenced, but the difficulties 
of securing information and maintaining communication between 
the respective columns, so unlike what any of the French had 
previously encountered, led to a very partial success. The idea 
had been to induce the Russians to concentrate about Pultusk 
and, turning their position from its left, ultimately to cut them 
off from Russia, and if possible to surround them. But in this 
new and difficult country the emperor found it impossible to time 
his marches. The troops arrived late at their appointed positions, 
and after a stubborn rearguard action at Pultusk itself and 
undecisive fighting elsewhere (Soldau-Golymin) the Russians 
succeeded in retreating beyond the jaws of the French attack, 
and Napoleon for the first time found that he had exceeded the 
limit of endurance of his men. Indeed, the rank and file bluntly 
told him as much as he rode with the marching columns. Yield- 
ing to the inevitable, but not forgetting to announce a brilliant 
victory in a bulletin, he sent his troops into winter quarters 
along the Passarge and down the Baltic, enjoining on his corps 
commanders most strictly to do nothing to disturb their 
adversary. 

24. Campaign of Eylau. Bennigsen, now commanding the 
whole Russian army which with Lestocq's Prussians amounted 



CAMPAIQN OF 

1807 

IN POLAND 
AND PRUSSIA 




to 100,000, also moved into winter quarters in the triangle 
Deutsch-Eylau-Osterode-Allenstein, and had every intention 



of remaining there, for a fresh army was already gathering in 
Russia, the ist corps of which had reached Nur about 50 m. 
distant from the French right. 

Unfortunately, Ney with his VI. corps about Gilgenberg had 
received the most poverty-stricken district in the whole region, 
and to secure some alleviation for the sufferings of his men he 
incautiously extended his cantonments till they came in contact 
with the Russian outposts. Apparently seeing in this movement 
a recommencement of hostilities, Bennigsen concentrated his 
troops towards his right and commenced an advance westwards 
towards Danzig, which was still in Prussian hands. Before his 
advance both Ney and Bernadotte (the latter, between Ney and 
the Baltic, covering the siege of Danzig) were compelled to fall 
back. It then became necessary to disturb the repose of the 
whole army to counter the enemy's intentions. The latter by 
this movement, however, uncovered his own communication 
with Russia, and the emperor was quick to seize his opportunity. 
He received the information on the 28th of January. His orders 
were at once issued and complied with with such celerity that 
by the 3ist he stood prepared to advance with the corps of Soult, 
Ney, Davout and Augereau, the Guard and the reserve cavalry 
(80,000 men on a front of 60 m.) from Myszienec through 
Wollenberg to Gilgenberg; whilst Lannes on his right towards 
Ostrolenka and Lefebvre (X.) at Thorn covered his outer 
flanks. 

Bernadotte, however, was missing, and this time through 
no fault of his own. His orders and the despatch conveying 
Napoleon's instructions fell into the hands of the Cossacks, and 
just in time Bennigsen's eyes were opened. Rapidly renouncing 
his previous intentions, he issued orders to concentrate on 
Allenstein; but -this point was chosen too far in advance and he 
was antkipated by Murat and Soult at that place on the 2nd of 
February. He then determined to unite his forces at Joukendorf , 
but again he was too late. Soult and Murat attacked his rear- 
guard on the 3rd, and learning from his Cossacks that the French 
corps were being directed so as to swing round and enclose him, 
he withdrew by a night march and ultimately succeeded in 
getting his whole army, with the exception of von Lestocq's 
Prussians, together in the strong position along the Alle, the 
centre of which is marked by Preussisch-Eylau. The oppor- 
tunity for this concentration he owed to the time gained for him 
by his rearguard at Joukendorf, for this had stood just long 
enough to induce the French columns to swing in to surround 
him, and the next day was thus lost to the emperor as his corps 
had to extend again to their manoeuvring intervals. The truth 
is that the days were too short and the roads too bad for Napoleon 
to carry out the full purpose his "general advanced guard" 
was intended to fulfil. It was designed to hold the -enemy in 
position by the vigour of its attack, thus neutralizing his inde- 
pendent will power and compelling him to expend his reserves in 
the effort to rescue the troops engaged. But in forests and 
snowdrifts the French made such slow progress that no sufficient 
deployment could be made until darkness put a stop to the 
fighting. Thus, when late on the 7th of February 1807 Murat 
and Soult overtook the enemy near Eylau (q.v.) the fighting was 
severe but not prolonged. This time, however, Bennigsen, with 
over 60,000 men in position and r 5,000 Prussians expected to 
arrive next morning, had no desire to avoid a battle, and deployed 
for action, his front protected by great batteries of guns, many 
of them of heavy calibre, numbering some 200 in all. 

During the night Augereau and the Guards had arrived, and 
Ney and Davout were expected on either flank in the fore- 
noon. This time the emperor was determined his enemy should 
not escape him, and about 8 A.M. ordered Soult and Augereau 
on the left and right respectively to assail the enemy, Murat 
and the Guards remaining in the centre as reserve. Napoleon's 
own forces thus became the " general advanced guard " for Ney 
and Davout, who were to close in on either side and deliver the 
decisive stroke. But here too the weather and the state of the 
roads operated adversely, for Ney came up too late, while Davout, 
in the full tide of his victorious advance, was checked by the 
arrival of Lestocq, whose corps Ney had failed to intercept, 



224 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



and the attack of Augereau's corps (VII.), made in a blinding 
snowstorm, failed with the appalling loss of over 40% killed 
and wounded. Augereau himself was severely wounded, and the 
remnant of his corps was subsequently distributed amongst the 
other corps. Bennigsen, however, drew off on Key's arrival, 
and the French were too much exhausted to pursue him. Again 
the emperor had to admit that his troops could do no more, and 
bowing to necessity, he distributed them into winter quarters, 
where, however, the enterprise of the Cossacks, who were no 
strangers to snow and to forests, left the outposts but little 
repose. 

A protracted period of rest followed, during which the emperor 
exerted himself unremittingly to re-equip, reinforce and supply 
his troops. Hitherto he had been based on the entrenched camp 
of Warsaw, but he had already taken steps to organize a new line 
of supply and retreat via Thorn, and this was now completed. 
At the same time Lefebvre was ordered to press the siege of 
Danzig with all vigour, and on the sth of May, after a most 
gallant resistance, Kalckreuth, who redeemed here his failure of 
Auerstadt, surrendered. English assistance came too late. 
By the beginning of June the French had more than made good 
their losses and 210,000 men were available for field service. 

25. Heilsberg and Friedland. Meanwhile Bennigsen had 
prepared for a fresh undertaking, and leaving Lestocq with 
20,000 Prussians and Russians to contain Bernadotte, who lay 
between Braunsberg and Spandau on the Passarge, he moved 
southwards on the 2nd, and on the 3rd and 4th of June he fell 
upon Ney, driving him back towards Guttstadt, whilst with the 
bulk of his force he moved towards Heilsberg, where he threw 
up an entrenched position. It was not till the sth that Napoleon 
received tidings of his advance, and for the moment these were 
so vague that he contented himself by warning the remainder of 
his forces to be prepared to move on the 6th. Next day, however, 
all doubts were set at rest, and as the Russians advanced south 
of Heilsberg, he decided to wheel his whole force to the right, 
pivoting on the III. corps, arid cut Bennigsen off from Konigsberg 
and the sea. On the Sth the VI., III., VIII. and Guard corps, 
together with a new cavalry reserve corps under Lannes, in all 
147,000, stood ready for the operation, and with Murat and 
Soult as general advanced guard the whole moved forward, 
driving the Russian outposts before them. Bernadotte, who was 
to have attacked Lestocq, again failed to receive his orders and 
took no part in the following operations. 

Murat attacked the Russians, who had halted in their 
entrenched position, on the nth and drove in their outposts, 
but did not discover the entrenchments. Meanwhile Soult 
had followed with his infantry in close support, and the emperor 
himself arriving, ordered him to attack at once. Now the 
Russians uncovered their entrenchments, and in the absence of 
artillery preparation Soult's leading troops received most severe 
punishment. Fresh troops arriving were sent in to his support, 
but these also proved insufficient, and darkness alone put an 
end to the struggle, which cost the French 12,000 killed and 
wounded. 

Bennigsen, however, learning that his right was threatened by 
the III. corps, and not having as yet completed his concentration, 
retreated in the night to Bartenstein, and the following day 
turned sharp to right towards Schippenbeil. The emperor 
now pressed on towards Friedland, where he would completely 
control the Russian communications with Konigsberg, their 
immediate base of supply, but for once the Russians outmarched 
him and covered their movement so successfully that for the 
next three days he seems to have completely lost all knowledge 
of his enemy's whereabouts. Lestocq in the meantime had been 
forced northwards towards Konigsberg, and Soult with Murat 
was in hot pursuit. The III., VI., VIII. and Guard corps followed 
the main road towards Konigsberg, and the former had reached 
Muhlhausen, the remainder were about Preussisch-Eylau, 
when Latour Maubourg's dragoons sent in intelligence which 
pointed to the presence of Bennigsen about Friedland. This 
was indeed the case. The Russians after passing Schippenbeil 
had suddenly turned northwards, and on the evening of the 



i3th were taking up a strong position on the river Alle with 
Friedland as a centre. 

What followed presents perhaps the finest instance of the 
Napoleonic method. The enemy lay direct to his right, and 
Murat, the IV. and III. corps had well overshot the mark. 
Lannes's reserve corps (cavalry), to whom Latour Maubourg 
reported, lay at Domnau some 10 m. to the right. The latter at 
once assumed ther61e of advanced guard cavalry and was ordered 
to observe the enemy at Friedland, Ney following in close 
support. Davout was turned about and directed on the enemy's 
right, and the VIII. corps (Mortier), the Guards and the reserve 
cavalry followed as main body. On the i4th (the anniversary 
of Marengo) Lannes carried out his r&le of fighting advanced 
guard or screen, the emperor's main body gradually came up, 
and the battle of Friedland (q.v.), notable chiefly for the first 
display of the new artillery tactics of the French, ended with 
a general attack about 5 P.M. and the retreat of the Russians, 
after severe losses, over the Alle. Lestocq was, meanwhile, 
driven through Konigsberg (which surrendered on the isth) 
on Tilsit, and now that he was no longer supported by the 
Russians, the Prussian commander gave up the struggle. 

26. The Austrian Army in i8oQ. Ever since Austerlitz the 
Austrian officers had been labouring to reconstitute and reform 
their army. The archduke Charles was the foremost amongst 
many workers who had realized that numbers were absolutely 
needed to confront the new French methods. With these 
numbers it was impossible to attain the high degree of individual 
efficiency required for the old line tactics, hence they were com- 
pelled to adopt the French methods of skirmishers and columns, 
but as yet they had hardly realized the increased density 
necessary to be given to a line of battle to enable it to endure the 
prolonged nervous strain the new system of tactics entailed. 
Where formerly 15,000 men to the mile of front had been con- 
sidered ample for the occupation of a position or the execution 
of an attack, double that number now often proved insufficient, 
and their front was broken before reinforcements could arrive. 
Much had been done to create an efficient staff, but though the 
idea of the army corps command was now no new thing, the 
senior generals entrusted with these commands were far from 
having acquired the independence and initiative of their French 
opponents. Hence the extraordinary slowness of their man- 
oeuvres, not because the Austrian infantry were bad marchers, 
but because the preparation and circulation of orders was still 
far behind the French standard. The light cavalry had been 
much improved and the heavy cavalry on the whole proved a 
fair match for their opponents. 

27. The French Army. After. the peace of Tilsit the Grand 
Army was gradually withdrawn behind the Rhine, leaving only 
three commands, totalling 63,000 men, under Davout in Prussia, 
Oudinot in west central Germany, and Lefebvre in Bavaria, to 
assist the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine in the main- 
tenance of order and the enforcement of the French law of con- 
scription, which was rigorously insisted on in all the States 
comprised in this new federation. 

In exchange for the subsistence of the French troops of 
occupation, a corresponding number of these new levies were 
moved to the south of France, where they commenced to arrive 
at the moment when the situation in Spain became acute. The 
Peninsular War (q.v.) called for large forces of the old Grande 
Armfe and for a brief period Napoleon directed operations in 
person; and the Austrians took advantage of the dissemination 
and weakness of the French forces in Germany to push forward 
their own preparations with renewed energy. 

But they reckoned without the resourcefulness of Napoleon. 
The moment news of their activity reached him, whilst still in 
pursuit of Sir John Moore, he despatched letters to all the 
members of the Confederation warning them that their con- 
tingents might soon be required, and at the same time issued a 
series of decrees to General Clarke, his war minister, authorizing 
him to call up the contingent of 1810 in advance, and directing 
him in detail to proceed with the formation of 4th and sth 
battalions for all the regiments across the Rhine. By these 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



225 



means Davout's, Oudinot's and Lefebvre's commands were 
augmented, whilst in February and March new corps were formed 
and rapidly pushed towards the front. 

On his return from Spain, seeing war imminent, he issued a 
series of march orders (which deserve the closest study in detail) 
by which on the I5th of April his whole army was to be con- 
centrated for manoeuvres between Regensburg, Landshut, Augs- 
burg and Donauworth, and sending on the Guard in wagons to 
Strassburg, he despatched Berthier to act as commander-in- chief 
until his own arrival. 



ftMrin 



ECKMUHL 1809 

'if English Mild 

" 




Emery Walker fc 



28. Austrian Offensive. The position of assembly was ex- 
cellently chosen, but unfortunately the Austrians took the 
initiative. On the gth of April their main body of six corps 
crossed the Inn between Braunau and Passau, and simultane- 
ously two additional corps moved from Pilsen in Bohemia on 
Regensburg. At this moment Davout was entering Regens- 
burg with his leading troops, the remainder still some marches 
in rear, and it was evident that the whole concentration 
could no longer be carried out before the Austrians would be 
in a position to intervene. Berthier received the news while still 
on his way to the front, and quite failed to grasp the situation. 
Reaching Donauworth at 8 P.M. on the I3th of April, he ordered 
Davout and Oudinot to remain at Regensburg, whilst Lefebvre 
and Wrede (Bavarians) who had fallen back before the Austrians 
were directed to reoccupy Landshut. This was in direct contra- 
diction with the instructions Napoleon had given him on the 
28th of March in view of this very emergency. Davout obeyed, 
but remonstrated. On the i6th Berthier went on to Augsburg, 
where he learnt that Lefebvre's advanced troops had been 
driven out of Landshut, thus opening a great gap seventy-six 
miles wide between the two wings of the French army. 
Meanwhile Napoleon, who had left Paris at 4 A.M. on the 
I3th of April, was hastening towards the front, but remained 
still in ignorance of Berthier's doings until on the i6th at Stutt- 
gart he received a letter from the Marshal dated the ijth, which 
threw him into consternation. In reply he immediately wrote : 
" You do not inform me what has rendered necessary such an 
extraordinary measure which weakens and divides my troops "- 
and " I cannot quite grasp the meaning of your letter yet , I 
should have preferred to see my army concentrated between 
Ingolstadt and Augsburg, the Bavarians in the first line, with 
the duke of Danzig in his old position, until we know what the 
enemy is going to do. Everything would be excellent if the duke 
of Auerstadt had been at Ingolstadt and the duke of Rivoli 
with the Wurttembergers and Oudinot's corps at Augsburg, 
... so that just the opposite of what should have been 
done has been done " (C. N. to Berthier, Ludwigsburg, i6th 
April). 

20. Napoleon takes command. Having despatched this severe 
reprimand he hastened on to Donauworth, where he arrived at 
4 A.M. on the lyth, hoping to find Berthier, but the latter was at 
Augsburg. Nevertheless, at 10 A.M. he ordered Davout and 
Oudinot to withdraw at once to Ingolstadt; and Lefebvre and 
Wrede on the right to support the movement. About noon 
xix. 8 






Berthier returned and after hearing his explanation Massena 
received orders to move from Augsburg towards Ingolstadt. 
" To-morrow will be a day of preparation spent in drawing 
closer together, and I expect to be able by Wednesday to 
manoeuvre against the enemy's columns according to 
circumstances." 

Meanwhile the Austrians had approached so near that by a 
single day's march it would have been possible to fall upon and 
crush by superior numbers either wing of the French army, 
but though the Austrian h'ght cavalry successfully covered the 
operations of the following troops they had not yet risen to a 
conception of their reconnoitring mission, and the archduke, 
in ignorance of his opportunity and possessed, moreover, with 
the preconceived idea of uniting at Regensburg with the two 
corps coming from Bohemia, moved the bulk of his forces in 
that direction, leaving only a covering body against Davout 
altogether insufficient to retain him. Davout, however, had 
left a garrison of 1800 men in Regensburg, who delayed the 
junction of the Austrian wings until the 2oth inst., and on the 
same day the emperor, having now reunited his whole right 
wing and centre, overwhelmed the covering detachments 
facing him in a long series of disconnected engagements lasting 
forty-eight hours, and the archduke now found himself in danger 
of being forced back into the Danube. But with the Bohemian 
reinforcements he had still four corps in hand, and Napoleon, 
whose intelligence service in the difficult and intersected country 
had lamentably failed him, had weakened his army by detaching 
a. portion of his force in pursuit of the beaten right wing, and 
against the archduke's communications. 

30. Eckmiihl. When, therefore, the latter, on the 22nd, 
marched southward to reopen his communications by the defeat 
of the enemy's army, always the surest means of solving this 
difficulty, he actually reached the neighbourhood of Eckmiihl 
with a sufficient numerical superiority had he only been prompt 
enough to seize his opportunity. But the French had been 
beforehand with him. Napoleon, who had personally taken part 
in the fighting of the previous day, and followed the pursuit as 
far as Landshut, whence he had despatched Massena to follow 
the retreating Austrians along the Isar, seems to have realized 
about 3 A.M. in the morning that it was not the main body of 
the enemy he had had before him, but only its left wing, and that 
the main body itself must still be northward towards Regensburg. 
Issuing orders to Davout, Oudinot and his cavalry to concentrate 
with all speed towards Eckmiihl, he himself rode back along the 
Regensburg road and reached the battle-field just as the engage- 
ment between the advance troops had commenced. Had the 
Austrians possessed mobility equal to that of the French the 
latter should have been overwhelmed in detail, but whilst the 
French covered 17 and 19 m. the Austrians only marched 10, 
and, owing to the defect in their tactical training alluded to above, 
the troops actually on the ground could not hold out long enough 
for their reserves to arrive. The retreat of the front lines 
involved the following ones in confusion, and presently the 
whole mass was driven back in considerable disorder. It 
seemed as if nothing 'could save the Austrians from complete 
disaster, but at the critical moment the emperor, yielding to 
the protestations of his corps commanders, who represented the 
excessive fatigue of their troops, stopped the pursuit, and the 
archduke made the most of his opportunity to restore order 
amongst his demoralized men, and crossed to the north bank 
of the Danube during the night. 

31. Austrian Retreat. On the following morning the French 
reached Regensburg and at once proceeded to assault its 
medieval walls, but the Austrian garrison bravely defended it 
till the last of the stragglers was safely across on the north bank. 
It was here that for the only time in his career Napoleon was 
slightly wounded. Then, leaving Davout to observe the archduke's 
retreat, the emperor himself rode after Massena, who with the 
major portion of the French army was following the Austrian 
weaker wing under Hiller. The latter was not so shaken as 
Napoleon believed, and turning to bay inflicted a severe check 
on its pursuers, who at Ebelsberg lost 4000 men in three 



226 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



fruitless assaults. Thus covered by his rearguard Hiller gained 
space and time to pass his troops over to the north bank of the 
Danube and remove all boats on the river. This left the direct 
road to Vienna open, and Napoleon, hoping to find peace in the 
enemy's capital, pushed the whole of his army down the right 
bank, and with Murat's cavalry entered the city on the i2th of 
May, after somewhat severe resistance lasting three days. Mean- 
while the archduke and Hiller, both now unmolested, effected 
their junction in the vicinity of Wagram, picketing the whole line 
of the Danube with their outposts and collecting all the boats. 

32. Aspern and Wagram. The reconnaissance of the river 
was at once taken in hand by the French upon their arrival 
in Vienna, and a point opposite the island of Lobau selected 
for the crossing. Thanks to the Austrian precautions it took 
four days to collect the necessary material to span the main 
branch of the river, here some 2000 yds. across, and though 
Napoleon personally spurred on all to activity nearly four days 
more were required for its construction. It was not till the night 
of the igth of May that orders for the passage were finally issued, 
and during the night the troops commenced to occupy the island 
of Lobau. Surprise, of course, was out of the question, but the 
Austrians did not attempt to dispute the passage, their object 
being to allow as many French as they felt they could deal with 
to pass over and then to fall on them. Thus on the 2ist of 
May the battle of Aspern (q.v.) or Essling began. It ended on 
the night of the 22nd with the complete defeat of Napoleon, 
the first ever inflicted upon him. The French retreated into the 
island of Lobau. By nightfall upwards of 100,000 men, en- 
cumbered with at least 20,000 wounded, were crowded together 
on the little island scarcely a mile square, short of provisions 
and entirely destitute of course of all hospital accessories. The 
question then arose whether the retreat was to be continued 
across the main stream or not, and for the second time in his 
career Napoleon assembled his generals to take their opinion. 
They counselled retreat, but having heard them all he replied, 
in substance: " If we leave here at all we may as well retire to 
Strassburg, for unless the enemy is held by the threat of further 
operations he will be free to strike at our communications and 
has a shorter distance to go. We must remain here and renew 
operations as soon as possible." 

Immediate orders were despatched to summon every available 
body of troops to concentrate for the decisive stroke. Practically 
the lines of communication along the Danube were denuded 
of combatants, even Bernadotte being called up from Passau, 
and the viceroy of Italy, who driving the archduke Johann before 
him (action of Raab) had brought up 56,000 men through 
Tirol, was disposed towards Pressburg within easy call. The 
arsenal of Vienna was ransacked for guns, stores and appliances, 
and preparations in the island pushed on as fast as possible. 
By the end of June 200,000 troops were stationed within call, 
and on the 4th July the French began to cross over to the left 
bank of the Danube. The events which followed are described 
under WAGRAM. The great battle at this place, fought on the 
5th and 6th of July, ended in the retirement of the Austrians. 
The only other event which occurred before peace was made 
was an unimportant action at Znaym on the nth of July. 

33. The Russian War of 1812. Whilst the campaign of 1809 
had seriously shaken the faith of the marshals and the higher 
ranks in the infallibility of the emperor's judgment, and the 
slaughter of the troops at Aspern and Wagram had still further 
accentuated the opposition of the French people to conscription, 
the result on the fighting discipline of the army had, on the 
whole, been for good. The panics of Wagram had taught men 
and officers alike a salutary lesson. 

Aware of the growing feeling against war in France, Napoleon 
had determined to make his allies not only bear the expenses of 
the coming campaign, but find the men as well, and he was 
so far master of Europe that of the 363,000 who on the 24th of 
June crossed the Niemen no less than two-thirds were Germans, 
Austrians, Poles or Italians. But though the battlefield discipline 
of the men was better, the discipline in camp and on the march 
was worse, for the troops were no longer eager to reach the 



battlefield, and marched because they were compelled, not of 
their own goodwill. The result was apparent in a sudden 
diminution in mobility, and a general want of punctuality 
which in the event very seriously influenced the course of the 
campaign. On the other hand, the Russians, once their father- 
land was invaded, became dominated by an ever-growing spirit 
of fanaticism, and they were by nature too obedient to their 
natural leaders, and too well inured to the hardships of cam- 
paigning, to lose their courage in a retreat. 

34. The Strategic Deployment. By the middle of June 1812 
the emperor had assembled his army along the line of the Niemen. 
On the extreme right stood the Austrian contingent under 
Schwarzenberg (34,000 men). Next, centring about Warsaw, 
a group of three corps (19,000 men) under the chief command 
of Napoleon's brother Jerome. Then the main army under 
Napoleon in person (220,000 men; with 80,000 more under the 
viceroy of Italy on his right rear); and on the extreme left at 
Tilsit a flanking corps, comprising the Prussian auxiliary corps 
and other Germans (in all 40,000 strong). The whole army 
was particularly strong in cavalry; out of the 450,000, 80,000 
belonged to that arm, and Napoleon, mindful of the lessons of 
1807, had issued the most minute and detailed orders for the 
supply service in all its branches, and the forwarding of reinforce- 
ments, no less than 100,000 men being destined for that purpose 
in due course of time. 

Information about the Russians was very indifferent; it was 
only known that Prince Bagration with about 33,000 men lay 
grouped about Wolkowysk; Barclay de Tolly with 40,000 about 
Vilna; and on the Austrian frontier lay a small corps under 
Tormassov in process of formation, while far away on the Turkish 
frontiers hostilities with the sultan retained Tschitschagov with 
50,000 more. Of the enemy's plans Napoleon knew nothing, 
but, in accordance with his usual practice, the position he had 
selected met all immediate possible moves. 

35. Opening of the Campaign. On the 24th of June the passage 
of the Niemen began in torrid heat which lasted for a few days. 
The main army, with the emperor in person, covered by Murat 
and the cavalry, moved on Vilna, whilst Jerome on his right rear 
at once threatened Bagration and covered the emperor's outer 
flank. From the very first, however, the inherent weakness of 
the vast army, and the vicious choice of time for the beginning 
of the advance, began to make itself felt. The crops being still 
green, and nothing else available as forage for the horses, an 
epidemic of colic broke out amongst them, and in ten days the 
mounted arms had lost upwards of one-third of their strength; 
men died of sunstroke in numbers, and serious straggling began. 
Still everything pointed to the concentration of the Russians at 
Vilna, and Jerome, who on the 5th of July had reached Grodno, 
was ordered to push on. But Jerome proved quite inadequate 
to his position, listening to the complaints of his subordinates as 
to want of supplies and even of pay; he spent four whole days 
in absolute inertia, notwithstanding the emperor's reprimands. 
Meanwhile the Russians made good their retreat Barclay to- 
wards the entrenched camp of Drissa on the Dvina, Bagration 
towards Mohilev. 

The emperor's first great coup thus failed. Jerome was 
replaced by Davout, and the army resumed its march, this time 
in the hope of surrounding and overwhelming Barclay, whilst 
Davout dealt with Bagration. The want of mobility, particularly 
in the cavalry, now began to tell against the French. With horses 
only just recovering from an epidemic, they proved quite unequal 
to the task of catching the Cossacks, who swarmed round them 
in every direction, never accepting an engagement but compelling 
a constant watchfulness for which nothing in their previous 
experience had sufficiently prepared the French. 

Before their advance, however, the Russian armies steadily 
retired, Barclay from Vilna via Drissa to Vitebsk, Bagration 
from Wolkowysk to Mohilev. Again arrangments were made 
for a Napoleonic battle; behind Murat's cavalry came the 
" general advanced guard " to attack and hold the enemy, whilst 
the main body and Davout were held available to swing in on 
his rear. Napoleon, however, failed to allow for the psychology 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



227 



of his opponents, who, utterly indifferent to the sacrifice of life, 
refused to be drawn into engagements to support an advance 
or to extricate a rearguard, and steadily withdrew from every 
position when the French gained touch with them. 

Thus the manoeuvre against Vitebsk again miscarried, and 
Napoleon found himself in a far worse position, numerically and 
materially, than at the outset of the campaign. Then he had 
stood with 420,000 men on a front of 160 m., now he had only 
229,000 men on a front of 135; he had missed three great 
opportunities of destroying hi? enemy in detail, and in five weeks, 
during which time he had only traversed 200 m., he had seen his 
troops reduced numerically at least one-third, and, worse still, 
his army was now far from being the fighting machine it had been 
at the outset. 

36. Smolensk. Meanwhile the Russians had not lost a single 
gun and the moral of their men had been improved by the result 
of the many minor encounters with the enemy; further, the 



and then began a series of rearguard actions and nocturnal 
retreats which completely accomplished their purpose of wearing 
down the French army. The Russian government, however, 
failed to see the matter in its true light, and Marshal Kutusov 
was sent to the front to assume the chief command. His inten- 
tion was to occupy a strong position and fight one general action 
for the possession of Moscow, and to this end he selected the line of 
the Kalatscha where the stream intersects the great Moscow road. 
37. Borodino. Here he was overtaken by Murat and Ney, but 
the French columns had straggled so badly that four whole days 
elapsed before the emperor was able to concentrate his army for 
battle and then could only oppose 128,000 men to the Russians' 
110,000. About 6 a.m. the battle began, but Napoleon was 
suffering from one of those attacks of illness and depression 
which henceforth became such an important factor in his fate. 
Till about midday he foUowed the course of the action with his 
usual alertness; then he appears to have been overcome by a 



B A L T I C 






>Mosc<yw 



,.. ,. .. 

Conigsberg 



Glubokoye 



Danzigj 



/Una 



ichm/any 



"Krasnyi 



Kalug* 



IMarienwerderl 



I Mogilev 



Ostrolenka/ 

Pultusk^ 
Modlir 



iNesTiye 



Warsaw 



oLnblin 





Kiev 



:AMPAIGNof 1812 

Scale. 1:7,800,000 

English Miles 
50 loo MO 



Roadi 



Marshes -" 



junction of Bagration and Barclay was now assured in the vicinity 
of Smolensk. Towards this place the French advance was now 
resumed, and the Russian generals at the head of a united force 
of 130,000 men marched forward to meet them. Here, however, 
the inefficiency of the Russian staff actually saved them from 
the disaster which must certainly have overtaken them had they 
realized their intention of fighting the French. The Russians 
marched in two columns, which lost touch of one another, and 
as it was quite impossible for either to engage the French single- 
handed, they both retired again towards Smolensk, where with 
an advanced guard in the town itself which possessed an old- 
fashioned brick enceinte not to be breached by field artillery alone 
the two columns reunited and deployed for action behind the 
unfordable Dnieper. 

Murat and Ney as " general advanced guard " attacked the 
town in the morning of the i6th of August, and whilst they 
fought the main body was swung round to attack the Russian 
left and rear. The whole of the 1 7th was required to complete the 
movement, and as soon as its purpose was sufficiently revealed 
to the Russians the latter determined to retreat under cover of 
night. Their manoeuvre was carried out with complete success, 



kind of stupor and allowed his marshals to fight by themselves. 
There was no final decisive effort as at Wagram and the Guard 
was not even called on to move. Ultimately the sun went down 
on an undecided field on which 25,000 French and 38,000 Russians 
had fallen, but the moral reaction on the former was far greater 
than on the latter. 

38. Moscow. Kutusov continued his retreat, and Murat 
with his now exhausted horsemen followed as best he might. 
Sebastiani, commanding the advanced guard, overtook the 
Russians in the act of evacuating Moscow, and agreed with the 
latter to observe a seven hours' armistice to allow the Russians to 
clear the town, for experience had shown the French that street 
fighting in wooden Russian townships always meant fire and the 
consequent destruction of much-needed shelter and provisions. 
Towards nightfall Napoleon reached the scene, and the Russians 
being now clear the troops began to enter, but already fires were 
observed in the farther part of the city. Napoleon passed the 
night in a house in the western suburb and next morning rode 
to the Kremlin, the troops moving to the quarters assigned 
to them, but in the afternoon a great fire began and, continuing 
for two days, drove the French out into the country again. 



228 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



The emperor was now in the direst perplexity. Kutusov was 
hovering on the outskirts of the city, his main body at Kaluga, 
some marches to the S.W., where he was in full communication 
with the richest portion of the empire; and now news arrived 
that St. Cyr, who had relieved Macdonald on his extreme left, 
had only 17,000 men left under arms against upwards of 40,000 
Russians under Witgenstein; and to the south Tschitschagov's 
army, being no longer detained on the Turkish frontier, peace 
having been made, was marching to join Tormassov about 
Brest-Litewski with forces which would bring the total of the 
two well over 100,000 men. Meanwhile Schwarzenberg's force 
opposing these had dwindled to a bare 30,000. 

The French army was thus disposed almost in an equilateral 
triangle with sides of about 570 m., with 95,000 men at the apex 
at Moscow opposed to 120,000, 30,000 about Brest opposite 
100,000, and 17,000 about Drissa confronted by 40,000, whilst in 
the centre of the base at Smolensk lay Victor's corps, about 
30,000. From Moscow to the Niemen was 550 m. In view of 
this situation Napoleon on the 4th of October sent General 
Lauriston to the Russian headquarters to treat. Whilst waiting 
his return Murat was enjoined to skirmish with Kutusov, and 
the emperor himself worked out a scheme to assume the offensive 
with his whole army towards St Petersburg, calling in Victor and 
St Cyr on the way. This project was persisted with, until on the 
1 8th Murat was himself attacked and severely handled (action 
of Tarutino or Vinkovo). On the morning of the ipth the whole 
army moved out to accept this challenge, and the French were 
thoroughly worsted on the 24th in the battle of Maloyaroslavetz. 

39. The Retreat from Moscow. Then began the celebrated 
retreat. It has generally been forgotten that the utter want 
of march discipline in the French, and not the climatic condi- 
tions, was responsible for the appalling disasters which ensued. 
Actually the frost came later than usual that year, the 2yth of 
October, and the weather was dry and bracing; not till the 8th 
of November did the cold at night become sharp. Even when the 
Beresina was reached on the 26th November, the cold was far from 
severe, for the slow and sluggish stream was not frozen over, as is 
proved by the fact that Eble's pioneers worked in the water all 
through that terrible day. But the French army was already com- 
pletely out of hand, and the degree to which the panic of a crowd 
can master even the strongest instinct of the individual is shown 
by the conduct of the fugitives who crowded over the bridges, 
treading hundreds under foot, whilst all the time the river was 
easily fordable and mounted men rode backwards and forwards 
across it. 

To return to . the actual sequence of events. Kutusov had 
been very slow in exploiting his success of the 24th and indeed 
had begun the pursuit in a false direction; but about the 2nd of 
November, headquarters of the French being at Vyazma, the 
Cossacks became so threatening that the emperor ordered the 
army to march (as in Egypt) in hollow square. This order, 
however, appears only to have been obeyed by the Guards, with 
whom henceforward the emperor marched. 

Kutusov had now overtaken the French, but fortunately for 
them he made no effort to close with them, but hung on their 
flank, molesting them with Cossacks and picking up stragglers. 
Thus the wreck of the Grande Arm&e, now not more than 
fifty thousand strong, reached Smolensk on the 9th and 
there rested till the I4th. The march was then resumed, the 
Guard leading and Ney commanding the rearguard. Near 
Krasnoi on the i6th the Russian advanced guard tried to head 
the column off. Napoleon halted a whole day to let the army 
close up; and then attacked with his old vigour and succeeded 
in clearing the road, but only at the cost of leaving Ney and the 
rearguard to its fate. By a night march of unexampled daring 
and difficulty Ney succeeded in breaking through the Russian 
cordon, but when he regained touch with the main body at 
Orcha only 800 of his 6000 men were still with him (2ist). 

40. The Beresina. From here Napoleon despatched orders 
to Victor to join him at Borisov on the Beresina. The cold now 
gave way and thaw set in, leaving the country a morass, and 
Information came that Tschitschagov from the south had reached 



Borisov. He now selected Viesselovo as the point of passage and 
at i a.m. on the 23rd sent orders to Oudinot to march thither 
and construct bridges. In the execution of these orders Oudinot 
encountered the Russian advanced guard near Borisov and 
drove the latter back in confusion, though not before they had 
destroyed the existing bridge there. This sudden reassumption 
of the offensive threw Tschitschagov into confusion. Thus time 
was gained for Victor also to come up and for Oudinot to con- 
struct the bridges at Studienka near the above-mentioned 
place, but a spot in many respects better suited for the purpose. 
Thither therefore Napoleon sent his pontonniers under General 
Eble, but on their arrival they found that no preparations had 
been made and much time was lost. Meanwhile Victor, in doubt 
as to the real point of passage, had left the road to Studienka 
open to Wittgenstein, who had followed hard on his heels. 

By 4 p.m. on the 26th the bridges were finished and the passage 
began, but not without resistance by the Russians, who were' 
gradually closing in. The crossing continued all night, though 
interrupted from time to time by failures of the bridges. All 
day during the 27th stragglers continued to cross, covered by 
such combatants as remained under sufficient discipline to be 
employed. At 8 a.m. on the 28th, however, Tschitschagov and 
Wittgenstein moved forward on both banks of the river to the 
attack, but were held off by the splendid self-sacrifice of the few 
remaining troops under Ney, Oudinot and Victor, until about 
i p.m. the last body of regular troops passed over the bridges, 
and only a few thousand stragglers remained beyond the river. 

The number of troops engaged by the French that day cannot 
be given exactly. Oudinot's and Victor's men were relatively 
fresh and may have totalled 20,000, whilst Ney can hardly have 
had more than 6000 of all corps fighting under him. How many 
were killed can never be known, but three days later the total 
number of men reported fit for duty had fallen to 8800 only. 

41. Final Operations. Henceforward the retreat of the army 
became practically a headlong flight, and on the 5th of December, 
having reached Smorgoni and seeing that nothing further could 
be done by him at the front, the emperor handed over the 
command of what remained to Murat, and left fry Paris to 
organize a fresh army for the following year. Travelling at 
the fullest speed, he reached the Tuileries on the i8th, after a 
journey of 312 hours. 

After the emperor's departure the cold set in with increased 
severity, the thermometer falling to 23. On the 8th of December 
Murat reached Vilna, whilst Ney with about 400 men and Wrede 
with 2000 Bavarians still formed the rearguard; but it was quite 
impossible to carry out Napoleon's instructions to go into 
winter quarters about the town, so that the retreat was resumed 
on the loth and ultimately Konigsberg was attained on the 
1 9th of December by Murat with 400 Guards and 600 Guard 
cavalry dismounted. 

Meanwhile on the extreme French right Schwarzenberg and 
his Austrians had drifted away towards their own frontier, 
and the Prussian contingent, which under Yorck (see YORCK 
VON WARTENBUEG) formed part of Macdonald's command 
about Riga, had entered into a convention with the Russians 
at Tauroggen (December 30) which deprived the French of their 
last support upon their left. Konigsberg thus became untenable, 
and Murat fell back to Posen, where on the loth of January 
he handed over his command to Eugene Beauharnais and 
returned to Paris. 

The Russian pursuit practically ceased at the line of the 
Niemen, for their troops also had suffered terrible hardships 
and a period of rest had become an absolute necessity. 

42. The War of Liberation. The Convention of Tauroggen 
became the starting-point of Prussia's regeneration. As the 
news of the destruction of the Grande Armie spread, and the 
appearance of countless stragglers convinced the Prussian people 
of the reality of the disaster, the spirit generated by years of 
French domination burst out. For the moment the king and his 
ministers were placed in a position of the greatest anxiety, for 
they knew the resources of France and the boundless versatility 
of their arch-enemy far too well to imagine that the end of their 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



229 



sufferings was yet in sight. To disavow the acts and desires of 
the army and of the secret societies for defence with which all 
north Germany was honeycombed would be to imperil the very 
existence of the monarchy, whilst an attack on the wreck of 
the Grand Army meant the certainty of a terrible retribution 
from the new armies now rapidly forming on the Rhine. 

But the Russians and the soldiers were resolved to continue 
the campaign, and working in collusion they put pressure on 
the not unwilling representatives of the civil power to facilitate 
the supply and equipment of such troops as were still in the field; 
they could not refuse food and shelter to their starving country- 
men or their loyal allies, and thus by degrees the French garrisons 
scattered about the country either found themselves surrounded 
or were compelled to retire to avoid that fate. Thus it happened 
that the viceroy of Italy felt himself compelled to depart from 
the positive injunctions of the emperor to hold on at all costs 
to his advanced position at Posen, where about 14,000 men 
had gradually rallied around him, and to withdraw step by step . 
to Magdeburg, where he met reinforcements and commanded 
the whole course of the lower Elbe. 

43. Napoleon's Preparations. Meanwhile the emperor in 
Paris had been organizing a fresh army for the reconquest of 
Prussia. Thanks to his having compelled his allies to fight his 
battles for him, he had not as yet drawn very heavily on the 
fighting resources of France, the actual percentage of men taken 
by the conscriptions during the years since 1806 being actually 
lower than that in force in continental armies of to-day. He 
had also created in 1811-1812 a new National Guard, organized 
in " cohorts " to distinguish it from the regular army, and for 
home defence only, and these by a skilful appeal to their patriotism 
and judicious pressure applied through the prefects, became a 
useful reservoir of half-trained men for new battalions of the 
active army. Levies were also made with rigorous severity 
in the states of the Rhine Confederation, and even Italy was 
called on for fresh sacrifices. In this manner by the end of 
March upwards of 200,000 men were moving towards the Elbe, 1 
and in the first fortnight of April they were duly concentrated 
in the angle formed by the Elbe and Saale, threatening on the 
one hand Berlin, on the other Dresden and the east. 

44. Spring Campaign of 1813. The allies, aware of the gradual 
strengthening of their enemy's forces but themselves as yet 
unable to put more than 200,000 in the field, had left a small 
corps of observation opposite Magdeburg and along the Elbe 
to give timely notice of an advance towards Berlin; and with 
the bulk of their forces had taken up a position about Dresden, 
whence they had determined to march down the course of the 
Elbe and roll up the French from right to left. Both armies 
were very indifferently supplied with information, as both were 
without any reliable regular cavalry capable of piercing the 
screen of outposts with which each endeavoured to conceal 
his disposition, and Napoleon, operating in a most unfriendly 
country, suffered more in this respect than his adversaries. 

On the 2$th of April Napoleon reached Erfurt and assumed 
the chief command. On this day his troops stood in the following 
positions. Eugene, with Lauriston's, Macdonald's and Regnier's 
corps, on the lower Saale, Ney in front of Weimar, holding the 
defile of Kosen; the Guard at Erfurt, Marmont at Gotha, 
Bertrand at Saalfeld, and Oudinot at Coburg, and during the 
next few days the whole were set in motion towards Merseburg 
and Leipzig, in the now stereotyped Napoleonic order, a strong 
advanced guard of all arms leading, the remainder about two- 
thirds of the whole following as " masse de manoeuvre," this 
time, owing to the cover afforded by the Elbe on the left, to the 
right rear of the advanced guard. 

Meanwhile the Russians and Prussians had concentrated all 
available men and were moving on an almost parallel line, but 
somewhat to the south of the direction taken by the French. 
On the ist of May Napoleon and the advanced guard entered 
Lutzen. Wittgenstein, who now commanded the allies in place 
of Kutusov, hearing of his approach, had decided to attack 

1 Napoleon always gave them out as 300,000, but this number 
was never attained. 



the French advanced guard, which he took to be their whole 
force, on its right flank, and during the morning had drawn 
together the bulk of his forces on his right in the vicinity of Gross- 
Gorschen and Kaya. 

45. Bailie of Lutzen. About 9 a.m. on May 2nd he began an 
attack on the French advance guard in Lutzen, whilst the 
remainder of his army was directed against Napoleon's right 
and rear. Just as the latter were moving off the heads of the 
French main body suddenly appeared, and at 1 1 a.m. Napoleon, 
then standing near the Gustavus Adolphus monument on the 
field of Lutzen, heard the roar of a heavy cannonade to his right 
rear. He realized the situation in a moment, galloped to the 
new scene of action, and at once grouped his forces for decisive 
action the gift in which he was supreme. Leaving the leading 
troops to repulse as best they might the furious attack of both 
Russians and Prussians, and caring little whether they lost 
ground, he rapidly organized for his own control a battle-reserve. 
At length when both sides were exhausted by their efforts he 
sent forward nearly a hundred guns which tore asunder by their 
case-shot fire the enemy's line and marched his reserve right 
through the gap. Had he possessed an adequate cavalry force 
the victory would have been decisive. As it was, the allies made 
good their retreat and the French were too exhausted for infantry 
pursuit. 

Perhaps no battle better exemplifies the inherent strength of 
the emperor's strategy, and in none was his grasp of the battlefield 
more brilliantly displayed, for, as he fully recognized, " These 
Prussians have at last learnt something they are no longer the 
wooden toys of Frederick the Great," and, on the other hand, 
the relative inferiority of his own men as compared with his 
veterans of Austerlitz called for far more individual effort than 
on any previous day. He was everywhere, encouraging and 
compelling his men it is a legend in the French army that the 
persuasion even of the imperial boot was used upon some of his 
reluctant conscripts, and in the result his system was fully 
justified, as it triumphed even against a great tactical surprise. 

46. Bautzen. As soon as possible the army pressed on in 
pursuit, Ney being sent across the Elbe to turn the position of the 
allies at Dresden. This threat forced the latter to evacuate the 
town and retire over the Elbe, after blowing up the stone bridge 
across the river. Napoleon entered the town hard on their heels, 
but the broken bridge caused a delay of four days, there being no 
pontoon trains with the army. Ultimately on the i8th of May the 
march was renewed, but the allies had continued their retreat in 
leisurely fashion, picking up reinforcements by the way. Arrived 
at the line of the Spree, they took up and fortified a very formid- 
able position about Bautzen (?..). Here, on the 2oth, they were 
attacked, and after a two days' battle dislodged by Napoleon; 
but the weakness of the French cavalry conditioned both the 
form of the attack, which was less effective than usual, and the 
results of the victory, which were extremely meagre. 

The allies broke off the action at their own time and retired 
in such good order that the emperor failed to capture a single 
trophy as proof of his victory. The enemy's escape annoyed him 
greatly, the absence of captured guns and prisoners reminded 
him too much of his Russian experiences, and he redoubled his 
demands on his corps commanders for greater vigour in the 
pursuit. This led the latter to push on without due regard to 
tactical precautions, and Bliicher took advantage of their 
carelessness when at Haynau (May 26), with some twenty 
squadrons of Landwehr cavalry, he surprised, rode over and 
almost destroyed Maison's division. The material loss inflicted 
on the French was not very great, but its effect in raising the 
moral of the raw Prussian cavalry and increasing their con- 
fidence in their old commander was enormous. 

Still the allies continued their retreat and the French were 
unable to bring them to action. In view of the doubtful attitude 
of Austria, Napoleon became alarmed at the gradual lengthening 
of his lines of communication and opened negotiations. The 
e'nemy, having everything to gain and nothing to lose thereby, 
agreed finally to a six weeks' suspension of arms. This was 
perhaps the gravest military error of Napoleon's whole career, 



230 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



and his excuse for it, " want of adequate cavalry," is the strongest 
testimony as to the value of that arm. 

47. The Autumn Campaign. As soon as a suspension of arms 
(to i sth of August) had been agreed to, Napoleon hastened to 
withdraw his troops from the dangerous position they occupied 
with reference to the passes leading over the mountains from 
Bohemia, for he entertained no doubt now that Austria was also 
to be considered as an enemy. Finally he decided to group his 
corps round Gorlitz and Bautzen whence they could either meet 
the enemy advancing from Breslau or fall on his flank over the 
mountains if they attempted to force their way into Saxony 
by the valley of the 'Elbe. This latter manoeuvre depended, 
however, on his maintenance of Dresden, and to this end he sent 
the I. Corps up the Elbe to Pirna and Konigstein to cover the 
fortifications of Dresden itself. His instructions on this point 
deserve the closest study, for he foresaw the inevitable attraction 
which a complete entrenched camp would exercise even upon him- 
self, and, therefore, limited his engineers to the construction of a 
strong bridge head on the right bank and a continuous enceinte, 
broken only by gaps for counter attack, around the town itself. 

Then he turned his attention to the plan for the coming 
campaign. Seeing clearly that his want of an efficient cavalry 
precluded all ideas of a resolute offensive in his old style, he 
determined to limit himself to a defence of the line of the Elbe, 
making only dashes of a few days' duration at any target the 
enemy might present. 

Reinforcements had been coming up without ceasing and 
at the beginning of August he calculated that he would have 
300,000 men available about Bautzen and 100,000 along the 
Elbe from Hamburg via Magdeburg to Torgau. With the 
latter he determined to strike the first blow, by a concentric 
advance on Berlin (which he calculated he would reach on 
the 4th or 5th day), the movement being continued thence 
to extricate the French garrisons in Kiistrin, Stettin and 



Danzig. The moral effect, he promised himself, would be 
prodigious, and there was neither room nor food for these 
100,000 elsewhere. 

Towards the close of the armistice he learned the general 
situation of the allies. The crown prince of Sweden (Bernadotte), 
with his Swedes and various Prussian levies, 135,000 in all, lay 
in and around Berlin and Stettin; and knowing his former 
marshal well, Napoleon considered Oudinot a match for him. 
Blucher with about 95,000 Russians and Prussians was about 
Breslau, and Schwarzenberg, with nearly 180,000 Austrians and 
Russians, lay in Bohemia. In his position at Bautzen he felt 
himself equal to all his enemy's combinations. 

48. Dresden. The advance towards Berlin began punctually 
with the expiration of the armistice, but with the main army he 
himself waited to see more clearly his adversaries' plans. At 
length becoming impatient he advanced a portion of his army 
towards Blucher, who fell back to draw him into a trap. Then 
the news reached him that Schwarzenberg was pressing down the 
valley of the Elbe, and, leaving Macdonald to observe Blucher, 
he hurried back to Bautzen to dispose his troops to cross the 
Bohemian mountains in the general direction of Konigstein, a 
blow which must have had decisive results. But the news from 
Dresden was so alarming that at the last moment he changed his 
mind, and sending Vandamme alone over the mountains, he 
hurried with his whole army to the threatened point. This 
march remains one of the most extraordinary in history, for the 
bulk of his forces moved, mainly in mass and across country, 
90 m. in 72 hours, entering Dresden on the morning of the 27th, 
only a few hours before the attack of the allies commenced. For 
the events which followed see DRESDEN (battle). 

Dresden was the last great victory of the First Empire. By 
noon on the 27th August the Austrians and Russians were 
completely beaten and in full retreat, the French pressing hard 
behind them, but meanwhile Napoleon himself again succumbed 



_^ttle of **- 
LE1PZ1O 
Oct.iftth 1813 

Engnsn Mi: 



! \ /.- Vi^ 

Campaign of 1813 

Si .tliv 1:2.000.000 




NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



231 



to one of his unaccountable attacks of apparent intellectual 
paralysis. He seemed unaware of the vital importance of the 
moment, crouched shivering over a bivouac fire, and finally rode 
back to Dresden, leaving no specific orders for the further pursuit. 

49. French Defeats. The allies, however, continued to retreat, 
but unfortunately Vandamme, with his single corps and un- 
supported, issued out of the mountains on their flank, threw 
himself across their line of retreat near Kulm, and was completely 
overwhelmed by sheer weight of numbers (2qth). In spite of 
this misfortune, Napoleon could claim a brilliant success for 
himself, but almost at the same moment news reached him that 
Oudinot at Grossbeeren near Berlin, and Macdonald on the 
Katzbach opposed to Blucher, had both been severely defeated. 

50. Napoleon's Movements. During the next two days the 
emperor examined his situation and dictated a series of notes 
which have been a puzzle to every strategical thinker ever since. 
In these he seems suddenly to have cut adrift from every principle 
the truth of which he had himself so brilliantly demonstrated, 
and we find him discussing plans based on hypothesis, not 
knowledge, and on the importance of geographical points without 
reference to the enemy's field army. From these reveries he 
was at length awakened by news which indicated that the con- 
sequences of Macdonald's defeat had been far more serious to 
the moral of that command than he had imagined. He immedi- 
ately rode over to establish order, and his manner and violence 
were so improper that Caulaincourt had the greatest difficulty 
in concealing the scandal. Bliicher, however, hearing of his 
arrival, at once retreated and the emperor followed, thus 
uncovering the passes over the Bohemian mountains, a fact 
of which Schwarzenberg was quick to take advantage. Learning 
of his approach, Napoleon again withdrew to Bautzen. Then 
hearing that the Austrians had counter-marched and were again 
moving towards Dresden, he hastened back there, concentrated 
as many men as could conveniently be handled, and advanced 
beyond Pirna and Konigstein to meet him. But the Austrians 
had no intention of attacking him, for time was now working 
on their side and, leaving his men to starve in the exhausted 
district, the emperor again returned to Dresden, where for the 
rest of the month he remained in an extraordinary state of 
vacillation. On the 4th of October he again drew up a review 
of the situation, in which he apparently contemplated giving 
up his communications with France and wintering in and around 
Dresden, though at the same time he is aware of the distress 
amongst his men for want of food. 

51. Campaign of Leipzig. In the meanwhile Blucher, 
Schwarzenberg and Bernadotte were working round his flanks. 
Ney, who had joined Oudinot after Grossbeeren, had been 
defeated at Dennewitz (6th Sept.), the victory, won by Prussian 
troops solely, giving the greatest encouragement to the enemy. 
Suddenly Napoleon's plans are again reviewed and completely 
changed. Calling up St Cyr, whom he had already warned to 
remain at Dresden with his command, he decides to fall back 
towards Erfurt, and go into winter quarters between that place 
and Magdeburg, pointing out that Dresden was of no use to him 
as a base and that if he does have a battle, he had much better 
have St Cyr and his men with him than at Dresden. He then 
on the 7th of October drew up a final plan, in which one again 
recognizes the old commander, and this he immediately proceeded 
to put into execution, for he was now quite aware of the danger 
threatening his line of retreat from both Bliicher and Schwarzen- 
berg and the North Army; yet only a few hours afterwards 
the portion of the order relating to St Cyr and Lobau was 
cancelled and the two were finally left behind at Dresden. From 
the loth to the I3th Napoleon lay at Diiben, again a prey to 
the most extraordinary irresolution, but on that day he thought 
he saw his opportunity. Blucher was reported near Wittenberg, 
and Schwarzenberg was moving slowly round to the south of 
Leipzig. The North Army under Bernadotte, unknown to 
Napoleon, lay on Blucher's left around Halle. The emperor 
decided to throw the bulk of his force on Blucher, and, having 
routed him, turn south on Schwarzenberg and sever his com- 
munications with Bohemia. His concentration was effected 



with his usual sureness and celerity, but whilst the French moved 
on Wittenberg, Blucher was marching to his right, indifferent 
to his communications as all Prussia lay behind him. 

This move on the I4th brought him into touch with Bernadotte, 
and now a single march forward of all three armies would have 
absolutely isolated Napoleon from France; but Bernadotte's 
nerve failed him, for on hearing of Napoleon's threat against 
Wittenberg he decided to retreat northward, and not all the 
persuasions of Blucher and Gneisenau could move him. Thus 
if the French movement momentarily ended in a blow in the 
air, it was indirectly the cause of their ultimate salvation. 

52. The " Bailie of the Nations." On the I5th Napoleon con- 
centrated his forces to the east of Leipzig, with only a weak 
detachment to the west, and in the evening the allies were prepared 
to attack him. Schwarzenberg, with 180,000 men available at 
once and 60,000 on the following day; Blucher had about 
60,000, but Bernadotte now could not arrive before the i8th. 

Napoleon prepared to throw the bulk of his force upon Schwar- 
zenberg and massed his troops south-east of the town, whilst 
Schwarzenberg marched concentrically against him down 
the valley of the Elster and Pleisse, the mass of his troops 
on the right bank of the latter and a strong column under 
Giulay on the left working round to join Blucher on the 
north. The fighting which followed was most obstinate, but the 
Austrians failed to make any impression on the French positions, 
and indeed Giulay felt himself compelled to withdraw to his 
former position. On the other hand, Blucher carried the 
village of Mockern and came within a mile of the gates of the 
town. During the i7th there was only indecisive skirmishing, 
Schwarzenberg waiting for his reinforcements coming up by the 
Dresden road, Blucher for Bernadotte to come in on his left, 
and by some extraordinary oversight Giulay was brought closer 
in to the Austrian centre, thus opening for the French their 
line of retreat towards Erfurt, and no imformation of this move- 
ment appears to have been conveyed to Blucher. The emperor 
when he became aware of the movement, sent the IVth Corps 
to Lindenau to keep the road open. 

On the i8th the fighting was resumed and by about noon 
Bernadotte came up and closed the gap to the N.E. of the town 
between Blucher and the Austrians. At 2 p.m. the Saxons, 
who had remained faithful to Napoleon longer than his other 
German allies, went over to the enemy. All hope of saving the 
battle had now to be given up, but the French covered their 
retreat obstinately and by daybreak next morning one-half 
of the army was already filing out along the road to Erfurt 
which had so fortunately been left for them. 

53. Retreat of the French and Battle of Hanau. It took Blucher 
time to extricate his troops from the confusion into which the 
battle had thrown them, and the garrison of Leipzig and the 
troops left on the right bank of the Elster still resisted obstinately 
hence no direct pursuit could be initiated and the French, 
still upwards of 100,000 strong, marching rapidly, soon gained 
distance enough to be reformed. Blucher followed by parallel 
and inferior roads on their northern flank, but Schwarzenberg 
knowing that the Bavarians also had forsaken the emperor 
and were marching under Wrede, 50,000 strong, to intercept 
his retreat, followed in a most leisurely fashion. Blucher did 
not succeed in overtaking the French, but the latter, near 
Hanau, found their way barred by Wrede with 50,000 men and 
over zoo guns in a strong position. 

To this fresh emergency Napoleon and his army responded in 
most brilliant fashion. As at Krasnoi in 1812, they went straight 
for their enemy and after one of the most brilliant series of 
artillery movements in history, directed by General Drouot, 
they marched right over their enemy, practically destroying his 
whole force. Henceforward their march was unmolested, and 
they reached Mainz on the sth of November. 

54. The Defensive Campaign. When the last of the French 
troops had crossed to the western bank of the Rhine, divided 
counsels made their appearance at the headquarters of the allies. 
Every one was weary of the war, and many felt that it would be 
unwise to push Napoleon and the French nation to extremes. 



232 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



Hence a prolonged halt arose, utilized by the troops in renewing 
their equipment and so forth, but ultimately the Young German 
party, led by Blucher and the principal fighting men of the 
army, triumphed, and on the ist of January 1814 the Silesian 
army (50,000) began its passage of the Rhine at Kaub. They 
were to be supported by Schwarzenberg with 200,000 men, who 
was to advance by Basel and Neu Breisach to the south, and 
Bernadotte with the Northern army, about 120,000, was to move 
in support on the right flank through the Netherlands and 
Laon; this force was not yet ready and did not, in fact, reach the 
latter place till March. 

To meet these forces the emperor could not collect 200,000 men 
in all, of whom upwards of 100,000 were held by Wellington on 
the Spanish frontier, and 20,000 more were required to watch 
the debouches from the Alps. Hence less than 80,000 remained 
available for the east and north-eastern frontier. If, however, 
he was weak in numbers, he was now again operating in a 
friendly country, able to find 
food almost everywhere and 
practically indifferent as to his 
communications. 

On the 25th of January, 
Blucher entered Nancy, and, 
moving rapidly up the valley 
of the Moselle, was in com- 
munication with the Austrian 
advanced guard near La 
Rothiere on the afternoon 
of the 28th. Here his head- 
quarters were surprised and 
he himself nearly captured by 
a sudden rush of French 
troops, and he learnt at the 
same time that the emperor 
in person was at hand. He 
accordingly fell back a few 
miles next morning to a strong 
position covering the exits 
from the Bar-sur-Aube defile. 
There he was joined by the 
Austrian advance guard, and 
together they decided to ac- 
cept battle indeed they had 
no alternative, as the roads 
in rear were so choked with 
traffic that retreat was out of the question. About noon 
the 2nd of February Napoleon attacked them, but the weather 
was terrible, and the ground so heavy that his favourite 
artillery, the mainstay of his whole system of warfare, was 
useless and in the drifts of snow which at intervals swept 
across the field, the columns lost their direction and many 
were severely handled by the Cossacks. At nightfall the 
fighting ceased and the emperor retired to Lesmont, and thence 
to Troyes, Marmont being left to observe the enemy. 

55. Montmirail. Owing to the state of the roads, more 
perhaps to the extraordinary lethargy which always characterized 
Schwarzenberg's headquarters, no pursuit was attempted. 
But on the 4th of February Blucher, chafing at this inaction, 
obtained the permission of his own sovereign to transfer his 
line of operations to the valley of the Marne; Pahlen's corps 
of Cossacks were assigned to him to cover his left and maintain 
communication with the Austrians. 

Believing himself secure behind this screen, he advanced from 
Vitry along the roads leading down the valley of the Marne, 
with his columns widely separated for convenience of subsistence 
and shelter the latter being almost essential in the terrible 
weather prevailing. Blucher himself on the night of the 7th was at 
Sezanne, on the exposed flank so as to be nearer to his sources 
of intelligence, and the rest of his army were distributed in 
four small corps at or near fipernay, Montmirail and fitoges; 
reinforcements also were on their way to join him and were then 
about Vitry. 



In the night his headquarters were again surprised, and he 
learnt that Napoleon himself with his main body was in full 
march to fall on his scattered detachments. At the same time 
he heard that Pahlen's Cossacks had been withdrawn forty-eight 
hours previously, thus completely exposing his flank. He himself 
retreated towards fitoges endeavouring to rally his scattered 
detachments, but Napoleon was too quick for him and in three 
successive days he defeated Sacken at Montmirail, York at Champ 
Aubert and Bliicher and his main body at fitoges, pursuing 
the latter towards Vertus. These disasters compelled the retreat 
of the whole Silesian army, and Napoleon, leaving Mortier and 
Marmont to deal with them, hurried back to Troyes with his 
main body to strike the flank of Schwarzenberg's army, which had 
meanwhile begun its leisurely advance, and again at Mormant on 
the 1 7th of February, Montereauthe iSthand Mery the 2ist, he 
inflicted such heavy punishment upon his adversaries that they 
fell back precipitately to Bar-sur-Aube. 



I .Yon--i<\ 

CAMPAIGN of 1814 ? 




EmcryWAlkcrsc 



56. Laon. In the meantime Blucher had rallied his scattered 
forces and was driving Marmont and Mortier before him. 
Napoleon, as soon as he had disembarrassed himself of Schwarzen- 
berg, counter-marched his main body and moving again by 
Sezanne, fell upon Bliicher's left and drove him back upon 
Soissons. This place had been held by a French garrison, 
but had capitulated only twenty-four hours beforehand, a fact 
of which Napoleon was naturally unaware. The Silesian army 
was thus able to escape, and marching northwards combined 
with Bernadotte at Laon this reinforcement bringing the 
forces at Bliicher's disposal up to over 100,000 men. 

On the 7th of March Napoleon fell upon the advance guard of 
this force at Craonne and drove it back upon Laon, where a 
battle took place on the 9th. Napoleon was here defeated, and 
with only 30,000 men at his back he was compelled to renounce 
all ideas of a further offensive, and he retired to rest his troops 
to Reims. Here he remained unmolested for a few days, for 
Blucher was struck down by sickness, and in his absence nothing 
was done. On the I4th of March, however, Schwarzenberg, 
becoming aware of Napoleon's withdrawal to Reims, again began 
his advance and had reached Arcis-sur-Aube when the news of 
Napoleon's approach again induced him to retreat to Brienne. 

57. The Allies March on Paris. Thus after six weeks' fighting 
the allies were hardly more advanced than at the beginning. 
Now, however, they began to realize the weakness of their 
opponent, and perhaps actuated by the fear that Wellington 
from Toulouse might, after all, reach Paris first, they determined 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



233 



to march to Paris (then an open city), and let Napoleon do his 
worst to their communications. Actually this was exactly what 
he was preparing to do. He had determined to move eastward 
to St Dizier, rally what garrisons he could find, and raise the whole 
country against the invaders, and had actually started on the 
execution of this plan when his instructions fell into the enemy's 
hands and his projects were exposed. Regardless of the threat, 
the allies marched straight for the capital. Marmont and 
Mortier with what troops they could rally took up a position on 
Montmartre heights to oppose them, but seeing further resistance 
to be hopeless they gave way on the 3ist of March, just as 
Napoleon, with the wreck of the Guards and a mere handful of 
other detachments, was hurrying across the rear of the Austrians 
towards Fontainebleau to join them. 

This was the end of the First Empire. The story of the Water- 
loo Campaign is told under its own heading. 

The Military Character of Napoleon. 

No military career has been examined more often and more 
freely than that of Napoleon. Yet even so the want of complete 
documentary evidence upon which to base conclusions has 
vitiated all but the most recent of the countless monographs 
and histories that have appeared on the subject. Fortunately 
the industry and ability of the military history section of the 
French General Staff have rendered available, by the publica- 
tion of the original orders issued during the course of his 
campaigns, a mass of information which, taken in conjunction 
with his own voluminous correspondence, renders it possible 
to trace the growth of his military genius with a reasonable 
approach to accuracy. Formerly we could only watch the 
evolution of his powers of organization and the purely psychic 
gifts of resolution and command. The actual working of his 
mind towards that strategic and tactical ascendancy that 
rendered his presence on the battlefield, according to the testi- 
mony of his opponents, equal to a reinforcement of 40,000 men, 
was entirely undiscernible. 

The history of his youth reveals no special predilection for 
the military service the bent of his mind was political far more 
than military, but unlike the politicians of his epoch he con- 
sistently applied scientific and mathematical methods to his 
theories, and desired above all things a knowledge of facts in 
their true relation to one another. His early military education 
was the best and most practical then attainable, primarily 
because he had the good fortune to come under the influence 
of men of exceptional ability Baron du Keile, Bois Roger and 
others. From them he derived a sound knowledge of artillery 
and fortification, and particularly of mountain warfare, which 
latter was destined to prove of inestimable service to him in 
his first campaigns of 1794-95 and 1796. In these, as well as 
in his most dramatic success of Marengo in 1800, we can discern 
no trace of strategical innovation. He was simply a master of 
the methods of his time. Ceaseless industry, energy and con- 
spicuous personal gallantry were the principal factors of his 
brilliant victories, and even in 1805 at Ulm and Austerlitz 
it was still the excellence of the tactical instrument, the army, 
which the Revolution had bequeathed to him that essentially 
produced the results. 

Meanwhile the mathematical mind, with its craving for accurate 
data on which to found its plans (the most difficult of all to obtain 
under the conditions of warfare), had been searching for ex- 
pedients which might serve him to better purpose, and in 1805 
he had recourse to the cavalry screen in the hope of such results. 
This proved a palliation of his difficulty, but not a solution. 
Cavalry can only observe, it cannot hold. The facts as to the 
position of an opponent accurately observed and correctly re- 
ported at a given moment, afford no reliable guarantee of his 
position 48 hours later, when the orders based on this information 
enter upon execution. This can only be calculated on the ground 
of reasonable probability as to what it may be to the best interest 
of the adversary to attempt. But what may seem to a Napoleon 
the best course is not necessarily the one that suggests itself 
to a mediocre mind, and the greater the gulf which separates 



the two minds the greater the uncertainty which must prevail 
on the side of the abler commander. 

It was in 1806 that an improved solution was first devised 
The general advanced guard of all arms now followed immediately 
behind the cavalry screen and held the enemy in position, 
while the remainder of the army followed at a day's march in 
a " bataillon carree " ready to manoeuvre in any required direc- 
tion. The full reach of this discovery seems as yet scarcely 
to have impressed itself upon the emperor with complete con- 
viction, for in the succeeding campaign in Poland we find that 
he twice departed from this form at Pultusk and Heilsberg 
and each time his enemy succeeded in escaping him. At Fried- 
land, however, his success was complete, and henceforth the 
method recurs oh practically every battlefield. When it fails it is 
because its inventor himself hesitates to push his own concep- 
tion to its full development (Eckmiihl 1809, Borodino 1812). Yet 
it would seem that this invention of Napoleon's was intuitive 
rather than reasoned; he never communicated it in its entirety 
to his marshals, and seems to have been only capable of exercising 
it either when in full possession of his health or under the excite- 
ment of action. Thus we find him after the battle of Dresden 
itself a splendid example of its efficacy suddenly reverting 
to the terminology of the school in which he had been brought 
up, which he himself had destroyed, only to revive again in the 
next few days and handle his forces strategically with all his 
accustomed brilliancy. 

In 1814 and in 1815 in the presence of the enemy he again 
rises supremely to each occasion, only to lapse in the intervals 
even below the level of his old opponents; and that this was not 
the consequence of temporary depression naturally resulting 
from the accumulated load of his misfortunes, is sufficiently 
shown by the downright puerility of the arguments by which 
he seeks to justify his own successes in the St Helena memoirs, 
which one may search in vain for any indication that Napoleon 
was himself aware of the magnitude of his own discovery. One 
is forced to the conclusion that there existed in Napoleon's 
brain a dual capacity one the normal and reasoning one, 
developing only the ideas and conceptions of his contemporaries, 
the other intuitive, and capable only of work under abnormal 
pressure. At such moments of crisis it almost excelled human 
comprehension; the mind seems to have gathered to itself 
and summed up the balance of all human passions arranged for 
and against him, and to have calculated with unerring exacti- 
tude the consequences of each decision. 

A partial explanation of this phenomenon may perhaps be 
found in the economy of nervous energy his strategical method 
ensured to him. Marching always ready to fight wherever his 
enemy might stand or move to meet him, his mind was relieved 
from all the hesitations which necessarily arise in men less 
confident in the security of their designs. Hence, when on the 
battlefield the changing course of events left his antagonists 
mentally exhausted, he was able to face them with will power 
neither bound nor broken. But this only explains a portion 
of the mystery that surrounds him, and which will make the 
study of his career the most fascinating to the military student 
of all times. 

Amongst all the great captains of history Cromwell alone 
can be compared to him. Both, in their powers of organization 
and the mastery of the tactical potentialities of the weapons 
of their day, were immeasurably ahead of their times, and both 
also understood to the full the strategic art of binding and 
restraining the independent will power of their opponents, 
an art of which Marlborough and Frederick, Wellington, Lee 
and Moltke do not seem ever even to have grasped the fringe. 

(F.N.M.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the principal modern works on Napo- 
leon's campaigns 1805-14 are the following: Yorck von Wartenberg, 
Napoleon als Feldherr (1866, English and French translations); 
H. Camon, La Guerre natoolionienne (Paris, 1903); H. Bonnal, 
Esprit de la guerre moderne (a series of works, of which those dealing 
with 1805-1812 are separately mentioned below). For 1805 see 
Alombert and Colin (French Gen. Staff), Campagne de 180$ en 
Allcmagne (Paris, 1898-1910); H. Bonnal, De Rosbach a Ulm (Paris, 



234 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



1903) ; Sir D. Haig, Cavalry Studies (London, 1907) ; G. A. Furse, Vim, 
Trafalgar and Austerlitz (London, 1905). For 1806-1807, Pr. Kraft 
zu Honenlohe-Ingelfingen, Letters on Strategy (Eng. trans., vol. i.); 
Freiherr v. d. Goltz, Rossbach und Jena; the new edition of the same 
work, Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstadt (Berlin, 1906) and Von 
Jena bis Preussisch-Eylau (Berlin, 1908); Studies in French 
Gen. Staff Revue d'Histoire (1909); P. Foucart, Campagne de 
Prusse; H. Bonnal, La Manoeuvre d lena (Paris, 1904); Memoirs of 
Bennigsen (trans, by E. Cazalas, French Gen. Staff, 1909) ; F. N. 
Maude, Tt*e Jena Campaign (London, 1909); F. L. Petre, Napoleon's 
Campaign in Poland (London, 1902). For 1809, H. Bonnal, La 
Manoeuvre de Landshut (Paris, 1905) ; Saski, Campagne de 1809 
(Paris, 1899-1902); Ritter v. Angeli, Erzherzog Karl (Vienna, 
1895-1897); Lieut. Field Marshal von Woinpvich (ed.), Das 
Kriegsjahr 1809; Buat, De Ratisbonne d Znaim (Paris, 1910). 
For 1812, G. Fabry (French Gen. Staff), Campagne de 1812 (Paris, 
1904); La Guerre nationale de 1812 (French translation from the 
Russian general staff work, Paris, 1904) ; H. Bonnal, La Manoeuvre 
de Vilna (Paris, 1905); Freiherr v. d. Osten-Sacken, Feldzug 1812 
(Berlin, 1899) ; H. B. George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia (London, 
1900). For 1813, F. N. Maude, The Leipzig Campaign (London, 
1908) ; Lanrezac, La Manceuvre de Liitzen ; B. v. Quistorp, Gesch. 
der Nordarmee i8ij (1894); v. Holleben, Gesch. des Fruhjahrs- 
feldzug 1813 (Berlin, 1904) ; Friedrich, Der Herbstfeldzug 1813 
(Berlin, 1903-1906). For 1814, German Gen. Staff, Kriegsgesch. 
Einzelschriften, No. 13; v. Janson, Der Feldzug 1814 in Frankreich 
(Berlin, 19031905). See also works mentioned under FRENCH 
REVOLUTIONARY VVARS and under biographical headings, as well as 
the general histories of the time. 

NAVAL OPERATIONS 

The French navy came under the direct and exclusive control 
of Napoleon after the i8th Brumaire. At the close of 1799 (see 
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) he had three purposes to serve 
by the help of his fleet: the relief of the French garrison besieged 
by the British forces in Malta; the reinforcement of the army 
he had left in Egypt; and the distraction of Great Britain by 
the threat of invasion of England across the Channel, or of 
Ireland. The deficiencies both in number and in quality of his 
naval resources doomed him to fail in all three. Though he had 
control of what remained of the navies of Holland and Spain, 
as well as of the French, he was outnumbered at every point, 
while the efficiency of the British fleet gave it a mobility which 
doubled its material superiority. All Napoleon's efforts to sup- 
port his troops in Malta and Egypt were necessarily made under 
the hampering obligation to evade the British forces barring the 
road. The inevitable result was that only an occasional blockade- 
runner could succeed in escaping detection and attack. The relief 
thus brought to Malta and Egypt was not sufficient. In February 
1800, the " Genereux " (74), one of the few ships which escaped 
from the Nile, sailed from Toulon with three corvettes, under 
Rear-admiral Perree, to relieve Malta. On the i8th she was 
sighted by the blockading squadron, surrounded and captured. 
Three other survivors of the Nile were at anchor in Malta the 
" Guillaume Tell " (80), and two frigates, the " Diane " and the 
" Justice." On the 29th of July the " Guillaume Tell " en- 
deavoured to slip out in the night. She was sighted, pursued 
and overpowered, after a singularly gallant resistance. The 
frigates made an attempt to get off on the 24th of August, but 
only the " Justice," a solitary survivor of the squadron which 
fought at the Nile, reached Toulon. Malta, starved out by the 
British fleet, surrendered on the 5th of September 1800. Very 
similar was the fate of the efforts to reach and reinforce the 
army of Egypt. The British squadrons either stopped the re- 
lieving forces at their point of departure, or baffled, when they 
did not take them, at their landfall. A squadron of seven sail of 
the line, under Admiral Ganteaume, succeeded in slipping out of 
Brest, when a gale had driven the British blockading force off 
the coast. Ganteaume met with some measure of success in 
capturing isolated British men-of-war, one of them being a 74, 
the " Swiftsure." But he failed to give effectual help to the 
Egyptian army. He sailed oa the 23rd of January 1801, entered 
trie Mediterranean and, his squadron being in a bad condition, 
steered for Toulon, which he reached on the i8th of February. 
On the i gth of March he sailed again for Egypt, but was again 
driven back by the same causes on the 5th of April. On the 25th 
he was ordered out once more. Three of his ships had to be sent 



back as unfit to keep the sea. With the other four he reached 
the coast of Egypt, on the 7th of May, only to sight a powerful 
British force, and to be compelled to escape to Toulon, which he 
did not reach till the 22nd of July. The French in Egypt were 
in fact beaten before he reached the coast. At the beginning of 
1801, a British naval force, commanded by Lord Keith, had 
sailed from Gibraltar, escorting an army of 18,000 men under 
General Abercromby. It reached Marmorice Bay, in Asia Minor, 
on the 3ist of January, to arrange a co-operation with the Turks, 
and after some delay the army was transported and landed in 
Egypt, on the 7th and 8th of March. Before the end of September 
the French army was reduced to capitulate. In the interval 
another effort to carry help to it was made from Toulon. On 
the i3th of June 1801 Rear-admiral Linois left Toulon with 
three sail of the line, to join a Spanish squadron at Cadiz and go 
on to Egypt. In the straits he was sighted by the British 
squadron under Sir J. Saumarez, and driven to seek the protection 
of the Spanish batteries in Algeciras. On the 6th of July he 
beat off a British attack, capturing the " Hannibal," 74. On 
the gth a Spanish squadron came to his assistance, and the com- 
bined force steered for Cadiz. During the night of the I2th/i3th 
of July they were attacked by Sir J. Saumarez. Two Spanish 
three-deckers blew up, and a 74-gun ship was taken. The others 
were blockaded in Cadiz. The invasion scheme was vigorously 
pushed after the '3rd of March 1801. Flat-bottomed boats were 
gradually collected at Boulogne. Two attempts to destroy them 
at anchor, though directed by Nelson himself, were repulsed 
on the 4th and i6th of August. But the invasion was so far 
little more than a threat made for diplomatic purposes. On 
the ist of October 1801 an armistice was signed in London, 
and the Peace of Amiens followed, on the 27th of March 1802. 
(For the operations in the Baltic in 1801, see COPENHAGEN, 
BATTLE OF.) 

The Peace of Amiens proved to be only an uneasy truce, 
and it was succeeded by open war, on the i8th of May 1803. 
From that date till about the middle of August 1805, a space of 
some two years and two months, the war took the form of a most 
determined attempt on the part of Napoleon to carry out an 
invasion of Great Britain, met by the counter measures of the 
British government. The scheme of invasion was based on the 
Boulogne flotilla, a device inherited from the old French royal 
government, through the Republic. Its object was to throw 
a great army ashore on the coast between Dover and Hastings. 
The preparations were made on an unprecedented scale. The 
Republic had collected some two hundred and forty vessels. 
Under the direction of Napoleon ten times as many were equipped. 
They were divided into: prames, ship-rigged, of 35 metres long 
and 8 wide, carrying 12 guns; chaloupes cannonieres, of 24 metres 
long and 5 wide, carrying 5 guns and brig-rigged; bateaux 
cannoniers, of 19 metres long by 1-56 wide, carrying 2 guns and 
mere boats. All were built to be rowed, were flat-bottomed, and 
of shallow draft so as to be able to navigate close to the shore, and 
to take the ground without hurt. They were built in France 
and the Low Countries, in the coast towns and the rivers even 
in Paris and were collected gradually, shore batteries both fixed 
and mobile being largely employed to cover the passage. A 
vast sum of money and the labour of thousands of men were 
employed to clear harbours for them, at and near Boulogne. 
The shallow water on the coast made it impossible for the British 
line-of -battle ships, or even large frigates, to press the attack' on 
them home. Smaller vessels they were able to beat off and so, 
in spite of the activity of the British cruisers and of many sharp 
encounters, the concentration was effected at Boulogne, where an 
army of 130,000 was encamped and was incessantly practised 
in embarking and disembarking. Before the invasion was 
taken in hand as a serious policy, there had been at least a pro- 
fession of a belief that the flotilla could push across the Channel 
during a calm. Experience soon showed that when the needful 
allowance was made for the time required to bring them out 
of harbour (two tides) and for the influence which the Channel 
currents must have upon their speed, it would be extremely rash 
to rely on a calm of sufficient length. Napoleon therefore came 



NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 



235 



early to the conclusion that he must bring about a concentration 
of his seagoing fleet in the Channel, which would give him a 
temporary command of its v/aters. 

He had a squadron at Brest, ships at L'Orient and Rochefort, 
some of his vessels had taken refuge at Ferrol on their way back 
from San Domingo when war broke out, one was at Cadiz, and 
he had a squadron at Toulon. All these forces were watched by 
British blockading squadrons. The problem was to bring them 
together before the British fleet could be concentrated to meet 
them. Napoleon's solution grew, as time went on and circum- 
stances changed, in scope and complexity. In July 1804 he 
ordered his admiral commanding at Toulon, Latouche Treville, 
to seize an opportunity when Nelson, who was in command of the 
blockade, was driven off by a northerly gale, to put to sea, with 
10 sail of the line, pick up the French ship in Cadiz, join Ville- 
neuve who was in the Aix roads, and then effect a junction with 
Ganteaume and the 21 sail of the line at Brest. He hoped that 
if the British ships in the North Sea concentrated with the 
squadron in the Channel, he would be able to make use of Dutch 
vessels from the Texel. The death of Latouche Treville, aoth of 
August 1804, supplied an excuse for delay. He was succeeded by 
Villeneuve. Napoleon now modified the simple plan prepared 
for Latouche Treville, and began laying elaborate plans by which 
French vessels were to slip out and sail for distant seas, to draw 
the British fleet after them, and then return to concentrate in 
the Channel. A further modification was introduced by the end 
of 1804. Spain, which was bound by treaty to join Napoleon, 
was allowed to preserve a show of neutrality by paying a monthly 
subvention. The British government, treating this as a hostile 
action as it was seized the Spanish treasure ships on their 
way from America, near Cape Santa Maria, on the 5th of October 
1804, and Spain declared war on the I2th of December. New 
plans were now made including the co-operation of the Spanish 
fleet. Amid all the variation in their details, and the apparent 
confusion introduced by Napoleon's habit of suggesting alter- 
natives and discussing probabilities, and in spite of the prepara- 
tions ostensibly made for an expedition to Ireland, which was 
to have sailed from Brest and to have carried 30,000 troops 
commanded by Augereau, the real purpose of Napoleon was 
neither altered nor concealed. He worked to produce doubt 
and confusion in the mind of the British government by threats 
and attacks on its distant possessions, which should lead it to 
scatter its forces. One of these ventures was actually carried 
out, without, however, securing the co-operation, or effecting 
the purpose he had in view. On the nth of January 1805 
Admiral Missiessy left Rochefort with 5 sail of the line, un- 
detected by the British forces on the coast. Missiessy carried out 
a successful voyage of commerce-destroying, and returned safely 
to Rochefort on the 2oth of May, from the West Indies. But 
the force sent in pursuit of him was small, and the British 
government was not deceived into weakening its hold on the 
Channel. It was in fact well supplied with information by 
means of the spy service directed by an exiled French royalist, 
the count d'Antraigues, who was established at Dresden as a 
Russian diplomatic agent. Through his correspondents in Paris, 
some of whom had access to Napoleon's papers, the British 
government was able to learn the emperor's real intentions. 
The blockade of Brest was so strictly maintained that Ganteaume 
was allowed no opportunity to get to sea. Villeneuve, who 
was to have co-operated with Missiessy, did indeed leave Toulon, 
at a moment when Nelson, whose policy it was to encourage 
him to come out by not staying too near the port, was absent, 
ontheiythof January 1805. The British admiral, when informed 
that the French were at sea, justified Napoleon's estimate of his 
probable course in such a contingency, by making a useless 
cruise to Egypt. But Villeneuve's ill-appointed ships, manned 
by raw crews, suffered loss of spars in a gale, and he returned to 
Toulon on the 2ist. His last start came when he sailed, unseen 
by Nelson, on the 3oth of March. Aided by lucky changes of 
wind, he reached Cadiz, was joined by i French and 6 Spanish 
ships under Admiral Gravina, which, added to the u he had 
with him, gave him a force of 18 sail. He left Cadiz on the night 



of the pth/ioth of April, and reached Fort de France in Martin- 
ique on the i4th of May. Here he was to have remained till 
joined by Ganteaume from Brest. On the ist of June he was 
joined by a frigate and two line-of-battle ships sent with orders 
from Rochefort, and was told to remain in the West Indies till 
the sth of July, and if not joined by Ganteaume to steer for 
Ferrol, pick up the French and Spanish ships in the port, and 
come on to the Channel. Villeneuve learnt on the 8th of June 
that Nelson had reached Barbadoes in pursuit of him on the 4th. 
The British admiral, delayed by contrary winds, had not been 
able to start from the entry to the Straits of Gibraltar till the 
nth of May. An action in the West Indies would have ruined 
the emperor's plan of concentration, and Villeneuve decided to 
sail at once for Ferrol. Nelson, misled by false information, 
ranged the West Indies as far south as the Gulf of Paria, in search 
of his opponent whom he supposed to be engaged in attacks on 
British possessions. By the i3th of June he had learnt the truth, 
and sailed for Gibraltar under the erroneous impression that the 
French admiral would return to Toulon. He sent a brig home 
with despatches; on the igth of June, in lat. 33 12' N. and 
long. 58 W., the French were seen by this vessel heading for 
the Bay of Biscay. Captain Bettesworth who commanded the 
brig hurried home, and the information he brought was at once 
acted on by Lord Barham, the First Lord of the Admiralty, 
who took measures to station a force to intercept Villeneuve 
outside Ferrol. On the 22nd of July, 35 leagues N.W. of Finis- 
terre, Villeneuve was met by the British admiral sent to intercept 
him, Sir Robert Calder. A confused action in a fog ended in the 
capture of 2 Spanish line-of-battle ships. But Sir R. Calder, 
who had only 15 ships to his opponent's 20 and was nervous 
lest he should be overpowered, did not act with energy. He 
retreated to join the blockading fleet off Brest. Villeneuve was 
now able to join the vessels at Ferrol. Nelson, who reached 
Gibraltar on the very day the action off Ferrol was fought, was 
too far away to interfere with him. But Villeneuve, who was 
deeply impressed by the inefficiency of the ships of his fleet and 
especially of the Spaniards, and who was convinced that an 
overwhelming British force would be united against him in the 
Channel, lost heart, and on the isth of August sailed south to 
Cadiz. By this movement he ruined the emperor's elaborate 
scheme. Napoleon at once broke up the camp at Boulogne and 
marched to Germany. The further movements of Villeneuve's 
fleet are told under TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. 

With the collapse of the invasion scheme, the naval war 
between Napoleon and Great Britain entered on a new phase. 
It lost at once the unity given to it by the efforts of the emperor 
to effect, and of the British government to baffle the passage of 
the Channel by an army. In place of the movements of great 
fleets to a single end, we have a nine years' story (1805-1814) 
of cruising for the protection of commerce, of convoy, of colonial 
expeditions to capture French, Dutch or Spanish possessions 
and of combined naval and military operations in which the 
British navy was engaged in carrying troops to various countries, 
and in supporting them on shore. Napoleon continued to build 
line-of-battle ships in numbers from Venice to Hamburg, but 
only in order to force the British government to maintain 
costly and wearing blockades. He never allowed his fleets to go 
to sea to seek battle. The operations of the British fleet were 
therefore divided between the work of patrolling the ocean roads 
and ancillary services to diplomacy, or to the armies serving in 
Italy, Denmark and, after 1808, in Spain. The remaining colonial 
possessions of France, and of Holland, then wholly dependent 
on her, were conquered by degrees, and the ports in which 
privateers were fitted out to cruise against British commerce 
in distant seas were gradually rendered harmless. Though 
privateering was carried on by the French with daring and a 
considerable measure of success, it did not put an appreciable 
check on the growth of British merchant shipping. The function 
of the British navy in the long conflict with Napoleon was of the 
first importance, and its services were rendered in every sea, 
but their very number, extent and complexity render it impossible 
here to record them in detail. 



236 



NAPOLEONITE NARA 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. Captain Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon 
the French Revolution and the Empire (London, 1892); Chevalier, 
Histoire de la marine franchise sous le consulat et V empire (Paris, 
1886). All the operations connected with the successive invasion 
schemes are recorded, with exhaustive quotations of documentary 
evidence, in Projets et tentatives de debarguement aux lies Britan- 
nigues, by Captain Desbriere (Paris, 1901). Captain Desbriere's 
exhaustive work was done for the historical section of the French 
general staff, and is a fine example of the scholarly and conscientious 
modern French historical school. (D. H.) 

NAPOLEONITE, also called Corsite because the stone is 
found in the island of Corsica, a variety of diorite which is 
characterized by orbicular structure. The grey matrix of the 
stone has the normal appearance of a diorite, but contains many 
rounded lumps i or 2 in. in diameter, which show concentric 
zones of light and dark colours. In these spheroids also a 
distinct and well-marked radial arrangement of the crystals is 
apparent. The centre of the spheroid is usually white or pale 
grey and consists mainly of felspar; the same mineral makes the 
pale zones while the dark ones are rich in hornblende and 
pyroxene. The felspar is a basic variety of plagioclase (anorthite 
or bytownite). Though mostly rounded, the spheroids may 
be elliptical or subangular; sometimes they are in contact with 
one another but usually they are separated by small areas of 
massive diorite. When cut and polished the rock makes a beauti- 
ful and striking ornamental stone. It has been used for making 
paper-weights and other small ornamental articles. 

Spheroidal structure is found in other diorites and in quite a 
number of granites in various places, such as Sweden, Russia, 
America, Sardinia, Ireland. It is by no means common, however, 
and usually occurs in only a small part of a granitic or dioritic mass, 
being sometimes restricted to an area of a few square yards. In 
most cases it is found near the centre of the outcrop, though ex- 
ceptionally it has been found quite close to the margin. It arises 
evidently from intermittent and repeated crystallization of the rock- 
forming minerals in successive stages. Such a process would be 
favoured by complete rest, which would allow of supersaturation of 
the magma by one of the components. Rapid crystallization would 
follow, producing deposits on any suitable nuclei, and the crystals 
then formed might have a radial disposition on the surfaces on 
which they grew. The magma might then be greatly impoverished 
in this particular substance, and another deposit of a different kind 
would follow, producing a zone of different colour. The nucleus for 
the spheroidal growth is sometimes an early porphyritic crystal, 
sometimes an enclosure of gneiss, &c., and often does not differ 
essentially in composition from the surrounding rock. When spher- 
oids are in contact the?r inner zones may be distinct while the outer 
ones are common to both individuals having the outlines of a figure 
of eight. This proves that growth was centrifugal, not centripetal. 

Many varieties of spheroids are described presenting great differ- 
ences in composition and in structure. Some are merely rounded 
balls consisting of the earliest minerals of the rock, such as apatite, 
zircon, biotite and hornblende, and possessing no regular arrange- 
ment. Others have as centres a foreign fragment such as gneiss 
or hornfels, with one or more zones, pale or dark, around this. 
Radial arrangement of the crystals, though often very perfect, is 
by no means universal. The spheroids are sometimes flattened or 
egg-shaped, apparently by fluxion movements of the magma at a 
time when they were semi-solid or plastic. As a general rule the 
spheroids are more basic and richer in the ferromagnesian minerals 
than the surrounding rock, though some of the zones are often very 
rich in quartz and felspar. Graphic or perthitic intergrowths between 
the minerals of a zone are frequent. The spheroids vary in width 
up to i or 2 ft. In some cases they contain abnormal constituents 
such as calcite, sillimanite or corundum, (J. S. F.) 

NAQUET, ALFRED JOSEPH (1834- ), French chemist 
and politician, was born at Carpentras (Vaucluse), on the 6th 
of October 1834. He became professor in the faculty of medicine 
in Paris in 1863, and in the same year professor of chemistry 
at Palermo, where he delivered his lectures in Italian. He lost 
his professorship in 1867 with his civic rights, when he was 
condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment for his share in a 
secret society. On a new prosecution in 1869 for his book 
Religion, propriett, famille he took refuge in Spain. Returning 
to France under the government of Emile Ollivier he took an 
active share in the revolution of the 4th of September 1870, 
and became secretary of the commission of national defence. 
In the National Assembly he sat on the extreme Left, consistently 
opposing the opportunist policy of successive governments. 
Re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies he began the agitation 
against the marriage laws with which his name is especially 



connected. His proposal for the re-establishment of divorce was 
discussed in May 1879, and again in 1881 and 1882, and became 
law two years later. Naquet, although he disapproved in 
principle of a second chamber, secured his election to the senate 
in 1883 to pilot his measure through that body. In 1886 by his 
efforts divorce became legal after three years of definite separa- 
tion on the demand of one of the parties concerned. In 1890 he 
resigned from the senate to re-enter the Chamber of Deputies, 
this time for the sth arrondissement of Paris, and took his seat 
with the Boulangist deputies. After Boulanger's suicide his 
political influence declined, and was further compromised by 
accusations (of which he was legally cleared) in connexion with 
the Panama scandals. 

The thesis written for his doctorate, Application de I'analyse 
chimique a la toxicologie (1859), was followed by many papers on 
chemistry contributed to learned journals, and his Principes de 
chimie fondes sur les theories modernes (1865) reached its 5th edition 
in 1890. rje is better known by his political works, Socialisme 
cottectiviste et socialisme liberal (1890, Eng. trans., 1891), L'Humanite 
et la patrie^ (1901), Lot du divorce (1903), L' Anarchic et le collectivisme 
(1904), Disarmament ou alliance anglaise (1908). 

NARA, an important water channel in Sind, India, probably 
representing a former bed of the Indus, though now traversing 
the desert far E. of the river. Its total length is 250 m.; and by 
means of cross cuts, weirs and embankments, it has been made 
to irrigate no less than 429 sq. m., with a navigable length of 
425 m. 

NARA, a town of Japan, in the province of Yamato, 255 m. 
from Osaka by rail. Pop. 32,000. It lies on the slope of a range 
of picturesque hills, beautifully wooded with cryptomerias, 
evergreen oaks, &c. This was the first permanent capital of 
Japan. Up to the beginning of the Sth century the imperial 
court changed its location at the accession of each sovereign, and 
the court's place of residence naturally became the official 
metropolis. But Nara remained the metropolis during seven 
consecutive reigns (709 to 784), and its seventy-five years of 
favoured existence sufficed for the building and furnishing of 
several imposing shrines and temples, for the laying out of a 
noble park, for the casting of a colossal image of Buddha, and 
for the execution of many other beautiful specimens of applied 
art. Not much is known of the Nara palace in its original form, 
but many of the articles and ornaments used by its inmates 
survive in a celebrated collection which, during nearly twelve 
hundred years, had been preserved in a store-house (Shoso-in) 
near the temple of Todai-ji. This collection cannot be visited 
by strangers more than once a year, and even then only by special 
permission. The vigorous growth of the Buddhist creed through- 
out the Nara epoch was remarkable, and found outward ex- 
pression in many striking architectural and artistic works. The 
best of these, namely, those dating from the first half of the 
Sth century, show Indo-Grecian affinities, which gradually grow 
fainter as the end of the epoch approaches. The temple called 
Todai-ji was completed about 750. At present the buildings 
enclose a quadrangle 520 ft. by 620, the south side being mainly 
occupied by the huge, ungainly and no longer perpendicular hall 
containing the Dai Butsu, or colossal statue of Buddha. The 
casting of this wonderful piece of work was accomplished after 
eight failures in 749 by Takusho, an artist from Korea. On two 
occasions the head was melted during the burning of the temple 
(1180 and 1567) and from 1567 to 1697 the statue stood exposed 
to the weather. The height of the figure is S3 ft. On a hill to the 
east of the temple stands a bell-house with a huge bell, cast in 
73 2 > J 32 ft- high, 9 ft. across the mouth and weighing 37 tons. 
The great Buddha is often spoken of as the most remarkable of 
the Nara relics; but restorations have so marred it that it can 
no longer be compared with many smaller examples of con- 
temporaneous and subsequent sculpture. More worthy of close 
attention are two effigies of Brahma and Indra preserved among 
the relics of Kobuku-ji, which, with Kasuga-no-Miya, Ni-gwatsu- 
do and Todai-ji, constitute the chief religious edifices. These 
figures, sculptured in wood, have suffered much from the ravages 
of time, but nothing could destroy the grandeur of their propor- 
tions or the majesty and dignity of their pose. Several other 



NARAINGANJ NARBOROUGH 



237 



works of scarcely inferior excellence may be seen among the 
relics, and at the shrine of Kasuga is performed a religious dance 
called Kagura, in which the costumes and gestures of the dancers 
are doubtless t he same as those of twelve centuries back. Kasuga- 
no-Miya was founded in 767, and its chapels with their rough red- 
painted log-work afford fine examples of primitive Japanese 
architecture. In the temple-park are herds of tame deer; and 
little images of deer and trinkets from deer's horn are the favourite 
charms purchased by the pilgrims. Within the enclosure stands 
a curious old trunk of seven plants entwined, including a camellia, 
cherry and wistaria. Of the great Buddhist temple Kobuku-ji, 
founded in 710, and burnt for the third time in 1717, there 
remains little save two lofty pagodas. A railway now gives 
access to the town, but every effort is made to preserve all the 
ancient features of Nara. A museum has been formed, where 
many antique objects of great interest are displayed, as well as 
works from the hands of comparatively modern artists. Nara 
in the days of its prosperity is said to have had a population of 
a quarter of a million. 

NARAINGANJ, or NARAYANGANJ, a town of India, in the 
Dacca district of eastern Bengal and Assam, situated near the 
junction of two rivers with the Meghna, 10 m. by rail S. of Decca 
city. Pop. (1901) 24,472. As the port of Dacca, having steamer 
communication with both Calcutta and Chittagong, it has 
become the chief entrepot for the jute trade of eastern Bengal. 
There are 73 jute-presses, employing 6000 hands, and the annual 
export of jute exceeds 300,000 tons. It also ranks as the model 
municipality of Bengal. 

NARBONNE, a city of France, capital of an arrondissement 
in the department of Aude, situated in a vine-growing plain 
S m. from the Mediterranean, on the railway from Toulouse to 
Cette, 37 m. E. of Carcassonne. Pop. (1906) 23,289. The Robine 
canal, a branch of the Canal du Midi, divides Narbonne into two 
distinct portions, the bdurg and the cite. The latter is one of the 
oldest and most interesting of French towns. The former 
cathedral (St Just), which consists only of a choir 130 ft. high 
and transept, was begun in 1272, and the transept was still un- 
finished at the end of the isth century. The towers (194 ft. high) 
at each extremity of the transept were built about 1480. Some 
additions towards the west were made early in the i8th century. 
An unusual effect is produced by a double row of crenellation 
taking the place of balustrades on the roof of the choir chapels 
and connecting the pillars of the flying buttresses. Among the 
sepulchral monuments, which are the chief feature of the interior, 
may be noticed the alabaster tomb of Cardinal Guillaume 
Briconnet, minister of state under Charles VIII. The chapter- 
house, of the 1 5th century, has a vaulted roof supported on four 
free pillars. The treasury preserves many interesting relics. 
The apse of the cathedral was formerly joined to the fortifications 
of the archiepiscopal palace, and the two buildings are still con- 
nected by a mutilated cloister of the i4th and isth centuries. 
On the front of the palace are three square towers of unequal 
height. Between the Tour des Telegraphes (1318), crenellated 
and turreted at the corners, and that of St Martial (1374), machi- 
colated and pierced by Gothic openings, a new facade was erected 
in the style of the I3th century after the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. 
This portion of the building now serves as h6tel de ville, and its 
upper stories are occupied by the Narbonne museum of art 
and archaeology, which includes a fine collection of pottery. 
The palace garden also contains many fragments of Roman work 
once built into the now dismantled fortifications; and the 
Musee Lapidaire in the Lamourguier buildings (formerly the 
church of a Benedictine convent) has a collection of Roman 
remains derived from the same source. The church of St Paul, 
though partly Romanesque, is in the main striking, and for the 
south of France a rare example of a building of the first half of 
the i3th century in the Gothic style of the north. It possesses 
some ancient Christian sarcophagi and fine Renaissance wood 
carving. Narbonne has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first 
instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber 
of commerce, a communal college for boys and a school of 
commerce and industry. It has a good trade in wine and 



spirituous liquors, and is famous for its honey. The industries 
include cooperage, sulphur-refining, brandy-distilling and the 
manufacture of bricks and tiles and verdigris. 

Long before the Roman invasion of Gaul Narbonne was a flourish- 
ing city, being capital of the Volcae Tectosages. It was there that 
the Romans in 118 B.C. founded their first colony in Gaul, which 
bore the name of Narbo Martins; they constructed great works 
to protect the city from inundation and to improve its port, situated 
on a lake now filled up but at that time communicating with the sea. 
Capital of Gallia Narbonensis, the seat of a proconsul and a station 
for the Roman fleet, Narbo Martius became the rival of Massilia. 
But in A.D. 150 it suffered greatly from a conflagration, and the 
division of Gallia Narbonensis into two provinces lessened its im- 
portance as a capital. Alans, Sueyi, Vandals, each held the city 
for a brief space, and at last, in 413, it was occupied by the Visigoths, 
whose capital it afterwards became. In 719, after a siege of two 
years, it was captured by the Saracens, and by them its fortifica- 
tions were restored and extended. Charles Martel, after the battle 
of Poitiers, and Pippin the Short, in 752, were both repulsed from 
its walls; but on a new attempt, after an investment of seven years, 
and by aid of a traitor, the Franks managed again to force their 
way into Narbonne. Charlemagne made the city the capital of the 
duchy of Gothia, and divided it into three lordships one for the 
bishop, another for a Prankish lord, and the third for the Jews, who, 
occupying their own quarter, possessed schools, synagogues and a 
university famous in the middle ages. The viscounts who succeeded 
the Prankish lord sometimes acknowledged the authority of the 
counts of Toulouse, sometimes that of the counts of Barcelona. 
In the I3th century the crusade against the Albigenses spared the 
city, but the archbishopric was seized by the pope's legate, Arnaud 
Amaury, who took the title of viscount of Narbonne. Simon de 
Montfort, however, deprived him of this dignity, receiving from 
Philip Augustus the duchy of Narbonne along with the county of 
Toulouse. By his expulsion of the Jews Philip the Fair hastened 
the decay of the city ; and about the same period the Aude, which 
had formerly been diverted by the Romans, ceased to flow towards 
Narbonne and the harbour was silted up, to the further disadvantage 
of the place. In 1642 Henri Marquis de Cinq-Mars was arrested at 
Narbonne for conspiring against Richelieu. United to the French 
crown in 1507, Narbonne was enclosed by a new line of walls under 
Francis I., but having ceased to be a garrison town it had the last 
portions of its ramparts demolished in 1870. The archbishopric 
was founded about the middle of the 3rd century, its first holder 
being Sergius Paulus; it was suppressed in 1790. 

NARBONNE-LARA, LOUIS MARIE JACQUES AMALRIC, 
COMTE DE (1755-1813), French soldier and diplomatist, was born 
at Colorno, in the duchy of Parma, on the 24th of August 1755. 
He was the son of one of the ladies-in-waiting of Elizabeth, 
duchess of Parma, and his father was either a Spanish nobleman 
or as has been alleged Louis XV. himself. He was brought 
up at Versailles with the princesses of France, and was made 
colonel at the age of twenty-five. He became marechal-de- 
camp in 1791, and, through the influence of Madame de Stael, 
was appointed minister of war. But he showed incapacity in 
this post, gave in his resignation, and joined the Army of the 
North. Incurring suspicion as a Feuittant and also by his policy 
at the war office, he emigrated after the loth of August 1792, 
visited England, Switzerland and Germany, and returned to 
France in 1801. In 1809 he re-entered the army as general of 
division, and was subsequently minister plenipotentiary at 
Munich and aide de camp to Napoleon. In 1813 he was appointed 
French ambassador at Vienna, where he was engaged in an un- 
equal diplomatic duel with Metternich (q.v.) during the fateful 
months that witnessed the defection of Austria from the cause 
of Napoleon to that of the Allies. He died at Torgau, in Saxony, 
on the 1 7th of November 1813. 

See A. F. Villemain, Souvenirs contemporains (Paris, 1854). 

NARBOROUGH, SIR JOHN (d. 1688), English naval com- 
mander, was descended from an old Norfolk family. He received 
his commission in 1664, and in 1666 was promoted lieutenant 
for gallantry in the action with the Dutch fleet off the Downs 
in June of that year. After the peace he was chosen to conduct 
a voyage of exploration in the South Seas. He set sail from 
Deptford on the a6th of November 1669, and entered the Straits 
of Magellan in October of the following year, but returned home 
in June 1671 without accomplishing his original purpose. A 
narrative of the expedition was published at London in 1694 
under the title An Account of several late Voyages and Discoveries 
to the South and North. During the second Dutch War Nar- 
borough was second captain of the lord high-admiral's ship the 



NARCISSUS 



" Prince," and conducted himself with such conspicuous valour 
at the battle of Solebay (Southwold Bay) in May 1672 that he 
won special approbation, and shortly afterwards was made rear- 
admiral and knighted. In 1675 he was sent to suppress the 
Tripoline piracies, and by the bold expedient of despatching 
gun-boats into the harbour of Tripoli at midnight and burning 
the ships he induced the dey to agree to a treaty. Shortly after 
his return he undertook a similar expedition against the Algerines. 
In 1680 he was appointed commissioner of the navy, an office he 
held till his death in 1688. He was buried at Knowlton church, 
Kent, where a monument has been erected to his memory. 
See Charnock, Biog. Nav. i. ; Hist. MSS. Comm. I2th Rept. 
NARCISSUS, in Greek mythology, son of the river god 
Cephissus and the nymph Leiriope, distinguished for his beauty. 
The seer Teiresias told his mother that he would have a long 
life, provided he never looked upon his own features. His 
rejection of the love of the nymph Echo (q.v.) drew upon him 
the vengeance of the gods. Having fallen in love with his own 
reflection in the waters of a spring, he pined away (or killed him- 
self) and the flower that bears his name sprang up on the spot 
where he died. According to Pausanias, Narcissus, to console 
himself for the death of a favourite twin-sister, his exact counter- 
part, sat gazing into the spring to recall her features by his own. 
Narcissus, representing the early spring-flower, which for a brief 
space beholds itself mirrored in the water ?nd then fades, is one 
of the many youths whose premature death is recorded in Greek 
mythology (cf. Adonis, Linus, Hyacinthus); the flower itself 
was regarded as a symbol of such death. It was the last flower 
gathered by Persephone before she was carried off by Hades, 
and was sacred to Demeter and Core (the cult name of Perse- 
phone), the great goddesses of the underworld. From its 
associations Wieseler takes Narcissus himself to be a spirit of 
the underworld, of death and rest. It is possible that the story 
may have originated in the superstition (alluded to by Arte- 
midorus, Oneirocritica, ii. 7) that it was an omen of death to 
dream of seeing one's reflection in water. 

See Ovid, Metam. iii. 341-510; Pausanias ix. 31; Conon, 
Narrationes, 24; F. Wieseler, Narkissos (1856); Greve in Roscher's 
Lexikon der Mythologie; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), i. 
293- 

NARCISSUS, a genus of bulbous plants belonging to the 
family Amaryllidaceae, natives of central Europe and the 
Mediterranean region; one species N. Tazetta, extends through 
Asia to Japan. From these, or rather from some of these, by 

cultivation and hybridization, 
have arisen the very numerous 
modern varieties. The plants 
have long narrow leaves spring- 
ing from the bulb and a central 
scape bearing one or more 
generally large, white or yellow, 
drooping or inclined flowers, 
which are enveloped before 
opening in a membranous 
spathe. The flowers are regular, 
with a perianth springing from 
above the ovary, tubular below, 
with spreading segments and a 
central corona; the six stamens 
are inserted within the tube. 
The most interesting feature 
botanically is the " corona " or 
" cup," which springs from the 
FIG. i. Flowers of Narcissus base of the flower-segments. 
(Narcissus Tazetta) bursting from This gives the special char- 
the sheathing bract or spathe, 6. acter to the flowerj and the 

members of the genus are classified according to the length 
of this organ as compared with that of the segments. The 
most probable supposition is that the cup is simply an 
excrescence or " enation " from the mouth of the flower-tube, 
and is connected with the fertilization of the flowers by insect 
agency. 




There are five well-marked sections. 

1. The hoop-petticoat narcissi, sometimes separated as the genu& 
Corbularia, are not more than from 3 to 6 in. in height, and have 
grassy foliage and yellow or white flowers. These have the coronet 
in the centre of the flower very large in proportion to the other parts, 
and much expanded, like the old hooped petticoats. They are now 
all regarded as varieties or forms of the common hoop-petticoat, 
N. Bulbocodium, which has comparatively large bright yellow 
flowers; N. tenuifolius is smaller and somewhat paler and with 
slender erect leaves; N. citrinus is pale lemon yellow and larger i 
while N. monophyttus is white. The small bulbs should be taken up 
in summer and replanted in autumn and early winter, according 
to the state of the season. They bloom about March or April in the 
open air. The soil should be free and open, so that water may pass 
off readily. 

2. A second group is that of the Pseudonarcissi, constituting the 
genus Ajax of some botanists, of which the daffodil, N. Pseudo- 
narcissus is the type. The daffodil (fig. 2)Js common in woods and 




FlG. 2. Daffodil (Narcissus Pseudonarcissus) } nat. size. 
I, Flower cut open; 2, pistil; 3, horizontal plan of flower. 

thickets in most parts of the north of Europe, but is rare in Scotland. 
Its leaves are five or six in number, are about I ft. in length and I in. 
in breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 
1 8 in. long and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large, 
yellow, scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft 
into six lobes and a bell-shaped corona which is crisped at the 
margin; they appear in March or April. In this species the corona 
is also very large and prominent, but is more elongated and trumpet- 
shaped, while the other members are regarded as subspecies or 
varieties of this. Of this group the most striking one perhaps is 
N. bicolor, which has the perianth almost white and the corona 
deep yellow; it yields a number of varieties, some of the best known 
being Empress, Horsfieldi, Grandee, Ellen Willmott, Victoria, 
Weardale Perfection, &c. N. moschatus, a native of the Pyrenees 
and the Spanish peninsula, is a cream-coloured subspecies of great 
beauty with several forms. N. cyclamineus is a pretty dwarf sub- 
species, native of Portugal, with narrow linear leaves and drooping 
flowers with reflexed lemon-yellow segments and an orange-yellow 
corona N. major is a robust form with leaves J^f in. broad and bright 
lemon-yellow flowers 2-2 J in. long ; maximus is a closely-related but 
still finer form ; obvallaris (the Tenby daffodil) is an early form with 



NARCOTICS 



239 



uniformly yellow flowers. N. minor and minimus are miniature 
repetitions of the daffodil. All these grow well in good garden soil, 
and blossom from March onwards, coming in very early in genial 
seasons. 

3. Another group, the mock narcissi or star daffodils, with coronets 
of medium size, includes the fine and numerous varieties of N. 
incomparabilis, one of which, with large, double flowers, is known 
as butter-and-eggs ; N. odorus, known as the campernelle jonquil, 
has two to four uniform bright yellow flowers, and is considered a 
hybrid between N. Jonquilla and N. Pseudonarcissus. A form with 
sweet-scented double flowers is known as Queen Ann's jonquil; 
N.juncifolius, a graceful little plant from Spain, Portugal and south 
France, has one to four small bright yellow flowers on each scape. 
The hardier forms of this set thrive in the open border, but the 
smaller sorts, like Queen Ann's ionqu'l. are better taken up in 
autumn and replanted in February; they bloom freely about April 
or May. N. triandrus Ganymede's Cup is a pretty little species 
with white flowers about I in. long; in several of its varieties the 
flowers are a pale or deeper yellow; they make attractive pot plants. 

4. The polyanthus or bunch narcissi form another well-marked 
group, whose peculiarity of producing many flowers on the stem is 
indicated by the name. In these the corona is small and shallow 
as compared with the perianth. Some of the hardier forms, as 
N. Tazetta itself, the type of the group, succeed in the open borders 
in light well-drained soil, but the bulbs should be deeply planted, 
not less than 6 or 8 in. below the surface, to escape risk of injury 
from frost. Many varieties of this form of narcissus, such as Grand 
Mpnarque, Paper white, Soleil d'or, are grown. They admit of 
being forced into early bloom, like the hyacinth and tulip. They 
vary with a white, creamy or yellow perianth, and a yellow, lemon, 
primrose or white cup or coronet; and, being richly fragrant, they 
are general favourites amongst spring flowers. Many tons of these 
flowers are exported from the Scilly Isles to the London markets in 
spring. The " Chinese sacred lily " or " joss flower " is a form of 
N. Tazetta. The jonquil, N. Jonquilla, with yellow flowers, a native 
of south Europe and Algeria, of which there are single and double 
flowered varieties, is also grown in pots for early flowering, but does 
well outside in a warm border. 

5. There remains another little group, the poet's or pheasant's- 
eye narcissi (N. poeticus), in which the perianth is large, spreading 
and conspicuous, and the corona very small and shallow. These 
pheasant's-eye narcissi, of which there are several well-marked 
varieties, as radiiflorus, poetarum, recurvus, &c., blossom in succession 
during April and May, and all do well in the open borders as perma- 
nent hardy bulbs. N. biflorus, the primrose peerless, a two-flowered 
whitish yellow-cupped species, equally hardy and easy of culture, is 
a natural hybrid between N. poeticus and Tazetta. N. gracilis, a 
yellow-flowered species, has also been regarded as a hybrid between 
N. Tazetta and N.juncifolius, and blooms later. 

Of late years some remarkably fine hybrids have been raised 
between the various distinct groups of narcissi, and the prices asked 
for the bulbs in many cases are exceedingly high. One of the most 
distinct groups is that known under the name of " Poetaz " a 
combination of poeticus and Tazetta. The best forms of poeticus 
ornatus have been crossed with the bunch-flowered Tazettas, and 
have resulted in producing varieties with large trusses of exquisite 
flowers more or less resembling the ornatus parents, and varying in 
colour from the purest white to yellow, the rim of the corona being in 
most cases conspicuously and charmingly coloured with red or 
crimson. This is an excellent group for cutting purposes, but it will 
take a few more years to make the varieties common. 

For an account of the history and culture of the narcissus see 
F. W. Burbidge, The Narcissus (1875); a more recent scientific 
treatment of the genus Will be found in J. G. Baker's Handbook of 
Amaryllideae (1888); see also Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening 
(1886) ; and J. Weathers, Practical Guide to Garden Plants (1901). 

NARCOTICS (Gr. vapKuriKos, making numb), a general term 
for substances having the physiological action, in a healthy 
animal, of producing lethargy or stupor, which may pass into 
a state of profound coma or unconsciousness along with complete 
paralysis, terminating in death. Certain substances of this class 
are used in medicine for the relief of pain, and are then called 
anodynes, whilst another group produce profound sleep, and are 
consequently known as hypnotics. In one sense, anaesthetics, 
such as chloroform and ether, may be held to be narcotics, but, 
as they are usually volatile substances causing unconsciousness 
for a comparatively short time, they are conveniently separated 
from the true narcotics, the effects of which are much more 
lasting. These distinctions are to a great extent artificial, 
as it is evident that a substance capable of producing partial 
insensibility to pain, or sleep, will inevitably in larger doses 
cause profound coma ending in death. Hence we find the same 
substances sometimes classed as anodynes and at other times 
as hypnotics. For example, small doses of opium, or of one or 



other of its preparations, relieve pain, whilst larger doses act 
as hypnotics, causing deep sleep passing into coma. Cannabis 
Indica, belladonna and hyoscyamus, are also anodyne in their 
action. The chief narcotics are mentioned below. 

Opium is the inspissated juice of the Papaver somniferum, con- 
taining 7-5 to 10-5% of anhydrous morphine. Besides morphine 
some of the other alkaloids contained in it are of a narcotic nature, 
notably papaverine, narceine, meconine, cryptopine and narcotine, 
but the principal anodyne and narcotic effects are due to the mor- 
phine alkaloid. Though seasoned opium takers may take 20 to 30 
grs. without noticeable effects, I to 3 grs. produces marked symptoms 
in the western races. Idiosyncrasy is marked in regard to the 
amount of opium a person can safely take. The medicinal dose is 
up to 2 grs., and the smallest dose that has been known to cause 
death in an adult is $ gr. The narcotic properties of Morphine vary 
as to whether it is taken by the stomach or injected under the skin; 
2 grs. by the stomach is dangerous, and a safe medicinal dose by the 
skin is | to J gr. The smallest dose that has produced death in an 
adult was i gr. given hypodermically. The motor centres of the 
brain and spinal cord are first stimulated by opium and morphine 
and later depressed; death in fatal cases being from paralysis of 
the respiratory centre of the medulla. For the treatment of poisoning 
see under OPIUM. 

Cannabis indica or Indian Hemp (see HEMP). The part used in 
medicine is the non-fertilized female spikes of the Cannabis saliva. 
The active constituent is the resin containing cannabin with the 
active principle cannabinol, the alkaloids cannabinene and tetano- 
canabine. Cannabis indica is sold in the East under various names. 
A confection of the drug made in Arabia is called hashisch. Churrus 
is the resin scraped off the leaves, and the dried leaf is called bang, 
gunga or ganga being the name given to the dried flowering tops sold 
for smoking. The medicinal dose is J to I gr. of the extract, 2 to 3 
grs. is a poisonous dose, but there is no recorded fatal case in man. 
In Eastern countries the smoking of Cannabis indica produces a 
form of mania. The effects of smaller doses are intoxication of a 
pleasant character, exaltation, hallucinations and delirium, later 
dilatation of the pupils, drowsiness, sleep and coma. Indian hemp 
is an uncertain anodyne and hypnotic. When large quantities have 
been taken an emetic should be given or the stomach pump used, 
and endeavour to allay excitement until the effects have passed off. 

Belladonna and Atr opine. The leaves of the Atropa Belladonna 
or deadly nightshade of which the active principle is atropine 
principally used as a sulphate. A small dose of belladonna or atro- 
pine causes dryness of the throat and mouth, dilatation of the pupils, 
dimness of vision except for distant objects and often double vision. 
The pulse becomes quick, rising, in an adult, from 80 to 120 or 160 
beats per minute; and there is often a bright red flush over the skin. 
The intellectual powers are at first acute and strong, but they soon 
become confused. There is giddiness, confusion of thought, excite- 
ment, a peculiar talkative wakeful restiveness, in which the person 
shows that his mind is occupied by a train of fancies or is haunted 
by visions and spectres. Often there is violent delirium before sleep 
comes on. The sleep after a large dose deepens into stupor, with 
great muscular prostration or paralysis. During all the time the 
pupils are widely dilated. Death occurs from failure both of the 
heart's action and of respiration. The minimum lethal dose is not 
known, but 80 grs. of the root have caused death ; ^ to ^ gr. 
hypodermically have caused dangerous symptoms and J g_r. would 
almost certainly be fatal. For the medicinal preparations and 
treatment of poisoning see BELLADONNA. 

Stramonium. The part of the plant used is the leaves and seed 
of the Datura Stramonium or thorn apple, the alkaloidal constituent 
being daturine, a variable mixture of hypscine and atrcpine. The 
physiological action is almost identical with belladonna. Poisoning 
is usually due to children eating the seeds; the lethal dose is un- 
known. The symptoms produced are divided into three stages 
delirium, sleep and deep coma. In case of slight poisoning a rash is 
one of the toxic symptoms. The treatment of poisoning is to give 
emetics, wash out the stomach and give stimulants and pilocarpine 
subcutaneously, also to apply warmth and to use artificial respiration 
if necessary. 

Hyoscyamus, the leaves of the Hyoscyamus niger or henbane (g.f.) . 
The active principle is hyoscyamine. ' The physiological action is 
almost similar to belladonna, with excitement and cardiac stimu- 
lation and afterwards depression and stupor, but the action of hyos- 
cyamus on the heart is more powerful. In large doses it is a strong 
cerebral depressant, and produces dilatation of the pupil ; , gr. 
of hyoscamine produces marked effects, sleepiness and dryness of the 
mouth ; J gr. by subcutaneous injection has produced fatal results. 
The treatment of hyoscyamus poisoning is similar to that of stra- 
monium. 

Hops (the Humulus Lupulus), containing the active principle 
lupulme, and Lactucarium, the juice of the Lactuca virosa (lettuce), 
containing an alkaloid lactucine, are very feeble narcotics, causing 
heaviness and sleep if taken in large doses. 

Chloral Hydrate is a pure hypnotic which in larger doses is a 
powerful narcotic, producing prolonged sleep with depression of the 
cardiac and motor centres. It is an intrinsic cardiac poison, the 



240 



NARDI NARSES 



heart being arrested in diastole, with coincident respiratory failure. 
Chloral hydrate is not uniform in its action, some people manifesting 
great susceptibility to the drug. It is safe in small doses of 10 to 
20 grs. It is difficult to say what is a lethal dose. Cases are recorded 
of recovery after 336 grs. taken with an equal amount of potassium 
bromide and even after a dose of 595 grs., but in susceptible persons 
10 to 15 grs. have produced toxic symptoms and death has occurred 
after doses of from 30 to 45 grs. If seen early, the treatment is an 
emetic, but if the poison should have been already absorbed, stimu- 
lants, hot coffee, strychnine or digitalin hypodermically, with 
perhaps artificial respiration, may be required. 

Alcohol in large quantities is a strong narcotic, producing the 
typical stages of preliminary excitement followed by drowsiness 
and profound coma, during which death may occur. The treatment 
is washing out the stomach to prevent the absorption of the poison 
and the use of strychnine hypodermically. 

NARDI, JACOPO (b. 1476), Florentine historian, occupied 
various positions in the service of the Florentine republic after the 
expulsion of the Medici in 1494, and even on their return in 1512 
he continued in the public service. In 1527 he joined in the 
movement for the expulsion of the family and was instrumental 
in defeating the Medicean troops under Cardinal Passerini, who 
were attacking the Palazzo della. Signoria. When the Medici 
again definitely became masters of Florence in 1530, Nardi was 
exiled from the city and his property confiscated. He spent the 
rest of his days in various parts of Italy, chiefly in Venice, and 
wrote a statement of the claims of the Florentine exiles against 
the Medici, addressed to the emperor Charles V. The exact 
date of his death is unknown. His chief work is his Istorie della 
Cilia di Firenze, covering the period from 1498 to 1538, in part 
based on Biagio Buonaccorsi's Diario. 

L. Arbib's edition of Nardi's history (Florence, 1842) contains a 
biography of the author, and so does that of Agenore Gelli (Florence, 
1888). 

NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831- ), English Arctic 
explorer, son of a captain in the navy, was educated at the 
Royal Naval College at New Cross, and entered the navy in 
1846. After being employed for some time on the Australian 
station, in 1852 he became mate of the " Resolute " in the 
Arctic expedition which was sent out in that year. Serving in the 
Crimea upon his return, he was appointed lieutenant in charge 
of the naval cadets on the inauguration of the " Britannia " 
training ship, and was then employed in surveying work on the 
N.E. coast of Australia and in the Mediterranean, attaining the 
rank of captain in 1869. While in command of the " Challenger " 
(1872-1874), in the famous voyage of deep-sea exploration 
round the world, he was ordered home to take command of the 
Arctic expedition which set sail in the spring of 1875 in the ships 
" Alert " and " Discovery." He published a narrative of the 
voyage on his return, and for his services was made K.C.B. 
(1876). Two years later he was sent in command of the " Alert " 
to survey Magellan Strait. From 1879 to 1896 he was attached 
to the Harbour Department of the Board of Trade. He retired 
from active service in 1886, and became a vice-admiral in 
1892. (See POLAR REGIONS.) 

NARGILE or NARGILEH, the Persian and Turkish name for a 
" hookah," a tobacco pipe with a long flexible tube for stem 
passing through a vessel containing water, often perfumed. 
This bowl was originally made of a coco-nut (Persian nargil), 
whence the name, but now glass, metal or porcelain, are also 
used. 

NARNI (anc. Umbrian Nequinum, Rom. Narnia), a town and 
episcopal see of the province of Perugia, Italy, 65 m. N. of Rome 
by rail. Pop. (1901) 5200 (town), 12,773 (commune). It is 
picturesquely situated on a lofty rock (787 ft. above sea-level), 
480 ft. above the Nera valley, at the point where the river 
traverses a narrow ravine, and commands a fine view. The 
cathedral and the portico of S. Maria della Pensola are buildings 
of the nth century with flat arches; the former has some good 
Renaissance sculptures. There are other interesting 'churches; 
S. Francesco has a good doorway of the i4th century. In the 
town hall is a " Coronation of the Virgin " by D. Ghirlandaio. 
The town also contains some picturesque Gothic houses and 
palaces. Near the station, below the town, are factories of 
india-rubber and calcium carbide. 



The Umbrian Nequinum was taken by the Romans after a long 
siege in 299 B.C., and a colony planted there against the Umbrians, 
taking its name from the river. It was among the twelve colonies 
that were punished for refusing help to Rome in 209 B.C. It was 
considered a suitable point to oppose a threatened march of Has- 
drubal on Rome. It stood on the Via Flaminia, the great bridge 
of which over the river lies below the town. The original main road 
ran to Nuceria by Mevania; a branch by Interamna and Spoletium 
joined it at Forum Flaminii. According to some authors, the 
emperor Nerva was born at Narnia. The town is mentioned in the 
history of the Gothic wars. Procopius (B.C. i. 17) describes the 
site of the town, the river and the bridge the latter as built by 
Augustus, and as having the highest arches that he knew. In the 
middle ages Narni was under the papal power. It was the birthplace 
of the well-known cpndottiere Erasmo Gattamelata. 

See G. Eroli, Miscellanea Storica Narnese (2 vols., Narni, 1858- 
1862), and other works by the same author. 

NARRAGANSETT, a township of Washington county, Rhode 
Island, U.S.A. on the W. shore of Narragansett Bay, about 25m. 
S. of Providence and about 8 m. W.S.W. of Newport. Pop. 
(1890) 1408; (1900) 1523; (1905) 1469; (1910) 1250. Area 
about 15 sq. m. It is connected at Kingston Station (about 
9 m. N.W.) by the Narragansett Pier railway with the shore line 
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway; an electric 
line connects with Providence. The southern part of the town- 
ship is a peninsula, lying between the mouth of Narragansett 
Bay and an inlet separating this part of the township from 
South Kingstown. Narragansett Pier, within the township, has 
a fine bathing beach, which extends along the indented coast 
between the village and the mouth of the Pattaquamscutt river; 
the force of the surf is somewhat broken by Point Judith, about 
5 m. S. (also in the township), on which there is a lighthouse. 
On a ridge overlooking the ocean and commanding a fine view is 
the Point Judith Country Club, with golf courses, tennis courts 
and a polo-field, on which is held a horse show at the close of 
each season. Many of the summer visitors at Narragansett Pier 
are from New England, New York and Philadelphia, but there 
is a sufficient number from Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, 
Louisville and other Southern cities to give to its society a 
noticeably Southern tone. Narragansett Pier was so-named 
from the piers that were built here late in the i8th century and 
early in the igth to provide a port for the Narragansett Country, 
or southern Rhode Island, and it still has a coal wharf, and a 
yacht landing at the Casino. The development of the place as a 
summer resort was begun about the middle of the igth century 
by the erection of a bathing-house and the conversion of some 
farm houses into boarding houses. The erection of large hotels, 
and private residences soon followed, and the completion of the 
railway to the pier in 1876 increased its popularity. The District 
of Narragansett (in the town of South Kingstown) was organized 
in 1888 and in 1901 was incorporated as a separate township. 

The town is named from the Narraganset Indians, a once- 
powerful Algonquian tribe, which occupied much of the shore of 
Narragansett Bay. Under their chief Canonicus (d. 1647) they 
were friendly to the early Rhode Island settlers, and under 
Miantonomo (q.v.) entered into a tripartite treaty with the 
Connecticut colonists and the Mohegans; but after the execu- 
tion of Miantonomo the Narragansets under Miantonomo's son, 
Canonchet or Nanuntenoo, were less friendly. Their loyalty 
to the whites was suspected at the time of King Philip's War, 
and on the igth of December 1675, at the Great or Cedar Swamp 
(Narragansett Fort) in the present town of South Kingstown 
(immediately west of the town of Narragansett), they were 
decisively defeated by the whites, under Governor Josiah Winslow 
of the Plymouth Colony. The site of the engagement is marked 
by a granite monument erected in 1906 by the Rhode Island 
Society of Colonial Wars. Canonchet escaped, but on the 2nd of 
August 1676 was captured near Stonington, Connecticut, and on 
the following day was executed. Most of the survivors of the 
tribe were later settled among the Niantic, to whom the name 
Narraganset has been transferred. There are now few survivors 
of pure Indian blood. 

NARSES, NARSEH, NARSEUS, king of Persia, son of Shapur I. 
He rose as pretender to the throne against his grand-nephew 
Bahram III. in A.D. 292, and soon became-sole king. 'He attacked 



NARSES 



241 



the Romans, but after defeating the emperor Galerius near 
Callinicum on the Euphrates in 296 was completely defeated in 
297, and forced to conclude a peace, by which western Meso- 
potamia and five provinces on the left bank of the upper Tigris 
were ceded to the Romans and their sovereignty over the 
kingdom of Armenia was acknowledged. This peace, concluded 
in 297, lasted for forty years. Narses died in 303 and was 
succeeded by his son Hormizd II. (Ed. M.) 

NARSES (c. 478-573) an important officer of Justinian, in 
the 6th century. He was a eunuch, but we are nowhere distinctly 
informed that he was of servile origin. A native of Persarmenia 
(that portion of Armenia which was allotted to Persia by the 
partition of 384), he may have been prepared and educated by 
his parents for service in an oriental court. If the statement that 
he died at the age of ninety-five be correct, he was born about 
478. He was probably brought young to Constantinople, and 
attained a footing in the officium of the grand chamberlain. He 
rose to be one of the three (spectabiles) " chartularii," a position 
implying some literary attainment, and involving the custody of 
the archives of the household. Hence, probably in middle life, he 
became " praepositus sacri cubiculi," an "illustris," and entitled 
along with the praetorian prefects and the generals to the highe^ 
rank at the imperial court. In this capacity, in 530, he receivta 
into the emperor's obedience another Narses, a fellow-country- 
man, with his two brothers, Aratius and Isaac. These Pers- 
armenian generals, having formerly fought under the standard 
of Persia, now in consequence of the successes of Belisarius trans- 
ferred their allegiance to the emperor Justinian, came to Con- 
stantinople, and received costly gifts from the great minister. 

In 532 the insurrection known as the Nika broke out in 
Constantinople, when for some hours the throne of Justinian 
seemed doomed to overthrow. It was saved partly by the 
courage of his wife, Theodora, and partly by the timely prodigality 
of Narses, who stole out into the capital, and with large sums 
of money bribed the leaders of the " blue " faction, which was 
aforetime loyal to the emperor, to shout as of old " Justiniane 
Auguste tu vincas." 

The African and Italian wars followed. In the fourth year 
of the latter war (538) the splendid successes of Belisarius 
had awakened both joy and fear in the heart of his master. 
Reinforcements were sent into Italy, and Narses was placed 
at their head. Belisarius understood that Narses came to serve 
under him like any other officer of distinguished but subordinate 
rank, and he received a letter from Justinian which seemed to 
support this conclusion. But the friends of Narses continually 
plied him with suggestions that be, a great officer of the house- 
hold, in the secrets of the emperor, had been sent to Italy, not 
to serve as a subaltern, but to hold independent command and 
win military glory for himself. The truth probably lay between 
the two. Justinian could not deprive his great general of the 
supreme command, yet he wished to have a very powerful 
emissary of the court constantly at his side. He would have 
him watched but not hampered. 

The two generals met (A.D. 538) at Fermo on the Adriatic 
coast. The first interference of Narses with the plans of Belisarius 
was beneficial. John, one of the officers highest in rank under 
Belisarius, had pressed on to Rimini, contrary to the instructions 
of his chief, leaving in his rear the difficult fortress of Osimo 
(Auximum) untaken. His daring march had alarmed the Goths 
for Ravenna, and induced them to raise the siege of Rome; 
but he himself was now shut up in Rimini, and on the point of 
being forced by famine to surrender. Belisarius and his followers 
were prepared to let him pay the penalty of his rashness and 
disobedience. But his friend Narses so insisted on the blow to 
the reputation of the imperial arms which would be produced 
by the surrender of Rimini that he carried the council of war 
with him, and Belisarius had to plan a brilliant march across 
the mountains, in conjunction with a movement by the fleet, 
whereby Rimini was relieved while Osimo was still untaken. 
When Belisarius and John met, the latter ostentatiously thanked 
Narses alone for his preservation. 

His next use of his authority was less fortunate. Milan, 



which was holding out for the Romans, was also hard pressed by 
famine. The two generals who were sent to relieve it loitered 
disgracefully over their march, and, when Belisarius wished to 
despatch further reinforcements, the commanders of these 
new troops refused to stir till Narses gave them orders. Belisarius 
wrote to the eunuch pointing out the necessity of unity of purpose 
in the imperial army. At length, grudgingly, Narses gave his 
consent, and issued the required orders; but it was too late. 
Milan had been compelled by extremity of famine to surrender, 
and with it the whole province of Liguria fell into the hands of 
the enemy. This event forced Justinian to recognize the dangers 
of even a partially divided command, and he recalled Narses 
to Constantinople. 

Twelve years elapsed before Narses returned to Italy. Mean- 
while there had been great vicissitudes of fortune both for the 
Romans and the Goths. Italy, which appeared to have been 
won by the sword of Belisarius, had been lost again by the 
exactions and misgovernment of Alexander. Totila had raised 
up a new army, had more than kept Belisarius at bay in five 
difficult campaigns (544-548) and now held nearly all the country. 
Belisarius, however, in this his second series of campaigns, had 
, never been properly seconded by his master. In the spring of 
552 Narses set sail from Salona on the Dalmatian coast with a 
large and well-appointed army. It was a Roman army only 
in name. Lombards, Heruli, Huns, Gepidae and even Persians 
followed the standard of Narses, men equal in physical strength 
and valour to the Goths, and inspired by the liberal pay which 
they received, and by the hope of plunder. 

The eunuch seems to have led his army round the head of 
the Adriatic Gulf. By skilfully co-operating with his fleet, 
he was able to cross the rivers of Venetia without fighting the 
Gothic general Teias, who intended to dispute their passage. 
Having mustered all his forces at Ravenna, he marched south- 
ward. He refused to be detained before Rimini, being determined 
to meet the Gothic king as soon as possible with his army un- 
diminished. The occupation of the pass of Furlo (Petra Pertusa) 
by the Goths prevented his marching by the Via Flaminia, 
but, taking a short circuit, he rejoined the great road near Cagli. 
A little farther on, upon the crest of the Appenines, he was met 
by Totila, who had advanced as far as Tadini, called by Procopius 
Tagina. Parleys, messages and harangues by each general 
followed. At length the line of battle was formed, and the 
Gothic army, probably greatly inferior in number to the Byzan- 
tine was hopelessly routed (July 552), the king receiving a 
mortal wound as he was hurrying from the battlefield. 

With Totila fell the last hopes of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. 
Teias, who was proclaimed his successor, protracted for a few 
months a desperate resistance in the rocky peninsula of Castella- 
mare, overlooking the bay of Naples. At length want of provisions 
forced him into the plain, and there by the river Sarno, almost 
in sight of Pompeii, was fought (553) a battle which is generally 
named from the overlooking range of Mons Lactarius (Monte 
Lettere). The actual site of the battle, however, is about half 
a mile from the little town of Angri, and its memory is still vaguely 
preserved by the name Pozzo dei Goli (well of the Goths). In 
this battle Teias was killed. He was the last king of the 
Ostrogoths. 

The task of Narses, however, was not yet ended. By the 
invitation of the Goths an army of 75,000 warlike Alamanni 
and Franks, the subjects of King Theudibald, crossed the Alps 
under the command of two Alamannic nobles, the brothers 
Lothair and Buccelin (553). The great strategic talents of 
Narses were shown even more conspicuously in this, than in his 
previous and more brilliant campaigns. Against the small but 
gallant bands of Totila and Teias he had adopted the policy 
of rapid marches and imperative challenges to battle. His 
strategy in dealing with the great host from Gaul was of the 
Fabian kind. He kept them as long as he could north of the 
Apennines, while he completed the reduction of the fortresses 
of Tuscany. At the approach of winter he gathered his troops 
into the chief cities and declined operations in the field, while 
the Alamannic brothers marched through Italy, killing and 



242 



NARSINGHGARH NARVA 



plundering. When the spring of 554 appeared, Lothaire with 
his part of the army in-sisted on marching back to Gaul, there to 
deposit in safety the plunder which they had reaped. In an 
unimportant engagement near Pesaro he was worsted by the 
Roman generals, and this hastened his northward march. At 
Ceneda in Venetia he died of a raging fever. Pestilence broke 
out in his army, which was so wasted as to be incapable of 
further operations in Italy. Meanwhile his brother Buccelin, 
whose army was also suffering grievously from disease, partly 
induced by free indulgence in the grapes of Campania, encamped 
at Casilinum, the site of modern Capua. Here, after a time, 
Narses accepted the offered battle (554). The barbarians, whose 
army was in the form of a wedge, pierced the Roman centre. 
But by a most skilful manoeuvre Narses contrived to draw 
his lines into a curve, so that his mounted archers on each flank 
could aim their arrows at the backs of the troops who formed 
the other side of the Alamannic wedge. They thus fell in whole 
ranks by the hands of unseen antagonists. Soon the Roman 
centre, which had been belated in its march, arrived upon the 
field and completed the work of destruction. Buccelin and his 
whole army were destroyed, though we need not accept the 
statement of the Greek historian (Agathias ii. 9) that only five 
men out of the barbaric host of 30,000 escaped, and only eighty 
out of the Roman 18,000 perished. 

The only other important military operation of Narses which 
is recorded and that indistinctly is his defeat of the Herulian 
king Sindbal, who had served under him at Capua, but who 
subsequently revolted, was defeated, taken captive and hanged 
by the eunuch's order (565). In the main the thirteen years 
after the battle of Capua (554-567) were years of peace, and 
during them Narses ruled Italy from Ravenna with the title 
of prefect. 1 He rebuilt Milan and other cities destroyed in the 
Gothic War; and two inscriptions on the Salarian bridge at 
Rome have preserved to modern times the record of repairs 
effected by him in the year 564. 

His administration, however, was not popular. The effect 
of the imperial organization was to wring the last solidus out 
of the emaciated and fever-stricken population of Italy, and the 
belief of his subjects was that no small portion of their contribu- 
tions remained in the eunuch's private coffers. At the close of 
565 Justinian died, and a deputation of Romans waited upon 
his successor Justin II., representing that they found " the 
Greeks " harder taskmasters than the Goths, that Narses the 
eunuch was determined to reduce them all to slavery, and that 
unless he were removed they would transfer their allegiance 
to the barbarians. This deputation led to the recall of Narses 
in 567, accompanied, according to a somewhat late tradition, 
by an insulting message from the empress Sophia, who sent him 
a golden distaff, and bade him, as he was not a man, go and 
spin wool in the apartments of the women. " I will spin her 
such a hank," Narses is represented as saying, " that she shall 
not find the end of it in her lifetime " ; and forthwith he sent 
messengers to the Lombards in Pannonia, bearing some of the 
fruits of Italy, and inviting them to enter the land which bore 
such goodly produce. Hence came the invasion of Alboin (568), 
which wrested the greater part of Italy from the empire, and 
changed the destinies of the peninsula. 2 

1 Gibbon's statement that Narses was " the first and most powerful 
of the exarchs " is more correct in substance than in form. The 
title of exarch does not appear to be given to Narses by any con- 
temporary writer. He is always " Praefectus Italiae," " Patncius " 
or ' Dux Italiae," except when he bears the style of his former 
offices in the imperial household, " Ex-Praepositus [Cubiculi] " or 
" Chartularius." 

* This celebrated story seems to be unknown to strictly con- 
temporary authors. VVe find no hint of it in Agathias (who wrote 
between 566 and 582), in Marius (532-596), or in Gregory of Tours 
(540-594)- The possibly contemporary Liber Ponlificalis and Isidore 
of Seville (560-636) hint at the invitation to the Lombards. Frede- 
garius (so-called), who probably wrote in the middle of the 7th 
century, and Paul the Deacon, towards the close of the 8th, supply 
the saga-like details, which become more minute the farther the 
narrators are from the action. On the whole, the transaction, 
though it is too well vouched for to allow us to dismiss it as entirely 
fabulous, cannot take its place among the undoubted facts of history. 



Narses, who had retired to Naples, was persuaded by the pope 
(John III.) to return to Rome. He died there about 573, and 
his body, enclosed in a leaden coffin, was carried to Constantinople 
and buried there. Several years after his death the secret of 
the hiding-place of his vast stores of wealth is said to have 
been revealed by an old man to the emperor Tiberius II., for 
whose charities to the poor and the captives they furnished an 
opportune supply. 

Narses was short in stature and lean in figure. His freehanded- 
ness and affability made him very popular with his soldiers. Eva- 
grius tells us that he was very.religious, and paid especial reverence 
to the Virgin, never engaging in battle till he conceived that she 
had given him the signal. Our best authorities for his life are his 
contemporaries Procopius and Agathias. See Gibbon, Decline and 
Fall, vols. iv. and v., edited by J. B. Bury (1898). (T. H.) 

NARSINGHGARH, a native state of Central India, in the 
Bhopal agency. Area, 741 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 92,093; esti- 
mated revenue, 33,000; tribute to Holkar, 4000. The chief, 
whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Omat clan. The state was 
founded about 1681 by a minister of Rajgarh, who compelled 
the ruler of that state to transfer to him half his territory. 
The town of Narsinghgarh had a population in 1901 of 8778. 

NARSINGHPUR, a town and district of British India, in the 
^l 'iiudda division of the Central Provinces. The town is on the 
river Singri, and has a railway station 52 m. E. of Jubbulpore; 
pop. (1901) 11,233. The district has an area of 1976 sq. m. 
It forms a portion of the upper part of the Nerbudda valley. 
The first of those wide alluvial basins which, alternating with 
rocky gorges, give so varied a character to the river's course, 
opens out just below the famous marble rocks in Jubbulpore, and 
extends westward for 225 m., including the whole of Narsinghpur, 
together with the greater part of Hoshangabad. The Satpura 
hills to the south are here a generally regular range, nowhere 
more than 500 ft. above the plain, and running almost parallel 
to the river, at a distance of 15 or 20 m. In the intervening 
valley, the rich level of black wheat land is seldom broken, 
except by occasional mounds of gravel or nodular limestone, 
which afford serviceable village sites. Along the foot of the 
boundary hills the alluvium gives way to belts of red gravelly 
soil, rice and sugar-cane take the place of wheat, and forest trees 
that of mango groves. The population in 1901 was 315,518, 
showing a decrease of 14-5% in the decade, due to famine. 
The principal crops are wheat, millets, rice, pulses, oil-seeds 
and cotton. There are manufactures of cotton, silk, brass and 
iron-ware. At Mohpani are coal-mines. The Great Indian 
Peninsula railway runs through the district, with a branch to 
Mohpani. 

See Narsinghpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1906). 

NARTHEX (Gr. vapOr/^, the name of the plant giant-fennel, 
in Lat./crw/a), the name applied in architecture, probably from 
a supposed resemblance in shape to the reed-like plant, to the long 
arcaded porch forming the entrance into a Christian church, 
to which the catechumens and penitents were admitted. Some- 
times there was a second narthex or vestibule within the church, 
when the outer one was known as the exonarthex. In Byzantine 
churches this inner narthex formed part of the main structure 
of the church, being divided from it by a screen of columns. 
A narthex is found in some German churches, where, however, 
it had no ritual meaning but was introduced as a western 
transept to give more importance to the west end. One of the 
finest examples to be found in England is that of Ely cathedral, 
where its northern portion, however, was apparently never 
completed. 

NARVA (Rugodiv of Russian annals, also Ivangorod), a seaport 
and fortress of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, 
100 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop. 
(1897) 16,577. It stands on the Narova river, which flows 
from Lake Peipus or Chudskoye, and enters the Gulf of Finland 
in Narva Bay, 8 m. below this town. The town was founded in 
1223 by Danes, and changed hands between the Teutonic 
knights, Danes, Swedes and Russians until it was taken by 
Peter the Great in 1704, after the Russians had suffered here a 
terrible defeat at the hands of Charles XII. of Sweden four years 



NARVACAN NASCIMENTO 



243 



before. Its fortress, built on the right bank of the river, and 
known as Ivangorod, has lost its importance, and was abandoned 
in 1864. The cathedral and the town hall (1683) contain 
interesting antiquities. There are here an arsenal, a small 
museum and a school of navigation. Several manufactories 
utilize the waterfalls of the Narova, e.g. cotton-mills, woollen 
cloth mills, flax and jute mills, saw-mills and steam flour mills. 
The total trade falls short of half a million sterling annually. A 
watering-place has grown up at Ust-Narova, or Hungerburg, at 
the mouth of the Narova. 

NARVACAN, a town of the province of Ilocos Sur, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, near the coast and on the main road 13 m. 
S.S.E. of Vigan, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,575. It lies in a 
level valley surrounded by mountains, and has a cool and healthy 
climate. The soil, both in the valley and on the neighbouring 
mountain-sides, is very fertile, and produces rice, vegetables, 
Indian corn, indigo, cotton, tobacco, maguey and sugar-cane. 
Cotton fabrics are woven by the women and sold to the mountain 
tribes. The language of the town is Ilocano. 

NARVAEZ, PANFILO DE (c. 1480-1528), Spanish adventurer, 
was an hidalgo of Castile, born at Valladolid about 1480. He 
was one of the subordinates of Velazquez in the reduction of 
Cuba, and, after having held various posts under his governor- 
ship, was put at the head of the force sent to the Aztec coast to 
compel Cortes to renounce his command; he was surprised and 
defeated, however, by his abler and more active compatriot at 
Cempoalla, and made prisoner with the loss of an eye (1520). 
After his return to Spain he obtained from Charles V. a grant of 
Florida as far as the River of Palms; sailing in 1527 with five 
ships and a force of about 600 men, he landed, probably near 
Pensacola Bay, in April 1528, and, striking inland with some 300 
of his followers, reached " Apalache " on June 25. The prospects 
of fabulous wealth which had sustained them in their difficult 
and perilous journey having proved illusory a return to the 
coast was determined, and the Bahia de los Caballos, at or near 
St Mark's, was reached in the following month. Having built 
rude boats, the much-reduced company sailed hence for Mexico 
on September 22, but the vessel which carried Narvaez was 
driven to sea in a storm and perished. His lieutenant, Cabeza 
de Vaca, with three others who ultimately reached land, made his 
way across Texas to the Gulf of California. (See FLORIDA.) 

See Prescott, Conquest of Mexico; H. H. Bancroft, Mexico (1882- 
1890); and the Naufragio of Alvaro Nunez Cabeza de Vaca in the 
Bibiioteca of Rivadeneyra, xxii. 

NARVAEZ, RAMON MARIA (1800-1868), Spanish soldier and 
statesman, was born at Loja, Granada, on the 4th of August 1800, 
entered the army at an early age, and saw active service under 
Mina in Catalonia in 1822. He was in his sympathies a Con- 
servative, and could not go all lengths with the Radical opposi- 
tion to Ferdinand VII., whom he served after his restoration. 
When the king died, Narvaez became one of the Conservative 
supporters of Isabel II. He achieved great popularity by his 
victory over Gomez, the Carlist general, near Arcos, in November 
1836, and after clearing La Mancha of brigands by a vigorous 
policy of suppression in 1838 he was appointed captain-general 
of Old Castile, and commander-in-chief of the army of reserve. 
In 1840, for the part he had taken at Seville in the insurrection 
against Espartero and the Progresista party, he was compelled 
to take refuge in France, where, in conjunction with Maria 
Cristina, he planned the expedition of 1843 which led to the 
overthrow of his adversary. In 1844 he became prime minister, 
and was created field-marshal and duke of Valencia, but his 
policy was too reactionary to be tolerated long, and he was 
compelled to quit office in February 1846. He now held the post 
of ambassador at Paris, until again called to preside over the 
council of ministers in 1847; but misunderstandings with 
Maria Cristina led to his resignation in the following year. 
His ministry succeeded that of O'Donnell for a short time in 
1856-1857, and he again returned to power for a few months 
in 1864-1865. He once more replaced O'Donnell in July 1866, 
and was still in office when he died at Madrid on the 23rd of 
April 1868. 



Some very curious notices of Narvaez may be found in the letters 
of Prosper Merimee to Panizzi (1881). For his general political 
career see Hermann Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens p. Ausbruch d. 
franzos. Revol. bis auf unsere Tase (1865-1871); and the Historia 
Contemporanea of Antonio Pirala (18711879). 

NARVIK or VICTORIAHAVN, a seaport on the Ofoten Fjord of 
the north-west coast of Norway, in Nordland ami (county), 
68 30' N. It is wholly modern, developed by the construction 
and completion (1903) of the Ofoten railway, the most northerly 
in the world. There are extensive quays, from which is shipped 
the iron ore from the rich districts traversed by the line. Narvik 
is 167 m. N.W. of Gellivara, and 982 N. by W. of Stockholm by 
the railway. In summer express trains cover the whole distance 
in two days. Narvik is a convenient point from which to visit 
the beautiful Lofoten Islands. 

NARWHAL, the Scandinavian name of a cetacean (Monodon 
monoceros), characterized by the presence in the male of a long 
horn-like tusk. In the adult of both sexes there are only two 
teeth, both in the upper jaw, which lie horizontally side by side, 
and in the female remain throughout life concealed in cavities 
of the bone. In the male the right tooth usually remains similarly 
concealed, but the left is immensely developed, attaining a length 
equal to more than half that of the entire animal. In a narwhal 
12 ft. long, from snout to end of tail, the exserted portion of the 
tusk may measure 6 or 7 and occasionally 8 ft. in length. It 
projects horizontally forwards from the head in the form of a 
cylindrical or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, composed of ivory, 
with a central cavity reaching almost to the apex, without 
enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and 
ridges, running in a sinistral direction. Occasionally both left 
and right tusks are developed, in which case the direction of the 
grooves is the same in both. No instance has ever been met 
with of the complete development of the right tusk associated 
with a rudimentary condition of the left. In young animals 
several small additional teeth are present, but these usually 
disappear soon after birth. 

The head is rather short and rounded; the fore limbs or 
paddles are small and broad compared with those of most 
dolphins; and (as in the beluga) a dorsal fin, found in nearly all 
other members of the group, is wanting. The general colour of 
the surface is dark grey above and white below, variously 
marbled and spotted with shades of grey. 

The narwhal is an Arctic whale, frequenting the icy circum- 
polar seas, and rarely seen south of 65 N. lat. Four instances 
have, however, been recorded of its occurrence on the British 
coasts, one on the coast of Norfolk in 1588, one in the Firth of 
Forth in 1648, one near Boston in Lincolnshire in 1800, while 
a fourth entangled itself among rocks in the Sound of Weesdale, 
Shetland, in September 1808. Like most cetaceans it is gregari- 
ous and usually met with in " schools " or' herds of fifteen or 
twenty individuals. Its food appears to be cuttlefishes, small 
fishes and crustaceans. The purpose served by the tusk or 
" horn " is not known; and little is known of the habits of 
narwhals. Scoresby describes them as " extremely playful, 
frequently elevating their horns and crossing them with each 
other as in fencing." They have never been known to charge and 
pierce the bottom of ships with their weapons, as the swordfish 
does. The name " sea-unicorn " is sometimes applied to the 
narwhal. The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very 
good quality, but owing to the central cavity, only fitted for the 
manufacture of objects of small size. The entire tusks are 
sometimes used for decorative purposes, and are of considerable, 
though fluctuating, value. (See CETACEA.) (W. H. F.) 

NASCIMENTO, FRANCISCO MANOEL DE (1734-1819), 
Portuguese poet, better known by the literary name of Filinlo 
Elysio, bestowed on him by the Marqueza de Alorna, was the 
reputed son of a Lisbon boat-owner. In his early years he 
acquired a love of national customs and traditions which his 
humanist education never obliterated, while, in addition, he 
learnt to know the whole range of popular literature (litleratura 
de cordet) songs, comedies, knightly stories and fairy tales, 
which were then printed in loose sheets (folhas volantcs) and sold 
by the blind in the streets of the capital. These circumstances 



244 



NASEBY 



explain the richness of his vocabulary, and joined to an ardent 
patriotism they fitted him to become the herald of the literary 
revival known as Romanticism, which was inaugurated by his 
distinguished follower Almeida Garrett. Nascimento began to 
write verses at the age of fourteen. He was ordained a priest in 
1754, and shortly afterwards became treasurer of the Chagas 
church in Lisbon. He led a retired life, and devoted his time 
to the study of the Latin classics, especially Horace, and to the 
society of literary friends, among whom were numbered some 
cultivated foreign merchants. These men nourished the common 
ambition to restore Camoens, then half forgotten, to his rightful 
place as the king of the Portuguese Parnassus, and they pro- 
claimed the cult of the Quinhentistas, regarding them as the best 
poetical models, while in philosophy they accepted the teaching 
of the French Encyclopaedists. 

Nascimento's first publication was a version of one of 
Metastasio's operas, and his early work consisted mainly of 
translations. Though of small volume and merit, it sufficed 
to arouse the jealousy of his brother bards. At this time the 
Arcadia was working to restore good taste and purify the 
language of gallicisms, but the members of this society forgot 
the traditions of their own land in their desire to imitate the 
classics. Nascimento and other writers who did not belong 
to the Arcadia, formed themselves into a rival group, which met 
at the Ribeira das Naos, and the two bodies attacked one 
another in rhyme without restraint, until the " war of the poets," 
as it was called, ended with the collapse of the Arcadia. Nasci- 
mento now conceived a strong but platonic affection for D. 
Maria de Almeida, afterwards Condessa da Ribeira, sister of 
the famous poetess the Marqueza de Alorna. This lady sang 
the chansonnettes he wrote for her, and their poetical intercourse 
drew from him some lyrics of profound emotion. This was 
the happiest epoch of his life, but it did not last long. The 
accession of D. Maria I. inaugurated an era of reaction against 
the spirit and reforms of Pombal, and religious succeeded to 
political intolerance. In June 1778 Nascimento was denounced 
to the Inquisition on the charge of having given vent to heterodox 
opinions and read " the works of modern philosophers who 
follow natural reason." The tribunal held a secret inquiry, and 
without giving him an opportunity of defence issued an order 
for his arrest, which was to take place early in the morning of 
the I4th of July. He had received a warning, and succeeded 
in escaping to the house of a French merchant, Verdier, where 
he lay hid for eleven days, at the end of which his friend the 
Marquez de Marialva put him on board a French ship which 
carried him to Havre. Nascimento took up his residence in 
Paris, and his first years there passed pleasantly enough. Soon, 
however, his circumstances changed for the worse. He received 
the news of the confiscation of his property by the Inquisition; 
and though he strove to support himself by teaching and writing 
he could hardly make both ends meet. In 1792 his admirer 
Antonio de Araujo, afterwards Conde de Barca, then Portuguese 
minister to Holland, offered the poet the hospitality of his house 
at the Hague, but neither the country, the people, nor the 
language were congenial, and when his host went to Paris on a 
diplomatic mission in 1797 Nascimento accompanied him, and 
spent the rest of his life in and near the French capital. He 
retained to the end an intense love of country, which made him 
wish to die in Portugal, and in 1796 a royal decree permitting 
his return there and ordering the restoration of his goods was 
issued, but delays occurred in its execution, and the flight of 
the court to the Brazils as a result of the French invasion finally 
dashed his hopes. Before this the Conde de Barca had obtained 
him a commission from the Portuguese government to translate 
the De Rebus Emanuelis of Osorio; the assistance of some 
fellow-countrymen in Paris carried him through his last years, 
which were cheered by the friendship of his biographer and 
translator Alexandre San6 and of the Lusophil Ferdinand 
D6nis. Lamartine addressed an ode to him; he enjoyed the 
esteem of Chateaubriand; and his admirers at home, who 
imitated him extensively, were called after him Os Filintistas. 
Exile and suffering had enlarged his ideas and given him a sense 



of reality, making his best poems those he wrote between the 
ages of seventy and eighty-five, and when he passed away, it 
was recognized that Portugal had lost her foremost contempo- 
rary poet. 

Garrett declared that Nascimento was worth an academy in 
himself by his knowledge of the language, adding that no poet 
since Camoens had rendered it such valuable services; but his 
truest title to fame is that he brought literature once more into 
touch with the life of the nation. By his life, as by his works, 
Nascimento links the i8th and i9th centuries, the Neo-Classical 
period with Romanticism. Wieland's Oberon and Chateau- 
briand's Martyrs opened a new world to him, and his cantos 
or scenes of Portuguese life have a real romantic flavour; they 
are the most natural of his compositions, though his noble 
patriotic odes those " To Neptune speaking to the Portuguese " 
and " To the liberty and independence of the United States " 
are the most quoted and admired. On leaving Portugal, he 
abandoned the use of rhyme as cramping freedom of thought 
and expression; nevertheless his highly polished verses are 
generally robust to hardness and overdone with archaisms. 
His translations from Latin, French and Italian, are accurate 
though harsh, and his renderings of Racine and the Fables of 
Lafontaine entirely lack the simplicity and grace of the originals. 
But Nascimento's blank verse translation of the Mar tyrs is in 
many ways superior to Chateaubriand's prose. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most useful edition of his collected works 
is that in 22 vols., Lisbon, 1836-1840. See Innocencio da Silva, 
Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez, ii. 446-457 and ix. 332-336; 
also Filinto Elysio e a sua Epoca, by Pereira da Silva (Rio, 1891); 
and Filinto Elysio, by Dr Theophilo Braga (Oporto, 1891). 

(E. PR.) 

NASEBY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, 7 m. 
S.S.W. of Market Harborough, famous as the scene of the battle of 
June 14, 1645, which decided the issue of the first Civil War (see 
GREAT REBELLION). The army of King Charles I. was less than 
10,000 strong, while the " New Mode] " army of the parliament, 
commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, numbered some 13,000, 
yet it was not without considerable hopes of victory that the 
Royalists drew up for battle, for although Lieutenant-General 
Cromwell had made the New Model cavalry formidable indeed, 
the Royalist foot had become professionalized in several years 
of war, whereas the Parliamentarian foot was newly organized, 
and in part at least but half-trained. Fairfax and Cromwell, 
however, were still more confident, and with better reason. 
The battlefield lies between Naseby and Sibbertoft (3 m. N. 
of Naseby) and is an undulating ridge which, near the centre 
of England, forms the " divide " between the Avon and the 
Welland rivers. Across this ridge the two armies were drawn 
up, the New Model facing north and the king's army south, 
the horse on the flanks and the foot in the centre in each army. 

At the first shock the Royal foot asserted its superiority over 
the opposing infantry, four out of five regiments in the first 
line were broken, and Skippon, the major-general of the foot, 
was wounded. But Fairfax's regiment held its ground, until 
the second line of infantry advanced and re-established the front. 
Meantime the Royalist right wing of horse, led by Prince Rupert, 
had completely routed the horse of Colonel Ireton which opposed 
them. But the victors as usual indulged in a disorderly pursuit, 
and attempted to overpower the baggage guard of the enemy 
near Naseby village. Their incoherent attack was repulsed, 
and when Rupert, gathering as many of his men as he could, 
returned to the battlefield, the decisive stroke had been delivered 
by Cromwell and the right wing of Parliamentary horse. In 
front of him, in somewhat broken ground, was Sir Marmaduke 
Langdale's cavalry, which the lieutenant-general with his own 
well-trained regiments scattered after a short, fierce encounter. 
Cromwell's " godly " troopers did not scatter in pursuit. A 
few squadrons were ordered to keep the fugitives on the run, and 
with the rest, and such of Ireton's broken troops as he could 
gather, Cromwell attacked the Royalist centre in rear while 
Fairfax and his foot pressed it in front. Gradually the Royalist 
infantry, inferior in numbers, was disintegrated into small groups, 
which surrendered one after the other. But one brigade, called 



NASH NASHE, THOMAS 



245 



the " Bluecoats," held out to the last, and was finally broken 
by a combined charge of Fairfax's regiment of foot, led by 
Cromwell, and the general's personal escort, led by Fairfax 
himself, who captured a colour with his'own hand. The remnant 
of the king's army, re-formed by Rupert, stood inactive and 
irresolute while its infantry was being destroyed and then fled. 
The spoils included 100 standards and colours and the king's 
private papers. But more important than trophies was the 
practical annihilation of the last field army of which the king 
disposed. Half the Royalists were captured, and about 1000 
fell, in the battle and the pursuit which followed it. In addition 
all the artillery and the muskets (to the number of 8000) and 
ammunition without which the king could scarcely create a new 
army, fell into the hands of the victors. 

NASH, RICHARD (1674-1762), English dandy, better known 
as " BEAU NASH," was born at Swansea on the i8th of October 
1674. He was descended from an old family of good position, 
but his father from straitened means had become partner in a 
glass business. Young Nash was educated at Carmarthen 
grammar school and at Jesus College, Oxford. He obtained a 
commission in the army, which, however, he soon exchanged for 
the study of law at the Temple. Here among " wits and men 
of pleasure " he came to be accepted as an authority in regard 
to dress, manners and style. When the members of the Inns of 
Court entertained William III. after his accession, Nash was 
chosen to conduct the pageant at the Middle Temple. This duty 
he performed so much to the satisfaction of the king that he 
was offered knighthood, but he declined the honour, unless 
accompanied by a pension. As the king did not take the hint, 
Nash found it necessary to turn gamester. The pursuit of his 
calling led him in 1705 to Bath, where he had the good fortune 
almost immediately to succeed Captain Webster as master of the 
ceremonies. His qualifications for such a position were unique, 
and under his authority reforms were introduced which rapidly 
secured to Bath a leading position as a fashionable watering-place. 
He drew up a new code of rules for the regulation of balls and 
assemblies, abolished the habit of wearing swords in places 
of public amusement and brought duelling into disrepute, 
induced gentlemen to adopt shoes and stockings in parades and 
assemblies instead of boots, reduced refractory chairmen to 
submission and civility, and introduced a tariff for lodgings. 
Through his exertions a handsome assembly-room was also 
erected, and the streets and public buildings were greatly 
improved. Nash adopted an outward state corresponding to his 
nominal dignity. He wore an immense white hat as a sign of 
office, and a dress adorned with rich embroidery, and drove in 
a chariot with six greys, laced lackeys and French horns. When 
the act of parliament against gambling was passed in 1745, he 
was deprived of an easy though uncertain means of subsistence, 
but the corporation afterwards granted him a pension of six score 
guineas a year, which, with the sale of his snuff-boxes and other 
trinkets, enabled him to support a certain faded splendour 
till his death on the 3rd of February 1762. He was honoured 
with a public funeral at the expense of the town. Notwith- 
standing his vanity and impertinence, the tact, energy and 
superficial cleverness of Nash won him the patronage and notice 
of the great, while the success of his ceremonial rule, as shown 
in the increasing prosperity of the town, secured him the gratitude 
of the corporation and the people generally. He was a man of 
strong personality, and considerably more able than Beau 
Brummell, whose prototype he was. 

See Lewis Melville, Bath under Beau Nash (1908), with full list of 
authorities; Oliver Goldsmith, Life of Richard Nash (1762). See 
also Gentleman's Magazine (1762); London Magazine, vol. xxxi. ; 
" The Monarch of Bath " in Blackwood's Magazine, vol. xlviii. 

NASHE (or NASH), THOMAS (1567-1601), English poet, 
playwright and pamphleteer, was born at Lowestoft in 1567. 
His father belonged to an old Herefordshire family, and is 
vaguely described as a " minister." Nashe spent nearly seven 
years, 1582 to 1589, at St John's College, Cambridge, taking 
his B .A. degree in 1 585-1 586. On leaving the university he tried, 
like Greene and Marlowe, to make his living in London by 



literature. It is probable that his first effort was The Anatomie of 
Absurditie (1589) which was perhaps written at Cambridge, 
although he refers to it as a forthcoming publication in his 
preface to Greene's Menaphon (1589). In this preface, addressed 
to the gentlemen students of .both universities, he makes boister- 
ous ridicule of the bombast of Thomas Kyd and the English 
hexameters of Richard Stanihurst, but does not forget the praise 
of many good books. Nashe was really a journalist born out of 
due time; he boasts of writing " as fast as his hand could trot "; 
he had a brilliant and picturesque style which, he was careful to 
explain, was entirely original; and in addition to his keen sense 
of the ridiculous he had an abundance of miscellaneous learning. 
As there was no market for his gifts he fared no better than the 
other university wits who were trying to live by letters. But 
he found an opening for his ready wit and keen sarcasm in 
the Martin Marprelate controversy. His share in this war of 
pamphlets cannot now be accurately determined, but he has, 
with more or less probability, been credited with the following: 
A Countercuffe given to Martin Junior (1589), Martins Months 
Minde (1589), The Returneof the renowned Cavaliero Pasquill 
and his Meeting with Marforius (1589), The First Parte of Pasquils 
Apologie (1590), and An Almond for a Parrot (1590). He edited 
an unauthorized edition of Sidney's poems with an enthusiastic 
preface in 1591, and A Wonderfull Astrologicall Prognostication, 
in ridicule of the almanac-makers, by " Adam Fouleweather," 
which appeared in the same year, has been attributed to him. 
Pierce Penilesse, His Supplication to the Divell, published in 1592, 
shows us his power as a humorous critic of national manners, and 
tells incidentally how hard he found it to live by the pen. It 
seems to Pierce a monstrous thing that brainless drudges wax 
fat while " the seven liberal sciences and a good leg will scarce 
get a scholar bread and cheese." In this pamphlet, too, Nashe 
began his attacks upon the Harveys by assailing Richard, 
who had written contemptuously of his preface to Greene's 
Menaphon. Greene died in September 1592, and Richard's 
brother, Gabriel Harvey, at once attacked his memory in his 
Foure Letters, at the same time adversely criticizing Pierce 
Penilesse. Nashe replied, both for Greene and for himself, 
in Strange Newes of the intercepting cerlaine Letters, better known, 
from the running title, as Foure Letters Confuted (1592), in which 
all the Harveys are violently attacked. The autumn of 1592 
Nashe seems to have spent at or near Croydon, where he wrote 
his satirical masque of Summers Last Will and Testament at 
a safe distance from London and the plague. He afterwards 
lived for some months in the Isle of Wight under the patronage 
of Sir George Carey, the governor. In 1593 he wrote Christs 
Teares over Jerusalem, in the first edition of which he made 
friendly overtures to Gabriel Harvey. These were, however, 
in a second edition, published in the following year, replaced 
by a new attack, and two years later appeared the most violent 
of his tracts against Harvey, Have with you to Sajfron-walden, 
or, Gabriett Harveys Hunt is up (1596). In 1599 the controversy 
was suppressed by the archbishop of Canterbury. After 
Marlowe's death Nashe prepared his friend's unfinished tragedy 
of Dido (1596) for the stage. In the next year he was in trouble 
for a play, now lost,, called The Isle of Dogs, for only part of 
which, however, he seems to have been responsible. The 
" seditious and slanderous matter " contained in this play 
induced the authorities to close for a time the theatre at which 
it had been performed, and the dramatist was put in the Fleet 
prison. Besides his pamphlets and his play-writing, Nashe 
turned his energies to novel-writing. He may be regarded as the 
pioneer in the English novel of adventure. He published in 
1594 The Unfortunate Traveller, Or the Life of Jack Wilton, the 
history of an ingenious page who was present at the siege of 
T6rouenne, and afterwards travelled in Italy with the earl of 
Surrey. It tells the story of the earl and Fair Geraldine, 
describes a tournament held by Surrey at Florence, and relates 
the adventures of Wilton and his mistress Diamante at Rome 
after the earl's return to England. The detailed, realistic 
manner in which Nashe relates his improbable fiction resembles 
that of Defoe. His last work is entitled Lenten 



246 



NASHUA NASHVILLE 



and is nominally " in praise of the red herring," but really a 
description of Yarmouth, to which place he had retired after 
his imprisonment, written in the best style of a " special corre- 
spondent." Nashe's death is referred to in Thomas Dekker's 
Knight's Conjuring (1607), a kind of sequel to Pierce Penilesse. 
He is there represented as joining his boon companions in the 
Elysian fields " still haunted with the sharp and satirical spirit 
that followed him here upon earth." Had his patrons under- 
stood their duty, he would not, he said, have shortened his days 
by keeping company with pickled herrings. It may therefore 
be reasonably supposed that he died from eating bad and in- 
sufficient food. The date of his death is fixed by an elegy on him 
printed in Fitzgeffrey's Afaniae (1601). 

The works of Thomas Nashe were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart in 
1883-1885, and more recently by Ronald B. McKerrow (1904). 



An account of his work as a novelist may 
Novel in the Time of Shakespeare, by J. j. Jusserand (Eng. trans., 
1890). The Unfortunate Traveller was edited with an introduction 
by Edmund Gosse in 1892. See also " Nash's Unfortunate Traveller 
und Head's English Rogue, die beiden Hauptvertreter des englischen 
Schelmenromans," by W. Kollmann in Anglic (Halle, vol. xxii., 1899, 
pp. 81-140). 

NASHUA, a city and one of the county seats of Hillsboro 
county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Nashua 
and Merrimac rivers, 35 m. S.S.E. of Concord and 40 m. N.W. of 
Boston by rail. Pop. (1890) 19,311; (1900) 23,898, of whom 
8093 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,005. Nashua is 
served by the Boston & Maine railroad, whose several divisions 
centring here give the city commercial importance, and by 
electric lines to Hudson, Litchfield, Pelham, Dracut and 
Tyngsboro. The area of the city in 1906 was 30- 7 1 sq. m. To the 
N.,W. and S.W. of the city there are beautiful hills and moun- 
tains. The church of Saint Francis Xavier and the First Con- 
gregational church are architecturally noteworthy. The city has 
a soldiers' monument, a public library, a court house and two 
hospitals. There is a United States fish hatchery here, and until 
after the close of the i8th century fishing was the principal 
industry of the place, as manufacturing is now. Water-power is 
furnished by the Nashua river and by Salmon Brook, and the 
city is extensively engaged in, manufactures, notably cotton goods, 
boots, shoes, and foundry and machine-shop products. The 
value of the city's factory products increased from $10,096,064 
in 1900 to $12,858,382 in 1905, or 27-4%, and in 1905 Nashua 
ranked second among the manufacturing cities of the state. 
Nashua is one of the oldest interior settlements of the state. The 
first settlement here was established about 1665; and in 1673 the 
township of Dunstable was incorporated by the General Court 
of Massachusetts. In 1741, when the boundary between Massa- 
chusetts and New Hampshire was settled, the jurisdiction of this 
portion of Dunstable was transferred to New Hampshire; five 
years later it was incorporated under the laws of that state; and 
in 1803 the settlement, originally known as Indian Head, was 
incorporated as a village under the name of Nashua, and in 1836 
the township of Dunstable also received the name Nashua. The 
town of Nashville was set apart from the town of Nashua in 1842, 
but the two towns were united under a city charter obtained in 
1853. In 1795 the first stage coach was run through here from 
Boston to Amherst, and at about the same time a canal was 
built around Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimac at Lowell. In 
1822 a manufacturing company was formed, which at once began 
to develop the water-power and in 1825 erected the first cotton 
mill. Thirteen years later the Nashua & Lowell railroad (now 
leased to the Boston & Maine) first reached Nashua. 

See The History of the City of Nashua, edited by E. E. Parker 
(Nashua, 1897). 

NASHVILLE, the capital of Tennessee, U.S.A., and the 
county-seat of Davidson county, on the Cumberland river, 186 m. 
S.S.W. of Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 76,168; (1900) 
80,865, f whom 3037 were foreign-born and 30,044 were negroes; 
(1910 census) 110,364. Nashville is served by the Tennessee 
Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville, Chat- 
tanooga & St Louis railways, and by several steamboat lines. 
The Cumberland river is crossed here by four foot-bridges. 
Nashville is situated on and between hills and bluffs in an un- 



dulating valley; its streets are paved with brick or granite 
blocks in the business section and macadamized or paved with 
asphalt in the residential sections. The city has fine public 
buildings, many handsome residences, and several beautiful 
parks. The principal building is the State House, a fine example 
of pure Greek architecture, on the most prominent hill-top, with 
a tower 205 ft. in height. On the grounds about it are a bronze 
equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills (1815-1883), 
and the tomb of President James K. Polk, who lived in Nashville. 
Other prominent buildings and institutions are the United 
States Government Building, the County Court House, the City 
Hall, the Tennessee School for the Blind, the Tennessee Industrial 
School, the State Library, the Library of the State Historical 
Society housed in Watkins Institute, a Carnegie library, park 
buildings, the State Penitentiary, Vend6me Theatre, the Board 
of Trade Building, the City Hospital, the St Thomas Hospital 
(Roman Catholic), and, near the city, a Confederate Soldiers' 
Home and a State Hospital for the Insane. Eleven miles east of 
the city is the " Hermitage," which was the residence of President 
Andrew Jackson. 

The grounds of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition of 1897 
(commemorating the admission of Tennessee into the Union) on 
the west border of the city now constitute Centennial Park, in 
which still stand the reproduced Parthenon of Athens, the 
History Building, which in general outline is a reproduction of 
the Erectheum and contains a museum and an art gallery, and a 
monument to the memory of James Robertson (1742-1814), the 
founder of the city. Besides this there are four other parks: Glen- 
dale Park in the south section, a place of much natural beauty; 
Shelby Park, in the eastern part of the city, fronting the river; 
Watkins Park, on the north; and Cumberland Driving Park. 
In Mount Olivet Cemetery is a beautiful Confederate Soldiers' 
monument surrounded by the graves of 2000 Confederate soldiers, 
and a little to the north of the city is a National Cemetery in 
which 16,643 Federal soldiers are buried, the names of 4711 of 
them being unknown. 

Nashville is one of the foremost educational centres in the 
Southern states. In the western part of the city is Vanderbilt 
University. This institution, opened in 1875, is under the 
patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and was 
named in honour of Cornelius Vanderbilt, who contributed 
$1,000,000 to its funds, and whose son, W. H. Vanderbilt, and 
grandsons, W. K. Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt, gave to 
the university about $820,000. It is coeducational and embraces 
an academic department, a biblical department, and departments 
of engineering, law, medicine, pharmacy and dentistry; in 1909 
it had 125 instructors and 959 students. The University of 
Nashville is a non-sectarian institution embracing a college 
department, a medical department, a preparatory department, 
and the George Peabody College for Teachers; it was incorporated 
under the laws of North Carolina as Davidson Academy in 1785 
and under the laws of Tennessee as Cumberland College in 1806, 
and the present name was adopted in 1826. The George Peabody 
College for Teachers, an important part of the institution, was 
opened as a normal school in 1875; in 1907-1908 it had an 
enrolment (including the summer session) of 647 students. In 
1909 it received $1,000,000 from the Peabody Fund, later supple- 
mented by $250,000 from the state, $200,000 from the city and 
$100,000 from Davidson county. The University of Tennessee, 
located mainly at Knoxville, has at Nashville its medical and 
dental departments. Ward Seminary, opened in 1865, Boscobel 
College, opened in 1889, and Buford, Belmont and Radnor colleges 
are all non-sectarian institutions of Nashville for the higher educa- 
tion of women. For the education of negroes the city has Fisk 
University (opened in 1866, incorporated in 1867), under the 
auspices of the American Missionary Association and the Western 
Freedman's Aid Commission of the Congregational Church (noted 
since 1871 for its Jubilee Singers,who raised moneyfor Jubilee Hall, 
finished in 1876) ; it embraces a college department, a preparatory 
department, a normal department and departments of theology, 
music and physical training; and Walden University, founded as 
Central Tennessee College in 1866, under the auspices of the 



NASI NASIK 



247 



Methodist Episcopal Church, and embracing a college depart- 
ment, a normal department, an industrial department, and 
departments of English, commerce, law, medicine, dentistry, 
pharmacy, music, bible training, nurse training and domestic 
science. The Baptist, the Methodist Episcopal (South), the 
Cumberland Presbyterian, and the African Baptist and the 
African Methodist Episcopal churches have publishing houses 
in Nashville. 

The leading manufactures of the city are flour and grist mill 
products (valued at $4,242,491 in 1905), lumber and timber 
products Nashville is one of the greatest hard wood markets in 
the United States, and in 1905 the value of lumber and timber 
products was $1,119,162 and of planing-mill products, $1,299,066 
construction and repair of steam railway cars ($1,724,007 in 
1905), tobacco ($1,311,019 in 1005), fertilizers ($846,511 in 1905), 
men's clothing ($720,227 in 1905), saddlery, harness, soap and 
candles. The total value of the products of the factories increased 
from $15,301,096 in 1900 to $23,109,601 (16-8% of the entire 
factory product of the state) in 1905, amounts greater than 
those of any other city m the state. Nashville has a large trade 
in grain, cotton, groceries, dry goods, drugs, and boots and shoes. 
The water-works and the electric lighting plant are owned and 
operated by the municipality. 

Nashville was founded in 1780 as " the advance guard of 
western civilization " by a company of two hundred or more 
pioneers under the leadership of James Robertson, the nearest 
settlement being at the time about three hundred miles distant. 
When first settled it was named Nashborough in honour of Abner 
Nash (1716-1786), who was at the time governor of North Caro- 
lina, or more probably in honour of the Revolutionary general, 
Francis Nash (1720-1777), a brother of Abner, killed at German- 
town; but when, in 1784, it was incorporated as a town by the 
North Carolina legislature the present name was substituted. 
In 1806 Nashville was chartered as a city. Although it was not 
made the capital of the state until 1843, the legislature met here 
from 1812 with the exception of the period from 1815 to 1826. 
Many of the pioneers of Nashville were slain by the Creek and 
Cherokee Indians, and at times the settlement was saved from 
destruction only by the heroism of Robertson, but in 1794 the 
savages were dealt a crushing blow at Nickojack on the lower 
Tennessee and much more peaceful relations were established. 
On the 3rd of June 1850 a convention, known as the Southern or 
Nashville Convention, whose action was generally considered 
a threat of disunion, met here to consider the questions at issue 
between the North and the South. Since such a meeting had 
first been proposed by a state convention of Mississippi, the 
famous Compromise Measures of 1850 had been introduced in 
Congress and the support of the movement had been greatly 
weakened thereby except in South Carolina and Mississippi. 
Nine states, however, were represented by about 100 delegates, 
mostly Democrats, and the convention denounced the Wilmot 
Proviso, and, as " an extreme concession on the part of the 
South," promised to agree that, W. of Missouri, there should be 
slavery only in the territory S. of 36 30' N. lat. At an adjourned 
meeting in November it expressed its dissatisfaction with the 
Compromise Measures of Congress, and asserted the right of the 
South to secede. 

During the Civil War Nashville was at first held by the Con- 
federates, but early in 1862 it was occupied by the Federals, 
who retained possession of it to the end. The battle of Nashville 
was fought on the isth and i6th of December 1864 between 
the Union army under Major-General G. H. Thomas and the 
Confederates under General J. B. Hood. The Union defences 
extended in a semicircle round Nashville, the flanks on the 
river above and below. Hood's army was to the south-east, 
lightly entrenched, with its flanks on two creeks which empty 
into the Cumberland above and below Nashville. This position 
he desired to maintain as long as possible so as to gather recruits 
and supplies in safety. If Thomas, whose army was of motley 
composition, attacked, he hoped to defeat him and to enter 
Nashville on his heels. Thomas, however, would not strike 
until he had his army organized. Then, on the isth, he emerged 



from the entrenchments and by a vigorous attack on the Con- 
federate left forced back Hood's line to a second position 15 m. 
to the south. Hood, having detached a part of his army, desired 
to gain time to bring in his detachments by holding this line for 
another day. Thomas, however, gave him no respite. On the 
1 6th the Union army deployed in front of him, again over-lap- 
ping his left flank, and although a frontal attack was repulsed, 
the extension of the Federal right wing compelled Hood to 
extend his own lines more and more. Then the Federals broke 
the attenuated line of defence at its left centre, and Hood's 
army drifted away in disorder. The pursuit was vigorous, 
and only a remnant of the Confederate forces reassembled at 
Columbia, 40 m. to the south, whence they fell back without 
delay behind the Tennessee. 

NASI, JOSEPH (i6th century), Jewish statesman and financier, 
was born in Portugal of a Jewish (Marano) family. Emigrating 
from his native land, he founded a banking house in Antwerp. 
Despite his financial and social prosperity there, he felt it irk- 
some to be compelled to wear the guise of Catholicism, and 
determined to settle in a Mahommedan land. After two troubled 
years in Venice, Nasi betook himself to Constantinople. Here 
he proclaimed his Judaism, and married his beautiful cousin 
Reyna. He rapidly rose to favour, the sultans Suleiman and 
Selim promoting him to high office. He founded a Jewish colony 
at Tiberias which was to be an asylum for the Jews of the Roman 
Campagna. In 1 566 when Selim ascended the throne, Nasi was 
made duke of Naxos. He had deserved well of Turkey, for he 
had conquered Cyprus for the sultan. Nasi's influence was so 
great that foreign powers often negotiated through him for 
concessions which they sought from the sultan. Thus the 
emperor of Germany, Maximilian II., entered into direct corre- 
spondence with Nasi; William of Orange, Sigismund August II., 
king of Poland, also conferred with him on political questions 
of moment. On the death of Selim in 1574, Nasi receded from 
his political position, but retained his wealth and offices, and 
passed the five years of life remaining to him in honoured 
tranquillity at Belvedere (Constantinople). He died in 1579. 
His career was not productive of direct results, but it was of 
great moral importance. It was one of the tokens of the new 
era that was to dawn for the Jews as trusted public officials 
and as members of the state. 

See Graetz, History of (he Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. chs. xvi.- 
xvii. ; Jewish Encyclopedia, ix. 172. (I. A.) 

NASIK, a. town and district of British India, in the central 
division of Bombay. The town is on the Godavari river, con- 
nected by a tramway (5 m.) with Nasik Road railway station, 
107 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1001) 21,490. It is a very holy 
place of Hindu pilgrimage, being 30 m. from the source of the 
Godavari. Shrines and temples line the river banks, and some 
stand even in the river. In the vicinity there are a number 
of sacred caves, among which those of Pandu Lena are the most 
noteworthy. They are ancient Buddhist caves dating from the 
3rd century before Christ to the 6th century after. There are 
numerous inscriptions of the highest historical value. Nasik 
has manufactures of cotton goods, brass-ware and mineral 
waters. 

The DISTRICT OF NASIK has an area of 5850 sq. m. With 
the exception of a few villages in the west, the whole district 
is situated on a tableland from 1300 to 2000 ft. above sea-level. 
The western portion is hilly, and intersected by ravines, and 
only the simplest kind of cultivation is possible. The eastern 
tract is open, fertile and well cultivated. The Sahyadri range 
stretches from north to south; the watershed is formed by the 
Chander range, which runs east and west. All the streams 
to the south of that range are tributaries of the Godavari. To 
the north of the watershed, the Girna and its tributary the Mosam 
flow through fertile valleys into the Tapti. The district generally 
is destitute of trees, and the forests which formerly clothed the 
Sahyadri hills have nearly disappeared; efforts are now being 
made to prevent further destruction, and to reclothe some of 
the slopes. The district contains several old hill forts, the scenes 
of many engagements during the Mahratta wars. Nasik district 



NASIR KHOSRAU NASMYTH, A. 



became British territory in 1818 on the overthrow of the peshwa. 
The population in 1901 was 816,504, showing a decrease of 
3 % in the decade. The principal crops are millet, wheat, pulse, 
oil-seeds, cotton and sugar cane. There are also some vineyards 
of old date, and much garden cultivation. Yeola is an important 
centre for weaving silk and cotton goods. There are flour-mills 
at Malegaon, railway workshops at Igatpuri, and cantonments 
at Deolali and Malegaon. At Sharanpur is a Christian village, 
with an orphanage of the C.M.S., founded in 1854. The district 
is crossed by the main line and also by the chord line of the Great 
Indian Peninsula railway. 

NASIR KHOSRAU (Nasiri Khusru), Abu Mu'in-ed-din Nasir b. 
Khosrau (1004-1088), whose nom de plume was Hujjat, the first 
great didactic poet of Persia, was born, according to his own 
statement, A.H. 394 (A.D. 1004), at Kubadiyan, near Balkh in 
Khorasan. The first forty-two years of his life are obscure; 
we learn from incidental remarks of his that he was a Sunnite, 
probably according to the Hanifite rite, well versed in all the 
branches of natural science, in medicine, mathematics, astronomy 
and astrology, in. Greek philosophy, and the interpretation of 
the Koran; that he was much addicted to worldly pleasures, 
especially to excessive wine drinking. He had studied Arabic, 
Turkish, Greek, the vernacular languages of India and Sind, 
and perhaps even Hebrew; he had visited Multan and Lahore, 
and the splendid Ghaznavide court under Sultan Mahmud, 
Firdousl's patron. Later on he chose Merv for his residence, 
and was the owner of a house and garden there. In A.H. 437 
(A.D. 1045) he appears as financial secretary and revenue 
collector of the Seljuk sultan Toghrul Beg, or rather of his brother 
Jaghir Beg, the emir of Khorasan, who had conquered Merv 
in 1037. About this time, inspired by a heavenly voice (which 
he pretends to have heard in a dream), he abjured all the luxuries 
of life, and resolved upon a pilgrimage to the holy shrines of 
Mecca and Medina, hoping to find there the solution of all his 
religious doubts. The graphic description of this journey is 
contained in the Safarndma, which possesses a special value 
among books of travel, since it contains the most authentic 
account of the state of the Mussulman world in the middle of 
the nth century. The minute sketches of Jerusalem and its 
environs are even now of practical value. During the seven 
years of his journey (A.D. 1045-1052) Nasir visited Mecca four 
times, and performed all the rites and observances of a zealous 
pilgrim; but he was far more attracted by Cairo, the capital 
of Egypt, and the residence of the Fatimite sultan Mostansir 
billah, the great champion of the Shfa, and the spiritual as well 
as political head of the house of 'All, which was just then waging 
a deadly war against the 'Abbaside caliph of Bagdad, and the 
great defender of the Sunnite creed, Toghrul Beg the Seljuk. 
At the very time of Nasir's visit to Cairo, the power of the 
Egyptian Fatimites was in its zenith; Syria, the Hejaz, Africa, 
and Sicily obeyed Mostansir's sway, and the utmost order, 
security and prosperity reigned in Egypt. At Cairo he became 
thoroughly imbued with Shfa doctrines, and their introduction 
into his native country was henceforth the sole object of his life. 
The hostility he encountered in the propagation of these new 
religious ideas after his return to Khorasan in 1052 and Sunnite 
fanaticism compelled him at last to flee, and after many wander- 
ings he found a refuge in Yumgan (about 1060) in the mountains 
of Badakshan, where he spent as a hermit the last decades of 
his life, and gathered round him a considerable number of devoted 
adherents, who have handed down his doctrines to succeeding 
generations. 

Most of Nasir's lyrica! poems were composed in his retirement, 
and their chief topics are^ an enthusiastic praise of "All, his de- 
scendants, and Mostansir in particular; passionate outcries against 
Khorasan and its rulers, who had driven him from house and home ; 
the highest satisfaction with the quiet solitude of Yumgan; and 
utter despondency again in seeing himself despised by his former 
associates and for ever excluded from participation in the glorious 
contest of life. But scattered through all these alternate outbursts 
of hope and despair we find precious lessons of purest morality, and 
solemn warnings against the tricks and perfidy of the world, the 
vanity of all earthly splendour and greatness, the folly and injustice 
of men, and the hypocrisy, frivolity and viciousness of fashionable 



society and princely courts in particular. It is the same strain 
which runs, although in a somewhat lower key, through his two 
larger mathnawis or double-rhymed poems, the Rushanainama, or 
" book of enlightenment," and the Sa'adatnama, or " book of feli- 
city." The former is divided into two sections: the first, of a meta- 
physical character, contains a sort of practical cosmography, chiefly 
based on Avicenna's theories, but frequently intermixed both with 
the freer speculations of the well-known philosophical brotherhood 
of Basra, the Ikhwan-es-safa'i, and purely Shi'ite or Isma'ilite 
ideas; the second, or ethical section of the poem, abounds in moral 
maxims and ingenious thoughts on man's good and bad qualities, 
on the necessity of shunning the company of fools and double-faced 
friends, on the deceptive allurements of the world and the secret 
snares of ambitious craving for rank and wealth. It concludes with 
an imaginary vision of a beautiful world of spirits who have stripped 
off the fetters of earthly cares and sorrows and revel in the pure 
light of divine wisdom and love. If we compare this with a similar 
allegory in Nasir's diwan, which culminates in the praise of Mostansir, 
we are fairly entitled to look upon it as a covert allusion to the 
eminent men who revealed to the poet in Cairo the secrets of the 
Isma'ilitic faith, and showed him what he considered the " heavenly 
ladder " to superior knowledge and spiritual bliss. The passage, thus 
interpreted, lends additional weight to the correctness of Dr Ethe"s 
reconstruction of the date of the Rushanainama, viz. A.H. 440 (A.D. 
1049), which, notwithstanding M. Schefcr's objections, is warranted 
both by the astronomical details and by the metrical requirements 
of the respective verses. That of course does not exclude the possi- 
bility of the bulk of the poem having been composed at an earlier 
period; it only ascribes its completion or perhaps final revision to 
Nasir's sojourn in Egypt. 

A similar series of excellent teachings on practical wisdom and 
the blessings of a virtuous life, only of a severer and more uncom- 
promising character, is contained in the Sa'adalnama; and, judging 
from the extreme bitterness of tone manifested in the " reproaches 
of kings and emirs," we should be inclined to consider it a protest 
against the vile aspersions poured out upon Nasir's moral and 
religious attitude during those persecutions which drove him at 
last to Yumgan. Of all the other works of our author mentioned 
by Oriental writers there has as yet been found only one, the Zad- 
elmusafirin or " travelling provisions of pilgrims " (in the private 
possession of M. Schefer, Paris), a theoretical description of his 
religious and philosophical principles; and we can very well dismiss 
the rest as being probably just as apocryphal as Nasir's famous auto- 
biography (found in several Persian tadhkiras or biographies of 
poets), a mere forgery of the most extravagant description, which is 
mainly responsible for the confusion in names and dates in older 
accounts of our author. 

See Sprenger's Catalogue of the Libraries of the King of Oudh ( 1 854) ; 
H. Bine", Nasir Chusrau's Rushanainama," in Zeitschrift der 
deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxxiii., xxxiv., 1879-1880; 
E. Fagnan, " Le Livrede la fe'licite'," in vol. xxxiv. of the same journal, 
643-674; Ch. Schefer, Sefer Nameh, publit, traduit et annoie (Paris, 
1881), and by Guy le Strange in Pilgrims' Text Society (1888); H. 
Eth6, in Gdttinger Nachrichten, 1882, pp. 124-152, Z.D.M.G., 1882, 
pp. 478-508; and Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie ii. 
. 278; Fagnan in Journ. As. 7th ser. vol. xiii. pp. 164 seq., and 
ieu, Cat. Pers. MSS. in Br. Mus., concluded that the poet and the 
ilgrim were different persons. The opposite view was developed by 



p. 
R 



NASIRABAD, or MYMENSINGH, a town of British India, 
headquarters of Mymensingh district in Eastern Bengal and 
Assam, situated on the left bank of the old channel of the Brahma- 
putra, which is only navigable during the rainy season. Pop. 
(1901) 14,668. It has a station on the branch of the Eastern 
Bengal railway from Dacca to Jagannathganj, on the Jamuna 
or main stream of the Brahmaputra. The earthquake of the 
1 2th of June 1897 destroyed the church and the high school, and 
seriously damaged other public buildings. 

NASIRABAD is also the name of a town and cantonment in the 
district of Aimere, Rajputana. Pop. (1901) 22,494. It forms the 
headquarters of a brigade in the 5th division of the Southern army. 

NASMYTH, ALEXANDER (1758-1840), Scottish portrait and 
landscape painter, was born in Edinburgh on the gth of September 
1758. He studied at the Trustees' Academy under Runciman, 
and, having been apprenticed as an heraldic painter to a coach- 
builder, he, at the age of sixteen, attracted the attention of Allan 
Ramsay, who took the youth with him to London, and employed 
him upon the subordinate portions of his works. Nasmyth 
returned to Edinburgh in 1778, and was soon largely patronized 
as a portrait painter. He also assisted Mr Miller of Dalswinton, 
as draughtsman, in his mechanical researches and experiments; 
and, this gentleman having generously offered the painter a loan 
to enable him to pursue his studies abroad, he left in 1782 for 
Italy, where he remained two years. On his return he painted 



NASMYTH, J. NASRIDES, THE 



the excellent portrait of Burns, now in the Scottish National 
Gallery, well known through Walker's engraving. Political 
feeling at that time ran high in Edinburgh, and Nasmyth's 
pronounced Liberal opinions, which he was too outspoken and 
sincere to disguise, gave offence to many of his aristocratic 
patrons, and led to the diminution of his practice as a portraitist. 
In his later years, accordingly, he devoted himself mainly to 
landscape work, and did not disdain on occasion to set his hand 
to scene-painting for the theatres. He has been styled, not 
unjustly, the " father of Scottish landscape art." His subjects 
are carefully finished and coloured, but are wanting in boldness 
and freedom. Nasmyth was also largely employed by noblemen 
throughout the country in the improving and beautifying of their 
estates, in which his fine taste rendered him especially skilful; 
and he was known as an architect, having designed the Dean 
Bridge, Edinburgh, and the graceful circular temple covering 
St Bernard's Well. Nasmyth died in his native city on the loth 
of April 1840. His youngest son, James, was the well-known 
inventor of the steam-hammer. His six daughters all attained 
a certain local reputation as artists, but it was in his eldest son, 
Patrick (1787-1831), that the artistic skill of his family was most 
powerfully developed. Having studied under his father, Patrick 
went to London at the age of twenty, and soon attracted atten- 
tion as a clever landscapist. He was a diligent stu4ent of the 
works of Claude and Richard Wilson, and of Ruysdael and 
Hobbema, upon whom his own practice was mainly founded. 
His most characteristic paintings are of English domestic scenery, 
full of quiet tone and colour, and detailed and minute expression 
of foliage, and with considerable brilliancy of sky effect. They 
were executed with his left hand, his right having in early life 
been injured by an accident. 

For an account of the Nasmyth family see James Nasmyth's 
Autobiography (1883). 

NASMYTH, JAMES (1808-1890), Scottish engineer, was born 
in Edinburgh on the igth of August 1808, and was the youngest 
son of Alexander Nasmyth, the "father of Scottish landscape 
art." He was sent to school in his native city, and then attended 
classes in chemistry, mathematics and natural philosophy at the 
university. From an early age he showed great fondness for 
mechanical pursuits, and the skill he attained in the practical 
use of tools enabled him to make models of engines, &c., which 
found a ready sale. In 1829 he obtained a position in Henry 
Maudslay's works in London, where he stayed two years, and 
then, in 1834, started business on his own account in Manchester. 
The beginnings were small, but they quickly developed, and in a 
few years he was at the head of the prosperous Bridgewater 
foundry at Patricroft, from which he was able to retire in 1856 
with a fortune. The invention of the steam-hammer, with which 
his name is associated, was actually made in 1839, a drawing of 
the device appearing in his note-book, or " scheme-book," as he 
called it, with the date 24th November of that year. It was 
designed to meet the difficulty experienced by the builders of 
the Great Britain steamship in finding a firm that would under- 
take to forge the large paddle-wheel shaft required for that 
vessel, but no machine of the kind was constructed till 1842. 
In that year Nasmyth discovered one in Schneiders' Creuzot 
works, and he found that the design was his own and had been 
copied from his " scheme-book." His title, therefore, to be 
called the inventor of the steam-hammer holds good against the 
claims sometimes advanced in favour of the Schneiders, though 
apparently he was anticipated in the idea by James Watt. 
Nasmyth did much for the improvement of machine-tools, and 
his inventive genius devised many new appliances a planing- 
machine (" Nasmyth steam-arm "), a nut-shaping machine, 
steam pile-driver, hydraulic machinery for various purposes, &c. 
In his retirement he lived at Penshurst in Kent, and amused 
himself with the study of astronomy, and especially of the moon, 
on which he published a work, The Moon considered as a Planet, 
a World and a Satellite, in conjunction with James Carpenter in 
1874. He died in London on the 7th of May 1890. 

His Autobiography, edited by Dr Samuel Smiles, was published 
in 1883. 



249 

NASR-ED-DIN [NASIRU'D-DIN] (1829-1896), shah of Persia, 
was born on the 4th of April 1 8 2 9. His mother, a capable princess 
of the Kajar family, persuaded Shah Mahommed, his father, to 
appoint him heir apparent, in preference to his elder brothers; 
and he was accordingly made governor of Azerbaijan. His 
succession to the throne, i3th October 1848, was vigorously 
disputed, especially by the followers of the reformer El Bab, 
upon whom he wreaked terrible vengeance. In 1855. he re- 
established friendly relations with France, and coming under the 
influence of Russia, signed a treaty of amity on the i7th of 
December with that power, but remained neutral during the 
Crimean war. In 1856 he seized Herat, but a British army under 
Outram landed in the Persian Gulf, defeated his forces and 
compelled him to evacuate the territory. The treaty of peace 
was signed at Paris, on the 4th of March 1857, and to the end of 
his reign he treated Great Britain and Russia with equal friend- 
ship. In 1866 the shah authorized the passage of the telegraph 
to India through his dominions and reminted his currency in the 
European fashion. In 1873, and again in 1889, he visited 
England in the course of his three sumptuous journeys to Europe, 
1873,1878,1889. The only results of his contact with Western 
civilization appear to have been the proclamation of religious 
toleration, the institution of a postal service, accession to the 
postal union and the establishment of a bank. He gave the 
monopoly of tobacco to a private company, but was soon com- 
pelled to withdraw it in deference to the resistance of his subjects. 
Abstemious in habits, and devoted to music and poetry, he was 
a cultured, able and well-meaning ruler, and his reign, already 
unusually long for an Eastern potentate, might have lasted still 
longer had it not been for the unpopular sale of the tobacco 
monopoly, which was probably a factor in his assassination at 
Teheran on the ist of May 1896 by a member of the Babi faction. 
He was succeeded by his son Muzaffar-ed-din. 

NASRIDES, THE, of Granada, were the last of the Mahom- 
medan dynasties in Spain. They ruled from 1 232 to 1492. They 
arose at the time when the king of Castile, Fernando the Saint, 
was conquering Andalusia. The dynasty was of remote Arabic 
origin, but its immediate source was the mountain range of the 
Alpujarra, and the founder was Yusuf (or Yahia) 1'Nasr, a chief 
who was engaged in perpetual conflict with rival chiefs and in 
particular with the family of Beni-Hud, once kings at Saragossa, 
who held the fortress of Granada. Yusuf's nephew (or son) 
Mahommed completed the defeat of the Beni-Hud largely by the 
help of the king of Castile, to whom he did homage and paid 
tribute. Mahommed I., called el Ghalib, i.e. the Conqueror (i 238- 
1273), served the Christian king against his own co-religionists 
at the siege of Seville and contrived to escape in the general 
wreck of the Mahommedan power. The internal history of the 
dynasty is largely made up of civil dissensions, personal rivalries, 
palace and harem intrigues. The direct male line of Mahommed 
el Ghalib ended with the fourth sultan, Nasr, in 1314. Nasr was 
succeeded by his cousin Imail (1314-1325), who is said to have 
been connected with the original stock only through women. 
From Mahommed el-Ghalib to Mahommed XL, called Boabdil, 
and also the little king " El Rey Chico " by the Christians, who lost 
Granada in 1492, there are counted twenty-nine reigns of the 
Nasrides, giving an average of nine years. But there was not the 
same number of sultans, for several of them were expelled and 
restored two or three times. Nor did all the members of the 
house who were allowed to have been sultans reign over all the 
territory still in Mahommedan hands. There were .contemporary 
reigns in different parts, and tribal or local rivalries between 
plain and hill, and the chief towns, Granada, Malaga and Guadix. 
The dissensions of the Nasrides reached their greatest pitch of 
fury during the very years in which the Catholic sovereigns were 
conquering their territory piecemeal, 1482-1492. Their position 
imposed a certain consistency of policy on these sultans. They 
submitted and paid tribute to the kings of Castile when they 
could not help doing so, but they endeavoured to use the support 
of Mahommedan rulers of northern Africa whenever it was to be 
obtained. Granada became the recognized place of refuge for 
rebellious subjects of the kings of Castile, and on occasion 



25 



NASSARAW A NASSAU 



supported them against rebels. The end came when the weakness 
of Mahommedan rulers in Morocco coincided with the rule of 
strong sovereigns in Castile. Frontier wars between Mahom- 
medan and Christian borderers were incessant, and at long 
intervals the kings of Castile made invasions on a considerable 
scale, without, however, following up any successes they might 
gain. The comparative prosperity of Granada was due to the 
concentration of a large population driven from other parts of 
Spain, and the consequent necessity for the intensive cultivation 
of the rich valleys lying among the ranges of mountains which 
encircle the kingdom, and the extensive " Vega " or plain of 
Granada. The reputation for civilization which the agitated 
Mahommedan state enjoys in history is based on the surviving 
parts of the highly decorated fortress palace of the Alhambra, 
which was mainly the work of three of the sultans, the founder, 
Mahommed el Ghalib, and his two successors. 

See S. Lane-Poole, The Mahommedan Dynasties (London, 1894) ; 
and Historia de Granada, by Don M. Lafuente Alcantara (Granada, 
1884). 

NASSARAWA, a province of the British protectorate of 
northern Nigeria, lying approximately between 6 40' and 9 E. 
and between 7 40' and 9 40' N. It is situated on the northern 
bank of the river Benue, which in its windings forms the southern 
frontier of the province. Nassarawa is bounded E. by the 
province of Muri, N.E. by Bauchi, N. by Zaria and W. by Nupe 
and the trans-Nigerian portion of the province of Kabba. It 
has an area of 18,000 sq. m. and an estimated population of 
1,500,000. The province, like that of Bauchi, is traversed 
by mountainous regions. It possesses valuable forests and 
many fertile river valleys. Native products include rubber, 
palm kernels and beni seed. Cotton is grown extensively. 

Until the middle of the i8th century Nassarawa appears to have 
been peopled by many native tribes of a primitive type. About 
1750 an important pagan tribe, the Igbira, came from the south- 
west across the Niger and established two rival kingdoms in the 
western portion of the province. Later the native inhabitants 
of Zaria, driven before the Fula, came from the north and 
occupied the central portion of Nassarawa. Later still (about 
1840) certain Fula of Zaria themselves conquered portions of 
the province, founded Keffi, spread as far as the Benue in the 
south-west corner and occupied the town and district of Abuja 
in the west. Fula also made a settlement at the town of 
Nassarawa and at Darroro in the N.E. A colony from Bornu 
entered the province and founded the important town of Lafia 
Berebere in the eastern district. As a result of these movements 
the aboriginal tribes were driven into the hilly regions of the S.E. 
and N.E. The Munshi, a truculent and hardy people, hold a 
portion of the northern bank of the Benue, and the Kagoro and 
Attakar tribes hold the hilly country to the N.E., through 
which the road passes from Keffi and Lafia to the Bauchi high- 
lands. Before the British occupation the state of Nassarawa had 
become a partially subdued Fula emirate, exercising doubtful 
sway over the native pagans and paying a scarcely less doubtful 
allegiance on its own part to the Fula ruler of Zaria. The riverain 
tribes of Nassarawa were among the first to break into open 
aggression against the British administration established at 
Lokoja. In January 1900 they attacked a telegraph construc- 
tion party in the Munshi country on the banks of the Benue. 
The result was the occupation of Keffi by British troops and 
the gradual subjugation of the province. In 1902 the first 
British resident, Captain Moloney, was murdered at Keffi by 
an official of the emir's court. The emir repudiated all re- 
sponsibility for the crime, and the murderer fled to Kano, 
where his reception on friendly terms was among the incidents 
which determined the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903. The 
British were now recognized as the rulers of Nigeria, and the 
emir of Nassarawa threw in his lot with the British government. 
Slave raiding was abolished and the slave trade made illegal. 
A British court of justice was established at the provincial head- 
quarters and native courts in every district. Roads have been 
opened and trade is steadily increasing. In 1905 an expedition 
was required against the Kagoro people, who occupy a vast open 



plateau having an elevation of about 1800 ft. through which a 
short road to the Bauchi tin mines passes from the Benue. 
These people had been raiding the Fula for cattle and murdering 
traders upon the road. A splendid grazing country, healthy 
and also rich in rubber, was opened. The road to the tin mines 
was rendered safe and is now the Bauchi mail route. There is a 
cart road from Loko on the Benue to Keffi. (F. L. L.) 

NASSAU, a territory of Germany, now forming the bulk of the 
government district of Wiesbaden, in the Prussian province of 
Hesse-Nassau, but until 1866 an independent and sovereign duchy 
of Germany. It consists of a compact mass of territory, 1830 
sq. m. in area, bounded on the S. and W. by the Main and Rhine, 
on the N. by Westphalia and on the E. by Hesse. This territory 
is divided into two nearly equal parts by the river Lahn, which 
flows from east to west into the Rhine. The southern half is 
almost entirely occupied by the Taunus Mountains, which 
attain a height of 2900 ft. in the Great Feldberg, while to the 
north of the Lahn is the barren Westerwald, culminating in 
the Salzburgerkopf (2000 ft.). The valleys and low-lying 
districts, especially the Rheingau, are very fertile, producing 
abundance of grain, flax, hemp and fruit; but by far the most 
valuable product of the soil is its wine, which includes several of 
the choicest Rhenish varieties, such as Johannisberger, Marco- 
brunner and Assmannshauser. Nassau is one of the most thickly 
wooded regions in Germany, about 42 % of its surface being 
occupied by forests, which yield good timber and harbour large 
quantities of game. The rivers abound in fish, the salmon 
fisheries on the Rhine being especially important. There are 
upwards of a hundred mineral springs in the district, most of 
which formerly belonged to the duke, and afforded him a con- 
siderable part of his revenue. The best known are those of 
Wiesbaden, Ems, Soden, Schwalbach, Schlangenbad, Geilnau 
and Fachingen. The other mineral wealth of Nassau includes 
iron, lead, copper, building stone, coals, slate, a little silver 
and a bed of malachite. Its manufactures, including cotton 
and woollen goods, are unimportant, but a brisk trade is carried 
on by rail and river in wine, timber, grain and fruit. There are 
few places of importance besides the above-named spas; Hochst 
is the only manufacturing town. Wiesbaden, with 100,955 
inhabitants, is the capital of the government district as it 
was of the duchy. In 1864 the duchy contained 468,311 in- 
habitants, of whom 242,000 were Protestants, 215,000 Roman 
Catholics and 7000 Jews. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction was 
in the hands of the Protestant bishop of Wiesbaden and the 
Roman Catholic bishop of Limburg. Education was amply 
provided for in numerous higher and lower schools. The annual 
revenue of the dukedom was about 400,000 and it furnished a 
contingent of 6000 men to the army of the German Confederation. 

History. During the Roman period the district enclosed by 
the Rhine, the Main and the Lahn was occupied by the Mattiaci 
and later by the Alamanni. The latter were subdued by the 
Franks under Clovis at the end of the 5th century, and at the 
partition of Verdun in 843 the country became part of the East 
Prankish or German kingdom. Christianity seems to have been 
introduced in the 4th century. The founder of the house of 
Nassau is usually regarded as a certain Drutwin (d. 1076), 
who, with his brother Dudo, count of Laurenburg, built a castle 
on a hill overlooking the Lahn, near the present town of Nassau. 
Drutwin's descendant Walram (d. 1 198) took the title of count of 
Nassau, and placed bis lands under the immediate suzerainty 
of the German king; previously he had been a vassal of the arch- 
bishop of Trier. Then in 1255 Walram's grandsons, Walram 
and Otto, divided between them their paternal inheritance, 
which had been steadily increasing in size. Walram took the 
part of Nassau lying on the left bank of the Lahn and made 
Wiesbaden his residence; Otto took the part on the right bank 
of the river and his capital was Siegen. The brothers thus founded 
the two branches of the house of Nassau, which have flourished 
to the present time. 

The fortunes of the Ottoman, or younger line, belong mainly 
to the history of the Netherlands. The family was soon divided 
into several branches, and in the isth century one of its members, 



NAST 



251 



Count Engelbert I. (d. 1442), obtained through marriage lands 
in Holland. Of his two sons one took the Dutch, and the other 
the German possessions of the house, but these were united again 
in 1504 under the sway of John, count of Nassau-Dillenburg, 
the head of a branch of the family which, in consequence of a 
series of deaths, the last of which took place in 1561, was a few 
years later the sole representative of the descendants of Count 
Otto. John's son was Count William the Rich (d. 1559), and his 
grandson was the hero, William the Silent, who inherited the 
principality of Orange in 1544 and surrendered his prospective 
inheritance, in Nassau to his brother John (d. 1606). William 
and his descendants were called princes of Orange-Nassau, and 
the line became extinct when the English king William III. 
died in 1702. Meanwhile the descendants of Count John, 
the rulers of Nassau, were flourishing. They were divided into 
several branches, and in 1702 the head of one of these, John 
William Friso of Nassau-Dietz (d. 1711), whose ancestor had been 
made a prince of the Empire in 1654, inherited the title of prince 
of Orange and the lands of the English king in the Netherlands. 
A few years later in 1743 a number of deaths left John William's 
son, William, the sole representative of his family, and as such 
he ruled over the ancestral lands both in Nassau and in the 
Netherlands. In 1806, however, these were taken from a 
succeeding prince, William VI., because he refused to join the 
Confederation of the Rhine. Some of them were given in 1815 
to the other main line of the family, the one descended from 
Count Walram (see below). In 1815 William VI. became king 
of the Netherlands as William I., and was compensated for this 
loss by the grant of parts of Luxemburg and the title of grand- 
duke. When in 1890 William's male line died out Luxemburg, 
like Nassau, passed to the descendants of Count Walram. In 
the female line he is now represented by the queen of the 
Netherlands. 

Adolph of Nassau, a son of Walram, the founder of the elder 
line of the house of Nassau, became German king in 1292, but 
was defeated and slain by his rival, Albert of Austria, in 1298. 
The territories of his descendants were partitioned several 
times, but these branch lines did not usually perpetuate them- 
selves beyond a few generations, and Walram's share of Nassau 
was again united in 1605 under Louis II. of Nassau-Weilburg 
(d. 1626). Soon, however, the family was again divided; three 
branches were formed, those of Saarbriicken, Idstein and Weil- 
burg, the heads of the first two becoming princes of the Empire 
in 1688. Other partitions followed, but at the opening of the 
igth century only two lines were flourishing, those of Nassau- 
Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg. In 1801 Charles William, 
prince of Nassau-Usingen, was deprived by France of his lands 
on the left bank of the Rhine, but both he and Frederick William 
of Nassau-Weilburg, who suffered a similar loss, received ample 
compensation. In 1806 both Frederick William and Frederick 
Augustus, the brother and successor of Charles William, joined 
the Confederation of the Rhine and received from Napoleon 
the title of duke, but after the battle of Leipzig they threw in 
their lot with the allies, and in 1815 joined the German Con- 
federation. As a result of the changes of 1815 Frederick Augustus 
of Nassau-Usingen ceded some of his newly-acquired lands to 
Prussia, receiving in return the greater part of the German 
possessions of the Ottonian branch of the house of Nassau (see 
above). In March 1816 he died without sons and the whole 
of Nassau was united under the rule of Frederick William of 
Nassau-Weilburg as duke of Nassau. Already in 1814 Frederick 
William had granted a constitution to his subjects, which pro- 
vided for two representative chambers, and under his son William, 
who succeeded in 1816, the first landtag met in 1818. At once, 
however, it came into collision with the duke about the ducal 
domains, and 'these dissensions were not settled until 1836. 
In this year the duchy took an important step in the develop- 
ment of its material prosperity by joining the German Zollverein. 
In 1848 Duke Adolph, the son and successor of Duke William, 
was compelled to yield to the temper of the times and to grant 
a more liberal constitution to Nassau, but in the following years 
a series of reactionary measures reduced matters to their former 



unsatisfactory condition. The duke adhered stedfastly to his 
conservative principles, while his people showed their sympathies 
by electing one liberal landtag after another. In 1866 Adolph 
espoused the cause of Austria, sent his troops into the field and 
asked the landtag for money. This was refused, Adolph was 
soon a fugitive before the Prussian troops, and on the 3rd of 
October 1866 Nassau was formally incorporated with the 
kingdom of Prussia. The deposed duke entered in 1867 into a 
convention with Prussia by which he retained a few castles and 
received an indemnity of about 1,500,000 for renouncing his 
claim to Nassau. In 1890, on the extinction of the collateral line 
of his house, he became grand-duke of Luxemburg, and he died 
on the 1 7th of November 1905. 

The town of Nassau (Lat. Nasonga) on the right bank of the 
Lahn, 15 m. above Coblenz, is interesting as the birthplace of 
the Prussian statesman, Freiherr von Stein. Pop. (1905) 2238. 
It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, while its 
main industries are brewing and mining. Near the town are 
the ruins of the castle of Stein, first mentioned in 1138, with a 
marble statue of Stein, while the ruins of the ancestral castle 
of the house of Nassau may also be seen. 

For the history of Nassau see Hennes, Geschichte der Grafen von 
Nassau bis 125$ (Cologne, 1843) ; von Schutz, Geschichte des Herzog- 
tums Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1853); von Witzleben, Genealogie und 
Geschichte der Furstenhauses Nassau (Stuttgart, 1855); F. W. T. 
Schliephake and K. Menzel, Geschichte von Nassau (Wiesbaden, 
1865-1889); the Codex diplomaticus nassoicus, edited by K. Menzel 
and W. Sauer (1885-1887) ; and the Annalen des Vereins fur nassau- 
ische Altertumskunde und Geschichtsforschung (1827 fol.). 

NAST, THOMAS (1840-1902), American caricaturist, was born 
on the 27th of September 1840, in the military barracks of 
Landau, Germany, the son of a musician in the Ninth regiment 
Bavarian band. His mother took him to New York in 1846. 
He studied art there for about a year with Theodore Kaufmann 
and then at the school of the National Academy of Design. 
At the age of fifteen he became a draughtsman for Frank 
Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper; three years afterwards for 
Harper's Weekly. In 1860 he went to England for the New 
York Illustrated News to depict the prize-fight between Heenan 
and Sayers, and then joined Garibaldi in Italy as artist for 
The Illustrated London News. His first serious work in caricature 
was the cartoon " Peace " in 1862, directed against those in 
the North who opposed the prosecution of the Civil War. This 
and his other cartoons during the Civil War and Reconstruction 
days were published in Harper's Weekly; they attracted great 
attention, and Nast was called by President Lincoln " our best 
recruiting sergeant." Even more able were Nast's cartoons 
against the Tweed Ring conspiracy in New York city; his 
caricature of Tweed being the means of the latter's identifica- 
tion and arrest at Vigo. In 1873, 1885 and 1887 Nast toured 
the United States as lecturer and sketch-artist, but with the 
advent of new methods and younger blood his vogue decreased. 
He had been an ardent Republican in his earlier years; had 
bitterly attacked President Johnson and his Reconstruction 
policy; had ridiculed Greeley's candidature, and had opposed 
inflation of the currency, notably with his famous " rag-baby " 
cartoons, but his advocacy of civil service reform and his distrust 
of Elaine forced him to become a Mugwump and in 1884 an open 
supporter of the Democratic party, from which in 1892 he re- 
turned to the Republican party and the support of Harrison. 
He had lost practically all of his earnings by the failure of Grant 
and Ward, and in May 1902 was appointed by President Roosevelt 
consul-general at Guayaquil, Ecuador, where he died on the 7th 
of December in the same year. He did some painting in oil 
and some book illustrations, but these were comparatively 
unimportant, and his fame rests on his caricatures and political 
cartoons. Nast introduced the donkey to typify the Democratic 
party, the elephant to typify the Republican party, and the 
tiger to typify Tammany Hall, and introduced into American 
cartoons the practice of modernizing scenes from Shakespeare 
for a political purpose. 

See A. B. Paine, Thomas Nast, his Period and his Pictures (New 
York, 1904). 



252 



NASTURTIUM NATAL 



NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS, Tropaeolum majus, a 
perennial climber, native of Peru, but in cultivation treated 
as a hardy annual. It climbs by means of the long stalk of the 
peltate leaf which is sensitive to contact like a tendril. The 
irregular flowers have five sepals united at the base, the dorsal 
one produced into a spurred development of the axis; of the 
five petals the two upper are slightly different and stand rather 
apart from the lower three; the eight stamens are unequal and 
the pistil consists of three carpels which form a fleshy fruit 
separating into three one-seeded portions. The flowers are 
sometimes eaten in salads, and the leaves and young green fruits 
are pickled in vinegar as a substitute for capers. The pungency 
of the nasturtium officinale, the water-cress, gave it its name 
nasi-tortium, that which twists the nose. The plant should 
have a warm situation, and the soil should be light and well 
enriched; sow thinly early in April, either near a fence or wall, 
or in an open spot, where it will require stakes 6 to 8 ft. high. 

The dwarf form known as Tom Thumb (T. m. nanum), is an 
excellent bedding or border flower, growing about a foot high. 
Sow in April in the beds or borders; and again in May for a 
succession. Other fine annual Tropaeolums are T. Lobbianum 
with long spurred orange flowers and numerous varieties; and 
T. minus, a kind of miniature T. majus with yellow, scarlet and 
crimson varieties. 

The genus Tropaeolum, native of South America and Mexico, 
includes about 35 species of generally climbing annual and 
perennial herbs with orange, yellow, rarely purple or blue, 
irregular flowers, T. peregrinum is the well-known canary 
creeper. The flame nasturtium with brilliant scarlet blossoms 
is T. speciosum from Chile; it has tuberous roots, as have also 
such well-known perennials as T. polyphyllum, T. pentaphyllum. 
Of these T. speciosum should be grown in England in positions 
facing north; it flourishes in Scotland. 

NATAL, a maritime province of the Union of South Africa, 
situated nearly between 27 and 31 S., 29 and 33 E. It is 
bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean, S.W. by the Cape province 
and Basutoland, N.W. by the Orange Free State province, N. 
and N.E. by the Transvaal and Portuguese East Africa. It has a 
coast line of 376 m.; its greatest length N. to S. in a direct line 
is 247 m.; its greatest breadth E. to W., also in a direct line, 
200 m. Natal has an area of 35,371 sq. m., being nearly three- 
quarters the size of England. (For map see SOUTH AFRICA.) 
The province consists of two great divisions, namely Natal 
proper and Zululand (q.v.). Natal proper has a seaboard of 166 m. 
and an area of 24,910 sq. m., Zululand, in which is included 
Amatongaland, a seaboard of 210 m. and an area of 10,461 sq. m. 
It lies north-east of Natal. In this article the description of the 
physical features, &c. refers only to Natal proper. 

Physical Features. The terrace formation of the land char- 
acteristic of other coast regions of South Africa prevails in Natal. 
The country may be likened to a steep and gigantic staircase 
leading to a broad and level land lying beyond its borders. 
The rocky barrier which shuts off this land is part of the Drakens- 
berg range. From the mountain sides flow many rivers which 
dash in magnificent waterfalls and through deep gorges to the 
. sea. Falling 8000 or more feet in little over 200 m., these streams 
are unnavigable. The south-eastern sides of the mountains are 
in part covered with heavy timber, while the semi-tropical 
luxuriance of the coast belt has earned for Natal the title of 
" the garden colony." 

The coast trends, in an almost unbroken line, from S.W.to N.E. 
It extends from the mouth of the Umtamvuna river (31 4' S., 
30 12' E.), which separates Natal from the Cape, to the mouth. of 
the Tugela (29 15' S., 31 30' E.), which marks the frontier 
between Natal and Zululand. The only considerable indentation 
is at Durban, about two-thirds of the distance from the Umtam- 
vuna to the Tugela, where there is a wide and shallow bay, 
covering with its islands nearly 8 sq. m. The coast, though low 
and sandy in places, is for the most part rocky and dangerous. 
The warm Mozambique current sweeps down from the N.E., 
setting up a back drift close in shore. The southern entrance 
to Durban harbour is marked by a bold bluff, the Bluff of Natal, 



which is 250 ft. high and forested to the water's edge. Opposite 
the Bluff a low sandy spit called the Point forms the northern 
entrance to the harbour. North of Durban the coast belt, 
hitherto very narrow, widens out and becomes more flat. But 
the greater part of the coast region, which has an average depth 
of 15 m., is broken and rugged. Ranges of hills lead to the first 
plateau, which has an average elevation of 2000 ft. and is of 
ill-defined extent. Here the land loses its semi-tropical character 
and resembles more the plains of the Orange Free State and the ' 
Transvaal. The second plateau, reached by a steep ascent, 
has an elevation of from nearly 4000 to fully 5000 ft. It is an 
undulating plain, grass-covered, but for the most part without 
trees or bush. It continues to the foot of the Drakensberg range, 
the mountains rising towards the S.W., with almost perpendicular 
sides, 6000 to 7000 ft. above the country at their base. North- 
west, towards the Transvaal, the mountains are of lower elevation 
and more rounded contours. 

Mountains. Although the division of the country into terraces 
separated by ranges of hills is clearly marked in various districts, 
as for instance between Durban and Colenso, the province is traversed 
by many secondary chains, as well as by spurs of the Drakensberg. 
The highest points of that range, and the highest land in Africa south 
of Kilimanjaro, lie within the borders of Natal. The Drakensberg 
(q.v.), from Majuba Hill on the N.W. to Bushman's Nek in the S.W., 
form the frontier of the province, the crest of the range being gener- 
ally within Natal. This is the case in the Mont-aux-Sources (11,170 
ft.) and Cathkin Peak or Champagne Castle (10,357 ft-) ; the top of 
the third great height, Giant's Castle (9657 ft.), is in Basutoland, but 
its seaward slopes are in Natal. From Giant's Castle to Mont-aux- 
Sources, in which, forsaking their general direction, the Drakensberg 
run S.E. to N.W., the mountains attain an elevation of 10,000 to 
1 1,000 ft., with few breaks in their face. North of Mont-aux-Sources 
the mountain ridge sinks to 8000 and less feet, and here are several 
passes leading into the Orange Free State. Laing's Nek is a pass 
into the Transvaal. The chief heights in Natal between Mont-aux- 
Sources and Laing's Nek are Tintwa (7500 ft.), Inkwelo (6808 ft.) 
and the flat-topped Majuba (7000 ft.). Spurs from the Drakensberg, 
at right angles to the main range, cross the plateaus. The most 
northern, which runs E. from Majuba to the Lebombo Mountains, 
coincides roughly with the northern frontier of Natal. It is one of 
the transverse chains connecting the eastern coast range with the 
higher terraces and goes under a variety of names, such as Elands 
Berg and Ingome Mountains. A second range, the Biggarsberg, 
starts from the Drakensberg near Mount Malani and goes E.S.E. 
to the junction of Mooi, Buffalo and Tugela rivers. This range con- 
tains, in Indumeni (7200 ft.), the highest mountain in Natal outside 
the main Drakensberg. A third range runs N.E. from Giant's Castle 
towards the Biggarsberg. It lies north of the Mooi river, and its 
most general name is Mooi River Heights. A fourth range also 
diverges from Giant's Castle and ramifies in various branches over 
a large tract of country, one branch running by Pietermaritzburg 
to the Berea hills overlooking Durban. The chief height in this 
fourth range is Spion Kop (7037 ft.), about 25 m. S.E. of Giant's 
Castle. This is not the Spion Kop rendered famous during the 
Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. That Spion Kop, with Vaal Kranz 
and Pieter's Hills, are heights on the northern bank of the upper 
Tugela. 

Secondary ranges with heights of 5000 and more feet are numerous, 
whilst lofty isolated mountains rise from the plateaus. The greatest 
of these isolated masses is Mahwaqa (6834 ft.), in the south-west 
part of the country. Of many flat-topped hills the best known is the 
Table Mountain east of Pietermaritzburg. 

Rivers. All the rivers of Natal not purely coast streams have 
their origin in the Drakensberg or its secondary ranges. The largest 
and longest, the Tugela, with the Buffalo, Mooi, Klip and other 
tributaries is treated separately. The Tugela basin drains the 
whole country north of a line drawn in a direct line east from Giant's 
Castle. The Umkomaas (" gatherer of waters ") rises in Giant's 
Castle and flows in a south-easterly course to the sea. Though it 
makes no large sweeps it has so tortuous a course that its length 
(some 200 m.) is twice that of the valley through which it flows. 
Its banks in its upper course are wild and picturesque, with occasional 
wide deep valleys, with climate and vegetation resembling the coast 
belt. The Umzimkulu river rises in Bamboo Castle, in the Drakens- 
berg, and, with bolder curves than the Umkomaas, runs in a course 
generally parallel with that stream S.E. to the sea, its mouth being 
about 40 m. south of that of the Umkomaas. The Ingwangwane 
rises in the Drakensberg south of the Umzimkulu, which it joins 
after a course of some 50 m. Below the junction the Umzimkulu 
forms for some distance the frontier between Natal and the Griqua- 
land East division of the Cape. The scenery along the river valley 
(120 m. long) is very striking, in turns rugged and desolate, verdant 
and smiling, with patches of dense forest and heights wooded to 
their summit. Port Shepstone is situated at the mouth of the river, 
which, like that of all others in Natal, is obstructed by a bar. As a 



NATAL 



253 



result of harbour works, however, a channel has been cleared and 
steamers can ascend the river for 6 m. 

The Pongola rises in the Transvaal in high ground N.E. of Wakker- 
stroom and flows E., forming, for the greater part of its course, the 
northern frontier of the province. After piercing the Lebombo 
Mountains, it turns N. and joins the Maputa, a river emptying into 
Delagoa Bay. The Umgeni, which rises in the Spion Kop hills some 
30 m. S.E. of Giant's Castle, passes through the central part of Natal 
and reaches the sea 4 m. N. of Durban. It flows alternately through 
mountainous and pastoral country, and is known for two magnificent 
waterfalls, both within 12 m. of Pietermaritzburg. The upper fall 
is close to the village of Howick. Here the Umgeni leaps in a single 
sheet of water down a precipice over 350 ft. high, more than double 
the height of Niagara, forming, when the river is swollen by the 
rains, a spectacle of rare magnificence. Some 12 m. below are the 
Karkloof or Lower Falls, where in a series of beautiful cascades 
the water descends to the plain. Other rivers of Natal which rise 
in the spurs of the Drakensberg or in the higher terraces are the 
Umvoti, which runs south of the Tugela and gives its name to a 
county division, the Umlaas (which gives Duroan its main water 
supply, the Illovo, which traverse the country between the 
Umgeni and Umkomaas, and the Umtamvuna, noteworthy as 
forming the boundary between Natal and Pondoland. There are 
also seventeen distinct coast streams in the colony. 

[Geology.' The general geological structure of Natal and Zululand 
is simple. It consists of a series of plateaus formed of sedimentary 
rocks which mainly belong to three formations of widely separated 
ages, and which rest on a platform of granitic and metamorphic 
rocks. 

The geological formations represented include : 

Post-Cretaceous 
and Recent 
Cretaceous 



U. Karroo 



L. Karroo 



Cape System 



Littoral of Zululand. 
fPlateau Basalts. 
. -i Cave Sandstone. 
[Red Beds, 
f Stormberg Series. 
J Beaufort Series. 
' | Ecca Series. 

l_Ecca Glacial Series (Dwyka Conglomerate). 
Table Mountain Sandstone Series. 
("Quartzites, Conglomerates and Shales of 
Prp Canp Rrvto Nkandhla, Umfolosi river, 

e-cape Kocks 1 Gneisses, Schists, Marbles, Granites (Swazi- 
[ land Series). 

Pre-Cape Rocks. The granites and schists occur in close associa- 
tion. The series covers considerable areas in the lowest parts of the 
valleys and near the coast. The widest areas are in Zululand. In the 
Umzimkulu river and in the Tugela river below its junction with the 
Buffalo, metamorphic limestones are associated with schists, gneisses 
and granites. A group of highly inclined quartzites, altered con- 
glomerates and iasperoid rocks which crop out on the Umhlatuzi 
river, between Melmoth and Nkandhla and on the White Umfolosi 
river above Ulundi Plains, is considered by Anderson to represent 
some portion of the Lo*er Witwatersrand series. The conglomerates 
are true " banket " and are auriferous, but the gold has not been 
met with in payable quantities. 

Table Mountain Sandstone Series. This rests unconformably 
on the pre-Cape rocks. Traced northwards, the series becomes 
thinner and finally dies out. As a rule denudation, which has acted 
on a magnificent scale, has removed all but a few hundred feet of 
the basement beds. The maximum thickness of 2000 ft. occurs near 
Melmoth. The beds are usually thin false-bedded sandstones with 
an almost complete absence of shales. A conglomerate at the base 
contains traces of gold. Griesbach mentions the occurrence of some 
small bivalves in the shales of Greytown, but Anderson failed to 
find any fossils. 

Ecca Glacial Series. A great unconformity separates the Table 
Mountain and Ecca series. In the Cape this gap is represented by 
the Witteberg and Bokkeveld series. The Dwyka conglomerate 
rarely attains any great thickness though forming wide outcrops. 
It is usua'.ly a hard compact rock containing striated stones. The 
Umgeni quarries, where the rock is used for road-metal, furnish the 
best exposures. 

Ecca Series. With the Beaufort series this occupies over two- 
thirds of the western portion of the province and has wide outcrops 
in Zululand and in the Vryheid districts. The Ecca shales contain 
some of the best coals of South Africa, but the seams contain much 
unmarketable coal. Around Dundee and Newcastle the coals are 
bituminous. In Zululand they are chiefly anthracitic. The fossils 
include several species of Clossopteris among them: Glossopteris 

1 See C. L. Griesbach, " On the Geology of Natal in South Africa," 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii. pp. 53-72 (1871); P. C. Suther- 
land, " Notes on an Ancient Boulder Clay of Natal," Quart. Journ. 
Geol Soc. vol. xxvi. pp. 514-517 (1870); W. Anderson, Reports, 
Geol. Survey, Natal and Zululand (Pietermaritzburg, 1901 ; London, 
1904); and "Science in South Africa," Handbook, Brit. Assoc. pp. 
260-272 (Cape Town, 1905). 



browniana var indica; Bunb. Phyttotheca Zeilleri eth. fil.; Estheria 
Greyii, Jones, indicating a Permo-Carboniferous age. 

Beaufort Series. The Ecca series graduates upwards into the 
highly coloured sandstones and shales of the Beaufort series. Fossil 
reptilian remains, chiefly Dicynodon, are abundant. 

Stormberg Series. This consists of sandstones and shales with thin 
seams of coal. The chief outcrops occur around Biggarsberg and 
along the upper slopes of the Drakensberg. The fossil flora Thinn- 
feldia odontopteroides, Morr. and a Pterophyllum indicate a Rhaetic 
age. No reptilian remains have been found. 

Upper Karroo. The Red beds and Cave sandstones occur along 
the eastern flanks of the Drakensberg. 

Cretaceous. Deposits of this age are confined to the littoral. 
They are exceedingly prolific in fossils which prove them to be of 
Upper Cretaceous age. A long list of fossils has been obtained from 
Umkivelane Hill, Zululand. W.G.*] 

Climate. With a rise in level (not reckoning the mountain tops) 
of 5500 ft. in a distance of 170 m., Natal possesses several varieties 
of climate but is nowhere unhealthy. The climate is comparable 
to that of north Italy. The valleys and coast belt, though practically 
free from malarial fever, are hot and humid, and fires m dwelling 
houses are seldom required even in the coolest months; the lower 
plateaus are cool and the air dry; the uplands are bracing and 
often very cold, with snow on the ground in winter. The year is 
divided into two seasons, summer, which begins in October and ends 
in March, and winter, which fills up the rest of the year. Summer 
is the rainy season, and May, June and July the driest months of 
the year. The mean temperature at Durban, records taken at 260 
ft. above the sea, is 70 F., varying from 42 in winter to 98 in 
summer. The average summer humidity is 76%, that of winter 
74 %. At Pietermaritzburg, 41 m. inland and 2200 ft. above the sea, 
the temperature is about 64. In the uplands the heat of summer is 
often greater than on the coast, but the air is less humid and the 
nights are generally cool. Both the humidity and the temperature 
are increased by the great mass of water, the Mozambique current, 
flowing south from the equatorial regions. At Durban the annual 
rainfall is about 40 in., at Pietermaritzburg 38. The average for the 
province is believed to be about 30 in. In 1893, the year of highest 
recorded rainfall, 70 in. fell on the coast districts. Thunderstorms, 
averaging nearly one hundred in the year, and violent hailstorms, 
occur in summer, being most severe in the interior. The storms 
serve to modify the intense heat, though the lightning and hail 
cause considerable damage. The prevailing winds on the coast are 
north-east, warm and humid, and south-west, cool and bracing, 
though in summer the south-west wind brings rain. Inland, chiefly 
in early summer, a hot dry wind, often accompanied by a dust 
storm, blows from the north. These winds, which blow on an 
average twenty-five days in the year, seldom reach the coast and are 
generally followed by rain. Inhabitants of Natal are practically 
exempt from chest diseases. 

Flora. Botanically, Natal is divided into three zones: (i) the 
coast belt, extending from the sea inland to heights of 1500 ft., 
and in some cases to 1800 and 2000 ft.; (2) the midland region, 
which rises to 4000 ft.; (3) the upper regions. In these zones the 
flora varies from sub-tropical to sub-alpine. The heaths and pro- 
teads common at the Cape peninsula, in Basutoland and other parts 
of South Africa, are rare in Natal, but almost any species of the flora 
of semi-tropical and temperatecountries introduced attains perfection. 
The trees and plants characteristic of each zone are not always 
confined to that zone, but in several instances, when common to the 
coast belt and the midlands, their character alters according to the 
elevation of the land. The dense bush or jungle of evergreen trees, 
climbers and flowering shrubs, which up to the middle of the loth 
century covered the greater part of the coast belt, has largely dis- 
appeared. There are still, however, in the coast belt woods of 
leguminous evergreens bearing bright-coloured flowers. The trees 
in these woods are generally from 20 to 50 ft. in height and include 
the knob-thorn, water-boom, kafir-boom (with brilliant scarlet 
flowers), the Cape chestnut and milkwoods (Mimusops). But the 
most striking of the coast-belt flora are the tropical forms the palm, 
mangrove, wild banana (Strelitzia augusta). tree-ferns, tree euphorbia, 
candelabra spurge and Caput medusae. Of palms there are two 
varieties, the ilala (Hyphaene crinita), found only by the sea shore 
and a mile or two inland, and the isundu (Phoenix reclinata), more 
widespread and found at heights up to 2000 ft. or even higher. 
The amatungulu or Natal plum, found chiefly near the sea, is one of 
the few wild plants with edible fruit. Its leaves are of a glossy dark 
green, its- flower white and star-shaped and its fruit resembles the 
plum. Other wild fruits are the so-called Cape gooseberry (not 
native to Natal) and the kaw apple or Dingaan apricot, which grows 
on a species of ebony tree. 

The midland region is characterized by grass lands (the Natal 
grasses are long and coarse) and by considerable areas of flat-topped 
thorn bush mimosa. The bush is not as a rule dense, nor is it of any 
great height. A tree peculiar to this, zone is the Alberta magna. 
It has dull pink flowers, succeeded by seed vessels, each of which is 
crowned by two scarlet-coloured leafy lobes. A grass belt separates 
the thorn bush from the districts carrying heavy timber, found 
mainly in the upland zone, along the sides of the mountains ex- 
posed to the rains and in kloofs. The indigenous timber trees are 



254 



NATAL 



principally the yellow wood (Podocarpus) , sneezewood (Pteroxylon 
utile), stinkwood (Oreodaphne bullata), black ironwood (Olea lauri- 
folia), white ironwood ( Vepris lanceolaia) , and umtomboti (Exoecaria 
africana) ; all are very useful woods, and the yellow wood, sneeze- 
wood, stinkwood and ironwood when polished have grain and 
colour equal to maple, walnut and ebony. The " rooibesje," red 
pear and milkwood trees are used for boatbuilding. The Australian 
Eucalyptus and Casuarina in great variety, and many other imported 
trees, including syringas, wattles, acacias, willows, pines, cypress, 
cork and oak all thrive when properly planted and protected from 
grass fires. The black wattle has been extensively planted and 
flourishes at elevations of from 1000 to 3000 ft. Its bark forms a 
valuable article of commerce. 

Flowers which bloom in the early spring are abundant, especially 
on the edges of forests. Among those found throughout the country 
are the Dierama pendula, the orchid and the " everlasting." As a 
rule flowers common to all zones are on the coast smaller and with 
paler colours than they are in the midlands. Aloes are common; 
in part of the midland zone they form when in bloom with abundance 
of orange and scarlet flowers a most picturesque sight. Of Cyca- 
daceae the Stangeria paradoxa is peculiar to Natal. There is but 
one cactus indigenous to Natal; it is found hanging from perpen- 
dicular rocks in the midlands. There are, however, several species of 
euphorbia of the miscalled cacti. Climbing plants with gorgeous 
flowers are common, and there are numerous species of Compositae 
and about a hundred cinchonaceous plants. Bulbous plants are 
also very numerous. The most common are the Natal lily with 
pink and white ribbed bells, the fire-lily, with flame-coloured blos- 
soms, ixias, gladiolas, the Ifafa lily, with fuchsia-like clusters, and 
the arum lily. A conspicuous veld plant is the orange and crimson 
leonotis, growing 6 ft. high. Geraniums are somewhat scarce. Fern 
life is abundant; 126 species are indigenous, two being tree-ferns. 
One of these, Cyathea dregei, found in moist places and open land, 
has a stem 20 ft. high; the stem of the other, Hemitelia capensis, 
sometimes reaches 30 ft. The ferns are most common in the midland 
zone and in the heavy timber forests. Sixty different species have 
been identified in one valley not more than I m. long and about 
100 yds. in breadth. Among fruit trees, besides the wild fruits 
already mentioned, are the pineapple, mango, papua, guava, grena- 
dilla, rose apple, custard apple, soursop, loquat, naartje, shaddock 
and citrous fruits. 

Fauna. The larger animals which abounded in Natal in the first 
half of the igth century have been exterminated or driven out of the 
country. This fate has overtaken the elephant, giraffe, the buffalo, 
quagga, gnu, blesbok, gemsbok and ostrich. If the Vryheid district 
be excluded, the lion and rhinoceros may be added to this list; 
and the Vryheid district belongs geographically to Zululand. Hip- 
popotami are still found in the Umgeni river and crocodiles in several 
of the coast streams. Leopards and panthers are found in thickly 
wooded kloofs. Hyenas, jackals, wild pig, polecats and wild dogs 
(Canis pictus) of different species are still found in or about bush 
jungles and forest clumps; elands (Antilope areas) are preserved on 
some estates, and there are at least ten distinct species of antelope 
(hartebeest, bushbok, duiker, rietbok, rhebok, rovibok, blauwbok, 
&c.). In the Vryheid district the kudu, blue wildebeest, waterbuck, 
reedbuck, impala, steinbok and klipspringer are also found. Several 
of these species are now preserved. Ant-eaters (Orycteropus capensis) , 
porcupines, weasels, squirrels, rock rabbits, hares and cane rats are 
common in different localities. Baboons (Cynocephalus porcarius) 
and monkeys of different kinds frequent the mountains and rocky 
kloofs and bush and timber lands. The birds of Natal 1 are of 
many species; some have beautiful plumage, but none of them, 
with the exception of the canary, are to be considered as songsters. 
Among the larger birds are cranes, herons, the ibis, storks, eagles, 
vultures, falcons, hawks, kites, owls, the secretary birds, pelicans, 
flamingoes, wild duck and geese, gulls, and of game birds, the paauw, 
koraan, pheasant, partridge, guinea fowl and quail. The other birds 
include parrots, toucans, gaudily coloured cuckoos, lories, swallows, 
shrikes, sun-birds, kingfishers, weavers, finches, wild pigeons and 
crows. The otter is found in some of the rivers, which are also fre- 
quented, near their mouths, by turtles. These last are also found 
in the coast lagoons and sometimes are of great size. Iguanas, 4 and 
5 ft. long, are found on the wooded banks of the rivers; small 
lizards and chameleons are common, and there are several varieties 
of tortoise. 

Of snakes there are about forty distinct species or varieties. 
The most dreaded by the natives are called " imamba," of which 
there are at least eight different kinds; these snakes elevate and 
throw themselves forward, and have been known to pursue a horse- 
man. One sort of imamba, named by the natives indhlondhlt >," 
is crested, and its body is of a bright flame colour. The sluggish 
puff-adder (Clotho arietans) is common and very dangerous. A 
hooded snake (Naja haemachates) , the imfezi of the natives, is 
dangerous, and spits or ejects its poison; besides this there are a 
few other varieties of the cobra species. The largest of the serpent 
tribe, however, is the python (Hortulia natalensis), called inhlwati 
by the natives; its usual haunts are by streams amongst rocky 
boulders and in jungles, and instances are recorded of its strangling 



1 See R. B. and J. D. Woodward, Natal Birds (Maritzburg, 1899). 



and crushing adult natives. It is common in the coast districts, 
and is sometimes 20 ft. long. Insects abound in great numbers, 
the most troublesome and destructive being the tick (Ixodes natal- 
ensis), which infests the pasturage, and the white ant (Termes 
mordax). Occasionally vast armies of locusts or caterpillars advance 
over large tracts of country, devouring all vegetation in their line 
of march. The fish moth, a steel-grey slimy active fish-shaped 
insect, is found in every house and is very destructive. Fish of 
excellent quality and in great quantities abound on the coast. They 
include shad, rock cod, mackerel, mullet, bream and soles; sharks, 
stingrays, cuttlefish and the octopus are also common in the waters 
off the coast of Natal. Prawns, crayfish and oysters are also ob- 
tainable, and turtle (Chelonia mydas) are frequently captured. 
Freshwater scale-fish are mostly full of bones, but fine eels and 
barbel are plentiful in the rivers. Trout have been introduced into 
some of the higher reaches of the rivers. 

Inhabitants. At the census of 1904 the population of the 
province, including Zululand, was 1,108, 754.2 Of this total 
8-8%, or 97,109, were Europeans, 9%, or 100,918, Asiatics and 
the rest natives of South Africa, mainly of Zulu-Kaffir stock. 
Of the 824,063 natives, 203,373 lived in Zululand. The white and 
Asiatic population nearly doubled in the thirteen years since 
the previous census, allowance being made for the Utrecht and 
Vryheid districts, which in 1891 formed part of the Transvaal. 
Of the total population 985,167 live in rural areas, the average 
density for the whole country being 31-34 per sq. m. The 
white population is divided into 56,758 males and 40,351 females. 
Of the white inhabitants the great majority are British. Some 
12,500 are of Dutch extraction; these live chiefly in the districts 
of Utrecht and Vryheid. There are also about 4500 Natalians of 
German extraction, settled mainly in the New Hanover and 
Umzimkulu districts. The Asiatics at the 1004 census were 
divided into 63,497 males and 37,421 females. They include a 
few high caste Indians, Arabs and Chinese, but the great majority 
are Indian coolies. The Asiatics are mainly congregated in the 
coast districts between the Umzimkulu and Tugela rivers. 
In this region (which includes Durban) the Asiatic population 
was 61,854. In none of the inland districts did the Asiatic 
inhabitants number 2000. The coolies are employed chiefly on 
the sugar, coffee, cotton and other plantations, a small proportion 
being employed in the coal-mines. 

The native inhabitants of Natal proper were almost exter- 
minated by the Zulus in the early years of the I9th century. 
Before that period the natives of what is now Natal proper were 
estimated to number about 100,000. In 1838 when the Zulu 
power was first checked the natives had been reduced to about 
10,000. The stoppage of intertribal wars by the British, aided 
by a great influx of refugees from Zululand, led to a rapid increase 
of the population. With the exception of a few. Bushmen, 
who cling to the slopes of the Drakensberg, all the natives are of 
Bantu stock. Before the Zulu devastations the natives belonged 
to the Ama-Xosa branch of the Kaffirs and are said to have been 
divided into ninety-four different tribes; to-day all the tribes 
have a large admixture of Zulu blood (see KAFFIRS, ZULULAND 
and BANTU LANGUAGES). The Natal natives have preserved 
their tribal organization to a considerable extent. Nearly 50% 
live in special reserves or locations, the area set apart for native 
occupation being about 4000 sq. m. exclusive of Zululand. 
Most of the remainder are employed on or live upon farms owned 
by whites, paying annual rents of from i to 5 or more. There 
were, however, in 1004, 69,746 male natives and 10,232 female 
natives in domestic service. Of the tribes who were in Natal 
before the Zulu invasion about 1812, the two largest are the 
Abatembu (who are in five main divisions and number about 
30,000) and the Amakwabe (seven divisions and about 20,000 
people). Other large tribes are the Amanyuswa (ten divisions 
38,000 people), the Amakunu (three divisions 26,000 people), 
and the Amabomvu (five divisions 25,000 people). The three 
last tribes are among those which sought refuge in Natal from 
Zulu persecution, before the establishment of British rule in 
1843. The number of half-castes is remarkably small, at the 
census of 1904 the number of " mixed and others," which 

2 The following is the official estimate of the population on the 
3ist of December 1908: Europeans 91,443, natives 908,264 (in- 
cluding 7386 " mixed and others "), Asiatics 116,679; total 1 ,206,386. 






NATAL 



255 



includes Griquas and Hottentots and non-aboriginal negroes, 
was only 6686. 

Chief Towns. The seat of the provincial government is Pieter- 
maritzburg (g.t>.). commonly called Maritzburg (or P.M.B.), with a 
population (1904) of 31,199. It is 71 m. by rail N.N.W. of Durban 
(<?..), the seaport and only large city in Natal, pop. 67,842. Lady- 
smith (q.v.), pop. 5568, ranks next in size. It is in the north-west 
of the province, is famous for its investment by the Boers in 1899- 
1900 and is an important railway junction. North-east of Lady- 
smith are Dundee (2811) and Newcastle (2950). Dundee is the centre 
of the coal-mining district. Newcastle is also a mining town, but 
depends chiefly on its large trade in wool. It is named after the 
duke of Newcastle who was secretary for the colonies in 1852 and 
1859. Vryheid (2287) is in the centre of a highly mineralized 
district. Utrecht (860) lies between Newcastle and Vryheid, and 
was one of the first towns founded by the Transvaal Boers. There 
are coal-mines on the town lands. Greytown (2436), a wool and 
wattle trading centre, is in central Natal. Verulam (1325), 19 m. 
along the coast north of Durban, serves as centre for sugar, tobacco 
and fruit plantations. It was founded by emigrants from St Albans, 
England whence the name. Port Shepstone, at the mouth of the 
Umzimkulu river, is the natural outlet for south-west Natal. Est- 
court is a trading centre, 75 m. by rail N.N.W. of Pietermaritzburg 
and is 29 m. distant from the village of Weenen (" Weeping "), so 
named by the first Boer settlers in memory of a Zulu raid. Another 
village, Colenso, on the south bank of the Tugela, 16 m. by rail 
south of Ladysmith, was the headquarters of Sir Redvers Buller 
at the battle of Colenso on the isth of December 1899. 

Communications. Durban (Port Natal) is in regular communica- 
tion with Europe via Cape Town and via Suez by several lines of 
steamers, the chief being the boats of the Union-Castle line, which 
sail from Southampton and follow the west coast route, those of 
the German East Africa line, which sail from Hamburg and go via 
the east coast route and those of the Austrian Lloyd from Trieste, 
also by the east coast route. By the Union-Castle boats there is a 
weekly mail service to England. There are also two direct lines of 
steamers between London and Durban (a distance of 6993 nautical 
miles), average passage about twenty-six days; the mail route taking 
twenty to twenty-two days. Durban is also in regular and frequent 
communication by passenger steamers with the other South African 
ports, as well as Mauritius, Zanzibar, &c., and with India, Australia, 
the United States and South America. The works which have made 
Port Natal the finest harbour in South Africa are described under 
DURBAN. 

The first railway built in South Africa was a 2-m. line from 
The Point (or harbour) to the town of Durban. It was opened for 
traffic in 1860 and in 1874 was extended some 4 m. to the Umgeni 
river. This line was of 4 ft. 8J in. gauge and was privately owned, 
but, when in 1876 the Natal government determined to build and 
own a railway system which should in time cover the country, the 
existing line was bought out and the gauge altered to 3 ft. 6 in. 
On this, the normal South African gauge, all the Natal railways, 
save a few 2-ft. branch lines, are built. The main line starts from 
Durban, and passing through Pietermaritzburg (71 m.), Ladysmith 
(190 m.) and Newcastle (268 m.) pierces the Drakensberg at Laing's 
Nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long, and 3 m. beyond Charlestown reaches 
the Transvaal frontier at mile 307. Thence the railway is continued 
to Johannesburg, &c. The distances from Durban to the places 
mentioned by this route are: Johannesburg, 483 m.; Pretoria 
511 m.; Kimberley, 793 m.; Bulawayo, 1508 m.; Delagoa Bay, 
860 m. 

From Ladysmith a branch line runs north-west into the Orange 
Free State, crossing the Drakensberg at Van Reenen's Pass. This 
line is continued via Harrismith and Bethlehem to Kroonstad 
(393 m. from Durban) on the main Cape Town, Bloemfontein and 
Johannesburg railway and is the shortest route between Durban 
and Cape Town (1271 m.). It also affords via Bloemfontein the 
shortest route (622 m.) between Durban and Kimberley. From 
Glencoe Junction, 42 m. north of Ladysmith on the direct line to 
Johannesburg, a branch railway goes N.E. to the Dundee coal- 
fields, yryheid (59 m.) and Hlobane (76 m.). Two lines branch off 
from Pietermaritzburg. One (62 m. long) goes N.E. to Greytown, 
serving the east-central part of the province; the other line (108 m. 
long) goes S.W. to Riverside Station, forming a link in the scheme 
for direct communication between Natal and East London and Port 
Elizabeth. 

Durban is the starting-point of two coast lines. The south coast 
line, which runs close to the sea, goes to Port Shepstone (79 m.). 
A 2-ft. gauge railway (102 m.), which leaves the south coast line at 
Alexandra Junction (44 m. from Durban), runs N.W. by Stuarts- 
town and joins the Pietermaritzburg-Riverside line. The north coast 
railway (167 m. long) crosses the Tugela 70 m. from Durban and 
continued through Zululand to Somkele, the centre of the Santa 
Lucia coal-fields. 

As might be expected in a country possessing the physical features 
of Natal, the gradients and curves are exceptionally severe. Not 
less than 43 m. are upon grades of I in 30 and l in 35, and curves of 
300 to 350 ft. radius, while on over 100 m. more there are grades 
under I in 60 and curves of less than 450 ft. radius. The main trunk 



line reaches an altitude of 3054 ft. at a point 58 m. distant from 
Durban; after falling 1000 ft. in its farther progress to Pieter- 
maritzburg, it again rises, 12 m. after leaving that city, to a height 
of 3700 ft. above the sea; at a point 134 m. from Durban it has 
reached an altitude of 5152 ft., but on reaching Ladysmith, 191 m. 
from Durban, the altitude has decreased to 3284 ft. The summit 
of the Biggarsberg chain is crossed at a point 233 m. from the port, 
at a height of 4800 ft., and at Laing's Nek the altitude is 5399 ft. 
The Orange Free State line, after leaving Ladysmith, ascends by 
steep gradients the whoje of its own course in Natal territory, and 
when it gains the summit at Van Reenen's Pass it is 5500 ft. above 
the sea. The mileage open in 1910 was 1173. The cost of construc- 
tion, to the same year, exceeded 14,000,000, the interest earned per 
cent since 1895 not being less than 3, 123. in any one year. In out- 
lying districts post carts and ox wagons are the usual means of con- 
veyance. There are about 5000 m. of high roads kept in repair by 
the government. 

There is a well-organized postal and telegraphic service. Land 
lines connect Natal with every part of South Africa and with Nyasa- 
land and Ujiji. A submarine cable from Durban goes to Zanzibar 
and Aden, whence there is communication with every Quarter of the 
globe. The first telegraph line in Natal was opened in 1873; in 
1878 communication was established with Cape Town and in the 
following year with Delagoa Bay. 

Agriculture and Allied Industries. The diversity of soil and climate 
leads to a great diversity in the agricultural produce. The chief 
drawback to farming in the midland and upper districts is the con- 
siderable proportion of stony ground, and, in some cases, the lack 
of running water. The area of land under tillage is less than a 
twentieth of the whole surface, the crop most extensively grown 
being maize or " mealies." This is universally grown by the natives 
and forms their staple food; it is also grown by the Indians, and 
by the white farmers for export. Besides maize the crops cultivated 
by the natives are Kaffir corn or amabele (Sorghum cafrorum) 
used in the manufacture of utyuala, native beer imfi (Sorghum 
saccharalum), tobacco, pumpkins and sweet potatoes. The chief 
wealth of the natives consists, however, in their large herds of cattle 
(see infra). While maize thrives in every part of the country, 
wheat, barley and oats cultivated by the white farmers flourish 
only in the midlands and uplands. More important than the cereal 
crops are the tropical and sub-tropical products of the coast zone. 
Besides fruits of nearly all kinds there are cultivated in the low 
moist regions the sugar-cane, the tea, coffee and tobacco plants, 
arrowroot, cayenne pepper, cotton, &c. The area under sugar in 
1905 was 45,840 acres and the produce 532,067 cwt. (a large quantity 
of sugar-cane is grown for feeding stock). In the same year the 
production of tea was 1,633, 178 Ib; f coffee, 24,859^; of maize, 
2,101,470 bushels; of potatoes, 419,946 bushels; and of sweet 
potatoes, 181,195 bushels. The tea plant was first introduced in 
Natal in 1850, but little attention was paid to it until the failure of 
the coffee plantations about 1875, since when only small quantities 
of coffee have been produced. In 1877 renewed efforts were made 
to induce tea cultivation, and by 1881 it had become an established 
industry. The variety chiefly grown is the Assam indigenous. 
Most of the tea estates are situated in the coast belt north of Durban. 
The sugar cane, like tea, was first introduced in 1850, the first canes 
being brought from Mauritius. The industry is steadily growing, 
as are the dependent manufactures of molasses and rum. The fruit 
industry is of considerable importance and by 1905 had reached a 
turnover of over 100,000 a year. 

Extensive areas in the midland and upland districts are devoted 
to the raising of stock. Horse-breeding is successfully carried on 
in the upper districts. The higher the altitude the healthier the 
animals and the greater their immunity from disease. Horse- 
sickness, a kind of malarial fever, which takes an epidemic form in 
very wet seasons, causes considerable loss. The Natal horse is small, 
wiry, and has great powers of endurance. Cattle-breeding is probably 
the most lucrative branch of stock-farming, the country being 
pre-eminently adapted for horned cattle. Rinderpest in 1896-1897 
swept through South Africa, and probably carried off in Natal from 
30 to 40 % of the stock of Europeans, while the natives' losses were 
even heavier. Serum and bile inoculation were the means of saving 
a considerable percentage of the herds. The farmers soon began to 
recover from their losses, but in 1908-1909 another serious loss of 
stock resulted from the ravages of East Coast fever. The cattle 
consist chiefly of the Zulu and Africander breeds, but attention 
has been given to improving the breed by the introduction of Short- 
horn, Devon and Holstein (or Friesland) stock. The chief market 
for cattle is Johannesburg. The principal breed of sheep is the 
merino, which does well in the higher altitudes. A Scab Act is in 
force, and is stringently carried out by government inspectors 
with most satisfactory results. The Angora goat thrives well in 
certain districts. Ostriches do well in the dry, arid valleys of the 
Tugela and Mooi rivers. In 1908 Europeans were returned as 
owning 32,000 horses, 220,000 horned cattle, 765,000 sheep, 68,000 
goats, 25,000 pigs, 960 ostriches and 384,000 poultry. Large herds 
of cattle over 500,000 in the aggregate are owned by the 
natives, who also possess vast flocks of goats and sheep. The 
dairy industry is well established, and Natal butter commands a 
ready sale. 



256 



NATAL 



Valuable timber is obtained from the forests. Stinkwood is 
largely employed in the making of wagons, and is also used for making 
furniture. Black ironwood is likewise used in building wagons, 
while sneezewood is largely utilized for supports for piers and other 
marine structures, being impervious to the attacks of the Teredo 
navalis. More important is the cultivation of the black wattle 
(Acacia mollissima), which began in 1886, the bark being exported for 
tanning purposes, the wood also commanding a ready sale. This 
wattle thrives well in most localities, but especially in the highlands 
of central Natal. In 1905 the production of wattle bark was 13,620 
tons, and the area planted with the tree over 60,000 acres. Aloes 
and ramie are cultivated to some extent for their fibre. 

The government maintains experimental farms and forestry 
plantations and a veterinary department to cope with lung sickness, 
rinderpest, East Coast fever and such like diseases. It also conducts 
campaigns against locusts and other pests and helps irrigation 
settlements. By means of an Agricultural Bank it affords assistance 
to farmers. 

Mining. There are several highly mineralized areas in the 
country. The existence of coal in the north-east districts on or near 
the surface of the ground was reported as early as 1839, but it was 
not until 1880 that steps were taken to examine the coalfields. 
This was done by F. W. North, who reported in 1881 that in the 
Klip river (Dundee) district there was an area of 1350 sq. m. that 
might be depended upon for the supply of coal, which is of all 
characters from lignite to anthracite. In 1889 the extension of the 
railway from Ladysmith through the coal area first made coal- 
mining profitable. In 1896 the total output of coal was 216,106 
tons (valued at 108,053 at tne P't' s mouth), in 1908 it had increased 
to 1,669,774 tons (valued at the pit's mouth at 737,169). There is a 
considerable trade in bunker and export coal at Durban, the coal 
bunkered having increased from 118,740 tons in 1900 to 710,777 in 
1908. In the last-named year 446,915 tons of coal were exported. 
Besides the mines in the Newcastle and Dundee district there are 
extensive coal-fields at Hlobane in the Vryheid district and in Zulu- 
land (q.v.). Iron ore is widely distributed and is found in the neigh- 
bourhood of all the coal-fields. There are extensive copper and gold- 
yielding areas, and in some districts these metals are mined. On 
the lower Umzimkulu, near Port Shepstone, marble is found in great 
quantities. 

Commerce. The chief exports, not all products of the province, 
are coal, wool, mohair, hides and skins, wattle bark, tea, sugar, 
fruits and jams. The import trade is of a most varied characte_r, 
and a large proportion of the goods brought into the country are in 
transit to the Transvaal and Orange Free State, Natal affording, next 
to Delagoa Bay, the shortest route to the Rand. Textiles, largely 
cotton goods, hardware, mining and agricultural machinery, tobacco 
and foodstuffs form the bulk of the imports. In 1896 the value 
of exports was 1,785,000; in 1908 the value was 9,622,000. In 
1896 the imports were valued at 5,427,000, in 1908 at 8,330,000 
(a decrease of 2,300,000 compared with 1905). The bulk of these 
exports are to the Transvaal and neighbouring countries, and 
previously figure as imports, other exports, largely wool and hides, 
are first imported from the Transvaal. Over three-fifths of the 
imports are from Great Britain, and about one-seventh of the 
exports go to Great Britain. The shipping, which in 1874 was 
126,000 tons, was in 1884 1,013,000; in 1894, 1,463,000; in 1904 
4,263,000; and in 1908, 5,028,000. Over six-sevenths of the shipping 
is British. 

Government and Constitution. Natal was from 1893 to 1910 
a self-governing colony. It is now represented in the Union 
Parliament by eight senators and seventeen members of the 
House of Assembly. The qualifications for electors and members 
of the Assembly are the same, namely men of full age owning 
houses or land worth 50, or who rent such property of the yearly 
value of 10; or who, having lived three years in the province, 
have incomes of not less than 96 a year. 

Coloured persons are not, by name, excluded from the franchise, 
but no persons " subject to special laws and tribunals," * in which 
category all natives are included, are entitled to vote. Another 
law, 2 directed against Indians, excludes from the franchise, 
natives, or descendants of natives in the male line, of countries 
not possessing elective representative institutions. Exemption 
from the scope of these provisions may be granted by the 
governor-general and under such exemption a few Kaffirs are 
on the roll of electors. 

At the head of the provincial government is an administrator, 
appointed by the Union Ministry, who holds office for five 
years. He is assisted by an executive committee of four members 
elected by the provincial council. This council to which is 

1 Act No. 2 (of the Natal Legislature) of 1883. 

'Act No. 8 of 1896. The Indians whose names were "rightly 
contained " in the voters' rolls at the date of the act retain the 
franchise. 



entrusted the management of affairs purely provincial consists 
of 25 members, elected by the parliamentary voters and each 
representing a separate constituency. The council sits for a 
statutory period of three years. For local government purposes 
the province is divided into counties or magisterial divisions; 
Zululand being under special jurisdiction. The chief towns 
Durban, Maritzburg, Ladysmith, Newcastle and Dundee are 
governed by municipal corporations and minor towns by local 
boards. 

Revenue and Expenditure. Revenue is derived chiefly from 
customs and excise, railways, land sales, posts and telegraphs and a 
capitation tax. The expenditure is largely on reproductive works 
(railways, harbours, post office, &c.), on the judiciary and police, 
education and military defence. The majority of these services are, 
since 1910, managed by the Union Government, but the provincial 
council has power to levy direct taxation, and (with the consent 
of the Union Government) to raise loans for purely provincial 
purposes. Its revenues and powers are those pertaining to local 
government. Some particulars follow as to the financial position of 
Natal previous to the establishment of the Union. 

In 1846, the first year of Natal's separate existence, the revenue 
was 3073 and the expenditure 6905. In 1852 the revenue was 
27,158 and the expenditure 24,296, and in 1862 the conesppnding 
figures were 98,799. and 85,928. In 1872 revenue had risen to 
180,499 and expenditure to 132,978. Ten years later the figures 
were, revenue 657,738, expenditure 659,031. The rise of Johannes- 
burg and the opening up of the Dundee coal-fields, as well as the 
development . of agriculture, now caused a rapid increase on both 
sides of the account. In 1888 the revenue for the first time exceeded 
a million, the figures for that year being, revenue 1,130,614, ex- 
penditure 781,326; in 1898-1899 the figures were 2,081,349 and 
1,914,725. The Anglo-Boer War (1890-1902) caused both revenue 
and expenditure to rise abnormally, while the depression in trade 
which followed the war adversely affected the exchequer. In 1903- 
1904 there was a slight credit balance, the figures being, revenue 
4,160,145, expenditure 4,071,439. For the next four years 
there were deficits, but in 1908-1909 a surplus was realized, the 
revenue being 3,569,275 and the expenditure 3,530,576. For 
1909-1910, the last year of Natal's existence as a colony, the revenue, 
4,035,000, again exceeded the expenditure. The public debt, 
2,101,500 in 1882, had risen at the close of the Boer War in 1902 
to 12,519,000, and was in June 1909, 21,420,000. 

Defence. A small garrison of imperial troops is quartered at 
Maritzburg. The provincial force consists of a militia, fully equipped 
and armed with modern weapons. It is divided into mounted rifle- 
men, about 1900 strong, four field batteries of 340 men and two 
infantry battalions, each of over 800 men. There is also an armed 
and mounted police force of 870 Europeans. Military training is 
compulsory on all lads over ten attending government schools. 
The boys are organized in cadet corps. A senior cadet corps is 
formed of youths between sixteen and twenty. There are also many 
rifle associations, the members of which are liable to be called out 
for defence. Durban harbour is defended by batteries with heavy 
modern guns. The batteries are manned by the naval corps (150 
strong) of the Natal militia. Natal makes an annual contribution of 
35,000 towards the upkeep of the British navy. 

Law and Justice. The South Africa Act 1909 established a 
Supreme Court of South Africa, the former supreme court of Natal 
becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court. The 
Roman-Dutch law, as accepted and administered by the courts of 
Cape Colony up to 1845 (the date of the separation of Natal from the 
Cape), is the law of the land, save as modified by ordinances and 
laws enacted by the local legislature, mostly founded upon imperial 
statute law. The law of evidence is the same as that of the courts 
of England. Natives, however, are not justiceable under the Roman- 
Dutch law, but by virtue of letters patent passed in 1848 they are 
judged by native laws and customs, except so far as these may be 
repugnant to natural equity. The native laws were first codified in 
1878. in 1887 a board was appointed for their revision, and the new 
code came into operation in 1901. Provision is made whereby a 
native can obtain relief from the operation of native law and be 
subject to the colonial law (Law No. 28 of 1865). Special laws have 
been passed for the benefit of the coolie immigrants. The ad- 
ministration of justice is conducted by magistrates' courts, circuit 
courts and the provincial division of the supreme court. The magi- 
strates have both civil and criminal jurisdiction in minor cases. 
Appeals can be made from the magistrates' decisions to the pro- 
vincial or circuit court. The provincial court, consisting of a judge 
president and three puisne judges, sits in Pietermaritzburg and has 
jurisdiction over all causes whether affecting natives or Europeans. 
The judges also hold circuit courts at Durban and other places. 
Appeals from the circuit courts can be made to the provincial court; 
and from the provincial court appeals lie to the appellate division 
of the Supreme Court of South Africa, sitting at Bloemfontein. 
Criminal cases are tried before a single judge and a jury of nine 
of whom not fewer than seven determine the verdict. There is a 
vice-admiralty court, of which the judge-president is judge and 



NATAL 



257 



commissary. In native cases the chiefs have civil jurisdiction in 
disputes among their own tribesmen and criminal jurisdiction over 
natives except in capital cases, offences against the person or 
property of non-natives, pretended witchcraft, cases arising out of 
marriages by Christian rites, &c. An appeal lies to a magistrates' 
court from every judgment of a native chief, and from the magis- 
trates' judgment on such appeal to a native high court. This native 
high court consists of a judge-president and two other judges, and sits 
in full court at Maritzburg not less than three months and at Eshowe 
not less than once in the year. There is no jury in this tribunal 
and single judges may hold circuit courts. With certain exceptions 
reserved for the provincial court (such as insolvency, ownership of 
immovable property and divorce), the native high court exercises 
jurisdiction when all parties to the suit are natives; it also has 
jurisdiction when the complainant is not a native, but all other 
parties to the suit are natives. 

Religion. The majority of the white inhabitants are Protestants, 
the bodies with the largest number of adherents being the Anglicans, 
Dutch Reformed Church, Presbyterians and Wesleyans. The 
Anglicans are divided into two parties those belonging to " the 
Church of the Province of South Africa," the body in communion 
with the Church of England, and those who act independently and 
constitute " the Church of England in Natal.' 1 The schism arose 
out of the alleged heterodox views of Bishop Colenso (<?..), who had 
been created bishop of Natal by letters patent in 1853. In 1863 
the metropolitan of Cape Town, as head of the Church of the Province 
of South Africa, excommunicated Dr Colenso and consecrated a rival 
bishop for Natal, who took the title of bishop of Pietermaritzburg. 
Dr Colenso, who obtained a decision of the privy council confirming 
his claim to be bishop of Natal and possessor of the temporalities 
attached to the bishopric, died in 1883. After his death those 
members of the Anglican community who objected to the constitu- 
tion of the provincial church maintained their organization while the 
temporalities were placed in the hands of curators. Reunion in 
spiritual matters has, however, been practically effected. Moreover, 
an act of the Natal parliament passed in 10,09 placed the temporalities 
into commission in the persons of the bishop and other trustees of 
the Natal diocese of the Provincial Church ; reservations being made 
in favour of four congregations at that time unwilling to unite with 
the main body of churchmen. 1 At the census of 1904 the Anglicans 
numbered 40,880. The Presbyterians numbered 12,184, the Wes- 
leyan Methodists 11,992, the Dutch Reformed Church 11,340, the 
Lutherans 4852, and the Baptists 2193. The Roman Catholics, at 
whose head is a vicar-apostolic, numbered 10,419. All these figures 
are exclusive of natives, of whom the churches named notably the 
Anglicans and Wesleyans have many converts. The Jewish com- 
munity in 1904 numbered 1496. Of the Asiatics, 87,234 were classed 
as Hindus and 10,111 as Mahommedans. 

Education. Education other than elementary is controlled by the 
Union government. Public schools, and private schools aided by 
provincial grants provide elementary education for white children. 
Education is neither compulsory nor free; but the fees are low 
(is. to 53. a month) and few children are kept away from school. 
There are government secondary and art schools at Durban and 
Maritzburg, and a Technical Institute at Durban. For higher edu- 
cation provision was made by the affiliation of Natal to the Cape of 
Good Hope University and by exhibitions tenable at English universi- 
ties. An act of the Natal legislature, passed December 1909, provided 
for the establishment at Maritzburg of the Natal University College, 
the course of studies to be such as from time to time prescribed by 
the Cape University. In 1910 30,000 was voted for the University 
College buildings. State aid and inspection is given to private 
schools for natives. In the native schools almost all maintained by 
Christian missions Zulu and English are taught, the subjects taken 
being usually reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography 
and history. The state provides elementary and higher grade 
schools for Indian children. In 1908 there were 52 government 
schools and 472 schools under inspection; 304 European, 21 coloured, 
168 native and 31 Indian, with an aggregate attendance of 30,598 
scholars. There are in addition many private and denominational 
schools and colleges not receiving state aid. Of these, two of the 
best known are Hilton College and Hermansberg College, many 
prominent Natalians having been educated at one or the other of 
these establishments. To encourage the instruction of children 
who by reason of distance cannot attend a government or govern- 
ment-aided school, grants-in-a,id are made for each pupil attending 
farm schools. 

The Press. The first newspaper in Natal was the Nalalier, a 
Dutch print published at Maritzburg; it was succeeded by the 
Patriot. The first English paper was the Natal Witness, started in 
1845 and still one of the leading organs of public opinion. In 1851 
the Natal Times appeared, and is now continued as the Times of 
Natal. Another leading paper, the Natal Mercury, dates from 1852. 
It is a morning newspaper and is issued at Durban. The Natal 
Advertiser is a Durban evening paper. Sir John Robinson, the first 
premier of Natal under responsible government, was the editor of 
the Mercury from 1860 until he became prime minister in 1893. 

1 For a summary of the Natal church controversy see The Guardian 
(London March II, 1910). 
XIX. 9 



In 1886 a new Dutch paper, De Afrikaner, was started at Maritzburg. 
The Kaffirs have their own organ, Ipipa lo Hlunga (the paper of 
grievances), issued at Maritzburg, and the Asiatics, Indian Opinion, 
a weekly paper started in 1903 and printed in English, Gujarati, 
Hindi and Tamil. Local papers are published weekly at Lady smith, 
Dundee and Greytown. The Agricultural Journal, a government 
publication issued fortnightly, is of great service in the promotion of 
agricultural knowledge. 

History. 

Vasco da Gama on his voyage to India sighted the bluff at 
the entrance to the bay now forming the harbour of Durban 
on Christmas Day 1497 and named the country Terra 
Natalis. Da Gama made no landing here and, like Discovery 
the rest of South Africa, Natal was neglected by the ^,"0^ 
Portuguese, whose nearest settlement was at Delagoa 
Bay. In 1576 Manuel de Mesquita Perestrellp, commanded by 
King Sebastian to explore the coast of South Africa and report 
on suitable harbours, made a rough chart, even then of little use 
to navigators, which is of value as exhibiting the most that was 
known of the country by its discoverers before the advent of their 
Dutch rivals, who established themselves at Cape Town in 1652. 
PerestreUo states that Natal has no ports but otherwise he gives 
a fairly accurate description of the country noting particu- 
larly the abundance of animals and the density of the population. 
The first detailed accounts of the country were received from 
shipwrecked mariners. In 1683 the English ship " Johanna " 
went ashore near Delagoa Bay and the crew made a remarkable 
journey overland to Cape Town, passing through Natal, where 
they were kindly received by the natives. About the same time 
(in 1684) an English ship put into Port Natal (as the bay came 
to be known) and purchased ivory from the natives, who, how- 
ever, refused to deal in slaves. In May 1685 another English 
ship the " Good Hope " was wrecked in crossing the bar at Port 
Natal and in February 1686 the " Stavenisse," a Dutch East 
Indiaman, was wrecked a little farther south. Survivors of 
both vessels lived for nearly a year at Port Natal and there built 
a boat in which they made the voyage to Cape Town in twelve 
days. They brought with them 3 tons of ivory. This fact 
and their reports of the immense herds of elephants which roamed 
the bush led Simon van der Stell, then governor at Cape Town, 
to despatch (1689) the ship " Noord " to Port Natal, with instruc- 
tions to her commander to open up a trade in ivory and to acquire 
possession of the bay. From the chief of the Amatuli tribe, 
who inhabited the adjacent district, the bay was " purchased " 
for about 50 worth of goods. No settlement was then made 
and in 1705 the son of the chief repudiated the bargain. In 
1721 the Cape government did form a settlement at the bay, 
but it was soon afterwards abandoned. Thereafter for nearly 
a hundred years' Natal was again neglected by white men. 
A ship now and again put into the bay, but the dangerous bar 
at its entrance militated against its frequent use. When in 
1824 the next attempt was made by Europeans to form a settle- 
ment at the bay, Cape Colony had passed from the Dutch 
into the possession of Great Britain, while in Natal great 
changes had come over the land as a result of wars between the 
natives. 

From the records of the i7th and i8th centuries it is apparent 
that the people then inhabiting Natal were Bantu-negroes of 
the Kaffir (Ama Xosa) branch. There is no mention of Hotten- 
tots, and the few Bushmen who dwelt in the upper regions by the 
Drakensberg did not come into contact with Europeans. The 
sailors of the " Stavenisse " reported the most numerous and 
most powerful tribe to be the Abambo, while that which came 
most in contact with the whites was the Amatuli, as it occupied 
a considerable part of the coast -land. These Kaffirs appear to 
have been more given to agriculture and more peaceful than 
their neighbours in Kaffraria and Cape Colony. But the quiet of 
the country was destroyed by the inroads of Chaka, the chief of 
the Zulus (see ZULULAND). Chaka between 1818 and 1820 
ravaged the whole of what is now known as Natal, and after 
beating his foes in battle, butchered the women, children and 
old men, incorporating the young men in his impis. The popula- 
tion was greatly reduced and large areas left without a single 



258 



NATAL 



inhabitant. By right of conquest Chaka became undisputed 
master of the country. 

Such was the situation when the first British settlement was 
made in Natal. In 1823 Francis George Farewell, formerly a 
lieutenant in the British navy, with other merchants of Cape 
Town, formed a company to trade with the natives of the south- 
east coast. In the brig " Salisbury," commanded by James S. 
King, who had been a midshipman in the navy, Farewell visited 
Port Natal, St Lucia and Delagoa Bays. The voyage was not 
successful as a trading venture, but Farewell was so impressed 
with the possibilities of Natal both for trade and colonization that 
he resolved to establish himself at the port. He went thither with 
ten companions, among them Henry Francis Fynn. All the rest 
save Farewell and Fynn speedily repented of their adventure and 
returned to the Cape, but the two who remained were joined by 
three sailors, John Cane, Henry Ogle and Thomas Holstead, a 
lad. Farewell, Fynn and the others went to the royal kraal of 
Chaka, and, having cured him of a wound and made him various 
presents, obtained a document, dated the 7th of August 1824, 
ceding to " F. G. Farewell & Company entire and full possession 
in perpetuity " of a tract of land including " the port or harbour 
of Natal." On the 27th of the same month Farewell hoisted the 
The first Union Jack at the port and declared the territory he 
British had acquired a British possession. In 1825 he was 
setae- joined by King, who had meantime visited England 
meat - and had obtained from the government a letter of 
recommendation to Lord Charles Somerset, governor of the Cape, 
granting King permission to settle at Natal. Farewell, King and 
Fynn made independent settlements at various parts of the 
bay, where a few Amatuli still lingered. They lived, practically, 
as Kaffir chiefs, trading with Chaka and gathering round them 
many refugees from that monarch's tyranny. Early in 1828 
King, accompanied by two of Chaka's indunas, voyaged in the 
" Elizabeth and Susan," a small schooner built by the settlers, 
to Port Elizabeth. He appears to have been coldly received by 
the authorities, who were even unable to ascertain the nature of 
Chaka's embassy. Soon after his return to Natal King died, and 
in the same month (September 1828) Chaka was murdered by 
his brother Dingaan. In the December following Farewell went 
in the " Elizabeth and Susan " to Port Elizabeth. On this 
occasion the authorities were more hostile than before to the 
Natal pioneers, for they confiscated the schooner on the ground 
that it was unregistered and that it came from a foreign port. 
Farewell was not daunted, and in September 1829 set out to 
return overland to Port Natal. He was, however, murdered in 
Pondoland by a chief who was at enmity with the Zulus. Fynn 
thus became leader of the whites at the port, who were much at 
the mercy of Dingaan. In 1831 that chief raided their settle- 
ments, the whites all fleeing south of the Umzimkulu; but at 
Dingaan's invitation they soon returned. Dingaan declared 
Fynn his representative and " great chief of the Natal Kaffirs." 
In 1834, however, Fynn accepted a post under the Cape govern- 
ment and did not return to Natal for many years. It was in this 
year that a petition from Cape Town merchants asking for the 
creation of a British colony at Natal was met by the statement 
that the Cape finances would not permit the establishment of 
a new dependency. The merchants, however, despatched an 
expedition under Dr Andrew Smith to inquire into the possibilities 
of the country, and the favourable nature of his report induced a 
party of Dutch farmers under Piet Uys to go thither also. Both 
Dr Smith and Uys travelled overland through Kaffraria, and 
were well received by the English living at the bay. The next 
step was taken by the settlers at the port, who in 1835 resolved 
to lay out a town, which they named Durban, after Sir Benjamin 
d'Urban, then governor of Cape Colony. At the same time the 
settlers, who numbered about 50, sent a memorial to the governor 
calling attention to the fact that they were acknowledged rulers 
over a large tract of territory south of the Tugela, and asking 
that this territory should be proclaimed a British colony under 
the name of Victoria and that a governor and council be appointed. 
To all these requests no official answer was returned. The 
settlers had been joined in the year named (1835) by Captain 






Gardiner, a naval officer, whose chief object was the evangeliza- 
tion of the natives. With the support of the traders he founded 
a mission station on the hill overlooking the bay. In 1837 
Gardiner was given authority by the British government to 
exercise jurisdiction over the traders. They, however, refused 
to acknowledge Gardiner's authority, and from the Cape govern- 
ment he received no support. 1 It was not until their hand was 
forced by the occupation of the interior by Dutch farmers that 
the Cape authorities at length intervened. 

The British settlers had, characteristically, reached Natal 
mainly by way of the sea; the new tide of immigration was by 
land the wortrekkers streamed through the passes of Arrival 
the Drakensberg, bringing with them their wives and of the 
children and vast herds of cattle. The reasons which Dutch 
caused the exodus from the Cape are discussed else- 
where (see SOUTH AFRICA and CAPE COLONY), here it is 
only necessary to point out that those emigrants who entered 
Natal shared with those who settled elsewhere an intense desire 
to be free from British control. The first emigrant Boers to enter 
the country were led by Pieter Retief (c. 1780-1838), a man of 
Huguenot descent and of marked abih'ty, who had formerly lived 
on the eastern frontier of Cape Colony and had suffered severely 
in the Kaffir wars. Passing through the almost deserted upper 
regions Retief arrived at the bay in October 1837. He went 
thence to Dingaan's kraal with the object of securing a formal 
cession of territory to the Dutch farmers. Dingaan consented 
on condition that the Boers recovered for him certain cattle 
stolen by another chief; this task Retief accomplished, and with 
the help of the Rev. F. Owen, a missionary then living at 
Dingaau's kraal, a deed of cession was drawn up in English and 
signed by Dingaan and Relief on the 4th of February 1838. 
Two days after the signature of the deed Retief and all of his 
party, 66 whites, besides Hottentot servants, were treacherously 
murdered by Dingaan's orders. The Zulu king then commanded 
his impis to kill all the Boers who had entered Natal. The Zulu 
forces crossed the Tugela the same day, and the most advanced 
parties of the Boers were massacred, many at a spot near where 
the town of Weenen now stands, its name (meaning wailing or 
weeping) commemorating the event. Other of the farmers 
hastily laagered and were able to repulse the Zulu attacks; the 
assailants suffering serious loss at a fight near the Bushman's 
river. Nevertheless in one week after the murder of Retief 
600 Boers men, women and children had been killed by the 
Zulus. The English settlers at the bay, hearing of the attack on 
the Boers, determined to make a diversion in their favour, and 
some 20 men under the command of R. Biggar and with a 
following of 700 friendly Zulus crossed the Tugela near its mouth. 
In a desperate fight (April 17) with a strong force of the 
enemy the English were overwhelmed and only four Europeans 
escaped to the bay. Pursued by the Zulus, all the surviving 
inhabitants of Durban were compelled for a time to take refuge 
on a ship then in harbour. After the Zulus retired, less than a 
dozen Englishmen returned to live at the port; the missionaries, 
hunters and other traders returned to the Cape. Meantime the 
Boers, who had repelled the Zulu attacks on their laagers, had been 
joined by others from the Drakensberg, and about 400 men under 
Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys advanced to attack Dingaan. 
On the nth of April, however, they fell into a trap laid by the 
Zulus and with difficulty cut their way out. Among those slain 
were Piet Uys and his son Dirk, aged 15, who rode by his side. 
The Boer farmers were now in a miserable plight, but towards the 
end of the year they received reinforcements, and in December 
460 men set out under Andries Pretorius to avenge themselves 
on the Zulus. On Sunday the i6th of December, while laagered 
near the Umslatos river, they were attacked by over 10,000 
Zulus. The Boers had firearms, the Zulus their assegais only, 
and after a three hours' fight the Zulus were totally defeated, 
losing thousands killed, while the farmers' casualties were under 

1 Captain Allen Francis Gardiner (1794-1851) left Natal in 1838, 
subsequently devoting himself to missionary work in South America, 
being known as the missionary to Patagonia. He died of starvation 
in Tierra del Fuego. 



NATAL 



259 



a dozen. (This memorable victory is annually commemorated 
by the Boers as Dingaan's Day, while the Umslatos, which ran 
red with the blood of the slain, was renamed Blood river.) 
Dingaan fled, the victorious Boers entered the royal kraal, gave 
decent burial to the skeletons of Relief and his party, and regarded 
themselves as now undisputed masters of Natal. They had 
recovered from a leather pouch which Relief carried the deed by 
which Dingaan ceded " to Relief and his countrymen Ihe place 
called Port Nalal logelher wilh all Ihe lands annexed ... as 
far as Ihe land may be useful and in my possession." This was 
Ihe 5th or 6th cession made by Chaka or Dingaan of the same 
territory to differenl individuals. In every case Ihe overlordship 
of the Zulus was assumed. 

Returning south, Pretorius and his commando were surprised 
to learn lhal Port Nalal had been occupied on Ihe 4lh of December 
by a delachment of Ihe 72nd Highlanders sent thilher from Ihe 
Cape. The emigrant farmers had, wilh Ihe assent of Ihe few 
remaining Englishmen al Port Nalal, in May 1838 issued a 
proclamalion laking possession of Ihe port. This had been 
followed by an inlimalion from Ihe governor of Ihe Cape (Major- 
General Sir George Napier) inviting Ihe emigranls lo relurn lo Ihe 
colony, and slaling lhal whenever he Ihoughl il desirable he 
should lake mililary possession of Ihe port. In sanclioning Ihe 
occupalion of Ihe porl Ihe British government of Ihe day had no 
inlenlion of making Natal a British colony, but wished to prevent 
the Boers establishing an independenl republic upon Ihe coast 
wilh a harbour ihrough which access lo Ihe inlerior could be 
gained. Afler remaining at Ihe port just over a year the 
Highlanders were withdrawn, on Christmas Eve 1839. Mean- 
time Ihe Boers had founded Pielermaritzburg and made it Ihe 
seal of iheir volksraad. They rendered Iheir power in Natal 
absolute, for the lime, in Ihe following month, when they joined 
with Panda, Dingaan's brolher, in anolher allack on Ihe Zulu 
king. Dingaan was ullerly defealed and soon aflerwards 
perished, Panda becoming king in his slead by favour of the Boers. 

At this time, had Ihe affairs of Ihe Boer communily been 
managed wilh prudence and sagacily Ihey mighl have eslab- 
lished an enduring slale. Bui Iheir impalience of conlrol, 
reflecled in Ihe form of government adopled, led to disastrous 
consequences. Legislative power was vesled, nominally, in Ihe 
volksraad (consisling of Iwenly-four members), while Ihepresidenl 
and execulive were changed every Ihree monlhs. Bui whenever 
any measure of importance was lo be decided a meeling was 
called of het publiek, lhal is, of all who chose lo allend, to 
sanction or rejecl it. " The result," says Theal, " was utler 
anarchy. Decisions of one day were frequenlly reversed Ihe 
nexl, and every one held himself free lo disobey any law lhal he 
did nol approve of. ... Public opinion of Ihe hour in each 
section of Ihe communily was Ihe only force in Ihe land" 
(History of South Africa 1834-1854, chap. xliv.). While such 
was Ihe domestic slale of affairs during Ihe period of self-govern- 
menl, the selllers cherished large lerrilorial views. They were 
in loose alliance wilh and in quasi-supremacy over Ihe Boer 
communilies which had lefl Ihe Cape and sellled al Winburg 
and al Polchefslroom. They had declared Ihemselves a free 
and independenl slale under Ihe lille of " The Republic of 
Porl Nalal and adjacenl counlries," 1 and soughl (Seplember 
1840) from Sir George Napier al Ihe Cape an acknowledgmenl 
of iheir independence by Greal Brilain. Sir George, being 
withoul definile inslruclions from England, could give no decisive 
answer, but he was friendly disposed to the Nalal farmers. 
This feeling was, however, changed by whal Sir George (and many 
of the Dulch in Natal also) Ihoughl a wilful and unjuslifiable 
allack (December 1840) on a Iribe of Kaffirs on Ihe soulhern, 
or Cape Colony, fronlier by a commando under Andries Prelorius, 
which sel oul, nominally, to recover stolen cattle. Having 
at length received an inlimalion from London lhal Ihe queen 
" could nol acknowledge Ihe independence of her own subjecls, 
bul lhal Ihe Irade of Ihe emigranl farmers would be placed 
on Ihe same footing as that of any other Brilish selllemenl, 
upon iheir receiving a mililary force lo exclude Ihe inlerference 
1 Commonly called the Republic of Natalia or Natal. 



'" 



wilh or possession of Ihe counlry by any olher European power," 
Sir George communicaled Ihis decision lo Ihe volksraad in 
Seplember 1841. Under Ihe arrangemenl proposed Ihe Boers 
mighl easily have secured Ihe benefils of self-governmenl, 
subjecl lo an acknowledgment of Brilish supremacy, logelher 
wilh Ihe advanlage of mililary proleclion, for Ihe Brilish govern- 
menl was Ihen extremely reluctanl lo exlend ils colonial re- 
sponsibilities. The Boers, however, slrongly resenled the conten- 
tion of Ihe Brilish lhal Ihey could nol shake off Brilish nationality 
ihough beyond Ihe bounds of any recognized Brilish possession, 
nor were they prepared to see Iheir only porl garrisoned by 
British Iroops, and Ihey rejecled Napier's overtures. Napier, 
Iherefore, on Ihe 2nd of December 1841, issued a proclamalion 
in which he slaled lhal in consequence of the emigranl farmers 
refusing lo be Irealed as Brilish subjects and of their atlilude 
lowards Ihe Kaffir tribes he intended resuming military occupalion 
of Porl Nalal. This proclamalion was answered in a lenglhy 
minule, daled Ihe 2isl of February 1842, drawn up by J. N. 
Boshof (aflerwards presidenl of Ihe Orange Free Stale), by far 
Ihe ablest of Ihe Dulch who had sellled in Nalal. In Ihis minute 
the farmers ascribed all their troubles lo one cause, British 
namely, the absence of a representative government, ana 
which had been repeatedly asked for by them while 
still living in Cape Colony and as often denied or 
delayed, and concluded by a protest against Ihe occupation 
of any part of Iheir lerrilory by Brilish Iroops. An incidenl 
which happened immedialely afler these evenls greally en- 
couraged Ihe Boers lo persisl in Iheir opposition lo Greal Brilain. 
In March 1842 a Dulch vessel senl out by G. G. Ohrig, an 
Amsterdam merchanl who sympalhized warmly wilh Ihe cause 
of Ihe emigranl farmers, reached porl Nalal, and ils supercargo, 
J. A. Smellekamp (a man who subsequenlly played a part in 
Ihe early hislory of Ihe Transvaal and Orange Free Slale), con- 
cluded a Irealy wilh Ihe volksraad assuring them of the pro- 
tection of Holland. The Natal Boers believed the Nelherlands lo 
be one of Ihe greal powers of Europe, and were firmly persuaded 
lhal ils governmenl would aid Ihem in resisling England. 

On Ihe isl of April Caplain T. C. Smilh wilh a force of 263 men 
lefl his camp al Ihe Umgazi,on the eastern fronlier of Cape Colony, 
and marching overland reached Durban wilhoul opposilion, and 
encamped, on Ihe 4lh of May, at Ihe base of Ihe Berea hills. 
The Boers, cul off from Iheir porl, called oul a commando of some 
300 lo 400 men under Andries Prelorius and galhered al Congella 
al Ihe head of Ihe bay. On Ihe nighl of Ihe 23rd of May Smilh 
made an unsuccessful allack on Ihe Boer camp, losing his guns 
and fifly men killed and wounded. On Ihe 26lh the Boers 
captured the harbour and selllemenl, and on Ihe 31 si blockaded 
Ihe Brilish camp, Ihe women and children being removed, on Ihe 
suggestion of Prelorius, to a ship in the harbour of which 'the 
Boers had taken possession. Meanlime, an old Durban residenl, 
Richard (commonly called Dick) King, had underlaken lo convey 
tidings of Ihe perilous posilion of Ihe Brilish force lo Ihe com- 
mandanl al Graham's Town. He slarled on Ihe nighl of Ihe 
24lh, and escaping Ihe Boer oulposls rode Ihrough Ihe dense bush 
and across Ihe bridgeless rivers of Kaffraria al peril of his life 
from hostile nalives and wild beasls, and in nine days reached 
his destination a dislance of 360 m. in a direcl line, and nearly 
600 by Ihe roule to be followed. This remarkable ride was 
accomplished with one change of mounl, oblained from a mis- 
sionary in Pondoland. A comparatively slrong force under 
Colonel A. J. Cloele was al once senl by sea lo Port Nalal, and on 
the 26th of June Captain Smilh was relieved. The besieged had 
suffered greally from lack of food. Wilhin a forlnighl Colonel 
Cloele had received Ihe submission of Ihe volksraad al Pieler- 
marilzburg. The burghers represented, that they were under 
the protection of Holland, bul Ihis plea was peremplorily rejecled 
by the commander of the British forces. 

The Brilish government was slill undecided as to its policy 
towards Natal. In April 1842 Lord Slanley (afterwards i4lh 
earl of Derby), Ihen secrelary for the colonies in the second Peel 
Adminislration, wrote to Sir George Napier thai Ihe eslablishmenl 
of a colony in Nalal would be allended wilh lillle prospect of 



260 



NATAL 



advantage, but at the same time stated that the pretensions of 
the emigrants to be regarded as an independent community 
could not be admitted. Various measures were proposed which 
would but have aggravated the situation. Finally, in deference 
to the strongly urged views of Sir George Napier, Lord Stanley, 
in a despatch of the I3th of December, received in Cape Town 
on the 23rd of April 1843, consented to Natal becoming a 
British colony. The institutions adopted were to be as far as 
possible in accordance with the wishes of the people, but it was 
a fundamental condition " that there should not be in the eye of 
the law any distinction or disqualification whatever, founded 
on mere difference of colour, origin, language or creed." Sir 
George then appointed Mr Henry Cloete (a brother of Colonel 
Cloete) a special commissioner to explain to the Natal volksraad 
the decision of the government. There was a considerable party 
of Natal Boers still strongly opposed to the British, and they 
were reinforced by numerous bands of Boers who came over the 
Drakensberg from Winburg and Potchefstroom. Commandant 
Jan Mocke of Winburg (who had helped to besiege Captain Smith 
at Durban) and others of the " war party " attempted to induce 
the volksraad not to submit, and a plan was formed to murder 
Pretorius, Boshof and other leaders, who were now convinced 
that the only chance of ending the state of complete anarchy 
into which the country had fallen was by accepting British 
sovereignty. In these circumstances the task of Mr Henry 
Cloete was one of great difficulty and delicacy. He behaved with 
the utmost tact and got rid of the Winburg and Potchefstroom 
burghers by declaring that he should recommend the Drakensberg 
as the northern limit of Natal. On the 8th of August 1843 
Natal the Natal volksraad unanimously agreed to the terms 
annexed proposed by Lord Stanley. Many of the Boers who 
byOnat WO uld not acknowledge British rule trekked once 
more over the mountains into what are now the Orange 
Free State and Transvaal provinces. At the end of 1843 there 
were not more than 500 Dutch families left in Natal. Cloete, 
before returning to the Cape, visited Panda and obtained from 
him a valuable concession. Hitherto the Tugela from source to 
mouth had been the recognized frontier between Natal and 
Zululand. Panda gave up to Natal all the territory between 
the Buffalo and Tugela rivers, now forming Klip River county. 

Although proclaimed a British colony in 1843, and in 1844 
declared a part of Cape Colony, it was not until the end of 1845 
that an effective administration was installed with Mr Martin 
West as lieutenant-governor, and the power of the volksraad 
finally came to an end. In that year the external trade of Natal, 
almost entirely with Cape Colony, was of the total value of 
42,000 of which 32,000 represented imported goods. 

The new administration found it hard to please the Dutch 
farmers, who among other grievances resented what they con- 
sidered the undue favour shown to the Kaffirs, whose numbers 
had been greatly augmented by the flight of refugees from Panda. 
In 1843, f r instance, no fewer than 50,000 Zulus crossed the 
Tugela seeking the protection of the white man. The natives 
were settled in 1846 in specially selected locations and placed 
under the general supervision of Sir (then Mr) Theophilus Shep- 
stone (q.v.). Sir Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of the 
Cape, met, on the banks of the upper Tugela, a body of farmers 
preparing to recross the Drakensberg, and by remedying their 
grievances induced many of them to remain in Natal. Andries 
Pretorius and others, however, declined to remain, and from this 
time Pretorius (q.v.) ceased his connexion with Natal. Although 
by this migration the white population was again considerably 
reduced, those who remained were contented and loyal, and 
through the arrival of 4500 emigrants from England in the years 
1848-1851 and by subsequent immigration from oversea the 
colony became overwhelmingly British in character. From the 
time of the coming of the first considerable body of British 
settlers dates the development of trade and agriculture in the 
colony, followed somewhat later by the exploitation of the 
mineral resources of the country. At the same time schools were 
established and various churches began or increased their work 
in the colony. Dr Colenso, appointed bishop of Natal, arrived in 



1854. In 1856 the dependence of the country on Cape Colony was 
put to an end and Natal constituted a distinct colony with a 
legislative council of sixteen members, twelve elected by the 
inhabitants and four nominated by the crown. At the time the 
white population exceeded 8000. While dependent on the Cape, 
ordinances had been passed establishing Roman-Dutch law as 
the law of Natal, and save where modified by legislation it 
remained in force. 

The British settlers soon realized that the coast lands were 
suited to the cultivation of tropical or semi-tropical products, and 
from 1852 onward sugar, coffee, cotton and arrow-root Indian 
were introduced, tea being afterwards substituted for coolie* 
coffee. The sugar industry soon became of importance, 
and the planters were compelled to seek for large numbers 
of labourers. The natives, at ease in their locations, did not 
volunteer in sufficient numbers, and recourse was had to coolie 
labour from India. The first coolies reached Natal in 1 860. They 
came under indentures, but at the expiration of their contract 
were allowed to settle in the colony. 1 This proved one of the 
most momentous steps taken in the history of South Africa, for 
the Indian population rapidly increased, the " free " Indians be- 
coming market gardeners, farmers, hawkers, traders, and in time 
serious competitors with the whites. But in 1860 and for many 
years afterwards these consequences were not foreseen, and alone 
among the South Africa states Natal offered a welcome to Asiatics. 

In 1866 the borders of the colony were extended on the south- 
west by the annexation of part of Kaffraria that had formerly 
been under the sway of the Pondo chief Faku, who 
found himself unable to maintain his authority in 
a region occupied by many diverse tribes. The newly awards. 
acquired territory was named Alfred county in memory 
of a visit paid to Natal by Prince Alfred (afterwards duke of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). In 1867 R. W. Keate (1814-1873) became 
lieutenant-governor, a post which he filled until 1872. His 
administration is notable, not so much for internal affairs but 
from the fact that he twice acted as arbitrator in disputes in 
which the Boer states were involved. In a dispute between the 
Transvaal and the Orange Free State he decided (February 1870) 
that the Klip river and not the upper Vaal was the frontier 
stream. A more famous decision, that known as the Keate 
Award, was given in October 1871. It concerned the south- 
western frontiers of the Transvaal, and the award, which was 
against the Transvaal pretensions, had important effects on 
the history of South Africa (see TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). 

During all this time little was done to alter the condition of 
the natives. There was scarcely an attempt to copy the policy, 
deliberately adopted in Cape Colony, of educating and civilizing 
the black man. Neither was Natal faced with the Cape problem 
of a large half-caste population. The Natal natives were left 
very much in the state in which they were before the advent of 
the white men. While this opportunity of educating and training 
a docile people was in the main neglected, savage abuse of power 
by their chiefs was prevented. Under the superintendence 
of Shepstone the original refugees were quiet and contented, 
enjoying security from injustice and considerable freedom. 
This ideal lot, from the native point of view, drew such numbers 
of immigrants from disturbed districts that with the natural 
increase of population in thirty years the native inhabitants 
increased from about 100,000 to fully 350,000. New generations 
grew up almost as ignorant as their fathers, but not with the 
same sense of dependence upon the white men. In this way was 
sown the seed of future trouble between the two races. The 
first serious collision between the natives and the government 
occurred in 1873. The Amahlubi, one of the highest in rank 
of the Bantu tribes of South Africa, fleeing from the cruelties of 

1 Between 1860 and 1866 some 5000 Indians entered the colony. 
Immigration then ceased, and was not resumed until 1874. By that 
year the natives from Portuguese territory and elsewhere who had 
found employment in Natal had been attracted to the Kimberley 
diamond mines, and the Natal natives not coming forward (save under 
compulsion), the importation of Indian coolies was again permitted 
(see the Natal Blue Book, Report of the Indian Immigration Com- 
mission, ipop). 



NATAL 



261 



Panda, had been located by the Natal government under their 
chief Langalibalele (i.e. the great sun which shines and burns) 
in 1848 at the foot of the Drakensberg with the object of prevent- 
ing the Bushmen who dwelt in the mountains plundering the 
upland farmers. Here the Amahlubi prospered, and after the 
diamond fields had been discovered many of the young men 
who had been to Kimberley brought back firearms. These 
Langalibalele refused to register, and entered into negotiations 
with several tribes with the object of organizing a general revolt. 
Prompt action by Sir Benjamin Pine, then lieutenant-governor 

of the colony, together with help from the Cape and 
baMe's Basutoland, prevented the success of Langalibalele's 
rebellion, plan, and his own tribe, numbering some 10,000 persons, 

was the only one which rebelled. The chief was 
captured, and exiled to Cape Colony (August 1874). Permitted 
to return to Natal in 1886, he died in 1889. 

This rebellion drew the attention of the home government to 
the native question in Natal. The colonists, if mistaken in 
their general policy of leaving the natives in a condition of 
mitigated barbarism, had behaved towards them with uniform 
kindness and justice. They showed indeed in their dealings both 
with the natives within their borders and with the Zulus beyond 
the Tugela a disposition to favour the natives at the expense 
of their white neighbours in the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State, and their action against Langalibalele was fully justified 
and the danger of a widespread native revolt real. But there 
were those, including Bishop Colenso, who thought the treatment 
of the Amahlubi wrong, and their agitation induced the British 
government to recall Sir Benjamin Pine, Sir Garnet Wolseley 
being sent out as temporary governor. Sir Garnet reported 
the natives as " happy and prosperous well off in every sense." 
As a result of consultations with Shepstone certain modifications 
were made in native policy, chiefly in the direction of more 
European supervision. 

Meantime the colony had weathered a severe commercial 
crisis brought on in 1865 through over-speculation and the 

neglect of agriculture, save along the coast belt. But 

tne trade over berg largely developed on the dis- 
affair. covery of the Kimberley diamond mines, and the 

progress of the country was greatly promoted by the 
substitution of the railway for the ox wagon as a means of 
transport. There already existed a short line from the Point 
at Durban to the Umgeni, and on the ist of January 1876 Sir 
Henry Bulwer, who had succeeded Wolseley as governor, turned 
the first sod of a new state-owned railway which was completed 
as far as Maritzburg in 1880. At this date the white inhabitants 
numbered about 20,000. But besides a commercial crisis the 
colony had been the scene of an ecclesiastical dispute which 
attracted widespread attention. Bishop Colenso (?..), condemned 
in 1863 on a charge of heresy, ignored the authority of the court 
of South African bishops and was maintained in his position by 
decision of the Privy Council in England. This led to a division 
among the Anglican community in the colony and the consecra- 
tion in 1869 of a rival bishop, who took the title of bishop of 
Maritzburg. Colenso's bold advocacy of the cause of the natives 
which he maintained with vigour until his death (in 1883) 
attracted almost equal attention. His native name was Usobantu 
(father of the people). 

For some years Natal, in common with the other countries of 
South Africa, had suffered from the absence of anything resem- 
bling a strong government among the Boers of the Transvaal, 
neighbours of Natal on the north. The annexation of the 
Transvaal to Great Britain, effected by Sir Theophilus Shepstone 
in April 1877, would, it was hoped, put a period to the disorders 
in that country. But the new administration at Pretoria in- 
herited many disputes with the Zulus, disputes which were in 
large measure the cause of the war of 1879. For years the 
Zulus had lived at amity with the Natalians, from whom they 
received substantial favours, and in 1872 Cetywayo (?..), 
on succeeding his father Panda, had given assurances of good 
behaviour. These promises were not kept for long, and by 1878 
his attitude had become so hostile towards both the Natal and 






Transvaal governments that Sir Bartle Frere, then High Com- 
missioner for South Africa, determined on his reduction. During 
the war (see ZULULAND) Natal was used as the British base, 
and the Natal volunteers rendered valuable service in the 
campaign, which, after opening with disasters to the British 
forces, ended in the breaking of the Zulu power. (F. R. C.) 

Scarcely had the colony recovered from the shock of the 
Zulu War than it was involved in the revolt of the Transvaal 
Boers (1880-1881), an event which overshadowed all jva<; 
domestic concerns. The Natalians were intensely ana the 
British in sentiment, and resented deeply the policy 
adopted by the Gladstone administration. At In- 
gogo, Majuba and Laing's Nek, all of them situated within 
the colony, British forces had been defeated by the Boers. 
And the treaty of retrocession was never regarded in Natal as 
anything but a surrender. It was clearly understood that the 
Boers would aim to establish a republican government over the 
whole of South Africa, and that the terms of peace simply meant 
greater bloodshed at no distant date. The protest made by 
the Natalians against the settlement was in vain. The Transvaal 
Republic was established, but the prediction of the colonists, 
ignored at the time, was afterwards fulfilled to the letter. In 
justice, however, to the colonists of Natal it must be recorded 
that, finding their protest with regard to the Transvaal settle- 
ment useless, they made up their minds to shape their policy 
in conformity with that settlement. But it was not long before 
their worst fears with regard to the Boers began to be realized, 
and their patience was once more severely taxed. The Zulu 
power, as has been recorded, was broken in 1879. After the 
war quarrels arose among the petty chiefs set up by Sir Garnet 
Wolseley, and in 1883 some Transvaal Boers intervened, and 
subsequently, as a reward for the assistance they had rendered 
to one of the Combatants, demanded and annexed 8000 sq. m. 
of country, which they styled the " New Republic." As the 
London Convention had stipulated that there should be no 
trespassing on the part of the Boers over their specified boundaries, 
and as Natal had been the basis for those operations against 
the Zulus on the part of the British in 1879, which alone made 
such an annexation of territory possible, a strong feeling was 
once more aroused in Natal. The " New Republic," reduced in 
area, however, to less than 2000 sq. m., was nevertheless recog- 
nized by the British government in 1886, and in 1888 its consent 
was given to the territory- (the Vryheid district) being incor- 
porated with the Transvaal. Meantime, in 1887, the remainder 
of Zululand had been annexed to Great Britain (see ZULULAND). 

In 1884 the discovery of gold in De Kaap Valley, and on 
Mr Moodie's farm in the Transvaal, caused a considerable rush 
of colonists from Natal to that country. Railways were still 
far from the Transvaal border, and Natal not only sent her own 
colonists to the new fields, but also offered the nearest route for 
prospectors from Cape Colony or from Europe. Durban was 
soon thronged; and Pietermaritzburg, which was then practi- 
cally the terminus of the Natal railway, was the base from which 
nearly all the expeditions to the goldfields were fitted out. 
The journey to De Kaap by bullock-waggon occupied about 
six weeks. " Kurveying " (the conducting of transport by 
bullock-waggon) in itself constituted a great industry. Two 
years later, in 1886, the Rand goldfields were proclaimed, and 
the tide of trade which had already set in with the 
Transvaal steadily increased. Natal colonists were " 
not merely the first in the field with the transport Industrie*. 
traffic to the new goldfields; they became some of 
the earliest proprietors of mines, and for several years many of 
the largest mining companies had their chief offices at Pieter- 
maritzburg or Durban. In this year (1886) the railv/ay reached 
Ladysmith, and in 1891 it was completed to the Transvaal 
frontier at Charlestown, the section from Ladysmith northward 
opening up the Dundee and Newcastle coalfields. Thus a new 
industry was added to the resources of the colony. 

The demand which the growing trade made upon the one 
port of Natal, Durban, encouraged the colonists to redouble 
their efforts to improve their harbour. The question of a fairway 



Growth 



262 



NATAL 



from ocean to harbour has been a difficult one at nearly every 
port on the African coast. A heavy sea from the Indian Ocean 
is always breaking on the shore, even in the finest weather, 
and at the mouth of every natural harbour a bar occurs. To 
deepen the channel over the bar at Durban so that steamers 
might enter the harbour was the cause of labour and expenditure 
for many years. Harbour works were begun in 1857, piers and 
jetties were constructed, dredgers imported, and controversy 
raged over the various schemes for harbour improvement. In 
1 88 1 a harbour board was formed under the chairmanship of 
Mr Harry Escombe. It controlled the operations for improving 
the sea entrance until 1893, when on the establishment of re- 
sponsible government it was abolished. The work of improving 
the harbour was however continued with vigour, and finally, in 
1904, such success was achieved that vessels of the largest class 
were enabled to enter port (see DURBAN). At the same time 
the railway system was continually developing. 

For many years there had been an agitation among the 
colonists for self-government. In 1882 the colony was offered 
5^, self-government coupled with the obligations of 

govern- self-defence. The offer was declined, but in 1883 the 
meat legislative council was remodelled so as to consist of 
granted. 2 ^ elected and 7 nominated members. In 1890 
the elections to the council led to the return of a majority in 
favour of accepting self-government, and in 1893 a bill in favour 
of the proposed change was passed and received the sanction 
of the Imperial government. At the time the white inhabitants 
numbered about 50,000. The electoral law was framed to 
prevent more than a very few natives obtaining the franchise. 
Restrictions in this direction dated as far back as 1865, while in 
1896 an act was passed aimed at the exclusion of Indians from 
the suffrage. The leader of the party which sought responsible 
government was Sir John Robinson (1839-1903) who'had gone 
to Natal in 1850, was a leading journalist in the colony, had 
been a member of the legislative council since 1863, and had 
filled various official positions. He now became the first premier 
and colonial secretary with Mr Harry Escombe (q.v .) as attorney- 
general and Mr F. R. Moor as secretary for Native Affairs. The 
year that witnessed this change in the constitution was also 
notable for the death of Sir Theophilus Shepstone, Natal's 
most prominent citizen. In the same year Sir Walter Hely- 
Hutchinson became governor. His immediate predecessors 
had been Sir Charles Mitchell (1889-1893) and Sir Arthur 
Havelock (1886-1889). Sir John Robinson remained premier 
until 1897, a year marked by the annexation of Zululand to 
Natal. In the following year Natal entered the Customs Union 
already existing between Cape Colony and the Orange Free 
State. Sir John Robinson had been succeeded as premier by 
Mr Harry Escombe (February-October 1897) and Escombe 
by Sir Henry Binns, on whose death in June 1899 Lieut.-Colonel 
(afterwards Sir) Albert Hime formed a ministry which remained 
in office until after the conclusion of the Anglo-Boer War. Mean- 
time (in 1901) Sir Henry McCallum had succeeded Sir Walter 
Hely-Hutchinson as governor. 

For some years Natal had watched with anxiety the attitude 
of increasing hostility towards the British adopted by the 
Pretoria administration, and, with bitter remembrance of the 
events of 1881, gauged with accuracy the intentions of the Boers. 
So suspicious had the ministry become of the nature of the 
military preparations that were being made by the Boers, that 
in May 1899 they communicated their apprehensions to the 
High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner, who telegraphed on the 
25th of May to Mr Chamberlain, informing him that Natal was 
uneasy. The governor expressed his views to the prime minister 
that the Natal government ought to give the British government 
every support, and Colonel Hime replied that their support 
would be given, but at the same time he feared the 
consequences to Natal if, after all, the British govern- 
low, ment should draw back. In July the Natal ministry 
learnt that it was not the intention of the Imperial 
government to endeavour to hold the frontier in case hostilities 
arose, but that a line of defence considerably south of the frontier 



would be taken up. This led to a request on their part that if 
the Imperial government had any reason to anticipate the 
breakdown of negotiations, " such steps may be at once taken 
as may be necessary for the effectual defence of the whole 
colony." Sir William Penn Symons, the general commanding 
the British forces in Natal in September, decided to hold Glencoe. 
On the arrival of Lieut. -General Sir George White from India, 
he informed the governor that he considered it dangerous to 
attempt to hold Glencoe, and urged the advisability of with- 
drawing the troops to Ladysmith. The goveinor was strongly 
opposed to this step, as he was anxious to protect the coal supply, 
and also feared the moral effect of a withdrawal. Eventually 
Sir Archibald Hunter, then chief of staff to Sir Redvers Buller, 
was consulted, and stated that in his opinion, Glencoe being 
already occupied, " it was a case of balancing drawbacks, and 
advised that, under the circumstances, the troops be retained 
at Glencoe." This course was then adopted. 

On the i ith of October 1899 war broke out. The first act was 
the seizure by the Boers of a Natal train on the Free State border. 
On the 1 2th Laing's Nek was occupied by the Boer forces, who 
were moved in considerable force over the Natal border. New- 
castle was next occupied by the Boers unopposed, and on the 
2oth of October occurred the battle of Talana Hill outside 
Dundee. In this engagement the advanced body of British 
troops, 3000 strong, under Symons, held a camp called Craigside 
which lay between Glencoe and Dundee, and from this position 
General Symons hoped to be able to hold the northern portion 
of Natal. There is no doubt that this policy strongly 
commended itself to the governor and ministers of Natal, 
and that they exercised considerable pressure to have it 
adopted. But from a military point of view it was not at all 
cordially approved by Sir George White, and it was after- 
wards condemned by Lord Roberts. Fortunately Symons was 
able to win a complete victory over one of the Boer columns at 
Talana Hill. He himself received a mortal wound in the action. 
Brigadier-General Yule then took command, and an overwhelm- 
ing force of Boers rendering the further occupation of Dundee 
dangerous, he decided to retire his force to Ladysmith. On the 
2ist of October General Sir George White and General (Sir John) 
French defeated at Elandslaagte a strong force of Boers, who 
threatened to cut off General Yule's retreat. He again attacked 
the Boer forces at Rietfontein on the 24th of October, and .on 
the 26th General Yule reached Ladysmith in safety. Ladysmith 
now became for a time the centre of military interest. The Boers 
gradually surrounded the town and cut off the communications 
from the south. Various engagements were fought in the 
attempt to prevent this movement, including the actions of 
Farquhar's Farm and Nicholson's Nek on the 3oth (see TRANS- 
VAAL). The investment of Ladysmith continued till the 28th of 
February 1900, when, after various attempts to relieve the 
beleaguered garrison, Sir Redvers Buller's forces at last entered 
the town. During the six weeks previous to the relief, 200 
deaths had occurred from disease alone, and altogether as many 
as 8424 were reported to have passed through the hospitals. 
The relief of Ladysmith soon led to the evacuation of Natal by 
the Boer forces, who trekked northwards. 

During the Boer invasion the government and the loyal 
colonists, constituting the great majority of the inhabitants of 
the colony, rendered the Imperial forces every assistance. A 
comparatively small number of the Dutch colonists joined the 
enemy, but there was no general rebellion among them. As the 
war progressed the Natal volunteers and other Natal forces took 
a prominent part. The Imperial Light Horse and other irregular 
corps were recruited in Natal, although the bulk of the men in 
the forces were Uitlanders from Johannesburg. As the nearest 
colony to the Transvaal, Natal was resorted to by alarge number 
of men, women and children, who were compelled to leave the 
Transvaal on the outbreak of the war. Refugee and Uitlander 
committees were formed both at Durban and Maritzburg, and, 
in conjunction with the colonists, they did all in their power to 
assist in recruiting irregular corps, and also in furnishing relief 
to the sick and needy. 



NATAL 



263 



As one result of the war, an addition was made to the territory 
comprised in Natal, consisting of a portion of what had previously 
been included in the Transvaal. The Natal government origin- 
ally made two proposals for annexing new territory: 

1. It was proposed that the following districts should be trans- 
ferred to Natal, viz. the district of Vryheid, the district of Utrecht 
and such portion of the district of Wakkerstroom as was comprised 
by a line drawn from the north-eastern corner of Natal, east by 
Volksrust in a northerly direction to the summit of the Drakensberg 
Range, along that range, passing just north of the town of Wakker- 
stroom, to the head waters of the Pongola river, and thence follow- 
ing the Pongola river to the border of the Utrecht district. In 
consideration of the advantage to Natal from this addition of terri- 
tory, Natal should take over 700,000 of the Transvaal debt. 

2. It was proposed to include in Natal such portions of the Harri- 
srnith and Vrede districts as were comprised by a line following the 

Elands river north from its source on the Basutoland 

border to its junction with the Wilge river, and thence 

drawn straight to the point where the boundaries of Natal, 

. the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony meet on the 

Drakensberg. In consideration of this addition to her 

territory, Natal should take over a portion of the Orange 

River Colony debt, to be raised at the end of the war, to the amount 

of 200,000. 

The Imperial government decided to sanction only the first 
of these two proposals. For this course there were many reasons, 
the Transvaal territory annexed, or the greater part of it (the 
Vryheid district), having been only separated from the rest of 
Zululand in 1883 by a raid of armed Boers. " In handing over 
this district to the administration which controls the rest of 
Zululand, His Majesty's government," wrote Mr Chamberlain, 
under date March 1902, " feel that they are reuniting what ought 
never to have been separated." 

With regard, however, to the proposed transfer of territory 
from the Orange River Colony, the circumstances were different. 
" There is," said Mr Chamberlain, " no such historical reason 
as exists in the case of Vryheid for making the transfer. On the 
contrary, the districts in question have invariably formed part 
of the state from which it is now proposed to sever them, and 
they are separated from Natal by mountains which form a well- 
defined natural boundary. In these circumstances, His Majesty's 
government have decided to confine the territory to be trans- 
ferred to the districts in the Transvaal." 

The districts added to Natal contained about 6000 white 
inhabitants (mostly Dutch), and some 92,000 natives, and had 
an area of nearly 7000 sq. m., so that this annexation meant an 
addition to the white population of Natal of about one-tenth, 
to her native population of about one-tenth also, and to her 
territory of about one-fourth. An act authorizing the annexation 
was passed during 1902 and the territories were formally trans- 
ferred to Natal in January 1003. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.) 

The period following the war was succeeded by commercial 
depression, though in Natal it was not so severely felt as in other 
states of South Africa. The government met the crisis 
menial by renewed energy in harbour works, railway construc- 
depresslon tions and the development of the natural resources 
of the country. A railway to the Zululand coalfields 
rebellion was com pl e ' ; ed in 1903, and in the same year a line 
was opened to Vryheid in the newly annexed territories. 
Natal further built several railway lines in the eastern half of 
the Orange River Colony, thus opening up new markets for her 
produce and facilitating her transit trade. Mr Chamberlain on 
his visit to South Africa came first to Natal, where he landed in 
the last days of 1902, and conferred with the leading colonists. 
In August 1903 the Hime ministry resigned and was succeeded 
by a cabinet under the premiership of Mr (afterwards Sir) George 
Sutton, the founder of the wattle industry in Natal and one of 
the pioneers in the coal-mining industry. In May 1905 Sir 
George Sutton was replaced by a coalition ministry under Mr 
C. J. Smythe, who had been colonial secretary under Sir Albert 
Hime. These somewhat frequent changes of ministry, char- 
acteristic of a country new to responsible government, reflected, 
chiefly, differences concerning the treatment of commercial 
questions and the policy to be adopted towards the natives. 
Towards those Dutch colonists who had joined the enemy 
during the war leniency was shown, all rebels being pardoned. 



The attitude of the natives both in Natal proper and in Zululand 
caused much disquiet. As early as July 1903 rumours were 
current that Dinizulu (a son of Cetywayo) was disaffected and 
the power he exercised as representative of the former royal house 
rendered his attitude a matter of great moment. Dinizulu, 
however, remained at the time quiescent, though the Zulus were 
in a state of excitement over incidents connected with the war, 
when they had been subject to raids by Boer commandoes, and 
on one occasion at least had retaliated in characteristic Zulu 
fashion. Unrest was also manifested among the natives west of 
the Tugela, but it was not at first cause for alarm. The chief 
concern of the Natal government was to remodel their native 
policy where it proved inadequate, especially in view of the 
growth of the movement for the federation of the South African 
colonies. During 1903-1904 a Native Affairs' Commission, 
representative of all the states, obtained much evidence on the 
status and conditions of the natives. Its investigations pointed 
to the loosening of tribal ties and to the corresponding growth 
of a spirit of individual independence. Among its recommenda- 
tions was the direct political representation of natives in the 
colonial legislatures on the New Zealand model, and the imposi- 
tion of direct taxation upon natives, which should not be less 
than i a year payable by every adult male. The commission 
also called attention to the numerical insufficiency of magistrates 
and native commissioners in certain parts of Natal. With some 
of the recommendations the Natal commissioners disagreed; 
in 1905, however, an act was passed by the Natal legislature 
imposing a poll-tax of i on all males over 18 in the colony, 
except indentured Indians and natives paying hut-tax (which 
was 145. a year). Every European was bound to pay the tax. 
In 1906 a serious rebellion broke out in the colony, attributable 
ostensibly to the poll-tax, and spread to Zululand. It was 
suppressed by the colonial forces under Colonel (afterwards Sir) 
Duncan McKenzie, aided by a detachment of Transvaal 
volunteers. An incident which marked the beginning of this 
rebellion brought the Natal ministry into sharp conflict with 
the Imperial government (the Campbell-Bannerman administra- 
tion). Early in the year a farmer who had insisted that the 
Kaffirs on his farm should pay the poll-tax was murdered, and on 
the 8th of February some forty natives in the Richmond district 
forcibly resisted the collection of the tax and killed a sub- 
inspector of police and a trooper at Byrnetown. Two of the 
natives implicated were court-martialled and shot (February 1 5) ; 
others were subsequently arrested and tried by court martial. 
Nineteen were sentenced to death, but in the case of seven of the 
prisoners the sentence was commuted. On the day before that 
fixed for the execution Lord Elgin, then Secretary of _ n/7fc< 
State for the Colonies, intervened and directed the J/lft u, e 
governor to postpone the execution of the sentence, home 
Thereupon the Natal ministry resigned, giving as their x oven >- 
reason the importance of maintaining the authority of * 
the colonial administration at a critical period, and the con- 
stitutional question involved in the interference by the imperial 
authorities in the domestic affairs of a self-governing colony. 
The action of the British cabinet caused both astonishment and 
indignation throughout South Africa and in the other self- 
governing states of the empire. After a day's delay, during which 
Sir Henry McCallum reiterated his concurrence, already made 
known in London, in the justice of the sentence passed on the 
natives, Lord Elgin gave way (March 30). The Natal ministry 
thereupon remained in office. The guilty natives were shot on 
the and of April. 1 It was at this time that Bambaata, a chief 
in the Greytown district who had been deposed for misconduct, 
kidnapped the regent appointed in his stead. He was pursued 
and escaped to Zululand, -where he received considerable help. 
He was killed in battle in June, and by the close of July the 
rebellion was at an end. As has been stated, it was ostensibly 
attributable to the poll-tax, but the causes were more deep- 
seated. Though somewhat obscure they may be found in the 

1 Subsequently three other natives, after trial by the supreme 
court, were condemned and executed for their share in the Byrne- 
town murders. 



264 



NATAL 



growing sense of power and solidarity among all the Kaffir 
tribes of South Africa a sense which gave force to the " Ethio- 
pian movement," which, ecclesiastical in origin, was political 
in its development. There were moreover special local causes 
such as undoubted defects in the Natal administration. 1 Those 
Africans whose " nationalism " was greatest looked to Dinizulu 
as their leader, and he was accused by many colonists of having 
incited the rebellion. Dinizulu protested his loyalty to the 
British, nor was it likely that he viewed with approval the action 
of Bambaata, a comparatively unimportant and meddlesome 
chief. As time went on, however, the Natal government, 
alarmed at a series of murders of whites in Zululand and at the 
evidences of continued unrest among the natives, became con- 
vinced that Dinizulu was implicated in the rebellious movement. 
When a young man, in 1889, he had been convicted of high 
treason and had been exiled, but afterwards (in 1897) allowed to 
return. Now a force under Sir Duncan McKenzie entered 
Zululand. Thereupon Dinizulu surrendered (December 1907) 
without opposition, and was removed to Maritzburg. His trial 
was delayed until November 1908, and it was not until March 
1909 that judgment was given, the court finding him guilty only 
on the minor charge of harbouring rebels. Meantime, in February 
1908, the governor Sir Matthew Nathan, who had succeeded 
Sir Henry McCallum in August 1907 had made a tour in 
Zululand, on which occasion some 1500 of the prisoners taken 
in the rebellion of 1906 were released. 

The intercolonial commission had dealt with the native 
question as it affected South Africa as a whole; it was felt that 
Native a more l ca l investigation was needed, and in August 
Affairs' 1906 a strong commission was appointed to inquire 
Com ' into the condition of the Natal natives. The general 
"' election which was held in the.following month turned 
on native policy and on the measures necessary to meet the 
commercial depression. The election, which witnessed the return 
of four Labour members, 'resulted in a ministerial majority of a 
somewhat heterogeneous character, and in November 1906 Mr 
Smythe resigned, being succeeded by Mr F. R. Moor, who in 
his election campaign had criticized the Smythe ministry for 
their financial proposals and for the " theatrical " manner in 
which they had conducted their conflict with the home govern- 
ment. Mr Moor remained premier until the office was abolished 
by the establishment of the Union of South Africa. In August 
1907 the report of the Native Affairs' Commission was published. 
The commission declared that the chasm between the native 
and white races had been broadening for years and that the 
efforts of the administration especially since the grant of 
responsible government to reconcile the Kaffirs to the changed 
conditions of rule and policy and to convert them into an element 
of strength had been ineffective. It was not sufficient to secure 
them, as the government had done, peace and ample means of 
livelihood. The commission among other proposals for a more 
liberal and sympathetic native policy urged the creation of a 
native advisory Board entrusted with very wide powers. " Per- 
sonal rule," they declared, " supplies the keynote of successful 
native control " a statement amply borne out by the influence 
over the natives exercised by Sir T. Shepstone. The unrest in 
Zululand delayed action being taken on the commission's report. 
But in 1909 an act was passed which placed native affairs in the 
hands of four district commissioners, gave to the minister for 
native affairs direct executive authority and created a council 
for native affairs on which non-official members had seats. 
While the district commissioners were intended to keep in close 
touch with the natives, the council was to act as a " deliberative, 
consultative and advisory body." 

Concurrently with the efforts made to reorganize their native 
policy the colony also endeavoured to deal with the Asiatic 
question. The rapid growth of the Indian population from 
about 1890 caused much disquiet among the majority of the 
white inhabitants, who viewed with especial anxiety the activities 

1 The causes, both local and general, are set forth in a despatch 
by the governor of the 2ist of June 1906 and printed in the Blue 
Book, Cd. 3247. 



of the " free," i.e. unindentured Indians. An act of 1895, which 
did not become effective until 1901, imposed an annual tax of 3 
on time-expired Indians who remained in the colony 
and did not reindenture. In 1897 an Indian 
Immigration Restriction Act was passed with the Indians. 
object of protecting European traders; in 1903 
another Immigration Restriction Act among other things, per- 
mitted the exclusion of all would-be immigrants unable to write 
in the characters of some European language. Under this act 
thousands of Asiatics were refused permission to land. In 1906 
municipal disabilities were imposed upon Asiatics, and in 1907 
a Dealers' Licences Act was passed with the object, and effect, 
of restricting the trading operations of Indians. In 1908 the 
government introduced a bill to provide for the cessation of 
Indian emigration at the end of three years; it was not pro- 
ceeded with, but a strong commission was appointed to inquire 
into the whole subject. This commission reported in 1909, its 
general conclusion being that in the interests of Natal the 
importation of indentured Indian labour should not be dis- 
continued. For sugar, tea and wattle growing, farming, coal- 
mining and other industries indentured Indian labour appeared 
to be essential. But the evidence was practically unanimous that 
the Indian was undesirable in Natal other than as a labourer 
and the commission recommended compulsory repatriation. 
While desirous that steps should be taken to prevent an increase 
in the number of free Asiatic colonists, the commission pointed 
out that there were in Natal over 60,000 " free " Indians whose 
rights could not be interfered with by legislation dealing with the 
further importation of coolies. But these Indians by reindentur- 
ing might come under the operation of the repatriation proposal. 
Nothing further was done in Natal up to the establishment of 
the Union of South Africa, when all questions specially or 
differentially affecting Asiatics were withdrawn from the com- 
petence of the provincial authorities. 

Not long after the conclusion of the war of 1899-1902 the 
close commercial relations between the Transvaal and Natal 
led to suggestions for a union of the two colonies, but 
these suggestions were not seriously entertained. The menTtor*' 
divergent interests of the various colonies threatened union. 
indeed a tariff and railway war when the Customs 
Convention (provisionally renewed in March 1906) should 
expire in 1908. But at the close of 1906 the Cape ministry formally 
reopened the question of federation, and at a railway con- 
ference held in Pretoria in May 1908 the Natal delegates 
agreed to a motion affirming the desirability of the early union 
of the self-governing colonies. The movement for union rapidly 
gained strength, and a National Convention to consider the 
matter met in Durban in October 1908. In Natal, especially 
among the older colonists, who feared that in a united South 
Africa Natal interests would be overborne, the proposals for 
union were met with suspicion and opposition, and the Natal 
ministry felt bound to submit the question to the people. A 
referendum act was passed in April 1909, and in June following 
the electors by 11,121 votes to 3701 decided to join the Union. 
(See SOUTH AFRICA.) 

Natal was concerned not only with the political aspects of 
union, and with its natives and Indian problems, but had to 
safeguard its commercial interests and to deal with a revenue 
insufficient for its needs. In 1908 an Income Tax and a Land 
Tax Act was passed; the land tax being a halfpenny in the 
" on the aggregate unimproved value " it brought in 30,000 
in 1908-1909. Meantime it was agreed by the Cape, Transvaal 
and Natal governments that, subject to Natal entering the 
Union, its share of the Rand import trade should be 25% before 
and 30% after the establishment of the Union. Previously 
Natal had only 22 $% of the traffic, and this agreement led to a 
revival in trade. Moreover, the development of its coal-mines 
and agriculture was vigorously prosecuted, and in 1910 it was 
found possible to abolish both the Income Tax and Land Tax 
and yet have a surplus in revenue. The closing months of 
Natal's existence as a separate colony thus found her peaceful 
and prosperous. The governor, Sir Matthew Nathan, had 



NATAL NATHANAEL 



265 



returned to England in December 1909, and Lord Methuen was 
governor from that time until the 3ist of May 1910. On that 
date the Union of South Africa was established, Natal becoming 
one of the original provinces of the Union. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. Russell, The Garden Colony. The Story of 
Natal and its Neighbours (London, 1910 ed.), a good general account ; 
H. Brooks (edited by R. J. Mann), Natal, a History and Description 
of the Colony, &c. (London, 1876); J. F. Ingram, Natalia, a Con- 
densed History of the Exploration and Colonization of Natal and 
Zuiuland (London, 1897); C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the 
British Colonies, vol. iv. " South and East Africa " (Oxford, 1807), 
also general surveys. Twentieth- Century Impressions of Natal 
(London, 1906) deals with the peoples, commerce, industries and 
resources of the colony; the Census of the Colony of Natal, April 
1904 (Maritzburg, 1905) contains a large amount of authoritative 
information; The Natal Almanac is a directory and yearly register 
published at Maritzburg. See also the official Statistical Year Book. 
For the native inhabitants, besides the works quoted under KAFFIRS, 
valuable information will be found in Native Customs, H.C. 292 (1881), 
the Report of the Native Affairs' Commission, 1900-190^, Cd. 3889 
(1908); the Report of the South African Native Affairs' Commission, 
1903-1905, Cd. 2399 (1905); and other parliamentary papers 
(consult The Colonial Office List, London, yearlv). 

For detailed historical study consult G. M. Theal, History of South 
Africa, 1834-1854 (London, 1893), with notes on early books on 
Natal. Among these the most valuable are : N. Isaacs, Travels and 
Adventures in Eastern Africa . . . with a Sketch of Natal (2 vols., 
London, 1836); H. Cloete, Emigration of the Dutch Farmers from 
the Cape and their Settlement in Natal . . . (Cape Town, 1856), 
reprinted as The History of the Great Boer Trek (London, 1899), an 
authoritative record; J. C. Chase, Natal, a Reprint of all Authentic 
Notices, &c. (Grahamstown, 1843); W. C. Holden, History of the 
Colony of Natal (London, 1855); J. Bird, The Annals of Natal, 
1495 to 1845 (2 vols., Maritzburg, 1888), a work of permanent value, 
consisting of official records, &c. ; Shepstone, Historic Sketch of 
Natal (1864). See also South Africa Handbooks, useful reprints from 
the paper South Africa (London, N.D. [1900 et seq.]); Martineau's 
Life of Sir Bartle Frere, the Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith, and 
Sir J. Robinson's A Lifetime in South Africa (London, 1901) ; George 
Union, or the First Years of an English Colony (London, 1876). 
Bishop A. H. Baynes's Handbooks of English Church Expansion. 
South Africa (London, N.D. [1908]) gives the story of the Colenso 
controversy and its results. 

For further historical works and for information on flora, fauna, 
climate, law, church, &c. see the bibliography under SOUTH AFRICA. 
(See also ZULULAND: Bibliography.) (F. R. C.) 

NATAL, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of 
Rio Grande do Norte, on the right bank of the Rio Potengy, 
or Rio Grande do Norte, about 2 m. above its mouth. Pop. of 
the municipality (1890) 13,725. Natal is the starting-point of 
the Natal and Nova Cruz railway, and is a port of call for coast- 
wise steamers, which usually anchor outside the bar. It is a 
stagnant, poorly built town of one-storeyed houses and mud- 
walled cabins, with few public edifices and business houses of 
a better type. The only industry of note is the manufacture 
of cotton. The exports are chiefly sugar and cotton. Natal was 
founded in 1597 as a military post to check an illicit trade in 
Brazil-wood. In 1633 it was occupied by the Dutch, who 
remained until 1654. It became the capital of a province in 
1820. In early works it is sometimes termed Cidade dos Reis 
(City of the Kings). 

NATANZ, a minor province of Persia, situated in the hilly 
district between Isfahan and Kashan, and held in fief by the 
family of the Hissam es Saltaneh (Sultan Murad Mirza, d. 1882). 
It contains eighty-two villages and hamlets, has a revenue of 
about 4000, and a population of about 23,000. It is divided 
into four districts: Barzrud, Natanzrud, Tarkrud and Badrud. 
Natanz pears are famous throughout the country. The western 
part of the province is traversed from north to south by the 
old high-road between Kashan and Isfahan, with the well-known 
stations of Kuhrud (7140 ft.) and So (7560 ft.). This road was 
practically abandoned when the Indian government telegraph 
line, which ran along it, was removed to a road farther east in 
1906. The capital of the little province is NATANZ, a large village 
with a population of about 3000, situated 69 m. north of Isfahan, 
at an elevation of 5670 ft. It has an old mosque, with a minaret 
123 ft. in height, built in 1315. 

NATCHEZ, a city and the county-seat of Adams county, 
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, about 100 m. S.W. 
of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 10,101, (1900) 12,210, of whom 7090 



were negroes, (1910 census) 11,791. It is served by the 
Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & 
Southern, the New Orleans & North- Western and the Mississippi 
Central railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi river. 
The city, which has an area of 2-19 sq. m., is mostly on a bluff 
that rises 200 ft. above the river, the wharfs and landings, and a 
few old buildings being the only reminders of what was before 
the Civil War the principal business section. Among the city's 
institutions are the Fisk Public Library, a charity hospital, 
two sanatoriums, three orphan asylums, Stanton College for 
girls (non-sectarian; opened in 1894 and lodged in the old Fisk 
mansion), St Joseph's College for girls, the Jefferson Military 
College (1802), 6 m. from the city, and Natchez College for 
negroes. The city has four public parks, three on the river 
front, and one, Memorial Park, in honour of Confederate dead, 
in the heart of the city. On a neighbouring bluff is a national 
cemetery. Just outside the city limits, at Gloster, the former 
estate of Winthrop Sargent, first governor of the Territory of 
Mississippi, are the graves of Sargent and S. S. Prentiss, who lived 
in Natchez for some years. In and near the city are many 
handsome old residences typical of ante-bellum Natchez, among 
them being: Monmouth, General Quitman's estate; Somerset 
and Oakland, long in the Chotard family; and The Briars, 
the home during girlhood of Varina Howell, the wife of Jefferson 
Davis. A Roman Catholic cathedral (1841), Trinity Protestant 
Episcopal Church (1825) and a Presbyterian church (1829) 
are the principal church buildings. The Prentiss and the Elk 
are the leading clubs. Mardi Gras is annually celebrated. The 
leading industries are the shipment of cotton (70,000 to 90,000 
bales are handled annually) and the manufacture of cottonseed 
oil and cake the first cottonseed-oil mill in the country was 
built here in 1834 cotton goods, rope and yarns, lumber, 
brick, drugs and ice. Natchez was the first city in the state to 
own municipal water- works and sewage system. 

The city was named from the Natchez Indians who lived on 
its site when the country was first settled. In 1716 on the bluff 
Le Moyne de Bienville built Fort Rosalie for the protection of 
some French warehouses, and later the French demanded a 
neighbouring hill for another settlement. This offended the 
Natchez, and on the 28th of November 1729 they massacred the 
French and destroyed the fort, which was immediately rebuilt, 
and in 1 764 was handed over to the English in accordance with 
the treaty of Paris, and became Fort Panmure; in 1779 it was 
turned over to the Spanish, who held it until 1798, when they 
withdrew and United States troops occupied the place. Under 
Spanish rule Natchez was the seat of government of a large district, 
and from 1798 to 1802 and from 1817 to 1821 it was the capital of 
Mississippi. It was chartered as a city in 1803. On the 7th of 
May 1840 a large part of the city was destroyed by a tornado, 
but it was soon rebuilt, and at the outbreak of the Civil War was 
a place of considerable wealth and culture. For several years it 
was the home of General John Anthony Quitman (1799-1858). 
Natchez surrendered to Union forces during the Vicksburg 
campaigns, first on the I2th of May 1862, and again on the 
I3th of July 1863. On the 2nd of September 1862 the 
Union iron-clad " Essex," commanded by William David 
Porter, bombarded the city and put an end to the commercial 
importance of the river front section. 

NATHANAEL, a character in the New Testament, who appears 
in John i. 45 sqq. as one of the first disciples of Jesus. In John 
xxi. 2 he is described as belonging to Cana of Galilee. The 
account of his call reveals to us a man of a deeply spiritual 
and sincere nature. Otherwise we know nothing beyond the 
mention of his name as one of the seven to whom, after the 
Resurrection, Christ revealed himself at the sea of Tiberias 
(John xxi. 2). But the interest he has evoked is shown by the 
attempts to identify him with other New Testament characters. 
Of these the one which has found most favour sees in him 
the apostle Bartholomew (q.v.). The actual identification must 
however remain a matter of pure conjecture. Still less can 
be said for the attempts to find in Nathanael another 
name for the apostle Matthew, or for Matthias, or for Paul " the 



266 



NATHUBHOY, SIR M. NATIONAL DEBT 



apostle of visions," or even for the writer of the Fourth Gospel 

himself. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the story of Nathanael's call see Archbishop 
Trench, Studies in the Gospels, No. 2, and on his character, J. H. 
Newman's Sermons for the Festivals of the Church, No. 27. 

NATHUBHOY, SIR MANGALDAS (1832-1890), Seth or head 
of the Kapol Bania caste, well known for their thrift and keen 
commercial instincts. He was born on the isth of October 
1832, of a family whose ancestors emigrated from Diu to 
Bombay soon after Bombay came into British possession. His 
grandfather, Ramdas Manordas, amassed a considerable fortune, 
which, owing to the premature death of his father, came into 
the sole possession of Mangaldas at the age of eleven. He had 
to take charge of the business in early life, though he gave some 
time to English studies. On the death of his wife he established 
a dispensary at Kalyan in her memory and also a special female 
ward in connexion with the David Sassoon hospital in Poona. 
As a merchant Mangaldas was upright and successful. In social 
matters he stood forth as a reformer, and to him the change to 
election from hereditary succession to the headship of the caste 
is due. In 1862 he founded a fellowship in Bombay university 
to allow graduates to spend some years in Europe. A bequest 
in his will enabled the university to establish seven similar 
scholarships. He took keen interest in learning, and in such 
institutions as the Asiatic and geographical societies. In 1866 
he was nominated to the legislative council and sat till 1874. 
In 1867 he revived the Bombay association, a political body, 
over which he presided for a time. In 1872 he was made C.S.I., 
and in 1875 the dignity of Knight Bachelor was conferred on 
him. Besides a large donation to the Indian Famine Fund, 
Sir Mangaldas is known to have expended 500,000 on charities. 
He died at Bombay on the gth of March 1890. 

NATICK, a township of S.E. Middlesex county, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., on the S.E. end of Cochituate Lake. Pop. (1890) 9118; 
(IQOO) 9488, of whom 1788 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 
9866. The area of the township is 1 2 -375sq.nl. The township's 
largest village, also named Natick, lying 18 m. W.S.W. of Boston, 
is served by the Boston & Albany railroad; it has the Walnut 
Hill preparatory school, the Leonard Morse hospital, and a public 
library, the Morse institute, which was given by Mary Ann 
Morse (1825-1862) and was built in 1873. In the village of 
South Natick is the Bacon Free Library (1880), in which is 
housed the Historical, Natural History and Library Society. 
In 1905 the factory product was valued at $3,453,094; the 
boots and shoes manufactured in 1005 were valued at $2,896,110 
or 83-9% of the town's total, the output of brogans being 
especially important. Other distinctive manufactures are shirts 
and base-balls. Natick is the Indian name, signifying " our 
land," t or " hilly land," of the site (originally part of Dedham) 
granted in 1650 to John Eliot, for the " praying " Indians. 
There was an Indian church in Natick, at what is now called 
South Natick or " Oldtown," from 1660 to 1716; and for some 
years the community was governed, in accordance with the 
eighteenth chapter of Exodus, by " rulers of tens," " rulers 
of fifties," and " rulers of hundreds." Until 1719 the Indians 
held the land in common. In 1735 the few Indians remaining 
were put under guardianship. The township owns a copy 
of Eliot's Indian Bible. An Eliot monument was erected in 
1847 on the Indian burying-ground near the site of the Indian 
church, now occupied by a Unitarian church. Of the Eliot 
oaks, made famous by Longfellow's sonnet, one was cut down 
in 1842, the other still stands. Henry Wilson learned to make 
shoes here, and in the presidential campaign in 1840 gained the 
sobriquet of the " Natick cobbler." By the colonial authorities 
Natick was considered as a " plantation " until the establishment 
of the church; in 1762 the parish (erected in 1745) became a 
district, and in 1781 this was incorporated as a town. 

See " Natick," by S. D. Hosmer, Daniel Wight and Austin Bacon, 
in vol. 2 of S. A. Drake's History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880) ; 
and Oliver N. Bacon, History of the Town of Natick (Boston, 1856). 
NATIONAL ANTHEMS OR HYMNS. The selection of some 
particular songs, words and music, as the formal expression 
of national patriotism, is a comparatively modern development 



of ceremonial usage. In Europe the chief national anthems 
are: The United Kingdom: " God save the king " (see below); 
France: " The Marseillaise," by Rouget de Lisle; Germany: 

Heil dir im Siegeskranz," words by Balthasar Gerhard 
Schumacher, music of " God save the King "; Switzerland: 

Rufst du, mein Vaterland," music of " God save the King "; 
Italy: the " Royal March " by G. Gabetti; Austria: " Gott 
erhalte unsern Kaiser," words by L. L. Haschka, music by 
Haydn; Hungary: " Isten aid meg a Magyart "; Belgium: 
"La Brabanconne," by F. Campenhout; Holland: " Wien 
Nierlansch "; Denmark: " Heil dir, dem Liebenden," words 
by H. Harries, music of " God save the King," and " King 
Kristian stod ved hojen mast," words by Ewald, music by 
Hartman; Sweden: " Ur Svenska hjertans"; Russia: 
" Bozhe Zaria chrany," words by J. J. Canas, music by D. 
Jenko; Rumania: " Traeasca Regale," words by V. Alexandri, 
music by E. A. Hiibsch; Spain: " Himno de Riego," music 
by Herta. In the United Slates, the " Star Spangled Banner " 
(1814; words by F.S. Key, music by J. S. Smith) and " Hail 
Columbia " (1798; words by Joseph Hopkinson, music by 
Fyles) share the duties of a national anthem, while the tune 
of " God save the King " is sung to words beginning " My 
country, 'tis of thee," by Samuel F. Smith (1808-1895). 

The most celebrated of all national anthems is the English 
" God save the King." which is said to have been first sung 
as his own composition by Henry Carey in 1740; and a version 
was assigned by W. Chappell (Popular Music) to the Harmonia 
Anglicana of 1742 or 1743, but no copy exists and this is now 
doubted. Words and music were printed in the Gentleman's 
Magazine for October 1745. There has been much controversy 
as to the authorship, which is complicated by the fact that 
earlier forms of the air and the words are recorded. Such are 
an " Ayre " of 1619, attributed to John Bull, who has long been 
credited with the origin of the anthem; the Scottish carol, 
" Remember, O thou man," in Ravenscroft's Melismala, 1611; 
the ballad " Franklin is fled away " (printed 1669; and a 
piece in Purcell's Choice Collection for the Harpsichord (1696). 
The words or part of them are also found in various forms from 
the 1 6th century. The question was discussed in Richard 
Clarke's Account of the National Anthem (1822), and has been 
reinvestigated by Dr W. H. Cummings in his God save the 
King (1902). Carey and Bull, in the general opinion of musical 
historians, divide the credit; but in his Minstrelsy of England 
(1901) Frank Kidson introduced a new claimant, James Oswald, 
a Scotsman who settled in London in 1742, and worked for 
John Simpson, the publisher of the early copies of God save the 
King', and who became chamber composer to George III. What 
appears to be certain is that 1745 is the earliest date assignable 
to the substantial national anthem as we know it, and that 
both words and music had been evolved out of earlier forms. 
Bull's is the earliest form of the air; Carey's claim to the re- 
modelling of the anthem rests on an unauthoritative tradition; 
and, on general probabilities, Oswald is a strong candidate. 
The tune was adopted by Germany and by Denmark before 
the end of the i8th century. 

NATIONAL DEBT. Details as to the recent figures of the 
national debts of individual countries are given under the 
heading of each country, and the reader is also referred to the 
article FINANCE. Here the subject is considered in its technical 
aspects including the special character of the institution, the 
different classes of debt, the various methods of raising loans, 
interest, funding systems, comparative statistics of national 
debts and other points. 

National debt is so universal that it has been described as 
the first stage of a nation towards civilization. A nation, so 
far as its finances are concerned, may be regarded as a corporate 
body or even as an individual. Like the one or the other it may 
borrow money at rates of interest, and with securities, general 
or special, proportionate to its resources, credit and stability. 
But, while in this respect there are certain points of analogy 
between a state and an individual, there are important points of 
difference so far as the question of debt is concerned. A state, 






NATIONAL DEBT 



267 



for example, may be regarded as imperishable, and its debt as a 
permanent institution which it is not bound to liquidate at any 
definite period, the interest, unless specially stipulated, being 
thus of the nature of transferable permanent annuities. While 
an individual who borrows engages to pay interest to the lender 
personally, and to reimburse the entire debt by a certain date, 
a state may have an entirely different set of creditors every six 
months, and may make no stipulation whatever with regard to 
the principal. A state, moreover, is the sole judge of its own 
solvency, and is not only at liberty either to repudiate its debts 
or compound with its creditors, but even when perfectly solvent 
may materially alter the conditions on which it originally 
borrowed. These distinctions explain many of the peculiarities 
of national debts as contrasted with those of individuals 
though a nation, like an individual, may by reckless bad faith 
utterly destroy its credit and exhaust its borrowing powers. 

A well-organized state ought to have within itself the means of 
meeting all its ordinary expenses; where this is not the case, 
either through insufficiency of resources or maladministration, 
and where borrowing is resorted to for what may be regarded as 
current expenses, a state imperils, not only its credit, but, when 
any crisis occurs, its very existence; in illustration of this we need 
only refer to the cases of Turkey in Europe and some of the states 
of Central and South America. Even for meeting emergencies 
it is not always inevitable that a state should incur debt; its 
ordinary resources, from taxation or from state property, may 
so exceed its ordinary expenses as to enable it to accumulate 
a fund for extraordinary contingencies. This, it would seem, was 
a method commonly adopted in ancient states. The Athenians, 
for example, amassed 10,000 talents in the interval between the 
Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, and the Lacedaemonians 
are said to have done the same. At Susa and Ecbatana Alexander 
found a great treasure which had been accumulated by Cyrus. 
In the early days of Rome the revenue from certain sources was 
accumulated as a sacred treasure in the temple of Saturn; 
and we know that when Pompey left Italy he made the mistake 
of leaving behind him the public treasury, which fell into the 
hands of Caesar. In later times, also, the more prudent emperors 
were in the habit of amassing a hoard. We find that the method 
of accumulating reserves prevailed among some of the early 
French kings, even down to the time of Henry IV. This system 
long prevailed in Prussia. Frederick II., when he ascended the 
throne, found in the treasury a sum of 8,700,000 thalers, and 
it is estimated that at his death he left behind him a hoard of 
from 60 to 70 million thalers. And similarly, in our own time, 
of the five milliards of indemnity paid by France as a result of 
the Franco-German War, 150 millions were set apart to recon- 
stitute the traditional war-treasury. The German empire, 
apart from the individual states which comprise it, had in 1882 
a debt of about 24,000,000, while its invested funds amounted 
t 37>39 O > OO , including a war-treasure of 6,000,000. The 
majority of economists disapprove of such an accumulation of 
funds by a state as a bad financial policy, maintaining that the 
remission of a proportionate amount of taxation would be much 
more for the real good of the nation. At the same time the 
possession of a moderate war-fund, it must be admitted, could 
not but give a state a great advantage in the case of a sudden 
war. In the case of England, apart from the private hoardings 
of a few sovereigns, there does not seem to have existed any 
deliberately accumulated public treasure; before the time of 
William and Mary English monarchs borrowed money occasion- 
ally from Jews and from the city of London, but emergencies 
were generally met by " benevolences " and increased imposts. 

All modern states, it may be said, have been compelled to 
have recourse to loans, either to meet war expenses, to carry out 
great public undertakings or to make up the recurrent deficits of 
a mismanaged revenue. Resources obtained in this way are 
what constitute national debt proper. Loans have been divided 
into forced and voluntary. Forced loans can, of course, only be 
raised within the bounds of the borrowing country; and, apart 
from the injustice which is sure to attend such an impost, it is 
always economically mischievous. The loans which the kings 



of England were wont to exact from the Jews were really of 
the character of forced loans, though the method has never been 
used in England in modern times so extensively as on the 
continent. There the sum sought to be obtained in this way has 
never been anything like realized. In 1793, for example, a loan 
of this class was imposed in France, on the basis of income; 
and of the milliard (francs) which it was sought to raise only 
100 millions were realized. In Austria and Spain, also, recourse 
has been had at various times to forced loans, but invariably 
with unsatisfactory results. Other methods of a more or less 
compulsory character have been and are made use of in various 
states for obtaining money, which, as they involve the payment 
of interest, may be regarded as of the nature of loans; but the 
debt incurred by such methods is comparatively insignificant, 
and some of the methods adopted are peculiarly irritating and 
mischievous. On the other hand, it has occasionally been 
attempted to raise voluntary loans by appeals to a nation's 
patriotism; the method has been confined almost exclusively 
to France. After the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 appeals were 
thus made to the patriotism of French capitalists to buy 5% 
direct from the government at par, at a time when the French 5 % 
were selling at 80; but the results were quite insignificant. 
In short, the only economically sound method of meeting ex- 
penses which the ordinary resources of a state cannot meet is 
by borrowing in the open market on the most advantageous terms 
obtainable. On this normal method of borrowing, loans are 
divided into different categories, though there are really only 
two main classes, which may be designated perpetual and 
terminable. Borrowing in quasi-perpetuity has hitherto been 
the mode adopted by most states in the creation of the bulk of 
their debt. Not that any state ever borrows with the avowed 
intention of never paying off debts; but either no definite 
period for reimbursement is fixed, or the b'mit has been so 
extended as to be practically perpetual, or in actual practice 
the debt has been got rid of by the creation of another of equal 
amount under similar or slightly differing conditions as to interest. 
Of course a state is not bcund to retain any part of its debt as 
a perpetual burden; it is at liberty to liquidate whenever it suits 
its convenience. This quasi-perpetuity of debt in the case of a 
state in a sound financial condition involves no hardship upon its 
creditors, who may at any moment realize their invested capital 
by selling their titles as creditors in the open money market, it 
may be at the price they paid, or it may be a little below or a 
little above it, according to the state of the market at the time. 
Loans, again, contracted on the terminable principle are of 
various classes; the chief of these are (i) life annuities, (2) 
terminable annuities, (3) loans repayable by instalments at 
certain intervals, (4) loans repayable entirely at a fixed date. 

From the time of William III. life and terminable annuities 
have been a favourite mode in England either of borrowing 
money or of commuting, and thus gradually paying off, the 
existing funded debt. At first, and indeed until comparatively 
recent times, the system of life annuities resulted in serious loss 
to the country, owing to the calculation of the rate of annuity 
on too high a scale, a result arising from imperfect data on which 
to base estimates of the average duration of life. The system of 
life annuities was sometimes combined in England with that of 
perpetual annuities, or interest on the permanent debt the 
life annuity forming a sort of additional inducement to lenders 
of limited means to invest their money. At one time the form 
of life annuities known as tontine was much in vogue both in 
England and France, the principle of the tontine being that the 
proceeds of the total amount invested by the contributors 
should be divided among the survivors, the last survivor receiving 
the whole interest or annuity. The results of this system were 
not, however, encouraging to the state. In England, at least, 
the terminable annuity has been a favourite mode of borrowing 
from the time of William III.; it has been generally conjoined 
with a low rate of permanent interest on the sum borrowed. 
Thus in 1700 the interest on the consolidated debt amounted 
to only 260,000, while the terminable annuities payable 
amounted to 308,407. In 1780 a loan of 12 millions was raised 



268 



NATIONAL DEBT 



at 4% at par, with the additional benefit of an annuity of 
i, i6s. 3d. % for eighty years. Even so late as the Crimean 
War in 1855, a loan of 16 millions at 3% at par was contracted, 
the contributors receiving in addition an annuity of 143. 6d. % 
for thirty years. 

The third method of contracting terminable loans, that of 
gradual repayment or amortization within a certain limit of 
years, has been a favourite one among certain nations, and 
specially commends itself to those whose credit is at a low ebb. 
When the final term of repayment is fixed upon, a calculation is 
easily made as to how much is to be paid half-yearly until the 
expiry of the term, so that at the end the whole, principal and 
interest, will have been paid. At first, of course, the amount 
paid will largely represent interest, but, as at each half-yearly 
drawing of the numbers of the bonds to be finally paid off the 
principal will be gradually reduced, there will be more and more 
money set free from interest for the reduction of the actual debt. 
This method, as we have said, has its advantages, and when 
conjoined with stipulations as to liberty of conversion to debt 
bearing a lower rate of interest than that originally offered, and 
when the bonds are not issued at a figure much below par, 
might be the most satisfactory method of raising money for a 
state under certain emergencies. What is known as the " Morgan 
loan " of France in 1870 was contracted on such conditions. 

The last form of temporary loan,' that repayable in bulk at a 
fixed date, is one which, when the sum is of considerable amount, 
is apt to be attended with serious disadvantages. The repayment 
may have to be made at a time when a state may not be in a 
position to meet it, and so to keep faith with its creditors may 
have to borrow at a higher rate in order to pay their claims. 
It has, however, worked well in the United States, most of the 
debt of which has been contracted on the principle of optional 
payment at the end of a short period, say five years, and com- 
pulsory payment at the end of a longer period, say twenty years. 
Thus the loan of 515 millions of dollars contracted in 1862 was 
issued on this principle, at 6 %, and so with other loans between 
that year and 1868. In European states, however, the risks 
of embarrassment are too great to permit of the application 
of this method on an extensive scale; and for loans of great 
amount the methods most likely to yield satisfactory results 
are loans bearing quasi-perpetual interest, or those repayable 
by instalments on the basis of half-yearly drawings within a 
certain period. 

What are known as lottery loans are greatly favoured on the 
continent, either as an independent means of raising money, or 
as an adjunct to any of the methods referred to above. These 
must not be confounded with the lottery pure and simple, in 
which the contributors run the risk of losing the whole of their 
investment. The lottery loan has been found to work well for 
small sums, when the interest is but little below what it would 
have been in an ordinary loan, and when the percentage thus 
set aside to form prizes of varying amounts forms but a small 
fraction of the whole interest payable. The principle is that 
each contributor of such a losin has a greater or less chance of 
drawing a prize of varying amount, over and above the repayment 
of his capital with interest. 

What are known in England as exchequer bills and treasury 
bills may be regarded as loans payable at a fixed period of short 
duration, from three months upwards, and bearing very in- 
significant interest, even so low as \/ . They are a useful 
means of raising money for immediate wants and for local loans, 
and form handy investments for capitalists who are reserving 
their funds for a special purpose. Exchequer bonds are simply 
a special form of the funded debt, to be paid off generally within 
a certain period of years. 

There are two principal methods of issuing or effecting a loan. 
Either the state may appeal directly to capitalists and invite sub- 
scriptions, or it may delegate the negotiation to one or more bankers. 
The former method has been occasionally followed in France and 
Russia, but in practice it has been found to be attended with so 
many disadvantages to the borrowing state or city that the best 
financial authorities consider it unsound. The great banking- 
houses have such a command over the money-market that it is 



difficult to keep even a direct loan out of their hands. The majority 
pf loans, therefore, are negotiated by one or more of these houses, 
and the name of Rothschild is familiar to every one in connexion 
with such transactions. By this method a borrowing state can 
assure itself of having the proceeds of the loan with the least possible 
delay and with the minimum of trouble. A loan may be issued at, 
above, or below par, though generally it is either at or below par 
" par " being the normal or theoretical price of a single share in the 
loan, the sum which the borrowing government undertakes to pay 
back for each share on reimbursement, without discount or premium. 
Very generally, as an inducement to investors, a loan is offered at a 
greater or less discount, according to the credit of the borrowing 
government. Sometimes a state may offer a loan to the highest 
bidders; for example, the city of Auckland in 1875 invited sub- 
scriptions through the Bank of New Zealand to a loan of 100,000 
at 6%; offers were made of six times the amount, but only those 
were accepted -which were at the rate of 98% or above. The rate of 
interest offered generally depends on the credit of the state issuing 
the loan. England, for example, would have no difficulty in raising 
any amount at 3 % or even less, while less stable states may have to 
pay 8 or 9%. The nominal percentage is by no means, however, 
always an index of the cost of a loan to a state, as the history of 
the debt of England disastrously shows. During the l8th century 
various expedients were employed, besides that of terminable 
annuities already referred to, to raise money for the great wars 
of the period, at an apparently low percentage. For example, from 
3 to 5% would be offered for a loan, the actual amount of stock 
per cent, allotted being sometimes 107 J or even in; so that 
between 1776 and 1785, for the 91,763,842 actually borrowed by 
the government, 115,267,993 was to be paid back. In 1797 a loan 
of 1,620,000 was contracted, for every 100 of which actually 
subscribed, at 3%, the sum of 219 was allotted to the lender. 
In !793 a 3% loan of 4j millions was offered at the price of 72 %, 
the government thus making itself liable for 6,250,000. Greatly 
owing to this reckless method the debt of Great Britain in 1815 
amounted to over 900 millions. France in this respect has been 
quite as extravagant as England; many of her loans during the 
igth century were issued at from 52$ to 84%, one indeed (1848) 
so low as 45 % as a rule with 5 % interest. The enormous and 
embarrassing increase of the French debt during the igth century 
was doubtless greatly due to this disastrous system. Nearly every 
European state and most of the Central and South American states 
have at one time or another aggravated their debts by this method 
of borrowing, and got themselves into difficulty with their creditors. 
Financiers almost unanimously maintain that in the long run it is 
much better for a state to borrow at high interest at or near par, 
than at an apparently low interest much below par. A state of even 
the highest rank may find itself in the midst of a crisis that will for 
a time shake its credit; but when the crisis is past and its credit 
revives it will be in a much more sound position with a high interest 
for a debt contracted at par than with a comparatively low interest 
on a debt much in excess of what it really received. If a state, for 
example, borrows at par at 6% when its credit is low, it may easily 
when again in a flourishing condition reduce the interest on its debt 
to 4 or even 3 %. The United States government actually did so 
with the debt it had to contract at the time of the Civil War. This 
method of reducing the burden of a debt is evidently no injustice to 
the creditors of a government, when used in a legitimate way. A 
state is at liberty at any time to pay off its debts, and, if it can 
borrow at 3% to pay off a 6% debt, it may with perfect justice 
offer its creditors the option of payment of the principal or of holding 
it at a reduced interest. Government debts are, however, sometimes 
reduced after a fashion by no means so legitimate as this. Other 
states have been even more unprincipled, and have got rid of their 
debts at one sweep by the simple method of repudiation. 

When a state has a variety of loans at varying rates of interest, 
it may consolidate them into a single debt at a uniform interest. 
For example, in 1751 several descriptions of English debt were con- 
solidated into one fund bearing a uniform interest of 3 %, an opera- 
tion which gave origin to the familiar term " consols " (" consoli- 
dated annuities "). In the early days of the English national debt, 
a special tax or fund was appropriated to the payment of the interest 
on each particular loan. This was the original meaning of " the 
funds," a term which has now come to signify the national debt 
generally. So also the origin of the term " funded " as applied to a 
debt which has been recognized as at least quasi-permanent, and for 
the payment of the interest on which regular provision is made. 
Unfunded or floating debt, on the other hand, means strictly loans 
for which no permanent provision requires to be made, which have 
been obtained for temporary purposes with the intention of paying 
them off within a brief period. Exchequer and treasury bills are 
included in this category, and such other moneys in the hands of a 
government as it may be required to reimburse at any moment. 
Where a government is the recipient of savings banks deposits, these 
may be included in its floating debt, and so also may the paper- 
money which has been issued so largely by some governments. A 
state with an excessive floating debt must be regarded as in a very 
critical financial condition. 

National debt, again, is divided into external and internal, accord- 
ing as the loans have been raised within or without the country 









NATIONAL DEBT 



269 



some states, generally the smaller ones, having a considerable 
amount of exclusively internal debt, though it is obvious that the 
bulk of national debts are both external and internal. 

We referred above to various ways of reducing the burden of a 
debt, and also to methods of contracting loans by which within a 
certain period they are amortized or extinguished. Most states, 
however, are burdened with enormous quasi-permanent debts, the 
reduction or extinction of which gives ample scope for the financial 
skill of statesmen. A favourite method of accomplishing this is by 
the establishment of what is known as a sinking fund, formed by 
the setting aside of a certain amount of national revenue for the 
reduction of the principal of the debt. (J- S. K.) 

The following table shows the general state of the world's 
public indebtedness at the beginning of the 2oth century, divided 
according to the more important countries, the bracketed 
figures in black type indicating the position of the country 
referred to under each heading in the list. The figures are given 
by preference for the year 1900, as more representative, in a case 
like this, than for some later years; for the Boer War, as regards 
the United Kingdom, and also the Russo-Japanese War, intro- 
duced new debt and new considerations, hardly fair to the 
comparison, while this stands at the end of a long period of 
peace. The figures in every case are not to be supposed to be 
absolutely accurate; statistics of national debts differ, often 
remarkably, and it is practically impossible to give a perfectly 
satisfactory comparison, owing partly to difficulties of computing 
the exchange, partly to inaccurate accounts, and partly to the 
varieties of debt (reproductive or non-reproductive, &c.). 



Kingdom (756 millions) stood second to that of France (1000 
millions), in 1900 it stood third to France and Russia; whereas 
in 1883 its weight per head of population was third, in 1900 it 
was eleventh; whereas in 1883 its annual charge stood second, 
in. 1 900 it stood fourth; and whereas the weight of the charge 
per head of population in 1883 was fifth, in 1900 it was eleventh. 
The indebtedness of the great British dependencies, on the 
other hand, had increased from 302 millions to 544 millions 
sterling, or by 242 millions; and the local (municipal) debt of 
Great Britain had risen from about ico millions to upwards of 
300 millions. 

It is interesting to recall the history of the British national 
debt during the igth century. The debt at the close of the 
Napoleonic war (1816) was nearly 887 millions sterling, History 
and at the beginning of 1900 this debt had been of 
reduced to 621 millions, 1 or a decrease of 266 millions British 
notwithstanding interim additions of about 367 ***" 
millions, which made the gross reduction during that period 
633 millions sterling, an amount actually larger than the whole 
(dead- weight 2 ) debt at the end of the century. No country 
(except the United States, to a smaller amount) has ever 
redeemed its obligations on such a scale, and this was done 
while all other European countries of similar standing were 
piling up debt. 

This enormous reduction was effected at different rates of 
speed. Between 1817 and 1830, when what was known as 



The Principal Public Debts of the World, 1900. 



Country. 


Population. 


Total Debt. 


Per Head. 


Annual Charge. 


Per Head. 


THE UNITED KINGDOM 


40,909,925 


(3) 628,978,782 


(11) i5 7 6 


(4) 23,216,657 


(11) o II 4 


BRITISH DOMINIONS OVER SEA 














India 


230,000,000 


(9) 210,323,937 


(24) o 18 6 


(11) 6,595-732 


(23) 006 


Australian States 


3,707,905 


(10) 195,324,717 


(2 


52 13 o 


(9) 7-595-074 


(2) 210 


New Zealand .... 


815,820 


(23 


47,874,452 


(1 


58 12 o 


(22) 1,717,910 


(1) 220 


Canada 


5,338,883 


(21 


53,254,689 


(14 


10 o o 


(21) 2,678,496 


(13) o 10 o 


Cape Colony .... 


1,527,224 


(24 


27,884,078 


(8 


18 5 o 


(23) 1,331.737 


(6) o 17 5 


Natal 


902,365 


(25 


9,019,143 


(15 


IO O O 


(24) 350,204 


(16) 079 


France 


38,517,975 


(1 


1,086,215,525 


(4 


28 4 o 


(1) 49,844,652 


(4) i 5 ii 


Russia 


129,211,113 


(2) 656,000,000 


(19 


520 


(2) 29,000,000 


(18) 047 


Austria 


25,886,000 


(6) 358,438,000 


(12 


13 16 ii 


(6) 14,067,000 


(10) o ii 6 


Hungary 
Italy ... . . 


19,203,531 
32,449,754 


(11) 184,600,000 
(4) 586,000,000 


(16) 9 14 o 
(9) 18 o o 


(8) 11,977,640 
(3) 27,000,000 


(9) o 12 6 
(7) o 16 7 


United States of America . 


76,303.387 


(8) 292,216,265 


(21) 3 15 6 


(10) 6,709,026 


(20) o i 9 


Spain 


18,089,500 


(5) 433,283,066 


(5 


24 i 5 


(5 


) 16,742,285 


(5) o 18 2 


Turkey 


23,880,000 


(13) 170,000,000 


(18 


700 


(13 


I 5-148,450 


(19) 043 


Egypt 


9,734,000 


(16) 103,372,000 


(13 


10 12 4 


(15) 4.222,379 


(15) 088 


Prussia . 


34,472,509 


(7) 329,584,000 


(17 


976 


(7) 13,923,170 


(17) o 7 5 


German Empire .... 


56,345,000 


(14) 118,554,789 


(22 


2 2 I 


(16) 3-794.461 


(22) o i 4i 


Portugal 


5,049,729 


(12 


177,192,795 


(3) 35 o o 


(14) 4,434,243 


(8) o 15 10 


Holland 


5,104,137 


(18 


96,561,287 


(7) 18 18 o 


(20) 2,926,553 


(12) o ii ij 


Belgium 


6,744,000 


(is 


104,551,000 


(10) 15 13 6 


(17 


3,320,404 


(14) 099 


Japan 


43,759-577 


(22 


52,903,000 


(23) I 4 2 


(18 


3,176,759 


(21) o i 5 


China 


390,000,000 


(20 


55,000,000 


(25) 030 


(19 


3,000,000 


(24) 002 


Argentina 


4,400,000 


(17) 103,000,000 


(6) 23 12 o 


(12 


6,301,419 


(3) 187 


Brazil 


17,000,000 


(19) 81,710,000 


(20) 4 16 o 









The total indebtedness of the countries named in the table 
amounted to 6,311,017,478, and the total indebtedness of the 
world (i.e. including countries not here mentioned) for the year 
1898 was computed by Lord Avebury (Journ. Roy. Slat. Soc. 
vol. briv. part i.) as 6,432,757,000, as against 5,097,910,000 
in 1888. This compares (taking figures compiled by Mr Dudley 
Baxter in Journ. Roy. Stat.Soc., March 1874) with a total indebted- 
ness of 4680 millions sterling in 1874 and 1700 millions sterling 
in 1848. The United Kingdom had diminished its total debt 
since 1883 by 127 millions, the amount per head by 6, the annual 
charge by 6 millions, and the charge per head by 55. 8d. The 
United States debt was lower by nearly a hundred millions. 
Japan, Egypt and Brazil had sensibly improved their positions. 
But the following countries had increased their debts: France 
(by 86 millions), Russia (by some 240 millions), Italy (by 140 
millions), Austria-Hungary (by 70 millions), Spain (by 190 
millions), Prussia (by 227 millions), Portugal (by 80 millions), 
Holland (by 18 millions), Belgium (by 32 millions), and Argentina 
(by 73 millions). 

The result is that, whereas in 1883 the total debt of the United 



Pitt's sinking fund was in operation (depending upon the 
devotion of surplus income to the repayment of debt, but much 
complicated by the raising of fresh loans), a net reduction was 
made of 29,488,072 an annual average of 2,268,313. From 
1830 to 1876 the system of using surplus revenue the so-called 
old sinking fund for redeeming debt, was steadily applied, 
together with the creation of terminable annuities, by which 
definite blocks of debt were cancelled and the whole amount 
paid off in a term of years. During this period the debt was 
reduced by 85,175,782, an annual average of 1,851,647. In 
1876 Sir Stafford Northcote's (Lord Iddesleigh's) new sinking 
fund came into operation, in addition to previous methods of 
redeeming debt. By this system a definite annual sum was set 
aside for the service of the debt, the difference between it and 

1 Leaving out of account 8 millions of unfunded debt raised for 
the Boer War. 

1 The " dead-weight " debt, or national debt proper, excludes what 
are treated in the public accounts as "other capital liabilities," the 
interest on which is not included in the fixed charge; but it is taken 
to include the new debt of all sorts raised in 1900, 1901 and 1902 
for the Boer War. 



270 

the amount required for payment of interest forming a (new) 
sinking fund devoted to repayment of capital. This fixed charge 
was gradually reduced from about 29 millions to 26 millions in 
1888, to 25 millions in 1890, and to 23 millions in 1899. 
The amount paid off during this period by means of old 
sinking fund, terminable annuities and new sinking fund, down 
to March 1900, was 155,238,639, or an annual average of 
6,468,276. 

It will be observed that the burden of the debt incurred 
previously to 1817 has thus been borne very unequally by 
different ages of " posterity." While the generations immedi- 
ately succeeding the Napoleonic war paid off about 2,000,000 
a year, the taxpayers between 1876 and 1900 paid at three 
times that rate. They did so largely without knowing it, since 
a large part of the amount was wrapped up in the terminable 
annuities; but it is very questionable justice that so large a 
proportion of the burden should have been imposed upon 
them. 

The great bulk of the funded national debt consists of what 
are known as " consols." This name dates from 1751, when 
nine different government annuities at 3% were 
consolidated into one, amounting to 9,137,821. 
These " consolidated annuities " formed the germ of what has 
since become the type of British government stock. At the same 
time some of the annuities at a higher rate of interest were 
combined and the interest reduced to 3%, and this stock 
was known as " reduced," the two 3% stocks remaining 
side by side, until in 1854 the 3j% government stock was 
also converted into 3%, under the style of "new threes." 
"Consols," "reduced" and "new threes" formed thenceforth 
a solid body of British 3% stock, until in 1888 the whole 
amount was converted (see Conversions below) by Mr (after- 
wards Lord) Goschen into 2j%. "Consols" were added to 
from time to time when fresh loans were needed: from 
39 millions in 1771 they rose to 71 millions 
in 1781, to 101 millions in 1783, 278 
millions in i&oi, 334 millions in 1811, 
and 400 millions in 1858; but in 1888 
they had decreased, by redemptions, to 
322,681,035. " Reduced " were also added 
to: from 17 millions in 1751 they rose to 
164 millions in 1815, and then gradually 



NATIONAL DEBT 



Consols. 



amount more was practically locked up by being held by trustees, 
or by banks, insurance societies, &c. The savings banks deposits, 
increasing as they did by about 1,000,000 per month (owing partly 
to the raising in 1894 of the maximum limit), had to be invested 
in government securities; and the compulsory activity of the 
government as a buyer of consols, both on this account and also 
for sinking fund purposes (in order to obtain stock to redeem debt 
on the increased scale already indicated) operated as an abnormal 
cause for sending the price of consols high above par. Even at that 
figure (the average prices for consols being loij'j in 1894, 1065 in 
1895, 119! in 1896, ii2j| in 1897, nojjj in 1898 and io6J having 
fallen owing to war prospects in 1899) it was difficult for the govern- 
ment brokers to obtain consols, and it was principally owing to this 
state of things that in 1899 Sir Michael Hicks-Beach reduced the 
fixed annual charge for the debt (and pro tanto the new sinking fund) 
from 25,000,000 to 23,000,000. 

It may be useful to give the figures for the British natipnal 
debt in 1902, after the disturbance due to the South African 
War. During the years 1900 and 1901 the new sinking fund was 
suspended, as well as the payments on the terminable annuity 
debt applicable to repayment of capital (except in so far as 
annuities to individuals were concerned) ; so that the debt was 
not reduced, as it would otherwise have been, by 4,547,000 in 
1900 and by 4,681,000 in 1901. On the contrary, it was 
increased by fresh borrowings. Consols were raised (in 1901 and 
1902) to the extent of 92,000,000; a " War Loan " of 2$% 
stock and bonds, redeemable in 1910, was raised (1900) to the 
amount of 30,000,000; 2j% exchequer bonds were raised 
(in 1900) to the amount of 24,000,000, and treasury bills (in 
1899 and 1900), 13,000,000. The total war borrowing amounted 
accordingly to 159,000,000, raised at a discount of (6,585,000) 
4-14%. This includes the whole new borrowing in 1902, a 
portion of which was intended after the peace to be paid back 
in the current year; but for this no allowance can here be made. 
The accompanying table shows the totals for the " dead-weight 
debt " in 1900, 1901 and 1902, and, for convenience, also the 
" other capital liabilities." 





"Dead- weight 
Debt." 


Chief Cause of Difference. ' 


" Other 
Liabilities." 


3ist March 1900 . 
1901 . . 

1902 . 
July 1902 . . 


628,978,782 
690,992,621 

747,876,000 
779,876,000 


( +" War Loan," 30,000,000 
] -t-Exch. Bonds, 24,000,000 
( -j-Treas. Bills, 5,000,000 
+ Consols, 60,000,000 
-(-Consols, 32,000,000 


10,186,482 

14,731,256 
20,532,000 



diminished to 102 millions in 1869, and to 68,912,433 in 
1887, when they were converted with " consols " into the 
new consols (or " Goschens ") at 2$%, to be reduced to 2|% 
in 1003. 

The lowest price ever quoted for " consols " was 47! on 2oth 
September 1797, owing to the mutiny at the Nore; the highest 
was 114 in 1896 owing t6 scarcity of stock, the operation of the 
sinking funds, and the demand for investment of savings bank 
moneys. 

The high premium to which consols rose towards the end of 
the century may be briefly explained. Pari passu with the re- 
duction of the debt went a dwindling of the amount of consols 
open to investors, and hence occurred a continued normal appre- 
ciation of the stock. In 1817 the amount of British government 
stock per head of the population was 40, IDS.; in 1896 this figure 
had decreased to 14, I2s. The ordinary law of supply and demand 
would therefore in any case tend to increase the price of govern- 
ment stock. This has always happened. The amount of 3% 
diminished from 528 millions in 1817 to 498 in 1827, and to 497 in 
1837, and the average prices in these years were 73, 83 and 90; 
additions were made to the stock, and in 1847 (the amount being 
510 millions) the price was 86f; again the amount decreased, and 
in 1852 (500 millions) the price was 98 ; then a great conversion raised 
the amount to 734 millions in 1854, and the price went down to 90$ ; 
but by 1887 the amount decreased by about 200 millions, and the 
price rose well above par; and though the reduction in interest in 
1888 set back the price, it rose again as the amount of available 
stock diminished. Many causes, into which it is not necessary to 
enter, operated no doubt in keeping up the demand for British 
government credit. Moreover, apart from the fact that in 1882 
there were 689 millions of 3% and in 1900 only 501 millions 
of 2f% in existence, the amount held by government departments 
and therefore practically locked up from the market, gradually 
increased, until from this cause alone the amount of available 
stock was diminished by upwards of 200 millions; and a large 



" Other liabilities " it must be remembered, represent money 
advanced (generally by terminable annuity) on reproductive 
objects telegraphs, barracks, public works, Uganda railway, 
&c. and they could not, obviously, be properly included in 
the national debt unless at the same time a set-off were made 
for the valuable assets held by the British government, such as 
the Suez canal shares, which in 1902 were alone worth upwards 
of 26,000,000. (H. CH.) 

British National Debt Conversions. The great bulk of the 
funded debt of the United Kingdom consists of annuities, which 
are described as perpetual, because the state is under no obliga- 
tion to pay off at any time the capital debt which they represent. 
All that the public creditor can claim is to receive payment of 
the instalments of annuity as they fall due. On the other hand, 
the government has the right to redeem the annuities ultimately 
by payment of the capital debt; though it may, and frequently 
does, bind itself not to exercise that right as regards a particular 
stock of annuities until after a definite period. So long as a 
stock is thus guaranteed against redemption, the only way in 
which the annual charge for that portion of the debt can be 
reduced is by the government buying back the annuities in the 
open market at their current price, which may be more or may 
be less than the nominal debt, according to general financial 
conditions and to the state of the national credit. The liability 
of the stock to redemption at par, when the period of guarantee 
has expired, prevents its market price from rising materially 
above that level. To enable the right of compulsory redemption 
to be enforced, it is only necessary that the government should 

1 Other causes are redemption of land tax, variation in capital 
value of terminable annuities and minor treasury operations. 



NATIONAL DEBT 



271 



have command of sufficient funds for the purpose of paying off 
the stockholders, or should be able to raise those funds by 
borrowing at a rate of interest lower than that borne by the 
stock. Any circumstances which might tend to raise the price 
of the stock above par would also assist the government in 
raising its redemption money on more favourable terms. When 
the amount of stock to be dealt with is large, the raising by a 
fresh loan of the amount required for redemption would occasion 
great disturbance. A more convenient method is the conversion 
of the existing stock to a lower rate of interest by agreement 
with the stockholders, whose reluctance to accept a reduction 
of income is overborne by their knowledge that the power of 
redemption exists and will be put in force if necessary. The 
opportunity for conversion may be looked for when the price of a 
redeemable stock stands steadily at or barely above par. Observa- 
tion of the movements' in the price of other securities will serve 
to show whether this stationary price represents the real market 
value of the stock, or whether that value is subject to depression 
owing to an expectation of the stock being converted or redeemed. 
Accordingly, the course of prices of other government stocks 
which are free from the liability to redemption, of the stocks of 
foreign countries and the colonies, and of the large municipalities, 
must be watched by government in order to determine, first, 
whether the conversion of a redeemable stock is feasible, and, 
secondly, to what extent the reduction of the interest in the 
stock may be carried. 

The credit for the first measure of conversion belongs to Walpole, 
though it was carried through by Stanhope, his successor as chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. In 1714 the legal rate of interest 
for. private transactions, which had been fixed at 6% 
in the year of the Restoration, was reduced to 5% by the act 12 
Anne, stat. 2, c. 16. But the bulk of the national debt still bore 
interest at 6%, the doubtful security of the throne and the too 
frequent irregularities in public payment having hitherto precluded 
any considerable borrowing at lower rates. Walpole saw that the 
first requirement was to give increased confidence to the public 
creditors. Three acts were passed dealing respectively with debts 
due to the general public, to the Bank of England and to the South 
Sea Company. Three separate funds the general fund, the aggre- 
gate fund and the South Sea fund were assigned to the service 
of the several classes of debt, each of these funds being credited 
with the produce of specified taxes, which were made permanent 
for the purpose; and it was further provided that any surplus of 
the funds, after payment of the interest of the debts, should be 
applied in reduction of the principal. Such was the success of this 
measure that, in spite of the reduction of interest from 6 to 5% 
which was also enacted, the passing of the acts was followed by a 
rise in the price of stocks. A curious preliminary to the introduction 
of these measures was the passing of a resolution by the House of 
Commons, which invited advances not exceeding 600,000, to be 
repaid with interest at 4% out of the first supplies of the year. 
The result showed that the time was not ripe for such a reduction 
of interest, as only a sum of 45,000 was offered on those terms. A 
further resolution was then passed, substituting 5 % as the rate of 
interest, and the whole sum was at once subscribed. Besides accept- 
ing the reduction of interest on their own debts, the Bank of England 
and the South Sea Company agreed to assist the government by 
advancing 4$ millions at the reduced rate, to be employed in paying 
off any of the general creditors who might refuse assent to the con- 
version. The assistance was not required, as all the creditors 
signified assent. The debts thus dealt with amounted altogether 
to about 25$ millions, and the annual saving of interest effected 
(including that upon a large quantity of exchequer bills for which 
the Bank had been receiving over 7 %) was 329,000. 

Walpole had a further opportunity of effecting a conversion in 
1737. In the meantime much of the 5% debt had been reduced to 
1749 ^ *f* ky arrangements with the Bank of England and the 

South Sea Company, and further borrowings had taken 
place at that rate and even at 3%. In 1737 the 3% stood above 
par, and Sir John Barnard proposed to the House of Commons a 
scheme for the gradual reduction of the 4 %. As a financial measure 
the scheme would doubtless have succeeded; but Walpole, moved 
apparently by consideration for his capitalist supporters, opposed 
and for the time defeated it. A scheme on similar lines was carried 
through by Pelham as chancellor of the exchequer in 1749 and em- 
bodied in the act 23 Geo. II. c. I. By that act holders of the 4% 
securities, amounting to nearly 58,000,000, were offered a con- 
tinuance of interest at 4% for one year, followed by 3^ % for seven 
years, during which they were guaranteed against redemption, with 
a final reduction to 3 % thereafter. It was necessary to continue 
the rate of 4 % for the first year, as any objecting stockholders 
could not be paid off without a year's notice. Three months were 
allowed for signifying assent to the proposal. At first it was viewed 



with disfavour, and both the Bank and the East India Company 
opposed it. But the pens of the government pamphleteers were 
busily occupied in showing the advantages of the offer, and at the 
close of the three months acceptances had been received from the 
holders of nearly 39,000,000 of the stocks, or more than two-thirds 
of the whole. A further opportunity was afforded to waverers by a 
second act (23 Geo. II. c. 22), which allowed three months more for 
consideration; but for holders accepting under this act the inter- 
mediate period of 3J% interest was reduced from seven years to 
five. These terms brought in an additional 15,600,000 of stock; 
and the balance left outstanding, amounting to less thanj 3 J millions, 
was paid off at par by means of a new loan. The annual saving of 
interest on the stock converted was at first 272,000, increasing to 
544,000 after seven years. 

For nearly three-quarters of a century no further conversion was 
attempted. In that period the total debt had been increased tenfold, 
and the practice of borrowing in times of war by the issue 
of an inflated capital, bearing nominally a low rate of 
interest, prevented recourse to conversion as a means of reducing 
the burden after peace was restored. But in 1822 Mr Vansittart 
who four years earlier had effected a conversion in the opposite 
direction, turning 27,000,000 of stock from 3 inio 3 j %, in order to 
obtain from the holders an advance of 3,000,000 without adding to 
the capital of the debt was able to deal with the 5 %. These stocks 
amounted to 152,000,000 out of a total funded debt of 795,000,000. 
The prices at which the chief denominations of government stocks 
stood in the market in the early part of 1822 indicated a normal rate 
of interest ot more than 4 but considerably less than 4i%. In these 
circumstances, to propose the conversion of the 5 % stocks to 4i % 
would probably have been futile, unless the new stock were guaran- 
teed for a long period, as holders would have stood in fear of a 
speedy further reduction. Nor could the government hope to suc- 
ceed in a reduction to 4%. Mr Vansittart's plan was to offer 105 
of stock bearing 4 % in exchange for 100 of 5 % stock, thus adding 
slightly tojthe capital of the debt, but effecting a large annual saving 
in interest. These terms were highly successful. Holders of nearly 
150,000,000 accepted, leaving less than 3,000,000 of the stock to 
be paid off, and the annual saving obtained was 1,197,000. The 
new 4 % stock was made irredeemable for seven years (act 3, Geo. 
IV c. 9). 

There were, however, other 4 % stocks, amounting to 76,000,000, 
which were not secured against redemption. Two years later, the 
conditions being favourable for their conversion, the act 
5 Geo. IV. c. 24 was passed, offering holders in exchange 
a 3i % stock, irredeemable for five years. The offer was accepted 
as regards 70,000,000, and the remaining 6,000,000 paid off, the 
annual saving on interest being 381,000. 

In 1830 the guarantee given to the 4% stock of 1822 had expired, 
and the stock stood at a price of 1025. Mr Goulburn decided to 
attempt its conversion without delay, and accordingly by 
the act ii Geo. IV. c. 13 holders were offered in exchange 

for each 100 of the stock, either 100 of a 3! % stock, irredeemable 
for ten years, or 70 of a 5 % stock, irredeemable for forty-two years, 
these two options being considered of approximately equal value. 
No difficulty was found in securing assent. Over 150,000,000 of the 
stock was converted, almost wholly into the 3i % stock; the balance 
of less than 3,000,000 was paid off, and an annual saving of 754,000 
in interest was the result. 

It was again Mr Goulburn's fortune to carry out a large and 
successful conversion in 1844. At that date the funded debt was 
made up of 3 % and ji % stocks in the proportions of 
about two to one, the only other denomination being the 
trifling amount of 5 % stock created in connexion with the conver- 
sion of 1830. The price of 3% consols ranged about 98, and that 
of the new 3i%, created in 1830, about 102. A reduction straight- 
way from 3i to 3% was not to be looked for, but it was hoped to 
ensure that reduction ultimately by offering 3i% for the first few 
years and a guarantee against redemption for a long term. Accord- 
ingly the holders of the several 3? % stocks were offered an exchange 
to a new stock bearing interest at 3} % for ten years and at 3 % for 
the following twenty years. Practically the whole of the stock, 
amounting to 249,000,000, was converted on these terms, only 
103,000 being left to be paid off at par. The immediate saving of 
interest was 622,000 a year for ten years, and twice that rate in 
subsequent years (acts 7 & 8 Viet. cc. 4 and 5). 

Mr Gladstone's only attempt at the conversion of the debt was 
made in his first year as chancellor of the exchequer. His primary 
purpose was to extinguish some small remnants of 3% 
stocks which stood outside the main stocks of that de- ' 

nomination. The act 1 6 Viet. c. 23 offered to holders of these 
minor stocks, amounting altogether to about <)\ millions, the option 
of exchanging every 100 for either 82, los. of a 3J % stock guaran- 
teed for 40 years, or no of a 2^% stock guaranteed for the same 
period, or else for exchequer bonds at par. In the result stock to the 
amount of only about 1,500,000 was converted, and the remaining 
8,000,000 had to be paid off at par, with some apparent loss of 
capital, as the current market price of the 3 % was less than par. 
The failure w?s largely owing to the fact that, between the initiation 
and the execution of the scheme, the train of events leading up to 
the Crimean War had become manifest, with unfavourable results 



272 



NATIONALITY NATIONAL WORKSHOPS 



to the public credit. Mr Gladstone had also included, as an optional 
portion of his plan, liberty to holders of the larger 3% stocks to 
exchange into the new 3j and 2j%. Very little advantage was 
taken of this permission, but the small amount of 2j% stock then 
created has been largely added to in later years by the conversion 
of stocks of higher denominations held by the national debt com- 
missioners for the savings banks and other government funds. 

Little better was the result of a more ambitious attempt made by 
Mr Childers in 1884. His offer (act 47 & 48 Viet. c. 23) extended 
1884 to t ' le holders of all the 3 % stocks, amounting to more 

than 600 millions, but no attempt was made to compel 
acceptance. There was offered in exchange for each 100 of 3% 
stock either 102 of a stock at 2 J % or 108 of a stock at 2 J %, both 
irredeemable for twenty-one years. But the amount exchanged 
into the new stocks was only 22 millions, of which more than one- 
half was stock held by government departments. 

The most important of all the conversions of the British debt was 
effected by Mr Goschen in 1888. It applied to the whole of the 3 % 
1888 stocks, amounting to a total of 558,000,000, made up as 

follows: 323,000,000 of consols, a stock which dated 
from 1752, when it was formed by the consolidation of a number of 
minor stocks; 69,000,000 of reduced 3%, of which the nucleus 
was the stock reduced from 4 to 3% by Pelham's conversion in 
!749; 166,000,000 of new 3% resulting from the conversion of 
1844. All the three stocks were, and had been for a considerable 
time, well over par. But for the past few years they had remained 
in almost a stationary position, relatively to the upward movement 
shown in the prices of the government 2j% stock, and of the stocks 
of foreign governments, of British colonies and of the leading munici- 
palities. It was clear that the anticipation of a conversion or re- 
demption scheme was weighing down consols. Direct evidence of 
this fact was afforded by the course of a new 3% stock, the local 
loans stock, which Mr Goschen had created in 1887. Though bearing 
the same interest and resting upon the same ultimate security as 
consols, this stock, which had been made irredeemable for twenty- 
five years, rose at once to a higher level of price. The opportunity 
for a great scheme of conversion had evidently come. The risk to 
be incurred by government in undertaking the liability to pay off 
such an enormous body of stock, though Iqss in comparison with the 
resources of the nation than that which Mr Goulburn had faced in 
1844, was still very great, and it was rendered more formidable by 
the fact that holders of consols and of reduced 3% were entitled 
at law to a year's notice before their stocks could be redeemed. 
If that right of notice were to be enforced as regards any large pro- 
portion of the stocks, no precaution could adequately guard against 
the risk of untoward circumstances arising to affect the operation 
before the year expired. Mr Goschen proposed to offer to the 
holders of each of the three stocks an exchange at par into a new 
stock bearing interest at 3 % for the first year, at 2f % for the next 
fourteen years and at 2$ % for twenty years thereafter, the stock 
to be irredeemable for the whole of that period, namely till 1923. 
Acceptance was made compulsory for holders of the new 3 %, with 
the alternative of being paid off at par, as they had no claim to 
receive notice; but it was made optional for the holders of the other 
two stocks, and a bonus of 53. % was offered to them as an induce- 
ment to forgo their right of notice. These provisions were duly 
embodied in the act 51 Viet. c. 2. The terms were accepted by 
practically all the holders of the new 3 % and by the great majority 
of the holders in consols and reduced 35, the amount left outstanding 
being only 42,000,000. To enable that balance to be dealt with, an 
act was passed providing for the compulsory redemption or conver- 
sion of the outstanding stock at the expiry of the statutory notice. 
The funds required for this further operation were raised by the 
issue of treasury bills and exchequer bonds, by temporary advances 
from the bank and from the national debt commissioners, and by the 
creation of an additional half-million of the new stock. In the 
result it was only necessary to find cash for paying off dissentients 
to the amount of 19,000,000. The final outcome of the whole 
operation was a saving in the annual charge of interest of 1,412,000, 
increasing to twice that amount after fourteen years. 

The conversion of the consols and reduced 3% was greatly 
facilitated by the exercise of a power, which the act conferred, to 
pay to recognized agents, such as stockbrokers, bankers and solicitors, 
a commission of is. 6d. % on stocks in respect of which they lodged 
their clients' assents. These agents were thus afforded an induce- 
ment to give their clients explanation and advice, without which 
many of the fundholders would probably not have moved in the 
matter. The commissions paid amounted to more than 234,000, 
representing stocks to the amount of over 312,000,000. The 
government would not again be confronted with this difficulty of 
having to give long preliminary notice of the intention to convert 
or redeem a large portion of the debt, as it was provided by the 
Conversion Act 1888 that the present consols should be redeemable 
after 1923 on such notice and in such manner as parliament might 
direct. (W. BL.; E. W. H.*) 

See Leroy-Beaulieu, Traile de la Science des Finances; Rau, 
Finanzwissenschaft; M'CulIoch, On Taxation and the Funding 
System; Hamilton, Inquiry concerning the Rise and Progress of the 
English Debt; Taylor, History of Taxation in England; Fenn, 
Compendium of English and Foreign Funds; Dudley Baxter, National 



Debts, and his paper in the Stat. Soc. Jour. (1874). ; Sir E. W. Hamil- 
ton, Conversion and Redemption (1889). And for statistics of national 
debts see the Statesman's Year-Book and the Stock Exchange 
Annual. 

NATIONALITY, a somewhat vague term, used strictly in 
international law (see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE) for the 
status of membership in a nation or state (for the conditions of 
which see STATE, ALLEGIANCE, NATURALIZATION, ALIEN), and 
in a more extended sense in political discussion to denote an 
aggregation of persons claiming to represent a racial, territorial 
or some other bond of unity, though not necessarily recognized 
as an independent political entity. In this latter sense the word 
has often been applied to such people as the Irish, the Armenians 
and the Czechs. A " nationality " in this connexion represents 
a common feeling and an organized claim rather than distinct 
attributes which can be comprised in a strict definition. 

NATIONAL WORKSHOPS (Fr. Ateliers Nationaux), the term 
applied to the workshops established to provide work for the 
unemployed by the French provisional government after the 
revolution of 1848.' The political crisis which resulted in the 
abdication of Louis Philippe was naturally followed, in Paris, 
by an acute industrial crisis, and this, following the general 
agricultural and commercial distress which had prevailed through- 
out 1847, rendered the problem of unemployment in Paris very 
acute. The provisional government under the influence of one of 
its members, Louis Blanc, and on the demand of a deputation 
claiming to represent the people passed a decree (Feb. 25, 
1848) from which the following is an extract: 

The provisional government of the French Republic undertakes 
to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work. It undertakes 
to guarantee work for every citizen. 

For the carrying out of this decree, Louis Blanc wanted the 
formation of a ministry of labour, but this was shelved by his 
colleagues, who as a compromise appointed a government labour 
Commission, under the presidency of Louis Blanc, with power of 
inquiry and consultation only. The carrying out of the decree 
of Feb. 25th was entrusted to the minister of public works, 
M. Marie, and various public works 2 were immediately started. 
The earlier stages of the national works are sufficiently interesting 
to justify the following detailed account: 

" The workman first of all obtained a certificate from the landlord 
of his house, or furnished apartments, showing his address, whether 
in Paris or the department of the Seine. This certificate was vised 
and stamped by the police commissary of the district. The work- 
man then repaired to the office of the maire of his ward, and, on 
delivering this document, received in exchange a note of admission 
to the national works, bearing his name, residence and calling, and 
enabling him to be received by the director of the workplaces in 
which vacancies existed. All went well while the number of the un- 
employed was less than 6000, but as soon as that number was 
exceeded the workmen of each arrondissement, after having visited 
all the open works in succession without result, returned to their 
maire's offices tired, starving and discontented. The workmen had 
been promised bread when work was not to be had, which was reason- 
able and charitable; the great mistake was, however, then committed 
of giving them money, and distributing it in public at the offices of 
the maires instead of distributing assistance in kind, which might 
have been done so easily through the agency of the bureaux de bien- 
faisance. Each maire s office was authorized to pay every un- 
employed workman 1-50 frs. per day on production of a ticket 
showing that there was no vacancy for him in the national works. 
The fixed sum of 2 francs was paid to any workman engaged on the 
public excavation work, without regard to his age, the work done 
or his calling. . . . The workman made the following simple calcu- 
lation, and he made it aloud : ' The state gives me 30 sous for doing 
nothing, it pays me 40 sous when I work, so I need only work to the 
extent of 10 sous.' This was logical. . . . 

" The works opened by the minister of public works being far 
distant from each other, and the workmen not being able to visit 
them all in turn to make certain that there were no vacancies for 
them, two central bureaux were established, one at the Halle-aux- 
Veaux under M. Wissocq, the other near the maire's office in the 

'The term is also incorrectly applied to the proposed ateliers 
sociauxol Louis Blanc (q.v.), state-supported co-operative productive 
societies. 

1 Clearing the trench of Clamart and conveying the earth to Paris 
for the construction of a railway station on the chemin de fer de 
1'Ouest; construction of the Paris terminus of the Paris-Chartres 
railway; improvement of the navigation of the Oise: extension 
of the Sceaux railway to Orsay. 



NATROLITE NATURAL BRIDGE 



273 



5th arrondissement in the Rue de Bondy, entrusted to M. Higonnet. 
. . . The workmen went to have their tickets examined at one of 
these bureaux; and the absence of employment having been 
proved, they returned to get their 30 sous at their maires' offices." 1 

Owing to the increase in the number of those claiming work or 
relief, disorganization set in, and both the bureaux and the 
maires became the centres of disturbances, those in charge of the 
offices being unable to control the crowds. As a consequence 
M. Marie commissioned Emile Thomas, a chemist connected 
with the Ecole Centrale to reorganize the works. When Thomas 
took the work in hand on the 5th of March, the number of 
unemployed had increased to 14,000 in addition to some 4000 
or 5000 employed on public works, and it was steadily on the 
increase. On the i6th of March the daily pay of the workmen 
who were not working was reduced to i franc; work was 
guaranteed for at least every other day, in which case the pay 
was to be 2 francs for the day. The possible usefulness of this 
order was stultified by the near approach of the elections, 
the moderate and extreme sections both trying to exploit the 
dissatisfied workmen. Private industry, too, was paralysed, 
the workpeople for the most part preferring i franc a day and 
idleness, with the possibility of future benefits. Thomas, left 
practically to his own resources, endeavoured to organize some 
special workshops where artisans could be employed at their own 
trades; but it was found almost impossible to persuade them 
to do serious work, as they knew that many of their fellows 
were being paid for loafing. On the igth of May the number 
enrolled had increased to 87,942. The National Assembly had 
in the meanwhile been elected, and met on the 4th of May. The 
Executive Commission was elected a few days later; Louis Blanc 
was excluded, but all the other members of the provisional 
government were on it. Blanc renewed his motion for a ministry 
of labour; this was rejected. On the isth the mob invaded the 
Assembly, and from that time the government abated their 
socialist tendencies, and cast about for means to put an end to 
what had become a serious danger to the state as well as an 
exhausting drain on the treasury. On the 24th of May Thomas 
received instructions to dismiss all unmarried men under 25 
years of age who would not enlist in the army, all men who could 
not prove six months' residence in Paris, and all who refused offers 
of private employment. Piece-work was to be established instead 
of time-work, and men were to be prepared to be drafted into the 
provinces. Thomas foretold trouble as a consequence of the 
order, and it was for a time withdrawn. On the 26th of May 
Thomas was superseded by M. Lalanne, and on the 3oth the 
National Assembly decreed the substitution of piece-work for 
time-work. On the 2oth of June the remainder of the proposals 
were approved, and the sequel was the insurrection of the 23rd 
of June and following days (see FRENCH HISTORY). How far 
the real socialistic scheme of Louis Blanc would have been 
successful if it had been put in practice must remain a matter of 
speculation. It was entered upon hastily, without any organiza- 
tion, was looked upon coldly by those servants of the govern- 
ment who ought to have assisted it, and, in the circumstances, 
was foredoomed to failure from the start. 

AUTHORITIES. E. Thomas, Histoire des ateliers nationaux (1848) ; 
L. Blanc, Histoire de la revolution fran$aise de 1848 (1870-1880); 
1848 Hist, revelations' (1858) ; A. de Lamartine, Hist, de la resolution 
de 1848 (1849) ; a useful summary is given in the English Board of 
Trade Report on Agencies and Metltodsfor dealing with the Unemployed 
(c. 7182, 1893). 

NATROLITE, a mineral species belonging to the zeolite group. 
It is a hydrated sodium and aluminium silicate with the formula 
NajAUSiaOio^HzO, and containing sodium (NajO, 16-3%), 
was named natrolite by M. H. Klaproth in 1803. " Needle- 
stone " or " needle-zeolite " are other names, alluding to the 
common acicular habit of the crystals, which are often very 
slender and are aggregated in divergent tufts. Larger crystals 
have the form of a square prism terminated by a low pyramid: 
the prism angle being nearly a right angle (88 455'), the crystals 
are tetragonal in appearance, though actually orthorhombic. 
There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. 
1 E. Thomas, Histoire des ateliers nationaux, p. 29. 



The mineral also often occurs in compact fibrous aggregates, 
the fibres having a divergent or radial arrangement (hence the 
name radiolite for one variety). From other fibrous zeolites 
natrolite is readily distinguished by its optical characters: 
between crossed nicols the fibres extinguish parallel to .their 
length, and they do not show an optic figure in convergent 
polarized light. Natrolite is usually white or colourless, but some- 
times reddish or yellowish. The lustre is vitreous, or in finely 
fibrous specimens sometimes silky. The spec. grav. is 2-2, 
and the hardness 55. The mineral is readily fusible, melting in 
a candle-flame, to which it imparts a yellow colour owing to the 
presence of sodium. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid 
with separation of gelatinous silica. 

Natrojite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities 
of basic igneous rocks. The best specimens are the diverging groups 
of white prismatic crystals found in compact basalt at the Puy-de- 
Marman, Puy-de D6me, France. The largest crystals are those from 
Brevig in Norway. The walls of cavities in the basalt of the Giant's 
Causeway, in Co. Antrim, are frequently encrusted with slender 
needles of natrolite, and similar material is found abundantly in the 
volcanic rocks (basalt and phonolite) of Salesel, Aussig and several 
other places in the north of Bohemia. 

Several varieties of natrolite have been distinguished by special 
names. Fargite is a red natrolite from Glenfarg in Perthshire. 
Bergmannite or Spreustein is an impure variety which has resulted 
by the alteration of other minerals, chiefly sodalite, in the augite- 
syenite of southern Norway. 

NATTIER, JEAN MARC (1685-1766), French painter, was 
born in Paris in 1685, the son of Marc Nattier, a portrait painter, 
and of Marie Courtois, a miniaturist. He received his first 
instruction from his father, and having applied himself to copying 
pictures at the Luxembourg Gallery, he refused to proceed to 
the French Academy in Rome, though he had taken the first 
prize at the Paris Academy at the age of fifteen. In 1715 he 
went to Amsterdam, where Peter the Great was then staying, 
and painted portraits of the tsar and the empress Catherine, but 
declined an offer to go to Russia. Between 1715 and 1720 he 
devoted himself to compositions like the " Battle of Pultawa," 
which he painted for Peter the Great, and the " Purification of 
Phineus and of his Companions," which led to his election to 
the Academy. The financial collapse of 1720 caused by the 
schemes of Law all but ruined Nattier, who found himself forced 
to devote his whole energy to portraiture. He became the 
painter of the artificial ladies of Louis XV.'s court. The most 
notable examples of his straightforward portraiture are the 
" Marie Leczinska " at the Dijon Museum, and a group of the 
artist surrounded by his family, dated 1730. He died in Paris 
in 1 766. Many of his pictures are in the public collections of 
France. Thus at the Louvre is his " Magdalen " ; at Nantes the 
portrait of " La Camargo " and " A Lady of the Court of Louis 
XV." At Orleans a " Head of a Young Girl," at Marseilles a 
portrait of " Mme de Pompadour," at Perpignan a portrait of 
'"Louis XV., " and at Valenciennes a portrait of " Le Due de 
Boufflers." The Versailles Museum owns an important group of 
two ladies, and the Dresden Gallery a portrait of the " Mar6chal 
de Saxe." At the Wallace collection Nattier is represented by 
" The Comtesse de Dillieres," " The Bath (MdlledeClermont)," 
" Portrait of a Lady in Blue," " Marie Leczinska " and " A 
Prince of the House of France." In the collection of Mr Lionel 
Phillips are the duchess of Flavacourt as " Le Silence," and the 
duchess of Chateauroux as " Le Point du jour." A portrait of 
the " Comtesse de Neubourg and her Daughter " formed part 
of the Vaile Collection, and realized 4500 gs. at the sale of this 
collection in 1903. Nattier's works have been engraved by 
Leroy, Tardieu, Lepicie, Audran, Dupin and many other noted 
craftsmen. 

See " J. M. Nattier," by Paul Mantz, in the Gazette des beaux-arts 
(1894); Life of Nattier, by his daughter, Madame Tocque; Nattier, 
by Pierre de Nolhac (1904, revised 1910); and French Painters of 
the XVIIIth Century, by Lady Dilke (London, 1899). 

NATURAL BRIDGE, a small village of Rockbridge county, 
Virginia, in the western part of the state, 179 m. by rail W. of 
Richmond, and about 16 m. S.E. of Lexington, the county-seat. 
It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western 
railways. In the vicinity of the village, which is about 1500 ft. 



274 



NATURAL GAS NATURALISM 



above sea-level, is the great natural curiosity from which it 
derives its name a bridge of natural rock 90 ft. long and from 
50 to 150 ft. wide, which spans Cedar Creek at a height of 215 ft. 
above that stream. It consists of horizontal limestone strata, 
and is the remains of the roof of a cave or underground tunnel 
through which the creek once flowed. It is crossed by a public 
road. In the village are magnesia and lithia springs and a salt- 
petre cave, which was worked during the War of 1812 and the 
Civil War. A royal grant dated the 5th of July 1 7 74 conveyed to 
Thomas Jefferson a tract of 157 acres, " including the Natural 
Bridge on Cedar Creek," and ?t did not pass from his estate until 

1833- 

NATURAL GAS, the name given to the inflammable gas occur- 
ring in petroliferous formations. It consists mainly of hydro- 
carbons of the paraffin series, principally marsh gas, which 
constitutes from 50 to 90 % of the Pennsylvanian gas. Members 
of the olefine series are also present, especially in the gas of Baku. 
Varying amounts of carbon dioxide, sometimes as much as 10% 
or more, and small quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, 
hydrogen and oxygen are also found. For particulars of the 
geological occurrence, and the collection and distribution, of 
natural gas, see PETROLEUM. 

NATURALISM. " Nature " is a term of very uncertain 
extent, and the " natural " has accordingly several antitheses, 
often more or less conflicting, and only to be learnt from the 
context in which they occur. Thus, though Man and the World 
are often opposed as respectively subject and object, yet the 
word nature is applied to both: hence Naturalism is used in 
both a subjective and an objective sense. In the subjective 
sense the natural, as the original or essential, is opposed to what 
is acquired, artificial, conventional or accidental. On this 
opposition the casuistry and paradoxes of the Sophists largely 
turned; it determined also, at least negatively, the conduct of 
the Cynics in their contempt for the customary duties and 
decencies; and it led the Stoics to seek positive rules of life in 
" conformity to nature." This deference for the " natural " 
generally, and distrust of traditional systems of thought and 
even of traditional institutions, has played a large part in 
modern philosophy, especially British philosophy. It was 
perhaps the inevitable outcome of the reaction, which began 
with the Renaissance, against the medieval domination of mere 
authority. " L'homme qui medite est un animal depravd," 
said Rousseau; and again, " Tout est bien sortant des mains de 
1'auteur des choses, tout degenere entre les mains de rhomme." 1 

In psychology and epistemology, " no one," as Green has said, 
" is more emphatic than Locke in opposing what is real to what 
we ' make for ourselves ' the work of nature to the work of the 
mind. Simple ideas or sensations we certainly do not ' make 
for ourselves.' They therefore, and matter supposed to cause 
them, are, according to Locke, real. But relations are neither 
simple ideas nor their material archetypes. They therefore, 
as Locke explicitly holds, fall under the head of the work of the 
mind, which is opposed to the real." 2 This opposition again led 
Hume, in the first place, to distinguish between natural and 
philosophical relations the former determined simply by associa- 
tion, the latter by an abitrary union of two ideas, which we 
may think proper tc compare and then, in the next, to reduce 
identity and causality, the two chief " philosophical relations," 
to fictions resulting from " natural relations," that is. to say, from 
associations of similarity and contiguity. Subjective naturalism 
thus tended to become, and in the end became, what is more 
commonly called Sensationalism or Associationism, thereby 
approximating towards that objective naturalism which reduces 
the external world to a mechanism describable in terms of matter 
and motion a result already foreshadowed when Hartley 
connected ideas and their association with brain vibrations and 
vibratiuncles. In ethics, also, the striving to get back to the 
natural entailed a similar downward trend. From the Cambridge 
Platonists, from Locke and Clarke, we hear much of rational 

1 Quoted by Eisler, Worterbuck der philosophischen Begriffe (1899), 
s.v. Naturalismus." 

1 T. H. Green, Prolegomena to Ethics (1883), 20. 



principles of conduct, comparable in respect of intelligibility 
with the truths of mathematics; but already we find that in 
Shaftesbury the centre of ethical interest is transferred from the 
Reason, conceived as apprehending either abstract moral dis- 
tinctions or laws of divine legislation, to the " natural affections " 
that prompt to social duty; 3 and when we reach Bentham, 
with pleasure and pain as " sovereign masters," and the Mills, 
with love of virtue explained by the laws of association, all 
seems to be non-rational. 4 There is much resemblance, as well 
as some historical connexion, between the naturalism of moralists 
such as Shaftesbury and Hutcheson and the Common-Sense 
metaphysics of Reid and his school. 6 Hence Kant, distinguishing 
between a " naturalistic " and " scientific " or critical method 
in metaphysics, styles Reid and his followers " naturalists of pure 
reason," satirically comparing them to people who think they can 
settle the size and distance of the moon by direct eyesight better 
than by the roundabout calculations of mathematics. 

So far we have seen the natural approximating to the non- 
rational. But when used in a subjective sense in opposition to 
the supernatural, it means the rational as opposed to what is 
above reason, or even contrary to reason. It is in this sense that 
the term Naturalism most frequently occurs; and it was so 
applied specially to the doctrines of the English Deists and the 
German Illuminati of the I7th and i8th centuries: those of 
them who held that human reason alone was capable of attaining 
to the knowledge of God were called theological naturalists 
or rationalists, while those who denied the possibility of revela- 
tion altogether were called philosophical naturalists or naturalists 
simply. 6 In these controversies the term Naturalist was also 
sometimes used in an objective sense for those who identified 
God and Nature, but they were more frequently styled Spinozists, 
Pantheists or even Atheists. But it is at once obvious that 
dispute as to what is natural and what supernatural is vain and 
hopeless till the meanings of reason and nature are clearly defined. 
" The only distinct meaning of the word " [natural], said Butler, 
" is stated, fixed or settled; since what is natural as much requires 
and presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i.e. to effect 
it continually, or at stated times, as what is supernatural or 
miraculous does to effect it for once. And from hence it must 
follow that persons' notion of what is natural will be enlarged 
in proportion to their greater knowledge. . . . Nor is there any 
absurdity in supposing that there may be beings in the universe, 
whose capacities . . . may be so extensive, as that the whole 
Christian dispensation may to them appear natural, i.e. analogous 
or conformable to God's dealings with other parts of His creation; 
as natural as the visible known course of things appears to us." 7 

The antithesis of natural to spiritual (or ideal) has mainly 
determined the use of the term Naturalism in the present 
day. 8 But current naturalism is not to be called materialism, 
though these terms are often used synonymously, as by Hegel, 
Ueberweg and other historians of philosophy; nor yet pan- 
theism, if by that is meant the immanence of all things in one 
God. We know only material phenomena, it is said; matter is 
an abstract conception simply, not a substantial reality. It is 
therefore meaningless to describe mind as its effect. Moreover, 
mind also is but an abstract conception; and here again all 
our knowledge is confined to the phenomenal. To identify the 
two classes of phenomena is, however, impossible, and indeed 
absurd; nevertheless we find a constant concomitance of 
psychosis and neurosis; and the more sensationalist and associa- 
tionist our psychology, the easier it becomes to correlate the 

* Cf. Sidgwick, History of Ethics (1886), p. 181. 

4 Cf. W. R. Sorley, The Ethics of Naturalism (1885), pp. 16 sqq. 

6 Cf. W. R. Scott, Francis tiutcheson; his Life, Teaching and 
Position in Philosophy (1900), pp. 121, 265 seq. 

See RATIONALISM; Kant, Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der 
blossen Vernunft, Hartenstein's edition, vi. 253; and Lechler, Ge- 
schichte des Englischen Deismus (1841), pp. 454 sqq. 

''Analogy, part i. chap. i. end. Cf. also J. S. Mill, Logic, book 
iii. chap. xxv. 2, and Essays on Religion. 

8 In aesthetics we find Naturalism used in a cognate sense: the 
Flemish pointers, such writers as Flaubert or Zola, for example, being 
called naturalistic or realistic, in contrast to the Italian painters or 
writers like George Sand or ihe Brontes. 



NATURALIZATION 



275 



psychical and the physical as but " two aspects " of one and the 
same fact. It is therefore simplest and sufficient to assume an 
underlying, albeit unknown, unity connecting the two. A 
monism so far neutral, neither materialistic nor spiritualistic 
is thus a characteristic of the prevailing naturalism. But when 
the question arises, how best to systematize experience as a 
whole, it is contended that we must begin from the physical side. 
Here we have precise conceptions, quantitative exactness and 
thoroughgoing continuity; every thought that has ever stirred 
the hearts of men, not less than every breeze that has ever 
rippled the face of the deep, has meant a perfectly definite re- 
distribution of matter and motion. To the mechanical principles 
of this redistribution an ultimate analysis brings us down; 
and beginning from these the nebular hypothesis and the 
theory of natural selection will enable us to explain all subsequent 
synthesis. 1 Life and mind now clearly take a secondary place; 
the cosmical mechanism determines them, while they are powerless 
to modify it. The spiritual becomes the " epiphenomenal," a 
merely incidental phosphorescence, so to say, that regularly 
accompanies physical processes of a certain type and complexity. 
(See also PSYCHOLOGY.) 

This absolute naturalism, as we may call it, the union, that 
is, of psychological and cosmolcgica) naturalism, is in fact a 
species of Fatalism, as Kant indeed entitled it. 2 It is the logical 
outcome of a Sensationalist psychology, and of the epistemology 
which this entails. As long as association of ideas (or sensory 
residua) is held to explain judgment and conscience, so long may 
naturalism stand. 

The naturalistic work of chief account at the present day is 
E. Haeckel's Die Weltratsel, gemeinverstandliche Studien uber 
monistische Philosophic (sth ed., 1900), of which an English trans- 
lation has appeared. Effective refutations will be found in the works 
of two of Haeckel's colleagues, O. Liebmann, Zur Analysis det 
Wirklichkeit (3rd ed., 1900) ; R. Eucken, Die Einheit des Geisteslebens 
in Bewusstsein und That der Menschheit (1888, Eng. trans.); Der 
Kampf um einen geistigen Lebensinhalt (1898). See also A. J. 
Balfour, Foundations of Belief (Sth ed., 1901); J. Ward, Naturalism 
and Agnosticism (1899). (J. W.*) 

NATURALIZATION, the term given in law to the acquisition 
by an alien of the national character or citizenship of a certain 
state, always with the consent of that state and of himself, 
but not necessarily with the consent of the state to which he 
previously belonged, which may refuse to its subjects the right 
of renouncing its nationality, called " expatriation," or may 
allow the right only on conditions which have not been fulfilled 
in the particular case. Hence although nationality in strict 
theory is always single, as liege homage was and allegiance in its 
proper sense is, it often happens that two states claim the same 
person as their national or subject. This conflict arises not only 
from naturalization having, been granted without the corre- 
sponding expatriation having been permitted, but also from the 
fact that birth on the soil was the leading determinant of nation- 
ality by feudal law, and still is so by the laws of England and the 
United States (jus soli), while the nationality of the father is its 
leading determinant in those countries which have accepted 
Roman principles of jurisprudence (jus sanguinis). The conflict 
is usually solved for practical purposes by an understanding 
which is approximately general, namely that, in cases not pro- 
vided for by treaty, no state shall protect those whom it claims 
as its nationals while residing in the territory of another state 
which claims them as its own nationals by any title, whether 
jus soli, jus sanguinis, naturalization, or the refusal to allow 
expatriation. On this footing the British foreign office, while 
it grants passports for travel to naturalized persons, will extend 
no protection to them against a claim of their former country, if 
they return to it, to exact military service due to it. The United 
States, asserting that expatriation is an inalienable right of man, 
maintains that, to lose his right to American protection, the 
emigrant who has been naturalized in the United States must 
have done that for which he might have been tried and punished 
at the moment of his departure; it claims to protect him against 
the exaction of what at that moment was merely a future liability 

1 Cf. Spencer, First Principles (1867), p. 398. 

2 Cf. Prolegomena, 60. 



to military service, and this doctrine has been practically accepted 
by France in her dealings with America. Germany also accepted 
it by the treaty of 1868 between the United States and the 
North German Confederation, now in force for the German 
empire, subject to provisions that the emigrant's fixing his 
domicile in the old country shall be deemed a renunciation 
of his naturalization in the new, and that his living in the old 
country for more than two years may be deemed to imply the 
absence of an intention to return to the new. Between the 
United States and Great Britain the convention of the I3th of 
May 1870 provides that naturalization in either is to be valid 
for all purposes immediately on its completion, but that if the 
resident shall renew his residence in his old country he may be 
readmitted to his old nationality, on his application and on such 
conditions as the readmitting government may impose. 

The Naturalization Act 1870, which now governs the matter 
for England, does not say that the person naturalized becomes 
thereby a British subject, to which, if it had been said, a proviso 
might have been added saving the above-mentioned policy of 
the foreign office as to not protecting him in his old country, 
although even without such a proviso the foreign office would 
have been free to follow that policy. The act in question (s. 7) 
gives him the rights and imposes on him the duties of a natural- 
born British subject in the United Kingdom, and provides that, 
when within the limits of his old country, he shall not be deemed 
a British subject unless he has ceased to be a subject of that 
country, by its laws or in pursuance of a treaty. On this wording 
it has been maintained that British naturalization is not really 
naturalization at all; but leaves the naturalized person as he 
was with the addition of a certain quality within the United 
Kingdom; and on that ground it has been considered in France 
that a Frenchman, obtaining naturalization in England, does not 
fall within the French law (Code Civil, Art. 17) which pronounces 
the expatriation of citizens who cause themselves to be naturalized 
abroad. This is the Bourgoise Case, 41 Ch. D. 310, in which, 
when it came before the English courts, Mr Justice Kay inclined 
to the same view, but the court of appeal avoided giving an 
opinion on the point. Professor Dicey leans to the same view 
(5 Law Quarterly Review, 438); but Sir Thomas Barclay (4 L.Q.R. 
226), Sir Malcolm Mcllwraith (6 L.Q.R. 379), and Professor West- 
lake (International Law Peace, 2nd ed. p. 234; Private Inter- 
national Law, 4th ed. p. 356) adopt the view that the Naturaliza- 
tion Act 1870 makes the naturalized person a full British subject, 
only to be treated in his old country in accordance with the 
international principles recognized by the British executive. 
And the foreign office, by granting passports to naturalized 
persons, acts on the same view. The point is important with 
reference to the question whether the naturalization of the father 
in the United Kingdom confers the character of British subjects 
on his children afterwards born abroad. (See ALIEN.) 

An analogous question arises on the provision in the Naturaliza- 
tion Act 1870, sec. 16, that the legislature of any British posses- 
sion may make laws " for imparting to any person the privileges 
of naturalization, to be enjoyed by such person within the limits 
' of such possession." This, in accordance with the wider view 
of the effect of naturalization in the United Kingdom, may mean 
that naturalization in pursuance of a colonial law confers the 
full character of a British subject, only without removing 
disabilities, such as that to hold land, under which the naturalized 
person may have lain as an alien in any other British possession. 
On that footing the foreign office grants passports to the holders 
of colonial certificates of naturalization, and protects them in all 
foreign countries but that of their origin; and the Merchant 
Shipping Act 1894, sec. i, allows persons naturalized in British 
possessions to be owners of British ships. On the other hand, 
those who maintain the narrower view of the effect of natural- 
ization in the United Kingdom naturally hold that colonial 
naturalization has no effect at all outside the British possession 
in which it is granted. 

Naturalization in India is regulated by the British Indian 
Naturalization Act, No. 30 of 1852, under which it may be 
granted to subjects of the several princes and states in India 



276 



NAUARCHIA NAUCRATIS 



as well as to those who are entirely aliens to the British empire. 
The former, however, are treated for several purposes as British 
subjects even without being so naturalized. 

In most countries a lengthened sojourn is a condition precedent 
to naturalization. In Belgium, the United Kingdom, North 
America and Russia the period of such sojourn is fixed at five 
years, in France, Greece and Sweden at three, in the Argentine 
Republic two, while in Portugal a residence of one year is 
sufficient. In Germany, Austria and Italy no period of residence 
is prescribed, while in Austria a ten years' residence confers 
per se the rights of citizenship. In the United States an alien 
desiring to be naturalized must declare on oath his intention 
to become a citizen of the United States; two years afterwards 
must declare on oath his intention to support the constitution 
of the United States and renounce allegiance to every foreign 
power, including that of which he was before a subject; must 
prove residence in the United States for five years, and in the 
state where his application is made for one year, as a good 
citizen; and must renounce any title of nobility. In France 
an alien desiring naturalization, if he has not resided continuously 
in the country for ten years, must obtain permission to establish 
his domicile in France; three years after (in special cases one 
year) he is entitled to apply for naturalization, which involves 
the renunciation of any existing allegiance. 

See further, ALLEGIANCE, INTERNATIONAL LAW (Private); also 
Bar, Private International Law (Gillespie's translation) ; Hansard, 
Law relating to Aliens; Cutler, Law of Naturalization; Cockburn, 
Nationality; Cogordan, Nationalite; Heffter, Europdisches Volker- 
recht; Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the British Crown; Westlake, 
International Law Peace, and Private International Law (4th ed.). 

(JNO. W.) 

NAUARCHIA (Gr. vavs, ship, dpxi?, command), the supreme 
command of the Spartan navy. The office was an annual one 
and could not be held more than once by the same man (Xen. 
Hell. ii. i. 7). This law might be evaded in special cases; the 
new admiral might not be sent to take over the command until 
some time after his election, which took place at midsummer 
(Beloch in Philologus, xliii. p. 272 sqq.), and meanwhile his pre- 
decessor remained de facto admiral; or the retiring admiral 
might, after the expiry of his term, hold an appointment as 
secretary (eiuoToXeus) to one who, though titular admiral, 
was really placed under his orders or even kept at Sparta alto- 
gether. Being independent of the kings and hampered by no 
colleague, the nauarch wielded such power that Aristotle is 
hardly going too far when he says (Politics, ii. 9. 22), ri vavapxia. 
<r\6o6v irepa jSaertAeia K.a.6to-n}Ktv. He was subject only to the 
ephors, who, if he proved incompetent, could depose him (Thuc. 
viii. 39), though they usually preferred to send out an advisory 
committee (oi;t|3ouXoi). An admiral might appoint his eTrioroXew 
to command a portion, or even the whole, of the fleet, and if 
the former died in office the secretary succeeded to his post. 

Fora detailed discussion see J. Beloch, " Die Nauarchie in Sparta," 
in the Rheinisches Museum, xxxiv. (1879) "117- 1 30, where a complete 
list of nauarchs known to us will be found; regarding the time of 
the election this is corrected by a later article of the same writer 
(Philologus, loc. cit.). See also A. Solari, Ricerche Spartane 
(Livorno, 1907), 1-58; G. Busolt, " Staats- und Rechtsaltertiimer " 
(iwan Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, iv.), 
96; G. E. Underbill's edition of Xenophon, Hellenica, i., ii., note 
oni. 5. i. (M. N.T.) 

NAUCK, JOHANN AUGUST (1822-1892), German classical 
scholar and critic, was born at Auerstadt in Prussian Saxony 
on the i8th of September 1822. After having studied at Halle 
and held educational posts in Berlin, he migrated in 1859 to 
St Petersburg, where he was professor of Greek at the imperial 
historico-philological institute (1869-1883). He died on the 
3rd of August 1892. Nauck was one of the most distinguished 
textual critics of his day, although, like P. H. Peerlkamp, he 
was fond of altering a text in accordance with what he thought 
the author must, or ought to, have written. 

The most important of his writings, all of which deal with Greek 
language and literature (especially the tragedians) are the following: 
Euripides, Tragedies and Fragments (1854, 3rd ed., 1871); Studia 
Euripidea (1859-1862) ; Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1856, 
last ed., 1889), his chief work; Index to the Fragments (1892); 
text of Sophocles (1867) ; revised edition of Schneidewin's annotated 



Sophocles (1856, &c.); texts of Homer, Odyssey (1874) and Iliad 
(1877-1879); the fragments of Aristophanes of Byzantium (1848), 
still indispensable; Porphyrius of Tyre (1860, 2nd ed., 1886); 
lamblichus, De VitaPythagorica (1884) ; Lexikon Vindobonense (1867), 
a meagre compilation of the I4th or I5th century. See memoir 
by T. Zielinski, in Bursian's Biographisches Jahrbuch (1894), and J. E. 
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), pp. 149-152. 

NAUCRARY, a subdivision of the people of Attica, which 
was certainly among the most primitive in the Athenian state. 
The word is derived either (i) from vavs (a ship) and describes 
the duty imposed upon each naucrary, of providing one ship 
and two (or, more probably, ten) horsemen; or (2) from 
vaitiv (to dwell), in which case it has to do with a householder 
census. The former is generally accepted in view of the fact 
that the naucraries were certainly the units on, which the Athenian 
fleet was based. The view once held (on the strength of a 
fragment of Aristotle, quoted carelessly by Photius) that the 
naucrary was invented by Solon may now be regarded as obsolete 
(see the Aristotelian Constitution, viii. 3). Each of the four 
Ionian tribes was divided into three trittyes (" thirds "), each 
of which was subdivided into four naucraries; there were 
thus 48 naucraries. The earliest mention of them is in Herodotus 
(v. 71), where it is stated that the Cylonian conspiracy was 
put down by the " Prytaneis (chief men) of the Naucraries." 
Although it is generally recognized that in this passage we can 
trace an attempt to shift the responsibility for the murder of 
the suppliants from the archon Megacles, it is highly improbable 
that the Prytaneis of the Naucraries did not play a part in the 
tragedy. Thucydides is probably right, as against Herodotus, in 
asserting that the nine archons formed the Athenian executive at 
this period. It may be conjectured, however, that the military 
forces of Athens were organized on the basis of the naucraries, 
and that it was the duty of the presidents of these districts 
to raise the local levies. It is certainly remarkable that the 
Aristotelian Constitution of Athens does not connect the naucrary 
with the fleet or the army; from chapter viii. it would appear 
that its importance was chiefly ir> connexion with finance 
(apx'ri TeTayiJtvri irpos re ras <r<opds (cat ras 8o.ira.vas). The 
naucrary consisted of a number of villages, and was, therefore, 
a local unit very much in the power of the naucraros, who was 
selected by reason of wealth. The naucraros superintended 
the construction of, and afterwards captained, the ship, and 
also assessed and administered the taxes in his own area. In 
the reforms of Cleisthenes, the naucraries gave place to the 
demes as the political unit. In accordance with the new decimal 
system, their number was increased to fifty. Whether they 
continued (and if so, how long) to supply one ship and two ' (or 
ten) horsemen each is not certainly known. Cheidemus in 
Photius asserts that they did, and his statement is to a certain 
extent corroborated by Herodotus ' (vi. 89) who records that, 
in the Aeginetan War before the Persian Invasion, the Athenian 
fleet numbered only fifty sail. 

See Photius (s.v.), who is clearly using the A th. Pol. (he quotes 
from it the last part of his article totidem verbis); Schomann, 
Antiq. (p. 326, Eng. trans.) quoted by J. E. Sandys (Ath. Pol. viii., 
13) refutes Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. trans., 
1895), and in Jahrb. Class. Phil. cxi. (1875) pp. 9 seq.; A. H. J. 
Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Const. Hist. p. 134; history of Greece 
in general ; for derivation of name, G. Meyer, Curtius' Studien (vii. 
175). where Wecklein is refuted. (J. M. M.) 

NAUCRATIS, an ancient Greek settlement in Egypt. The 
site was discovered by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie in 1884, 
on the eastern bank of a canal, about 10 m. W. of the present 
Rosetta branch of the Nile. In ancient times it was approached 
by the Canopic mouth, which was farther to the west. The 
identification of the site is placed beyond doubt by the discovery 
of inscriptions, with the name of the town, and of great masses 
of early Greek pottery, such as could not have existed anywhere 
else. The site was excavated in 1884-1886 by the Egypt Ex- 
ploration Fund, and a supplementary excavation was made by 
the British School at Athens in 1899. A list of the temples of 
Naucratis is given by Herodotus (ii. 178); they were the 
Hellenion, common to all the colonizing cities, and those dedicated 
1 See footnote to CLEISTHENES (i), ad fin. 



NAUDE NAUHEIM 



277 



by the Aeginetans to Zeus, by the Samians to Hera, and by the 
Milesians to Apollo. A temple of Aphrodite is also mentioned 
by Athenaeus. Traces of all these temples, except that of 
Zeus, or at least dedications coming from them, have been found 
in the excavations, and another has been added to them, the 
temple of the Dioscuri. The two chief sites to be cleared were 
the temples of Apollo and of Aphrodite, in both of which succes- 
sive buildings of various date were found. Both were remarkable 
for the great mass of early painted pottery that was found; 
in the temple of Apollo this had been buried in a trench; in 
that of Aphrodite it was scattered over the whole surface in 
two distinct strata. A great deal of it was local ware, but there 
were also imported vases from various Greek sites. In addition 
to these temples, there was also found a great fortified enclosure, 
about 860 ft. by 750, in the south-eastern part of the town; 
within it was a square tower or fort; a portico of entrance and 
an avenue of rows of sphinxes was added in Ptolemaic times, 
as is shown by the foundation deposits found at the corners 
of the portico; these consisted of models of the tools and materials 
used in the buildings, models of instruments for sacrifice or 
ceremonies, and cartouches of King Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
Professor Petrie naturally supposed this great enclosure to be 
the Hellenion or common sanctuary of the Greeks, but Mr. 
Hogarth subsequently found traces of another great walled 
enclosure to the north-east of the town, together with pottery 
dedicated ToTsTcoy'EXX^wv fleets, and he claims with reason that 
this enclosure is more likely than the other to be the Hellenion, 
since no early Greek antiquities have been found in the southern 
part of the town, which seems rather to have been a native 
settlement. The cemetery of the ancient town was found 
on two low mounds to the north, but was mostly of Ptolemaic 
date. 

Apart from the historic interest of the site, as the only Greek 
colony in Egypt in early times, the chief importance of the 
excavations lies in the rich finds of early pottery and in the 
inscriptions upon them, which throw light on the early history 
of the alphabet. The most flourishing period of the town was 
from the accession of Amasis II. in 570 B.C to the Persian 
invasion of 520 B.C., when the contents of the temples must 
have been destroyed. The earlier chronology has been much 
disputed. There are clear traces of a settlement going back 
to the 7th century, including a scarab factory, which yielded 
numerous scarabs, not of native Egyptian manufacture, bearing 
the names of the kings that preceded Amasis. Among these 
were fragments of early Greek pottery. It seems a fair inference 
that the makers of these were Greeks, and that they probably 
represent the early Milesian colony, settled here in the time 
of Psammetichus I., before the official assignment of the site 
by Amasis to the Greek colonists of various cities. The most 
important of the antiquities found are now in the British Museum. 

See W. M. F. Petrie, &c., Naukratis I., third Memoir of the Egypt 
Exploration Fund (1886); E. A. Gardner, &c., Naukratis II., sixth 
Memoir of same (1889) ; D. G. Hogarth, &c., Annual of the British 
School at Athens (1898-1899). (E. GR.) 

NAUDE, GABRIEL (1600-1653), French librarian and scholar, 
was born in Paris on the 2nd of February 1600. He studied 
medicine at Paris and Padua, and became physician to 
Louis XIII. In 1629 he became librarian to Cardinal Bagni at 
Rome, and on Bagni's death in 1641 librarian to Cardinal 
Barberini. At the desire of Richelieu he began a wearisome 
controversy with the Benedictines, denying Gerson's authorship 
of De ImUatione Christi. Richelieu intended to make Naude 
his librarian, and on his death Naude accepted a similar offer on 
the part of Mazarin, and for the next ten years devoted himself 
to bringing together from all parts of Europe the noble assemblage 
of books known as the Bibliotheque Mazarine. Mazarin's 
library was sold by the parlement of Paris during the troubles 
of the Fronde, and Queen Christina invited Naude to Stockholm. 
He was not happy in Sweden, and on Mazarin's appeal that he 
should re-form his scattered library Naude returned at once. 
But his health was broken, and he died on the journey at Abbe- 
ville on the 30th of July 1653. The friend of Gui Patin, of Pierre 



Gassendi and all the liberal thinkers of his time, Naude was no 
mere bookworm; his books show traces of the critical spirit 
which made him a worthy colleague of the humorists and 
scholars who prepared the way for the better known writers of 
the " siecle de Louis XIV." 

Including works edited by him, a list of ninety-two pieces is 
given in the Naudaeana. The chief are Le Marfore, on discours 
centre les libettes (Paris, 1620), very rare, reprinted 1868; Instruction 
a la France sur la verite de I'histoire des Freres]de la Roze-Croix 
(1623, 1624), displaying their impostures; Apologie pour tous les 
grands personnages faussement soupconnez de magie (1625, 1652, 
1669, 1712), Pythagoras, Socrates, Thomas Aquinas and Solomon 
are among those defended; Advis pour dresser une bibliotheque (1627, 
1644, 1676; translated by J. Evelyn, 1661), full of sound and liberal 
views on librarianship ; Addition a I'histoire de Louys XI. (1630), 
this includes an account of the origin of printing; Bibliographia 
politica (Venice, 1633, &c. ; in French, 1642), a mere essay of no 
bibliographical value; De studio liberali syntagma (1632, 1654), a 
practical treatise found in most collections of directions for studies; 
De studio militari syntagma (1637), esteemed in its day; Considera- 
tions politiques sur les coups d'etat (Rome [Paris], 1639; first edition 
rare, augmented by Dumay, 1752), this contains an apology for the 
massacre of St Bartholomew; Biblioth. Cordesianae Catalogus (1643), 
classified; Jugement de tout ce qui a. etc imprime centre le Card. 
Mazarin (1649), Naude's best work, and one of the ablest defences 
of Mazarin; it is written in the form of a dialogue between Saint- 
Ange and Mascurat, and is usually known under the name of the 
latter. 

AUTHORITIES. L. Jacob, G. Naudaei tumulus (1659); P. HallS, 
Elogium Naudaei (1661); Niceron, Memoires, vol. ix. ; L. Jacob, 
Traicte des plus belles bibliotheques (1644) ; Gui Patin, Lettres (1846) ; 
Naudaeana et Patiniana (1703); Sainte-Beuve, Portraits Lilt. 
vol. ii. ; A. Franklin, Histoire de la Bibl. Mazarine (1860). 

NAUGATUCK, a township and borough of New Haven 
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Naugatuck river, 5 m. S. 
of Waterbury, with an area of 17 sq. m. in 1906. Pop. (1890) 
6218, (1900) 10,541, of whom 3432 were foreign-born, (1910 
census) 12,722. It is served by the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford railroad and by interurban electric railways. 
Among the principal public buildings are the Whittemore 
Memorial Public Library (1892), a fine high school and the 
large Salem school (part of the public school system), all given 
to the borough by John Howard Whittemore of Naugatuck, 
who in addition endowed the library and the high school. The 
river furnishes water-power. Among the manufactures are 
rubber goods, chemicals, iron castings, woollen goods, cutlery, 
&c. The value of the factory products increased from $8,886,676 
in 1900 to $11,009,573 in 1005, or 23-9%. The prominence of 
the rubber industry here is due to Charles Goodyear (q.v.), who 
in 1821 entered into partnership with his father Amasa Goodyear 
for the manufacture of hardware. Vulcanized rubber overshoes 
were first made in Naugatuck, and in 1843 the Goodyear's 
Metallic Rubber Shoe Company was established here. The 
township was formed from parts of Waterbury, Bethany and 
Oxford, and was incorporated in 1844; the borough was 
chartered in 1893; and the two were combined in 1895. 

NAUHEIM, or BAD-NAUHEIM, a watering-place of Germany, 
in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, situated on the north- 
east slope of the Taunus Mountains, 24 m. by rail N. of Frankfort - 
on-Main on the main line of railway to Cassel. Pop. (1905) 
5054. It has three Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an 
English church. Its thermal waters (84 to 95 F.), although 
known for centuries, were, prior to 1835, only employed for the 
extraction of salt. They now yield about 2000 tons annually. 
The town has several parks, the largest being the Kurpark, 
125 acres in extent, in which are the Kurhaus and the two chief 
springs. The waters, which are saline, strongly impregnated 
with carbonic acid, and to a less extent with iron, are principally 
used for bathing, and are specific in cases of gout and rheumatism, 
but especially for heart affections. Three smaller springs, 
situated outside the Kurpark, supply water for drinking. In 
1899-1900 a new spring (saline) was tapped at a depth of 682 ft. 
Another attraction of the place is the Johannisberg, a hill 
773 ft. high, immediately overlooking the town. 

Nauheim, which was bestowed by Napoleon upon Marshal 
Davout, became a town in 1854. From 1815 to 1866 it belonged 
to the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, but in 1866 it was ceded to 



278 



NAULETTE NAUPACTUS 



the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. It was the scene of 
fighting between the French and the Germans in 1762 and again 
in 1792. 

See Grodel, Bad Nauheim, seine Kurmittel (gth ed., Friedberg, 
1903); Credner, Die Kurmittel in Bad Nauheim (Leipzig, 1894); 
Bode, Bad Nauheim, seine Kurmittel und Erfolge (Wiesbaden, 1889) ; 
and Weber, Die Park- und Waldanlagen vom Bad Nauheim (Nauheim, 
1906). 

NAULETTE, a large cavern on the left bank of the Lesse, 
which joins the Meuse above Dinant, Belgium. Here in 1866 
Edouard Dupont discovered an imperfect human lower jaw, 
now in the Brussels Natural History Museum. It is of a very 
ape-like type in its extreme projection and that of the teeth 
sockets (teeth themselves lost), with canines very strong and 
large molars increasing in size backward. It was found associated 
with the remains of mammoth, rhinoceros and reindeer. The 
Naulette man is now assigned to the Mousterian Epoch. 

See G. de Mortillet, Le Prehistorique (1900) ; E. Dupont, Etude 
sur les fouilles scientifiques executees pendant I'hiver (1865-1866), p. 21. 

NAUMACHIA, the Greek word denoting a naval battle (VaOs, 
ship, andjuaxi?, battle), used by the Romans as a term for a mimic 
sea-fight. These entertainments took place in the amphitheatre, 
which was flooded with water, or in specially constructed 
basins (also called naumachiae) . The first on record, representing 
an engagement between a Tyrian and an Egyptian fleet, was given 
by Julius Caesar (46 B.C.) on a lake which he constructed in the 
Campus Martius. In 2 B.C. Augustus, at the dedication of the 
temple of Mars Ultor, exhibited a naumachia between Athenians 
and Persians, in a basin probably in the horti Caesaris, where 
subsequently Titus gave a representation of a sea-fight between 
Corinth and Corcyra. In that given by Claudius (A.D. 52) on 
the lacus Fucinus, 19,000 men dressed as Rhodians and Sicilians 
manoeuvred and fought. The crews consisted of gladiators and 
condemned criminals; in later times, even of volunteers. 

See L. Friedlander in J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. 
(1885) p. 558. 

NAUMACHIUS, a Greek gnomic poet. Of his poems 73 
hexameters (in three fragments) are preserved by Stobaeus in his 
Florilegium; they deal mainly with the duty of a good wife. 
From the remarks on celibacy and the allusion to a mystic 
marriage it has been conjectured that the author was a Christian. 

The fragments, translated anonymously into English under the 
title of Advice tcrthe Fair Sex (1736), are in Gaisford's Po'etae minores 
Graeci, iii. (1823). 

NAUMANN, GEORG AMADEUS CARL FRIEDRICH (1797- 
1873), German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Dresden 
on the 3oth of May 1797, the son of a distinguished musician 
and composer. He received his early education at Pforta, studied 
at Freiberg under Werner, and afterwards at Leipzig and Jena. 
He graduated at Jena, and was occupied in 1823 in teaching in 
that town and in 1824 at Leipzig. In 1826 he succeeded Mohs 
as professor of crystallography, in 1835 he became professor 
also of geognosy at Freiberg; and in 1842 he was appointed 
professor of mineralogy and geognosy in the university of Leipzig. 
At Freiberg he was charged with the preparation of a geological 
map of Saxony, which he carried out with the aid of Bernhard 
von Cotta in 1846. He was a man of encyclopaedic knowledge, 
lucid and fluent as a teacher. Early in life (1821-1822) he 
travelled in Norway, and his observations on that country, and 
his subsequent publications on crystallography, mineralogy and 
geology established his reputation. He was awarded the 
Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society of London in 1868. 
He died at Leipzig on the 26th of November 1873. 

He published Beitrage zur Kenntniss Norwegens (2 vols., 1824); 
Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1*828) ; Lehrbuch der reinen und ange- 
wandten Krystallographie (2 vols. and atlas, 1830); Elemente der 
Mineralogie (1846; ed. 9, 1874; the loth ed. [by F. Zirkel, 1877); 
Lehrbuch der Geognosie (2 vols. and atlas, 1849-1854, ed. 2, 1858- 
1872). 

NAUMBURG, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian 
Saxony, the seat of the provincial law courts and court of appeal 
for the province and the neighbouring districts. It is situated 
on the Saale, near its junction with the Unstrut, in the centre 
of an amphitheatre of vine-clad hills, 29 m. S.W. from Halle, 
on the railway to Weimar and Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 25,137. 



The cathedral, an imposing building in the Romanesque Transi- 
tion style (1207-1242), has a Gothic choir at each end, and 
contains some interesting medieval sculptures. It is remarkable 
for its large crypt and its towers, a fourth having been added 
in 1894, the gift of the emperor William II. There are also 
four other Protestant churches (of which the town church, 
dedicated to St Wenceslaus and restored in 1892-1894, possesses 
two pictures by Lucas Cranach the elder), a Roman Catholic 
church, a gymnasium, a modern school, an orphanage and three 
hospitals. A curious feature of the town is the custom, which has 
not yet died out, of labelling the houses with signs, such as the 
" swan," the " leopard " and the " lion." The industries of the 
place mainly consist in the manufacture of cotton and woollen 
fabrics, chemicals, combs, beer, vinegar and leather. On the 
hills to the north of the town, across the Unstrut, lies Schenkel- 
burg, once the residence of the poet Gellert, and noticeable 
for the grotesque carvings in the sandstone rocks. 

In the loth century Naumburg was a stronghold of the mar- 
graves of Meissen, who in 1029 transferred to it the bishopric of 
Zeitz. In the history of Saxony it is memorable as the scene of 
various treaties; and in 1561 an assembly of Protestant princes 
was held there, which made a futile attempt to cement the 
doctrinal dissensions of the Protestants. In 1564 the last bishop 
died, and the bishopric fell to the elector of Saxony. In 1631 
the town was taken by Tilly, and in 1632 by Gustavus Adolphus. 
It became Prussian in 1814. An annual festival, with a pro- 
cession of children, which is still held, is referred to an apocryphal 
siege of the town by the Hussites in 1432, but is 'probably con- 
nected with an incident in the brothers' war (1447-51), between 
the elector Frederick II. of Saxony and his brother Duke William. 
Karl Peter Lepsius (1775-1853), the antiquary and his more 
distinguished son Richard the Egyptologist, were born at 
Naumburg. 

See E. Borkowsky, Die Geschichte der Stadt Naumburg an der Saale 
(Stuttgart, 1897); E. Hoffmann, Naumburg an der Saale im Zeitalter 
der Reformation (Leipzig, 1900); S. Braun, Naumburger Annalen 
vom Jahre 799 bis 1613 (Naumburg, 1892) ; Puttrich, Naumburg an 
der Saale, sein Dom und andre altertumliche Bauwerke (Leipzig, 1841- 
1843) ; and Wispel, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Stadt Naumburg an 
der Saale (Naumburg, 1903). 

NAUNTON, SIR ROBERT (1563-1635), English politician, the 
son of Henry Naunton of Alderton, Suffolk, was educated at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow of his college in 
1585 and public orator of the university in 1594. Walter 
Devereux, earl of Essex, enabled him to spend some time abroad, 
sending information about European affairs. Having returned 
to England, he entered parliament in 1606 as member for 
Helston, and he sat in the five succeeding parliaments; in 1614 
he was knighted, in 1616 he became master of requests and later 
surveyor of the court of wards. In 1618 his friend Buckingham 
procured for him the position of secretary of state. Naunton's 
strong Protestant opinions led him to favour more active inter- 
vention by England in the interests of Frederick V., and more 
vigorous application of the laws against Roman Catholics. 
Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, complained to James, who 
censured his secretary. Consequently in 1623 Naunton resigned 
and was made master of the court of wards. He died at Lether- 
ingham, Suffolk, on the 27th of March 1635. Naunton's valuable 
account of Queen Elizabeth's reign was still in manuscript when 
he died. As Fragmenta regalia, written by Sir Robert Naunton, 
it was printed in 1641 and again in 1642, a revised edition, 
Fragmenta Regalia, or Observations on the late Queen Elizabeth, 
her Times and Favourites, being issued in 1653. It was again 
published in 1824, and an edition edited by A. Arber was brought 
out in 1870. It has also been printed in several collections and has 
been translated into French and Italian. There are several 
manuscript copies extant, and some of Naunton's letters are in 
the British Museum and in other collections. 

See Memoirs of Sir Robert Naunton (1814). 

NAUPACTUS (Ital. Lepanlo, mod. Gr. Epakto), a town in 
the nomarchy of Acarnania and Aetolia, Greece, situated on a 
bay on the north side of the straits of Lepanto. The harbour, 
once the best on the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf, is now 






NAUPLIA NAUTILUS 



279 



almost entirely choked up, and is accessible only to the smallest 
craft. Naupactus is an episcopal see; pop. about 2500. In 
Greek legend it appears as the place where the Heraclidae built 
a fleet to invade Peloponnesus. In historical times it belonged 
to the Ozolian Locrians; but about 455 B.C., in spite of a partial 
resettlement with Locrians of Opus, it fell to the Athenians, 
who peopled it with Messenian refugees and made it their chief 
naval station in western Greece during the Peloponnesian war. 
In 404 it was restored to the Locrians, who subsequently lost 
it to the Achaeans, but recovered it through Epaminondas. 
Philip II. of Macedon gave Naupactus to the Aetolians, who held 
it till 191, when after an obstinate siege it was surrendered to the 
Romans. It was still flourishing about A.D. 170, but in Justinian's 
reign was destroyed by an earthquake. In the middle ages it fell 
into the hands of the Venetians, who fortified it so strongly that 
in 1477 it successfully resisted a four months' siege by a Turkish 
army thirty thousand strong; in 1499, however, it was taken 
by Bayezid II. The mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto was the scene 
of the great sea fight in which the naval power of Turkey was 
for the time being destroyed by the united papal, Spanish and 
Venetian forces (October 7, 1571). See LEPANTO, BATTLE oif. In 
1678 it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored 
in 1699, by the treaty of Karlowitz to the Turks; in the war of 
independence it finally became Greek once more (March 1829). 

See Strabo ix. pp. 426-427; Pausanias x. 38. 10-13; Thucydides 
i.-iii. passim; Livy. bk. xxxvi. passim; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, 
Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), No. 25. 

NAUPLIA, a town in the Peloponnesus, at the head of the 
Argolic Gulf. In the classical period it was a place of no import- 
ance, and when Pausanias lived, about A.D. 150, it was deserted. 
At a very early time, however, it seems to have been of greater 
note, being the seaport of the plain in which Argos and Mycenae 
are situated, and several tombs of the Mycenaean age have been 
found. A hero Nauplius took part in the Argonautic expedition; 
another was king of Euboea. The mythic importance of the town 
revived in the middle ages, when it became one of the chief cities 
of the Morea. It was captured in 1 2 1 1 by Godfrey Villehardouin 
with the help of Venetian ships; a French dynasty ruled in it for 
some time, and established the feudal system in the country. In 
1388 the Venetians bought Argos and Nauplia. In the wars 
between Venice and the Turks it often changed masters. It 
was given to the Turks at the peace concluded in 1540; 
it was recaptured by Venice in 1686, and Palamidhi on the hill 
overhanging the town was made a great fortress. In 1715 it was 
taken by the Turks; in 1770 the Russians occupied it for a short 
time. The Greeks captured it during the War of Independence 
on the 1 2th of December 1822, and it was the seat of the Greek 
administration till 1833, when Athens became the capital of 
the country. It is the chief town of the department of Argolis 
(pop. in 1907, 81,943). Pop. at>out 6000. 

NAUSEA (from Gr. vavs, a ship), sea-sickness, or generally 
any disposition to vomit; also used figuratively to denote 
feelings of strong aversion or dislike. 

NAUSICAA, in Greek legend, daughter of Alcinous, king of 
the Phaeacians in' the island of Scheria (Odyssey, vi. 15-315, 
viii. 457.) When Odysseus (Ulysses) was swept into the sea from 
the raft on which he had left the home of Calypso, he swam 
ashore to Scheria, where he fell asleep on the bank of a river. 
Here he was found by Nausicaa, who supplied him with clothes 
and took him to her father's palace, where he was hospitably 
entertained. She is said to have become the wife of Telemachus. 
The incident of Odysseus and Nausicaa formed the subject of a 
lost play by Sophocles and was frequently represented in ancient 
art. 

NAUTCH (Hindostani nach), an Indian ballet-dance. The 
nautch is performed by nautch-girls, who move their feet but 
little, and the dance consists of swaying the body and posturing 
with the arms. 

NAUTILUS. The term nautilus, meaning simply " the sailor," 
was applied by the ancient Greeks to the genus of eight-armed 
cuttlefishes or octopods which is now known as the paper nautilus, 
amf whose scientific name is Argonauta (see CEPHALOPODA). 



This animal is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, and from 
its habit of floating at the surface attracted the attention of the 
fishermen and sailors of the Aegean Sea from the earliest times. 
The popular belief that the expanded arms are raised above the 
water to act as sails and that the other arms are used as oars 
was not based on any actual observation of the living animal, and 
it is now known that although the animal floats at the surface 
it does not sail, the expanded arms being applied to the exterior 
surface of the shell, which is secreted by them. The eggs are 
carried in the shell, and as this structure is entirely absent in the 
males, there is good reason to conclude that the habit of carrying 
the eggs and using one pair of arms for that purpose gave rise 
to the modification of those arms and the secretion of the shell 
by them. Huxley once expressed the truth of the matter with 
characteristic felicity in the remark that if the shell of the 
Argonaut is to be compared to anything of human invention or 
construction at all, it should be compared, not to a ship or boat, 
but to a perambulator. 

The shell of Argonauta (see fig. i) is spirally coiled and sym- 
metrical, and thus bears a remarkable resemblance to the shell 
of the pearly nautilus and the extinct ammonites, especially 




FIG. I. The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers.) 

Tr, Float; Br.a, ventral or posterior arms; Br.p, dorsal or 
anterior arms; V, the expanded portion of them, once called the 
sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En, the funnel. 

as it is like that of the pearly nautilus coiled towards the dorsal 
or anterior surface of the animal. It is ornamented by ridges 
and furrows which pass in transverse curves from the inner to 
the outer margin of the coils. The outer margin or keel is some- 
what flattened and the whole shell is compressed from side to side. 
It differs entirely from the shell of the pearly nautilus in the 
absence of internal septa and siphuncle and in the absence of 
any attachment between it and the body. It is in fact entirely 
different in origin and relations to the body from the typical 
molluscan shell secreted by the mantle in other Cephalopods and 
other types of Mollusca. It is a structure sui generis, unique 
in the whole phylum of Mollusca. 

The only description of the living animal by a competent 
observer which we have is that of Lacaze Duthiers, made on a 
single specimen on the Mediterranean coast of France, and pub- 
lished in 1892, and even this is in some respects incomplete. 
The specimen after capture was carried in a bucket, and became 
separated from its shell. When placed with the shell in a large 
aquarium tank the animal resumed possession of the shell and 
assumed the attitude shown in fig. i. The shell floated at 
the surface, doubtless in consequence of- the inclusion of some 
air in the cavity of the shell. It is not known with certainty 
that the animal is able in its natural state to descend below the 
surface; the specimen here considered never did so of its own 
accord, and when pushed down always rose again. 



28o 



NAUVOO 



The siphon or funnel is unusually large and prominent, and is the 
chief or only organ of locomotion, the water which is expelled from 
it driving the animal backwards. The arms are usually turned 
backwards and carried inside the shell, to the inner surface of which 
the suckers adhere, but one or two arms are from time to time 
extended in front. This does not apply to the dorsal arms which are 
applied to the outside of the shell, and the expanded membrane 
of these arms covers the greater part of its surface. The dorsal arms 
are turned backwards, and each is twisted so that the oral surfaces 
face each other and the suckers are in contact with the shell. The 
membrane or velum is thin, and is really a great expansion of a dorsal 
membrane similar to that which is found along the median dorsal 
line of the two posterior arms. The suckers of the originally posterior 
series of each dorsal arm lie along the external border of the shell, 
and the arm with its two rows of suckers extends round the whole 
border of the membrane, the arm being curved into a complete loop, 
so that its extremity reaches almost to the origin of the membrane 
near the base of the arm, the extremity being continued on to the 
internal surface of the membrane. The external row of suckers, 
originally the posterior row, are united by membrane which is con- 
tinuous with the velum. The smaller suckers on the more distal 
part of the arm, which extends along the edge of the shell-aperture, 
are quite sessile. In the figure of Lacaze-Duthiers (fig. i) the suckers 
appear to be turned away from the shell, but this is erroneous. 
A figure showing the natural position is given in the Monograph of 
the Cephalopoda in the series of Monographs issued by the Zoological 
Station of Naples. 

The animal described by Lacaze-Duthiers lived a fortnight in 
captivity, during which time it devoured with avidity small fishes 
which were presented to it, seizing them, not by throwing out all 
the ventral arms, but by means of the suckers near the mouth. 

Judging from these observations, Argonauta is a pelagic animal 
which lives and feeds near the surface of the ocean. Several 
species of Argonauta are known, distributed in the tropical parts 
of all the great oceans. The male is much smaller than the 
female, not exceeding an inch or .so in length. It secretes no 
shell and its dorsal arms are not modified. The third arm on 
the left side, however, is modified in another way in connexion 
with reproduction. 

Argonauta is one of the Cephalopods in which the process known 
as hectocotylization of one arm is developed to its extreme degree, 
the arm affected becoming ultimately detached and left by the male 
in the mantle cavity of the female where it retains for some time its 
life and power of movement. The hectocotylus or copulatory arm in 
the Argonaut is developed at first in a closed cyst (fig. 2), which 




FIG. 2.^a, Male of Argonauta argo, with the hectocotylized arm 
still contained in its enveloping cyst, four times enlarged (after H. 
Mttller). b, Hectocotylus of Tremoctopus violaceus (after Kolliker). 

afterwards bursts, allowing the arm to uncoil; the remains of the 
cyst form a sac on the back of the arm which serves to contain the 
spermatophores. 

The animal known as the Pearly Nautilus was unknown to the 
ancient Greeks, since its habitat is the seas of the far East, 
but in the middle ages, when its shell became known in Europe, 
it was called, from its superficial similarity to that of the original 
nautilus, by the same name. It was Linnaeus who, in order to 
distinguish the two animals, took the name " nautilus " from 
the animal to which it originally belonged and bestowed it upon 
the very different East Indian Mollusc, giving to the original 
nautilus the new name Argonauta. Zoological nomenclature 
dates from Linnaeus, and thus the nautilus is now the name of the 



only living genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods. A detailed 
description of this animal is given in the article Cephalopoda 
(q.v.) ; it is only necessary to add here a brief account of its mode 
of life and habits. 

Four species are known from the Indian and Pacific oceans; they 
are gregarious and nocturnal animals living at some depth and 
apparently always on the bottom. The natural attitude of the 
animal as represented by Dr Willey is with the oral surface down- 
wards, the tentacles spread out, and the shell vertical. The chambers 
of the shell have no communication with one another nor with the 
siphuncle. they are air-tight cavities and filled, not with water, but 
with a nitrogenous gas. This necessarily very much reduces the 
specific gravity of the animal, but it is still heavier than the water 
and does not seem capable of rising to the surface any more than an 
octopus. Nautilus is rather abundant at some localities in the East 
Indian Archipelago, for example at Amboyna in the Moluccas. In 
1901-1902 Dr Arthur Willey of Cambridge University spent some 
time in that region for the purpose of investigating the reproduction 
and development of the animal. He stationed himself at New 
Britain, known to the Germans as Neu Pommern, an island of the 
Bismarck Archipelago off the coast of Papua. The natives of this 
island use the nautilus for food, capturing them by means of a large 
fish-trap similar in construction to the cylindrical lobster-traps used 
by British fishermen. Fish is used for bait. Dr Willey found the 
males much more numerous than the females; of fifteen specimens 
captured on one occasion only two were females. He kept specimens 
alive both in vessels on shore and in large baskets moored at the 
bottom of the sea. He found that when they were placed in a vessel 
of sea water numbers of a small parasitic Crustacea issued from the 
mantle cavity. Some of the females laid eggs in captivity, but 
these were found not to be fertilized; they were about 3-5 centi- 
metres long and attached singly by a broad base to the sides of the 
cage in which the animals were confined. 

LITERATURE. Lacaze-Duthiers,"Observationd'unargonautedela 
Mediterran6e," Arch. zool. exper. x. (1902), p. 1892. Cephalopoda, by 
Jalta ; Fauna und Flora des Colfes von Neapel, monographs issued by 
the Zoological Station of Naples. Bashford Dean, " Notes on Living 
Nautilus, ' Amer. Natur. xxxv. (1901). A. Willey, Contribution to 
the Natural History of the Pearly Nautilus; A. Willey 's Zoological 
Results, pt. vi. (1902). (J. T. C.) 

NAUVOO, a city of Hancock county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the 
Mississippi river at the head of the lower rapids and about 50 m. 
aboveQuincy. Pop. (1900) 1321; (1910) 1020. On the opposite 
bank of the river is Montrose, Iowa (pop. in 1910, 708), served 
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway. Nauvoo is the 
seat of St Mary's Academy and Spalding Institute (1907), 
two institutions of the Benedictine Sisters. " Commerce City " 
was laid out here in 1834 by Connecticut speculators; but the 
first settlement of importance was made by the Mormons (q.v.) 
in 1839-1840; they named it Nauvoo, 1 in obedience to a 
" revelation " made to Joseph Smith, and secured a city charter 
in 1840. Four years later its population was about 15,000, and 
a large Mormon temple had been built, but internal dissensions 
arose, "gentile" hostility was aroused, the charter of Nauvoo 
was revoked in 1845, two of the leaders, Joseph Smith and his 
brother Hyrum, were killed at Carthage, the county-seat, by 
a mob, and in 1846 the sect was driven from the state. Traces of 
Mormonism, however, still remain in the ruins of the temple 
and the names of several of the streets. Three years after the 
expulsion of the Mormons Nauvoo was occupied by the remnant 
(some 250) of a colony of French communists, the Icarians, 
who had come out under the leadership of Etienne Cabet (q.v.). 
For a few years the colony prospered, and by 1855 its membership 
had doubled. It was governed under a constitution, drafted 
by Cabet, which vested the legislative authority in a general 
assembly composed of all the males twenty years of age or over 
and the administrative authority in a board of six directors, 
three of whom were elected every six months for a term of one 
year. Each family occupied its own home, but property was 
held in common, all ate at the common table, and the children 
were taught in the community school. In December 1855 
Cabet proposed a revision of the constitution to give him greater 
authority. This resulted in rending the colony into two irrecon- 
cilable factions, and in October 1856 Cabet with the minority 
(172) withdrew to St Louis, Mo., where he died on the 8th of 
November. In May 1858 the surviving members of his faction 
together with a few fresh arrivals from France established a new 

1 The Mormons said the name was of Hebrew origin and meant 
" beautiful place "; Hebrew " naveh " means " pleasant." 






NAVAHO NAVARRE 



281 



Icarian colony at Cheltenham near St Louis, but this survived 
only for a brief period. Nauvoo was never intended to be more 
than a temporary home for the Icarians. Soon after the schism 
of 1856 those who had rebelled against Cabet began to prepare 
a permanent home in Adams county, Iowa. There too in 1879 
the community split into two factions, the Young Party and the 
Old Party. Some time before this separation a few members 
of the colony removed to the vicinity of Cloverdale, Sonoma 
county, California, and here most of the members of the Young 
Party joined them early in 1884 in forming the Icaria-Speranza 
Community. This society tried a government quite different 
from that first adopted at Nauvoo, but it ceased to exist after 
about three years. The Old Party also adopted a new constitu- 
tion, but it too was dissolved in 1895. 

See Albert Shaw, Icaria: A Chapter in the History of Communism 
(New York, 1884) ; Jules Prudhommeaux, Icaria et son fondateur 
Etienne Cabet (Paris, 1907); and H. Lux, Etienne Cabet und der 
Ikarische Kommunismus (Stuttgart, 1894). 

NAVAHO, or NAVAJO, a tribe of North American Indians of 
Athabascan stock. They inhabit the northern part of Arizona 
and New Mexico. The majority live by breeding horses, sheep 
and goats. They are well known for their beautiful blanket 
weaving. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.) 

NAVAN, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, situated at 
the confluence of the Blackwater with the Boyne. Pop. (1901) 
3839. It is a railway junction of some importance, where the 
Clonsilla and Kingscourt branch of the Midland Great Western 
railway crosses the Drogheda and Oldcastle branch of the Great 
Northern. By the former it is 30 m. N.W of Dublin. Navan 
is the principal town of county Meath (though Trim is the county 
town), and has considerable trade in corn and flour, some manu- 
facture of woollens and of agricultural implements, and a tannery. 
Navan was a barony of the palatinate of Meath, was walled and 
fortified, and was incorporated by charter of Edward IV. It 
suffered in the civil wars of 1641, and returned two members to 
the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800. It is governed by 
an urban district council, and is a favourite centre for rod-fishing 
for trout and salmon. 

NAVARINO, BATTLE OF, fought on the 2oth of October 1827, 
the decisive event which established the independence of Greece. 
By the treaty signed in London on the 6th of July 1827 (see 
GREECE, History), England, France and Russia agreed to demand 
an armistice, as preliminary to a settlement. Sir Edward 
Codrington, then commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, 
received the treaty and his instructions on the night of the 
loth/i ith of August at Smyrna, and proceeded at once to Nauplia 
to communicate them to the Greeks. His instructions were to 
demand an armistice, to intercept all supplies coming to the 
Turkish forces in the Morea from Africa or Turkey in general, 
and to look for directions to Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford 
de Redcliffe), the British ambassador at Constantinople. The 
ambassador's instructions reached Codrington on the 7th of 
September. He was accompanied to Nauplia by his French 
colleague, Rear-Admiral de Rigny. The Greek government 
agreed to accept the armistice. Admiral de Rigny left for a 
cruise in the Levant, and Sir Edward Codrington, hearing that an 
Egyptian armament was on its way from Alexandria, and 
believing that it was bound for Hydra, steered for that island, 
which he reached on the 3rd of September, but on the i2th of 
September found the Egyptians at anchor with a Turkish squadron 
at Navarino. The Turkish government refused to accept the 
armistice. On the ipth of September, seeing a movement among 
the Egyptian and Turkish ships in the bay, Codrington informed 
the Ottoman admiral, Tahir Pasha, that he had orders to prevent 
hostile movements against the Greeks. Admiral de Rigny joined 
him immediately afterwards, and a joint note was sent by them 
on the 22nd of September to Ibrahim Pasha, who held the 
superior command for the sultan. On the 2$th an interview 
took place, in which Ibrahim gave a verbal engagement not to act 
against the Greeks, pending orders from the sultan. The allies, 
who were in want of stores, now separated, Codrington going to 
Zante and de Rigny to Cervi, where his store ships were. Frigates 



were left to watch Navarino. The British admiral had barely 
anchored at Zante before he was informed that the sultan's 
forces were putting to sea. On the 29th of September a Greek 
naval force, commanded by an English Philhellene, Captain 
Frank Abney Hastings, had destroyed some Turkish vessels in 
Salona Bay, on the north side of the Gulf of Corinth. From 
the 3rd to the 5th of October Codrington, who had with him 
only his flagship the " Asia " (84) and some smaller vessels, 
was engaged in turning back the Egyptian and Turkish vessels, 
a task in which he was aided by a violent gale. He resumed his 
watch off Navarino, and on the I3th was joined by de Rigny 
and the Russian rear-admiral Heiden with his squadron. 
By general agreement among the powers the command was 
entrusted to Codrington, and the allied force consisted of three 
British, four French and four Russian sail of the line, if the 
French admiral's flagship the " Sirene " (60), which was technic- 
ally " a double banked frigate," be included. There were four 
British, one French and four Russian frigates, and six British 
and French brigs and schooners. The Egyptians and Turks had 
only three line of battleships and fifteen large frigates, together 
with a swarm of small craft which raised their total number 
to eighty and upwards. Ibrahim Pasha, though unable to 
operate at sea, considered himself at liberty to carry on the war 
by land. His men were actively employed in burning the 
Greek villages, and reducing the inhabitants to slavery. The 
flames and smoke of the destroyed villages were clearly seen 
from the allied fleet. On the I7th of October, a joint letter of 
expostulation was sent in to Ibrahim Pasha, but was returned 
with the manifestly false answer that he had left Navarino, and 
that his officers did not know where he was. The admirals, 
therefore, decided to stand into the bay and anchor among the 
Egyptian and Turkish ships. A French officer in the Egyptian 
service, of the name of Letellier, had anchored the vessels of 
Ibrahim and the Turkish admiral in a horseshoe formation, of 
which the points touched the entrance to the bay, and there were 
forts on the lands at both sides of the entry. The allies entered in 
two lines one formed of the French and British led byCodrington 
in the " Asia," the other of the Russians, and began to anchor 
in the free water in the midst of Ibrahim's fleet. The officer 
commanding the British frigate " Dartmouth " (42), Captain 
Fellowes, seeing a Turkish fireship close to windward of him, 
sent a boat with a demand that she should be removed. The 
Turks fired, killing Lieutenant G. W. H. Fitzroy, who brought 
the message, and several of the boat's crew. The " Dartmouth " 
then opened " a defensive fire," and the action became general 
at once. The allies, who were all closely engaged, were anchored 
among their enemies, and the result was obtained by their heavier 
broadsides and their better gunnery. Three-fourths of the 
Turkish and Egyptian vessels were sunk by the assailants, or fired 
by their own crews. On the allied side the British squadron 
lost 75 killed and 197 wounded; the French 43 killed and 183 
wounded; the Russians 59 killed and 139 wounded. In the 
British squadron Captain Walter Bathurst of the " Genoa " (74) 
was slain. The loss of the Turks and Egyptians was never 
accurately reported, but it was certainly very great. 

In its effects on the international situation Navarino may be 
reckoned one of the decisive battles of the world. It not only 
made the efforts of the Turks to suppress the Greek revolt hope- 
less, but it made a breach difficult to heal in the traditional 
friendship between Great Britain and Turkey, which had its 
effect during the critical period of the struggle between Mehemet 
Ali and the Porte (1831-1841). It precipitated the Russo- 
Turkish war of 1828-1829, and, by annihilating the Ottoman 
navy, weakened the resisting power of Turkey to Russia and 
later to Mehemet Ali. 

See Memoir of Admiral Sir E. Codrington, by his daughter Lady 
Bourchier (London, 1873); Naval History of Great Britain, by W. 
James and Captain Chamier, vol. vi. (London, 1837). (D. H.) 

NAVARRE (Span. Navarra), an inland province of northern 
Spain, and formerly a kingdom which included part of France. 
The province is bounded on the N. by France (Basses Pyrenees) 
and Guipuzcoa, E. by Huesca and Saragossa, S. by Saragossa 



282 



NAVARRETE, J. F. NAVARRETE, M. F. DE 



and Logrono and W. by Alava. It is traversed from east to 
west by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, and almost 
the whole of the province is overrun by the ramifications of these 
ranges. From Navarre there are only three practicable roads for 
carriages into France those by the Puerta de Vera, the Puerta de 
Maya and Roncesvalles. The highest summit in the province 
is the Monte Adi (4931 ft.). The chief river flowing towards the 
Atlantic is the Bidasoa, which rises near the Puerta de Maya, 
and after flowing southwards through the valley of Baztan takes 
a north-easterly course, and for a short distance above its outfall 
at Fuenterrabia constitutes the frontier between France and 
Spain (Guipuzcoa); by far the larger portion of Navarre is 
drained to the Mediterranean through the Ebro, which flows 
along the western frontier and crosses the extreme south of the 
province. The hilly districts consist almost entirely of forest 
and pasture, the most common trees being the pine, beech, oak 
and chestnut. Much of the lower ground is well adapted for 
agriculture, and yields grain in abundance; the principal 
fruit grown is the apple, from which cider is made in some 
districts; hemp, flax and oil are also produced, and mulberries 
are cultivated for silkworms. The wine trade is active, and the 
products of the vineyards are in great demand in south-west 
France and at Passages in Guipuzcoa for mixing with French 
wines. Navarre is one of the richest provinces of Spain in live 
stock. Game, both large and small, is plentiful in the mountains, 
and the streams abound with trout and other fish. Gypsum, 
limestone, freestone and marble are quarried; there are also 
mines of copper, lead, iron, zinc and rock salt. Mineral and 
thermal springs are numerous, but none is of more than local 
fame. The other industries include manufactures of arms, 
paper, chocolate, candles, alcohol, leather, coarse linens and 
cloth. The exports both by rail and by the passes in the 
Pyrenees consist of live stock, oil, wine, wool, leather and paper. 

The Ebro Valley railway, which traverses southern Navarre 
and skirts the western frontier, sends out a branch line from 
Castejon to Pamplona and Alsasua junction, where it connects 
with the Northern railways from Madrid to France. Narrow- 
gauge railways convey timber and ore from the mountains to 
these main lines. Pamplona, the capital (pop., 1900, 28,886), 
and Tudela (9449) are described in separate articles. The only 
other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants are Baztan (9234), 
Corella (6793), Estella (5736) and Tafalla (5494). 

History. The kingdom of Navarre was formed out of a part 
of the territory occupied by the Vascones, i.e. the Basques and 
Gascons, who occupied the southern slope of the western Pyrenees 
and part of the shore of the Bay of Biscay. In the course of the 
6th century there was a considerable emigration of Basques to 
the north of the Pyrenees. The cause is supposed to have been 
the pressure put upon them by the attacks of the Visigoth kings 
in Spain. Yet the Basques maintained their independence. 
The name of Navarre is derived by etymologists from " nava " 
a flat valley surrounded by hills (a commonplace name in Spain ; 
cf . Navas de Tolosa to the south of the Sierra Morena) and " erri " 
a region or country. It began to appear as the name of part of 
Vasconia towards the end of the Visigoth epoch in Spain in the 
7th century. Its early history is more than obscure. In recent 
times ingenious attempts have been made to trace the descent 
of the first historic king of Navarre from one Semen Lupus, duke 
of Aquitaine in the 6th century. The reader may consult La 
Vasconie by Jean de Jaurgain (Paris, 1898) for the latest example 
of this reconstruction of ancient history from fragmentary and 
dubious materials. Jaurgain has been subjected to very damag- 
ing criticism by L. Barrau-Dihigo (Revue Hispanique, t. vii. 
141). The first historic king of. Navarre was Sancho Garcia, 
who ruled at Pamplona in the early years of the loth century. 
Under him and his immediate successors Navarre reached the 
height of its power and its extension' (see SPAIN: History, for 
the reign of Sancho el Mayor, and the establishment of the 
Navarrese line as kings of Castile and Leon, and of Aragon). 
When the kingdom was at its height it included all the modern 
province of the name; the northern slope of the western Pyrenees 
called by the Spaniards the " Ultra-puertos " or country beyond 



the passes, and now known as French Navarre; the Basque 
provinces; the Bureba, the valley between the Basque Mountains 
and the Monies de Oca to the north of Burgos; the Rioja and 
Tarazona in the upper valley of the Ebro. In the i2th century 
the kings of Castile gradually annexed the Rioja and Alava. 
While Navarre was reunited to Aragon 1076-1134 (see 
SPAIN: History) it was saved from aggression on the east, but 
did not recover the territory taken by Castile. About the year 
1200 Alfonso VIII. of Castile annexed the other two Basque 
provinces, Biscay (Vizcaya) and Guipuzcoa. Tarazona re- 
mained in possession of Aragon. After 1 234 Navarre, though the 
crown was claimed by the kings of Aragon, passed by marriage 
to a succession of French rulers. In 1516 Spanish Navarre 
was finally annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic. French Navarre 
survived as an independent little kingdom till it was united to 
the crown of France by Henry IV. founder of the Bourbon 
dynasty. From 1510 until 1833, when it was fully incorporated 
with Spain, Navarre was a viceroyalty. 

As originally organized, Navarre was divided into Merindades, or 
districts, governed by a Merino (mayorino) as representative of the 
king. They were the Ultrapuertos (French Navarre), Pamplona, 
Estella, Judela, Sanguesa. In 1407 Olite was added. The Cortes of 
Navarre began with the king's council of churchmen and nobles. 
But in the course of the I4th century the burgesses were added. 
Their presence was due to the fact that the king had need of their 
co-operation to raise money by grants and aids. When fully con- 
stituted, the Cortes consisted of the churchmen, the nobles and the 
representatives of twenty-seven " good towns " that is to say, 
towns which had no feudal lord, and, therefore, held directly of the 
king. In the later stages of its history the Cortes of Navarre included 
the representatives of thirty-tight towns. The independence of the 
burgesses was better secured in Navarre than in other parliaments of 
Spam by the constitutional rule which required the consent of a 
majority of each order to every act of the Cortes. Thus the bmgesses 
could not be outvoted by the nobles and the Church. Even in the 
1 8th century the Navarrese successfully resisted the attempt of the 
kings of the Bourbon dynasty to establish custom houses on the 
French frontier. Yet they were loyal to their Spanish sovereigns, 
and no part of the country offered a more determined or more skilful 
resistance to Napoleon. Navarre was much under clerical influence. 
This, and the resentment felt at the loss of their autonomy when they 
were incorporated with the rest of Spain in 1833, account for the 
strong support given by many Navarrese to the Carlist cause. 

See Historia Compendiada de Navarra by Don J. M. Yanguas, 
(San Sebastian, 1832). 

NAVARRETE, JUAN FERNANDEZ (1526-1579), surnamed 
El Mudo (The Mute), Spanish painter of the Madrid school, 
was born at Logrono in 1526. An illness in infancy deprived him 
of his hearing, but at a very early age he began to express his 
wants by sketching objects with a piece of charcoal. He received 
his first instructions in art from Fray Vicente de Santo Domingo, 
a Hieronymite monk at Estella, and afterwards he visited Naples, 
Rome, Florence and Milan. According to the ordinary account 
he was for a considerable time the pupil of Titian at Venice. In 
1 568 Philip II. summoned him to Madrid with the title of king's 
painter and a salary, and employed him to execute pictures for 
the Escorial. The most celebrated of the works he there pro- 
duced are a " Nativity " (in which, as in the well-known work on 
the same subject by Correggio, the light emanates from the 
infant Saviour), a "Baptism of Christ" (now in the Madrid Picture 
Gallery) , and " Abraham Receiving the Three Angels " (one of his 
last performances, dated 1576). He executed many other 
altarpieces, all characterized by boldness and freedom in design, 
and by the rich warm colouring which has acquired for him the 
surname of " the Spanish Titian." He died at Toledo in February 

1579- 

NAVARRETE, MARTIN FERNANDEZ DE (1765-1844), 
Spanish historian, was born at Abalos on the gth of November 
1765, and entered the navy in 1780. He was engaged in the 
unsuccessful operations against Gibraltar in 1782, and afterwards 
in the suppression of Algerine pirates. Ill-health compelled him 
for a time to withdraw from active service, but he devoted this 
: orced leisure to historical research, and in 1789 he was appointed 
the crown to examine the national archives relating to the 
maritime history of Spain. Rejoining the navy in 1793, he was 
present at the siege of Toulon, and afterwards received command 
of a frigate. From 1797 to 1808 he held in succession various 



NAVARRO NAVE 



283 



important posts in the ministry of marine. In 1808 the French 
invasion led to his withdrawal to Andalusia, and the rest of his 
life was entirely devoted to literature. In 1819 appeared, as an 
appendix to the Academy's edition of Don Quijote, his Vida de 
Cervantes, and in 1825 the first two volumes of the Coleccion de 
los Viajes y Descubrimientos que hicieron por Mar los Espanoles 
desde fines del Siglo XV. (3rd vol., 1829; 4th vol., 1837). In 
1837 he was made a senator and director of the academy of 
history. At the time of his death, on the 8th of October 1844, 
he was assisting in the preparation of the Coleccion de Docu- 
menlos Ineditos para la Historia de Espana. His Disertacion 
sobre la Historia de la Nautica (1846) and Biblioteca Maritima 
Espanola (1851). were published posthumously. 

NAVARRO, PEDRO (c. 1460-1528), Spanish military engineer 
and general, of obscure parentage, was born probably about 1460. 
He began life as a sailor; and was employed later as mozo de 
espuela, or running footman, by the Cardinal Juan de Aragon; 
on the death of his employer in 1485 he enlisted as a 
mercenary in a war between Florence and Genoa; and was sub- 
sequently engaged for some years in the warfare between the 
Genoese corsairs and the Mahommedans of Northern Africa. 
Navarro was not more scrupulous than others, for in 1499 he was 
at Civitavecchia, recovering from a gunshot wound in the hip 
received in a piratical attack on a Portuguese trading ship. 
When Gonsalvo de Cordoba was sent to Sicily, to take part with 
the French in the partition of Naples, Navarro enlisted under 
him; and in the expulsion of the Turkish garrison from Cepha- 
lonia in 1500 he helped by laying mines to breach the walls, 
though not at first with much success. The Spanish commander 
gave him a captain's commission. During the campaigns of 
1502 and 1503 he came to the front among the Spanish officers 
by the defence of Canosa and of Taranto, by his activity in 
partisan warfare on the French lines of communication, and 
by the part he took in winning the battle of Cerinola. But his 
great reputation among the soldiers of the time was founded 
on the vigour and success of his mining operations against the 
castles of Naples, held by French garrisons, in 1503, and he was 
undoubtedly recognized as the first military engineer of his age. 
When the French were expelled from Naples he received from 
Gonsalvo a grant of land and the title of count of Olivette. 
In 1506 he was in Spain, and for several years he was employed 
in wars on the north coast of Africa. In 1508 he took Velez de 
Gomera, largely by means of a species of floating battery which 
he invented. In 1509 he accompanied Ximenez in the conquest 
of Oran, and did excellent service. Till 1511 he continued in 
service in Africa, and took Bougie and Tripoli in 1510. The 
disasters at Gerba and Kerkenna did not materially affect his 
reputation. There was some talk of appointing him to command 
the army of the league formed against the French in 1512; 
but his humble birth was thought to disqualify him. He was, 
however, sent as a subordinate general. At the battle of Ravenna 
he covered the orderly retreat of the Spanish foot, and was 
struck from his horse by a shot which failed to pierce his armour. 
Being taken prisoner by the French, he was sent to the Castle 
of Loches. Ferdinand, whom the soldiers called an Aragonese 
skinflint, would not pay his ransom, and after three years of 
imprisonment he entered the service of Francis I. in a pique. 
The rest of his life was spent as a French officer. He distin- 
guished himself in the passage of the Alps, at the battle of 
Marignano, by the taking of the citadel of Milan, and in the long 
siege of Brescia. He was at the battle of Pa via, and in 1522 
was taken prisoner at Genoa by his own countrymen. He was 
confined at Naples till the peace of 1526, but beyond the confisca- 
tion of his estate at Olivette no punishment was inflicted for his 
treason. His last service was in the disastrous expedition of 
Lautrec to Naples in 1527, which was ruined by the plague. He 
died near the end of 1528. 

A life of Navarro by Don Martin de los Heros, is published in the 
Documentos insditos para la Historia de Espana, vol. xxv. (Madrid, 
1854). 

NAVE, ecclesiastically considered, that part of a church 
appropriated to the laity as distinguished from the chancel, 



the choir or the presbytery, reserved for the clergy. In a 14th- 
century letter (quoted in Gasquet's Parish Life in Medieval 
England, 1906, p. 45) from a bishop of Coventry and Lichfield 
to one of his clergy, the reason for this appropriation is given. 
" Not only the decrees of the holy fathers but the approved 
existing customs of the Church order that the place in which 
the clerks sing and serve God according to their offices be 
divided by screens from that in which the laity devoutly pray. 
In this way the nave of the church ... is alone to be open to 
lay people, in order that, in the time of divine service, clerics 
be not mixed up with lay people, and more especially with women, 
nor have communication with them, for in this way devotion 
may be easily diminished." The word " nave " has been 
generally derived from Lat. navis, ship. Du Cange (Glossarium, 
s.v. " Navis ") quotes from the Chronicon Moriniacense, of the 
1 2th century, as to the popular origin of the name, Exterius 
etiam tabernaculum, quod ecclesiae navis a populo wcalur .... 
Salmasius in his commentary on Solinus (1629) finds the origin 
in the resemblance of the vaulted roof to the keel of a ship, and 
refers to Sallust (Jugurlha, 18. 8) where is noticed a similar 
resemblance in the huts (mapalia) of the Numidians. The use 
of the word navis may, however, be due to the early adoption 
of the " ship " as a symbol of the church (see Skeat's note on 
Piers Plowman, xl. 32). The Greek i>abs, Attic vecos (vaitiv, 
to dwell), the inner shrine of a Greek temple, the cella, has also 
been suggested as the real origin of the word. This derivative 
must presume a latinized corruption into navis, for the early 
application of the word for ship to this part of a church building 
is undoubted. 1 

Architecturally considered the nave is the central and principal 
part of a church, extending from the main front to the transepts, 
or to the choir or chancel in the absence of transepts. When 
the nave is flanked by aisles, light is admitted to the church 
through clerestory windows, some of the most ancient examples 
being the basilica at Bethlehem and the church of St Elias, 
at Thessalonica, both of the sth century; numerous churches 
in Rome; and in the 6th century the two great basilicas at 
Ravenna; in all these cases the sills of the clerestory windows 
were raised sufficiently to allow of a sloping roof over the side 
aisles. When, however, a gallery was carried above the side 
aisles, another division was required, which is known as the 
triforium, and this subdivision was retained in the nave even 
when it formed a passage, only in the thickness of the wall. 
In Late Gothic work in England, the triforium was suppressed 
altogether to give more space for the clerestory windows, and 
roofs of low pitch were provided over the side aisles. 

The longest nave in England is that of St Albans (300 ft.), in 
which there are thirteen nave arches or bays on each side; in 
Winchester (264 ft.) there are twelve bays; in Norwich (250 ft.) 
fourteen; Peterborough (226 ft.) eleven; and Ely (203 ft.) twelve 
bays. Most of these dimensions are in excess of those of the French 
cathedrals; Bourges is 300 ft. long, but as there are no transepts 
this dimension includes nave and choir. Cluny was 230 ft. with 
eleven bays; Reims is 235 ft. with ten bays; Paris 170 ft. with ten 
bays; Amiens 160 with ten bays; and St Ouen, Rouen, 200 ft. with 
ten bays. In Germany the nave of Cologne cathedral is only 190 ft., 
including the two bays between the towers. The cathedral at 
Seville in Spain is 200 ft. long, with only five bays. In Italy the 
cathedral at Milan is 270 ft. long with nine bays; at Florence, 250 ft. 
long with only four bays; and St Peter's in Rome 300 ft. long with 
four bays. On the other hand, the vaults in the nave of the con- 
tinental cathedrals are far higher than those in England, that of 
Westminster Abbey being only 103 ft. high, whilst the choir of 
Beauvais is 150 ft. The result is that the naves of the English 
cathedrals not only are longer in actual dimensions, but appear 
much longer in consequence of their inferior height. 

1 Vessels resembling boats or ships are familiar in medieval art 
and later. Thus " Incense-boats " (navettes) somewhat of this shape 
are found in 12th-century sculptures. By the i6th century they 
approximated still more closely to a model of a ship. A large vessel, 
also in the shape of a boat or ship, and known as a nef, was used at 
the table of princes and great personages to contain the knives, 
spoons, &c. Some very elaborate examples of these survive, such as 
the 15th-century nef of St Ursula in the treasure of the cathedral at 
Reims, and that of Charles V. of France in the Muse Cluny. _ A 
16th-century nef, adapted for use as a cup, is in the Franks Collection 
at the British Museum. (See DRINKING VESSELS.) 



284 



NAVEL NAVIGATION 



NAVEL ( O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; 
cf. Ger. Nabel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is ndbhila; the 
English root is also seen in " nave," the hub of a wheel), in 
anatomy, the umbilicus (Gr. 6/Li</>aX6s), the depression in the 
abdomen which indicates the point through which the embryo 
mammal obtained nourishment from its mother (see ANATOMY: 
section Superficial and Artistic). 

NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move), the 
science or art of conducting a ship across the seas. The term 
is also popularly used by analogy of boats on rivers, &c., and of 
flying-machines or similar methods of locomotion. Navigation, 
as an art applied properly to ships, is technically used in the 
restricted sense dealt with below, and has therefore to be 
distinguished from " seamanship " (?.!>.), or the general 
methods of rigging a ship (see RIGGING), or the management 
of sails, rudder, &c. 

History. 

The early history of the rise and progress of the art of naviga- 
tion is very obscure, and it is more easy to trace the gradual 
advance of geographical knowledge by its means than the 
growth of the practical methods by which this advance was 
attained. Among Western nations before the introduction of 
the mariner's compass the only practical means of navigating 
ships was to keep in sight of land, or occasionally, for short 
distances, to direct the ship's course by referring it to the sun 
or stars; this very rough mode of procedure failed in cloudy 
weather, and even in short voyages in the Mediterranean in 
such circumstances the navigator generally became hopelessly 
bewildered as to his position. 

Over the China Sea and Indian Ocean the steadiness in direc- 
tion of the monsoons was very soon observed, and by running 
directly before the wind vessels in those localities were able to 
traverse long distances out of sight of land in opposite directions 
at different seasons of the year, aided in some cases by a rough 
compass (q.v.). But it is surprising when we read of the progress 
made among the ancients in fixing positions on shore by practical 
astronomy that so many years should have passed without its 
application to solving exactly the same problems at sea, but 
this is probably to be explained by the difficulty of devising 
instruments for use on the unsteady platform of a ship, coupled 
with the lack of scientific education among those who would 
have to use them. 

The association of commercial activity and nautical progress 
shown by the Portuguese in the early part of the i$th century 
marked an epoch of distinct progress in the methods of practical 
navigation, and initiated that steady improvement which in 
the 2oth century has raised the art of navigation almost to the 
position of an exact science. Up to the time of the Portuguese 
exploring expeditions, sent out by Prince Henry, generally 
known as the " Navigator," which led to the discovery of the 
Azores in 1419, the rediscovery of the Cape Verde Islands in 
1447 and of Sierra Leone in 1460, navigation had been conducted 
in the most rude, uncertain and dangerous manner it is possible 
to conceive. Many years had passed without the least improve- 
ment being introduced, except the application of the magnetic 
needle about the beginning of the i4th century (see COMPASS 
and MAGNETISM). Prince Henry did all in his power to bring 
together and systematize the knowledge then obtainable upon 
nautical affairs, and also established an observatory at Sagres 
(near Cape St Vincent) in order tc obtain more accurate tables 
of the declination of the sun. John II., who ascended the throne 
of Portugal in 1481, followed up the good work. He employed 
Roderick and Joseph, his physicians, with Martin de Bohemia, 
from Fayal, to act as a committee on navigation. They calcu- 
lated tables of the sun's declination, and improved the astrolabe, 
recommending it as more convenient than the cross-staff. The 
Ordenanzas of the Spanish council of the Indies record the course 
of instruction prescribed at this time for pilots; it included the 
De Sphaera Mundi of Sacrobosco, the spherical triangles of 
Regiomontanus, the Almagest of Ptolemy, the use of the astrolabe 
and its mechanism, the adjustments of instruments, cartography 
and the methods of observing the movements of heavenly bodies. 



The then backward state of navigation is best understood from a 
sketch of the few rude appliances which the mariner had, and even 
these were only intended for the purpose of ascertaining the latitude. 
The mystery of finding the longitude proved unfathomable for many 
years after the time of the Armada, and the very inaccurate know- 
ledge existing of the positions of the heavenly bodies themselves fully 
justified the quaintly expressed advice given in a nautical work of 
repute at the time, where the writer observes, " Now there be some 
that are very inquisitive to have a way to get the longitude, but that 
is too tedious for seamen, since it requireth the deep knowledge of 
astronomy, wherefore I would not have any man think that the 
longitude is to be found at sea by any instrument ; so let no seamen 
trouble themselves with any such rule, but (according to their 
accustomed manner) let them keep a perfect account and reckoning 
of the way of their ship." Such record of the " way of the ship ' 
appears to have been then and for many years later recorded in 
chalk on a wooden board (log board), which folded like a book, and 
from which each day a position for the ship was deduced, or from 
which the more careful made abstracts into what was termed the 
" journal." 

A compass, a cross-staff or astrolabe, a fairly good table of the 
sun's declination, a correction for the altitude of the pole star, and 
occasionally a very incorrect chart formed all the appliances of a 
navigator in the time of Columbus. For a knowledge of the speed of 
the ship one of the earliest methods of actual measurement in use 
was by what was known as the " Dutchman's log," which consisted 
in throwing into the water, from the bows of the ship, something 
which would float, and noting the interval between its apparently 
drifting past two observers standing on the deckat a known distance 
apart. No other method is mentioned until 1577, when a line was 
attached to a small log of wood, which was thrown overboard, and 
the length measured which was carried over in a certain interval of 
time; this interval of time was, we read, generally obtained by the 
repetition of certain sentences, which were repeated twice if the ship 
were only moving slowly. It is unfortunate that the words of this 
ancient shibboleth are unknown. This is mentioned by Purchas as 
being in occasional use in 1607, but the more usual method (as we 
incidentally see in the voyages of Columbus) was to estimate or guess 
the rate of progress. It was customary by one or other of these 
methods to determine the speed of a ship every two hours, " royal " 
ships and those with very careful captains doing so every hour. 
When a vessel had been on various courses during the two hours, a 
record of the duration on each was usually kept by the helmsman on 
a traverse board, which consisted of a board having 32 radial lines 
drawn on it representing the points of the compass, with holes at 
various distances from the centre, into which pegs were inserted, the 
mean or average course being that entered on the log board. 

Some idea of the speed of ordinary ships in those days may be 
gathered from an observation in 1551 of a " certain shipp which, 
without ever striking sail, arrived at Naples from Drepana, in Sicily, 
in 37 hours " (a distance of 200 m.) ; the writer accounting for 
" such swift motion, which to the common sort of man scemeth 
incredible," by the fact of the occurrence of " violent floods and 
outrageous winds." In 1578 we find in Bourne's Inventions and 
Devices a description of a proposed patent log for recording a vessel's 
speed, the idea (as far as we can gather from its vague description) 
being to register the revolutions of a wheel enclosed in a case towed 
astern of a ship (see LOG). 

Whether the property of the lodestone was independently dis- 
covered in Europe or introduced from the East, it does not appear to 
have been generally utilized in Europe earlier than about A.D. 1400 
(see COMPASS). In Europe the card or " flie " appears to have been 
attached to the magnet from the first, and the whole suspended as 
now in gimbal-rings within the " bittacle," or, as we now spell the 
word, " binnacle." The direction of a ship's head by compass was 
termed how she " capes." From the accounts extant of the stores 
supplied to ships in 1588, they appear to have usually had two 
compasses, costing 33. 4d. each, which were kept in charge by the 
boatswain. The fact that the north point of a compass does not, in 
most places, point to the true pole but eastward or westward of it, 
by an amount which is termed by sailors " variation," appears to 
have been noticed at an early date; but that the amount of variation 
varied in different localities appears to have been first observed by 
either Columbus or Cabot about 1490, and we find it used to be the 
practice to ascertain this error when at sea either from a bearing of 
the pole star, or by taking a mean of the compass bearings of the sun 
at both rising and setting, the deviation of the compass in the ships 
of those days being too small a quantity to be generally noticed, 
though there is a very suggestive remark on the effect of moving the 
position of any iron placed near a compass, by a Captain Sturmy of 
Bristol in 1679. In order, partially to obviate the error of the 
compass (variation), the magnets, which usually consisted of two 
steel wires joined at both ends and opened out in the middle, were not 
placed under the north and south line of the compass card, but with 
the ends about a point eastward of north and westward of south, the 
variation in London when first observed in 1580 being about 11 E. ; 
the change of the variation year by year at the same base was first 
noted by Gellibrand in 1635. 

The ' cross-staff " appears to have been used by astronomers at a 
very early period, and subsequently by seamen for measuring 



NAVIGATION 



285 



altitudes at sea. It was one of the few instruments possessed by 
Columbus and Vasco da Gama. The old cross-staff, called by the 
Spaniards " ballestilla," consisted of two light battens. The part 
we may call the staff was about ij in. square and 36 in. long. The 
cross was made to fit closely and to slide upon the staff at right 
angles; its length was a little over 26 in., so as to allow the " pinules " 
or sights to be placed exactly 26 in. apart. A sight was also fixed on 
the end of the staff for the eye to look through so as to see both those 
on the cross and the objects whose distance apart was to be measured. 
It was made by describing the angles on a table, and laying the staff 
upon it (fig. i). The scale of degrees was marked on the upper face. 
Afterwards shorter crosses were introduced, so that smaller angles 

could be taken by 
the same instrument. 
These angles were 
marked on the sides 
of the staff. 

To observe with 
this instrument a 
meridian altitude of 
the sun the bearing 

was taken by com- 
pasS| to 



FIG. i. 




when it was near 
the meridian ; then 
the end of the long 
staff was placed close 
to the observer's eye, 
and the transver- 
sary, or cross, moved 
until one end exactly 
touched the horizon, 
and the other the sun's centre. This was continued until the sun 
dipped, when the meridian altitude was obtained. 

Another primitive instrument in common use at the beginning 
of the loth century was the astrolabe (g.p.), which was more con- 
venient than the cross-staff for taking altitudes. Fig. 2 represents 
an astrolabe as described by Martin Cortes. It was made of 
copper or tin, about J in. in thickness and 6 or 7 in. in diameter, 
and was circular except at one place, where a projection was provided 
for a hole by which it was suspended. Weight was 'considered 
desirable in order to keep it steady when in use. The face of the 
metal having been well polished, a plumb line from the point of 
suspension marked the vertical line, from which were derived the 
horizontal line and centre. The upper left quadrant was divided 
into degrees. The second part was a pointer pt of the same metal 
and thickness as the circular plate, about i J in. wide, and in length 
equal to the diameter of the circle. The centre was bored, and a line 
was drawn across it the full length, which was called the line of 
confidence. On the ends of that line were fixed plates, s, s, having 
each a small hole, both exactly over the line 
of confidence, as sights for the sun or stars. 
The pointer moved upon a centre the size of 
a goose quill. When the instrument was sus- 
pended the pointer was directed by hand to 
the object, and the angle read on the one 
quadrant only. Some years later the opposite 
quadrant was also graduated, to give the 
benefit of a second reading. The astrolabe was 
used by Vasco da Gama on his first voyage 
p IG 2 round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497; but 

the movement of a ship rendered accuracy 

impossible, and the liability to error was increased by the necessity 
for three observers. One held the instrument by a ring passed 
over the thumb, the second measured the altitude, and the third 
read off. 

For finding latitude at night by altitude of the pole star taken by 
cross-staff or astrolabe, use was made of an auxiliary instrument 
called the " nocturnal." From the relative positions of the two 
stars in the constellation of the " Little Bear " farthest from the 
pole (known as the Fore and Hind guards) the positron of the pole 
star with regard to the pole could be inferred, and tables were drawn 
up termed the " Regiment of the Pole Star," showing for eight 
positions of the guards how much should be added or subtracted 
from the altitude of the pole star; thus, " when the guards are in the 
N.W. bearing from each other north and south add half a degree," 
&c. The bearings of the guards, and also roughly the hour of the 
night, were found by the nocturnal, first described by M. Coignet in 
1581. 

The nocturnal (fig. 3) consisted of two concentric circular plates, 
the outer being about 3 in. in diameter, and divided into twelve equal 
parts corresponding to the twelve months, each being again sub- 
divided into groups of five days. The inner circle was graduated into 
twenty-four equal parts, corresponding to the hours of the day, and 
again subdivided into quarters; the handle was fixed to the outer 
circle in such a way that the middle of it corresponded with the day 
of the month on which the guards had the same right ascension as 
the sun or, in other words, crossed the meridian at noon. From the 
^ common centre of the two circles extended a long index bar, which, 
together with the inner circle, turned freely and independently 





about this centre, which was pierced with a round hole. To use the 
instrument, the projection at twelve hours on the inner plate was 
turned until it coincided with the day of the month of observation, 
and the instrument held with its plane roughly parallel to the equi- 
noctial or celestial equator, the observer looking at the pole star 
through the hole in the centre, and turning the long central index bar 
until the guards were seen just 
touching its edge; the hour in 
line with this edge read off on 
the inner plate was, roughly, the 
time. Occasionally the nocturnal 
was constructed so as to find 
the time by observations of the 
pointers in the Great Bear. 

The rough charts used by a few 
of the more expert navigators at 
the time we refer to will be more 
fully described later(see also MAP 
andGEOGRAPHY). Nautical maps 
or charts first appeared in Italy at 
the end of the I3th century, but 
it is said that the first seen in 
England was brought by Bar- 
tholomew Columbus in 1489. 

Among the earliest authors 
who touched upon navigation 
was John Werner of Nurem- 
berg, who in 1514, in his notes 
upon Ptolemy's geography, de- 
scribes the cross-staff as a very 
ancient instrument, but says 

that it was only then beginning to be generally introduced 
among seamen. He recommends measuring the distance 
between the moon and a star as a means of ascertain- 
ing the longitude; but this (though developed many years 
after into the method technically known as " lunars ") was at 
this time of no practical use owing to the then imperfect know- 
ledge of the true positions of the moon and stars and the non- 
existence of instrumental means by which such distances could 
be measured with the necessary accuracy. 

Thirty-eight years after the discovery of America, when 
long voyages had become comparatively common, R. Gemma 
Frisius wrote upon astronomy and cosmogony, with the use 
of the globes. His book comprised much valuable information 
to mariners of that day, and was translated into French fifty 
years later (1582) by Claude de Bossiere. The astronomical 
system adopted is that of Ptolemy. The following are some 
of the points of interest relating to navigation. There is a good 
description of the sphere and its circles; the obliquity of the 
ecliptic is given as 23 30'. The distance between the meridians 
is to be measured on the equator, allowing 15 to an hour of time; 
longitude is to be found by eclipses of the moon and conjunctions, 
and reckoned from the Fortunate Islands (Azores). Latitude 
should be measured from the equator, not from the ecliptic, 
" as Clarean says." The use of globes is very thoroughly and 
correctly explained. The scale for measuring distances was 
placed on the equator, and 15 German leagues, or 60 Italian 
leagues, were to be considered equal to one degree. The Italian 
league was 8 stadia, or 1000 paces, therefore the degree is taken 
much too small. We are told that, on plane charts, mariners 
drew lines from various centres (i.e. compass courses), which 
were very useful since the virtue of the lodestone had become 
recognized; it must be remembered that parallel rulers were 
unknown, being invented by Mordente in 1 584. Such a confusion 
of lines has been continued upon sea charts till comparatively 
recently. Gemma gives rules for finding the course and distance 
correctly, except that he treats difference of longitude as 
departure. For instance, if the difference of latitude and 
difference of longitude are equal, the course prescribed is between 
the two principal winds that is, 45. He points out that the 
courses thus followed are not straight lines, but curves, because 
they do not follow the great circle, and that distances could be 
more correctly measured on the globe than on charts. The tide is 
said to rise with the moon, high water being when it is on the 
meridian and 12 hours later. From a table of latitudes and 
longitudes a few examples are here selected, by which it appears 
that even latitude was much in error. The figures in brackets 



286 



NAVIGATION 



represent the positions according to modern tables, counting 
the longitude from the western extremity of St Michael. (Flores 
is 5 8' farther west.) 

Alexandria 31 o' N. (31' 

(37 



Alexandria 31 


o'N. 


Athens 


37 


15 


Babylon 




35 


o 


Dantzic 




54 


3 


London 




52 


3 


Malta 




34 





Rome 




41 


50 



(35 
(41 



13') 

58) 

32 

21) 

31) 

43) 
54) 


60 30' E. 
52 45 
79 o 
44 15 
19 15 
38 45 

36 20 


(55 55') 
(49 46) 
(70 25) 
(44 38) 
25 54 
(4 3i) 
(38 30) 



The latitude of Cape Clear is given 34' in error, and the 
longitude 45; the Scilly Islands are given with an error of 
one degree in latitude and i' 10' in longitude; while Madeira 
is placed 3 8' too far south and 4 20' too far west, and Cape 
St Vincent i 25' too far south and 6 too far west. 

In 1534 Gemma produced an " astronomical ring," which he 
dedicated to the secretary of the king of Hungary. He admitted 
that it was not entirely his own invention, but asserted that 
it could accomplish all that had been said of quadrants, cylinders 
and astrolabes also that it was a pretty ornament, worthy 
of a prince. As it displayed great ingenuity, and was followed 
by many similar contrivances during two centuries, a sketch 
with brief description is here given (fig. 4). 

The outer and principal sustaining circle EPQ represents the 
meridian, and is about 6 in. in diameter; PIT, are the poles. The 

upper quadrant is divided 
into degrees. It is sus- 
pended by fine cord or 
wire placed at the sup- 
posed latitude. The 
second circle EQ is fixed 
at right angles to the 
first, and represents the 
equinoctial line. The 
upper side is divided into 
twenty-four parts, repre- 
senting the hours from 
noon or midnight. On 
the inner side of that 
circle are marked the 
months and weeks. The 
third ring CC is attached 
to the first at the poles, 
and revolves freely within 
it. On the interior are 
marked the months, and 
on another side the cor- 
responding signs of the 
zodiac ; another is gradu- 
ated in degrees. It is 
fitted with a groove 
On the fourth side are 




FIG. 4. 



which carries two movable sights, 
twenty-four unequal divisions (tangents) for measuring heights. 
Its use is illustrated by twenty problems, showing it capable of 
doing roughly all that any instrument for taking angles can. Thus, to 
find the latitude, set the sights C, C to the place of the sun in the 
zodiac, and shut the circle till it corresponds with 12 o'clock. Look 
through the sights and alter the point of suspension till the greatest 
elevation is attained ; that time will be noon, and the point of sus- 
pension will be the latitude. The figure is represented as slung at 
fat. 40", either north or south. To find the hour of the day, the 
latitude and declination being known: the sights C, C being set to 
the declination as before, and the suspension on the latitude, turn the 
ring CC freely till it points to the sun, when the index opposite the 
equinoctial circle will indicate the time, while the meridional circle 
will coincide with the meridian of the place. 

There is in the museum attached to the Royal Naval College 
at Greenwich an instrument described as Sir Francis Drake's 
astrolabe. It is not an astrolabe, but may be a combination 
of astronomical rings as invented by Gemma with additions, 
probably of a later date. It has the appearance of a large gold 
watch, about 25 in. in diameter, and contains several parts 
which fall back on hinges. One is a sun-dial, the gnomon being 
in connexion with a graduated quadrant, by which it could 
be set to the latitude of the place. There are a small compass 
and an hour circle. It is very neat, but too small for actual 
use, and may be simply an ornament representing a larger 
instrument. There is a table of latitudes engraved inside one 
lid; that given for London is 51 34', about 3 m. too much. 

Though clocks are mentioned in 1484 as recent inventions, 



watches were unknown till about 1530, when Gemma seized the 
idea of utilizing them for the purpose of ascertaining the difference 
of Idngitude between two places by a comparison between their 
local times at the same instant. They were too inaccurate, 
however, to be of practical use, and their advocate proposed 
to correct them by water-clocks cr sand-clocks. For rough 
purposes of keeping time on board ship sand glasses were em- 
ployed, and it is curious to note that hour and half-hour glasses 
were used for this purpose in the British Navy until 1839. The 
outer margin of the compass card was early divided into twenty- 
four equal parts numbered as hours until the error of thus 
determining time by the bearings of the sun was pointed out 
by Davis in 1607. 

In 1537 Pedro Nunez (Nonius), cosmographer to the king 
of Portugal, published a work on astronomy, charts and some 
points of navigation. He recognized the errors in plane charts, 
and tried to rectify them. Among many astronomical problems 
given is one for finding the latitude of a place by knowing the 
sun's declination and altitude when on two bearings, not 
less than 40 apart. Gemma did a similar thing with two stars; 
therefore the problem now known as a " double altitude " is 
a very old one. It could be mechanically solved on a large 
globe within a degree. To Nunez has been erroneously attributed 
the present mode of reading the exact angle on a sextant, the 
scale of a barometer, &c., the credit of which is due, however, 
to Vernier nearly a hundred years later. The mode of dividing 
the scale which Nunez published in 1542 was the following. 
The arc of a' large quadrant was fumished with forty-five con- 
centric segments, or scales, the outer graduated to 90, the 
others to 89, 88, 87, &c., divisions. As the fine edge of the 
pointer attached to the sights passed among those numerous 
divisions it touched one of them, suppose the fifteenth division 
on the sixth scale, then the angle was of 90 =15 52' 56". 
This was a laborious method; Tycho Brahe tried it, but aban- 
doned it in favour of the diagonal lines then in common use, 
and still found on all scales of equal parts. 

In 1545 Pedro de Medina published Arte de navigar at Valla- 
dolid, dedicated to Don Philippe, prince of Spain. This appears 
to be the first book ever published professedly entirely on naviga- 
tion. It was soon translated into French and Italian, and many 
years after into English by John Frampton. Though this pre- 
tentious work came out two years after the death of Copernicus, 
the astronomy is still that of Ptolemy. The general appearance 
of the chart given of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and part of 
the Pacific is in its favour, but examination shows it to be very 
incorrect. A scale of equal parts, near the centre of the chart, 
extends from the equator to what is intended to represent 
75 of latitude; by this scale London would be in 55 instead 
of 515, Lisbon in 375 instead of 38 42'. The equator is made 
to pass along the coast of Guinea, instead of being over four 
degrees farther south. The Gulf of Guinea extends 14 too 
far east, and Mexico is much too far west. Though there are 
many vertical lines on the chart at unequal distances they do 
not represent meridians; and there is no indication of longi- 
tude. A scale of 600 leagues is given (German leagues, fifteen 
to a degree). By this scale the distance between Lisbon and 
the city of Mexico is 1740 leagues, or 6960 miles; by the vertical 
scale of degrees it would be about the same; whereas the actual 
distance is 4820 miles. Here two great wants become apparent 
a knowledge of the actual length of any arc, and the means 
of representing the surface of the globe on flat paper. There 
is a table of the sun's declination to minutes; on June I2th and 
December nth (o.s.) it was given as 23 33'. The directions 
for finding the latitude by the pole star and pointers appear 
good. For general astronomical information the book is inferior 
to that of Gemma. 

In 1556 Martin Cortes published at Seville Arte de navigar. 
He gives a good drawing of the cross-staff and astrolabe, also 
a table of the sun's declination for four years (the greatest value 
being 23 33'), and a calendar of saints' days. The motions 
of the heavens are described according to the notions then 
prevalent, the earth being considered as fixed. He recommends 



NAVIGATION 



287 






the altitude of the pole being found frequently, as the esti- 
mated distance run was imperfect. He devised an instrument 
whereby to tell the hour, the direction of the ship's head, and 
where the sun would set. A very correct table is given of the 
distances between the meridians at every degree of latitude, 
whereby a seaman could easily reduce the difference of longitude 
to departure. In the rules for finding the latitude by the 
pole star, that star is supposed to be 3 from the pole. Martin 
Cortes attributes the tides entirely to the influence of the moon, 
and gives instructions for finding the time of high water at Cadiz, 
when by means of a card with the moon's age on it, revolving 
within a circle showing the hours and minutes, the time of high 
water at any other place for which it was set would be indicated. 
Directions are given for making a compass similar to those then 
in common use, also for ascertaining and allowing for the varia- 
tion. The east is here spoken of as the principal point, and 
marked by a cross. 

The third part of Martin Cortes's work is upon charts; he 
laments that wise men do not produce some that are correct, 
and that pilots and mariners will use plane charts which are 
not true. In the Mediterranean and " Channel of Flanders" 
the want of good charts is (he says) less inconvenient, as they 
do not navigate by the altitude of the pole. 

As some subsequent writers have attributed to Cortes the credit 
of first thinking of the enlargement of the degrees of latitude on 
Mercator's principle, his precise words may be cited. In making a 
chart, it is recommended to choose a well-known place near the 
centre of the intended chart, such as Cape St Vincent, which call 
37, " and from thence towards the Arctic pole the degrees increase; 
and from thence to the equinoctial line they go on decreasing, and 
from the line to the Antarctic pole increasing." It would appear 
at first sight that this implied that the degrees increased in length as 
well as being called by a higher number, but a specimen chart in the 
book does not justify that conclusion. It is from 34 to 40, and the 
divisions are unequal, but evidently by accident, as the highest and 
lowest are the longest. He states that the Spanish scale was formed 
by counting the Great Berling as 3 from Cape St Vincent (it is under 
af ). Twenty English leagues are equal to 175 Spanish or 25 French, 
and to 1 of latitude. Cortes was evidently at a loss to know the 
length of a degree, and consequently the circumference of the globe. 
The degrees of longitude are not laid down, but for a first meridian 
we are told to draw a vertical line " through the Azores, or nearer 
Spain, where the chart is less occupied." It is impossible in such 
circumstances to understand or check the longitudes assigned to 
places at that period. Martin Cortes's work was held in high estima- 
tion in England for many years, and appeared in several translations. 
A reprint, with additions, of Richard Eden's (1561), by John 
Tapp and published in 1609, gives an improved table of the 
sun's declination from 1609 to 1625 the maximum value being 
23 to 30'. The declinations of the principal stars, the times of their 
passing the meridian, and other improved tables, are given, with 
a very poor traverse table for eight points. The cross-staff, he 
said, was in most common use; but he recommends Wright's sea 
quadrant. 

William Cuningham published in 1559 a book called his 
Astronomical Glass, in which he teaches the making of charts 
by a central meridional line divided into equal parts, with other 
meridians on each side, distant at top and bottom in proportion 
to the departure at the highest and lowest latitude, for which 
purpose a table of departures is given very correctly to the third 
place of sexagesimals. The chart would be excellent were it not 
that the parallels are drawn straight instead of being curved. 
In another example, which shows one-fourth of the sphere, the 
meridians and parallels are all curved; it would be good were 
it not that the former are too long. The hemisphere is also 
shown upon a projection approaching the stereographic; but 
the eighteen meridians cut the equator at equal distances apart 
instead of being nearer together towards the primitive. He 
gives the drawing of an instrument like an astrolabe placed 
horizontally, divided into 32 points and 360 degrees, and carrying 
a small magnetic needle to be used as a prismatic compass, 
or even as a theodolite. 

In 1581 Michael Coignet of Antwerp published sea charts, and 
also a small treatise in French, wherein he exposes the errors of 
Medina, and was probably the first who said that rhumb lines 
form spirals round the pole. He published also tables of declina- 
tion of the sun and observed the gradual decrease in the obliquity 



of the ecliptic. He described a cross-staff with three transverse 
pieces, which was then in common use at sea. Coignet died in 
1623. 

The Dutch published charts made up as atlases as early as 
1584, with a treatise on navigation as an introduction. 

In 1585 Roderico Zamorano, who was then lecturer at the naval 
college at Seville, published a concise and clearly-written com- 
pendium of navigation; he follows Cortes in the desire to obtain 
better charts. Andres Garcia de Cespedes, the successor of 
Zamorano at Seville, published a treatise on navigation at Madrid 
in 1606. In 1592 Petrus Plancius published his universal map, 
containing the discoveries in the East and West Indies and 
towards the north pole. It possessed no particular merit; the 
degrees of latitude are equal, but the distances between the 
meridians are varied. He made London appear in 51 32' N. 
and long. 22, by which his first meridian should have been 
more than 3 east of St Michael. 

For Mercator's great improvements in charts at about this date 
see MAP; from facsimiles of his early charts in Jomard, Les 
Monuments de la geographic, the following measurements have 
been made. A general chart in 1569 of North America, from 
lat. 25 to lat. 79, is 2 ft. long north and south, and 20 in. wide. 
Another of the same date, from the equator to 60 south lat. 
is 15-8 in. long. The charts agree with each other, a slight 
allowance being made for remeasuring. As compared with 
J. Inman's table of meridional parts, the spaces between the 
parallels are all too small. Between o and 10 the error is 8' ; at 
20 it is 5'; at 30, 16'; at 40, 39'; at 50, 61'; at 60, 104'; 
at 70, 158' ; and at 79, 182' that is, over three degrees upon 
the whole chart. As the measures are always less than the 
truth it is possible that Mercator was afraid to give the whole. 
In a chart of Sicily by Romoldus Mercator in 1589, on which 
two equal degrees of latitude, 36 to 38, extend 95 in., the 
degree of longitude is quite correct at one-fourth from the top; 
the lower part is r m. too long. One of the north of Scotland, 
published in 1595, by Romoldus, measures 103 in. from 58 20' 
to 61 ; the divisions are quite equal and the lines parallel; 
it is correct at the centre only. A map of Norway, 1595, lat. 60 
to 70 = g in., has the parallels curved and equidistant, the 
meridians straight converging lines; the spaces between the 
meridians at 60 and 70 are quite correct. 

In 1594 Blundeville published a description of Mercator's 
charts and globes; he confesses to not having known upon what 
rule the meridians were separated by Mercator, unless upon such 
a table as that given by Wright, whose table of meridional parts 
is published in the same book, also an excellent table of sines, 
tangents and secants the former to seven figures, the latter 
to eight. These are the tables made originally by Regiomontanus 
and improved by Clavius. 

In 1594 the celebrated navigator John Davis published a 
pamphlet of eighty pages, in black letter, entitled The Seaman's 
Secrets, in which he proposes to give all that is necessary for 
sailors not for scholars on shore. He defines three kinds of 
sailing: horizontal, paradoxical and great circle. His horizontal 
sailing consists of short voyages which may be delineated upon 
a plain sheet of paper. The paradoxical or cosmographical 
embraces longitude, latitude and distance the combining many 
horizontal courses into' one " infallible and true," i.e. what is 
now called traverse and Mercator's sailings. His " paradoxical 
course " he describes correctly as a rhumb line which is straight 
on the chart and a curve on the globe. He points out the errors 
of the common or plane chart, and promises if spared to publish 
a " paradoxall chart." It is not known whether such appeared 
or not, but he assisted Wright in producing his chart on what 
is known as Mercator's projection a few years later. Great 
circle sailing on a globe is clearly described by Davis, and to 
render it more practicable he divides a long distance into several 
short rhumb lines quite correctly. From the practice of 
navigators in using globes the principles of such sailing were not 
unknown at an earlier date; indeed it is said that S. Cabot 
projected a voyage across the North Atlantic on the arc of a 
great circle in 1495. 






288 



NAVIGATION 



The list of instruments given by Davis as necessary to a skilful 
seaman comprises the sea compass, cross-staff, chart, quadrant, 
astrolabe, an " instrument magnetical " for finding the variation of 
the compass, a horizontal plane sphere, a globe and a paradoxical 
compass. The first three are said to be sufficient for use at sea, the 
astrolabe and quadrant being uncertain for sea observations. The 
importance of knowing the times of the tides when approaching tidal 
or barred harbours is clearly pointed out, also the mode of ascertain- 
ing them by the moon's age. A table of the sun's declination is given 
for noon each day during four years 1593-1597, from the ephemerides 
of J. Stadius. The greatest given value is 23 28'. Several courses 
and distances, with the resulting difference of latitude and de- 
parture, are correctly worked out. A specimen log-book provides one 
line only for each day, but the columns are arranged similarly to 
those of a modern log. Under the head of remarks after leaving 
Brazil, we read, " the compass varied 9, the south point westward." 
He states that the first meridian passed through St Michael, because 
there was no variation at that place, and therefore that this meridian 
passed through the magnetic pole as well as the pole of the earth. 
He makes no mention of Mercator's chart by name nor of Cortes or 
other writers on navigation. Rules are given for finding the latitude 
by two altitudes of the sun and intermediate azimuth, also by two 
fixed stars, using a globe. There is a drawing of a quadrant, with a 
plumb line, for measuring the zenith distance, and one of a modifica- 
tion of a cross-staff using which the observer stands with his back to 
the sun, looking at the horizon through a sight on the end of the 
staff, while the shadow of the top of a movable projection, falls on the 
sight; this, known as the back-staff, was an improvement on the 
cross-staff. It was fitted with a reflector, and was thus the first 
rough idea of the principle of the quadrant and sextant. This 
remained in common use till superseded in 1731 by Hadley's quad- 
rant. The eighth edition of Davis's work was printed in 1657. 

Edward Wright, of Caius College, Cambridge, published in 
1599 a valuable work entitled Certain Errors in Navigation 
Detected and Corrected. One part is a translation from Roderico 
Zamorano; there is a chapter from Cortes and one from Nunez. 
A year later appeared his chart of the world, upon which both 
capes and the recent discoveries in the East Indies and America 
are laid down truthfully and scientifically, as well as his know- 
ledge of their latitudes and longitudes would admit. Just the 
northern extremity of Australia is shown. 

Wright said of himself that he had striven beyond his ability to 
mend the errors in chart, compass, cross-staff and declination of sun 
and stars. He considered that the instruments which had then 
recently come in use " could hardly be amended," as thjey were 
growing to " perfection " especially the sea chart and the compass, 
though he expresses a hope that the latter may be " freed from that 
rude and gross manner of handling in the making." He gives a table 
of magnetic declinations (variation) and explains its geometrical 
construction. He states that Medina utterly denied the existence of 
variation, and attributed it to bad construction and bad observa- 
tions. Wright expresses a hope that a right understanding of the dip 
of the needle would lead to a knowledge of the latitude, " as the 
variation did of the longitude." He gives a table of declination of 
the sun for the use of English manners during four years the 
greatest given value being 23 31' 30*. The latitude of London he 
made 51 32'. For these determinations a quadrant over 6 ft. in 
radius was used. He also treats of the " dip " of the sea horizon, 
refraction, parallax and the sun's motions. With all this knowledge 
the earth is still considered as stationary although Wright alludes 
to Copernicus, and says that he omitted to allow for parallax. 
Wright ascertained the declinations of thirty-two stars, and made 
many improvements or additions to the art of navigation, considering 
that all the problems could be performed trigonometrically, without 
globe or chart. He devised sea rings for taking observations, and a 
sea quadrant to be used by two persons, which is in some respects 
similar to that by Davis. While deploring the neglected state which 
navigation had been in, he rejoices that the worshipful society at the 
Trinity House (which had been established in 1514), under the favour 
of the king (Henry VIII.), had removed " many gross and dangerous 
enormities." He joins the brethren of the Trinity House in the 
desire that a lectureship should be established on navigation, as at 
Seville and Cadiz; also that a grand pilot should be appointed, as 
Sebastian Cabot had been in Spam, to examine pilots (i.e. mates) and 
navigators. Wright's desire was partially fulfilled in 1845, when an 
Act of Parliament paved the way for the compulsory qualification 
of masters and mates of merchant ships; but such was the opposition 
by shipowners that it was even then left voluntary for a few years. 
England was in this respect more than a century behind Holland. 
It has been said that Wright accompanied the earl of Cumberland to 
the Azores in 1589, and that he was allowed 50 a year by the East 
India Company as lecturer on navigation at Gresham College, Tower 
Street. 

The great mark which Wright made was the discovery of a 
correct and uniform method of dividing the meridional line and 
making charts which are still called after the name of Mercator. 



He considered such charts as true as the globe itself; and so 
they were for all practical purposes. He commenced by dividing 
a meridional line, in the proportion of the secants of the latitude, 
for every ten minutes of arc, and in the edition of his work 
published in 1610 his calculations are for every minute. His 
method was based upon the fact that the radius bears the same 
proportion to the secant of the latitude as the difference of 
longitude does to the meridional difference of latitude a rule 
strictly correct for small arcs only. One minute is taken as the 
unit upon the arc and 10,000 as the corresponding secant, 2' 
becomes 20,000, 3' = 30,000, &c., increasing uniformly till 49', 
which is equal to 490,001; i is 600,012. The secant of 20 
is 12,251,192, and for 20 i' it will be 12,251,192+10,642 
practically the same as that used in modern tables. 

The principle is simply explained by fig. 5, where b is the pole and 
bf the meridian. At any point a a minute of longitude : a min. of 
lat. : : ea (the semi-diameter of the parallel) : kf 
(the radius). Again ea : kf : :kf:ki:: radius : sec. 
akf (sec. of lat). To keep this proportion on the 
chart, the distances between points of latitude 
must increase in the same proportion as the 
secants of the arc contained between those points e 
and the equator, which was then to be done by the 
" canon of triangles." 

Wright gave the following excellent popular de- 
scription of the principle of Mercator's charts. 
" Suppose a spherical globe (representing the 
world) inscribed in a concave cylinder to swell 
like a bladder equally in every part (that is as 
much in longitude as in latitude) until it joins 




g 

FIG. 5. 



itself to the concave surface of the cylinder, each parallel in- 
creasing successively from the equator towards either pole until 
it is of equal diameter to the cylinder, and consequently the 
meridians widening apart until they are everywhere as distant 
from each other as they are at the equator. Such a spherical surface 
is thus by extension made cylindrical, and consequently a plane 
parallelogram surface, since the surface of a cylinder is nothing else 
but a plane parallelogram surface wound round it. Such a cylinder 
on being opened into a flat surface will have upon it a representation 
of a Mercator's chart of the world." 

This great improvement in the principle of constructing charts 
was adopted slowly by seamen, who, putting it as they supposed 
to a practical test, found good reason to be disappointed. The 
positions of most places in the world had been originally laid 
down erroneously, by very rough courses and estimated distances 
upon the plane chart, and from this they were transferred 
to the new projection, so that errors in courses and distances, 
really due to erroneous positions, were wrongly attributed to the 
new and accurate form of chart. 

When Napier's Canon Mirificus appeared in 1614, Wright at 
once recognized the value of logarithms as an aid to navigation, 
and undertook a translation of the book, which he did not live to 
publish (see NAPIER). Gunter's tables (1620) made the applica- 
tion of the new discovery to navigation possible, and this was 
done by Addison in his Arithmetical Navigation (1625), as well as 
by Gunter in his tables of 1624 and 1636, which gave logarithmic 
sines and tangents, to a radius of 1,000,000, with directions for 
their use and application to astronomy and navigation, and also 
logarithms of numbers from i to 10,000. Several editions 
followed, and the work retained its reputation over a century. 
Gunter invented the sector, and introduced the meridional line 
upon it, in the just proportion of Mercator's projection. 

The means of taking observations correctly, either at sea or 
on shore, was about this time greatly assisted by the invention 
bearing the name of Pierre Vernier, the description of which was 
published at Brussels in 1631. As Vernier's quadrant was 
divided into half degrees only, the sector, as he called it, spread 
over 145 degrees, and that space carried thirty equal divisions, 
numbered from o to 30. As each division of the sector contained 
29 min. of arc, the vernier could be read to minutes. The verniers 
now commonly adapted to sextants can be read to 10 sees. 
Shortly after the invention it was recommended for use by P. 
Bouguer and Jorge Juan, who describe it in a treatise entitled 
La Construction, &c., du quadrant nouveau. About this period 
Gascoigne applied the telescope to the quadrant as used on 
shore; and Hevelius invented the tangent screw, to give slow 
and steady motion when near the desired position. These 






NAVIGATION 



289 



practical improvements were not applied to the rougher nautical 
instruments until the invention of Hadley's sextant in 1731. 

In 1635 Henry Gellibrand published his discovery of the annual 
change in variation of the needle, which was effected by compar- 
ing the results of his own observations with those of W. Borough 
and Edmund Gunter. The latter was his predecessor at Gresham 
College. 

In 1637 Richard Norwood, a sailor, and reader in mathematics, 
published an account of his most laudable exertions to remove 
one of the greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of correct 
navigation, that of not knowing the true length of a degree or 
nautical mile, in a pamphlet styled The Seaman's Practices. 
Norwood ascertained the latitude of a position near the Tower 
of London in June 1633, and of a place in the centre of York 
in June 1635, w i f -h a sextant of more than 5 ft. radius, and, 
having carefully corrected the declination of the sun and allowed 
for refraction and parallax, made the difference of latitude 
3 28'. He then measured the distance with a chain, taking 
horizontal angles of all windings, and made a special table for 
correcting elevations and depressions. A few places which he 
was unable to measure he paced. His conclusion was that a 
degree contained 367,176 English feet; this gives 2040 yds. 
to a nautical mile only about 12 yds. too much. Norwood's 
work went through numerous editions, and retained its popularity 
over a hundred years. In a late edition he says that, as there 
is no means of discovering the longitude, a seaman must trust 
to his reckoning. He recommends the knots on the log-line 
to be placed 51 ft. apart, as the just proportion to a mile when 
used with the half-minute glass. To Norwood is also attributed 
the discovery of the " dip " of the magnetic needle in 1576. 

The progress of the art of navigation was and is still of course 
inseparably connected with that of map and chart drawing and 
the correct astronomical determinations of positions on land. 
While as we have seen at an early period simple practical astro- 
nomical means of finding the latitude at sea were known and in 
use, no mode could be devised of finding longitude except by 
the rough method of estimating the run of the ship, so that the 
only mode of arriving at a port of destination was to steer so as to 
get into the latitude of such a port either to the eastward or west- 
ward of its supposed position, and then approach it on the parallel 
of its latitude. The success of this method would of course greatly 
depend upon the accuracy with which the longitude of such 
port was known. Even with the larger and more accurate 
instruments used in astronomical observatories on shore the 
means of ascertaining latitude were far in advance of those by 
which longitude could be obtained, and this equally applied 
to the various heavenly bodies themselves upon which the 
terrestrial positions depended, the astronomical element of 
declination (corresponding to latitude) being far more accurately 
determined than that of right ascension (corresponding to 
longitude). 

Almanacs were first published on the continent of Europe in 
1457, but the earliest printed work of that kind in England is 
dated 1497. The only portions of their contents of use to seamen 
were tables of the declination of the sun, rough elements of the 
positions of a few stars, and tables for finding latitude by the 
pole star. 

No accurate predictions of the positions of the moon, stars 
and planets could, however, be made until the laws governing 
their movements were known, such laws of course involving a 
knowledge of their actual positions at different widely separated 
epochs. 

In 1699 Edmund Halley (subsequently astronomer royal), in 
command of the " Paramour," undertook a voyage to improve 
the knowledge of longitude and of the variation of the compass. 
The results of his voyage were the construction of the first 
variation chart, and proposals for finding the longitude by 
occultations of fixed stars. 

The necessity for having more correct charts being equalled by 

ie pressing need of obtaining the longitude by some simple and 

:orrect means available to seamen, many plans had already been 

thought of for this purpose. At one time it was hoped that the 

longitude might be directly discovered by observing the variation 

XIX. 10 



of the compass and comparing it with that laid down on charts. 
In 1674 Charles II. actually appointed a commission to investigate 
the pretensions of a scheme of this sort devised by Henry Bond, and 
the same idea appears as late as 1777 in S. Dunn's Epitome. But the 
only accurate method of ascertaining the longitude is by knowing the 
difference of time at the same instant at the meridian of the observer 
and that of Greenwich; and till the invention and perfecting of 
chronometers this could only be done by finding at two such places 
the apparent time of the same celestial phenomenon. 

A class of phenomena whose comparative frequency recommended 
them for longitude observations, viz. the eclipses of Jupiter's 
satellites, became known through Galileo's discovery of these bodies 
(1610). Tables for such eclipses were published by Dominic Cassini 
at Bologna in 1688, and repeated in a more correct form at Paris in 
1693 by his son, who was followed by J. Pound, J. Bradley, P. W. 
Wargentin, and many other astronomers. But this method, though 
useful on land, is not suited to mariners; when W. Whiston, for 
example, in 1737 recommended that the satellites should be ob- 
served by a reflecting telescope, he did not sufficiently consider the 
difficulty of using a telescope at sea. 

Another method proposed was that of comparing the local time 
of the moon's crossing the meridian of the observer with the predicted 
time of the same event at Greenwich, the difference of the two de- 
pending upon the moon's motion during the time represented by the 
longitude; thus Herne's Longitude Unveiled (1678), proposes to find 
the time of the moon's meridian passage at sea by equal altitudes with 
the cross-staff, and then compare apparent time at ship with London 
time. The accuracy of this, as in the case of lunar problems, would 
obviously depend upon a more perfect knowledge of the laws of the 
moon's motion than then existed. 

The celebrated problem of finding longitude by lunars (or by 
measurement of " lunar distances ") occupied the attention of 
astronomers and sailors for many years before being superseded by 
the mere simple and accurate modern method by the use of chrono- 
meters, and was the principal reason for establishing the Royal 
Observatory at Greenwich and the subsequent publication of the 
Nautical Almanac. The principle was simple, depending upon the 
comparatively rapid movement of the moon with regard to the 
heavenly bodies lying in her immediate path in the heavens. It is 
evident that if the theory of this movement were perfectly under- 
stood and the positions of such heavenly bodies accurately deter- 
mined, the distances of the moon from those at any instant of time at 
Greenwich could be accurately foretold so that if such predictions 
were published in advance, an observer at any place in the world, by 
simply measuring such distances, could accurately determine the 
Greenwich time, a comparison of which with the local time (which in 
clear weather can be frequently and simply determined) would give 
the longitude. This, as previously mentioned, was foreseen by J. 
Werner as early as 1514, but very great difficulties attended its 
practical application for many years. Until the establishment of 
national astronomical observatories it was impossible to accumulate 
the vast number of observations necessary to fulfil the astronomical 
conditions, and until the invention of the sextant no instrument 
existed capable of use at sea which would measure the distances 
required with the necessary accuracy, while even up to the time when 
the problem had attained its greatest practical accuracy the calcula- 
tions involved were far too intricate for general use among those for 
whom it was chiefly intended. The very principles of a theory of the 
movements of the moon were unknown before Newton's time, when 
the lunar problem begins to have a chief place in the history of 
navigation; the places of stars were formerly derived from various 
and widely discrepant sources. 

The study of the lunar problem was stimulated by the reward of 
1000 crowns offered by Philip III. of Spain in 1598 for the dis- 
covery of a method of finding longitude at sea; the States-general 
followed with an offer of 10,000 florins. But for a long time nothing 
practical came of this; a proposal by J. B. Morin, submitted to 
Richelieu in 1633, was pronounced by commissioners appointed to 
judge of it to be impracticable through the imperfection of the lunar 
tables, and the same objection applied when the question was raised 
in England in 1674 by a proposal of St Pierre to find the longitude by 
using the altitudes of the moon and two stars to find the time each 
was from the meridian. When the king was pressed by St Pierre, 
Sir J. Moore and Sir C. Wren to establish an observatory for the 
benefit of navigation, and especially that the moon's exact position 
might be calculated a year in advance, Flamsteed gave his judgment 
that the lunar tables then in use were quite useless, and the positions 
of the stars erroneous. The result was that the king decided upon 
establishing an observatory in Greenwich Park, and Flamsteed was 
appointed astronomical observer on March 4, 1675, upon a salary of 
100 a year, for which also he was to instruct two boys from Christ's 
Hospital. While the small building in the Park was in course of 
erection he resided in the Queen's House (now the central part of 
Greenwich Hospital school), and removed to the house on the hill 
on the loth of July 1676, which came to be known as " Flamsteed 
House." The institution was placed under the surveyor-general of 
ordnance perhaps because that office was then held by Sir Jonas 
Moore, himself an eminent mathematician. Though this was not the 
first observatory in Europe, it was destined to become the most 
useful, and has amply fulfilled the important duties for which it was 



290 



NAVIGATION 



designed. It was established to meet the exigencies of navigation, 
as was clearly stated on the appointment of Flamsteed, and on 
several subsequent occasions; we see now what an excellent foster- 
mother it has been to the higher branches of that science. This has 
been accomplished by much labour and patience; for, though 
originally the most suitable man in the kingdom was placed in 
charge, it was so starved and neglected as to be almost useless during 
many years. The government did not provide a single instrument. 
Flamsteed entered upon his important duties with an iron sextant of 
7 ft. radius, a quadrant of 3 ft. radius, two telescopes and two clocks, 
the last given by Sir Jonas Moore. Tycho Brahe's catalogue of 777 
stars, formed in about 1590, was his only guide. In 1681 he fitted a 
mural arc which proved a failure. Seven years after another mural 
arc was erected at a cost of 120, with which he set to work in 
earnest to verify the latitude, and to determine the position of the 
equinoctial point, the obliquity of the ecliptic and the right ascen- 
sions and declinations of the stars; he obtained the positions of 
2884 which appeared in the " British catalogue " in 1723 (see 
FLAMSTEED, and ASTRONOMY). 

Flamsteed died in 1719, and was succeeded by Halley, who paid 
particular attention to the motions of the moon with a view to the 
longitude problem. A paper which he published in the Phil. Trans. 
(1731) shows what had been accomplished up to that date, and 
proves that it was still impossible to find the longitude correctly by 
any observation depending upon the predicted position of the moon. 
He repeats what he had published twenty years before in an appendix 
to Thomas Street's Caroline tables, which contained observations 
made by him (Halley) in 1683-1684 for ascertaining the moon's 
motion, which he thought to be the only practical method of 
" attaining " the longitude at sea. The Caroline tables of Street, 
though better than those before his time as well as those of Tycho, 
Kepler, Bullialdus and Horrox, were uncertain; sometimes the 
errors would compensate one another; at others when they fell the 
same way the result might lead to a position being 100 leagues in 
error. He hopes that the tables will be so amended that an error 
may scarce ever exceed 3 minutes of arc (equal to I J of longitude). 
Sir Isaac Newton's tables, corrected by himself (Halley) and others 
up to 1713, would admit of errors of 5 minutes, when the moon was 
in the third and fourth quarters. He blames Flamsteed for neglecting 
that portion of astronomical work, as he was at the observatory more 
than two periods of eighteen years. He himself had at this time seen 
the whole period of the moon's apogee less than nine years during 
which he observed the right ascensions at her transit, with great 
exactness, almost fifteen hundred times, or as often as Tycho Brahe, 
Hevelius and Flamsteed together. He hoped to be able to compute 
the moon's position within 2 minutes of arc with certainty, which 
would reduce errors of position to 20 leagues at the equator and 15 in 
the Channel; he thought Hadley's quadrant might be applied to 
measure lunar distances at sea with the desired accuracy. 1 

The rise of modern navigation may be fairly dated from the 
invention of the sextant in 1731 and of the chronometer in 1735; 
the former a complete nautical observatory in itself, and the. 
latter an instrument which in its modern development has 
become an almost perfect time-keeper. It was a curious co- 
incidence that these two invaluable instruments were invented 
at so nearly the same time. Until 1731 all instruments in use 
at sea for measuring angles either depended on a plumb line or 
required the observer to look in two directions at once. 

Their imperfections are clearly pointed out in a paper by Pierre 
Bouguer (1729) which received the prize of the Paris Academy of 
Sciences for the best method of taking the altitude of stars at sea. 
Bouguer himself proposes a modification of what he calls the English 
quadrant, probably the one suggested by Wright and improved by 
Davis. Fig. 6 represents the instrument as proposed, capable of 
measuring fully 90 from E to N. A fixed pinule was recommended 
to be placed at E, through which a ray from the sun would pass to 
the sight C. The sight F was movable. The observer, standing with 
his back to the sun would look through F and C at the horizon, shifting 
the sight F up or down till the ray from the sun coincided with the 
horizon. The space from E to F would represent the altitude, and 
the remaining part F to N the zenith distance. The English quad- 
rant which this was to supersede differed in having about half the 
arc from E towards N, and, instead of the pinule being fixed at E, 
it was on a smaller arc represented by the dotted line eB, and 
movable. It was placed on an even number of degrees, considerably 
less than the altitude; the remainder was measured on the larger arc, 
as described. 

1 Halley's observations were published posthumously in 1742, and 
in 1765 the commissioners of longitude paid his daughter 100 for 
MSS. supposed to be useful to navigation. As the moon passes the 
stars lying in her course through the heavens at the mean rate of 33' 
in one minute of time, it is obvious that an error to that amount in 
measuring the distance from a star would produce an error of 15 m. 
in longitude. As the moon's motion with regard to the sun is nearly 
one degree a day less, a similar error in the distance would produce 
still more effect. 




FIG. 6. 



Hadley's instrument, on the other band, described to the 
Royal Society in May 1731 (Phil. Trans.), embodies Newton's 
idea of bringing the reflection of one object to coincide with the 
direct image of the other. He calls it an octant, as the arc is 
actually 45, or the eighth part of a circle; but, in consequence 
of the angles of incidence and 
reflection both being changed 
by a movement of the index, 
it measures an angle of 90, and 
is graduated accordingly; the 
same instrument has therefore 
been called a quadrant. It was 
very slowly adopted, and no 
doubt there were numerous 
mechanical difficulties of cen- 
tring, graduating, &c., to be 
overcome before it reached per- 
fection. In August 1732, in 
pursuance of an order from the 
Admiralty, observations were 
made with Hadley's quadrant 
on board the " Chatham " 
yacht of 60 tons, below Sheer- 
ness, in rough weather, by persons except the master attendant 
unaccustomed to the motion; still the results were very satis- 
factory. A year later Hadley published (Phil. Trans., 1733) the 
description of an instrument for taking altitudes when the 
horizon is not visible. The sketch represents a curved tube or 
spirit-level, attached to the radius of the quadrant, since which 
time many attempts have been unsuccessfully made to construct 
some form of artificial horizon adapted to use at sea on board 
ship, a discovery which would greatly facilitate observations at 
night and at the many times when the natural or sea horizon is 
imperfectly visible. 

From the year 1714 the history of navigation in England is 
closely associated with that of the " Commissioners for the 
discovery of longitude at sea," a body constituted in that year 
with power to grant annually sums not exceeding 2000 to 
assist experiments and reward minor discoveries, and also to 
judge on applications for much greater rewards which were 
from time to time offered to open competition. For a method . 
of determining the longitude within 60 geographical miles, to 
be tested by a voyage to the West Indies and back, the sum of 
10,000 was offered; within 40 m., 15,000; within 30 m., 
20,000. 10,000 was also to be given for a method that would 
determine longitude within 80 m. near the shores of greatest 
danger. No action seems to have been taken before 1737; 
the first grant made was in that year, and the last in 1815, but 
the board continued to exist till 1828, having disbursed in the 
course of its existence 101,000 in all. 2 In the interval a number 
of other acts had been passed either dealing with the powers, 
constitution and funds of the commissioners or encouraging 
nautical discovery; thus the act 18 George II. (1745) offered 
20,000 for the discovery by a British ship of the North-West 
Passage, and the act 16 George III. (1776) offered the same 
reward for a passage to the Pacific either north-west or north- 
east, and 5000 to any one who should approach by sea within 
one degree of the North Pole. All these acts were swept away 
in 1828, when the longitude problem had ceased to attract 
competitors, and voyages of discovery were nearly over. 

The suggestions and applications sent in to the commissioners were 
naturally very numerous and often very trifling; but they some- 
times furnish useful illustrations of the state of navigation. Thus, 
in a memorial by Captain H. Lanoue (1736), he records a number of 
recent casualties, which shows how carelessly the largest ships were 
then navigated. Several men-of-war off Plymouth in 1691 were 

2 This total comprises the large sums awarded to Harrison and to 
the widow of Mayer, the cost of surveys and expeditions in various 
parts of the globe, large outlays on the Nautical Almanac and on 
subsidiary calculations and tables, rewards for new methods and 
solutions of problems, and many minor grants to watchmakers or for 
improvements in instruments. Thus Jesse Ramsden received in 
1775 and later about 1600 for his improvements in graduation 
(q.v.), and E. Massey in 1804 got 200 for his log (see LOG). 





NAVIGATION 



291 



wrecked through mistaking the Deadman for Berry Head. Admiral 
Wheeler's squadron in 1694, leaving the Mediterranean, ran on 
Gibraltar when they thought they had passed the Strait. Sir 
Cloudesley Shovel's squadron, in 1707, was lost on the rocks off 
Scilly, by erring in their latitude. Several transports, in 1711, were 
lost near the river St Lawrence, having erred 15 leagues in the 
reckoning during twenty-four hours. Lord Belhaven was lost on 
the Lizard on the 1 7th of November 1721, the same day on which he 
sailed from Plymouth. 

Many rewards were paid by the commissioners for methods by 
which the tedious calculations involved in " clearing the lunar 
distance" could be abbreviated; thus Israel Lyons (1739-1775) 
received 10 for his solution of this problem from the commissioners 
in 1769; and in 1772 he and Richard Dunthorne (1711-1775) 
each obtained 50. George Whichell, master of the Royal Naval 
Academy, Portsmouth, conceived a plan whereby the correction 
could be taken from a table by inspection. In October 1765 the 
commissioners of longitude awarded him 100 to enable him to 
complete and print 1000 copies of his table. On the following 
April they gave him 200 more. The work was continued on the same 
plan by Antony Shepherd, the Plumian professor of astronomy, 
Cambridge, with some additions by the astronomer-royal. The total 
cost of the ponderous 4to volume up to the time of publication in 
June 1772 was 3100, after which 200 more was paid to the Rev. 
Thomas Parkinson and Israel Lyons for examining the errata. It 
was a very large and expensive volume ill-adapted for ship's use. 
Considerable sums were paid by the commissioners from time to 
time for other tables to facilitate navigation not always very 
judiciously. It is sufficient to mention here the tables of Michael 
Taylor and those of Mendoza, published in 1815. The proposals 
submitted to the board to find the longitude by the time of the 
moon's meridian passage are very numerous. , 

One of the first points to which the attention of the com- 
missioners was directed was the survey of the coasts of Great 
Britain, which was pressed on them by Whiston in 1737. He 
was appointed surveyor of coasts and headlands, and in 1741 
received a grant for instruments. An act passed in 1740 
enabled the commissioners to spend money on the survey of 
the coasts of Great Britain and the " plantations." At a later 
date they bore part of the expenses of Cook's scientific voyages, 
and of the publication of their results. Indeed it is to them 
that we owe all that was done by England for surveys of coasts, 
both at home and abroad, prior to the establishment of the 
hydrographic department of the Admiralty in 1795. But their 
chief work lay in the encouragement they gave on the one hand 
to the improvement of timepieces, and on the other to the 
perfecting of astronomical tables and methods, the latter being 
published from time to time in the Nautical Almanac. Before 
we pass on to these two important topics we may with advantage 
take a view of the state of practical navigation in the middle 
of the i8th century as shown in two of the principal treatises 
then current. 

John Robertson's Elements of Navigation passed through six 
editions between 1755 and 1796. It contains good teaching on 
arithmetic, geometry, spherical trigonometry, astronomy, geography, 
winds and tides, also a small useful table for correcting the middle 
time between the equal altitudes of the sun all good, as is also the 
remark that " the greater the moon's meridian altitude the greater 
generally the tides will be." He states that Lacaille recommends 
equal altitudes being observed and worked separately, in order to 
find the time from noon, and the mean of the results taken as the 
truth. There is a sound article on chronology, the ancient and 
modern modes of reckoning time. A long list of latitudes, longitudes 
and times of high water finishes vol. i. The second volume is said 
by the author to treat of navigation mechanical and theoretical ; by 
the former he means seamanship. He gives instructions for all kinds 
of sailings, for marine surveying and making Mercator's chart. 
There are two good traverse tables, one to quarter points, the other 
to every 15 minutes of arc; the distance to each is 120 m. There is 
a table of meridional parts to minutes, which is more minute than 
customary. Book ix., upon what is now called " the day's work," 
or dead-reckoning, appears to embrace all that is necessary. A great 
many methods, we are told, were then used for measuring a snip's 
rate of sailing, but among the English the log and line with a 
half-minute glass were generally used. Bouguer and Lacaille pro- 
posed a log with a diver to avoid the drift motion (1753 and 1760). 
Robertson s rule of computing the equation of equal altitudes is as 
good as any used at the present day. He gives also a description 
of an equal- altitude instrument, having three horizontal wires, 
probably such as was used at Portsmouth for testing Harrison's 
timekeeper. The mechanical difficulties must have been great in 
preserving a perpendicular stem and a truly horizontal sweep for the 
telescope. It gave place to the improved sextant and artificial 
horizon. The second edition of Robertson's work in 1 764 contains an 
excellent dissertation on the rise and progress of modern navigation 



by Dr James Wilson, which has been greatly used by all subsequent 
writers. 

Don Jorge Juan's Compendia de Navegacion, for the use of mid- 
shipmen, was published at Cadiz in 1757. Chapter i. explains what 
pilotage is, practical and theoretical. He speaks of the change of 
variation, " which sailors have not believed and do not believe now." 
He describes the lead, log and sand-glass, the latter corrected by 
a pendulum, charts plane and spherical. Supposing his readers to 
be versed in trigonometry, he explains what latitude and longitude 
are, and shows a method for finding the latter different from what has 
been taught. He explains the error of middle latitude sailing, and 
shows that the longitude found by it is always less than the truth. 
(It is strange that while reckoning was so rough and imperfect in 
many respects such a trifle as that is in low latitudes should be 
noticed.) After speaking of meridional parts, he offers to explain the 
English method, which was discovered by Edmund Halley, but omits 
the principles upon which Halley founded his theory, as it was " too 
embarassing." He gives instructions for allowing for currents and 
leeway, tables of declination, positions of a few stars, meridional 
parts, &c. It is worthy of remark that, after giving a form for a 
log-book, he adds that this had not been previously kept by any one, 
but he thought it should not be trusted to memory. He only re- 
quires the knots, fathoms, course, wind and leeway to be marked 
every two hours. He gives a sketch of Halley's quadrant, but 
without a clamping screw or tangent screw. 

To ascertain local time at sea by astronomical observations 
by the altitude of suitably-situated heavenly bodies was an old, 
well-known and frequently practised operation, so that a 
comparison could thus be easily made between such local time 
and the Greenwich time if known at the same instant. The 
introduction of timekeepers by which Greenwich time can be 
carried to any part of the world, and the longitude found with 
ease, simplicity and certainty is due to the invention of John 
Harrison. 

The idea of keeping time at sea by watches was no novelty, but the 
practical difficulty arose from their very irregular rates owing to 
changes of temperature and the motion of the ship. Huygens had 
applied pendulums to the regulation of clocks on shore in 1656, and 
in 1675 his application of spiral springs as regulators of watches 
made them available for use at sea. William Derham published a 
scientific description of various kinds of timekeepers in The Artificial 
Clock-Maker, in 1700, with a table of equations from Flamsteed to 
facilitate comparison of mean time with that shown by the sun-dial 
or apparent time. In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englishman, published 
a treatise at Vienna, on finding time artificially. He went to France, 
and spent the rest of his life in trying to make a timekeeper for the 
discovery of the longitude at sea. In 1716 he presented a watch of 
his own make to the Academy of Sciences, which was approved; 
and ten years later he went to Bordeaux to try his marine watches, 
but died before embarking. Julien le Roy was his scholar, and 
perfected many of his inventions in watchmaking. 

Harrison's great invention was the principle of compensation 
through the unequal contraction of two metals, which he first applied 
in the invention in 1726 of the compensation (gridiron) pendulum, 
still in use, and then modified so as to fit it to a watch, devising at the 
same time a means by which the watch retains its motion while being 
wound up. With regard to the success of the trial journey (see 
HARRISON, JOHN) to Jamaica in 1761-1762, it may be noted that 
by the journal of the House of Commons we find that the error of 
the watch was ascertained by equal altitudes at Portsmouth and 
Barbados, the calculations being made by Short; these errors came 
greatly within the limits of the act. At Jamaica the watch was only 
in error five seconds (assuming that the longitude previously found 
by the transit of Mercury could be closely depended on, which as we 
now know, was not the case, the observations being too few in number, 
and taken with an untrustworthy instrument). Short at Portsmouth 
found the whole unallowed-for error from November 6th, 1761, till 
April and, 1762, to be I n> 54".5 = l8 geographical miles in the latitude 
of Portsmouth. During the passage home in the " Merlin " sloop-of- 
war the timekeeper was placed in the after part of the ship, because 
it was the dryest place, and there it received violent shocks which 
retarded its motion. It lost on the voyage home l m 49' = 16 geo- 
graphical miles. 

One might have supposed that Harrison had now secured the 

Erize; but there were powerful competitors who hoped to gain it 
y lunars, and a bill was passed through the House in 1763 which 
left an open chance for a lunarian during four years. A second West 
Indies trial of the watch took place between November 1763 and 
March 1764, in a voyage to Barbados, which occupied four months; 
during which time it is said, in the preamble to act 5 Geo. III. 1765, 
not to have erred 10 geographical miles in longitude. We only find 
in the public records the equal altitudes taken at Portsmouth and 
at Bridgetown, Barbados. William Harrison assumed an average 
rate of i' a-day gaining, and he anticipated that it would go slower 
hy I' for every 10 increase in temperature. The longitude of 
Bridgetown was determined by N. Maskelyne and C. Green by nine 
emersions of Jupiter's first satellite, against five of Bradley's and 



NAVIGATION 



two at Greenwich Observatory, to be 3 h 54 m 20" west of Greenwich. 
In February 1765 the commissioners of longitude expressed an 
opinion that the trial was satisfactory, but required the principles 
to be disclosed and other watches made. Half the great reward was 
paid to Harrison under act of parliament in this year, and he and his 
son gave full descriptions and drawings, upon oath, to seven persons 
appointed by the commissioners of longitude. 1 The other half of the 
great reward was promised to Harrison when he had made other 
timekeepers to the satisfaction ot the commissioners, and provided 
he gave up everything to them within six months. The second half 
was not paid till 1773, after trials had been made with five watches. 
These trials were partly made at Greenwich by Maskelyne, who, as 
we shall see, was a great advocate of lunars, and was not ready to 
admit more than a subsidiary value to the watch. A bitter contro- 
versy arose, and Harrison in 1767 published a book in which he 
charges Maskelyne with exposing his watch to unfair treatment. 
The feud between the astronomer-royal and the watchmakers con- 
tinued long after this date. 

Even after Harrison had received his 20,000, doubts were felt 
as to the certainty of his achievement, and fresh rewards weie 
offered in 1774 both for timekeepers and for improved lunar tables 
or other methods. But the tests proposed for timekeepers were very 
discouraging, and the watchmakers complained that this was due to 
Maskelyne. A fierce attack on the astronomer's treatment of himself 
and other watchmakers was made by Thomas Mudge in 1792, in 
A Narrative of Facts, addressed to the first lord of the Admiralty, 
and Maskelyne's reply does not convey the conviction that full 
justice was done to timekeepers. Maskelyne at this date still says 
that he would prefer an occultation of a bright star by the moon and 
a number of correspondent observations of transits of the moon 
compared with those of fixed stars, made by two astronomers at 
remote places, to any timekeeper. The details of these controversies, 
and of subsequent improvements in timekeepers, need not detain us 
here. In England the names of John Arnold and Thomas Earnshaw 
as watchmakers are prominent, each of whom received, up to 1805, 
3000 reward from the commissioners of longitude. It was Arnold 
who introduced the name chronometer. The French emulated the 
English efforts for the production of good timekeepers, and favour- 
able trials were made between 1768 and 1772 with watches by Le 
Roy and F. Berthoud. 

The marvellous accuracy with which the modern chronometer 
is constructed is doubtless greatly stimulated by the annual 
competition at Greenwich, from which the Admiralty purchase 
for the British navy. These chronometers are all fitted with 
secondary compensation balances, and it is therefore unusual 
in the navy to apply any temperature correction to the rate. 
The perfection obtainable in compensation may be illustrated 
by the performance of a chronometer at the Royal Observatory 
in 1886, which at a mean temperature of 50 F. had a weekly 
rate of 1-6 sees, losing; and on being further tested at a mean 
temperature of 92 F., it only changed its weekly rate to 2-9 sees, 
losing. In the mercantile marine cheaper chronometers without 
secondary compensation are more commonly used, and tempera- 
ture corrections applied, calculated from a formula originally 
proposed by Hartnup, formerly of the Liverpool Observatory. 
Great success attends this mode of procedure, as illustrated by 
the following facts. From the discussion of the records of per- 
formance of the chronometers of the Pacific Steam Navigation 
Company during twenty-six voyages from London to Valparaiso 
and back, by giving equal weight to each of the three chrono- 
meters carried by each ship, the mean error of longitude for an 
average voyage of 101 days was less than three minutes of arc. 
As a single instance, in the s.s. Orellana, on applying temperature 
rates during a voyage of 63 days, the mean accumulated error 
of the three chronometers was only 2-3 sec. of time. 

While chronometers were thus rapidly approaching their 
present perfection the steady progress of astronomy both by the 
multiplication and increased accuracy of observations, and 
by corresponding advances in the theory, had made it possible 
to construct greatly improved tables. In observations of the 
moon Greenwich still took the lead; and it was here that Halley's 
successor Bradley made his two grand discoveries of aberration 
and nutation which have added so much to the precision of 
modern astronomy. Kepler's Rudolphine tables of 1627 and 
Street's tables of 1661, which had held their ground for almost 

'The explanations and drawings are at the British Museum; 
and two of his watches, one of which was used by Captain Cook in the 
" Resolution," are at Greenwich Observatory. In 1767 Harrison 
estimates that a watch could be made for 100, and ultimately for 
70 or 80. 



a century, were rendered obsolete by the observations of Halley 
and his successor. At length, in 1753, in the second volume of 
the Commentarii of the Academy of Gottingen, Tobias Mayer 
printed his new solar and lunar tables, which were to have so 
great an influence on the history of navigation. Mayer after- 
wards constructed and submitted to the English government in 
1755 improved MS. tables. Bradley found that the moon's 
place by these tables was generally correct within i', so that the 
error in a longitude found by lunar would not be much more than 
half a degree if the necessary observations could be taken 
accurately at sea. Thus the lunar problem seemed to have at 
length become a practical one for mariners, and in England it 
was taken up with great energy by Nevil Maskelyne " the 
father," as he has been called, " of lunar observations." 

In 1761 Maskelyne was sent to St Helena to observe the 
transit of Venus. On his voyage out and home he used Mayer's 
printed tables for lunar determinations of the longitude, and 
from St Helena he wrote a letter to the Royal Society (Phil. 
Trans., 1762), in which he described his observations made with 
Hadley's quadrant of 20 in. radius, constructed by John Bird, 
and the glasses ground by Dollond. He took the observations 
both ways to avoid errors. The arc and index were of brass, 
the frame mahogany; the vernier was subdivided to minutes. 
The telescope was 6 in. long, magnified four times, and inverted. 
Very few seamen in that day possessed so good an instrument. 
He considered that ship's time should be ascertained within 
twelve hours before or after observing the lunar distance, as a 
good common watch will scarcely vary above a minute in that 
time. This shows that he must have intended the altitudes to 
be calculated which would lead to new errors. He considered 
that his observations would give the longitude within 1 1 degrees. 
On the nth of February he took ten observations; the extremes 
were a little over one degree apart. 

On his return to England Maskelyne prepared the British 
Mariner's Guide (1763), in which he undertakes to furnish 
complete and easy instructions for finding the longitude at sea 
or on shore,within a degree, by observing the distance between 
the moon and sun, or a star, by Hadley's quadrant. How far that 
promise was fulfilled, and the practicability of the instructions, 
are points worth consideration, as the book took a prominent 
place for some years. The errors which he said were inseparable 
from the dead-reckoning " even in the hands of the ablest and 
most skilful navigators," amounting at times to 15 degrees, 
appear to be overestimated. On the other hand, the equations 
to determine the moon's position at time of observation from 
Mayer's tables, would, he believed, always determine the longi- 
tude within a degree, and generally to half a degree, if applied 
to careful observations. He recommends the two altitudes and 
distance being taken simultaneously when practicable. The 
probable error of observation in a meridian altitude he estimated 
at one or two minutes, and in a lunar distance at two minutes. 
He then gave clear rules for finding the moon's position and 
distance by ten equations, too laborious for seamen to undertake. 
Admitting the requisite calculations for finding the moon's 
place to be difficult, he desired to see the moon's longitude 
and latitude computed for every twelve hours, and hence 
her distance from the sun and from a proper star on each side of 
her carefully calculated for every six hours, and published 
beforehand. 

In 1765 Maskelyne became astronomer-royal, and was able 
to give effect to his own suggestion by organizing the publication 
of the Nautical Almanac. The same act of 1765 which gave 
Harrison his first 10,000 gave the commissioners authority 
and funds for this undertaking. Mayer's tables, with his MS. 
improvements up to his death in 1762, were bought from his 
widow for 3000; 300 was granted to the mathematician L. 
Euler, on whose theory of the moon Mayer's later tables were 
formed; and the first Nautical Almanac, that for 1767, was 
published in the previous year, at the cost and under the authority 
of the commissioners of longitude. In 1696 the French nautical 
almanac for the following year appeared, an improvement on 
what had been before issued by private persons, but it did not 



NAVIGATION 



293 



attempt to give lunar distances. 1 In the English Nautical 
Almanac for 1767 we find everything necessary to render it 
worthy of confidence, and to satisfy every requirement at sea. 
The great achievement was that of giving the distance from the 
moon's centre to the sun, when suitable, and to about seven fixed 
stars, every three hours. The mariner has only to find the 
apparent time at ship, and dear his own measured lunar distance 
from the effects of parallax and refraction (for which at the end 
of the book are given the methods of Lyons and Dunthorne), 
and then by simple proportions, or proportional logarithms, find 
the time at Greenwich. The calculations respecting the sun and 
moon were made from Mayer's last manuscript tables under the 
inspection of Maskelyne, and were so continued till 1804.* The 
calculations respecting the planets are from Halley's tables, 
and those of Jupiter's satellites from tables made by Wargentin 
and published by Lalande in 1759 (except those for the fourth 
satellite). The original Nautical Almanac contained all the 
principal points of information which the seaman required, but 
the great value of such an authentic publication to the whole 
astronomical world led soon to a considerable increase to its 
contents. As much of this was unnecessary for the ordinary 
requirements of navigation, since 1903 it has been issued in two 
forms, the larger for observatory purposes, the smaller for the 
class for whom it was originally intended. 

Various useful rules and tables were appended to early volumes 
of the Almanac. Thus that for 1771 contains a method and table for 
determining the latitude by two altitudes and the elapsed time (first 
published by Cornelius Downes of Amsterdam in 1740). At the 
end of the Almanac for 1772 Maskelyne and Whichell gave three 
special tables for clearing the lunar distance; still their rule is 
neither short nor easily remembered. An improvement of Dun- 
thorne's solution is also given. In the edition for 1773 a new table 
for equations of equal altitude was given by W. Wales. In those for 
1797 and 1800 tables were added by John Brinkley for rendering 
the calculations for double altitudes easier. 

The plan of the Nautical Almanac was soon imitated by other 
nations. In France the Acaddmie Royale de Marine had all the lunar 
distances translated from the British Nautical Almanac for 1773 and 
following years, retaining Greenwich time for the three-hourly 
distances. The tables were considered excellent, and national pride 
was satisfied by their having been formed on the plan proposed 
by Lacaille. They did not imitate the mode given for clearing the 
lunar distance, considering their own better. 

Though the Spaniards were leaders in the art of navigation during 
the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, it was not till November 4, 1791, that 
their first nautical almanac was printed at Madrid, having been 
previously calculated at Cadiz for the year 1792. They acknowledge 
borrowing from the English and French. The excellent Berlin 
Astronomisches Jahrbuch began to appear in 1776, the American 
Ephemeris in 1849. These two ephemerides and the French Con- 
naissance des temps are independent and valuable works. 

A book of Tables Requisite to be Used with the Nautical Ephemeris 
was published by Maskelyne at the same time as the first Almanac, 
and ten thousand copies were quickly sold. A second edition, pre- 
pared by Wales, appeared in 1781, an octavo of 237 pages, in the 
preface of which it is stated that it contains everything necessary for 
computing the latitude and longitude by observation. There are in 
all twenty-three tables, the traverse table and table of meridional 
parts alone being deficient as compared with modern works of the 
kind ; dead-reckoning Maskelyne did not touch. He gave practical 
methods for working several problems; that for computing the lunar 

1 The French nautical almanac or Connaissance des temps ap- 
peared under letters patent from the king, dated 24th March 1679 
seventeen years before the first issue. The following is a literal trans- 
lation of its advertisement: " This little book is a collection of holy 
days and festivals in each month. The rising and setting of the 
moon when it is visible, and of the sun every day. The aspects of the 
planets as with respect to each other, the moon and the fixed stars. 
The lunations and eclipses. The difference of longitude between the 
meridian of Paris and the principal towns in France. The time of 
the sun's entrance into the twelve signs of the zodiac. The true place 
of the planets every fifth day, and of the moon every day of the year, 
in longitude and latitude. The moon's meridian passage, for finding 
the time of high water, ' as well as for the use of dials by moonlight.' 
A table of refraction. The equation of time [this table is strangely 
arranged, as though the clock were to be reset on the first of every 
month, and the explanation speaks of the ' premier mobile ']. The 
time of twilight at Paris. The sun's right ascension to hours and 
minutes. The sun's declination at noon each day to seconds. The 
whole accompanied by necessary instructions." 

Mayer's tables were printed at London under Maskelyne's 
superintendence in 1770. 



especially is an improvement on those by Lyons and Dunthorne, and 
a rule given for clearing the distance, called Dunthorne's improved 
method, is remarkably short. Maskelyne's rule for finding the 
latitudes by two altitudes and the elapsed time is also good. The 
third edition of the Tables was issued in 1802. 

The publication of the Requisite Tables met a great want, and the 
existence of such accurate and conveniently-arranged mathematical 
tables for the special purposes of nautical calculations led to the more 

;neral use of many refinements which had been previously neglected, 
hey formed the original of many subsequent and greatly extended 
collections, of which those by J. W. Norie are the more generally used 
in modern times in the mercantile marine, and the very accurate and 
comprehensive tables by James Inman (originally published in 1823) 
are constantly used in the British navy. 

Until the middle of the I7th century mariners generally employed 
small collections of Dutch charts, known as " waggoners ' from 
Waghenair, the name of a celebrated Dutch hydrographer in 1584. 
In 1671 appeared the English Pilot by John Sellers, who is styled the 
" Hydrographer Royal." It forms a collection of rude sketches of 
the coasts of England, the North Sea, France and Spain, with sailing 
directions, and on its appearance the importation of Dutch charts 
was prohibited. Private enterprise, for many years after that, 
supplied both the British navy and the British mercantile marine 
with constantly improving charts, especially latterly, under the 
powerful patronage of the East India Company, whose hydrographer 
(Alexander Dalrymple), in 1795, was selected as the first hydro- 
grapher of the Admiralty. This post has since been occupied by a 
succession of distinguished naval officers under whom have grown 
up a large school of able nautical surveyors, the results of whose 
labours are now published in the well-known Admiralty charts. 

Prior to the issue of charts by the Admiralty, the instructions to 
masters of vessels in the British navy enjoined them to " provide such 
charts and instruments as they considered necessary for the safe 
navigation of the ship," while on the completion of a voyage of 
discovery it was customary for the results to be published for the 
Admiralty by private firms. 

The establishment of the Admiralty Hydrographic Office in 
1 795 marked a great step in the advancement of the art of naviga- 
tion. On the 1 2th of August of that year an order in council 
placed all such nautical documents as were^hen in the possession 
of the Admiralty in charge of Dalrymple, whose catalogue, 
compiled for the use of the East India Company in 1786, contained 
347 charts between England, the Cape, India and China; thus 
the germ of the present hydrographic department was estab- 
lished. The expense was then limited to 650 a year. The first 
official catalogue of Admiralty charts was issued in 1830, the 
total number being then 962. 

After the close of the long devastating war in 1815 both trade 
and science revived, and several governments besides that of 
Great Britain saw the necessity of surveying the coasts in various 
parts of the globe; the greater portion of the work fell to the 
English hydrographical department, which took under its charge 
nearly every place where the inhabitants were not able to do it 
for themselves. Since that time its career of usefulness has 
steadily developed, and it not merely undertakes the constant 
improvement of the charts of the whole world, but periodically 
issues for the use of the seafaring community a vast amount of 
most accurate and practical nautical information on the various 
closely allied subjects of navigation, tides, compass adjustment 
and ocean meteorology. 

A knowledge of the times and heights of high and low water and 
the directions of the tidal streams due to those phenomena are in 
many parts of the world (and especially round our own coasts) of 
vital importance to navigation. The theory of the tides was first 
laid down by Newton and Laplace, and in Phil. Trans., 1683, there 
is an account of Flamsteed's tide table for London Bridge, which 
gave the times of each high tide on every day in the year. For a 
long subsequent period empirical tide tables for a few places in 
England were published by private individuals, but in 1832 the 
researches of Dr W. Whewell and Sir J. W. Lubbock enabled official 
tide tables to be issued by the Admiralty. These have steadily 
advanced in detail and accuracy, being now in many cases based on 
continuous tidal observations for a whole lunar period of i8i years, 
and represent the practical epitome of our knowledge of the tides 
and tidal currents of the whole world. The formulae and tables on 
which these predictions are based are given in the introduction to 
each annual volume (see TIDE). 

MODERN NAVIGATION 

Having thus sketched the progress of the art of navigation 
from an early period to the present time, we will now describe 
the modern methods by which it is brought into practical use, 



294 



NAVIGATION 



referring our readers for more technical information to ^he 
professional text-books enumerated at the end of this article. 
The great development in both size and speed of modern ships 
enormously increases the responsibilities of those who command 
and navigate them, and has led to a careful examination of 
the existing modes of determining a ship's position at all times 
by day or night, both when in sight of land and on the open ocean. 
An examination of the present text-books on the subject of 
navigation shows how problems and methods which were formerly 
considered chiefly as theoretical exercises have now, from the 
altered conditions of the navigation of very fast ships, become 
methods of frequent practice, while corresponding improvements 
have been made in the instruments, such as compasses, charts 
and chronometers, by the aid of which more satisfactory results 
are now attained. Much has also been done to advance the 
study of this and its numerous allied subjects by the development 
of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the United Seivice 
Institution; also by the establishment of shipmasters' societies 
(of which the well-known society in London is typical), where 
during the year valuable papers are read and useful discussions 
take place among those actually carrying out the practice of 
navigation. 

In planning out in advance a long ocean voyage the experienced 
navigator would first, by laying down the track from port to 
port on a great circle chart, ascertain the shortest route between 
them, remembering that the greatest saving in distance over 
other routes is when the ports are far apart in longitude and 
both in high latitudes of the same name. On examining such 
a track in conjunction with the wind and current charts it will 
be seen what modifications the intervention of land, unfavourable 
currents or winds, ice or unduly high latitude render necessary, 
and such modified route would be finally adopted subject to 
possible change as the voyage progressed. The judgment 
formed on the best route to follow would also be largely influenced 
by the remarks in the volumes of Sailing directions or " Pilots " 
relating to the region about to be traversed,while among the 
many excellent modern publications of the Hydrographic 
Office of the Admiralty perhaps the Ocean Passage Book is one 
of the most generally useful, since, when used in combination 
with the admirable charts of suggested full-powered and auxiliary 
tracks, it very greatly assists all navigators in planning out 
a successful voyage. Finally the intended route would be trans- 
ferred from the great circle chart to one on Mercator's projection, 
which is the more convenient for purposes of navigation since 
in constructing the former for the sake of simplicity a projection 
of the coast's surface is adopted on which great circles are 
correctly shown as straight lines (gnomonic), while for practical 
purposes in navigation such a representation on which a ship's 
track when steering a continuous course (technically termed a 
rhumb line) is truly shown as a straight line (Mercator) is the 
most convenient, although in high latitudes giving a very 
distorted representation of the surface depicted. It is well to 
remember that on great circle charts rhumb lines become curves 
and great circles straight lines, and, vice versa, on Mercator 
charts, the rhumb line on each projection being that nearer 
to the equator, all meridians and the equator on both projections 
are shown as straight lines. 

Ships rarely steer on great circles, which would generally 
theoretically involve continually altering course, but a series 
of chords of such circles are described of lengths such as involve 
a practical change of course of one or two degrees on the com- 
pletion of each. 

Great circle charts are very useful for drawing what is known 
as a composite track where if the great circle route would lead 
into too high a latitude the shortest route to and from the highest 
desirable parallel is readily laid down, the intervening track 
being pursued on that parallel. 

A method of drawing approximate great circles directly 
on Mercator charts was proposed by Airy in 1858, and is some- 
times very useful. The excellent idea, originally suggested 
by M. F. Maury, of establishing steam " lanes " in localities 
where there is much ocean traffic, so as to minimize the risks of 



collision between outward and homeward bound ships, has been 
successfully carried out in the North Atlantic. The leading 
transatlantic steamship companies now agree to follow great 
circle routes from the Irish coast to points on the Banks of 
Newfoundland, which vary somewhat in position with the 
season of the year, but are published in advance. These " lanes " 
being avoided by sailing vessels, risks of collision are materially 
lessened. 

Having thus planned the most desirable general track to 
pursue, three methods are employed to ascertain the position 
of the ship at any time during such voyage: these are (i) pro- 
jecting the track on charts; (2) simple trigonometrical calcula- 
tions where the data are the course steered and distance run; 
and (3) astronomical observations, which form an entirely 
independent method. 

Of these the first is the least trustworthy, owing to the usual 
difficulties attending accurate graphic methods and the small 
scales on which ocean charts are necessarily drawn. When 
near the land the larger scale coast charts are used, and in the 
approaches to harbours still larger scale plans give increasing 
accuracy to this record of a ship's position. Index charts of 
all parts of the world are provided, by referring to which the 
navigator ascertains which chart or plan to employ, always 
preferably using that on the largest scale. 

On leaving harbour, and while near the coast, the position 
is not found by calculation but by frequently observing (when 
a variety of objects is in sight) (i) simultaneous sextant angles 
between suitably situated objects subsequently laid down on 
the chart by a station pointer; (2) simultaneous compass 
bearings of two or more objects (technically known as cross 
bearings) ; or (3) a combination of both methods by employing 
one bearing and one angle. All such methods are capable of 
considerable accuracy if the observations are made simultane- 
ously. Should only a small number of objects, or sometimes 
only one, be visible (as frequently occurs at night) other and 
rougher methods are practised, depending upon the change 
of bearing of an object while a certain distance in a certain 
direction is traversed by the ship, such knowledge being based 
in many cases on an estimate of the action of the tide. When 
a ship is steaming at the rate of 20 knots the navigator remembers 
that a mile is passed over in three minutes, and that if in sight 
of land and fixing positions by objects on shore, it is essential to 
adopt some rapid method; otherwise when laid down on the 
chart the position shows where the ship was, and not where 
she is. This difficulty has led to the more general use of methods 
of obtaining positions by angles instead of bearings, and laying 
them down on the chart by the aid of the station pointer. Many 
advantages accrue from this, as the observer is not restricted 
in position on board, as is the case when using the compass, 
and especially if a double sextant (having two index glasses 
and one horizon glass) is employed two angles can be measured 
simultaneously, the result on the chart being very rapidly 
arrived at. An ingenious combination of sextant and station 
pointer in one has been proposed, and most simply carried out 
by attaching vertical sights to the legs of a station pointer, 
which is put on a suitable horizontal stand, and the legs moved 
until the sights are in line with the objects observed. To assist 
the navigator in the choice of suitable objects between which 
to measure the angles, a very useful pamphlet is issued by the 
Admiralty, from the diagrams in which' it can be seen at a glance 
which combination of objects in sight gives the most favourable 
result, always remembering as a broad principle that nearer 
objects are more suitable than distant ones, and that the accuracy 
of position determined depends on the relative distances of the 
objects as well as on the magnitude of the angles between them. 

In these circumstances, which render these rougher methods 
those only available, and especially in hazy weather in many 
known localities (such as the English Channel), a continuous 
line of deep sea soundings at fairly even distances apart affords 
an additional verification of position, remembering that only 
an occasional sounding might prove very misleading. 

The chronicle of progress in the art of navigation would be ve 



NAVIGATION 



295 



incomplete without reference to the extended use of Lord 
Kelvin's sounding machines, either in the original form, where 
the increased pressure at different depths is recorded by dis- 
coloration of chemical tubes, or in the later form known as the 
" depth recorder," where similar results are obtained by the 
automatic record of the position of a piston forced upwards 
in a tube by this increased pressure. Very satisfactory results 
can be obtained at speeds of 15 or 16 knots, enabling that great 
safeguard of navigation in many places, viz. a continuous line 
of soundings, to be accurately and rapidly obtained. In con- 
nexion with this should be mentioned a most ingenious invention 
known as the " submarine sentry," which on being set for any 
desired depth and towed overboard remains at that depth what- 
ever the speed of the ship may be. On striking bottom it at once 
floats to the surface and rings a warning bell. Such an instru- 
ment is of obvious value in ships where, owing to the small 
number of available men, it is difficult to maintain a continuous 
line of soundings. To avoid an unnecessarily wide detour in 
rounding points and shoals, extensive use is now made of both 
horizontal and vertical danger angles ; the former is the angle 
on the arc of a horizontal circle passing through a point at the 
required distance from the danger, and through two previously 
selected, easily recognized, fixed objects. Should circumstances 
enable the selection to be made of an angle of about 90, the 
ship by continually measuring the angle may be steered on the 
arc of such a circle with great precision, and may even be safely 
taken through a channel between two dangers. The vertical 
danger angle enables similar results to be attained by measuring 
the vertical angle subtended by a known height; but except 
where the selected object is one whose height is well determined, 
such as a lighthouse, this method is not so trustworthy as the 
former. 

Before losing sight of land the latitude and longitude of the last 
well-determined position found by the methods referred to is 
taken from the coast chart, transferred to the ocean or small scale 
chart, and considered to be the " departure " or starting-point of 
the ocean voyage, and from that point the course and distance 
run by the ship is laid down, being rectified on every occasion 
when the position is more accurately determined by astronomical 
means. To obviate the inevitable inaccuracies attending this 
graphic method and as a corroboration of the ship's position, 
the changes of latitude and longitude involved in each alteration 
of course are daily calculated by plane trigonometry, such 
calculations being materially abbreviated by the use of the 
Traverse Table, which is a tabulated expression of the solutions 
of right-angled plane triangles. 

The foregoing modes of keeping account of a ship's position are 
technically known as " dead reckoning." The general introduc- 
tion of compasses with short needles and slow periods of vibration 
has done very much towards improving the accuracy with which 
a ship's " dead reckoning " is kept. The original model of these 
was that patented by Lord Kelvin in 1876, and since adopted in 
the British navy as the standard. In this instrument we have 
a compass specially designed to enable the principles of com- 
pensation or correction proposed by Sir G. B. Airy in 1837 to 
be accurately carried out, while its slow period of swing renders. 
it in all circumstances extremely steady. 

The record of distance run is always obtained from the patent 
log, usually in the form of the Cherub or Taffrail log introduced 
in 1878. The common or hand log has ceased to be regarded as 
anything but the very roughest of guides, and the patent log 
in its original form, in which it recorded the revolutions of a small 
screw towed by the ship, does not give satisfactory results at 
great speeds, nor can anything more favourable be said of those 
forms where pressure on known areas is employed. The revolu- 
tions of the engines, with due allowance made for the condition 
of the ship's bottom, afford now perhaps the best means of 
estimating speed (see LOG). 

Astronomical observations afford the most accurate means 
of ascertaining positions at sea, other methods (dead reckoning) 
being only relied upon when the weather does not admit of the 
practice of these, though by utilizing twilight and night observa- 



tions of moon, stars and planets, the navigator in most parts 
of the world need seldom proceed far without the means of 
astronomically rectifying his position either in latitude, longitude 
or both at the same time. 

The practical problems involved are precisely those employed 
at astronomical observatories, but it is not possible to attain 
similar accuracy of results, for though the sextant (the instru- 
ment always employed at sea in making such observations) 
is capable of marvellous accuracy, yet, as practically all such 
observations depend directly upon altitudes measured above 
the sea horizon, the uncertainty and variability of the true 
position of this, due to the changing effects of refraction, much 
affect observations made at any one time. This error in practice 
is greatly reduced by methods of combining several observations 
made at different times and using their mean or average result. 

A notable feature of the progress of the art of modern navigation 
is the greatly increased practice of star navigation, and many of 
the supposed difficulties of night observations are found to be 
removed by experience. Determinations of positions at sea by 
twilight observations, when the brighter stars become visible 
while the horizon is still well defined, are probably the most 
accurate means we possess; and the careful navigator, by 
combining for latitude stars passing north and south of the zenith, 
and for longitude those near the prime vertical both east and west, 
can generally depend upon a good result, especially if suitable 
stars can be found for each pair at about the same altitudes. 
For these purposes the armillary sphere is extremely useful: 
this is a small celestial globe on which are depicted the principal 
stars visible to the naked eye. On elevating the pole to the 
approximate latitude of the observer, and turning the sphere 
until the sidereal time is under the fixed meridian, a correct 
representation of the heavens at the time of observation is 
obtained; the stars a r e then easily identified by their bearings 
and altitudes. This valuable instrument is not merely useful 
when at twilight, only a few of the brighter stars being visible, the 
constellations to which they belong are difficult of recognition, 
but it enables arrangement to be made in advance for such 
observations as are desired to be taken during the night. By 
marking in pencil on the globe the positions of the planets in 
right ascension and declination, the same sphere is also available 
for their identification. The heavenly bodies commonly observed 
at sea are: The Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the 
Pole star, and the larger (or first magnitude) fixed stars, the 
positions of all of which in the heavens are given in the Nautical 
Almanac for fixed epochs at Greenwich, with the requisite data 
for computing their positions at all other times in all other places. 

The chief astronomical observations made at sea are those for 
ascertaining (i) latitude, (2) time and thence longitude, (3) error of 
compass, and (4) latitude and longitude simultaneously. 

To ascertain latitude by itself altitudes of heavenly bodies are 
measured above the horizon when they are on or near the meridian 
and therefore exactly or nearly north or south of the observer; in 
the case of the sun, of course, this means at or near noon, and in the 
case of other bodies such local times are previously accurately 
ascertained by a simple calculation made from the Nautical Almanac 
or more roughly found from an armillary sphere. The principle 
involved is the simple one that by subtracting the observed altitude 
when on the meridian from 90 the distance of the zenith or point 
overhead north or south of the heavenly body is found; then by 
combining with this the distance, obtained from the Nautical 
Almanac, of the body considered north or south of the celestial 
equator at the same instant, it is found how far the zenith is north 
or south of the celestial equator, and this is exactly the same as the 
latitude of the observer since the celestial equator is merely the 
imaginary extension of that of the earth. Such observations are not 
necessarily restricted to that which can be taken at the instant when 
the body observed is on the meridian (meridian altitude); equally 
accurate and multiplied observations can be made on either or both 
sides of the meridian if the body is somewhat near it (ex-meridian 
and circum-meridian altitudes), and a simple calculation or reference 
to a specially constructed table or graphic curve gives the required 
result. 

Errors arising from uncertainty as to the true position of the 
horizon are with twilight and night observations largely counter- 
acted by taking the means of results obtained from observations 
made of heavenly bodies crossing the meridian both north and 
south of the observer, taken as nearly at the same time as convenient. 
In northern latitudes the pole star is so near to the pole that 



296 



NAVIGATION 



observations of it can be taken at any time when it is visible, and 
from a convenient table given in the Nautical Almanac the altitude 
of the pole itself (which equals the latitude) is readily obtained. 

Longitude at sea is in modern navigation always found by com- 
paring local or ship mean time with Greenwich mean time, the latter 
being accurately known from the chronometers and the former from 
astronomical observations of suitably placed heavenly bodies. It 
may be assumed in all well found modern ships that on applying the 
known errors and accumulated rates to the times shown by the 
chronometers the Greenwich time at any instant is practically 
accurately known, and as the distance east or west of any place is 
merely the difference between the two local times at any instant ex- 
pressed in degrees, so also is the distance east or west of Greenwich 
(longitude) the difference between time at place and Greenwich time 
at any one instant. The connexion between time and degrees depends 
upon the complete rotation of the earth in twenty-four hours, causing 
meridians 15 apart to pass under the same fixed point in the heavens 
at intervals of one hour, those east of Greenwich passing earlier and 
those west later, resulting in local time being in advance of Greenwich 
time in east longitude and vice versa in west longitude. 

The errors and rates of gaining or losing of the chronometer re- 
ferred to are known from observations made on shore prior to the 
beginning of the voyage with a sextant and artificial horizon, and 
these observations are capable of almost as great accuracy as those 
taken at fixed astronomical observatories. As this knowledge is 
absolutely essential every opportunity is taken at each principal port 
visited of either repeating such observations or obtaining the infor- 
mation from time balls dropped from observatories on shore at the 
Greenwich times indicated in the Time-ball pamphlet. Local or ship 
time can only be found with fair accuracy from calculations based on 
altitudes of heavenly bodies, when they are nearly east or west of the 
observer or technically on the prime vertical. Such times can be 
approximately seen from the azimuth diagrams or from tables of true 
bearings of heavenly bodies, and the error involved by uncertainty 
as to the position of the horizon can be greatly obviated in twilight or 
at night by taking the mean of results arising from nearly simultane- 
ous observations of bodies bearing both east and west. In the usual 
case of determining time by observations of the sun the results arising 
from morning observations are compared with those similarly ob- 
tained in the afternoon. It will of course be remarked that should 
any unallowed-for error in the chronometer exist it will affect the 
resulting longitude by its full amount. 

In considering the foregoing methods of astronomically fixing a 
ship's position we notice that always when the two elements of 
latitude and longitude are determined at different times, and gener- 
ally, as we shall presently see, when they are determined together 
(though usually for a shorter time) the navigator has to depend for 
some time on the accuracy of the course steered and estimated 
distance run; also when cloudy weather prevails he has to depend 
entirely on those elements for a knowledge of the ship's position. 
The frequent astronomical observation of the error of the compass is 
therefore a most important and fortunately simple duty. In practice 
the error is found by a comparison between the compass bearing of a 
heavenly body and its true bearing, obtained either by calculation, or 
more generally from a graphic diagram (Weir's azimuth diagram) or 
tables from which at practically any time when above the horizon the 
true bearings of the principal heavenly bodies are taken by in- 
spection. These important observations are most accurately made 
when the body observed is bearing nearly east or west true, if not 
too high, but if clouds prevent observations at such times, fairly good 
results can be obtained by observing the compass bearing when the 
object is on the meridian (if not too high) and therefore lying north 
or south true. 

The causes of the changing errors of a compass in an iron ship 
are described elsewhere (see COMPASS), but by making comparisons 
as above the navigator can at once ascertain what is termed the 
" total " error, and if he takes from that the portion of error due to 
the earth, or what is termed variation (known from a chart of such 
elements), the remaining error is that caused by the iron of the ship, 
technically known as deviation. The latter method of procedure has 
the great advantage of enabling the navigator to ascertain during a 
voyage whatever magnetic changes in the ship are taking place other 
than those he would expect to occur on change of position. The 
total error is that applied to compass courses. 

Deviations greater than a few degrees are not merely inconvenient 
but in modern compasses produce unsteadiness or oscillation of the 
compass card, so that, especially in new ships, the skilful navigator 
reduces such errors by adjusting the compensating magnets when 
favourable occasions offer. Recognizing the great value of a sound 
knowledge of compass adjustment, the British Board of Trade have 
included this among the compulsory subjects of examination for the 
rank of^ master, thus following the example of the navy, where all 
navigating officers have to attend a practical course of study on the 
subject. 

The practical problem of finding both latitude and longitude at the 
same time is the most important of all in modern navigation, and is 
rapidly_ superseding other modes of ascertaining a ship's position. 
The p^nciple involved depends upon the fact that every heavenly 
body is at each particular instant of time directly overhead or in the 
zenith of some place on the earth. Thus, if we take the sun as an 



instance, it is noon at all places on the meridian of 60 W. when it is 
exactly 4 p.m. at Greenwich, and at the one spot on that meridian 
where the observer is as far north or south of the terrestrial equator 
as the sun is north or south of the celestial equator (declination) it will 
not only be noon but the sun will be immediately overhead and will 
have an altitude of 90. This, therefore, at any instant defines the 
position where the sun is vertical; its latitude must equal the sun's 
declination and its longitude in time equal the time since noon at 
Greenwich. Now at a distance of 60 m. in every direction on the 
surface of the earth from the point thus defined the sun will have an 
altitude of 89 and in all directions at a distance of 1200 m. its 
altitude will be 70 ( = 90 20), so that on a globe, by marking the 
position where at a certain instant the sun is vertical and taking 
that as a centre, a series of concentric circles may be drawn, on all 
points of each of which the sun's altitude will be the same. When, 
therefore, at sea we measure with a sextant at any time the altitude 
of the sun (say 60 10') we at once know we are somewhere on the arc 
of a circle having for its centre the spot where the sun is vertical at 
that instant, and for radius a distance equal to 1790' ( = 90 60' 10'). 
Such information, combined with the best and most recent knowledge 
we have of the ship's latitude at the time, will of itself afford valuable 
information as to the position, but by making two such observations, 
separated by a sufficiently long interval for the position having the 
sun vertical to have moved considerably (owing to the rotation of 
the earth), we are able to consider with certainty that we must be at 
one or other of the widely separated intersections of two such 
circles, the movement of the ship in the interval between the two 
observations being duly allowed for. The dead reckoning affords 
information as to which of these intersections is the true position. 

Now even on a large globe it would be practically impossible to 
obtain very accurate results from this problem by drawing such 
circles, but on a large scale chart (or ordinary squared paper) much 
greater accuracy is obtainable. The method commonly used on a 
M creator chart involves two suppositions: (i) that the concentric 
circles we have referred to will be correctly represented as circles on 
the chart, and (2) that these are of such diameters, that a portion of 
say 100 m. of arc may be considered to be a straight line coincident 
with the tangent to the circle and therefore at right angles to the 
direction of the sun. Except in high latitudes (above 60) Mercator's 
projection fulfils the first condition sufficiently well for practical 
purposes, and, except when the altitude is greater than 70, the 
second condition is also approximately true since the radii of such 
circles will exceed 1200 m. 

Premising these conditions, suppose that on a certain day at 9 a.m. 
when the ship's approximate position, known from previous observa- 
tions and laid down on the 
chart, is supposed to be at A 
(fig. 7), an observation of the 
sun is made from which the 
longitude is calculated, the 
result being that on the sup- 
position that the latitude of 
A is correct, the ship's position 
is probably at B. Now by 
drawing a straight line ab 
through B at right angles to 
the true bearing of the sun 
at the time of observation 
(which is most readily known 
from the azimuth tables) we 
are obviously right in assum- 




FIG. 7. 



ing the ship's position tc be somewhere on that line if we consider 
it as approximately an arc of a large circle having the place where 
the sun is then vertical as a centre, the direction of such place being 
indicated by an arrow. 

If our supposed latitude be right the position will be at B, but if 
not correct it must still be on the line 06, and if near land or any 
danger the direction of this line, even if no subsequent observation 
be available, will often give most valuable information. If, while 
waiting for the sun to change its bearing, the ship runs from B to C, 
a line cd drawn through C parallel to ab will represent an arc on which 
the position lies when she is probably at C, which at tnis instant 
(10-30 a. m.) is the most probable position of the ship. 

If another observation of the sun for longitude is now made and 
the resulting position is D (lying of course in the same latitude as C), 
on drawing through D a line ef at right angles to the bearing of the 
sun (indicated by an arrow) we are right in assuming the position to 
be somewhere on such an arc as is represented by this line. 

Hence E, the intersection of the two arcs on which the position lies 
at the same instant, must be the true place when the last observation 
was taken at the supposed position D, the discrepancies being entirely 
due to the original unknown error in the assumed latitude of A, for 
had that been accurate the position on the original line ab would 
have been such that on laying off the course and distance from that 
position C would have coincided with E. 

Errors in the assumed latitude of as much in many cases as 30 m. 
will often be found to produce no practical difference in the resultant 
position, but of course the accuracy of the longitude found is entirely 
dependent upon the chronometer, and in such cases as arise when the 
intersecting arcs make a small angle with each other great accuracy 



NAVIGATION 



297 



is required in the course and distance run between the times of 
observation. 

This method of finding both latitude and longitude at the same 
time is commonly known as " Sumner's " method from the publicity 
given to it in 1847 by the publication of an excellent pamphlet on the 
subject by a master of that name in the American mercantile marine, 
although in a modified form it was practised at a much earlier date 
in the British navy under the name of " cross bearings of the sun." 
Prior to the publication of azimuth tables in 1866 the calculation 
was more lengthy and troublesome, the work being practically 
doubled. 

We have taken an illustration from observations of the sun, but 
the method is obviously applicable to all heavenly bodies provided 
they are so situated that the arcs drawn will intersect at a good 
angle; this in twilight or at night-time is readily done by selecting 
two heavenly bodies whose bearings differ considerably, and in such 
cases the small complication of allowing for the run of the ship is 
often obviated by making the observations simultaneously. The 
armillary sphere or star globe is useful in selecting objects suitably 
situated. 

The principle of Sumner's method has of recent years received a 
very important and valuable development under the name of the 
" new navigation." In this method, originally proposed by Marc St 
Hilaire, a comparison is made between the altitude of a heavenly 
body as actually observed and that calculated from the supposed 
position of the ship. For instance, the position of an observer at the 
instant of observing a (true) altitude of the sun of 40 10' must be 
somewhere on a portion of the circumference of a circle (usually of 
such size that the portion considered may be represented on a chart 
by a straight line) having its centre in latitude equal to the sun's 
declination, and in longitude equal to the Greenwich apparent time 
at the instant, the radius of such a circle being equal to the sun's 
zenith distance of 49 50'. If at the same time the true altitude of 
the sun is from the estimated position of the ship calculated to be 
40 5', it is evident that the greater observed altitude must be owing 
to the ship being nearer to the centre of the circle than was supposed, 
and a line of position drawn through the estimated position at right 
angles to the bearing of the sun must be transferred parallel to itself 
through a distance of 5' towards the direction of the sun's bearing. 
The second line of position, obtained when the sun's bearing has 
altered some 25, is dealt with in a similar way, and the intersection 
of the two lines so obtained gives the position of the ship at the time 
of second observation. This mode of procedure enables all observa- 
tions, whether near or far from the meridian, to be similarly dealt 
with; in all cases the altitude the heavenly body should have is 
computed and compared with what it actually has. The practice of 
problems such as the foregoing is greatly facilitated by the extended 
means of finding at any moment the azimuth or true bearing of a 
heavenly body. When the azimuth was only required for the de- 
termination of compass error, the valuable tables from which the 
computed results could be obtained by inspection were limited to 
those cases of most practical importance, but from the ingenious and 
simple graphical form known as Weir's azimuth diagram azimuths 
of all heavenly bodies, whose declinations extend from 60 N. to 
60 S., can be obtained during the whole time they are above the 
horizon, thus greatly facilitating the laying down lines of position. 

A careful record of everything pertaining to the navigation of the 
ship, with the results of all observations and calculated positions, is 
kept in the ship's log, an official book of great importance, a rough 
original of which is kept on deck with entries made in it of all such 
events at the time of their occurrence. A copy of the headings of a 
page of this as transferred into the official log is here given : 



The course entered here is that which would be indicated by the 
" standard " compass of the ship (placed in the most favourable 
magnetic position on board) ; that actually steered by is the one 
most conveniently seen by the helmsman. Comparisons between 
the latter and the " standard " are frequently made, their indications 
generally varying somewhat owing to the difference of deviation in 

hfferent positions on the ship. The compass card is usually gradu- 
ated into points and degrees, but the course is always estimated in 
degrees. The speed is ascertained from the indication of the patent 
log, the hand log being generally only used as a rough check on this. 
Wind direction and force are the result of estimation; as the speed 
and course of the ship so greatly affect the apparent direction and 
velocity no practical anemometer for use on board ship exists. Wind 
force is estimated in terms of what is known as the " Beaufort " 
scale, based on the supposed amount of sail a vessel could carry at 
! time. The height of the mercurial barometer is carefully read at 
the end of each watch, as also is the thermometer; the more sensitive 
aneroid barometer is kept in a very accessible position and more 

requently referred to by the officer of the watch. When navigating 
m localities and during seasons at which circular storms or hurricanes 



Course 
made good. 


Distance. 


Latitude. 


Longitude. 


Variation 

Allowed. 


True Bearings 
and Distance. 


Made 
Good. 


Through 
the water. 


D.R. 

Obs. 


D.R. 
Obs. 






Current. 







8 


| 


P 


Course. 


Wind. 


1 Weather. 


Deviation. 


s 


Thermometer. 


Temperature 
of Sea. 


Remarks. 


Direction. Force. 



may be expected (as known from the Barometer Manual) the baro- 
meter is anxiously and frequently watched, and at all times its indi- 
cation is compared with that normally experienced in the locality 
traversed as shown on the barometer charts, due allowance being 
made in the tropics for the ordinary daily movement. All observa- 
tions relating to ocean meteorology are of great service in the com- 
pilation and improvement of wind and current charts, and in many 
ships more extensive meteorological journals are voluntarily kept 
on forms supplied by the Meteorological Office. A knowledge of the 
temperature of the surface of the sea is often of great practical use in 
navigation as giving warning of change in direction of the surface 
ocean current, especially in localities where there exist near to each 
other warm and cold currents setting in different directions, as, for 
instance, near the edge of the Gulf Stream. As an indication of the 
vicinity of ice such observations are usually much less trustworthy. 
On the completion of the calculations giving the ship's position 
at noon each day the results are tabulated in the ship's log on the 
following form : 



The course and distance made good each day are calculated by 
trigonometry between the best determined positions at two successive 
noons, such positions in fine weather being always those determined 
astronomically, and the current being considered the difference in the 
positions at noon as determined astronomically and as calculated by 
dead reckoning since the previous noon; such differences, however, 
obviously include the errors of all kinds. The latitude and longitude 
found by dead reckoning are entered under that heading (D.R.). 
The astronomical positions of latitude and longitude (entered as 
" obs." or " by observation ") are very seldom both determined at 
noon, but are carried up or back to that instant by calculation from 
the intervening dead reckoning. The variation allowed is taken 
from the published variation chart, on which the latest results of such 
observations are embodied at intervals of about ten years with the 
annual changes (as far as known) in different localities, thus enabling 
the navigator to obtain its value at intermediate dates. Finally the 
course and distance are calculated from the position of the ship at 
noon to either the port of destination or some prominent position or 
danger near to which the vessel must pass. This is entered under the 
heading " true bearings and distance." 

AUTHORITIES. The following list of some writers of navigation 
whose works have not been already mentioned may be found useful 
to refer to: Thomas Addison, Arithmetical Navigation (1625) he was 
the first to apply logarithms; Antonio de Najera (Lisbon, 1628) 
follows Nunez and Cespedes, but corrects the declination of sun and 
stars; Sir R. Dudley, L'arcano del mare (1630-1646, 2nd ed., 
Florence, 1661) too ponderous for the use of seamen; Sir Jonas 
Moore (1681) one of the best books of the period; William Jones 
(1702) a useful compendium containing trigonometry applied to the 
various sailings, the use of the log, and tables of logarithms; Pierre 
Jean Bouguer, Traite complet de la navigation (folio, 1698) good but 
too large; Manuel Pimental, L'Arte de navegar (Lisbon, 1712); 
Pierre Bouguer, jun., Nouveau traite de navigation (1753) without 
tables, published at the request of the minister of marine, improved 
and shortened in 1769 under the superintendence of the astronomer 
Lacaille; Nathaniel Colspn, The Mariner's New Calendar (i73)-^a 
good book; Seller, Practical Navigation a book very popular in its 
time (there was an edition as late as 1739) ; Samuel Dunn published 
good star charts and tables of latitude and longitude (1737), and 
framed concise rules for many problems on navigation (published by 
the board of longitude) ; John H. Moore, The Practical Navigator 
and Seaman's New Daily Assistant (1772) very popular, and gener- 
ally used in the British navy the l8th and igth editions (1810,1814) 
were improved by J. Dessiou; W. Wilson (Edinburgh, 1773) a 
treatise of good repute at the time; Samuel Dunn, New Epitome of 
Practical Navigation, or Guide to the Indian Seas (1777) for the 
longitude he depends chiefly on a variation chart from observations 
by East Indiamen, and he still makes no mention of the Nautical 
Almanac or of parallel rulers; Samuel Dunn (probably a son of the 
last named, 1781) is the last writer who gives instructions for the use 
of the astrolabe; he also wrote on " lunars " (1783, 1793), a name 
which was generally adopted about this time, and published an 
excellent traverse table (1785), and Daily Uses of the Nautical 
Sciences, (1790) ; Horsburgh, Directory for East India Voyages (1805) ; 
A Mackay, The Complete Navigator (about 1791); 2nd ed. 1810) 
there is no instruction for finding longitude by the chronometer. 
Kelly, Spherical Trigonometry and Nautical Astronomy (1796, 
4th ed., 1813) clear and simple; N. Bowditch, Practical Navigator 
(1800) passed through many editions and is now (in a revised form) 
the official text-book of the United States navy; J. W. None, 
Epitome of Navigation (1803, 2ist ed. 1878) still a favourite in the 
mercantile marine from its simplicity, and because navigation can 
be learned from it without a teacher; T. Kerigan, The Young 
Navigator's Guide to Nautical Astronomy (1821); Inman, Epitome 
of Navigation (1821) with an excellent volume of tables, formerly 



298 



NAVIGATION LAWS 



largely used in the British navy, gth ed. (1854); E. Riddle, Naviga- 
tion and Nautical Astronomy (3rd ed. 1824, gth ed., by Escott, 1871), 
still worthy of its high reputation ; J. T. Towson, Tables for Reduction 
of Ex-meridian Altitudes (4th ed. 1854), very useful; H. Raper, 
Practice of Navigation (1840, loth ed. 1870), an excellent book; 
H. Evers, Navigation and Great Circle Sailing (1850), other works on 
the same subject by Merrifield and Evers (1868) and Evers (1875); 
R. M. Inskip, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (1865), a useful 
book, without tables; T. H. Sumner, A Method of finding a Ship's 
Position by two Observations and, Greenwich Time by Chronometer 
this is set forth as a novelty, but was published by Captain R. Owen, 
R.N., early in the century, and practised by many officers; H. W. 
Jeans, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (1858); Harbord, 
Glossary of Navigation (1863, enlarged ed. 1883), a very excellent 
book of reference ; W. C. Bergen, Practice and Theory of Navigation 
(1872); Sir W. Thomson, Navigation, a Lecture (1876), well worth 
reading; Lecky, Wrinkles in Navigation (1880); Martin, Navigation 
and Nautical Astronomy, sanctioned for use in the British navy. 

(W. R. M.*) 

NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws grouped under this title are 
a branch rather of municipal law than of the general maritime 
law. They are based upon the right of a state to regulate the 
navigation of its own waters and to protect its own commerce. 
One of the most curious early books on the subject is Captain G. 
St Lo, England's Safetie or a Bridle to the French King, proposing 
a sure Method for encouraging Navigation (London, and ed. 
1693). Navigation laws may be divided into two classes. The 
first class includes all laws designed to secure a commercial 
monopoly to the state which enacted them. In Great Britain 
the object was attained by the Navigation Acts, the earliest of 
which were those of 1381 and 1390, ordaining that no merchandise 
should be shipped out of the realm except in British ships on 
pain of forfeiture. The principal Navigation Act was that of 
1660 (Scottish, 1661, c. 45). Up to 1854 coasting trade was 
wholly restricted to British ships, and a British ship must have 
been navigated by a master who was a British subject, and by 
a crew of whom a certain proportion must have been British 
subjects. After 1854 the only relics of such restrictions were 
found in the provisions of the Customs Consolidation Act 1853, 
324, by which, in order to secure reciprocity, prohibitions or 
restrictions may by order in council be imposed upon the ships 
of any country in which British ships are liable to similar pro- 
hibitions or restrictions. Subject to these exceptions, a foreign 
ship is in the same position as a British ship with regard to 
British trade. This right of foreign ships is expressly recognized 
by the Customs Law Consolidation Act 1876; by 141 of that 
act foreign ships engaged in the coasting trade are not to be 
subject to higher rates than British ships. Any advantages 
which a British ship has, e.g. the right of claiming protection 
for her flag, the non-attachment to her of a maritime lien for 
necessaries supplied in a British port, are not directly connected 
with the policy under which the Navigation Acts have become 
obsolete. These advantages are not secured to a British ship 
until she is registered. United States law agrees with British 
in this respect. " The United States have imitated the policy 
of England and other commercial nations in conferring peculiar 
privileges upon American-built ships and owned by our own 
citizens. . . . The object of the Registry Acts is to encourage 
our own trade, navigation and shipbuilding by granting peculiar 
or exclusive privileges of trade to the flag of the United States, 
and by prohibiting the communication of those immunities 
to the shipping and mariners of other countries " (Kent, 
Comm. iii. 139). It may be noticed that an alien is generally 
incapable of becoming the owner of a ship. This incapacity was 
specially preserved in the case of British ships by the Naturaliza- 
tion Act 1870, 14. 

The second class of navigation laws includes those which deal 
with the navigation of any waters over which a state has any 
control, and embraces all that is necessary for the due use of such 
waters, as rules of the road, management of harbours and light- 
houses, and licensing and control of pilots. Such laws may deal 
with (i) the high seas, (2) tidal waters other than the high seas, 
(3) non-tidal waters. 

i. The claims of various nations to dominion over parts of the high 
seas have now become matters of merely historical interest. Such 
claims have been at different times advanced by Great Britain, 
Holland, Spain and Portugal, and were once sufficiently important 



to evoke the Mare Liberum of Grotius and the Mare Clausum of 
John Selden. It may be noted that in 1893 the Court of Arbitration 
on the Bering Sea Fisheries found that Russia had never claimed or 
exercised exclusive jurisdiction over the Bering Sea outside terri- 
torial waters and that the United States had no further right than 
had Russia at the time of the cession of Alaska in 1867. Rules for 
the navigation of the high seas may still be promulgated by any 
government. In Great Britain such rules, generally known as the 
" Sailing Rules," have been made by order in council under the 
powers of the Merchant Shipping Act 1862; the rules at present in 
force are those contained in the order of the 27th of November 1896, 
L.G. No. 1082, as amended by subsequent orders in council. The 
order of 1896 was extended by the order of 1897, L.G. No. 572, to the 
ships of most foreign countries, with a special provision as to China. 
In the case of a state which has not assented to them, the only rules 
enforceable are the general rules of the sea, gradually ascertained by 
individual cases before courts of admiralty. 

2. For the navigation of its tidal waters as far as they are 
territorial a state may legislate without the assent of other states. 
An example of such legislation is afforded by the Territorial Waters 
Jurisdiction Act 1878, a measure passe3 in consequence of the 
celebrated case of R. v. Keyn, L.R. 2 Ex. D., 126 (the " Franconia " 
case), in 1876. Under the head of territorial waters would fall the 
" narrow seas " (as the Bristol Channel, Great Belt or Straits of 
Messina), bays and harbours, estuaries and arms of the sea, navigable 
tidal rivers, and the sea for- the distance of a marine league from the 
shore. Such waters being res publicae though not res communes, as 
are the high seas, are prima facie subject to the jurisdiction of the 
state. In England the soil under such waters, or at least under all but 
the last kind, is prima facie vested in the crown, subject to the public 
rights of fishery and anchorage. For the distance of a marine league 
from low-water mark the crown has certainly jurisdiction for police 
and revenue purposes. This is a rule of general international law. 
It may be noted that the Institut de Droit International proposed to 
double this limit. See Hall, International Law (sth ed.), p. 154. In 
England the navigation of most of the principal tidal waters is 
governed by rules contained in acts of parliament and orders in 
council, the latter for the most part promulgated under the authority 
given by the Merchant Shipping Act 1862. For instance, there are 
numerous orders relating to the Thames, Mersey, Tees and other 
important rivers. 

3. Non-tidal waters, even though navigable, are in Great Britain 
prima facie private waters, in which the right of navigation does not 
exist as a public franchise, but can only be acquired by prescription 
founded on a presumed grant by an owner. In Roman law and in 
the Code Napol6on it is otherwise. Navigable rivers in those systems 
are always publici juris, whether tidal or norf-tidal. Navigation of 
non-tidal waters in the United Kingdom, whether natural or artificial, 
is now almost entirely regulated by various Navigation and Con- 
servancy Acts, e.g. the Thames Conservancy Acts, the Shannon, 
Trent, Lee, &c., Navigation Acts, and the various Canal Acts, 
especially the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885. It may be noticed 
that the crown is empowered by the Merchant Shipping Act 1862 
to make rules for the navigation of inland waters, even when artificial, 
on the application of the proprietors. Examples of such rules are 
the orders in council regulating the Mersey and Irwell navigation and 
the Bridgewater navigation, i8th May 1870. Such waters being 
private property, the application for the rules by the proprietors is 
recited in the order in council. 

The distinction drawn in the United States between navigable and 
boatable rivers seems to be peculiar to that country, unless indeed it 
is analogous to the " fleuves et rivieres navigables ou flottables " of 
the Code Napoleon, 538. It is at least unknown in Great Britain. 

Remedies for Obstruction and Pollution. These may be either 
criminal or civil the criminal by indictment or information, the 
civil by action for damages or for an injunction, in addition to the 
criminal remedy, where special damage has been sustained. Pollu- 
tion is expressly provided for by the Rivers Pollution Prevention 
Act 1876, which gives jurisdiction to county courts in cases within 
the act. 

International Law. The international law as to the navigation of 
the high seas has been sketched above. Reference should also be 
made to what is known as the " Rule of the War of 1756 " to the 
effect that where a colonial or coasting trade is prohibited to other 
nations in time of peace, a neutral by engaging in this trade by 
aermission of a belligerent in time of war is liable to the other 
Belligerent. The leading case is The Immanuel (1799), 2 C. 
Robinson's Rep. 186. Regulations for the coasting trade may be 
made by the government of India under the powers of the Customs 
Consolidation Act 1853, 329, and by the legislature of a British 
aossession under the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, 736. As to 
:erritorial waters, it is the general though not the universal opinion 
of jurists that the state to which the territorial waters belong has a 
right to forbid their navigation by foreigners. The free navigation of 
rivers has often been the subject of treaties, almost necessarily so 
where a river is the boundary between two states. In such a case, . 
if a state were to maintain the strict letter of its rights, navigation 
would be almost impossible, as each state is proprietor down to the 
middle line of the bed of the river, the medium filum aquae or thalweg. 



NAVIUS NAVY AND NAVIES 



299 



By the treaty of Vienna in 1815 it was provided that the navigation 
of all rivers separating or traversing the states that were parties 
thereto should be open for commercial purposes to the vessels of all 
nations, subject to a uniform system of police and tolls. The treaty 
of Paris, 1856, extended this principle to the Danube. In America 
the cases of the Mississippi and the St Lawrence are important. ' By 
the treaty of Versailles, 1783, it was provided that " the navigation of 
the Mississippi shall for ever remain free and open to the subjects 
of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States." But the 
United States afterwards acquired Louisiana and Florida; and, the 
stipulation as to British subjects not being renewed in the treaty of 
Ghent, 1814, the United States maintains that the right of navigat- 
ing the Mississippi is vested exclusively in its citizens. As to the St 
Lawrence, after disputes for a long period between Great Britain and 
the United States, the right of free navigation for purposes of 
commerce was secured to the United States by the treaty of Washing- 
ton, 1871. There are some waters, such as the Suez Canal and the 
Panama Canal, which are subject to peculiar engagements by treaty 
or convention. The former depends on the Convention of Con- 
stantinople, zgth of October 1888, the latter as far as regards the 
United Kingdom and the United States on the Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty, l8th of November 1901. But as a rule it may be said that in 
time of peace the territorial waters of a state are open to foreigners 
for commercial purposes, subject to observance of any rules as to 
police, pilotage, &c., imposed by the state. Tolls may be imposed by 
the state upon foreigners. This right is expressly recognized in most 
commercial treaties. A notable instance was the claim of Denmark 
to charge what were called the " Sound dues " from all vessels passing 
Elsinore, though the Sound was not strictly her territorial water. 
The right was not universally recognized, though it had prescription 
in its favour and was invariably paid. In 1857 the dues were 
abolished, and compensation paid to Denmark for the loss of her 
alleged right. (J. W.) 

NAVIUS, ATTUS, in Roman legendary history, a famous 
augur during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. When the latter 
desired to double the number of the equestrian centuries, Navius 
opposed him, declaring that it must not be done unless the 
omens were propitious, and, as a proof of his powers of divination, 
cut through a whetstone with a razor. Navius's statue with 
veiled head was afterwards shown in the comitium; the whet- 
stone and razor were buried in the same place, and a puteal 
placed over them. Hard by was a sacred fig-tree, called after 
him the Navian fig-tree. It was reported that Navius was subse- 
quently put to death by Tarquinius. According to Schwegler, 
the puteal originally indicated that the place had been struck 
by lightning, and the story is a reminiscence of the early struggle 
between the state and ecclesiasticism. 

.See Livy i. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 70; Aurelius Victor,' De viris 
ittustribus, 6; Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xv. 16. 

NAVVY, a labourer employed in the digging and excavating 
of earth, &c., in the construction of railways, docks, canals or 
other engineering operations. The word is a shortened form of 
" navigator," applied, during the i8th and early part of the igth 
centuries to a labourer at work on canals, to which the name 
" navigation " is often applied. Power-machines (excavators) 
for performing such work are consequently known as " steam- 
navvies." 

NAVY and NAVIES. The navy of a country was in its 
original meaning the total body of its shipping, whether used 
for war, for oversea and coasting traffic, or for fishing the 
total in fact of its ships (Lat. naves). By custom, however, the 
word has come to be used only of that part of the whole which 
is set aside for purposes of war and police. Every navy consists 
of a material part (see SHIP), i.e. the vessels, with their means 
of propulsion and their armament, and of a human organization, 
namely the crews of all ranks, by which the vessels are handled. 
Ships and men are combined in divisions, and are ruled by an 
organ of the government to which they belong (see ADMIRALTY 
ADMINISTRATION). 

PERSONNEL 

The personnel of the British navy is composed of two different 
bodies of men, the seamen and the marines, each of which has its 
appropriate officers. The marines are the subject of a separate 
article. 

The officers of the navy are classed as follows in the order of their 
rank: flag-officers (see ADMIRAL), commodores, captains, staff 
captains, commanders, staff commanders, lieutenants, navigating 
lieutenants, sub-lieutenants, chief gunners, chief boatswains, chief 
carpenters, gunners, boatswains, carpenters, midshipmen, naval 
cadets. 

Flag-officers are divided into three ranks, viz. rear-admiral, vice- 



admiral, admiral. There is also the rank of " admiral of the fleet " : 
such an officer, if in command, would carry the union flag at the main. 

All flag-officers, commanders-in-chief , are considered as responsible 
for the conduct of the fleet or squadron under their command. They 
are bound to keep them in perfect condition for service; to exercise 
them frequently in forming orders of sailing and lines of battle, and 
in performing all such evolutions as may occur in the presence of an 
enemy; to direct the commanders of squadrons and divisions to 
inspect the state of each ship under their command ; to see that the 
established rules for good order, discipline and cleanliness are ob- 
served; and occasionally to inquire into these and other matters 
themselves. They are required to correspond with the secretary of 
the admiralty, and report to him all their proceedings. 

Every flag-officer serving in a fleet, but not commanding it, is 
required to superintend all the ships of the squadron or division 
placed under his orders to see that their crews are properly 
disciplined, that all orders are punctually attended to, that the 
stores, provisions and water are kept as complete as circumstances 
will admit, that the seamen and marines are frequently exercised, 
and that every precaution is taken for preserving the health of their 
crews. When at sea, he is to take care that every ship in his division 
preserves her station in whatever line or order of sailing the fleet 
may be formed; and in battle he is to observe attentively the 
conduct of every ship near him, whether of the squadron or division 
under his immediate command or not ; and at the end of the battle 
he is to report it to the commandtr-in-chief , in order that commenda- 
tion or censure may be passed, as .he case may appear to merit ; and 
he is empowered to send an officer to supersede any captain who may 
misbehave in battle, or whose ship is evidently avoiding the en- 
gagement. If any flag-officer be killed in battle his flag is to be kept 
flying, and signals to be repeated, in the same manner as if he were 
still alive, until the battle shall be ended; but the death of a flag- 
officer, or his being rendered incapable of attending to his duty, is to 
be conveyed as expeditiously as possible to the commander-in-chief . 

The captain of the fleet is a temporary rank, where a commander- 
in-chief has ten or more ships of the line under his command ; it may 
be compared with that of adjutant-general in the army. He may 
either be a flag-officer or one of the senior captains; in the former 
case, he takes his rank with the flag-officers of the fleet ; in the latter, 
he ranks next to the junior rear-admiral, and is entitled to the pay 
and allowance of a rear-admiral. All orders of the commander-in- 
chief are issued through him, all returns of the fleet are made through 
him to the commander-in-chief, and he keeps a journal of the pro- 
ceedings of the fleet, which he transmits to the admiralty. He is 
appointed and can be removed from this situation only by the lords 
commissioners of the admiralty. 

A commodore is a temporary rank, and of two kinds the one 
having a captain under him in the same ship, and the other without a 
captain. The former has the rank, pay and allowances of a rear- 
admiral, the latter the pay and allowances of a captain and special 
allowance as the lords of the admiralty may direct. They both carry 
distinguishing pennants. 

When a captain is appointed to command a ship of war he com- 
missions the ship by hoisting his pennant; and if fresh out of the 
dock, and from the hands of the dockyard officers, he proceeds im- 
mediately to prepare her for sea, by demanding her stores, provisions, 
guns and ammunition from the respective departments, according 
to her establishment. He enters such petty officers, leading seamen, 
able seamen, ordinary seamen, artificers, stokers, firemen and boys 
as may be sent to him from the flag or receiving ship. If he be 
appointed to succeed the captain of a ship already in commission, he 
passes a receipt to the said captain for the ship's books, papersand 
stores, and becomes responsible for the whole of the remaining stores 
and provisions. 

The duty of the captain of a ship, with regard to the several books 
and accounts, pay-books, entry, musters, discharges, &c., is regulated 
by various acts of parliament; but the state of the internal discipline, 
the order, regularity, cleanliness and the health of the crews will 
depend mainly on himself and his officers. In all these respects the 
general printed orders for his guidance contained in the King's 
Regulations and Admiralty Instructions are particularly precise and 
minute. And, for the information of the ship's company, he is 
directed to cause the articles of war, and abstracts of all acts of 
parliament for the encouragement of seamen, and all such orders and 
regulations for discipline as may be established, to be hung up in 
some public part of the ship, to which the men may at all times have 
access. He is also to direct that they be read to the ship's company, 
all the officers being present, once at least in every month. He is 
desired to be particularly careful that the chaplain have shown to 
him the attention and respect due to his sacred office by all the 
officers and men, and that divine service be performed every Sunday. 
He is not authorized to inflict summary punishment on any com- 
missioned or warrant-officer, but he may place them under arrest, 
and suspend any officer who shall misbehave, until an opportunity 
shall offer of trying such officer by a court-martial. He is enjoined 
to be very careful not to suffer the inferior officers or men to be 
treated with cruelty and oppression by their superiors. He is the 
authority who can order punishment to be inflicted, which he is 
never to do without sufficient cause, nor ever with greater severity 
than the offence may really deserve, nor until twenty-four hours after 



300 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



ANCIENT 



the crime has been committed, which must be specified in the warrant 
ordering the punishment. He may delegate this authority to a 
limited extent to certain officers. All the officers and the whole 
ship's company are to be present at every punishment, which must 
be inserted in the log-book, and an abstract sent to the admiralty 
every quarter. 

The commander has the chief command in small vessels. In larger 
vessels he is chief of the staff to the captain and assists him in main- 
taining discipline, and in sailing and fighting the ship. 

The lieutenants take the watch by turns, and are at such times 
entrusted, in the absence of the captain, with the command of the 
ship. The one on duty is to inform the captain of all important 
occurrences which take place during his watch. He is to see that the 
whole of the duties of the ship are carried on with the same punctu- 
ality as if the captain himself were present. In the absence of the 
captain, the commander or senior executive officer is responsible for 
everything done on board. 

The navigating officer receives his orders from the captain or the 
senior executive officer. He is entrusted, under the command of the 
captain, with the charge of navigating the ship, bringing her to 
aftchor, ascertaining the latitude and longitude of her place at sea, 
surveying harbours, and making such nautical remarks and observa- 
tions as may be useful to navigation in general. 

The warrant-officers of the navy may he compared with the non- 
commissioned officers of the army. They take rank as follows, viz. 
gunner, boatswain, carpenter; and, compared with other officers, 
they take rank after sub-lieutenarts and before midshipmen. 

The midshipmen are the principal subordinate officers, but have no 
specific duties assigned to them. In the smaller vessels some of the 
senior ones are entrusted with the watch; they attend parties of 
men sent on shore, pass the word of command on board, and see that 
the orders of their superiors are carried into effect; in short, they are 
exercised in all the duties of their profession, so as, after five years' 
service as cadets and midshipmen, to qualify them to become 
lieutenants, and are then rated sub-lisutenants provided they have 
passed the requisite examination. 

The duties and relative positions of these officers remain practi- 
cally unaffected by recent changes; but a profound modification was 
made in the constitution of the corps of officers at the close of 1902. 
Up to the end of that year, officers who belonged to the " executive " 
branch, i.e. from midshipmen to admiral, to the marines and the 
engineers, had entered at different ages, had been trainecf in separate 
schools, and had formed three co-operating but independent lines. 
For reasons set forth in a memorandum by Lord Selborne (December 
16, 1902) from the desire to give a more scientific character 
to naval education, and to achieve complete unity among all classes 
of officers it was decided to replace the triple by a single system of 
entry, and to coalesce all classes of officers, apart from the purely 
civil lines surgeons and paymasters (formerly " pursers ") into 
one. Lads were in future to be entered together, and at one training 
establishment at Osborne in the Isle of Wight, on the distinct under- 
standing that it was to be at the discretion of the admiralty to assign 
them to executive, marine or engineer duties at a later period. After 
two years' training at Osborne, and at the Naval College at Dart- 
mouth, all alike were to go through the rank of midshipman and to 
pass the same examination for lieutenant. When in the intermediate 
position of sub-lieutenant, they were to be assigned to their respec- 
tive branches as executive officer, marine or engineer. The engineers 
under this new system were to cease to be a civil branch, as they had 
been before, and become known as lieutenant, commander, captain 
or rear-admiral E. (Engineer). 

The crew of a ship of war consists of leading seamen, able seamen, 
ordinary seamen, engine-room artificers, other artificers, leading 
stokers, stokers, coal-trimmers, boys and marines. The artificers 
and stokers and the marines are always entered voluntarily, the 
latter in the same manner as soldiers, by enlisting into the corps, the 
former at some rendezvous or on board particular ships. The supply 
of boys for the navy, from whom the seamen class of men and petty 
officers is recruited, is also obtained by voluntary entry. 

Merchant seamen are admitted into the royal naval reserve, receive 
an annual payment by way of retainer, perform drill on board His 
Majesty's ships, and are engaged to serve in the navy in case of war 
or emergency. 

There are two schemes for forming reserves. The Royal Naval 
Reserve scheme draws men from the mercantile marine and fishing 
population of the United Kingdom. The Royal Fleet Reserve 
scheme, introduced in 1901, while it gave a better system of training 
to the pensioners, was mainly designed to obtain the services in war 
of the men who had quitted the navy after the expiration of their 
twelve years' service. 

So far as other countries are concerned, the staff of officers does not 
differ materially from one navy to another. In all it consists of 
admirals, captains, lieutenants, midshipmen and cadets receiving 
their training in special schools. With the exception of the navy of 
the United States, all the important naval forces of the world are 
raised by conscription. 

The strength and general condition of navies at any given time 
must be learnt from the official publications of the various powers, 
and from privately composed books founded on them. The yearly 
statements of the First Lord of the Admiralty in Great Britain, the 



Reports of the Secretary of the Navy in the United States, and the 
Reports of the Budget Committees of the French-Chamber contain 
masses of information. The Naval Annual, founded by Lord Brassey 
in 1886, is the model of publications which appear in nearly every 
country which possesses a navy. Mr F. T. Jane's All the World's 
Fighting Ships is a survey of the materiel of navies since 1898. 

HISTORY OF NAVIES 

Every navy was at its beginning formed of the fighting men 
of the tribe, or city, serving in the ship or large boat, which was 
used indifferently for fishing, trade, war or piracy. The develop- 
ment of the warship as a special type, and the formation of 
organized bodies of men set aside for military service on the sea 
came later. We can follow the process from its starting-point 
in the case of the naval powers of the dark and middle ages, 
the Norsemen, the Venetians, the French, the English fleet and 
others. But centuries, and indeed millenniums, before the 
modern world emerged from darkness the nations of antiquity 
who lived on the shores of the Mediterranean had formed 
navies and had seen them culminate and decline. The adven- 
tures of the Argonauts and of Ulysses give a legendary and 
poetic picture of an " age of the Vikings " which was coming 
to an end two thousand years before the Norsemen first vexed 
the west of Europe. At a period anterior to written history 
necessity bad dictated the formation of vessels adapted to the 
purposes of the warrior. Long ships built for speed Qj.aKpal VT\K, 
naves longae) as distinguished from round ships for burden 
(aTpoyyii\ai i>ij, naves onerariae) are of extreme antiquity 
(see SHIP). Greek tradition credited the Corinthians with the 
invention, but it is probable that the Hellenic peoples, in this 
as in other respects, had a Phoenician model before them. So 
little is known of the other early navies, whether Hellenic or 
non-Hellenic, that we must be content to take the Athenian 
as our example of them all, with a constant recognition of the 
fact that it was certainly the most highly developed, and that 
we cannot safely argue from it to the rest. 

The Athenian navy began with the provision of warships 
by the state, because private citizens could not supply them 
in sufficient numbers. The approach of the Persian 
attack in 483 B.C. drove Athens to raise its establish- Att 
ment from 50 to 100 long ships, which were paid for out of 
the profits of the mines of Moroneia (see THEMISTOCLES). The 
Persian danger compelled the Greeks to form a league for their 
common naval defence. The League had its first headquarters 
at Delos, where its treasury was guarded and administered by 
the 'EXXTjiwa/uai (Hellenotamiai), or trustees of the Hellenic 
fund. Her superiority in maritime strength gave Athens a 
predominance over the other members of "the League like that 
which Holland enjoyed for the same reason in the Seven United 
Provinces. The Hellenotamiai were chosen from among her 
citizens, and Pericles transferred the fund to Athens, which 
became the mistress of the League. The allies sank in fact to 
subjects, and their contributions, aided by the produce of the 
mines, went to the support of the Athenian navy. The hundred 
long ships of the Persian War grew to three hundred by the end 
of the 5th century B.C. (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR), and at a 
later period (when, however, the quality of ships and men alike 
had sunk) to three hundred and sixty. The ancient world did 
not attain to the formation of a civil service at least until the 
time of the Roman Empire and Athens had no admiralty 
or navy office. In peace the war-vessels were kept on slips under 
cover in sheds. In war a stralegos was appointed to the general 
command, and he chose the trierarchs, whose duty it was to 
commission them partly at their own expense, under supervision 
of the state exercised by special inspectors (cbroerToXels). The 
hulls, oars, rigging and pay of the crews were provided by the 
state, but it is certain that heavy charges fell upon the trierarchs, 
who had to fit the ships for sea and return them in good condi- 
tion. The burden became so heavy that the trierarchies were 
divided, first between two citizens in the Peloponnesian War, 
and then among groups (synteleiai) consisting of from five to 
sixteen persons. Individual Athenians who were wealthy and 
patriotic or ambitious might fit out ships or spend freely on 



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their command. But these voluntary gifts were insufficient 
to maintain a great navy. The necessity which compelled 
modern nations to form permanent state navies, instead of 
relying on a levy of ships from the ports, and such vessels as 
English nobles and gentlemen sent to fight the Armada, prevailed 
in Athens also. The organization of the crews bore a close 
resemblance in the general lines to that of the English navy as 
it was till the i6th and even the lyth century. The trierarch v 
either the citizen named to discharge the duty, or some one whom 
he paid to replace him, answered to the captain. There was 
a sailing master (<cv/3pJ^T7/s), a body of petty officers, mariners 
and oarsmen (tnrr;pe<Tia) , with the soldiers or marines (rt/3ar(u). 
As the ancient warship was a galley, the number of rowers 
required was immense. A hundred triremes would require 
twenty thousand men in all, or more than the total number of 
crews of the twenty-seven British line of battleships which 
fought at Trafalgar. And yet this would not have been a great 
fleet, as compared with the Roman and Carthaginian forces, 
which contended with hundreds of vessels and multitudes of 
men, numbering one hundred and fifty thousand or so, on each 
side, in the first Punic War. 

Until the use of broadside artillery and the sail became 
universal at the end of the i6th century, all navies were forcibly 
organized on much the same lines as the Athenian, even in the 
western seas. In the Mediterranean the differences were in 
names and in details. The war fleets of the successors of 
Alexander, of Carthage, of Rome, of Byzantium, of the Italian 
republics, of the Arabs and of Aragon, were galleys relying on 
their power to ram or board. Therefore they present the same 
elements a chief who is a general, captains who were soldiers, 
or knights, sailing masters and deck hands who navigate and 
tend the few sails used, marines and rowers. A few words may, 
however, be said of Rome, which transmitted the tradition of 
the ancient world to Constantinople, and of the Constantino- 
politan or Byzantine navy, which in turn transmitted the tradi- 
tion to the Italian cities, and had one peculiar point of interest. 

As a trading city Rome was early concerned in the struggle 
for predominance in the western Mediterranean between the 
Etruscans, the Greek colonies and the Carthaginians. 
Its care of its naval interests was shown by the appoint- 
ment of navy commissioners as early as 31 1 B.C. (Duoviri navales). 
In the first Punic War it had to raise great fleets from its own 
resources, or from the dependent Greek colonies of southern Italy. 
After the fall of Carthage it had no opponent who was able to force 
it to the same efforts. The prevalence of piracy in the ist century 
B.C. again compelled it to attend to its navy (see POMPEY). The 
obligation to keep the peace on sea as well as on land required 
the emperors to maintain a navy for police purposes. The 
organization was very complete. Two main fleets, called the 
Praetorian, guarded the coasts of Italy at Ravenna and Misenum 
(classes Praetoriae), other squadrons were stationed at Forum 
Julii (Frejus), Seleucia at the mouth of the Orontes (Nahr-el-Asy), 
tailed the classis Syriaca, at Alexandria (classis Augusta Alex- 
andrine), at Carpathos (Scarpanto, between Crete and Rhodes), 
Aquileia (the classis Venetum at the head of the Adriatic), 
the Black Sea (classis Pontica), and Britain (classis Brilannica). 
River flotillas were maintained on the Rhine (classis Germanica) , 
on the Danube (classis Pannonica and Maesica) and in later days 
at least on the Euphrates. All these squadrons did not exist 
at the same time. The station at Forum Julii was given up 
soon after the reign of Augustus, and the classis Venetum was 
formed later. But an organized navy always existed. A body 
of soldiers, the classici, was assigned for its service. The 
commander was the Praefectus Classis. 

When Constantine founded his New Rome on the site of 
Byzantium, the navy of the Eastern Empire may be said to have 
B zaatiae ' De 8 un - Its history is obscure and it suffered several 
' eclipses. While the Vandal kingdom of Carthage 
lasted (428-534), the eastern emperors were compelled to 
attend to their fleet. After its fall their navy fell into neglect 
till the rise of the Mahommedan power at the end of the 7th 
century again compelled them to guard their coasts. The 



Medieval. 



eastern caliphs had fleets for purposes of conquest, and so had 
the emirs and caliphs of Cordova. The Byzantine navy reached 
its highest point under the able sovereigns of the Macedonian 
dynasty (867-1056). It was divided into the imperial fleet, 
commanded by the Great Drungarios, the first recorded lord high 
admiral, and the provincial or thematic squadrons, under their 
strategoi. Of these there were three, the Cibyrhaeotic (Cyprus 
and Rhodes), the Samian and the Aegean. The thematic 
squadrons were maintained permanently for police purposes. 
The imperial fleet, which was more powerful when in commission 
than all three, was kept for war. A peculiar feature of the 
Byzantine navy was the presence in it of a corps answering to the 
seaman gunners and gunnery officers of modern navies. These 
were the siphonarioi, who worked the siphons (auf&vts) used for 
discharging the " Greek fire." When the Turkish invasions 
disorganized the Eastern Empire in the I2th century, the 
Byzantine navy withered, and the emperors were driven to rely 
on the help of the Venetians. 

The Italian republics of the middle ages, and the monarchical 
states bordering on the Mediterranean, always possessed fleets 
which did not differ in essential particulars from that 
of Athens. There is, however, one fact which must not 
be overlooked. It is that the seamen of some of them, and 
more especially of Genoa, served the powers of western Europe 
from a very early date. Diego Gelmirez, the first archbishop of 
Santiago in Gallicia, employed Genoese to construct a dockyard 
and build a squadron at Vigo in the i2th century. 

Edward III. of England employed Genoese, and others were 
engaged to create a dockyard for the French kings at Rouen. 
By them the naval science of the Mediterranean was carried 
to the nations on the shores of the Atlantic. The Mediterranean 
navies made their last great appearance in history at the battle 
of Lepanto (1571). Thenceforth the main scene of naval activity 
was on the ocean, with very different ships, other armaments 
and organizations. 

The great navies of modern history may best be discussed by 
taking first certain specially important national navies in their 
earlier evolution, and then considering those which are of present 
day interest in their relations to one another. 

The British Navy. 

The Royal Navy of Great Britain stands at the head of the 
navies of the modern world, not only by virtue of its strength, 
but because it has the longest and the most consistent historical 
development. The Norse invasions of the gth century forced the 
English people to provide for their defence against attack from 
oversea. Though their efforts were but partially successful, 
and great Norse settlements were made on the eastern side of 
the island, a national organization was formed. Every shire was 
called upon to supply ships " in proportion to the number of 
hundreds and from the produce of what had been the folkland 
contained in it " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 116). Alfred and his 
successors had also ships of their own, maintained out of the 
royal revenue of which they had complete control. Before the 
Conquest the system of contribution by the shires had largely 
broken down. Yet in its main lines the method of providing a 
navy adopted by Alfred and his immediate successors remained 
in existence. There were the people's ships which represented the 
naval side of the fyrd i.e. the general obligation to defend the 
realm; and there were the king's own vessels which were his 
property. By the nth century a third source of supply had 
been found. This was the feudal array. Towns on the sea coast 
were endowed with privileges and franchises, and rendered 
definite services in return. 

The Norman Conquest introduced no fundamental difference. 
In the 1 2th century the kings of the Angevine dynasty made the 
military resources of their kingdom available in three ways; 
the feudal array, the national militia and the mercenaries. 
Dover, Sandwich, Romney, and the other towns on the south- 
east coast which formed the Cinque Ports represented the naval 
part of the feudal array. In the reign of Henry III. (1216-1272) 
their service was fixed at 57 ships, with 1197 men and boys, for 



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fifteen days in any year, to count from the time when they weighed 
anchor. During these fifteen days they served at the expense 
of the towns. Beyond that date they were maintained by the 
king. The Cinque Ports Squadron has been spoken of as the 
foundation of the Royal Navy. But a feudal array is wholly 
alien in character to a national force. The Cinque Ports, after 
playing a prominent part in the I3th century, sank into in- 
significance. They were always inclined to piracy at the expense 
of other English towns. In 1 297, during one of the expeditions to 
Flanders, they attacked and burnt twenty ships belonging to 
Yarmouth under the eyes of Edward I. (1272-1307). The 
national militia had a longer life. The obligation of the coast 
towns and counties to provide ships and men for the defence 
of the realm was enforced till the I7th century. Nor did the 
method of enforcing that obligation differ materially. In the 
reign of King John (1199-1216), when the records began to be 
regularly kept, but when there was no radical change in system, 
the reeves and bailiffs of the seaports were bound to ascertain 
by a jury_the number, size and quality of all ships belonging to 
the port. When the ships were required for the king's service 
they were embargoed. The local authorities were then bound 
to see that they were properly equipped and manned. It was 
the duty of the reeves and bailiffs to arrange that they should 
reach the place named by the king as rendezvous at the time 
fixed by him. These embargoes inflicted heavy loss even when 
they were honestly imposed, and loud complaints were heard 
in Parliament from the later years of Edward III. (1327-1377) 
that they afforded the king's officers many openings for oppression 
and corruption. 

The true ancestors of the modern navy must be sought in 
the third element of the navy of the middle ages the king's 
ships and his " mercenaries." Under King John we find the 
full record of a regular organization of a Royal Navy as apart 
from the feudal array of the Cinque Ports or the fyrd. In 1 205 
he had in all 50 " galleys " long ships for wardistributed in 
various ports. William of Wrotham, archdeacon of Taunton, 
one of the king's " clerks," or ecclesiastical persons who formed 
his civil service, is named, sometimes in combination with 
others, as " keeper of the king's ships," " keeper of the king's 
galleys " and " keeper of the king's seaports." The royal 
vessels cannot have differed from the 57 warships of the Cinque 
Ports, and at first his navy was preferable to the feudal array, 
or the levy from the counties, mainly because it was more fully 
under his own control. They were indeed so wholly his that 
he could hire them out to the counties, and at a much later 
period the ships of Henry V. (1413-1422) were sold to pay his 
personal debts after his death. Yet though the process by which 
the king's ships became the national navy was slow, the affilia- 
tion is direct from them to the fleet of to-day, while the permanent 
officials at Whitehall are no less the direct descendants of 
William of Wrotham and the king's clerks of the i3th century. 
When on active service the command was exercised by repre- 
sentatives of the king, who were not required to be bred to the 
sea or even always to be laymen. In the crusade of 1190 the 
fleet of Richard the Lion Hearted (1189-1199), drawn partly 
from England and partly from his continental possessions, was 
governed by a body of which two of the members were church- 
men. They and their lay colleagues were described as the 
ductores el gubernatorcs tolius navigii Regis. The first commanders 
of squadrons were known as justiciarii navigii Regis, ductores et 
constabularii Regis. 

The crusade of 1190 doubtless made Englishmen acquainted 
with the title of "admiral"; but it was not till much later 
that the word became, first as " admiral and captain," then as 
" admiral " alone, the title of an officer commanding a squadron. 
The first admiral of all England was Sir John Beauchamp, 
appointed for a year in 1360. The permanent appointment 
of a lord admiral dates from 1406, when John Beaufort, natural 
son of John of Gaunt, and marquess of Somerset and Dorset, 
was named to the post. The crews consisted of the two elements 
which, in varying proportions and under different names, have 
been and are common to all navies the mariners whose business 



it was to navigate the ship, and the soldiers who were put in 
to fight. Until the vessel had been developed and the epoch of 
ocean voyages began, the first were few and subordinate. As 
the seas of Britain were ill adapted for the use of the galley 
in the proper sense, though the French employed them, English 
ships relied mainly on the sail. They used the oar indeed but 
never as a main resource, and had therefore no use for the 
" turma " (ciurma in Italian, chiourme in French, and chusma 
in Spanish) of rowers formed in the Mediterranean craft. Crews 
were obtained partly by free enlistment, but also to a great 
extent, by the press (see IMPRESSMENT). The code of naval 
discipline was the laws of Oleron (see SEA LAWS), which embodied 
the general " custom of the sea." By the reign of Edward III. 
(1327-1377) the duties and jurisdiction of the admiral were 
fixed. He controlled the returns of the ships made by the 
reeves, selected them for service, and chose his officers, who 
had their commission from him. A rudimentary code of signals 
by lights or flags was in use. 

The history of the middle ages bears testimony to the general 
efficiency and energy of the navy. Under weak kings, and at 
certain periods, for instance in the latter years of Edward III. 
and the reign of his grandson Richard II. (1377-1399), it fell 
into decay, and the coast was ravaged by the French and their 
allies the Basque seamen, who manned the navy of Castile. 
Henry IV. (1399-1413), though an astute and vigorous ruler, 
was driven to make a contract with the merchants, mariners 
and shipowners, to take over the duty of guarding the coast 
in 1406-1407. Their admirals Richard Clitherow and Nicholas 
Blackburne were appointed, and exercised their commands. 
But the experiment was not a success, and was not renewed. 
Apart from these periods of eclipse, the navy in all its elements, 
feudal , national and royal, was more than a match for its enemies. 
The destruction of the fleet prepared by Philip Augustus, the 
French king, for the invasion of England in 1213 at Damme, 
the defeat of Eustace the Monk in 1217 off Dover, the victory 
over the French fleet at Sluys in 1340, and the defeat of the 
Spaniards off Winchelsea in 1350, were triumphs never quite 
counterbalanced by any equivalent overthrow. Still better 
proofs of the ability of any navy to discharge its duties 
were the long retention of Calais, and the constant success 
of the rulers of England in their invasions of France. The 
claim to the sovereignty of the seas has been attributed on 
insufficient evidence to King John, but it was enforced by 
Edward III. 

Under the sovereigns of the Tudor dynasty (1485-1603) the 
development of the navy was steady. Though Henry VII. 
(1485-1509) made little use of his fleet in war, he built sh'ps. 
His son Henry VIII. (1509-1547) took a keen interest in his 
navy. Shipbuilding was improved by the importation of Italian 
workmen. The large resources he obtained by the plunder of 
the Church enabled Henry VIII. to spend on a scale which had 
been impossible for his predecessors, and was to be impossible 
for his successors without the aid of grants from Parliament. 
But the most vital service which he rendered to the navy was the 
formation of, or rather the organization of existing officials 
into, the navy office. This measure was taken at the very end 
of his reign, when the board was constituted by letters patent 
dated 24th of April 1546. It consisted of a lieutenant of the 
admiralty, a treasurer, a comptroller, a surveyor, a clerk of the 
ships, and two officials without special title. A master of the 
ordnance for the ships was also appointed. Henry's board, 
commonly known as the navy board, continued, with some 
periods of suspension, and with the addition of different de- 
partments the victualling board, the transport board, the 
pay office, &c., added at various times to be the administrative 
machinery of the navy till 1832. They were all theoretically 
subject to the authority of the lord high admiral, or the com- 
missioners for discharging his office, who had the military and 
political control of the navy and issued all commissions to its 
officers. In practice the boards were very independent. The 
double government of the navy, though it lasted long, was 
undoubtedly the cause of much waste partly by the creation 



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of superfluous officials, but more by the opening it provided 
for corruption. 

The 1 6th century in England as elsewhere saw a great develop- 
ment in the size and capacity of ships, in the length of voyages, 
and consequently in the sciences of navigation and seamanship, 
which brought with them the predominance of the seaman 
element hitherto subordinate. In the reign of Henry VIII., 
when a squadron was commissioned in 1512, out of a total of 
3000 men, 1750 were soldiers. By the end of the reign of his 
daughter Elizabeth (1558-1603) it was calculated that of the 
^346 men required to man her fleet 5534 were seamen, 804 
were gunners, and only 2008 were soldiers. In the early years 
of his reign Henry VIII. equipped his squadrons on a system 
which bears some resemblance to the Athenian trierarchies. 
He made a contract with his admiral Sir Edward Howard (1477- 
1513)1 by which the king supplied ships, guns and a sum of 
money. The admiral, who had full power to " press," named the 
officers and collected the crews. Among them are named 
contingents from particular towns the representatives of the 
fyrd. With the exception of the captain, who received eighteen 
pence a day, all were paid at the same rate, 53. wages and 55. for 
rations per month. Extra sums called " dead shares," the 
wages of so many imaginary men, and rewards, were provided 
for the master and warrant officers. Until the regular returns 
known as the " weekly progress of the dockyards" and the 
" monthly lists of ships in sea pay " were established in 1773, 
no constant strict account of the strength of the navy was kept. 
The figure must therefore be accepted as subject to correction, 
but King Henry's navy is estimated to have consisted of 53 
vessels of 11,268 tons, carrying 237 brass guns and 1848 of iron. 
It sank somewhat during the agitated reigns of his successors 
Edward VI. (I547-I5S3) and Mary (i553-i55 8 )- B Y Elizabeth 
it was well restored. In mere numbers her navy never equalled 
her father's. At the end of her reign it was composed of 42 
vessels, but they were of 17,055 tons, and therefore on the average 
much larger. The military services rendered by the great 
queen's fleet were brilliant. No organic change was introduced, 
and fleets continued to be made up by including vessels belonging 
to the different ports. 

The two most notable advances in organization were the 
establishment of a graduated scale of pay by rank in 1582, and 
the formation of a fund for the relief of sick and wounded 
seamen. This was not a grant from the state but a species of 
compulsory insurance. All men employed by the navy, including 
shipwrights, were subject to a small deduction from their pay. 
The amount was kept in the chest at Chatham, from which the 
fund took its name, and was managed by a committee of five, 
each of whom had a key, and of whom four were elected by the 
contributors. The commissioner of the dockyard presided. 

It was between the accession and the fall of the House of 
Stuart (1603-1688) that the navy became a truly national force, 
maintained out of the revenue voted by parliament, and acting 
without the co-operation of temporary levies of trading ships. 
The reign of James I. (1603-1625) is a period of great importance 
in its history. The policy of the king was peaceful, and he only 
once sent out a strong fleet in 1620 when an expedition was 
despatched against the Barbary pirates. He took, however, 
a lively interest in shipbuilding, and supported his master ship- 
wright Phineas Pett (1507-1647) against the rivals whom he 
offended by disregarding their rules of thumb. Under the lax 
administration of the lord high admiral Nottingham, better 
known as Lord Howard of Effingham, many abuses crept into 
the navy. Though more money was spent on it than in the 
reign of the queen, it had sunk to a very low level of effective 
strength in 1618. In 1619 the old lord admiral was persuaded 
to retire, and was succeeded by George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
ham, the king's favourite. Nottingham's retirement was made 
compulsory by the report of a committee appointed to inquire 
into the condition of the navy in 1618. They reported that 
while numbers of new offices had been created at a cost treble 
the whole expense of the permanent staff of Queen Elizabeth's 
time, the dockyards had become nests of pilfering and corruption. 



Ships were rotting, and money was yearly drawn for vessels 
which had ceased to exist. The committee undertook to meet 
the whole ordinary and extraordinary charges of the navy 
(upkeep and new building) for 30,000 a year. The ships in 
commission at that time during peace were confined to the 
diminutive winter and summer guards, whose duty was to 
transport ambassadors to and fro across the Channel and to 
hunt the pirates who still swarmed on the coast. Buckingham 
left the administration of the navy in the hands of the com- 
missioners, who by dismissing superfluous officers and paying 
better salaries had by 1624 fulfilled their promise to restore 
the fleet. The establishment they proposed was only of 30 ships, 
but they were larger in aggregate tonnage by 3050 tons than 
Queen Elizabeth's. 

Charles I. (1625-1649) carried on the work of his father as far 
as his limited resources allowed. The pay of the sailors, fixed 
in 1585 at ios., was increased to 155. A captain received from 
4, 6s. 8d. a month of 28 days (the standard of the navy) to 14, 
according to the size of his ship. Lieutenants, who were only 
carried in the larger ships, received from 2, i6s. to 3, ios., the 
sailing-master from 2, 6s. 8d. to 4, 133. gd., and the warrant 
officers from i, 33. to 2, 43. The rating of ships by the number 
of men carried was introduced in this reign. Vessels of good 
quality were built for the king, and he showed a real understand- 
ing of the necessity for maintaining a strong fleet. 

But the time was coming when the hereditary royal revenue 
was no longer adequate to meet the expense of a navy. By the 
middle of the I7th century a costly warship, far larger than the 
trading-ship in size and much more strongly built, had been 
developed. The extension of British commerce called for 
protection which an establishment of 40 to 50 vessels could not 
give. When the Great Rebellion broke out in 1641 the navy 
of King Charles consisted of only 42 vessels of 22,411 tons. At 
the Restoration (1660) it had grown to 154 ships for sea service, 
of 57,463 tons. Such a force could only be maintained out of 
taxes granted by the parliament. The efforts of King Charles 
to obtain funds for his navy had a large influence in provoking 
the rebellion (see SHIP MONEY). The government of the navy 
during this reign remained in the hands of the committee of 
1618, under the lord high admiral Buckingham, till he was 
murdered in 1628. It was then entrusted to a special commission, 
who were to have held it till the king's second son James, duke 
of York, was of age. In 1638 the king restored the office of lord 
high admiral " during pleasure " in favour of Algernon Percy, 
loth earl of Northumberland, by whom the fleet was handed 
over to the parliament. 

During the Great Rebellion and the Protectorate the navy 
was governed by parliamentary committees, or by a committee 
named by the Council of State, or by Cromwell. The need, 
first for cutting the king off from foreign support, and then for 
conducting successive struggles in Ireland, or with the king's 
partisans on the sea, with the Dutch and with the Spaniards 
during the Protectorate, led to a great increase in its size. These, 
too, were years of much internal development. Blake and the 
other parliamentary officers found that the pressed or hired 
merchant ships were untrustworthy in action. The ships were 
not strong enough, and the officers had no military spirit. 
Parliament therefore provided its own vessels and its own 
officers. The staff was strengthened by the appointment of 
second lieutenants. The Dutch War of 1652-53 may be said 
to have seen the last of the national militia, fyrd or levy of ships 
from the ports for warlike purposes. After the war a code of 
" fighting instructions " was issued. During it a code of discipline 
in 39 articles was established. Both embodied ancient practices 
rather than new principles, yet it marked a notable advance in 
the progress of the navy towards complete organization that 
it should pass from the state of being governed by traditional 
use and wont, cr by the will of the commander for the time 
being, to the condition of being ruled by fixed and published 
codes to which all were subject. The high military command 
during the interregnum 1640-1660 was entrusted to committees 
of admirals and generals at sea. 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



[BRITISH 



With the restoration of Charles II. (1660-1685) the modern 
period in the history of the navy began. The first steps were 
taken to form a corps of officers. Lads of gentle birth were 
sent on board ships in commission with a letter of service from 
which came their popular name of " king's letter boys " to 
the captain, instructing him to treat them on the footing of 
gentlemen and train them to become officers. After the Dutch 
War of 1664-67 a body of flag-officers were retained by fixed 
allowances from the crown. This was the beginning of the half- 
pay list, which was extended by successive steps to include 
select bodies cf captains and lieutenants, and then all com- 
missioned officers. The process of forming the corps was not 
complete till the end of the reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714). 
Special training and a right to permanent payment are the 
essentials of a state service. The fleet was, at least in the earlier 
part of the reign, used for the promotion of British interests and 
the protection of trade in distant seas. One squadron was sent 
to take possession of Bombay, which formed part of the dower 
of Queen Catherine. Tangier, which was acquired in the same 
way, was occupied as a naval station till the ccst of maintaining 
it proved excessive and it was evacuated in 1685. A series 
of effective attacks was made on the Barbary pirates, and ships 
were stationed in the West Indies to check piracy and buccaneer- 
ing. Until 1673, when he was driven out of office by the Test 
Act, the king's brother James, duke of York, afterwards James 
II., held office as lord high admiral. He proved an able admini- 
strator. The navy office was thoroughly organized on the lines 
laid down by the earl of Northumberland, and revised " sailing 
and fighting instructions," as well as a code of discipline, were 
issued. During the latter years of the reign of Charles II. the 
administrative corruption of the time affected the navy severely. 
The fixed charge for ordinary and extraordinary expenses which 
had risen to 300,000 a year was mostly wasted, under the lax 
or dishonest supervision of the commission appointed by the 
king after his brother left office. James II. (1685-1688), who 
kept the admiralship in his own hands and governed largely 
through his able secretary, the diarist Samuel Pepys, did much 
to restore its efficiency. The navy he left was estimated to 
consist of 173 ships of 101,892 tons carrying when in commission 
42,003 men and armed with 6930 guns. 

The evolution of the navy was completed by the Revolution 
of 1688. It now, though still called royal, became a purely 
national force, supported by the yearly votes of parliament, 
and governed by parliamentary committees, known as the com- 
mission for discharging the office of lord high admiral. A lord 
high admiral has occasionally been appointed, as in the case 
of Prince George of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne, or the 
duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV. But these were 
formal restorations. As no organic change was made till 1832, 
it will now be enough to describe the organization as it was 
during this century and a half. 

The discipline of the navy was based on the Navy Discipline 
Act of 1660 (i3th of Charles II.). The act was found to require 
amending acts, and the whole of them were combined, and 
revised by the 22nd of George II., passed in 1749. Some scandals 
of the previous years had caused great popular anger, and the 
alternative to death was taken from the punishment threatened 
against officers who failed to show sufficient zeal in the presence 
of the enemy. It was under this severe code that Admiral Byng 
was executed. In 1780 an amending act was passed which 
allowed a court martial to assign a lighter penalty. 

The government, political and military, was in the hands of the 
admiralty. The administration was carried on in subordination 
to the admiralty by the navy board and the other civil depart- 
ments, the victualling board, the board of transport, the pay 
office, the sick and hurt office and some others. At the head 
were the flag-officers, who were divided as follows: 



Admiral of the Fleet, 
i. ,, White. 
Blue. 



Vice-Admiral Red. 

White. 
Blue. 



Rear-Admiral Red. 
White. 
Blue. 



The Red, White and Blue squadrons had been the divisions of the 
great fleets of the I7th century, but they became formal terms 



indicating only the seniority of the flag-officers. It was the 
intention of parliament to confine the flag list to these nine 
officers, but as the navy grew this was found to be impossible. 
The rank of admiral of the fleet remained a solitary distinction. 
The captains, commanders and lieutenants were the com- 
missioned officers and received their commissions from the 
admiralty. Promotion from them to flag rank was not at first 
limited by strict rules, but it tended to be by seniority. During 
the war of the Austrian Succession, in 1747, a regular system 
was introduced by which when a captain was promoted for 
active service to hoist his flag, as the phrase went he was made 
rear-admiral of the Blue squadron. Captains senior to him 
were promoted rear-admiral in general terms, and were placed on 
the retired list. They were familiarly called " yellow " admirals, 
and to be promoted in this way was to be " yellowed." Pro- 
motion to a lieutenant's commission could be obtained by any one 
who had served, or whose name had been on the books of a sea- 
going ship, for five years. Whether he entered with a king's letter 
of service or from the naval academy at Portsmouth, as a sailor 
or as a ship's boy, he was equally qualified to hold a commission 
if he had fulfilled the necessary conditions and could pass an 
examining board of captains, a test which in the case of lads who 
had interest was generally a pure formality. He was supposed 
to show that he knew some navigation, and was a practical sea- 
man who could hand, reef and steer. As captains were allowed 
a retinue of servants, a custom arose by which they put the 
names of absent or imaginary lads on the books as servants 
and drew the pay allowance for them. It was quite illegal, 
and constituted the offence known as " false musters," punish- 
able by dismissal from the service. But this regulation was even 
less punctually observed than the rule which forbade the carry- 
ing of women. Till the beginning of the igth century many 
distinguished officers were borne on a ship's books for two or 
three years before they went to sea. The navigation was en- 
trusted to the sailing-master and his mates. He had often been 
a merchant captain or sailor. The captains and lieutenants 
were supposed to understand navigation, but it was notorious 
that many of them had forgotten the little they had learnt in 
order to pass their qualifying examination. As the navy was 
cut down to the quick in peace, the supply of officers was in- 
sufficient at the beginning of a war, and it was found necessary 
to give commissions to men who were illiterate but were good 
practical seamen. Officers who had not begun as gentlemen 
" on the quarter deck " were said to have come in " through 
the hawse hole " the hole by which the cable runs out at the 
bow. Some among them rose to distinction. The accountant's 
work was done by the purser, who in bad times was said to be 
often in league with the captain to defraud both the government 
and the crew. The medical service in the navy during the 
1 8th century was bad. The position of the surgeons who were 
appointed by the navy office was not an enviable one, and the 
medical staff of the navy was much recruited from licentiates 
of Edinburgh, or Apothecaries Hall. Finally it is to be observed 
that when a ship was paid off only the commissioned officers, 
masters and surgeons were entitled to half-pay, or had any 
further necessary connexion with the navy. 

The crews were formed partly by free enlistment and partly 
by impressment. When these resources failed, prisoners, 
criminal and political, were allowed to volunteer or were drafted 
from the jails. The Patriotic Society, formed at the beginning 
of the Seven Years' War, educated boys for the navy. During 
the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars the counties were called 
upon to supply quotas, which they commonly secured from the 
debtors' prison or the workhouse. A ship was supposed to 
be well manned when she had one-fifth of her crew of marines, 
and one-third of men bred to the sea. This proportion of seamen 
was rarely reached. As the navy did not train its men from 
boyhood in peace, the genuine sailors, known as " prime seamen " 
and " sailormen," who were the skilled artificers of the time, 
had to be sought for among those who had served their apprentice- 
ship in the merchant service. They never enlisted voluntarily, 
for they disliked the discipline of the navy, and the pay was 



FRENCH] 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



305 



both bad and given in an oppressive way. The pay of a seaman 
was 22s. 6d. a month for able seamen, the rate fixed in the reign 
of Charles II., and igs. for ordinary seamen. This sum was not 
paid at fixed dates, but at first only at the end of a commission, 
and after 1758 whenever a ship which had been a year in com- 
mission returned home up to six months before the date of her 
arrival, the balance being kept as a security against desertion, 
which was then incessant and enormous. As men were often 
turned over from ship to ship they had a sheaf of pay notes to 
present on reaching home. The task of making up accounts 
was slow, and the men were often driven to sell their pay notes 
to low class speculators at a heavy discount. Discipline was 
mainly enforced by the lash, and the abuse of their power by 
captains was often gross. 

These grievances led to a long series of single ship mutinies, 
which culminated in the great mutiny of 1797. The fleets at 
Spithead, the Nore, Plymouth, the South of Ireland and Cape of 
Good Hope mutinied one after another. The government had 
aggravated the danger by drafting numbers of the United 
Irish into the fleet, and the quotas from the counties contained 
many dangerous characters. The crisis which seemed to threaten 
the country with ruin passed away. Concessions were made 
to the just claims of the men. When political agitators en- 
deavoured to make use of the discontent of the sailors for treason- 
able ends, the government stood firm, and the patriotism of the 
great bulk of the men enabled it to restore discipline. The 
" breeze at Spithead," as the mutiny was nicknamed in the navy, 
was the beginning of the reforms which made the service as 
popular as it was once hateful. 

The administration of the navy throughout the i8th century, 
and in a less degree after 1806 up to 1832, was in many respects 
slovenly, and was generally corrupt. The different branches, 
military and civil, were scattered and worked in practical 
independence, though the board of admiralty was supposed to 
have absolute authority over all. The admiralty was at White- 
hall, the navy office in Seething Lane near the Tower, and after 
1780 at Somerset House. The victualling office was on Tower 
Hill, the pay office in Broad Street, where also was the Sick and 
Hurt office. In 1749, when the state of the navy excited just 
discontent, the admiralty first established regular visitations 
of the dockyards which in a time of general laxity had become 
nests of corruption. These visitations were, however, not 
regularly made. By the end of the century, and in spite of 
sporadic efforts at reform, the evil had become so generally 
recognized that Earl St Vincent, then first lord, persuaded 
parliament in 1802 to appoint a parliamentary commission of 
inquiry. Its reports, thirteen in number, were given between 
1804 and 1806. They revealed much waste, bad management 
and corruption. The tenth report showed that money voted 
for the navy was used by the then treasurer, Henry Dundas 
(Lord Melville), for purposes which he refused to reveal. In 
1806 another commission was appointed to revise and digest the 
civil affairs of the navy, and a considerable improvement was 

f "ffected. Much remained to be done. There was no strict 
ppropriation of money. Accounts were kept in complicated, 
Id-fashioned ways which made it impossible to strike a balance. 
In 1832 Sir James Graham, first lord in Earl Grey's adminis- 
tration, obtained the support of parliament for his policy of 
sweeping away the double administration of the navy, by 
admiralty and navy office, and combining them into one divided 
into five departments. With this great organic change the navy 
entered on ics modern stage. 

Subject to the warning that for the reason given above, the figures 
do not deserve absolute confidence, the material strength of the 
British navy from the death of Queen Anne to the fail of Napoleon 

Ships. Tons. 

At the death of Queen Anne, 1714 
George I., 1727 
,, George II., 1760 

In 1783 

In 1793 

In 1816 



247 

233 
412 
617 
411 
776 



167,219 
170,862 
321,104 
500,781 

402,555 
724,810 



The figures for 1783, and for 1816, are swollen by prizes and worn 
out ships. All the figures include vessels unfit for service, or useful 



only for harbour work, or ordered to be built, but not actually in 
existence. The number of men varied enormously from a peace to 
war establishment. Thus in 1755 on the eve of the Seven Years' 
War parliament voted 12,000 seamen. In 1762 the vote was for 
70,000 men, including 19,061 marines the corps having been created 
in the interval. In 1775, on the eve of the American War of Inde- 
pendence, the vote was for 18,000 men for the sea service, including 
4354 marines. At the close of the war in 1783 the vote was for 1 10,000 
men, including 25,291 marines, from which it fell in 1784 to 26,000 
(marines 4495 included) and in 1786 to 18,000 men, of whom 3860 
were marines. In 1812, when the navy was at the highest level of 
strength it reached, the vote was for 113,000 seamen and 31,400 
marines. Frooi this level it fell in 1816 to 24,000 seamen and 9000 
marines. These figures represent paper strength. Owing to the 
prevalence of desertion, and the difficulty of obtaining men, the 
actual strength was always appreciably lower. 

The French Navy. 

Before the French monarchy could possess a fleet, its early kings, 
whose rule was effective only in the centre of the country, had 
first to conquer their sea coast from their great vassals. Philip 
Augustus (1180-1223) began by expelling King John of England 
from Normandy and Poitou. The process was not completed 
until Louis XII. (1498-1515) united the duchy of Brittany to the 
crown by his marriage with the duchess Anne. Long before the 
centralization of authority had been completed the French kings 
possessed a fleet, or rather two fleets of very distinct character. 
Her geographical position has always compelled France to draw 
her navy from two widely different sources from the Channel 
and the coast of the Atlantic on the north and west and on 
the south from the Mediterranean. This separation has imposed 
on her the difficult task of concentrating her forces at times of 
crisis, and the concentration has always been hazardous. Like 
their English rivals, the French kings of the middle ages drew 
their naval forces from the feudal array, the national levy and 
their own ships. But the proportion of the elements was not the 
same. Many of the great vassals owed the service of ships, and 
their obedience was always less certain than that of the Cinque 
Ports. The trading towns were less able, and commonly less 
willing, than the English to supply the king with ships. He was 
thus driven to trust mainly to his own vessels and they were 
drawn at first exclusively, and always to a great extent, from the 
Mediterranean seaboard. His own territories in the south were 
insufficiently provided with seamen, and the French king had 
therefore to seek his captains, his men and his vessels by purchase 
or by subsidies from Genoa, or in a less degree from Aragon. 
When Saint Louis (1226-1270) sailed on his first crusade in 1249, 
he formed the first French royal fleet, and created the first French 
dockyard at Aigues Mortes. Ships and dockyard were bought 
from, or were built by, the Genoese at the king's expense. His 
admirals, the first appointed by the French crown, Ugo Lercari 
and Jacobo di Levante, were Genoese. Saint Louis created the 
office of admiral of France. When in later times Aigues Mortes 
was cut off from the sea by the encroachment of the land, 
Narbonne and Marseilles were used as ports of war. This fleet 
was purely Mediterranean in character. It consisted of galleys, 
and though the sail was used it was dependent on the oar, and 
therefore on the " turma " (chiourme) of rowers, who in earlier 
times were hired men, but from the middle of the isth century 
began to be composed of galley slaves prisoners of war, slaves 
purchased in Africa, criminals and vagabonds condemned by the 
magistrate to the chain and the oar. Philip IV. le Bel (1285- 
1314) was led by his rivalry with Edward I. of England to create 
a naval establishment on the Channel. He found his materials 
in the existing Mediterranean fleet. A dockyard was built for 
him at Rouen, again by the Genoese Enrico Marchese, Lanfranc 
Tartaro and Albertino Spinola. It was officially known as the 
Tersenal or Dorsenal, but was commonly called the clos des gallles 
or galley yard, and it existed from 1294 to 1419. The French 
navy has always suffered from alternations of attention and 
neglect. In times of disastrous wars on land it has fallen into 
confusion and obscurity. Except when Francis I. (1515-1547) 
made a vigorous attempt to revive it at the very close of his. 
reign, the French navy languished till the 1 7th century. Its very 
unity of administration disappeared in the isth century, when 



306 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



[SPANISH 



the jurisdiction of the admiral of France was invaded and defied 
by the admiralties of Guyenne, Brittany and the Levant. These 
local admiralties were suppressed by Francis I. 

Richelieu, the great minister of Louis XIII., found the navy 
extinct. He was reduced to seeking the help of English ships 
igainst the Huguenots. From him dates the creation of the 
modern French navy. In 1626 he abolished the office of admira 
of France, which had long been no more than a lucrative place helc 
by a noble who was too great a man to obey orders. He himseli 
assumed the title of grand mattre et surinlendant de la navigation, 
and the military command was entrusted to the' admirals du 
Ponant, i.e. of the west or Atlantic and Channel, and du Levant, 
i. e. of the Mediterranean. But Richelieu's establishment 
shrivelled after his death. It was raised from its ruins by the 
pride and policy of Louis XIV. (1643-1715). Under his direc- 
tion a numerous and strongly organized navy was created. A 
very full code of laws the ordonnance was framed by Colbert 
and Lyonne with the advice of the ablest officers, and was 
promulgated on the sth of April 1689. Though modified by other 
ordonnances in 1765, 1772, 1774, 1776 and 1786, in the main lines 
it governed the French navy till the Revolution. 

By this code the French navy was based on the Inscription 
maritime, a very severe law of compulsory service, affecting the 
inhabitants of the coast and of the valleys of rivers as far up as 
they were capable of floating a lighter. The whole body of 
officials and officers was divided into the civil branch known as 
la plume, and the military branch called I'epie. The first had 
the entire control of the finances, and the dockyards of Toulon, 
Brest and Rochfort, with an intendant de la marine at the head 
of each. The general chief was the sous secretaire au departement 
de la marine, the title of the French minister of marine till the 
Revolution. Under Louis XIV. a civil officer, the intendant des 
armies navales, who ranked as an admiral, sat on councils of war 
and reported on the conduct of the naval officers. He must not 
be confused with the intendant de la marine. The military branch 
had at its head the admiral of France, the office having been 
re-created in 1669 by Louis XIV. in favour of his natural son the 
due de Vermandois. In theory the admiral was the administra- 
tive military and judicial head of the admiralty. In practice 
the admirals were princes of the blood, who drew pay and fees, 
but who never went to sea, with the one exception of the count 
of Toulouse, another natural son of Louis XIV. Two vice- 
admirals of France du Ponant and du Levant commanded in the 
Mediterranean and on the ocean. A third office of vice-admiral 
of France was created for Suffren. The lieutenant general (vice- 
admiral) came next, and below him -the chef d'escadre (rear- 
admiral), capilaine de vaisseau (post captain), capitaine de brulot 
(fireship) or def regale (commander), and the major, a chief of the 
staff on board who commanded all landing parties. There was 
no permanent body of marines in the French navy, the infanterie 
de la marine being troops for service in the colonies, which were 
administratively connected with the navy and governed by 
naval officers. The lieutenant needs no explanation, and the 
enseigne was a sub-lieutenant. The corps of officers was recruited 
from les gardes de la marine, answering more or less to the English 
midshipmen who received a careful professional education and 
were required to be of noble birth. Besides the grand corps 
de la marine there was a fleet of galleys with a general at its head, 
and a staff of officers also of noble birth. It was suppressed in 
1748 as being a useless expense. Officers not belonging to the 
grand corps were sometimes taken in from the merchant service. 
They were known as officiers bleus, because their uniform was 
all blue, and not, as in the case of the noble corps, blue and red. 
On paper the organization of the French royal navy was very 
thorough. In reality it worked ill; the severity of the inscription 
maritime made it odious, and owing to the prevailing financial 
embarrassment of the crown after 1692 the sailors were ill-paid, 
ill-fed and defrauded of the pensions promised them. They fled 
abroad, or went inland and took up other trades. The military 
and civil branches were always in a state of hostility to one 
another, and their pay also was commonly in arrears. The noble 
corps was tenacious of its privileges, and extremely insolent 



towards the officiers bleus. By Louis XV. (1715-1774) the navy 
was neglected till the last years of his reign, when it was revived 
by the due de Choiseul. Under Louis XVI. (1774-1792) when 
the Revolution broke out the long accumulated hatred felt for 
the noble officers had free play. Louis XVI. had indeed relaxed 
the rule imposing the presentation of proofs of nobility on all 
naval officers, but the change was made only in 1 786 and it came 
too late. The majority of the noble officers were massacred by 
the Jacobins or driven into exile. 

The Revolution subjected the French navy to a series of 
disorganizations and reorganizations by which all tradition and 
discipline were destroyed. Old privileges and the office of Grand 
Admiral were suppressed. The attempt to revive the navy in 
the face of the superior power of England was hopeless. Neither 
the Republic nor the Empire was able to create an effective navy. 
They had no opportunity to form a new body of officers out of 
the lads they educated. 

_ The strength of the French Royal Navy is difficult to estimate, 
since for long periods of the 1 8th century it was rotting in harbour 
and its ships were rarely commissioned. Louis XIV. is credited with 
95 ships of the line and 29 frigates, together with many smaller 
vessels, in 1692. At the close of the Seven Years' War it had sunk 
to 44 ships of the line and 9 frigates. By 1778 the French navy 
had risen to 78 of the line with frigates and smaller vessels which 
brought the total to 264. In 1793 on the outbreak of the revolution- 
ary war, it was estimated to consist of 82 ships of the line, mostly 
fine vessels, and of frigates with lesser craft which brought it to a 
total of 250. Under Napoleon the mere number was vbry much 
more considerable and included ships built in the annexed territories, 
but they were largely constructed of green timber, were meant 
merely to force England to maintain blockades, and were never sent 
to sea. 

Spanish Navy. 

The administrative history of the Spanish navy is singularly 
confused and broken. It might almost be said that the country 
had no navy in the full sense of the word that is to say, no 
organized maritime force provided and governed by the state 
for warlike purposes only until one was created on the French 
model by the sovereigns of the Bourbon dynasty i.e. after 1700. 
Yet the kings of the Spanish peninsula, whether they wore the 
crown of Castile and Leon or of Aragon, had fleets, formed, like 
all the others of the middle ages, partly of ships supplied by the 
coast towns and populations, partly cf the royal vessels. Aragon 
was a purely Mediterranean power. Its fleets, which were chiefly 
supported by Barcelona, a flourishing commercial city, were 
composed of galleys. With the union of the crown in 1479 
Aragon fell into the background, and its navy continued to be 
represented only by a few galleys, for service in the Mediterranean 
against the pirates. The dominions of Castile stretched from 
the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean. Its kings, therefore, 
had need both of ships (naos) and galleys. The first beginnings 
of the Castilian navy were not due to the king, but to the foresight 
and enterprise of Diego Gelmirez, bishop and afterwards first 
archbishop of Santiago in Gallicia. In or about 1 1 20 he employed 
the Genoese Ogerio to form a dockyard at Iria, and to build 
vessels. The naval activity of the coast of the Bay of Biscay 
developed so rapidly that in 1147 a squadron from the northern 
ports took part in the conquest of Almeria by Alfonso VII. 
(1120-1157) in alliance with the Pisans. A century later (1248) 
another squadron constructed at the expense of the king 
Fernando III. El Santo (1217-1252), and commanded by Count 
Ramon Bonifaz of Burgos, the first admiral of Castile, took a 
decisiv e part in the conquest of Seville. The annexation of Anda- 
.ucia and the necessity for guarding against invasions from Africa 
called for a great extension of the navy of Castile. Alfonso X. 
El Sabio (1252-1284) founded the great galley dockyards of 
Seville the arenal. It was also the work of Genoese builders 
and administrators. In the course of the i3th century the 
towns of the northern coast formed one of the associations so 
common in Spanish history, and known as hermandades (brother- 
icods). The first meeting of its delegates took place at 
'astrourdiales near Bilbao in 1296, when the towns of Santander, 
L,aredo, Bermeo, Guetaria, San Sebastian and Vitoria were 
represented. The hermandad de la marisma (of the seafarers) 



DUTCH] 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



307 



of Castile supplied the squadrons which took an active part 
in the wars of the i4th and isth centuries between France and 
England as allies of the French. Its history is obscure, and 
it came to an end with the establishment of the full authority 
of the crown by the Catholic sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabel. 

The discovery of America, the acquisition by marriage or 
conquest of Sicily, Naples and Flanders, gave the kings of 
Spain a yet stronger motive for maintaining a powerful navy. 
The maxim that their ships were the bridges which joined their 
widely scattered dominions was fully accepted by them and 
their servants. But neither the Catholic sovereigns nor the 
Habsburgs who held the throne till 1700, made any attempt 
to organize a common navy. The sources from which the naval 
armaments of Spain were drawn during the greatness and 
decline of the country were these. Galleys were maintained 
in the Mediterranean, but they were mainly found by Sicily 
and Naples, or by the contracts which the kings of Spain made 
with the Genoese house of Doria. On the ocean the chief object 
of the Spanish government was to conduct and protect the severely 
regulated trade with America. Thus it was mainly concerned 
for long to obtain the lumbering and roomy vessels called 
" galleons," first designed by Alvaro de Bazan, marquess of 
Santa Cruz, which were rather armed traders than real warships. 
The crown did not build its own ships, but contracted for 
them with its admirals. The American convoys sailed from and 
returned to the Bay of Cadiz. One squadron, the flola, 
carried the trade, was navigated by the admiral, with whom was 
associated a general, who commanded the few warships proper, 
and was answerable for the protection of the whole. Another 
squadron, called of Cantabria, was maintained on the north 
coast, and was employed to see the convoy on its way and meet 
it on its return home. It had its own admiral and general. 
The ships were always treated as if they were transports for 
carrying soldiers. The seamen element was neglected. The 
command was divided between the capitan de mar (sea captain) 
who was responsible for the navigation and the capitan de guerra 
(soldier captain) who fought the ship. The same division went 
through all ranks. The soldiers would neither help to work 
the ship nor fight the guns. They used musketry only, or 
relied on a chance to board with sword and pike. Properly 
speaking there was no class of naval officers, and the overworked 
and depressed seamen could not supply good gunners. No 
general naval administration existed. The office of admiral 
of Castile became purely ornamental and hereditary in the 
family of Henriquez. It was not replaced by a navy office. 
One of the innumerable juntas or boards, through which the 
Spanish kings governed, looked after the making of contracts, 
and co-operated with the council of the Indes which was specially 
concerned with the American convoys. After the disasters 
of the later years of Philip II. (see ARMADA) some efforts at 
improvement were made. Better ships were built , and something 
was done to raise the condition of the seamen. But no thorough- 
going organization was ever created, and in the utter decadence 
of the 1 7th century the Spanish navy and seafaring population 
alike practically disappeared. 

Under the Bourbon dynasty which attained the throne in 
1700 the Spanish navy was revived, or rather a navy was created 
on the French model. Don Jose Patifio, a very able man, was 
named inlendenie de la marina in 1715, and in 1717 he drew up 
a draft naval organization and code, founded on the French 
ordonnance of 1689. Patino's draft was the basis of the 
ordenanzas generates (general code) issued in 1 748. The Spaniards 
even set up a squadron of galleys with a separate staff of officers, 
also on the French model, which was, however, suppressed in 
the year of the issue of the ordenanzas generates. Fine arsenals 
were organized at Ferrol and Carthagena. The navy thus 
created produced some distinguished officers, and fought some 
brilliant single ship actions. But the embarrassments of the 
treasury, the tendency of several of the kings to sacrifice their 
navy to political schemes requiring mainly the employment 
of troops and the ruin of the seafaring population during the 
1 7th century, prevented it from ever attaining to a high level 



of efficiency. During the Peninsular War the new navy all 
but disappeared as the old had done. The want of pecuniary 
resources and internal instability have prevented its revival 
on any considerable scale. 

The navy created by Patino consisted in 1737 of 56 ships in all, of 
which 28 were of the line, of from 50 to 80 guns, with one of 114 
guns. In 1746 the number of ships of the line had increased to 37. 
In 1 759 the list of line of battle ships was 50 of which the majority, 
if not all, had been constructed by English shipbuilders, in the service 
of the Spanish government. In 1778, when at the height of its power, 
it contained 62 ships of the line. 

Dutch Navy. 

The Dutch fleet arose out of the great struggle with Spain in 
the i6th century. The Netherlanders had been a maritime 
people from the earliest antiquity. Under their medieval 
rulers, the counts of Holland and of Flanders and the House of 
Burgundy, they had rendered service at sea. The freemen 
owed the service known as the tiemtal (riem, an oar). An 
admiralty office was established in 1397. But during the revolt 
against Philip II. of Spain, new naval forces were formed which 
had no connexion with the medieval navy, save in so far as the 
governments established in the different states which afterwards 
formed the Seven Provinces took possession of the jurisdiction 
and the dues of the medieval admiralty. The naval part of 
the war with Spain was for long conducted by the adventurers 
known as the " beggars of the sea," and was mainly confined 
to the coasts and rivers. In 1597, when the Confederation was 
formed and had provided itself with a common government 
in the states-general, the need for a regularly organized sea- 
going fleet was felt. In that year the banner of the states- 
general, the red lion with the arrows in its paw, was first hoisted 
during the expedition to Cadiz in alliance with England. On 
the i3th of August 1597 the states-general issued the decree 
(Instructie) which regulated the naval administratfon of the 
Republic until 1795. The attachment of the Netherlanders 
to their local franchises was too strong to permit of tKe establish- 
ment of a central authority with absolute powers. It was 
therefore necessary to make a compromise by which some 
measure of unity was secured while the freedom of the various 
confederate states was effectually guarded. Five boards of 
admiralty (Admiraliteits collegien) were recognized. They were: 
South Holland, or the Maas, sitting at Rotterdam; North 
Holland, or Amsterdam; Westfriesland (the western side of 
the Zuyder Zee), at Hoorn or Enkhuizen on alternate years; 
Zealand at Middleburg; and Friesland at^Dokhum, or after 
1645 at Harlingen. These^bodies enjoyed all the rights of the 
admiralty and collected the port dues, out of which they provided 
for the current expenses of their respective squadrons. Extra- 
ordinary charges for war were met by grants from the province 
to which each board belonged. Some measure of unity was 
secured among these five independent authorities by three 
devices. Each board consisted of seven persons, of whom four 
were named by the province and required confirmation by the 
states-general, while three were chosen from other provinces 
to secure a representation of the common wealth. J The members 
of the boards took an oath of fealty to the states-general. The 
stadtholder was admiral-general. He presided at the board, 
and commanded the squadron. In his absence his place was 
taken by his lieutenant admiral-general. An oath of fealty 
was also taken to him, and all armed ships whether men-of-war 
or privateers sailed with his commission. He chose the captains 
from two candidates presented to him by the board. Delegates 
from the boards met twice a year to consult on the general 
interest. When the stadtholdership was suspended in 1650 
the powers of the admiral-general were absorbed by their high 
mightinesses (Hunne Hogen Mogeri) of the states-general. 
The staff of officers began with the lieutenant admiral-general 
and descended through the vice-admiral, the quaintly named 
Schoul-bij-nacht, who was and is the rear-admiral, and whose 
title means " commander by night." These flag officers were 
named by the admiral-general or states-general. The captain 
(Zeecapildn) was selected from the provincial list. The lieutenants 



3 o8 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



[UNITED STATES 



were appointed by the local boards. No regular method of 
recruiting the corps of officers existed. 

This compromise was in itself a bad system. With the 
exception of the board of North Holland, which was supported 
by the wealth of Amsterdam, the admiralties were commonly 
distressed for money. Unity of action was difficult to obtain. 
Much of the work of convoy which the state squadrons should 
have performed was thrown in the I7th century on directorates 
(Direction) of merchants who fitted out privateers at their own 
expense. When there was no stadtholder, the local governing 
bodies trenched on the authority of the states-general, and 
indulged in a great deal of favouritism. In one respect the navy 
of the Dutch republic might have been taken as a model by its 
neighbours. The feeding of the crews was contracted for by the 
captains, who were required to enter into securities for the 
execution of the contract, and who had a reputation for probity. 
The Dutch crews, being better fed and looked after than the 
English, suffered less from disease. The clumsy organization 
of the Dutch navy put it at a disadvantage in its wars with 
England, but the seamanship of the crews, their good gunnery, 
and the great ability of many of their admirals made them at 
all times formidable enemies. No organic change was made 
till 1795, when the victories of the French revolutionary armies 
led to the formation of the Batavian republic. The five 
admiralties were then swept away and replaced by a committee 
for the direction of naval affairs, with a unified administration, 
organized by Pieter Paulus, a former official of the board of the 
Maas. As Holland was now swept into the general convulsion 
of the French Revolution, it followed the fortunes of France. 
Its navy, after belonging to the Batavian republic, passed to 
the ephemeral kingdom of Holland, created by Napoleon in 
favour of his brother Louis in 1806 and annexed to France in 
1810. The Dutch navy then became absorbed in the French. 
After the fall of Napoleon a navy was created for the kingdom 
of the Netherlands out of the Dutch fragments of the Imperial 
force. 

- The United States. 

The American navy came into existence shortly after the 
Declaration of Independence. As early as October 1775 Congress 
authorized the construction of two national cruisers, and, at the 
same time, appointed a marine committee to administer naval 
affairs. The first force, consisting of purchased vessels, badly 
fitted and built, and insufficiently equipped and manned, 
embraced two ships of 24 guns each, six brigs carrying from 
10 to 12 guns, two schooners each with 8 guns, and four sloops, 
three of 10 guns and one of 4 guns. On December 22nd a 
personnel of officers was selected, one of the lieutenants being 
the well-known Paul Jones. Esek Hopkins was made com- 
mander-in-chief, but, having incurred the censure of Congress, 
he was dismissed early in 1777, and since then the title has never 
been revived except in the person of the president. In November 
1776 the grades of admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral and 
commodore were assimilated in rank and precedence to relative 
army titles, but they were never created by law until 1862. 
During the war a number of spirited engagements occurred, 
but there was a great lack of efficient material at home, and 
agents abroad were not able to enlist the active sympathies 
of nations or rulers. Benjamin Franklin did manage to equip 
one good squadron, but this was rendered almost useless by 
internal dissensions, and it required the victory of Paul Jones 
in the " Bon Homme Richard " over the " Serapis " to bring 
about any tangible result for the risk taken. During the war 
800 vessels of all classes were made prizes, but the navy lost 
by capture n vessels of war and a little squadron of gunboats 
on the lakes; and, with 13 ships destroyed to avoid capture 
by the British, 5 condemned, and 3 wrecked at sea, the country 
was practically without a naval force between 1780 and 1785. 

Owing to the depredations upon commerce of the Barbary 
powers, Congress in 1794 ordered the construction of six frigates, 
prescribing that four of them should be armed with 44 guns 
and two with 36 guns; but, the Berbers having made peace, 



the number of vessels was reduced one-half, and no additions 
were made until 1797, when the " Constitution," " United 
States " and " Constellation " were built. The navy was at 
first placed under the war department, but a navy department 
with a secretary of its own was created in 1798. From 1815 
to 1842 the secretary was aided by a board of commissioners 
chosen from among the naval officers, but in the latter year the 
department was reorganized into five bureaus, which were 
increased to eight in 1862. Each has a naval officer at its head. 
They deal with navigation, ordnance, equipment, navy yards, 
medicines, provisions, steam engineering and construction. 
The excellent naval academy at Annapolis was founded in 1845 
by the then secretary of the navy, G. Bancroft. The war college 
for officers at Coasters Harbor, Newport, R.I., dates from 1884. 

The Balance of Navies in History. 

The five navies above discussed claim special notice on various 
grounds: the British, Dutch and French because they have 
been leaders and models; the Spanish because it has been 
closely associated with the others; the American because it 
was the first of the extra-European sea forces. But these great 
examples by no means exhaust the list of navies, old and new, 
which have played or now play a part. Every state which has 
a coast has also desired to possess forces on the sea. Even the 
papacy maintained a fighting force of galleys which took part 
in the naval transactions of the Mediterranean for centuries. 
The Turkish sultans have fitted out fleets which once wej-e a 
menace to southern Europe. But in a survey of general naval 
history it is not necessary to give all these navies special mention, 
even though some of them have a certain intrinsic interest. 
Some, the Scandinavian navies for instance, have been confined 
to narrow limits, and have had no influence either by their 
organization, nor, save locally, by action. Others again have 
been the purely artificial creation of governments. Instances of 
these on a small scale are the navies of the grand duchy of 
Tuscany, or of the Bourbon kings of Naples. 

A much greater instance is the navy of Russia. Founded by 
Peter the Great (1689-1725), it has been mainly organized and 
has been most successfully led by foreigners. When 
the Russian government has desired for political 
reasons to make a show of naval strength, it has been numerous. 
In 1770, during the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796), a Russian 
fleet, nominally commanded by the empress's favourite Orloff, 
but in reality directed by two former officers of the British 
navy, John Elphinston (1722-1785) and Samuel Greig (1735- 
1788), gained some successes against the Turks in the Levant. 
But when opposed to formidable enemies, as in the Crimean 
War, it has either remained in port, or has, as in the case of the 
war with Japan (1904-1905), proved that its vitality was not 
in proportion to its size. 

The innumerable navies of South American republics are 
small copies of older forces. 

The 1 9th century did indeed see the rise of three navies, which 
are of a very different character the Italian, which was the result 
of the unification of Italy, the German, which followed ltal 
the creation of the German Empire, and the Japanese. Germany, 
But all three are contemporary in their origin, and Japan, 
have inevitably been modelled on older forces the Auatrla - 
British and the French. With them must go the Austrian navy, 
excellent but unavoidably small. 

If we look a-t the relations which the navies of the modern 
world have had to one another, it will be seen that the great 
discoveries of the later isth century shifted the seat 
of naval power to the ocean for two reasons. In the (j^"**"* 
first place they imposed on all who wished to sail the power. 
wider seas opened to European enterprise by Vasco 
de Gama and Columbus the obligation to use a vessel which 
could carry water and provisions sufficient for a large crew during 
a long voyage. The Mediterranean states and their seamen 
were not prepared by resources or habit to meet the call. But 
there was a second and equally effective reason. The powers 
which had an Atlantic coast were incomparably better placed 



BALANCE OF NAVIES] 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



309 



than the Italian states, or the cities of the Baltic, to take 
advantage of the maritime discoveries of the great epoch which 
stretches from 1492 to 1526. In the natural course the leadership 
fell to Portugal and Spain. Both owed much to Italian science 
and capital, but the profit fell inevitably to them. The reasons 
why Spain failed to found a permanent naval power have been 
given, and they apply equally to Portugal. Neither achieved 
the formation of a solid navy. The claim of both to retain a 
monopoly of the right to settle in, or trade with, the New World 
and Asia was in due course contested by neighbouring nations. 
France was torn by internal dissensions (the Wars of Religion and 
the Fronde) and could not compete except through a few private 
adventurers. England and Holland were able to prove the 
essential weakness of the Spaniards at sea before the end of the 
i6th century. In the i7th century the late allies against Spain 
now fought against one another. Her insular position, her 
security against having to bear the immense burden of a war 
on a land frontier, and the superiority of her naval organization 
over the divided administration of Holland, gave the victory to 
Great Britain. She was materially helped by the fact that the 
French monarch attacked Holland on land, and exhausted its 
resources. Great Britain and France now became the com- 
petitors for superiority at sea, and so remained from 1689 till 
the fall of Napoleon in 1815. 

During this period of a century and a quarter Great Britain 
had again the most material advantage: that her enemy was not 
only contending with her at sea, but was engaged in endeavouring 
to establish and maintain a military preponderance over her 
neighbours on the continent of Europe. Hence the necessity for 
her to support great and costly armies, which led to the sacrifice 
of her fleet, and drove Holland into alliance with Great Britain 
(Wars of the League of Augsburg, of the Spanish Succession, 
of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War). During 
the War of American Independence France was in alliance with 
Spain and Holland, and at peace on land. She and her allies 
were able to impose terms of peace by which Great Britain 
surrendered positions gained in former wars. But the strength 
of the British navy was not broken, and in quality it was shown 
to be essentially superior. 

The French Revolution undid all that the government of 
France had gained between 1778 and 1783 by attention to its 
navy and abstinence from wars on land. The result of the 
upheaval in France was to launch her into schemes of universal 
conquest. Other nations were driven to fight for existence with 
the help of Great Britain. In that long struggle all the navies 
of Europe disappeared except the French, which was broken 
by defeat and rendered inept by inaction, and the victorious 
British navy. When Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain 
was not merely the first in the world; it was the only powerful 
navy in existence. 

The pre-eminent position which the disappearance of possible 
rivals had given to Great Britain lasted for several years un- 
challenged. But it was too much the consequence of a com- 
bination of circumstances which could neither recur nor endure. 
The French navy was vigorously revived under the Restoration 
and the government of Louis Philippe (the periods from 1815 
to 1830 and 1830 to 1848). The emperor Nicholas I. of Russia 
(1825-1853) built ships in considerable numbers. As early as 
1838 the fear that the naval superiority of Great Britain would 
be destroyed had already begun to agitate some observers. 
The " extremely reduced state " of the British navy, and the 
danger that an overwhelming force would be suddenly thrown 
on the English coast, were vehemently set forth by Commander 
W. H. Craufurd, and by an anonymous flag-officer. The peril 
to be feared, it was argued, was an alliance between France and 
Russia. In 1838 the British navy contained, built and building, 
90 ships of the line, 93 frigates and 12 war steamers; the French, 
49 of the line, 60 frigates and 37 war steamers, including armed 
packets; Russia, 50 of the line, 25 frigates and 8 steamers; the 
United States, 15 of the line, 35 frigates and 16 war steamers. 
The agitation of 1838 passed away, and the Crimean War, 
entailing as it did the destruction of a great part of the Russian 



fleet at Sebastopol, and proving the weakness of the Baltic 
fleet, and having, moreover, been conducted by an alliance of 
France and Great Britain against Russia, would seem to have 
shown that the anxieties of 1838 were exaggerated. But the 
rivalry which is inherent in the very position of states possessing 
sea coasts and maritime interests could not cease. The French 
imperial government was anxious to develop its navy. By the 
construction of the armoured floating batteries employed in 
bombardment of Kinburn in October 1855, and by the launch 
of the first seagoing ironclad " La Gloire " in 1859, it began a 
new race for superiority at. sea, which has shown no sign of 
slackening since. The launch of the " Gloire " was followed by 
political events in Europe which brought forward new com- 
petitors, while great navies were developed in America and Asia. 

The year 1871 was the beginning of a vast growth of naval 
armaments. It saw the completion of the unity of Italy and the 
formation of the German empire, two powers which 
could not dispense with strong fleets. But for some mo a e m 
years the Italian and German navies, though already rivalry la 
in existence, were still in a youthful stage. The rapid arma - 
growth of the United States navy dates from about 
1890, and the Japanese is a few years younger. France, Russia 
and Great Britain, in answer to them, began the race in which 
the efforts of each had a stimulating effect on the others. Though 
the alliance between France and Russia was not formed till 
later, their common interests had marked them out as allies 
from the first, and it will be no less convenient than accurate to 
treat Great Britain and the partners in the Dual Alliance as for 
some time opposed to one another. 

In the genera) reorganization of her armaments undertaken 
by France after the war of 1870-71, her navy was not neglected. 
Large schemes of construction were taken in hand. a laad 
The instability of French ministries, and the differences and the 
of principle which divided the authorities who favoured Dual 
the construction of battleships from those who were Alliance. 
partisans of cruisers and torpedo-vessels, militated against a 
coherent policy. Yet the French navy grew in strength, and 
Russia began to build strong vessels. As early as 1874 the 
approaching launch of a coast-defence ironclad at Kronstadt 
(the " Peter the Great " designed by the English constructor 
Sir E. J. Reed) caused one of the successive " naval scares " 
which recurred frequently in the coming years. It was, however, 
largely fictitious, and passed away without producing much 
effect. In 1878 the prospect of a war arising out of the Russian 
and Turkish conflict of that year, again stirred doubts as to the 
sufficiency of her naval armaments in England. Yet it was not 
till about 1885 that an agitation for the increase of the British 
fleet was begun in a consistent and continuous way. The con- 
troversy of the succeeding years was boundless, and was perhaps 
the more heated because the controversialists were not con- 
trolled by the necessity for using terms of definite meaning, and 
because the lists published for the purpose of making comparisons 
were inevitably of doubtful value; when ships built, building 
and ordered to be built, but not begun, were counted together 
or as not infrequently happened, were all added on one side, 
but not on the other. The belief that the British navy was not 
so strong as it should be, in view of the dependence of the British 
empire on strength at sea, spread steadily. Measures were first 
taken to improve the opportunities for practice allowed to the 
fleet by the establishment of yearly naval manoeuvres in 1885, 
and the lessons they afforded were utilized to enforce the necessity 
for an increase of the British fleet. In 1888 a committee of three 
admirals (Sir W.Dowell, Sir Vesey Hamilton and Sir R. Richards), 
appointed to report on the manoeuvres of that year, gave it as 
their opinion that " no time should be lost in placing the British 
navy beyond comparison with that of any two powers." This 
verdict met a ready acceptance by the nation, and in 1889 
Lord George Hamilton, then first lord of the admiralty, intro- 
duced the Naval Defence Act, which provided for the addition to 
the navy within four and a half years of 70 vessels of 318,000 tons 
at a cost of 21,500,000. The object was to obviate the risk of 
sudden reductions for reasons of economy in the building vote. 



310 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



[BALANCE OF NAVIES 



Later experience proved that the practice of fixing the amount to 
be spent for a period of -years operated to restrict the freedom of 
government to make Additions, for which the necessity had not 
been foreseen when the money was voted. But the act of 1889 
did effect an immediate addition to the British fleet, while as was 
inevitable it stimulated other powers to increased efforts. 

The rivalry between Great Britain and the states composing 
the Dual Alliance may be said to have lasted till 1904, when the 
course of the war in the Far East removed Russia from the field. 
It must be borne in mind that during the latter part of these 
twenty years Russia was largely influenced by the desire to arm 
against the growing navy of Japan. Comparisons between the 
additions to the fleets made on either side, even when supported 
by a great display of figures, are of uncertain value. Number 
is no sufficient test of strength when taken apart from quality, 
distribution, the command of coaling stations which are of 
extreme value to a modern fleet and other considerations. 
But the respective lists of battleships supply a rough and ready 
standard, and when taken with the number of men employed 
and the size of the budgets (both subject to qualifications to 
be mentioned) does enable us to see with some approximation to 
accuracy how far the rivals have attained their desired aims. 
In 1889, before the passing of the Naval Defence Act, the British 
navy contained 32 battleships of 262,340 tons. The united 
French and Russian fleets had 22 of 150,653 tons: of these 17 
were French, 7 being vessels of wood plated with iron and 
therefore of no value when exposed to the fire of modern ex- 
plosives. This is but one of many examples which might be 
given of the fallacious character of mere lists of figures. In 1894, 
when the Naval Defence Act had produced its effect, the com- 
parative figures were: for Great Britain, 46 ironclads (or battle- 
ships) of 441,640 tons, and for the Dual Alliance 35 of 270,953 in 
which, however, the seven wooden vessels were still included. 
France and Russia had then large schemes of new construction 
60,300 tons of ships over 10,000 tons for France, and 78,000 tons 
for Russia. The British figure was 70,000 tons. But the French 
and Russian list included mere names of vessels, of which the 
plans were not then drafted. 

The rivalry in building went on as eagerly after 1894 as before. 
At the beginning of 1904 Great Britain had 67 battleships of 
895,370 tons, as against 57 of 635,500 belonging to the powers 
of the Dual Alliance. The difference in favour of Great Britain 
was therefore 10 battleships, and 259,870 tons. Vessels not 
ready for service were included in the list, which therefore in- 
cludes potential as well as actual strength. The balance in favour 
of Great Britain was less in 1904 than it had been in 1885 in mere 
numbers. During this period the naval budget of Great Britain 
had risen from 12,000,000 in 1885 to 34,457,500 in 1903-1904. 
The number of men employed had grown from 57,000 to 127,000. 
The figures for the Dual Alliance cannot be given with equal 
confidence. France had transferred the troupes de la marine or 
colonial troops from the navy to the army, which introduced 
a confusing element into the comparison, and the figures for 
Russian expenditure are very questionable. The total credit 
demanded for the Frerh navy in 1890, the year after the passing 
of the British Naval Defence Act, was frs. 217,147,462. By 
1903 the sum had risen to frs. 351,47^524. The Russian figures 
for 1890 are not attainable, but her budget for 1903 was 
11,067,889 sterling. A comparison in numbers of men available 
is wholly misleading, since the British navy contains a large 
number o{ voluntarily enlisted men who serve for many years, 
and a small voluntary reserve, while France and Russia include 
all who are liable to be called out for compulsory service during 
a short period. There is no equality between them and the highly 
trained men of the British navy. The immense increase in its 
staff represents an addition to real power to which there is 
nothing to correspond in the case of continental states. 

While this vast growth of naval power was going on in Great 
Britain, France and Russia, other rivals were entering into the 
lists with various fortunes. Italy may be said to have been the 
first comer. Her national navy, formed out of the existing 
squadrons of Sardinia, Tuscany and Naples, had stood the strain 



of war in 1866 very ill. The conditions in which the unity of 
the country had been achieved during the Franco-Prussian War 
of 1870-71, together with the obvious need for a navy competi- 
in the case of a nation with a very extended sea coast, / 
animated the Italians to great and even excessive Ben- 
efforts. Their policy was controlled by the knowledge navies; 
that they could not hope to rival France in numbers, ltajy ' 
and they therefore aimed at obtaining individual vessels of a 
high level of strength. Italy may be said to have set the example 
of building monster ships, armed with monster guns. But she 
was unable to maintain her position in the race. The too hopeful 
finance in which she had indulged in the first enthusiasm of 
complete political unification led to serious embarrassment in 
1894. Her naval budget sank from 4,960,000 in 1891 to 
3,776,845 in 1897-1898, and only rose slowly to 5,037,642 in 
1905-1906. As a candidate in the race for naval strength she 
necessarily held a subordinate place, though always to be ranked 
among the important sea powers. In 1903, when the rivalry of 
Great Britain and the Dual Alliance was at its height, her 
strength in battleships was 18, of 226,630 tons. In number, 
therefore, they did more than cover the balance in favour of 
Great Britain as against the Dual Alliance, but not in tonnage, 
in which the difference in favour of Great Britain was 259,870. 
The history of the German navy is one of foresight, calculation, 
consistency and therefore steady growth. The small naval force 
maintained by Prussia became the navy of the North 
German Federation after the war of 1866, and the 
Imperial navy after 1871. Until 1853 it had been wholly de- 
pendent on the war office. In that year an admiralty was created 
in favour of Prince Albrecht, but this office was abolished in 1861, 
and the navy was again placed under the war office. The first 
ministers of the navy under the North German Federation were 
generals; so was the first imperial minister, General Stosch (1871). 
Admiral Tirpitz, appointed in 1897, was the first minister who 
was bred a seaman. His predecessor, General Stosch, had been 
an excellent organizer and had done much for the efficiency of 
the service. It has been the rule of the German government, 
both before and since the foundation of the empire, to advance 
by carefully framed plans, without adhering to them pedantically 
when circumstances called for a modification of their lines. As 
early as 1867 a. scheme had been formed for the construction of 
a navy of 16 ironclads and 50 smaller vessels, at a cost of 
s,39S,833. It was not sufficiently advanced in execution to 
allow Germany to make any efforts at sea in the war of 1870-71. 
In 1872 a supplementary grant of 3,791,666 was made for 
construction in view of the increased cost of armour and arma- 
ments. In 1882 a revised scheme was made which contemplated 
the construction of 100 vessels, and it was completed in 1888 
by another which provided for the construction of 28 vessels, 
of which 4 should be battleships of the largest size, within the 
next six years. In 1894 and for some years afterwards the Reich- 
stag showed itself hostile to a heavy expenditure on the navy, 
and refused many votes asked for by the government. Under 
the pressure of ambition and of the real needs of a nation with 
an extensive and growing maritime commerce, the expenditure 
grew in spite of the opposition of the Reichstag. Between 1874 
and 1889 it rose from 1,950,000 to 2,750,000, and was increased 
in the following year to 3,600,000, from which figure it advanced 
by 1898 to 5,756,135. Another building scheme was framed 
in that year, but it was swept aside in 1900, under the combined 
influence of the exhortations of the emperor W'illiam II., and of 
the anger caused in Germany through the arrest by a British 
cruiser of a German steamer (the " Bundesrath ") on the coast of 
Africa on a charge of carrying contraband of war to the Boers. 
The emperor was now able to obtain the consent of the Reichstag 
to an extended Naval Defence Act. By the terms of this measure 
it was proposed to spend 74,000,000 on construction, and 
20,000,000 on the dockyards. With this money, by the year 
1917 Germany was to be provided with a fleet of 38 battleships, 
together with a proportionate number of cruisers and other 
smaller vessels. Rapid progress was made not only with the 
programme itself but with the equipment of German dockyards 



BALANCE OF NAVIES] 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



3 11 



United 
States. 



and other establishments for providing the materiel of a great 
navy. In the spring of 1909 the serious menace to British 
supremacy at sea, represented by the growth of the new German 
fleet of battleships, led in England to a " scare " which recalled 
that of 1888, and to an energetic campaign for additional 
expenditure on the British navy. 

During the years following on the American Civil War (1862- 
66) the United States paid small attention to the navy. In 
1 88 1 a board was appointed to advise on the needs 
of the navy, and in 1890, the board recommended 
the formation of a fleet of 100 vessels of which 20 
should be battleships of the largest class. The reviving interest 
in the navy was greatly stimulated by the diplomatic difference 
with Great Britain which arose over the frontier question between 
her and the republic of Venezuela in 1896. Resolutions were 
passed in -congress approving of an increase of the navy. The 
war with Spain in 1898 completed the revival of American 
interest in the navy. The acquisition of Porto Rico, and the 
protectorate of Cuba in the West Indies, together with the annexa- 
tion of the Philippines, and the visible approach of the time 
when the relations of the powers interested in the Pacific would 
call for regulation, confirmed the conviction that a powerful 
fleet must be maintained. In 1889 the United States possessed 
no modern battleship. In 1899 there were 4 built and 8 building. 
At the close of 1903 there were built and building 27 of 353,260 
tons, only two of them being of less than 10,000 tons. From 
5,119,850 in 1890 the expenditure grew to 16,355,380 in 1903. 
The navy of Japan, the last comer among the great naval 
forces of the world, may be said to date from 1895, from, in 

Ja an ^ act ' t ' le eve ^ t ' le war w ' tn China. As an insular 
power with a large seafaring population, Japan is 
called upon to possess a fleet. Even in the days of its voluntary 
isolation it had a known capacity for maritime warfare. Its 
capacity for assimilating the ideas and mastering the mechanical 
skill of Europe have been in no respect better shown than in 
naval matters. From the moment it was compelled to open 
its ports it began not only to acquire steamers but to apply 
itself under European guidance to learning how to make and 
use them. A navy on the western model was already organized 
by 1895, but it was still of trifling proportions. In 1896 the 
Japanese navy had become an object of serious attention to 
the world. A plan was drafted in that year, and confirmed 
in the next, by which Japan arranged to supply itself, mainly 
by purchase in Europe, with a fleet containing 4 of the most 
powerful battleships. The scheme was modified in detail in 
1898, when the decision was taken to increase the tonnage of the 
vessels. A little later additions were arranged for, and vessels 
building for South America states in English ports were purchased. 
The British model was carefully followed in naval organization, 
the alliance with England giving special facilities for this. And 
by 1904, when the war with Russia began, the unknown Japanese 
fleet proved its competence by victories at sea which put the 
seal on her position as a naval power. 

Conclusion. When we look over the whole period from 
the end of the Napoleonic wars, one great fact is patent to our 
view. It is that this was an epoch of revival or development 
in the naval power of the whole world, in the course of which 
the position held by Great Britain in 1816 was partially lost 
simply by the growth of other powers. The situation in that 
year was by its very nature temporary, and a quotation of the 
respective numbers of warships then possessed by the world 
would have no value. An instructive comparison can, however, 
be made between the year 1838, when Great Britain began to 
be seriously concerned with the rise of possible enemies at sea, 
' and the eve of the war between Russia and Japan. Battleships 
may again be taken as the test of strength, since nothing happened 
in the Russo-Japanese War to show that they do not still form 
the most vital element of naval power. We may also leave 
aside the many small fleets which cannot act collectively, and 
which individually do not weigh in the balance. The figures 
for 1838 are given above, but may be repeated for comparison. 
In that year Great Britain possessed, built and building, 90 



ships of the line; France 49; Russia 50; the United States 
15. In 1903 the number of vessels recognized as battleships, 
possessed by the great powers, was for Great Britain 67; for 
France 39; for Russia 18; for the United States 27; for Germany 
27; for Italy 18; for Japan 5. At the first date the British 
fleet was among great powers as 90 to 114. At the latter it 
was as 67 to 134. 

Such comparisons, however, as these become much more 
complicated in later years, when the importance of the preponder- 
ance of " Dreadnoughts " the new type of battleship (see 
SHIP and SHIPBUILDING) was realized. By the invention 
of this type Great Britain appeared to obtain a new lead; and 
in 1907, when it was calculated that by 1910 there would be 
ten British " Dreadnoughts " actually in commission while 
neither in Europe nor America would a single similar ship have 
been completed by any foreign power, the situation seemed 
to be entirely in favour of complete supremacy at sea for the 
British fleet. But the progress of German and American con- 
struction, and particularly the experience gained of German 
ability to build and equip much more rapidly than had been 
supposed, showed by 1909 that, so far as " Dreadnoughts " 
were concerned at all events, the lead of Great Britain could only 
be maintained by exceptional effort and exceptional expenditure. 
It was admitted in parliament by the prime minister, first lord 
of the admiralty and foreign secretary themselves Liberals 
who had flirted with proposals for disarmament, and who de- 
pended for office on the support of more extreme "pacifists" who 
objected on principle to heavy military and naval expenditure 
that, while for the moment the British " two-power standard " 
was still in existence, the revelations as to German shipbuilding 
showed that it could only be maintained in the future by the 
creation of a new fleet on a scale previously not contemplated. 
The supremacy of Great Britain in ships of the older types 
would be of no avail as years went by and other powers were 
equalling her in the output of ships of the new type, and a new 
race thus began, of which it is impossible here to indicate more 
than the start. It was no longer a question of completed ships, 
but one still more of programmes for building and of the rate 
at which these programmes could be accomplished. At the 
beginning of 1910, while Great Britain had her ten " Dread- 
noughts," it was not the case that other powers had none: 
Germany already had four and the United States two; and 
a knowledge of the naval programmes of both these countries, 
to speak of no others, showed that, unless either their policy 
changed or the British shipbuilding programme was modified 
so as to keep up with their progress, it would not take many 
years before the theory of the equality of the British fleet in 
" capital ships " to those of the next two naval powers would 
have to be abandoned. In England this situation created a pro- 
found sensation in 1909, since it was common ground that her 
fleet was her all in all, on which her empire depended; and the 
result was seen, not only in a considerable increase in the Naval 
Estimates of 1910-1911, but also in the beginning of a serious 
attempt to organize their fleets on the part of the British colonial 
dominions, which should co-operate with the mother country. 

The British Admiralty figures for the state of the principal 
fleets as on March 3ist, 1910, are summarized below. The 
letters at the heads of the columns have the following significa- 
tion: E., England; F., France; R., Russia; G., Germany; 
I., Italy; U., United States; and J., Japan: 



SHIPS BUILT 



Battleships 
Armd. C.D. Vessels 
Armd. Cruisers 
Protected Cruisers, I. 
II. 
HI. 

Unprotected Cruisers 
Scouts . 
Torpedo Vessels 
T.B. Destroyers 
Torpedo Boats 
Submarines 



E. F. R. G. I. U. J. 
56 17 7 33 10 30 H 





8 


2 


7 




10 




38 


20 


4 


9 


'8 


15 


12 


18 


5 


7 






3 


2 


35 


9 


2 


23 


3 


16 


II 


16 


8 


2 


12 


ii 


2 


6 


2 






10 




5 


6 


8 










3 




23 


10 


6 


I 


5 


2 


2 


150 


60 


97 


85 


21 


25 


57 


116 


246 


63 


82 


9 6 


30 


69 


63 


56 


30 


8 


7 


18 


9 



312 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



[STRATEGY AND TACTICS 



SHIPS BUILDING 



E. 


F. 


R. 


G. 


I. 


U. 


J. 


9 


6 


8 


8 


2 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


3 


2 




I 


9 






5 






3 


2 














37 


17 




12 


2 


15 


a 


II 


23 


3 


* 




10 


3 



Battleships ... 

Armd. Cruisers .. 

Protected Cruisers, II. 

Unprotected Cruisers 

T.B. Destroyers . . 

Submarines . . . 

* Number uncertain. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ancient and General: Accounts of the naval 
organizations of the ancient world, and of the sea fighting of the time 
are to be found in the historians of Greece and Rome: Signor 
G. Corazzini has written a Storm delta marina militare anlica (Livorno, 
1882). Valuable details of the Imperial Roman navy and of the 
Byzantine navy will be found in Professor Bury's appendices to his 
edition of Gibbon's Decline and Fall, vol. i. apx. 5, and vol. vi. 
apx. 5. General histories of the navies of the world have been 
written, but they are inevitably apt to be little more than jejune 
reviews of the dates, and results of battles. This is certainly the 
case with the great folio of the English writer Josiah Burchett, A 
Complete History of the most remarkable transactions at Sea, from the 
earliest accounts of time to the conclusion of the last war with France, 
wherein is given an account of the most considerable Naval Expeditions, 
Sea Fights, Stratagems, Discoveries and other Maritime Occurrences 
that have happened among all nations that have flourished at Sea; and 
in a more particular manner of Great Britain from the time of the 
Revolution in 1688 to the aforesaid period (1720). The later part is 
however valuable, for Burchett, who was secretary to the admiralty, 
had access to good authorities for his own time, and had served at 
sea as secretary to Russell, Lord Orford. There is an Histoire de la 
marine de tous les peuples, by M. A. du Sein (Paris, 1879) which is of 
no great value. 

Medieval : As regards the medieval navies the first place may be 
allowed to the Italians. A general bibliography of Italian nautical 
literature, Saggio de una bibliografia marittima italiana, occupying 
fifty-eight pages, drawn up by Signor Enrico Celani, will be found in 
the Revista maritiima, supplement for 1894 (Rome). The histories 
of the different Republics of the middle ages record their maritime 
enterprises. An excellent book, which gives far more than its title 
promises, is the Storiadella marina pontificia, of A. Guglielmotti, O.P., 
in 10 volumes published at different times, and in two editions, at 
Florence 1856, &c. The general maritime history of the Mediter- 
ranean in the middle ages is well illustrated in the Memorias sobre 
la marina comercio y artes de Barcelona (1779-1792) by Don A. 
Capmany. The naval enterprises of the Norsemen are dealt with in 
a scholarly fashion by M. G. B. Depping, Histoire des expeditions 
maritimes des Normands (1826); and with newer knowledge by Mr 
C. F. Keary, The Vikings of Western Christendom (1891). The 
medieval periods of Western navies are treated in their respective 
naval histories. 

Great Britain: The History of the Royal Navy to the French 
Revolution, by Sir N. Harris Nicolas (1847), is unfortunately in- 
complete. It ends at the year 1422, but is the work of a most labori- 
ous and exact antiquary, who had been a naval officer in his youth. 
The administrative history of the British navy until 1660 is the 
subject of the History of the Administration of the Navy and of 
Merchant Shipping in relation to the Navy (1896) by Mr M. Oppenheim 
a most valuable collection of materials. The campaigns and battles 
of the navy are told, generally from the public letters of the admirals, 
and with no great measure of criticism in several compilations. 
The Naval History of England (1735) by MrT. Lediard, is copious and 
useful. The Naval Chronology, or an Historical Summary of Naval 
and Maritime Events from the Time of the Romans to the Treaty of 
Peace 1802, by Captain Isaac Schomberg (1802), contains a mass of 
valuable information, lists of ships, dates of construction, &c., and 
some administrative details. Less comprehensive, but still useful, is 
such a compilation as The General History of the Late War (that is, 
the Seven Years' War), by Dr John Entick " and other gentlemen " 
(1763). A much better book is The Naval and Military Memoirs of 
Great Britain 1727 to 1783 (1804) by Mr R. Beatson, a very careful 
and well-informed writer who had seen some service as a marine 
officer. The Lines of the British Admirals, containing a new and 
accurate Naval History from the earliest periods, by Dr I. Campbell 
(!779). raav be profitably consulted, with caution, for it by no means 
justifies its claim to novelty and accuracy in all parts. The Naval 
History of Great Britain, from 1793 to the accession of George IV., 
by Mr W. James (1827), republished with a continuation by Captain 
Chamier in 1837, is a standard authority. A far less useful work, 
which, however, is in parts written from first-hand knowledge, is The 
Naval History of Great Britain by Captain W. P. Brenton, first 
published in 1823, and republished in 1836. The Field of Mars, a. 
compilation in dictionary form published in 1781, with an enormous 
title-page, is not without value for some of the naval transactions of 
the 1 8th century. The History of the British Navy from the Earliest 
Period to the Present Time (1863) by Dr C. D. Yonge, contains some 
original matter for the naval transactions of the igth century. The 
Royal Navy, in 7 large volumes (1897-1903), edited and partly written 
by Sir W. L. Clowes, is a compilation of unequal value. Some of 



Sir W. L. Clowes's coadjutors, notably Captain Mahan and Sir C. R. 
Markham, are of high standing and authority. The book is copiously 
illustrated. The Naval Chronicle, 1799^1818, a magazine, contains 
masses of useful matter, for the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. 
The Royal Naval Biography of Captain John Marshall, giving the 
lives of all officers on the list in 1823 or promoted later (1823-1835), 
with a supplement (1827-1830), may be consulted, but is too un- 
critical and too uniformly laudatory. The Naval Biographical 
Dictionary; life and services of every living officer (1846), by Lieutenant 
W. R. O'Bryne, is a solid book of reference. The publications of the 
Navy Record Society (1894 and subsequent years) contain large and 
valuable publications of original matter, with some reprints of old 
authorities, such as Sir W. Monson's Tracts, which were difficult of 
access. See also A Short History of the Royal Navy, by David 
Hannay. 

France: The naval history of France has been much written 
about since 1840. Not many of the books published have been of 
considerable value. The Histoire maritime de la France of M. Leon 
Guerin (1844), was meant to meet a popular demand and satisfy 
national vanity. The Histoire de la marine franfaise of M. Eugene 
Sue (1845-1846) is mainly a romance, but it contains some useful 
evidence. The Histoire de la marine franfaise of Le Comte de Bonfils 
Lablenie (1845), a naval officer, is of more value, but is somewhat 
wanting in criticism. The Precis historique de la marine franchise 
of M. Chasseriau (1845); the Histoire generale de la marine (1853); 
the Histoire de la marine franchise of M. le Saint (1877); and the 
Histoire nationale de la marine franc.aise depuis Jean Bart (1878) 
of M. Trousset are compilations. La Marine de guerre, ses institu- 
tions militaires depuis son origine jusqu'a nos jours, by Cap 
Gougeard (1877); the Essai sur I'histoire de I' administration de la 
marine franc.aise of M. Lambert de Sainte Croix (1892) ; and the 
excellent little book of M. Loir on La Marine royale, 1789 (n.d.), 
may be consulted with pleasure and profit. The three books of 
M. Jal, Archeologie navale (1840), Glossaire nautique (1848) and 
Abraham du Quesne et la marine de son temps (1872) are all of high 
value. Les Batailles navales de la France of Capne Troude (1867), 
is a carefully written account of naval actions. The Histoire de la 
marine fran^aise, pendant la guerre de I' independence americaine 
(1877); Sous la premiere republique (1886) ; Sous le consulat et 
I 'empire (1886); De 1815 a 1870 (1900); and La Marine franfaise et 
la marine allemande, 1870-1871 (1873) of Capne Chevalier, are 
thorough and critical. M. G. Lacour-Gayet, Professor at L'Ecole 
superieure de la Marine, has published two books of serious research, 
but marked by some national prejudice, La Marine militaire de la 
France sous le regne de Louis XV. (1902), and La Marine militaire de 
la France sous le regne de Louis XVI. (1905). The Recherches sur 
I'ancien clos des galees de Rouen (1864) of M. C. de Robillard de 
Beaurepaire, and the life of Jean de Vienne by the Marquis Terrier de 
Loray (1878), are valuable monographs on passages of early French 
naval history. The Projets et tentatives de debarquement aux lies 
britanniques by Capne Desbriere (1900 seq.) is a most valuable 
authority. A' very scholarly Histoire de la marine franfaise was 
begun in 1899 by M. C. de la Ronciere. 

Miscellaneous : The standard authorities for Spanish naval history 
are, La Marina de Castillo. (1892), and La Armada Espanola desds fa 
union de Castilla y Aragon (1895-1901), of Captain Cesareo Fernandez 
Duro. The Geschienes van net Nederlandsche Zeewezen of Mr J. C. de 
Jonghe (1858), is an admirable and exhaustive history of the Dutch 
navy. The History of the Maritime Wars of the Turks, by Haji 
Khalfa (or Hugji Chalifa), translated by Mr J. Mitchell for the 
Oriental Translation Fund (1831), may be read with curiosity and 
some profit. There are two general histories of the navy of the 
United States by Fenimore Cooper (1839), and by Mr E. S. Maclay 
(1894); the second is the fuller, and the more critical. Captain 
Mahan's Influence of Sea Power onHistory 1660-1783 (1800), and his 
Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire 1703- 
1812 (1892), must be classed apart as studies of the general inter- 
action of navies on one another and on international relations. 
The long series of readable monographs by Admiral Jurien de la 
Graviere, covering the whole field of naval warfare from the 
Peloponnesian War to his own time, contain much information and 
sound criticism. (D. H.) 

NAVAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS 

Historical Evolution. That the methods of conducting war 
at sea have been conditioned by the capacity of the ships and 
their armament, and that capacity and armament have interacted 
upon one another, may appear to be platitudes. But they are 
none the less truths which must always be borne in mind when 
we are considering the history of naval strategy, that is, of the 
large movements by which a commander secures the advantage 
of fighting at a place convenient to himself, or of tactics which 
are the movements he makes in battle. Throughout antiquity 
and the middle ages till the i6th century, the weapons relied 
on were (i) the ship itself, used as a ram, (2) the swords of the 
crew, (3) such missile weapons as bolts from heavy crossbows 






STRATEGY AND TACTICS] 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



313 



fixed on the bulwarks, bows and arrows, weights dropped from 
a yard or pole rigged out, and the various means of setting an 
enemy alight; by shooting arrows with burning tow or by 
Greek fire or wild fire, blown through tubes (cannae, whence 
" cannon ") The nature of the " Greek fire " is still an unsettled 
question, and it is believed by some authorities that the Byzan- 
tines of the middle ages were acquainted with the use of gun- 
powder. However that may be, it is certain that even after 
the introduction of artillery in the I4th century, the 
means of injuring an enemy at a distance were nil, or 
were very feeble. All actions, therefore, were fought 
at close quarters, where ramming and boarding were possible. 
But the use of the ram was only available for a vessel driven by 
oars. A sailing vessel could not ram unless she were running 
before a good breeze. In a light wind her charge would be 
ineffective, and it could not be made at all from leeward. There- 
fore, while fleets depended on the methods of battle at close 
quarters, two conditions were imposed on the warship. She 
must be small and light, so that her crew could row her with 
effect, and she must carry a numerous crew to work her oars 
and board or repel boarders. Sails were used by the triremes 
and other classes of warship, ancient and medieval, when going 
from point to point to relieve the rowers from absolutely 
exhausting toil. They were lowered in action, and when the 
combatant had a secure port at hand, they were left ashore 
before battle. These conditions applied alike to Phormio, the 
Athenian admiral of the sth century B.C., to the Norse king Olaf 
Tryggveson of the loth century A.D., and to the chiefs of the 
Christian and Turkish fleets which fought the battle of Lepanto 
in A.D. 1571. There might be, and were, differences of degree 
in the use made of oar and sail respectively. Outside the 
Mediterranean, the sea was unfavourable to the long, narrow 
and light galley of 1 20 ft. long and 20 ft. of beam. But the Norse 
ship found at Gokstad, though her beam is a third of her length, 
and she is well adapted for rough seas, is also a light and shallow 
craft, to be easily rowed or hauled up on a beach. Some medieval 
vessels were of considerable size, but these were the exception; 
they were awkward, and were rather transports than warships. 
Given a warship which is of moderate size and crowded with 
men, it follows that prolonged cruises, and blockade in the full 
sense of the word, were beyond the power of the sea commanders 
of antiquity and the middle ages. There were ships used for 
trade which with a favourable wind could rely on making six 
knots an hour that is to say, twice the average speed attained 
by Captain Cook in his voyages of exploration. But a war fleet 
could not provide the cover, or carry the water and food, needed 
to keep the crews efficient during a long cruise. So long as galleys 
were used, that is to say, till the middle of the i8th century, they 
were kept in port as much as possible, and a tent was rigged over 
the deck to house the rowers. The fleet was compelled to hug 
the shore in order to find supplies. It always endeavoured to 
secure a basis on shore to store provisions and rest the crews. 
Therefore the wider operations were slowly made. Therefore 
too, when the enemy was to be waited for, or a port watched, 
some point on shore was secured and the ships were drawn up. 
It was by holding such a point that the Corinthian allies of the 
Syracusans were able to pin in the Athenians. The Romans 
watched Lilybeum in the same way, and Hannibal the Rhodian 
could run the blockade before they were launched and ready to 
stop him. The Norsemen hauled their ships on shore, stockaded 
them and marched inland. The Greeks of Homer had done the 
same and could do nothing else. Roger di Lauria, in A.D. 1285, 
waited at the Hormigas with his galleys on the beach till the 
French were seen to be coming past him. Edward III. in 
A.D. 1350, stayed at Winchelsea till the Spaniards were sighted. 
The allies at Lepanto remained at anchor near Dragonera till 
the last moment. 

Given again that the fighting was at close quarters with ram, 
stroke of sword, crossbow bolt, arrow, pigs of iron or lead and 
wild fire blown through tubes, it follows that the formations 
and tactics were equally imposed on the combatants. The 
formation was inevitably the line abreast the ships going side 



by side for the object was to bring all the rams, or all the 
boarders into action at once. It was quite as necessary to strike 
with the prow when boarding as when ramming. If the vessels 
were laid side by side the oars would have prevented them 
from touching. It may be added that this rule prevailed equally 
with the sailing ship of later times, since they were built with 
what is technically called " a tumble home," that is to say, their 
sides sloped inwards from the water line, and the space from 
the top of the bulwarks of one to the other was too great to be 
jumped. The extent to which ramming or boarding would be 
used respectively would depend on the skill of the rowers. The 
highly trained Athenian crews of the early Pelopon- 
nesian War relied mainly on the ram. They aimed at ~ DC * 11 ' 
dashing through an enemy's line, and shaving off the methods. 
oars from one side of an opponent. When successfully 
practised, this manoeuvre would be equivalent to the dismasting 
of a sailing line of battle ship. It was the Sit/wrXous, and it 
enabled the assailant to turn, and ram his crippled enemy in 
the stern (Trepi^Xous) But an attack with the ram might be 
exceedingly dangerous to the assailant, if he were not very 
solidly built. His ram might be broken off in the shock. The 
Athenians found this a very real peril, and were compelled to 
construct their triremes with stronger bows, to contend with the 
more heavily built Peloponnesian vessels whereby they lost 
much of their mobility. In fact success in ramming depended 
so much on a combination of skill and good fortune that it 
played a somewhat subordinate part in most ancient sea fights. 
The Romans baffled the ramming tactics of the Carthaginians 
by the invention of the corva or crow, which grappled the prow 
of the rammer, and provided a gangway for boarders. After 
the introduction of artillery in the i4th century, when guns 
were carried in the bows of the galley, it was considered bad 
management to fire them until the prow was actually touching 
the enemy. If they were discharged before the shock there 
was always a risk that they would be fired too soon, and the guns 
of the time could not be rapidly reloaded. The officer-like course 
was to keep the fire for the last moment, and use it to clear the 
way for the boarders. As a defence against boarding, the ships 
of a weaker fleet were sometimes tied side to one another, in the 
middle ages, and a barrier made with oars and spars. But this 
defensive arrangement, which was adopted by Olaf Tryggveson of 
Norway at Swolder (A.D. 1000), and by the French at Sluys 
(A.D. 1340), could be turned by an enemy who attacked on the 
flank. To meet the shock of ramming and to ram, medieval 
ships were sometimes " bearded," i.e. fortified with iron bands 
across the bows. 

The principles of naval warfare known to the ancient world 
descended through Byzantium to the Italian Republics and from 
them to the West. With the growth of ships, the 
development of artillery, and the beginning of the great 
sailing fleets capable of keeping the sea for long 
periods together, came the need for a new adaptation of old 
principles. A ship which depended on the wind for its motive 
power could not hope to ram. It could still board, and the 
Spaniards did for long make it their main object to run their 
bow over an enemy's sides, and invade his deck. In order to 
carry out this kind of attack they would naturally try to get 
to windward and then bear down before the wind in line abreast 
ship upon ship. But an opponent to leeward could always baffle 
this attack by edging away, and in the meantime fire with his 
broadside to cripple his opponent's spars. Experience soon 
showed the more intelligent sea officers of all nations, that a 
ship which relied on broadside fire, must present her broadside 
to the enemy; it was also soon seen that in order to give full 
play to the guns of the fleet, the ships must follow one another. 
Thus there arose the practice of arranging ships in the line 
ahead, one behind the other. For a time sea-officers were 
inclined to doubt whether order could be maintained among 
vessels subject to the forces of wind and tide. But in the very 
first years of the i6th century, a Spanish writer of the name of 
Alonso de Chaves argued with force that even an approach to 
order is superior to none and that, given the accidents of 



3*4 



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[STRATEGY AND TACTICS 






actcs. 



wind and tide, the advantage would rest with him who took 
his precautions. The truth was so obvious that it could not but 
be universally accepted. The line ahead then became 
battle."' " the Une of 'battle." This term has a double mean- 
ing. It may mean the formation, but it may also 
mean the ships which are fit to form parts of the line in action. 
The practice of sorting out ships, so as to class those fit to be 
in a line of battle apart from others, dates from the second 
half of the lyth century. Its advantages had been seen before, 
but the classification was not made universal till then. The 
excessive number of ships collected in those naval wars, their 
variety in size, and the presence in the fleets of a large proportion 
of pressed or hired merchant ships had led to much bad execu- 
tion. But in the final battles of the first war between England 
and the Dutch Republic (1652-53), the Parliamentary admirals 
enforced the formation of the line by strong measures. On the 
conclusion of the war, they drew up the first published code of 
fighting instructions. These give the basis of the whole tactical 
system of the i7th and i8th centuries in naval warfare. The 
treatises of Paul Hoste, Bigot de Morogues and Bourde de 
Villehuet, which were the text-books of the time, all French in 
origin but all translated into other languages, are commentaries 
upon and developments of this traditional code of practice. 

The governing principles were simple and were essentially 
sound. The ships were arranged in a line, in order that each 
should have her broadside free to fire into the enemy 
w ' tnout running the risk of firing into her own friends. 
In order to remove the danger that they would 
touch each other, a competent space, to allow for a 
change of course in case of need, was left between them. It 
was fixed at two cables that is, 200 fathoms, or 400 yds. 
though less room was occasionally taken. To reduce the 
number of men required to handle the sails, and leave them 
free to fight the guns, the ships fought under reduced canvas. 
But it was necessary to retain the power to increase the speed of 
a ship rapidly. This was secured by not sheeting home one of the 
sails that is to say, it was left loose, and the wind was "spilt 
out of it." When the vessel was required to shoot ahead it was 
easy to sheet the sail home, and " let all draw." The fleets would 
fight " on the wind " that is to say, with the wind on the side, 
because they were then under better control. With the wind 
blowing from behind they would take the wind out of one 
another's sails. When the course had to be altered, the ships 
turned by tacking that is, head to wind or by wearing 
that is, stern to wind, either together or in succession. To tack 
or wear a large fleet in succession was a very lengthy operation. 
The second ship did not tack, or wear, till she had reached the 
place where the first had turned, and so on, down the whole line. 
By tacking or wearing together the order of a fleet was reversed, 
the van becoming the rear, and the rear the van. It must be 
remembered that a fleet was divided into van, centre and rear, 
which kept their names even when the order was reversed. 
Orders were given by signals from the flag-ship, but as they 
could not be seen by the ships in a line with her, frigates were 
stationed on the side of the line opposite to that facing the 
enemy " to repeat signals." 

A main object which the admirals who drafted the orders 
had before them was to obviate the risk that the enemy would 
double on one end of the line and put it between two fires. 
It is obvious that if two fleets, A and B, are sailing, both with 
the wind on the right side, and the leading ship of A comes 
into action with the seventh or eighth of B, then six or seven 
leading ships of B's line will be free to turn and surround the 
head of A's line. This did actually happen at the battle of 
Beachy Head. Therefore, the orders enjoin on the admiral the 
strict obligation to come into action in such a way that his leading 
ship shall steer with the leading ship of the enemy, and his rear 
with the rear. The familiar expression of the British navy was 
" to take every man his bird." 

The regular method of fighting battles was thus set up. In 
itself it was founded on sound principles. As it was framed when 
the enemies kept in view were the Dutch, who in seamanship 



and gunnery were fully equal to the British, its authors were 
justified in prescribing the safe course. Unhappily they added 
the direction that a British admiral was to keep his fleet, through- 
out the battle, in the order in which it was begun. Therefore 
he could take no advantage of any disorder which might occur 
in the enemy's lines. When therefore the conflict came to be 
between the British and the French in the i8th century, battles 
between equal or approximately equal forces were for long 
inconclusive. The French, who had fewer ships than the British, 
were anxious to fight at the least possible cost, lest their fleet 
should be worn out by severe action, leaving Great Britain 
with an untouched balance. Therefore, they preferred to engage 
to leeward, a position which left them free to retreat before the 
wind. They allowed the British fleet to get to windward, and, 
when it was parallel with them and bore up before the wind to 
attack, they moved onwards. The attacking fleet had then to 
advance, not directly before the wind with its ships moving 
along lines perpendicular to the line attacked, but in slanting 
or curving lines. The assailants would be thrown into " a bow 
and quarter line " that is to say? with the bow of the second 
level with the after part of the first and so on from end to end. 
In the case of a number of ships of various powers of sailing, it 
was a difficult formation to maintain. The result was that the 
ships of the assailing line which were steering to attack the 
enemy's van came into action first and were liable to be crippled 
in the rigging. If the same formation was to be maintained, 
the others were now limited to the speed of the injured vessels, 
and the enemy to leeward slipped away. At all times a fleet 
advancing from windward was liable to injury in spars, even if 
the leeward fleet did not deliberately aim at them. The leeward 
ships would be leaning away from the wind, and their shot would 
always have a tendency to fly high. So long as the assailant 
remained to windward, the ships to leeward could always slip 
off. 

The inconclusive results of so many battles at sea excited 
the attentions of a Scottish gentleman, Mr Clerk of Eldin (1728- 
1812), in the middle of the i8th century. He began a 
series of speculations and calculations, which he em- 
bodied in pamphlets and distributed among naval 
officers. They were finally published in book form in 1790 and 
1797. The hypothesis which governs all Clerk's demonstrations 
is that as the British navy was superior in gunnery and seaman- 
ship to their enemy, it was their interest to produce a melee. 
He advanced various ingenious suggestions for concentrating 
superior forces on parts of the enemy's line by preference on 
the rear, since the van must lose time in turning to its support. 
They are all open to the criticism that an expert opponent could 
find an answer to each of them. But that must be always the 
case, and victory is never the fruit of a skilful movement alone, 
but of that superiority of skill or of moral strength which enables 
one combatant to forestall or to crush another by more rapid 
movement or greater force of blow. Clerk's theories had at 
least this merit that they must infallibly tend to make battles 
decisive by throwing the combatants into a furious mingled 
strife. 

The unsatisfactory character of the accepted method of 
fighting battles at sea had begun to be obvious to naval officers, 
both French and English, who were Clerk's contemporaries. 
The great French admiral Suffren condemned naval tactics as 
being little better than so many excuses for avoiding a real 
fight. He endeavoured to find a better method, by concentrating 
superior forces on parts of his opponent's line in some of his 
actions with the British fleet in the East Indies in 1782 and 1783. 
But his orders were ill obeyed, and the quality of his fleet was 
not superior to the British. Rodney, in his first battle in the 
West Indies in 1780, endeavoured to concentrate a superior 
force on part of his enemy's line by throwing a greater number 
of British ships on the rear of the French line. But his directions 
were misunderstood and not properly executed. Moreover he 
did not then go beyond trying to place a larger number of ships 
in action to windward against a smaller number to leeward by 
arranging them at a less distance than two-cables length. But 




STRATEGY AND TACTICS] 



NAVY AND NAVIES 



3*5 



an enemy who took the simple and obvious course of closing his 
line could baffle the attack, and while the retreat to leeward 
remained open could still slip away. On the I2th of April 1782 
(battle of Dominica) Rodney was induced, by the disorder in the 
French line, to break his own formation and pass through the 
enemy. He took the French flag-ship and five other vessels. 
The favourable result of this departure from the old practice of 
keeping the formation intact throughout the battle ruined the 
moral authority of the orthodox system of tactics. In the French 
war which began in 1793 Lord Howe (battle of ist of June) 
ordered his fleet to steer through the enemy, and to put them- 
selves on his line only as a means of bringing his fleet into action, 
and then played to produce a melee in which the individual 
superiority of his vessels would have free play. Throughout the 
war, which lasted, with a brief interval of peace, from 1793 
to 1815, British admirals grew constantly bolder in the method 
they adopted for producing the desired melee (battles of St 
Vincent, Camperdown, Trafalgar) . It has sometimes been argued 
that their line of attack was rash and would have proved 
disastrous if tried against more skilful opponents. But this 
is one of those criticisms which are of value only against those 
who think that there can be a magic efficacy in any particular 
attack, which makes its success infallible. That the tactics of 
British admirals of the great wars of 1793-1815 had in themselves 
no such virtue was amply demonstrated at the engagement 
off Lissa in 1811. They were justified because the reliance of 
admirals on the quality of their fleets was well founded. It 
should be borne in mind that a vessel while bearing down on an 
enemy's line could not be exposed to the fire of three enemies 
at once when at a less distance than 750 yds., because the guns 
could not be trained to converge on a nearer point. The whole 
range of effective fire was only a thousand yards or a very little 
over. The chance that a ship would be dismasted and stopped 
before reaching the enemy's line was small. 

The improvements in the construction of ships, which had so 
much influence on the development of tactics, had its effect also 
influence on strategy. The great aims of a fleet in war must be 
ofim- to keep the coast of its own country free from attack, 
proved to secure the freedom of its trade, and to destroy 
t ^ le enemv ' s fl eet or connne it to port. The first and 
second of these purposes can be attained by the 
successful achievement of the third the destruction or paralysis 
of the hostile fleet. But till after the end of the I7th century 
it was thought impossible, or at least very rash, to keep the great 
ships out of port between September and May or June. Therefore 
continuous watch on an enemy by blockading his ports was 
beyond the power of any navy. Therefore too, as the opponent 
might be at sea before he could be stopped, the movements of 
fleets were much subordinated to the need for providing convoy 
to the trade. It was not till the middle of the i8th century that 
the continuous blockade first carried out by Lord Hawke in 
1758-59, and then brought to perfection by Earl St Vincent 
and other British admirals between 1793 and 1815, became 
possible. 

Modern Times. The interval of ninety years between 1815 
and 1904 (the opening of the Russo-Japanese conflict) was 
marked by no naval war. There was fighting at sea, and there 
were prolonged blockades, but there were no encounters between 
large and well appointed navies. During this period an entire 
revolution took place in the means of propulsion, armament and 
material of construction of ships. Steam was applied to war- 
ships, at first as an auxiliary force, in the second quarter of the 
igth century. The Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the 
development of the guns. It also brought about the application 
of iron to ships as a cuirass. Vfcry soon metal was adopted as the 
material out of which ships were made. The extended use of 
shells, by immensely increasing the danger of fire, rendered so 
inflammable a substance as wood too dangerous for employment 
in a war-ship. France has the honour of having set the example 
of employing iron as a cuirass, while England was the first to 
take it as the sole material. Changes so sweeping as these could 
not take place without affecting all the established ideas as to 



the conduct of war at sea. The time of revolution in means of 
propulsion, armament and construction was also a time of much 
speculation. Doubts and obscurities remained unsolved because 
they had never been brought to the test of actual fighting on 
an adequate scale. As the igth century drew to a close, another 
element of uncertainty was introduced by the development of 
the torpedo. A weapon which is a floating and moving mine, 
capable up to a certain point of being directed on its course, 
invisible or very hard to trace, and able to deliver its blow 
beneath the water-line, was so complete a novelty that its action 
was hard indeed to foresee and therefore particularly liable to 
be exaggerated. From the torpedo sprang too the submarine 
vessel, which aims at striking below the surface, where it itself 
is, like its weapon, invisible, or nearly so. 

How to solve the problems which science has set has been the 
task of thoughtful naval officers and of the governments which 
the military seaman serves. The questions to be solved may be 
stated in the following order. What would be the effect: ist, 
of the employment of steam, or of any substitute for steam other 
than the wind or the oar; 2nd, of the development of the gun; 
3rd, of the use of metal as a material of construction; 4th, of 
the use of a weapon and a vessel acting below the surface of the 
water, and if not wholly invisible at least very much hidden? 

The belief that steam had given the lesser fleet an advantage 
over the greater that it had, in a phrase once popular among 
Englishmen, " bridged the Channel," need only be touched 
on for its historical interest. It was an intelligible, perhaps 
pardonable, example of the confusion produced by a novelty of 
improved capacity on the minds of those who were not prepared 
to consider it in all its bearings. A mo.nent's thought ought to 
have shown that where both sides had the command of steam, 
the proportion between them would remain what it was before. 
The only exception would be that the fleet which was steering in 
a direction already laid down would have a somewhat greater 
advantage than of old, over another which was endeavouring to 
detect its presence and course. Its movements would be more 
rapid, and it could steam through a fog by which it would be 
hidden in a way impossible for a sailing ship. On the other 
hand, such a fleet could be much more rapidly pursued and 
interrupted when once its course was known. The influence 
which the freedom and certainty of movement conferred by 
steam would have on the powers of fleets and ships presented 
a problem less easy to dispose of. Against the advantage they 
conferred was to be set the limitation they imposed. The 
necessity for replacing indispensable fuel was a restriction 
unknown to the sailing ship, which needed only to renew its 
provisions and water stores more easily obtained all the world 
over than coal. Hence doubts naturally arose as to how far a 
state which did not possess coaling stations in all parts of the 
world could conduct extensive operations over great distances. 
The events of the recent Russo-Japanese War lead to the con- 
clusion that the obligation to obtain coal has not materially 
limited the freedom of movement of fleets. By carrying store 
vessels with him, by coaling at sea, and taking advantage of the 
friendly neutrality of certain ports on his route, the Russian 
admiral, Rojdesvensky, reached the Far East in 1905 in less time 
and with less difficulty than he could have done in days when 
he would have been liable to delay by calms, contrary winds and 
loss of spars in gales. The amount of skill on the part of the 
crews required to carry a fleet t long distance would even appear 
to be less than it was of old. From this it would seem to follow 
that modern fleets possess no less capacity than the old sailing 
fleets for the great operations of war at a distance, or for main- 
taining blockades. Advantage and disadvantage counterbalance 
one another, and the proportion remains the same. Blockade 
is only another name for the maintenance of a watch on an 
enemy's squadron in port by a force capable of fighting him if 
he comes out. Admiral Togo blockaded the Russian squadron at 
Port Arthur in 1904 as effectually as any admiral has done the 
work in the past. The mobility given to the blockaded fleet by 
steam has been exactly counterbalanced by the increased 
mobility of the watch. The proportions remain the same. 



316 



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[STRATEGY AND TACTICS 



But if the power to undertake far-ranging operations, and to 
confine an enemy to port by keeping him under observation, 
and driving him back when he comes out remains the same, the 
strategy of war at sea cannot have undergone any material altera- 
tion. The possession of ports where stores can be accumulated 
and repairs effected is an advantage as it always was. But a 
powerful fleet when operating far from its own country can supply 
itself with a store-house (a base) on the enemy's coast, or can be 
served at sea by store-ships, as of old. If beaten, it will suffer 
from the want of places of refuge as it always did. 

Among the speculations of recent years, a good deal has been 
heard of the " fleet in being." If this phrase is only used to 
mean that, so long as any part of an enemy's navy 
. g capable of acting with effect, its existence cannot be 
ignored with the certainty of safety, then the words 
convey a truth which applies to all war whether by land or 
sea. If it means, as it was at least sometimes clearly intended 
to mean, that no such operation as the transport of troops 
oversea can be undertaken with success, so long as the naval 
forces of an opponent are not wholly destroyed, it is con- 
trary to ancient experience. The Japanese in' the beginning of 
1904 began transporting troops to Korea before they had beaten 
.the Russians, and they continued to send them in spite of the 
risk of interruption by the Vladivostok squadron. There was a 
risk, but risk is inseparable from war. The degree which can be 
incurred with sanity depends on the stake at issue, the nature of 
the circumstance and the capacity of the persons, which vary 
infinitely and must be separately judged. 

The war of 1904-05 may also be said to have shown that the 
vast change in the construction of ships, together with the develop- 
_ . ment of old and the invention of new weapons, has 
" ag ' done far less to alter the course of battles at sea than 
had been thought likely. Two calculations have been successively 
made and have been supported with plausibility. The first was 
that steam would enable the ship herself to be used as a projectile 
and that the use of the ram would again become common. 
The sinking of the " Re d'ltalia " by the Austrian ironclad 
Ferdinand Max at the battle of Lissa in 1866 seemed to give 
force to this supposition. Accidental collisions such as those 
between the British war-ships " Vanguard " and " Iron Duke," 
" Victoria " and " Camperdown " have also shown how fatal a 
wound may be given by the ram of a modern ship. But the 
sinking of the " Re d'ltalia " was largely an accident. As 
between vessels both under full control, a collision is easily 
avoided where there is space to move. In a melee, or pell-mell 
battle, to employ Nelson's phrase, opportunities would occur for 
the use of the ram. But the activity of science has developed 
one weapon to counterbalance another. The torpedo has made 
it very dangerous for one fleet to rush at another. A vessel 
To does cannot fi re torpedoes ahead, and when charging home 
'*' at an opponent presenting his broadside would be liable 
to be struck by one. The torpedo may be said therefore to have 
excluded the pell-mell battle and the use of the ram except 
on rare occasions. But then arose the question whether the 
torpedo itself would not become the decisive weapon in naval 
warfare. It is undoubtedly capable of producing a great effect 
when its power can be fully exerted. A school arose, having 
its most convinced partisans in France, which argued that, as a 
small vessel could with a torpedo destroy a great battle-ship, the 
first would drive the second off the sea. The battle-ship was to 
give place to the torpedo-boat or torpedo-boat-destroyer which 
was itself only a torpedo-boat of a larger growth. But the 
torpedo is subject to close restrictions. It cannot be used with 
effect at more than two thousand yards. It passes through 
a resisting medium, which renders its course uncertain and 
comparatively slow, so that a moving opponent can avoid it. 
The vessel built to use it can be easily sunk by gun-fire. By 
night the risk from gun-fire is less, but science has nullified 
what she had done. The invention of the search-light has made 
it possible to keep the waters round a ship under observation 
all night. In the war between Russia and Japan the torpedo 
was at first used with success, but the injury it produced fell 



below expectations, even when allowance is made for the fact that 
the Russian squadron at Port Arthur had the means of repair close 
at hand. In the sea fights of the war it was of subordinate use, 
and indeed was not employed except to give the final stroke to, 
or force the surrender of, an already crippled ship. This war 
(and as much may be said for the war between the United States 
and Spain) confirmed an old experience. A resolute attempt 
was made by the Americans to block or blind (in the modern 
phrase to " bottle-up ") the entrance to Santiago de Cuba by 
sinking a ship in it. The Japanese renewed the attempt on a 
great scale, and with the utmost intrepidity, at Port Arthur; 
but though a steamer can move with a speed and precision im- 
possible to a sailing ship, and can therefore be sunk more surely 
at a chosen spot, the experiment failed. Neither Americans 
nor Japanese succeeded in preventing their enemy from coming 
out when he wished to come. 

Since neither ram nor torpedo has established the claim made 
for it, the cannon remains " the queen of battles at sea." It 
can still deliver its blows at the greatest distance, and _ 
in the greatest variety of circumstances. The change 
has been in the method in which its power is applied. Now, 
as in former times, the aim of a skilful officer is to concentrate 
a superior force on a part of his opponent's formation. When 
the range of effective fire was a thousand or twelve hundred 
yards, and when guns could only be trained over a small segment 
of a circle because they were fired out of ports, concentration 
could only be effected by bringing a larger number of ships into 
close action with a smaller. To-day when gun-fire is effective even 
at seven thousand yards, and when guns fired from turrets and 
barbettes have a far wider sweep, concentration can be effected 
from a distance. The power to effect it must be sought by a 
judicious choice of position. It is true that greater rapidity and 
precision of fire produce concentration in one way. If of two 
forces engaged one can bring forty guns to bear on a chosen 
point of its opponent's formations, while that opponent can 
bring fifty guns to bear on a part of it, the superiority would 
seem to be with the larger number. But this is by no means 
necessarily the case. The smaller number of guns may give 
the greater number of blows if fired with greater speed and 
accuracy. Yet no commander has a right to rely on such a 
superiority as this till it has been demonstrated, as it had been 
in the case of the British fleet by the time that Trafalgar was 
fought. Therefore an able chief will always play for position. 
He will do so all the more because an advantage of position adds 
to any other which he may possess. He may dispense with it 
for a particular reason at a given moment and in reliance on 
other sources of strength, but he will not throw it away. 

When position is to be secured the first condition to be thought 
of is the order in which it is to be sought for. The " line ahead " 
was imposed on the sailing fleets by the peremptory _ 
need for bringing, or at least retaining the power to 
bring, all their broadsides into action. Experiments made during- 
manoeuvres by modern navies, together with the experience 
gained in the war of 1904-05 in the Far East, have combined to 
show that no material change has taken place in this respect. 
It is still as necessary as ever that all the guns should be so placed 
as to be capable of being brought to bear, and it is still a condition 
imposed by the physical necessities of the case that this freedom 
can only be obtained when ships follow one another in a line. 
When in pursuit or flight, or when steaming on the look-out for 
a still unseen enemy, a fleet may be arranged in the " line 
abreast." A pursuing fleet would have to run the risk of being 
struck by torpedoes dropped by a retreating enemy. But it 
would have the advantage of being able to bring all its guns 
which can fire ahead to bear on the rear-ship of the enemy. 
When an opponent is prepared to give battle, and turns his broad- 
side so as to bring the maximum of his gun-fire to bear, he must 
be answered by a similar display of force in other words, 
the line ahead must be formed to meet the line ahead. 

Both fleets being in this formation, how is the concentration 
of a superior force to be effected? If the opponents are equal 
in number, speed, armament, gunnery and the leadership of the 






NAWAB NAWANAGAR 



3 1 ? 



chiefs, accident alone can confer an advantage on either of them. 
Where equal weights are tried on accurate scales one cannot 
force up the other, but this evenness of power is rarely met 
in war by land or sea. The knowledge that it existed would 
probably prevent an appeal to arms between nations, since 
no decisive result could be hoped for. It is needless to insist 
that superior numbers make the task of concentrating com- 
paratively easy, unless counterbalanced by a great inferiority 
in speed. Speed is the quality which an admiral will wish his 
fleet to possess, in order that he may have the power to choose 
his point of attack. The swifter of two forces, otherwise equal, 
~^ a can always get ahead of its opponent, and then by 
turning inwards bring the leading ship of the force 
it is attacking into a curve of fire. The leader of the slower 
fleet can avoid the danger by also turning inwards. By so doing 
he will keep the assailant on his beam, opposite his side. Then 
the two fleets will tend to swing round in two circles having 
a common centre, the swifter going round the outer circumference 
and the slower round the inner. As the difference in length 
of these two lines would be always great and perhaps immense, 
the less speedy fleet could easily avoid the risk of being headed. 
On the other hand the outer fleet will be in a concave formation, 
and therefore able to bring all its guns to bear on the same point, 
while the inner fleet will be in a convex line, so that it will be 
unable to bring the guns of both van and rear to bear on the 
same mark. The advantage is obvious, but it may perhaps 
be easily exaggerated. The swifter fleet on the larger circle can 
in theory concentrate all its fire on one point, but all' its ships 
will still be under fire, and in practice it is found very difficult 
to make men neglect the enemy who is actually hitting them, 
and apply their attention entirely to another. Moreover the 
ships on the outer circle, having the larger line to cover, cannot 
allow themselves the same margin of steam-power to make 
good loss of speed by injury from shot. A fleet would not go 
at its maximum rate of common speed in action. A blow on 
the water-line might fill part of the ship's watertight compart- 
ments and reduce her speed. She must be able to make good 
the loss by putting on a greater pressure of steam, which she 
would not be able to do if already going at her maximum rate. 
In actual battle very much will depend on the respective skill 
of the gunnery. The swifter fleet might well find its superiority 
neutralised by the crippling of two or three of its leading ships. 
In such an action as this it will be, if not impossible, at least 
exceedingly difficult to give orders by signal. An admiral will 
therefore have to direct by example, which he cannot do except 
by placing his flag-ship at the head of the line. In that place 
he will be marked out as a target for the enemy's concentrated 
fire. He may indeed decide to direct the battle by signal from 
outside the line. Yet the difficulty he will find in seeing what 
is happening, as well as the difficulty the captains will find 
in seeing the signals, will always be so great, that in all probability 
the admirals of the future, will, like Nelson, be content to lay 
down the general principles on which the battle is to be fought, 
and trust the captains to apply them as circumstances arise. 
A large measure of independence must needs be allowed to the 
captains in the actual stress of battle. Ships must be placed 
at such a distance apart as will allow them room to manoeuvre 
so as to avoid collision with their own friends. The interval 
cannot be less than 800 yds. When the length of the vessels 
themselves is added, it will be seen that a line of twelve vessels 
will stretch six miles. Modern powder is nominally smokeless, 
and it certainly does not create the dense bank of smoke produced 
by the old explosives. Yet it does create a sufficient haze to 
obscure the view from the van to the rear of an extended line. 
The movements must be rapid, and there will be little time 
indeed in which to take decisions. The torpedo may not be 
used during the actual battle. Its part will be to complete the 
destruction or enforce the surrender of a beaten enemy, and to 
cover retreats. 

The submarine and submergible vessel were brought into 
prominence by France in the hope that by diminishing the 
value of battleships they would reduce the superiority of the 



British navy. The example of France was followed by other 
powers, and particularly by Great Britain; but their value 
as weapons of war is necessarily a matter of speculation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Naval strategy can hardly be said to have been 
dealt with at all till Captain Mahan published his Influence of Sea 
Power on History. The tactics of the ancient world are only very 
briefly dealt with in the De re Militari of Vegetius, in book iv. 
V'egetius was much copied and read in the middle ages, and was 
translated in 1284 by Jean de Meung, one of the authors of the Roman 
de la Rose. His translation is printed, together with the verse 
paraphrase of Priprats, in the Anciens Textes franc,ais. Naval 
tactics are dealt with in the treatise of Leo VI. the Tactician, and 
his son Constantine VII., or perhaps Constantine VIII., printed in 
Meursius' Opera Omnia, vol. vi. They were emperors of the Mace- 
donian dynasty. The tactics of the medieval galleys are described, 
with references to authorities, both by A. Guglielmotti in Marine 
Pontificia, and by Admiral Jurien de la Graviere in Les Dernier s 
jours de la marine a rames (1885). The chief writers on the tactics 
of the sailing fleets were French. At the head of them, in time and 
in merit, must be put Paul Hoste, whose folio on Naval Evolutions 
appeared in 1697. Hoste was a Jesuit who was secretary to the Count 
of Tourville. Hoste's treatise was translated into English and 
published in Edinburgh in 1834 with numerous and excellent illustra- 
tions by Captain J. D. Boswall, A Treatise on Naval Tactics. Captain 
Boswall also made use of the passages relating to naval tactics in the 
History of the Art of War by J. G. Hoyer, an officer in the Prussian 
army (1797-1800). Another excellent French treatise is Le 
Manaeuvrier of Bourde de Villehuet (1765), translated into English 
in 1788 under the title of The Man&uvrer, or Skilful Seaman. 
Particular attention is due to the Essay on Naval Tactics by Mr Clerk 
of Eldin, first published in a collected form in 1804, but known in 
parts since 1780. Clerk was original in speculation and lucid in 
exposition. A French treatise, L Art de la guerre sur mer, by the 
Vicomte de Grenier (1787), was less famous or influential, but was 
able and original. An exhaustive collection of " Fighting Instruc- 
tions " and other material necessary to an intelligent understanding 
of the naval tactics of sailing fleets is the Fighting Instructions 1530- 
1816, edited by Mr Julian S. Corbett for the Navy Record Society 
(1905). Admiral Ekin's Naval Battles (1824) has some passages of 
value. It is comparatively easy to give authorities for the warfare 
of galleys and sailing ships. The case is altered when we have to 
deal with the tactics of steam fleets. Vast quantities of speculation 
have been written in every country which possesses a fleet, but, no 
test having been applied on a sufficient scale till the Russo-Japanese 
War of 1904, little of it can be said to possess approved authority. 
The facts of such wars as there have been are collected in Captain 
Mahan's Life of Farragut (1893) and Lessons of the War with Spain 
(1899), and in Mr H. W. Wilson's Ironclads in Action, 1855-1895. A 
standard work on evolutions and formations is Elementary Naval 
Tactics, by Captain Wm. Bainbridge Hoff of the United States navy, 
first published in 1894, but reprinted since with enlargements. 
The Naval Warfare of Admiral P. H. Colomb is a collection of 
historical examples meant to illustrate the principles of naval 
strategy for application in modern conditions. The third edition, 
revised and corrected, with additions, appeared in 1899. (D. H.) 

NAWAB, a Mahommedan title for a native ruler in India, 
answering to the Hindu raja. Nawab originally means a deputy, 
being the honorific plural of the Arabic naib, and it was applied 
to a delegate of a supreme chief, the viceroy or governor under 
the Great Mogul, e.g. the nawab of Oudh. From this use it 
became a title of rank, without office, and is now sometimes 
conferred by the British government on Mahommedan gentlemen 
for distinguished service. 

NAWABGANJ, the name of three towns of British India, 
(i) The most important is the headquarters of Bara Banki 
district in the United Provinces, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand 
railway, 17 m. E. of Lucknow; pop. (1001) 14,478. It has 
a considerable trade in sugar and cotton goods. It was the 
scene of a victory by Sir Hope Grant during the Mutiny. (2) A 
town in Malda district, Eastern Bengal and Assam, on the 
Mahananda near its junction with the Ganges, a centre of river 
trade; pop. (1901) 17,016. (3) A town in Gonda district, 
United Provinces, on the Bengal and North- Western railway; 
pop. (1001) 7047. 

NAWANAGAR, or JAMNAGAR, a native state of India, in 
Kathiawar, within the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated 
on the south of the Gulf of Cutch. Area, 3791 sq. m. Pop. 
(1901) 336,779, showing a decrease of n % in the decade due to 
famine. Estimated revenue, 170,000; tribute, 8000. The 
chief, whose title is Jam, is a Jareja Rajput of the same clan 
as the rao of Cutch. Prince Ranjitsinjhi (b. 1872), well known 
in England as a cricketer, was educated at the Rajkumar College, 



NAWAWI NAYLER 



Rajkot, and Trinity College, Cambridge. He had been adopted 
by his uncle, the Jam Shri Vibhaji, but the adoption was set 
aside, with British sanction, in favour of a son by a Mahommedan 
mother. This son succeeded, but died in 1906 aged twenty-four, 
and Ranjitsinjhi obtained the throne in March 1907. A branch 
railway, constructed at the expense of the state, was opened 
in 1898 from Rajkot to Nawanagar town. 

The town of Nawanagar is about 5 m. from the seaport of 
Bedi. Pop. (1901) 53,844. Founded by Jam Rawal in 1540, 
it is built of stone, and has manufactures of silk and gold 
embroidery, and perfumed oils and red powder for ceremonial 
purposes. Its water is supplied from a reservoir covering 600 
acres and an aqueduct 8 m. long. 

NAWAWl [ABU ZAKARIYYA IBN SHARAF UN-NAWAWI] (1233- 
1278), Arabian writer, was born at Nawa. near Damascus. In 
the latter city he studied from his eighteenth year, and there, 
after making the pilgrimage in 1253, he settled as a private 
scholar until 1267, when he succeeded Abu Shama as professor 
of tradition at the Ashrafiyya school. He died at Nawa from 
overwork. 

His manual of Moslem law according to the Shafi'ite school has been 
edited wkh French translation by van den Bergh, 2 vols., Batavia 
(1882-1884), and published at Cairo (1888). The Tahdhib ul-Asma'i 
has been edited as the Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Men 
chiefly at the Beginning of Islam by F. Wustenfeld (Gottingen, 1842- 
1847). The Taqrib wa Taisir, an introduction to the study of 
tradition, was published at Cairo, 1890, with Suyuti's commentary. 
It has been in part translated into French by M. Marcais in the 
Journal asiatique, series ix., vols. 16-18 (1900-1901). Nawawl's 
collection of the forty (actually forty-two) chief traditions has been 
frequently published with commentaries in Cairo. For other works 
see C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der aralischen Litteratur, vol. i. (Weimar, 
1898), pp. 395-397- (G. W. T.) 

NAXOS, the largest of the Cyclades (about 22 m. by 16 m.), 
a fertile island in the Aegean Sea, east of Paros, with which, and 
adjacent smaller islands, it forms an eparchia. In ancient times 
it was also called Dia or Strongyle. It was rich in vines and 
famous for its wine, and a centre of the worship of Bacchus. 
The god found Ariadne asleep on its shore, when she was deserted 
by Theseus. The sculptors of Naxos formed an important 
school of early Greek art; several unfinished colossal statues 
are still to be seen in the quarries, notably one in Apollona Bay, 
to the N.E. of the island. A tyrant Lygdamis ruled Naxos in 
alliance with Peisistratus of Athens during the 6th century B.C. 
In 501 a Persian fleet unsuccessfully attacked it, but in 490 it 
was captured and treated with great severity. Four Naxian 
ships took part in the expedition of Xerxes, but deserted and 
fought on the Greek side at Salamis in 480. Naxos was a member 
of the Delian League (?..); it revolted in 471, was captured 
by Athens, and remained in her possession till her empire was 
destroyed. In later times the most remarkable event was its 
capture, in A.D. 1207, by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, who 
founded the duchy of Naxos, which flourished till the Turks took 
the island in 1566. Since the War of Independence it has 
belonged to the Greek kingdom. The only ancient remains of 
any importance are those of a temple (Palati), supposed to be 
that of Dionysus, on an island just off the town. Naxos is still 
rich in fruit trees, and also exports corn, wine and oil, as well 
as emery, its richest and most important mineral product. Pop. 
(1907) 25,185 (province), 2064 (commune). 

NAXOS, the earliest Greek colony in Sicily, was founded by 
Theocles from Chalcis in 735 B.C., on the E. coast, S. of Tauro- 
menium (mod. Taormina) , in a low-lying situation just N. of the 
mouth of the river Alcantara, where the castle of Schiso now 
stands. The adoption of the name of Naxos, the island in the 
Aegean Sea, seems to indicate that there were Naxians among 
its founders. Within a few years it became strong enough to 
found Leontini and Catana. Naxos was the warmest ally of 
Athens in the Sicilian expedition. In 403 B.C. it was destroyed 
by Dionysius and handed over to the Sicels, but was never 
rebuilt. Its place was supplied in 358 by Tauromenium. Scanty 
traces of its walls are to be seen, of irregular blocks of lava, 
especially on the south, parallel to the river (E. A. Freeman, 
Hist, of Sic. i. 323). Without the city stood the altar of Apollo 



Archegetes, at which all sacred embassies that left Sicily sacrificed 
before their departure (Thuc. vi. 3). 

NAY, or NEY, the long flute of the ancient Egyptians, held 
obliquely and played by directing the breath, as in the pipes 
of the syrinx, across the open end, which had no embouchure 
of any kind. Performers on the nay are represented on many 
of the frescoes which decorated the tombs at Thebes, their 
flutes reaching nearly to the ground while they are in the familiar 
half-kneeling posture. The acoustic principles involved in the 
production of sound are the same as for the flute. The narrow- 
ness of the bore in proportion to the length would facilitate the 
production of harmonics and so give the nay an extended 
compass. Victor Loret 1 has compiled a list of all the real pipes 
of ancient Egypt which have survived, having for the most 
part been preserved in mummy cases. The nay was not restricted 
to ancient Egypt, but has remained in general use in various 
parts of the East until the present day. (K. S.) 

NAYAGARH, a native state in India, in the Orissa division 
of Bengal. Area, 588 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 140,779; revenue, 
8000. It contains hills rising to 5000 ft.; and exports much 
agricultural produce. In 1894 a revolt of the hill tribe of Khonds 
against the raja required the intervention of British military 
police. Nayagarh village (pop. 3340) is connected by road with 
Khurda in Pun district. 

NAYAR, or NAIR, a caste or tribe on the W. coast of S. India, 
who form the dominant race in Malabar. Traditionally they are 
soldiers, but many have taken to professions, and one was in 
1910 a judge of the high court at Madras. Their total number in 
all India in 1901 was just over one million. Their most peculiar 
customs are: (i) marumakkattayam = " descent through sister's 
children," or inheritance in the female line; and (2) sambandham, 
a loose form of union, taking the place of marriage, without any 
responsibility of the husband towards either wife or children. 
In 1896 an act of the Madras legislature enabled a sambandham 
to be registered, and have the force of a legal marriage. Little 
advantage has been taken of this act, while it is alleged that 
the sambandham now usually lasts for a lifetime. 

See Malabar District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908). 

NAYLER (or NAYLOR), JAMES (1618-1660), English Puritan, 
was born at Andersloe or Ardsley, in Yorkshire, in 1618. In 
1642 he joined the parliamentary army, and served as quarter- 
master in John Lambert's horse. In 1651 he adopted Quakerism, 
and gradually arrived at the conviction that he was a new 
incarnation of Christ. He gathered round him a small band of 
disciples, who followed him from place to place. At Appleby 
in 1653 and again at Exeter in 1655 he suffered terms of imprison- 
ment. In October 1655, in imitation of Christ's procession into 
Jerusalem, he entered Bristol on horseback riding single " a 
rawboned nude figure, with lank hair reaching below his cheeks " 
attended by seven followers, some on horseback, some on foot, 
he in silence and they singing " Hosanna! Holy, holy! Lord 
God of Sabaoth!" At the High Cross he and his followers 
were arrested. His trial occupied the second parliament of 
Cromwell for several days, and on the i6th of December 1656 
he was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to be whipped 
from the Palace Yard to the Old Exchange, to be branded in 
the forehead with " B" (for blasphemer), to have his torgue 
bored with a red-hot iron, to be whipped through the streets 
of Bristol, and to suffer imprisonment with hard labour for two 
years. On his release he was readmitted into the commurion 
of the Quakers, and spent some time in Westmorland with 
George Whitehead (1636?-! 723). In October 1660 Nayler 
set out to visit his long-forsaken family in Yorkshire, but died 
on the journey in Huntingdonshire. 

A collected edition of the Tracts of Nayler appeared in 1716. 
See A Relation of the Life, Conversion, Examination, Confession, and 
Sentence of James Nayler (1657); a Memoir of the Life, Ministry, 
Trial, and Sufferings of James Nayler (1719); and a Refutation of 
some of the more Modern Misrepresentations of the Society of Friends 
commonly called Quakers, with a Life of James Nayler, by Joseph 
Gurney Sevan (1800). 






'"Les Flutes e'gyptiennes antiques," in Journal asiatique, Seme 
sdrie, tome xiv. (Pans, 1889). 






NAZARENES NEAGH 



NAZARENES (Nafcopeuoi), an obscure Jewish-Christian sect, 
existing at the time of Epiphanius (fl. A.D. 370) in Coele-Syria, 
Decapolis (Fella) and Basanitis (Cocabe). According to that 
authority (Panarion, xxix. 7) they dated their settlement in 
Pella from the time of the flight of the Jewish Christians 
from Jerusalem, immediately before the siege in A.D. 70; he 
characterizes them as neither more nor less than Jews pure and 
simple, but adds that they recognized the new covenant as well as 
the old, and believed in the resurrection, and in the one God and 
His Son Jesus Christ. He cannot say whether their christological 
views were identical with those of Cerinthus and his school, or 
whether they differed at all from his own. But Jerome (Ep. 79, 
to Augustine) says that they believed in Christ the Son of God, 
born of the Virgin Mary, who suffered under Pontius Pilate, and 
rose again, but adds that, " desiring to be both Jews and 
Christians, they are neither the one nor the other." They used 
the Aramaic recension of the Gospel according to Matthew, 
which they called the Gospel to the Hebrews, but, while adhering 
as far as possible to the Mosaic economy as regarded circumcision, 
sabbaths, foods and the like, they did not refuse to recognize the 
apostolicity of Paul or the rights of heathen Christians (Jer., 
Comm. in Isa., ix. i). These facts, taken along with the name 
(cf. Acts xxiv. 5) and geographical position of the sect, lead 
to the conclusion that the Nazarenes of the 4th century are, in 
spite of Epiphanius's distinction, to be identified with the 
Ebionites (<?..). 

NAZARETH (mod. en-Na$ira), a town in Galilee, in a hollow 
of the hills on the southern border of the plain of Esdraelon. 
It first appears as a village (John i. 46) in which Joseph and Mary 
lived (Luke i. 26) and to which they returned from Egypt 
(Matt. ii. 23). Here the unrecorded years of Christ's boyhood 
were spent. From the name of the town comes nasara (i.e. 
" Nazarenes "), the ordinary oriental word for " Christians." 
There was here a synagogue (Matt. xiii. 54) in which Christ 
preached the sermon that led to his rejection by his fellow towns- 
men. The growth of legends and traditional identifications can 
be traced in the writings of the pilgrims who have visited the 
town from Jerome's time till our own. For none of these can 
anything be said, save that it is possible that the village spring 
(called " St Mary's Well ") is the same as that used in the time of 
Christ. A large basilica stood here about A.D. 600: the crusaders 
transferred here the bishopric of Scythopolis. It was taken by 
Saladin in 1187. In 1517 it was captured by the Turks. The 
population is now estimated at about 3500 Moslems and 6500 
Christians; there are numerous schools, hospitals, &c., conducted 
by Greeks, Latins and Protestants. Visitors are shown the 
" Church of the Annunciation " with caves (including a fragment 
of a pillar hanging from the ceiling, and said to be miraculously 
supported) which are described as the scene of the annunciation, 
the " workshop of Joseph," the " synagogue," and a stone table, 
said to have been used by Christ. 

NAZARITE, or rather NAZIRITE, the name given by the 
Hebrews to a peculiar kind of devotee. The characteristic 
marks of a Nazarite were unshorn locks and abstinence from 
wine (Judges xiii. 5; i Sam. i. n; Amos ii. n seq.); but full 
regulations for the legal observance of the Nazarite vow are 
given in Num. vi., where every product of the grape-vine is 
forbidden, and the Nazarite is enjoined not to approach a dead 
body, even that of his nearest relative. The law in question is 
in its present form post-exilic, and is plainly directed to the 
regulation of a known usage. It contemplates the assumption 
of the vow for a limited period only, and gives particular details 
as to the atoning ceremonies at the sanctuary by which the vow 
must be recommenced if broken by accidental defilement, and the 
closing sacrifice, at which the Nazarite on the expiry of his vow 
cuts off his hair and burns it on the altar, thus returning to 
ordinary life. Among the later Jews the Nazarite vow, of course, 
corresponded with the legal ordinance, which was further 
developed by the scribes in their usual manner (Mishna, tractate 
Nazir; cf. i Mace. iii. 49; Acts xxi. 23 seq.; Joseph. Ant. xix. 
6. i, Wars ii. 15. i). On the other hand, in the earliest historical 
case, that of Samson, and in the similar case of Samuel (who, 



however, is not called a Nazarite), the head remains unshorn 
throughout life, and in these times the ceremonial observances 
as to uncleanness must have been less precise. Samson's mother 
is forbidden to eat unclean things during pregnancy, but Samson 
himself touches the carcass of a. lion and is often in contact with 
the slain, nor does he abstain from giving feasts. 1 

In the cases of Samuel and Samson the unshorn locks are a 
mark of consecration to God (Judges xiii. 5) for a particular 
service in the one case the service of the sanctuary,' in the other 
the deliverance of Israel from the Philistines. Since, moreover, 
the Hebrew root n-z-r is only dialectically different from n-d-r, 
" to vow," both corresponding to the same original Semitic root 
(Arab, n-dh-r), it would seem that the peculiar marks of the 
Nazarite are primarily no more than the usual sign that a man is 
under a vow of some kind. To leave the locks unshorn during an 
arduous undertaking in which the divine aid was specially 
implored, and to consecrate the hair after success, was a practice 
among various ancient nations, but the closest parallel to the 
Hebrew custom is found in Arabia. 2 There the vow was generally 
one of war or revenge, and, till it was accomplished, the man who 
vowed left his hair unshorn and unkempt, and abstained from 
wine, women, ointment and perfume. Such is the figure of 
Shanfara as described in his Lamiya. The observances of the 
ihrdm (period of consecration) belong to the same usage (see 
MECCA), and we find that at Taif it was customary to shear the 
hair at the sanctuary after a journey. The consecration of Samuel 
has also its Arabic parallel in the dedication of an unborn child 
by its mother to the service of the Ka'ba (Ibn Hishara, p. 76; 
AzrakI, p. 128). The spirit of warlike patriotism that character- 
ized the old religion of Israel could scarcely fail to encourage such 
vows (cf. 2 Sam. xi. ii, and perhaps i Sam. xxi. 4 seq.), and from 
the allusion in Amos we are led to suppose that at one time the 
Nazarites had an importance perhaps even an organization 
parallel to that of the prophets, but of a very different religious 
type from the Canaanite nature-worship. 

See RECHABITES; Encyc. Bibl. col. 3362 seq.; G. B. Gray, 
Numbers, pp. 56-61; E. Kautzsch (I.e. n. i below); VV. R. Harger, 
Amos and Hosea, p. Ii. sq., with references. (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.) 

NAZARIUS (4th century A.D.), Latin rhetorician and pane- 
gyrist, was, according to Ausonius, a professor of rhetoric at 
Burdigala (Bordeaux). The extant speech of which he is un- 
doubtedly the author (in E. Bahrens, Panegyrici Latini, No. 10) 
was delivered in 321 to celebrate the fifteenth anniversary of the 
accession of Constantine the Great, and the fifth of his son 
Constantino's admission to the rank of Caesar. The preceding 
speech (No. 9), celebrating the victory of Constantine over 
Maxentius, delivered in 313 at Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), 
has often been attributed to Nazarius, but the difference in style 
and vocabulary, and the more distinctly Christian colouring of 
Nazarius's speech, are against this. 

See M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, iii. (1896); 
Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 
401. 6. 

NEAGH, LOUGH, the largest lake (Irish, " lough ") in the 
British Isles, situated in the north-east of Ireland, in the province 
of Ulster, its waters being divided between counties Antrim 
(N. and E.), Down (S.E.), Armagh (S.), Tyrone and Londonderry 
(W.). Its shape is an irregular oblong, its extreme measurements 
being 18 m. from N.E. to S.W. 16 from N. to S., and ii from E. 
to W. Its circumference, without including minor indentations, 
is about 64 m., and its area 98,255 acres or about 153 sq. m. The 
shores are generally flat and marshy, or very gently sloping, but 
flat-topped hills rise near the northern shore, where the lake 
reaches its extreme depth of 102 ft. The mean height above sea- 
level is 48 ft. Though the lough receives a large number of 

1 The prohibition to Samson's mother to abstain from wine does 
not appear to belong to the original narrative (see E. Kautzsch, 
Hastings's D.B. v. 65700!. 6, following Bohme). John the Baptist is 
a later example of lifelong consecration (Luke i. 15); cf. also the 
tradition as to James the Just (Euseb. H.E. ii. 23). 

2 On consecration of the hair, see Spencer, De Legibus Hebr. iii. 
i. 6; I. Goldziher, Rev. Hist. Rel. xiv. 49 sqq. (1886); J. G. Frazer, 
Golden Bough*, i. 368 sqq.; and W. R. Smith, Rel. Sem. 1 , Index, 
s.v. " hair." 



NEAL, D. NEANDER, JOACHIM 



320 

streams, the river Bann alone carries off its waters, flowing 
northward. The principal feeders are the Main on the north, 
the Crumlin (whose waters have petrifying powers) on the east, 
the Bann and Blackwater on the south, and the Ballinderry and 
Moyola on the west. Antrim and Toome, at the N.E. and N.W. 
respectively, are the only towns immediately on the shores. 
The islands are few and near the shores; namely, Skady Tower 
on the north, Ram's Island (with a ruined round tower) on the 
east, Ready and Coney Islands on the southwest. The lough 
abounds in fish, including gillaroo trout, char and pullen or 
fresh-water herring. A tradition that the lough rose suddenly 
from a fountain, inundating a populous district, and that remains 
of buildings may be seen below the waters, finds place in T >mas 
Moore's ballad Let Erin remember. 

NEAL, DANIEL (1678-1743), English historian, born in 
London on the I4th of December 1678, was educated at the 
Merchant Taylors' School, and at the universities of Utrecht 
and Leiden. In 1704 he became assistant minister, and in 1706 
sole minister, of an independent congregation worshipping in 
Aldersgate Street, and afterwards in Jewin Street, London, 
where he remained almost until his death on the 4th of April 
1743. He married Elizabeth Lardner (d. 1748), by whom he had 
one son, Nathanael, and two daughters. In 1720 Neal published 
his History of New England, which obtained for its author the 
honorary degree of M.A. from Harvard college. He 
also undertook to assist Dr John Evans in writing a history of 
Nonconformity. Evans, however, died in 1730, and, making 
use of his papers for the period before 1640, Neal wrote the 
whole of the work himself. This History of the Puritans deals 
with the time between the Reformation and 1689; the first 
volume appearing in 1732, and the fourth and last in 1738. 
The first volume was attacked in 1733 for unfairness and in- 
accuracy by Isaac Maddox, afterwards bishop of St Asaph and 
of Worcester, to whom Neal replied in a pamphlet, A Review of 
the principal facts objected to in the first volume of the History of 
the Puritans; and the remaining volumes by Zachary Grey 
(1688-1766), to whom the author made no reply. 

The History of the Puritans was edited, in five volumes, by Dr 
Joshua Toulmin (1740-1815), who added a life of Neal in 1797. 
This was reprinted in 1822, and an edition in two volumes was 
published in New York in 1844. 

NEAL, DAVID DALHOFF (1838- ), American artist, was 
born at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the 2oth of October 1838. 
He was a pupil of the Royal Academy, Munich, under Max. 
E. Ainmiller, whose daughter he subsequently married. Later 
he entered the studio of Piloty, with whom he remained from 
1869 to 1876. His picture, " The First Meeting of Mary Stuart 
and Rizzio," won for him the great medal of the Royal Bavarian 
Academy of Art. Besides portraits his canvases include " James 
Watt," a large historical composition shown at the Royal 
Academy, 1874, " Chapel of the Kings at Westminster " (collec- 
tion of F. Cutting, Boston) and " Cromwell visiting Milton " 
(Hurlbut collection, Cleveland, Ohio). 

NEALE, EDWARD VANSITTART (1810-1892), English 
co-operator and Christian Socialist, was born at Bath on the 
2nd of April 1810, the son of a Buckinghamshire clergyman. 
After receiving his earlier education at home he went to Oriel 
College, Oxford. In 1837 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's 
Inn. He became a member of the Christian Socialists in 1850 
and also joined the council of the Society for Promoting Working 
Men's Associations. His wealth enabled him to carry out 
experiments in co-operation on a larger scale than had been 
previously attempted. He founded the first co-operative store 
in London, and advanced the capital for two builders' associations, 
both of which failed. In 1851, though strongly opposed by other 
members of the promoting " Council," he started on his own 
initiative the Central Co-operative Agency, similar in many 
respects to the Co-operative Wholesale Society of a later day. 
The failure of this scheme, together with that of the operatives' 
cause in the engineering lock-out of 1832 is said to have cost him 
40,000. It is certain that until in later life he inherited the 
estate of Bisham Abbey in Berkshire he was, comparatively 



speaking, a poor man. He was closely associated with the 
movement which resulted in the Industrial and Provident 
Societies Act of 1876, and the passing of the Consolidation Act of 
1862 v/as almost entirely due to his efforts. Besides publishing 
pamphlets on co-operation he served on the executive com- 
mittee which afterwards developed into the Central Co-operative 
Board, and took an active part in the formation of the North of 
England Co-operative Wholesale Society in 1863. One of the 
founders of the Cobden mills in 1866, and the Agricultural and 
Horticultural Association in 1867, he also promoted the annual 
co-operative congress, afterwards becoming general secretary 
of the Central Board. He was also a director of the Co-operative 
Insurance Company and a member of the Co-operative News- 
paper Society for many years. He visited America in 1875 with 
a deputation whose object was to open up a direct trade between 
the farmers of the western states and the English co-operative 
stores. After resigning the post of secretary to the congress 
board in 1891, he became a member of the Oxford University 
branch of the Christian Social Union. He died on the i6th of 
September 1892. 

NEALE, JOHN MASON (1818-1866), English divine and 
scholar, was born in London on the 24th of January 1818, and 
was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he was 
affected by the Oxford movement, and helped to found the 
Camden (afterwards the Ecclesiological) Society. Though he 
took orders in 1841, ill-health prevented his settling in England 
till 1846, when he became warden of Sackville College, an alms- 
house at East Grinstead, an appointment which he held till his 
death on the 6th of August 1866. 

Neale was strongly high-church in his sympathies, and had to 
endure a good deal of opposition, including a fourteen years' 
inhibition by his bishop. In 1855 he founded a nursing sisterhood 
named St Margaret's. He occupies a high place as a hymn- 
ologist, but principally as a translator of ancient and medieval 
hymns, the best known being probably " Brief life is here our 
portion," "To thee, O dear, dear country," and "Jerusalem, 
the golden," which are included in the poem of Bernard of 
Cluny, De Conlemplu Mundi, translated by him in full. He also 
published An Introduction to the History of the Holy Eastern 
Church (1850, 2 vols.); History of the so-called Jansenist Church 
of Holland (1858); Essays on Liturgiology and Church History 
(1863); and many other works. 

See Life by his daughter, Mrs Charles Towle (1907) ; the Memoir 
by his friend, R. F. Littledale ; and the Letters of John Mason Neale 
(1910), selected and edited by his daughter. For a complete list of 
Neale's works see article in Diet, of Nat. Biog. xl. 145. 

NEAMTZU (Neamtu), a town in Rumania, situated among 
the lower slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, and on the left 
bank of the river Neamtzu, an affluent of the Moldova. Pop. 
(1900) 8578, about half being Jews. Neamtzu gives its name 
to the Department of which Piatra is the capital. Lying ism. 
S. by E. of Falticheni, the nearest railway station, it has little 
trade. Near it is the ruined fortress of Neamtzu, constructed 
early in the I3th century by the Teutonic knights of Andrew II., 
king of Hungary, in order to repel the incursions of the 
Cumanians. An hour's drive to the west of the town is the 
monastery of Neamtzu, founded in the I4th century, and con- 
taining two churches and many ancient and interesting relics. 
Before the secularization of the monastic lands in 1864, it was one 
of the richest and most important of the Rumanian monasteries. 
Baltzatesti, 10 m. W. by S. of Neamtzu, is locally famous for its 
mineral springs and baths. 

NEANDER, JOACHIM (1650-1680), German hymnwriter, was 
born at Bremen. The family name, originally Neumann, had, 
according to the prevailing fashion a century earlier, been 
Graecized as Neander. After studying at Heidelberg and 
Frankfort, where he formed friendships with Friedrich Spanheim 
(1632-1701) and Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705), he settled 
at Diisseldorf as rector of the Latin school in connexion with 
the Reformed Church. In 1676 he incurred church censure 
for abstaining and inducing others to abstain from joining 
in the celebration of the communion. It was during the term of 



NEANDER, JOHANN A. W. NEAP 



321 



his suspension from his teaching office that many of his hymns 
were written. He ultimately renounced his connexion with the 
separatists, and in 1679 returned to Bremen as one of the 
preachers of St Martin's church. In the same year he published 
the Bundeslieder and Dankpsalmen, a collection of 71 hymns, 
of which many are still in use. He died on the 3ist of May 
1680. The Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, takes its name from 
him. For his place in hymnology see HYMNS. 

See J. F. Iken, Joachim Neander, sein Leben und seine Lieder 
(1880). 

NEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM (1789-1830), 
German theologian and church historian, was born at Gottingen 
on the 1 7th of January 1789. His father, Emmanuel Mendel, 
is said to have been a Jewish pedlar, but August adopted the 
name of Neander on his baptism as a Christian. While still 
very young, he removed with his mother to Hamburg. There, 
as throughout life, the simplicity of his personal appearance 
and the oddity of his manners attracted notice, but still more, 
his great industry and mental power. From the grammar-school 
(Johanneum) he passed to the gymnasium, where the study of 
Plato appears especially to have engrossed him. Considerable 
interest attaches to his early companionship with Wilhelm 
Neumann and certain others, among whom were the writer 
Karl August Varnhagen von Ense and the poet Adelbert von 
Chamisso. 

Baptized on the 25th of February 1806, in the same year 
Neander went to Halle to study divinity. Here Schleiermacher 
was then lecturing. Neander found in him the very impulse which 
he needed, while Schleiermacher found a pupil of thoroughly 
congenial feeling, and one destined to carry out his views in a 
higher and more effective Christian form than he himself was 
capable of imparting to them. But before the year had closed 
the events of the Franco-Prussian War compelled his removal 
to Gottingen. There he continued his studies with ardour, 
made himself yet more master of Plato and Plutarch, and 
became especially advanced in theology under the venerable 
G. J. Planck (1751-1833). The impulse communicated by 
Schleiermacher was confirmed by Planck, and he seems now 
to have realized that the original investigation of Christian 
history was to form the great work of his life. 

Having finished his university course, he returned to Hamburg, 
and passed his examination for the Christian ministry. After 
an interval of about eighteen months, however, he definitively 
betook himself to an academic career, " habilitating " in 
Heidelberg, where two vacancies had occurred in the theological 
faculty of the university. He entered upon his work here as a 
theological teacher in i3n; and in 1812 he became a professor. 
In the same year (1812) he first appeared as an author by the 
publication of his monograph Uber den Kaiser Julianus und sein 
Zeitalter. The fresh insight into the history of the church 
evinced by this work at once drew attention to its author, and 
even before he had terminated the first year of his academical 
labours at Heidelberg, he was called to Berlin, where he was 
appointed professor of theology. 

In the year following his appointment he published a second 
monograph Der Heilige Bernhard und sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1813), 
and then in 181$ his work on Gnosticism (Genelische Enltvickelung 
der vornehmslen gnostischen Systeme). A still more extended 
an elaborate monograph than either of the preceding followed 
in 1822, Der Heilige Johannes Chrysostomus und die Kirchc, 
besonders des Orients in dessen Zeitalter, and again, in 1824, 
another on Tertullian (Antignoslikus). He had in the meantime, 
however, begun his great work, to which these several efforts 
were only preparatory studies. The first volume of his 
Allgemeine Geschichte der christlichen Religion und Kirche 
embracing the history of the first three centuries, made its 
appearance in 1825. The others followed at intervals the 
fifth, which appeared in 1842, bringing down the narrative 
to the pontificate of Boniface VIII. A posthumous volume, 
edited by C. F. T. Schneider in 1852, carried it on to the period 
of the council of Basel. Besides this great work he published 
in 1832 his Geschichte der Pflanzung und Leitung der christlichen 

xrx. ii 



Kirche, and in 1837 his Das Leben Jesu Christi, in seinem 
gcschichtlichen Zusammenhang und seiner geschkhtlichen Enl- 
wickelung, called forth by the famous Life of David Strauss. 
In addition to all these he published Denkwurdigkeilen aus der 
Geschichte des Chtistentums (1823-1824, 2 vols., 1825, 3 vols., 
1846); Das Eine und Mannichjallige des christlichen Lebens 
(1840); papers on Plotinus, Thomas Aquinas, Theobald Thamer, 
Blaise Pascal, J. H. Newman, Blanco White and T. Arnold, 
and other occasional pieces (Kleine Gelegenheitsschriften, 1829), 
mainly of a practical, exegetical and historical character. He 
died on the 'i4th of July 1850, worn out and nearly blind with 
inces-.^lt study. After his death a succession of volumes, 
representing his various courses of lectures, appeared (1856- 
1864), in addition to the Lectures on the History of Dogma (Theo- 
logische Vorlesungen), admirable in spirit and execution, which 
were edited by J. L. Jacobi in 1857. 

Neander's theological position can only be explained in connexion 
with Schleiermacher, and the manner in which while adopting he 
modified and carried out the principles of his master. Character- 
istically meditative, he rested with a secure footing on the great 
central truths of Christianity, and recognized strongly their essential 
reasonableness and harmony. Alive to the claims of criticism, he no 
less strongly asserted the rights of Christian feeling. " Without it," 
he emphatically says, " there can be no theology; it can only thrive 
in the calmness of a soul consecrated to God." This explains his 
favourite motto: " Pectus est quod theologum facit." 

His Church History (Allgemeine Geschichte der christlichen Religion 
und Kirche) remains the greatest monument of his genius. In this 
" Neander's chief aim was everywhere to understand what was 
individual in history. In the principal figures of ecclesiastical 
history he tried to depict the representative tendencies of each age, 
and also the types of the essential tendencies of human nature 
generally. His guiding principle in treating both of the history and 
of the present condition of the church was that Christianity has 
room for the various tendencies of human nature, and aims at per- 
meating and glorifying them all; that according to the divine plan 
these various tendencies are to occur successively and simultaneously 
and to counterbalance each other, so that the freedom and variety 
of the development of the spiritual life ought not to be forced into 
a single dogmatic form " (Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, 
p. i.8o). Several of his books have passed into new and revised 
editions and have been translated into English. Among these 
English versions may be mentioned General History of the Christian 
Religion and Church, translated by J. Torrey (1850-1858); History 
of the Planting and Training of the Church by the Apostle, by J. E. 
Ryland (1851); Julian and his Generation, by G. V. Cox (1850); 
Life of Jesus, by J. M'Clintock and C. E. Blumenthal (1848); and 
Memorials of Christian Life in the Early and Middle Ages, by J. E. 
Ryland (1852). 

See O. C. Krabbe, August Neander (1852), and a paper by C. F. 
Kling (1800-1861) in the Stud. u. Krit. for 1851; J. L. Jacobi, 
Erinnerungen an August Neander (1882); Philipp Scnaff, Erinne- 
rungen an Neander (1886) ; Adolph Hamack, Rede auf.A ugust Neander 
(1889); A. F. J. Wiegand, Neanders Leben (1889); L. T. Schulze, 
August Neander (1890); and K. T. Schneider, August Neander 
(1894). Cf. Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and P. Schafi, Germany: 
its Universities and Theology (1857). 

NEANDERTHAL, a ravine near the village of Hochdal between 
Diisseldorf and Elberfeld, Rhenish Prussia. Here in 1856 were 
discovered in a Quaternary bed in the Feldhofen Cave human 
remains which have been referred to a type commcnly called 
Neanderthal Man. The bones found were a brain-cap, two 
femora, two humeri and other fragments, now in the Fuhlrott 
Collection, Elberfeld. The cranium, pronounced by Huxley to 
be the most ape-like yet discovered, was remarkable for its 
enormous superciliary ridges. Professor Virchow and others 
contended that the remarkable shape was pathological or caused 
by disease during the lifetime of the individual. The subsequent 
discovery of two other skulls, almost identical in form, at Spy 
in Belgium, have helped to prove its typical character. The now 
generally accepted view is that the Neanderthal skull represents 
' the oldest known dolichocephalic race of Europe. 

NEAP, a word only used of tides in which the high-water mark 
is at its lowest, there being the least difference in level between 
high and low water, opposed to "spring tides" (see TIDE). 
The word is obscure in origin. It appears in O. Eng. in ntpflod, 
and only once alone in the expression forthganges nep, " without 
power of advancing." It may possibly be connected with " nip," 
in the sense of " pinched," " scanty." 



322 



NEARCHUS NEBO 



NEARCHUS, one of the officers in the army of Alexander the 
Great. A native of Crete, he settled at Amphipolis in Macedonia. 
In 325, when Alexander descended the Indus to the sea, he 
ordered Nearchus to conduct the fleet to the head of the Persian 
Gulf. The success with which Nearchus accomplished this 
arduous enterprise led to his selection by Alexander for the more 
difficult task of circumnavigating Arabia from the mouth of the 
Euphrates to the Isthmus of Suez. But this project was cut 
short by the illness and death of the king (323). In the troubles 
that followed Nearchus attached himself to Antigonus, under 
whom he held the government of his old provinces of Lycia and 
Pamphylia, and probably therefore shared in the downfall (301) 
of that monarch. 

He wrote a detailed narrative of his expedition, of which a full 
abstract was embodied by Arrian in his Indica one of the most 
interesting geographical treatises of antiquity. 

The text, with copious geographical notes, is published in C. 
Miiller's Geographi Graeci Minores, i. (1856) ; on the topography see 
W. Tompschek, " Tppographische Erlauterung der Kiistenfahrt 
Nearchs \om Indus bis zum Euphrat" in Sitzungsberichte der K. K. 
Acad. der Wissenschaften, cxxi. (Vienna, 1890). See also E. H. 
Bunbury, Ancient Geography, i. ch. 13 ; and ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
Ancient authorities. Arrian, Anab. vi. 19, 21; vii. 4, 19, 20, 25; 
Plutarch, Alexander, 10, 68, 75; Strabo xv. pp. 721, 725; Diod. Sic. 
xvii. 104; Justin xiii. 4. 

NEATH (Welsh, Castell-NMd), a municipal and contributory 
parliamentary borough, seaport and market-town of Glamorgan- 
shire, south Wales, prettily situated near the mouth of the 
Neath or Nedd, on the Great Western and the Rhondda and 
Swansea Bay railways, i\ m. E.N.E. of Swansea and 1835 m. 
by rail from London, via Badminton. The Neath and Brecon 
railway has a terminus in the town. Pop. (1901) 13,720. The 
principal buildings are the parish church of St Thomas (restored 
1874), the church of St David (1866), a Roman Catholic 
church, and Baptist, Calvinistic, Methodist, Congregational 
and Wesleyan chapels; the intermediate and technical schools 
(1895), Davies's endowed (elementary) school (1789), the Gwyn 
Hall (1888), the town hall, with corn exchange in the basement 
storey, and the market-house. According to tradition lestyn- 
ap-Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan, had a residence 
somewhere near the present town, but Fitzhamon, on his con- 
quest of Glamorgan, gave the district between the Neath and 
the Tawe to Richard de Granaville (ancestor of the Granvilles, 
marquesses of Bath), who built on the west banks of the Neath 
first a castle and then in 1129 a Cistercian abbey, to whose monks 
he later gave all his possessions in the district. All traces of 
this castle have disappeared. Another castle, built in the same 
century, on the east bank, was held direct by the lords of 
Glamorgan, as the westernmost outpost of their lordship. It was 
frequently attacked by the Welsh, notably in 1231 when it was 
taken, and the town demolished by Llewelyn ab lorwerth. The 
portcullis gate and a tower are all that remain of it; of the abbey 
which was at one time the finest in Wales, there still exist the 
external walls, with parts of the chapel, vaulted chapter-house, 
refectory and abbot's house. This abbey was the spot where 
Edward II. found shelter after his escape from Caerphilly. At 
the dissolution the abbey and the manor of Cadoxton (part of 
its possessions) were sold to Sir Richard Williams or Cromwell. 
Its cartulary has been lost. Copper smelting has been carried on 
in or near the town since 1584 when the Mines Royal Society set 
up works at Neath Abbey; the industry attained huge propor- 
tions a century later under Sir Humphrey Mackworth, who from 
1695 carried on copper and lead smelting at Melincrythan. 
Besides its copper works the town at present possesses extensive 
tinplate, steel and galvanized sheet works as well as iron and 
brass foundries, steam-engine factories, brick and tile works, 
engineering works, flannel factories and chemical works. In 
the neighbourhood there are numerous large collieries, and coal 
is shipped from wharves on the riverside, vessels of 300 or 400 
tons being able to reach the quays at high tide. The Neath 
Canal, from the upper part of the Vale of Neath to Briton Ferry 
(13 m.) passes through the town, which is also connected with 
Swansea by another canal. There is a large export trade in coal, 



| copper, iron and tin, mostly shipped from nieghbouring ports, 
while the principal imports are timber and general merchandise. 
Neath is included in the Swansea parliamentary district of 
boroughs. 

The town perhaps occupies the site of the ancient Nidus or 
Nidum of the Romans on the Julia Maritima from which a vicinal 
road branched off here for Brecon. No traces of Roman anti- 
quities, however, have been found. Neath is a borough by 
prescription and received its first charter about the middle of 
the 1 2th century from William, earl of Gloucester, who granted 
its burgesses the same customs as those of Cardiff. Other charters 
were granted to it by successive lords of Glamorgan in 1290, 1340, 
1359, 1397, 1421 and 1423. By the first of these (1290) the town 
was granted a fair on St Margaret's Day (July 20) and as the 
abbey had extensive sheep walks the trade in wool was consider- 
able. In 1685 James II. granted a charter, which, however, 
was not acted upon except for a short time. 

NEBO, or NABU (" the proclaimer "), the name of one of the 
chief gods of the Babylonian pantheon, the main seat of whose 
worship was at Borsippa opposite the city of Babylon. It is 
due to the close association of Borsippa with Babylon after 
the period when Babylon became the centre of the Babylonian 
empire that the cult of Nebo retained a prominence only some 
degrees less than that of Marduk. The amicable relationship 
between the two was expressed by making Nebo the son of 
Marduk. In this case the expression of the relationship in this 
form was intended to symbolize the superiority of Marduk, 
different, therefore, from the view involved in making Marduk 
the son of Ea (q.v.), which meant that the prerogatives of Ea 
were transferred to Marduk by the priests of Babylon. 

Borsippa became in the course of time so completely a mere 
adjunct to Babylon that' one might fairly have expected the 
Nebo cult to have been entirely absorbed by that of Marduk. 
Since that did not happen, the legitimate inference is that 
other deterrent factors were at play. One of these factors was 
the position that Nebo had acquired as the " god of wisdom " 
to whom more particularly the introduction of writing was 
ascribed. He takes his place, therefore, by the side of Ea as 
a cultural deity. The wisdom associated with him had largely 
to do with the interpretation of the movements in the heavens, 
and the priests of Nebo at an early age must have acquired 
widespread fame as astrologers. Assuming now, for which 
there is a reasonable amount of confirmatory evidence, that the 
priestly school of Nebo had acquired a commanding position 
before Babylon rose to political importance we can understand 
why the worshippers of Marduk persisted in paying homage to 
Nebo, and found a means of doing so without lowering the 
dignity and standing of their own god. If Assur-bani-pal, the 
king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.), in the subscripts to the copies 
of Babylonian literary tablets invokes as he invariably does 
Nebo and his consort Tashmit as the gods of writing to whom 
all wisdom is traced, it is fair to assume that in so doing he was 
following ancient tradition and that the priests of Marduk 
likewise were dependent upon the school at Borsippa for their 
knowledge and wisdom. 

Nebo is therefore an older god than Marduk in the sense 
that his specific prerogative as the god of wisdom was too firmly 
recognized when Marduk became the head of the Babylonian 
pantheon to be set aside. 

The temple school at Borsippa continued to flourish until 
the end of the neo-Babylonian empire, and school texts of 
various contents, dated in the reigns of Artaxerxes, Cambyses 
and Darius, furnish the evidence that the school survived even 
the conquest of Babylonia by Cyprus (538 B.C.). The original 
character of Nebo can no longer be determined with any degree 
of definiteness. He may have been a solar deity, but there are 
also decided indications which point to his being a water-deity 
like Ea. It may be, therefore, that if he shows the traits of a 
solar deity, this may be due to the influence of the neighbouring 
Marduk cult, just as in return Marduk takes on attributes that 
belong of right to Nebo. Thus, as the god of writing, Nebo 
has charge of the tables of fate on which he inscribes the names 






NEBRASKA 



323 



of men and decides what their lot is to be. If in the systematized 
religious system, Marduk appears as the arbiter of human 
fates, the conclusion is warranted that Marduk is here imbued 
with the authority which originally was in the hands of his son. 
A reconciliation between the rival claims was effected by con- 
tinuing Nebo in the r61e of scribe, but as writing at the dictation 
of the gods, thus recording what the divine assembly, gathered 
in the " chamber of fates " (known as Ubshu Kinakku) within 
the precincts of E-Saggila Marduk's temple at Babylon under 
the presidency of Marduk, had decided. 

Nebo also does homage to his father by paying him an annual 
visit during the New Year celebration, when the god was solemnly 
carried across to Babylon, and in return Marduk accompanied 
his son part way back to his shrine at Borsippa. Within E- 
Saggila, Nebo had a sanctuary known, as was his chief temple 
at Borsippa, as E-Zida, " the legitimate (or ' firm ') house," and 
the close bond existing between father and son was emphasized 
by providing for Marduk within theprecinct of E-Zida, a sanctuary 
which bore the same name, E-Saggila, " the lofty house," as 
Marduk's temple at Babylon. The kings, and more particularly 
those of the neo-Babylonian dynasty, devote themselves assidu- 
ously to the worship and embellishment of both E-Saggila and 
E-Zida. In their inscriptions Marduk and Nebo are invoked 
together and the names of the two temples constantly placed 
side by side. The symbols of the two gods are similarly combined. 
On boundary stones and cylinders, when Marduk's symbol 
the lance is depicted, Nebo's symbol the stylus is generally 
found adjacent. The dragon, though of right belonging to 
Marduk (<?..), as the conqueror of Tiamat, also becomes the 
symbol of Nebo, and similarly in other respects the two form 
a close partnership. Such is the relation between the two 
that occasionally, as in the official reports of astrologers and 
in official letters, Nebo is even mentioned before Marduk without 
fear of thereby offending the pride of the priests of Marduk. 

In Assyria the Nebo cult likewise enjoyed great popularity, 
and there is a record of one Assyrian ruler who made Nebo his 
specific deity and called upon his subjects to put their whole trust 
in him. One may discern, indeed, a tendency in Assyria to take 
advantage of the almost equal plane on which Nebo stands 
with Marduk in Babylonia, to play off Nebo as it were against 
Marduk. The Assyrian kings in this way, by glorifying at 
times Nebo at the expense of Marduk, paid their debt of homage 
to the south without any risk of lowering the grade of their 
own chief deity Assur. Marduk was in a measure Assur's rival. 
This was not the case, however, with Nebo, and they accordingly 
showed a desire to regard Nebo rather than Marduk as the 
characteristic representative of the southern pantheon. In the 
astral-theological system Nebo was identified with the planet 
Mercury. His consort, known as Tashmit, plays no independent 
part, and is rarely invoked except in connexion with Nebo. 

See also BABYLON, BORSIPPA, BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN 
RELIGION. (M. JA.) 

NEBRASKA, a state just N. of the centre of the U.S.A., lying 
approximately between 40 and 43 N. and between 18 18' W., 
and 27 W. from Washington. It is bounded on the N. by South 
Dakota, on the E. by Iowa and a corner of Missouri, on the 
S. by Kansas, on the S. and W. by a corner of Colorado, and 
on the W. by Wyoming. The Missouri river extends along the 
eastern and north-eastern border. The extreme length of the 
state is about 430 m., and extreme breadth about 210 m. The 
area is 77,520 sq. m., of which 712 are water surface. 

Physical Features. The state lies partly in the physiographic 
province of the Great Plains (covering more than four-fifths of its 
area) and partly in that of the Prairie Plains, and slopes gently from 
the N.W. to the S.E. The altitudes of extreme geographical points 
are as follows: Rulo, in the S.E. corner of the state, 842 ft.; Dakota 
city, in the N.E., 1102; Benkelman, in the S.W in Dundy county, 
2968; Kimball, in the S.W. in Kimball county, 4697; Harrison, in 
the N.W. corner, 4849 ft. There are three physiographic sub- 
divisions; the foot-hills (and Bad Lands), the sand -hills and the 
prairie all three being portions of three great corresponding regions 
of the Great Plains and Prairie Plains provinces. 

The western portion of the state lies in the foot-hills of the Rocky 
Mountain system, and is much rougher than western Kansas. The 
surface of western Nebraska is characterized by high, barren table- 



lands, broken by canyons, dotted with buttes, and dominated by 
some bold and lofty ridges. Pine Ridge, a picturesque escarpment 
of the Great Plains, cuts across the N.W. corner of Nebraska from 
Wyoming into South Dakota. A ridge of low hills and bluffs, often 
precipitous, marked by buttes and deeply cut in places by canons, it is 
the most striking surface feature of the state. The altitude in this 
region varies from 3500 to 5000 ft. In the fork of the North and 
South Platte are the Wild Cat Mountains with contours rising to 
5300 ft., in which Wild Cat Mountain, long reported as the highest 
point in the state, attains 5038 ft., Hogback Mountain 5082 ft., and 
various other hills Gabe Rock (5006), Big Horn Mountain (4718), 
Coliseum Rock (5050), Scotts Bluff (4662) &c. rise to heights of 
4500 to 5000 ft. In the extreme N.W. the White river and Hat 
Creek have carved canyons in deep lacustrine deposits, creating 
fantastic cliffs and buttes, bare of vegetation, gashed with drainage 
channels, and baked by the sun. The buttes bare, pyramidal or 
conical, flat-topped, precipitous hills, and often fantastic, towering 
pinnacles are rather widely distributed through the foot-hill 
region. They are never more than 600 to 1000 ft. above the sur- 
rounding country. Nature is not grand in any part of Nebraska, 
but the Bad Lands are imposing, and in the wooded foot-hills there 
is an abundance of bold and attractive scenery, particularly in Sioux 
county, and in Cherry county around Valentine and on the canyon of 
the Snake river. East of the Bad Lands is the sand-hill region, which 
includes an area of possibly 20,000 sq. m. The sand-hills proper are 
scattered over an area of perhaps 15,000 sq. m., between the meridians 
of 98 and 103 W. long., lying mainly N. of the Platte; though there 
are some along the Republican river. In places they rise in tiers, 
one above another, like miniature mountains, and are 200 to 300 ft. 
high; but in general they are very low (25-50 ft. high) and are 
scattered over a plain. Their present contours are wholly the result 
of wind action. Save in rare instances, however, they have long 
ceased to be shifting dunes; for, with the cessation of prairie fires 
and the increase of settlement, they have become well grassed over 
and stable; although sand-draws, and even occasional " blow-outs" 
scooped by the winds in the summits or sides of the hills are still 
characteristic landmarks. All about and inter-penetrating the foot- 
hill and sand-hill regions are the prairies, which include three-fourths 
of the state. They are sometimes characteristically flat over wide 
areas, but are usually gently rolling. Stream valleys and bottom 
lands are the conspicuous modifying feature of the prairie region; 
but in general, owing to the gentle slope of the streams and the great 
breadth of the plains, erosion has been slight; and indeed the 
streams, overloaded in seasonal freshets, are building up their 
valley floors. The water-partings are characteristically level 
uplands, often with shallow depressions, once lakes, and some of them 
still so. The valleys of the greatest streams are huge shallow troughs. 
The valley floor of the North Platte in the foot-hills, the flood-plain 
of an older river, is in places 700 ft or more below the bounding 
tableland, and 10 to IS m. wide; the present flood-plain being from 
I to 4 m. in width. Hundreds of small tributaries to the greater 
streams (especially along the Republican and the Logan) complicate 
and beautify the landscape. No farming country is richer in quiet 
and diversified scenic charm than the prairies of the eastern half of 
the state. The Missouri is noteworthy for high bluffs cut by ravines, 
which border it almost continuously on at least one side. In the foot- 
hills there are typical canyons, as along the Platte forks, and in the 
northern edge of the sand-hills Those of the upper Republican are 
the largest, those of the Bad Lands are the most peculiar; and the 
Niobrara tributary system is the most developed. 

Rivers. The Missouri skirts the eastern border for perhaps 500 m. 
It is not navigated, and save at Sioux City and Omaha serves 
practically no economic purposes, irrigation being unnecessary in the 
counties on which it borders. Its bluffs, cut for the most part in the 
loess but at places in the rock, are frequently from 100 to 200 ft. 
high. At Vermilion, South Dakota, its alluvial plain, 1131 ft. above 
the sea, is 330 ft. above the mouth of the Nemaha. The current is 
always rapid and heavily loaded with sediment, 1 and its axis is 
forever shifting. Large areas of soil are thus shifted back and forth 
between Nebraska and the bordering states, to the encouragement 
of border lawlessness and uncertainty of titles; some portions E. of 
the thread and apparently well within Iowa remain under the 
jurisdiction of Nebraska, or vice versa; and Yankton has been 
seriously threatened with a sudden transfer from the South Dakota 
to the Nebraska side. The Platte system is also heavily loaded with 
sediment in Nebraska. The North and South forks both rise in 
Colorado; each, especially the latter, has a rapid primary descent, 
and. a very gradual fall down the foot-hills of the Great Plains.* 
Across Nebraska it maintains a remarkably straight course and an 
extraordinarily even gradient (about 6 ft. per mile). In the spring 
freshets it is a magnificent stream, but in summer its volume greatly 
shrinks, and it is normally a broad, shallow, sluggish, stream, flowing 
through interlacing channels among the sand-bars it heaps athwart 
its course. The underflow is probably much greater than the summer 



1 About 52 grains per gallon at low water, 404 at high. 

1 The North Platte falls 3700 ft. in 510 m., the South. 7?oo ft. in 
427 m., above their junction; the latter falling 2692 ft. ID 308 m. 
after leaving its canyon in the Rockies. 



324 



NEBRASKA 



surface flow in volume. The Loup system is remarkable for the even 
dip of its parallel feeders, which once joined the Plattt separately, 
until the latter banked up its deposits across the mouths of their 
more sluggish currents. The Republican and South Platte the 
former an intermittent stream suffer in their flow from the drain 
made upon their waters in Colorado for irrigation. The upper course 
of the Niobrara above the Keya Paha is in a narrow gorge. Its 
immediate bluffs and the shores of some of its tributaries, notably 
the Snake, are modified by canons. This system is also notable 
among Nebraska streams for a number of pretty water-falls. The 
White river, heading on Pine Ridge, falls noo ft. in 20 m. Some 
streams wholly dry up in the dry seasons, and in the foot-hills and 
sand-hills there are a few that disappear by sinking or evaporation. 

Surface Water. Swamps and bogs, apart from purely temporary 
weather ponds, are confined to a few restricted regions of the 
Missouri river bottoms and the prairies of the S.E. There are some 
cut-offs or oxbow lakes along the Missouri, and many lakelets origin- 
ally such are scattered along the Platte, Elkhorn, Big Blue and other 
rivers. Scores of lakes are scattered about the heads of streams 
rising in the sand-hills, especially in Cherry county. Some of them 
are fresh and some alkaline. Springs also are numerous in the sand- 
hills, where they form considerable streams. They often flow with 
force and are known locally from this peculiarity as " artesian " 
springs, or sometimes, from this and their large size, as " mound " 
springs. The state fish-hatchery is on springs at South Bend; at 
Long Pine springs of large flow supply the town and railway shops 
with water, and led to the establishment here of Chautauqua grounds. 

Underground Water. The so-called blowing-wells are peculiar. 
They occur over much of the state, but most frequently S. of the 
Platte, and are evidently sensitive to barometric conditions; alter- 
nately "blowing" or '"sucking" as these vary; so that, in cold 
weather water-pipes may be frozen looor more feet below the surface 
of the ground. Atmospheric pressure is probably the principal cause 
of their action ; they are therefore termed ' weather wells " in 
some localities. Nearly all counties have a practically inexhaustible 
supply of ground water. Well-depths vary from 15 to 20 ft. in the 
stream valleys and from 30 to 35 ft. on the loess prairies to 100-400 ft. 
in the western foot-hill region and isolated prairie areas. Artesian 
water is also available in many parts of the state. At Niobrara, in 
Knox county, a well 656 ft. deep, drilled in 1896, yielded for a time 
2500 gallons per minute at 95-lt> pressure (in 1903 1900 gallons at 
65-lb pressure), and furnishes power for a flour-mill and municipal 
water and electric lighting works; the pressure forces the water 
about 210 ft. above the mouth of the well, i.e. to a height of 1450 ft. 
Another (1430 ft. deep), in the environs of Omaha, supplies a daily 
flow of 1,100,000 gallons under a pressure of 15 Ib. In some small 
and exceptional regions the water is very alkaline, and in the counties 
of the south-east it is so generally saline that it is difficult, below 
150 ft., to avoid an inflow of salt water. Saline wells at Lincoln 
(2463, 1050 and 570 ft. deep) and at Beatrice (1260 ft.) are notable 
in this regard. 

Geology. The eastern part of the state is covered with a thick 
mantle of Quaternary (Pleistocene), and the greatest part of the 
western portion with very thick deposits of Miocene and Pliocene 
(Tertiary). To the Pleistocene belong the alluvium, loess and glacial 
drift, and in part the sand-hills. The drift covers the eastern fifth 
of the state. In striking contrast to Iowa, the Nebraska deposit is 
very thin, seldom thicker than I or 2 ft. Above the drift there is 
usually a heavy covering of loess or " bluff deposit " (particularly 
typical in the neighbourhood of Omaha and Council Bluffs). Though 
thin and worn out in places, it averages probably 100 ft., and is often 
as much as 200 ft. in thickness, and runs diagonally across the state 
from the N.E. to the Colorado inset. The opinion that it is of 
aqueous origin (and probably dates from the close of the glacial time) 
has the weight of authority. It was spread by the rivers: some 
e"idences of wind action may be attributed to a later period. The 
sand-hills, which overlap the loess N. of the Platte, are probably 
mainly derived from the Arikaree, but probably also in part from the 
early Pleistocene. West of 102 long, there are beds several hundred 
feet thick of late Tertiary sands and clays. The Arikaree (Miocene) 
and Ogallala (Pliocene) formations of the North Loup beds are super- 
ficial over much of the western half of the state, the former to the N., 
the latter to the S. The buttes are characteristically Arikaree or 
Gering formations topping Brule clay. The same is true of at least 
considerable parts of Pine Ridge. In the Bad Lands there are 
scanty outcrops of the Chadron formation (known also as " Titano- 
therium beds ), the oldest of the Tertiary beds. The thick super- 
ficial coverings over the state make difficult the determination of the 
underlying strata. There are only very scanty outcrops except 
along the rivers. No Archean roclcs are exposed in Nebraska, and 
the sedimentary formations are undisturbed in situ. The Palaeozoic 
era is represented only by the Pennsylvanian series of the Upper 
Carboniferous and a scanty strip of Kansas-Nebraska Permian, and 
is confined to the S.E. counties. But, though small in area, the 
Carboniferous is by far the most important formation as regards 
mineral resources within the state. It is buried probably 2000 or 
3000 ft. in central Nebraska, outcropping again only in the Rocky 
Mountains. Upon it, in the trough thus formed, rest conformably 
the basal strata of the Cretaceous; the Jurassic and Triassic being 
wholly absent (unless in the extreme north-west). The E. limit of 



the Cretaceous extends across the state from N. to S. between 98 
and 99 W. long. Its groups include the Dakota formation, char- 
acterized by a very peculiar rusty sandstone, and the Benton, both 
of which are rather widely accessible and heavy; the Niobrara; the 
Pierre shales, which apparently underlie about three-quarters of the 
state in a deep and heavy bed; and, in the extreme west, the 
Laramie. There are almost no Cretaceous outcrops except on the 
streams, especially the Niobrara, Republican and Platte rivers 
and in the Bad Lands. The superficial Miocene and Pliocene 
deposits in the west, above referred to, are underlaid by the White 
river groups of the Oligocene, whose outcrops of Brule clay and 
Chadron formation also have been mentioned. The Bad Lands are 
essentially nothing but fresh-water mud excessively weathered and 
eroded. They are often intersected by dikes of chalcedony, formerly 
mistaken for lava. The Bad Lands and the Arikaree are famous 
fossil fields, the latter being the source of the Daemonelix, or " Devil's 
cork-screw," a large spiral fossil, apparently a lacustrine alga. It 
was once generally supposed that the Pliocene epoch in Nebraska 
was distinguished by the activity of geysers; but the so-called 
" geyserite " now known commonly and correctly as " natural 
pumice " and " volcanic ash," which is found in the Oligocene and 
later formations, has no connexion whatever with geysers, but is 
produced by the shattering of volcanic rock. It occurs widely in 
Nebraska and adjoining states. 

Minerals. Mineral resources are decidedly limited; the total 
value of the mineral output (excluding coal) in 1907 was$i, 383,916, 
of which $953,432 was the value of clay products, $324,239 of stone, 
and $54,227 of sand and gravel. The state, however, is particularly 
rich in good clays, which are probably its greatest mineral resource. 
Calcite of excellent quality is the commonest mineral. Gravel is 
widely obtainable, and sand of the finest quality is available in 
inexhaustible quantities, and is an important article of export. 
Flint (valuable for railway ballast) occurs in immense quantities 
about Wymore and Blue Springs. The underground salt water flow 
promised once to be a resource of value, especially in the vicinity 
of Lincoln, but has proved of little or no value in comparison with 
the great salt-beds of Kansas. A native plaster is yielded by the 
Arikaree and Ogallala rocks, but though otherwise of excellent 
qualities it is ruined by slight exposure to the water. A diatomaceous 
earth in central Nebraska, occurring especially in the region of Loup, 
is a good polishing powder, and is used for packing steam pipes. 
Limonite in the form of ochre occurs in considerable quantity. Of 
building stones limestones are the most abundant and important, 
the best comes from the Benton beds and when " green " can be 
sawed into blocks. The Dakota formation, though its sand-stones 
are in general coarse or otherwise inferior, yields some of splendid 
quality. Its clays, which are of all colours, are the most valuable of 
the state. The finest building stone is a beautiful green quartzite 
rock of dense, fine texture and lasting quality. It is related to the 
Ogallala beds and occurs only in smallareas. The quarries and clay 
pits of the state are mainly in the Carboniferous region of the S.E. 
Cretaceous lignite occurs in small quantities in the N.E., and peat 
more widely. The Carboniferous formations carry only thin seams 
of coal, never thicker than about 2 ft., and rarely readily accessible, 
and they can never be of more than small and merely local import- 
ance. 

Flora. Nebraska lies partly in the arid, or Upper Sonoran, and 
partly in the humid, or Carolinian, area of the Upper Austral life- 
zone; the divisional line being placed by the United States Biological 
Survey at about 100 W. long. The most marked characteristic of 
Nebraskan vegetation is its immigrant character, and the state has 
been called " one of the finest illustrations of the commingling of 
contiguous species to be found anywhere in America " (C. E. Bessey). 
Immigrant species have even come from Texas and New Mexico, 
from the Dakotas and the Rockies. From the last-named various 
species have crept two-thirds of the way across the state, one (the 
buffalo berry) wholly covers it, and some have barely crossed into 
the border foot-hills from Wyoming. A very few trees and shrubs, 
and some grasses, are strictly endemic to the plains and to Nebraska. 
Four floral regions lying in north to south belts across the state, and 
closely corresponding to though in boundaries by no means coincid- 
ing with its great topographic divisions are distinguished in the 
regions of the Missouri border, the prairies, sand-hills and foot-hills. 
In 1896 some 3196, and by 1905 fully 3300 species had been listed, 
" representing every branch and nearly every class of the vegetable 
kingdom " (C. E. Bessey). There are at least 64 trees and at least 
77 shrubs growing native in the state; but of their joint number a 
mere half-dozen or so can be classed as strictly endemic. Small 
woods of broad-leaf trees (and red cedars) grow very generally along 
all the water-courses of the state ; and coniferous species grow along 
Pine Ridge and the Wild Cat Mountains. In the East, various trees 
are readily grown on the uplands; in the West the honey-locust, the 
Osage orange and Russian mulberry for windbreaks; the green ash, 
and red cedar are perhaps the most valuable drought resisting 
species. The conifers are spreading naturally. In the sand-hills the 
sand-bar willow of the rivers and the cottonwoo.d growing naturally, 
evidence the good conditions of moisture; and the forestation of 
much of the region is undoubtedly possible. Forest reserves were 
established on the Dismal river in 1902 and millions of seedlings had 
been grown by 1906 for transplantation in Nebraska and other states 



NEBRASKA 



325 



of the Great Plains. Arbor Day (the loth of April) was instituted 
by the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture in 1872 at the instance of 
J. Sterling Morton, later secretary of agriculture of the United 
States (see ARBOR DAY). It has been yearly observed by the public 
schools of the state, and no state has done more than Nebraska for 
the forestation of its waste and prairie lands. In such a purely 
agricultural state a large wooded area is not desired. Plums, grapes 
and the dwarf " sand-cherry " (Prunus demissa) of the sand-hills 
are prominent among many wild fruits. The flora is decidedly rich 
in species as compared with other states, but less so in the number 
of individuals. Grasses are perhaps the most noteworthy vegetable 
forms. Nebraska claims a greater variety of native hay and forage 
species than grow in any other state of the Union. No less than 
200 grasses, at least 154 being wild or commonly cultivated, had been 
listed in 1904. Of the total 200 species 150 (130 indigenous) are valu- 
able for forage, 34 (20 indigenous) are classed economically as weeds, 
10 are non-indigenous cereals and 6 are ornamental. The short 
buffalo-grass was originally everywhere abundant, but it had practi- 
cally disappeared by 1890 from the eastern half of the state, and since 
then has steadily become more restricted in habitat. The native 
prairie grasses have been in considerable part displaced by grasses 
introduced from more humid regions. Weeds are very numerous 
(about 125); and some, notably the sand-bur (Soianum rostratum) 
cockle-bur, and tumble-weeds among indigenous, and the Russian 
thistle (Salsola tragus) and purslane among non-indigenous species, 
are agricultural pests. Nothing can surpass in beauty the rank 
grasses and bright flowers that grow on the lowlands and rolling 
uplands of a virgin prairie now hardly to be found in the state. 
The common sunflower (the most conspicuous weed of the state) 
and allied flowers, which spring up in myriads even in the midst of 
unbroken prairie wherever this is disturbed, line the roads with 
yellow bands from horizon to horizon, enclose the broken fields 
and choke waste places. 

Fauna. The fauna of the state is not known with the same 
thoroughness and detail as the flora, but it too is varied. This is 
notably true of birds and of insects. Of the latter there are 
probably 12,000 to 15,000 species, including 140 butterflies, at least 
180 grasshoppers, several hundred bees, &c. The so-called " grass 
hoppers," true locusts, have done great damage at times in Nebraska. 
About a third of all the species known in the United States are found 
within the state or close to its borders, and of these, 9 or 10 are so 
common that their increase under conditions favourable to their 
development may be a danger Such conditions are found in dry 
years, unfavourable to their chief parasitic enemies, favourable to 
their own breeding, and the cause of their migrations. There were 
locust plagues in 1874, 1876 and 1877. Fungus parasites have been 
used with some, but on the whole rather slight, success, and 
mechanical appliances with perhaps greater success, in combating 
these pests. Birds are more effective. As in the case of plants, 
western, eastern, northern and southern avian species meet in 
Nebraska. In 1905 some 415 to 420 species had been found within 
its borders, and more than half of these were known to nest in the 
state; 120 had been counted in the winter. The lakes of the sand- 
hills are the breeding-place less so as settlement increases of 
myriads of water-fowl. Before the advent of the white man Neb- 
raska was full of wild mammals, the buffalo, .elk, black and white 
tailed deer, antelope, bears, timber wolves, panthers (pumas), lynx, 
otter and mink being common. Almost all that remain are black 
bears, foxes, coyotes (prairie wolves), mink, musk-rats, raccoons and 
prairie dogs (or gophers). Antelope were not uncommon in the west 
and northwest until after 1890. The coyote is still so common even 
in the east as to be a nuisance to the farmer; in 1907 a bounty law 
was in force which provided for the payment of a state bounty of $5, 
on every grey wolf, $1-25 on every coyote and $1 on every lynx 
(wild cat). A few rodents have increased in numbers; the prairie 
dog especially is a pest in the alfalfa fields of the arid lands (as are 
pocket-gophers at places in the east). 

Climate. The climate of Nebraska is typically inland or contin- 
ental; i.e. it is characterized by " winters of considerable severity, 
summers of unusual warmth, rainfall in limited quantities, marked 
and sudden changes of temperature, large seasonal and daily tempera- 
ture ranges, and dry, salubrious atmosphere, with a small percentage 
of cloudiness, and a large percentage of sunshine." 1 The average 
wind velocity for the High Plains of Nebraska and adjoining states 
is about 10 to 12 m. ; 25 m. is not uncommon ; and a velocity of 40 m. 
and over is recorded a half-dozen or more times every year. In 
spring velocities of 15 to 20 m. are common. The average velocity 
of winds for the entire state for II years preceding 1906 was 9-8 m. 
per hour. The prevailing directions are those common to a large part 
of the western Mississippi valley. The prevailing wind of the year is 
N.W. ; but in the spring, the summer and much of the autumn its 
predominance is greatly reduced or overcome by S. and S.W. winds 
blowing from the Gulf of Mexico (but deflected by the rotation of the 
earth). Sometimes these winds blow in the winter causing the 
curious phenomenon of melting snows on the coldest days of the 
year; in the summer in seasons of drought, especially in the western 
part of the state, this wind from the GuK sometimes reaches Nebraska 

'Senate Executive Document 115 (vol. 10), 51 Congress, I 
-.sion (1890), Climate of Nebraska. 



wrung dry of its moisture and so hot that in a day or two it shrivels 
and ruins the crops in its path. Such calamities are, however, 
uncommon, and the belief that Nebraska is often visited by tornadoes 
is erroneous. 

The normal mean-annual temperature of the state is about 48-7 F, 
and the normals for the six approximately equal weather sections into 
which the state is divided by the National Weather Service are 
respectively about 48, 50-5, 48-6, 50-4, 47-9 and 46-6 F. This 
illustrates the extraordinary homogeneity of climatic conditions. 
But there is a considerable difference in the averages for different 
months the normal means of January and July through 30 years 
being 20-9 and 74-6 F., and the means of spring, summer, autumn 
and winter respectively about 48, 72, 53 and 23-5 F. Thus there 
is for any particular locality a wide range in absolute temperature 
through the year, which averages for the state probably about 120 
(1897-1905). Similarly, the range is large through the day, especially 
in the higher altitudes, where the nights are almost invariably cool 
and refreshing after even the hottest day. The number of continu- 
ous days with a mean temperature above 50 F., averages probably 
about 175 for the state. The actual growing-season between frosts 
is, however, not so great. Temperature is of course lower as one 
moves to the N. and N.W., the initial planting and harvesting of each 
crop progressing wave-like across the state in from one to two weeks. 
Especially in the W. and N.W. there are in some winters occasional 
anti-cyclonic or high-area storms known as blizzards wind-storms 
preceded or accompanied by snow-fall which are very severe. 
They continue from one to three days, and are habitually followed 
by very low temperature. They are the cause of great loss to 
the cattle owners. Such storms are, however, rare. In the S.E. 
portion of the state the winters are characteristically mild and open. 
Temperatures below zero are rare for any locality; and the same 
may be said of temperatures above 95 in summer. 

The normal mean-annual precipitation for the whole state is about 
23-84 in. in rain and melted snow, the actual yearly fall varying 
through 30 years between 13-30 and 31-65 in. Such rainfall might 
seem inadequate for an agricultural country: moreover, the eastern 
half of the state is more favoured than the western, which belongs, 
indeed, to the semi-arid Great Plains on which the Reclamation 
Service of the United States Government is active. But aridity is a 
matter of the efficiency rather than of the mere quantity of rainfall-, 
and in this regard Nebraska is very fortunately situated. Rain is 
most plenteous in the critical months of the year. Seven-tenths of 
all precipitation falls in the growing season, giving the state, especi- 
ally in the east, a greater amount at this time than many other states 
whose aggregate yearly rainfall is greater; so that Nebraska has an 
abundance for the safest cultivation. Moreover, nine-tenths of the 
rainfall is absorbed by the loess and sandy soils, only one-tenth being 
" run-off." It is a widely spread but unfounded belief in Nebraska 
that the rainfall has been increasing since the settlement of the 
state. That its storage has very greatly increased as cultivation has 
been extended (the prairie sod sheds water like a roof) is true; 
moreover, the spread of scientific principles of farming has increased 
the advantage derived from the ground-water stored. Efficient 
rainfall has thus been greatly increased. Intermittent streamlets 
may well become perennial, and many are probably, as reported, 
becoming so. It is even conceivable that the settlement of the state 
may affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation; and that an 
advantageous alteration has in fact resulted is believed by many. 

The climate of Nebraska is exceptionally healthy. Its beneficial 
qualities must be attributed to the state's inland situation, its dry 
and pure air, constant winds and splendid drainage, to which its 
even slope and peculiar soil alike contribute. In some people, 
however, nervousness is induced ; and the winds, in particular, often 
have this effect. Autumn is perhaps the finest season ; the fields are 
green into the winter, the air is pure and fresh, though dry and 
warm, and the long season is delightfully mild and beautiful. The 
arid portion, as compared with the eastern portion, of the state has 
alike the advantages and disadvantages of a climate more sharply 
characterized. 

Soil. Geologically Nebraska is one of the most typical agricultural 
states of the Union ; although in the present distribution of industrial 
interests agriculture is by no means so predominant as in some 
southern states. The basis of the soils is sands (coarse, fine or silt) ; 
clay beds, though economically important, are in quantity relatively 
scant. In the eastern half silt, and in the western fine sand, form the 
bulk of the soil. There are five well-defined soil regions correspond- 
ing to the geologic-topographic divisions already indicated of drift 
loess, sand-hills, foot-hills and Bad Lands. The loess is a " salt, fine 
saudy loam with a large percentage of sand or silt, and considerable 
calcareous matter, and usually a small amount of clay." It contains 
considerable humic matter, discolouring rapidly in the air (when 
exposed it is characteristically a bright buff). It is of extraordinary 
fertility, and its great depth (in Lincoln and Dawson counties bluffs 
200 ft. thick are found) is a guarantee of almost inexhaustible re- 
sources. The glacial drift is also a useful deposit, coarse ingredients 
in it being of small amount (rare boulders, and some gravel). The 
superficial soil over most of the state, and everywhere in the E. except 
rarely where the loess or drift is bare, is a rich, black vegetable mould, 
I to 5 ft. thick on the uplands. The sand-hills are not inherently 
infertile; the soil never bakes, is always receptive of moisture, 



326 



NEBRASKA 



absorbing water like a sponge and holding it well. There is a great 
amount of fertile valley land, adequately watered. Alfalfa and other 
cultivated grasses are encroaching on the whole region, and even the 
natural arid-land bunch grasses make excellent grazing. The 
" butte " soil of the W. is a line sandy r nl, characteristically cal- 
careous, derived from the Arikaree. With it also moisture is a great 
factor in its productivity. The Bad Lands are by no means infertile 
(their name, it should be noted, was originally Mauvaises terres d 
traverser) ; but they are almost destitute of ground water, though 
containing many green " pockets " where surface water can be 
stored. They contain much clay and marls, non-absorbent and 
subject to such excessive wash that vegetation cannot gain a foot- 
hold. In various parts of the west are small tracts of so-called 
" gumbo " soil; they are due to the Pierre shale, are poorly drained 
and characteristically alkaline. Small alkaline areas also occur about 
lakes in the sand-hills. Where surface water is adequate the regions 
of the Pierre shale make splendid grazing lands; but in general they 
are not very useful for agriculture. Salt lands occur about Salt Creek 
notably around Lincoln. The stream bottoms of alluvium are modi- 
fied by loess and humic deposits, and are of course very fertile; 
but hardly more so than the loess of the uplands. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is not only the chief industry but is 
also the foundation of the commerce and manufactures of the state. 
In 1900, of the total area 60-8% was reported as included in farms, 
and 37-5% as actually improved. The rank of the state in the 
Union was I3th in value of farm property, and loth in value of farm 
products. The farm value was $747,950,057, an increase since 1890 
of 46-1%; while the total product-value was $162,696,386 an 
increase (partly factitious) of 143-4 % in the same period. A greater 
part of the state was reported improved in 1890 than in 1900; the 
change was due to the increase of stock-raising in the West. Simi- 
larly, the size of the average farm increased from 156-9 acres in 1880 
to 190-1 in 1890, and 246-1 in 1900, although in eastern Nebraska 
there was a contrary tendency. Under the Kincaid law, which 
permits entire sections instead of quarter sections (160 acres) to be 
homesteaded, this movement has been fostered. In the years 1880 
1900 the number of farms operated by cash tenants rose from 3-1 to 
9-6%; of share tenants from 14-9 to 27-3% of the total. There is 
no appreciable tendency toward management for absentee owners. 
The census of 1900 showed that not less than two-fifths of the total 
net income came from live stock or from hay, grain and forage on 
farms representing together 96% of the farm- value of the state 
live stock being a trifle more important; dairying was similarly 
predominant for 1-6%, and beet-sugar for o-l %. Other crops were 
unimportant sources of revenue. Sugar-beet culture has developed 
since about 1889; it is localized largely in Lincoln county, near 
North Platte, though beets are raised over a large part (especially the 
western part) of the state. In 1907 about 11,000 acres were planted 
to sugar beets. The principal factory for the slicing of the beets 
is one built at Grand Island, Hall county, in 1890. The dairy 
interest is rapidly growing, but is still exceeded in other states. 
Omaha is a great dairy market. Nebraska ranks very high in the 
production of cattle and hogs. A fourth of all animal products are 
represented by milk, butter and cheese, eggs and poultry; the rest 
by animals killed on the farm or sold for slaughter, most of them 
going to supply the meat-packing industry of South Omaha. Wild, 
salt and prairie grasses make up the bulk of the forage acreage, but 
the cultivated crops especially millet and Hungarian grasses and 
alfalfa are more important. Holt county in the Elkhorn valley, 
and Sheridan county in the foot-hills, produce more than half the 
hay-crop of the state. Alfalfa can be grown with more or less success 
in every county of the state, not excepting areas where clay or sand 
form the sub-soil ; but on the uplands of the central part of the state 
it is produced with the greatest success and in the greatest quantities. 
In 1908, according to the reports of the state Board of Agriculture, 
the crop of Custer, Dawson and Buffalo counties was about 15% of 
the total crop (1,846,703 tons) of the state. The product was 
quintupled between 1899 and 1905, and between 1905 and 1908 the 
increase was about 40 %. It has been a great aid to western Nebraska 
as to other portions of the Great Plains. Sorghum and kafir corn are 
also excellent, and broom-corn fairly good, as drought-resistant 
crops; the last, which is of lessening importance, is localized in Cass, 
Saunders and Polk counties. Cereals are by far the most important 
crops, representing in 1899 four-fifths of farmed land and crop 
values. Allowing for variations in " off years," but speaking with 
as much exactness as is possible, Nebraska has established her 
position since about 1900 in the'third, fourth and fifth rank respec- 
tively among the states of the Union, in the production of Indian 
corn, wheat and oats. Of these, Indian corn is by far the most im- 
portant, representing normally about two-thirds of the total crop 
value; while wheat and oats each represented in 1906 about one- 
seventh of the total crop, and rye, barley, kafir-corn and buckwheat 
make up the small remainder. Indian corn is grown to some extent 
all over the state, except in the north-west, but the great bulk of the 
crop is produced east of the 99th meridian. It is rarely cut, but is 
left to mature and dry on the stalk in the field. The yearly yield in 
the decade 1895-1904, according to the most conservative state 
statistics, varied from 298,599,638 to 72,445,227 bushels, and the 
average was 178,941,084 bushels, or 190,773,957, omitting the failure 
of 1901 ; the yield per acre being similarly 26-35 or 2 7'9 bushels 



(12-4 in 1901) -, 1 in 1906 the crop was 249,782.500 bushels, and 
the average yield per acre 34-1 bushels; in 1907 the crop was 
179,328,000 bushels, and the average yield only 24 bushels per acre. 
According to the report of the state Board of Agriculture, Custer, 
Lancaster and Saunders counties produced the largest amounts 
(each more than 5,000,000 bushels) of Indian corn in 1908. Since 
1900 Nebraska has become one of the foremost winter wheat states, 
second only to Kansas. Little spring wheat is now sown except in 
the northern counties, the state being on the northern edge of the 
winter wheat belt. From 1880 to 1890 the acreage devoted to wheat 
greatly diminished, because the spring variety was not relatively 
remunerative, but the acreage trebled in the next decade as autumn 
planting increased. The winter varieties have the advantages of 
larger yield, earlier ripening and lesser loss from insects, and afford 
protection to the soil. The growth of durum (macaroni) wheat is 
also increasing, but is hampered by the uncertainty of market, which 
is for the most part foreign. The wheat crops of the decade 1895- 
1904 averaged 33,208,805 bushels a year; or ranged from a minimum 
of 9-8 to a maximum of 20-9, averaging 15-8 bushels to the acre; 
in 1906 the crop was 52,288,692 bushels, and the average yield 
22 bushels per acre; and in 1907 the crop was 45.911,000 bushels, 
and the average yield 18-1 bushels per acre. In 1908 Clay, Adams 
and Hamilton were the principal wheat-growing counties in the 
state. The corresponding figures for oats were: average yield for 
the decade, 48,145,185 (range, 28,287,707 in 1901 to 66,810,065 in 
1904); range of yield per acre, 17-9 to 34-0, and average 27-6 
bushels per acre; in 1906 the crop was 72,275,000 bushels and the 
average yield per acre 29.5 bushels; in 1907 the crop was 51,490,000 
bushels, and the average yield 20-4 bushels per acre. In the decade 
1890-1900 the state did not rise above the loth rank in the Union; 
after 1900 her rise was rapid. The same is even more markedly true 
of rye; in 1907 the crop was 1,502,000 bushels (from 88,400 acres), a 
yield exceeded in only five states in the country. Apples are raised in 
th% N.E. and S.E. sections of the state, and are much the most im- 
portant fruit grown. Peaches are next in importance, and horti- 
cultural enthusiasts believe that the possibilities ot this crop are very 
great. Other fruits are raised with much success, and in 1904 at 
St Louis the horticultural exhibit of the state led those of all other 
states in the medals received for excellence; but nevertheless its 
relative rank in the Union as a fruit-producing state is still low. 

In a period of 30 years (18691898) there were, according to the 
state Board of Agriculture, four seasons whose crops could reasonably 
be classed as failures, three more as " short," one as fair, eighteen as 
good, and four as great. Compared with adjoining states Iowa, 
Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas, Missouri- none shows a greater, 
if indeed any shows sc great an average value per acre in the yield 
of Indian corn, wheat, oats, barley and rye; and this despite the 
assumed handicap of the western half of the state. In fact the yield 
of this section relatively to cultivated acreage is normally fully equal 
to that of the eastern section; a result quite consistent with the 
scientifically proven fertility of semi-arid lands. The real handicap 
of the western counties would be shown in comparing aggregate yields 
per given area; for much land is normally inarable. Alfalfa, stock 
raising and dairying, afforestation, " dry-farming " and irrigation are, 
however, proving that the West can maintain prosperity by not 
relying upon ordinary agriculture. Alfalfa is not easily started, 
however, on the uplands of the extreme western part of the state; 
and dry-farming (the Campbell dust-mulch system) has the expensive- 
ness in labour of intensive cultivation. The above-mentioned 
delusion that climate is changing and adapting itself to agriculture, 
thus relieving the farmer of accommodating his methods to the 
climate, has considerably handicapped him in progress. Systematic 
experiments in dry-farming throughout the Great Plains were pro- 
vided for on a great scale by Congress in 1906. By attention to crop 
rotation, soil physics and world-wide search for plants adapted to the 
Great Plains (such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture has long 
been conducting), a very great deal can be accomplished no one 
can say how much; but certainly the Western must long remain at 
a great disadvantage in comparison with the Eastern portion of the 
state as regards the growth of cereals. 

Irrigation. Water for the western part of the state is a resource 
of primary importance, and irrigation therewith a fundamental 
problem. Very generally, especially in the butte regions, the country 
fends itself to the impounding of surface water. The lakes are of 
great importance for the stock ranges of the sand-hills. It is 
commonly believed that of underground water, and generally of 
artesian water, even the driest counties have an abundance. This is 
great exaggeration. Though both in central and western Nebraska 
there are strata that generally yield a considerable flow, the supply is 
usually limited and the expense is great. Up to 1906 dependence 
was mainly upon the streams, which it is estimated might furnish 
3 or 4 million acre-feet enough to irrigate between 10 and 15% 
of the arid section were all the water available, and the land 

1 Data of the State Bureau of Labor and Industrial Statistics, 
which are lower than those of the state Board of Agriculture, and 
(in census years) the Federal Census. The yearly average given by 
the Board of Agriculture for 1895-1904 is 219,196,000 bushels. 
The statistics for 1906 and 1907 are taken from the Year-books of the 
Department of Agriculture. 



NEBRASKA 



327 



irrigable. As compared with the streams of Colorado, where irriga- 
tion is much more advanced, the streams of Nebraska have a very 
constant flow; the relative supply-capacities of the Arkansas and 
Poudre in Colorado, and the Loup and North Platte in Nebraska 
being about as l-ooo, 1-193, 3'34? and 4-632 respectively, according 
to the estimates of the state engineer (Nebraska Public Documents 
1901-1902, vol. iii. p. 144). An irrigation law was first passed by 
Nebraska in 1895. One of the greatest improvement projects under- 
taken by the national Reclamation Service is one on the North 
Platte, begun in 1903, which contemplates a reservoir in Wyoming of 
sufficient capacity to store all the surplus waters of that stream, 
about 600 m. of canals, and the reclamation of 107,000 acres in 
Nebraska; it was 74% completed in 1909. The work of the national 
service began in Nebraska in 1902. Some farmers on the uplands 
between the valleys in western Nebraska irrigate by means of 
wind-mills, and although the underground water is 175 ft. or more 
below the surface one wind-mill often supplies sufficient water to 
irrigate ten acres. The extent of irrigated acreage increased about 
thirteen-f old from 1 889 to 1 899. In the latter year there were 1 701 m. 
of ditch costing about $751.00 per m., irrigating 148,538 acres, 
which yielded crops averaging $6.61 per acre in value. The greatest 
part of the irrigated acreage is in the valley of the North Platte and 
the Upper Platte probably nine-tenths in 1906 in Scotts Bluff, 
Lincoln, Cheyenne, Dawson, Keith and Deuef counties. There is, 
however, a large ditch in Platte county the farthest E. of any large 
ditch in the country; and though agriculture is normally quite 
" successful " here without irrigation, nevertheless it is more profit- 
able with it. In fact, in 1899 about a quarter of the irrigated acreage 
lay E. of the section classed as arid. 

Manufactures. The rank of Nebraska among the states of the 
Union in 1900 in population, in value of agricultural products, and in 
value of manufactured products, was respectively twenty-seventh, 
tenth and nineteenth. In the decade 1890-1900 the state increased 
the value of its manufactures somewhat more than half. The per 
capita product-values for agriculture and manufactures in 1000 were 
$153 and $135 (as compared with $63 and $88 in 1890). Only 
2-3% of the population were engaged in manufacturing in 1900. 
Of the total factory product (in 1900, $130,302,453; in 1905, 
$154,918,220), 84-7 % were urban (i.e. were for the three cities which 
in 1900 had a population of at least 8000) in 1900, and 81-7 in 1905; 
the percentage for these cities being 53-3 in 1900 and 43-5 in 1905 for 
South Omaha, 29-2 in 1900 and 34-9 in 1905 for Omaha, and 2-1 in 
1900 and 3-4 in 1905 for Lincoln; Nebraska City, Fremont, Grand 
Island, Beatrice, Hastings, Plattsmouth and Kearney were the only 
other manufacturing centres of any importance. In 1907 there was 
a beet-sugar factory at Grand Island; at Nebraska City there are 
several distinctive industries; at South Omaha very important 
meat-packing houses; and the other cities have interests rather 
extensive or varied than distinctive. As yet manufactures are 
insignificant except in lines immediately dependent upon agriculture, 
the combined output of the packing, flour and grist mill, dairy and 
malt-liquor establishments constituting in 1900 nine-tenths of the 
total state output. Meat-packing is by far the most important 
single interest, South Omaha being the third greatest packing centre 
of the country, employing in 1900 and in 1905 a quarter of all wage- 
earners and yielding nearly one-half the total product-value of the 
state ($71,018,339 in 1900; $69,243,468 in 1905). The malt- 
liquor industry is favoured by the great production of barley in 
Iowa; the value of malt liquors manufactured in 1900 was 
$i.433.5 OI > and in 1905 $1,663,788. Nebraska wheat, like that of 
Kansas, combines for milling the splendid qualities of winter wheat 
with those characteristic of grain grown on the edge of the semi-arid 
West; flour and grist-mill products were valued at $7,794,130 in 
1900 and at $12,190,303 in 1905. The first creamery in Nebraska 
was established in 1 88 1. A creamery at Lincoln is said to be the 
largest in the United States. Many co-operative dairies have per- 
sisted since the early days of farmers' granges. The value of 
cheese, butter and other dairy products was $2,253,893 in 1900 and 
$3,326,110 in 1905. Of manufactures not dependent upon agri- 
culture perhaps the most promising is that of brick and tile products 
(valued at $839,815 in 1900 and at $1,131,913 in 1905), and the 
largest in 1905 was the manufacture and repair of steam railway cars 
(valued at $2,624,461 in 1900 and at $4,394,685 in 1905). 

Communications. There is no longer any river navigation. There 
were 6,101-5 m. of railway in the state at the end of 1907; the great 
period of railway building was 1870-1890, the mileage in 1870 being 
705, in 1880, 1953, and in 1890, 5407. The eastern half of the state 
is much better covered by railways than the western. Six great east 
and west trunk-lines connecting the Rocky Mountain region and 
Chicago enter the state at Omaha (q.v.), and two others, giving rather 
an outlet southward, enter the same city and serve the eastern part 

the state. In 1908 all but 5 counties out of 90 had railway outlets. 

A marked tendency toward north and south railway lines is of great 

romise to the state, as outlets towards the Gulf of Mexico are im- 

'rtant, especially for local freight. Omaha and Lincoln are Federal 
ports of entry for customs. 

Population. In 1900 the population of the state was 1,066,300 
and m 1910, 1,192,214. In 1900 16-6% were foreign-born, 



and 43-3% natives of other states than Nebraska. The latter 
came mainly from the north-central states. Of the foreigners, 
Germans, Scandinavians and British (including English Canadians) 
made up four-fifths of the total. The most numerous individual 
races were Germans (65,506), Swedes (24,693), Bohemians 
(16,138), Danes (12,531), Irish (11,127), English (9757), Russians 
(8083) and English Canadians (8010). In 1900 three cities 
had a population above 25,000 Omaha, 102,555; Lincoln, 
40,169; South Omaha, 26,001 and seven others had a popula- 
tion between 5000 and 8000 Beatrice, Grand Island, Nebraska 
City, Fremont, Hastings, Kearney and York. The population 
of Nebraska was 28,841 in 1860, 122,993 in 1870, 452,402 in 
1880 and 1,062,656 in 1890. The increases of population 
by decades following 1860 were 326-5, 267-8, 134-1, 0-3, and 
n-8%. From 1880-1890 the absolute increase was exceeded 
in only four states, and was greater than in any state W. of 
the Mississippi except the enormous state of Texas; from 
1890-1900 it was less than in any state of the Union except 
Nevada (whose population decreased). In this decade 35 
counties out of 90 in the state showed a decrease: the shrinkage 
was mainly in the first half of the decade, and was due to the 
cumulative effects of national hard times, a reaction from 
an extraordinarily inflated land " boom " of the late 'eighties, 
and a remarkable succession of drought years, and consequent 
crop failure in the West. Between 1885 and 1895 Kansas and 
Colorado went through much the same experience, due to a too 
rapid settlement of their arid areas before the conditions of 
successful agriculture were properly understood. Many homes, 
and even small settlements in Nebraska though not to the 
same extent as in Colorado and Kansas were abandoned. 
Urban population (the population in places having 4000 or 
more inhabitants) also fell, constituting 25-8% in 1890, and in 
1900 only 20-8% of the total population of the state. In the 
case of some cities that showed a great decrease (e.g. Lincoln 
27-2%, and Omaha 27%) notoriously "padded" censuses 
in 1890 were in part responsible for the bad showing ten years 
later. 

In 1906 there were in the state 345,803 communicants of 
various religious denominations; of these 100,763 were Roman 
Catholics, 64,352 Methodists, 59,485 Lutherans, 23,862 Presby- 
terians, 19,121 Disciples of Christ, 17,939 Baptists and 15,247 
Congregationalists. 

In 1890 there were in the state 2893 untaxed and 3538 
taxed Indians, the latter being citizens; in 1900 there were 
3,322 altogether, all of them taxed; and in 1008 there were 
3720, of whom 1270 were Omaha, 1116 Santee Sioux, 1060 
Winnebago and 274 Ponca. 

Among the Indians who occupied Nebraska immediately before the 
advent of the whites and thereafter, the only families of much im- 
portance in the state's history were the Caddoan and the Siouan. 
The Caddoan family was represented by the Middle or Pawnee 
Confederacy; the Siouan family by its Dakota, Thegiha, Chiwere 
and Winnebago branches. Included in the Dakota branch were the 
Santee and Teton tribes, the latter comprising the Brul6, Blackfeet 
and Oglala Indians; in the Thegiha branch were the Omaha and 
Ponca tribes; and in the Chiwere branch, the Iowa, Oto and the 
Missouri tribes. Other tribes were of less importance; and tribes of 
other families with the exception of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes 
of the Algonquian family, whose permanent hunting grounds em- 
braced the foot-hill country of the West were of negligible im- 
portance, being only reamers within the borders of the state. The 
Pawnees contested the plains against the Sioux with undying 
enmity. Before the Civil War there were no very general troubles 
between Indians and whites, despite constant frontier difficulties, 
except the bloodless " Pawnee War " of 1859-60; but in 1863- 
64 the Indians rose rather generally along the frontier, and many 
settlers were killed. In 1890-91 there was another war with the 
Sioux marked by the battle of Wounded Knee, just across the line 
in South Dakota. In dealings with the Indians there have been in 
Nebraska the usual discreditable features of administration. The 
maltreatment of the Poncas, a fine and peaceable tribe, was peculiarly 
and inexcusably harsh. Segregation on reservations was generally 
accomplished in 18701880. There were in 1900 small reservations 
for Omahas and Winnebagoes in Thurston county and for the Sioux 
in Sheridan county, and an agency for the Santees and Poncas near 
the mouth of the Niobrara; and at Genoa, where the Pawnee agency 
and reservation had been located, there was in 1908 an Indian school 
maintained by the United States government with 350 boarding 



3 28 



NEBRASKA 



pupils. In 1908, however, ajmost all the tribal lands had been distri- 
buted in severally: the Niobrara Reservation (under the Santee 
government boarding school for the Santee Sioux and the Ponca) had 
only 1130-7 acres reserved for agency, school and mission purposes; 
the Ponca Reservation (under the same school) had only 1 60 acres 
reserved for agency and school buildings; the Omaha Reservation 
(under the Omaha School) had 12,421 acres unallotted; the Sioux 
Reservation (under the Pine Ridge Agency) for Oglala Sioux had 
640 acres; and the Winnebago Reservation (under the Winnebago 
School) had 1710-8 acres unallotted and 480 reserved for agency, &c. 
Government. The present constitution, adopted in 1875, 
replaced one adopted in 1866. In 1871 a convention framed 
a constitution that was rejected by the people. It provided 
for compulsory education, and for the taxation of church 
property; prohibited the grant by counties or cities of financial 
aid to railway or other corporations, and enjoined that railways 
should have an easement only in their right of way. The last 
two provisions were mainly responsible for the defeat of the 
constitution. The instrument of 1875 presents a few variations 
from the normal type, and under it a few interesting problems 
have arisen. The constitution provides two methods for amend- 
ment. A convention for revising or amending the constitution 
is to be held in case a recommendation to that effect made by the 
legislature (a three-fifths vote of all the members of each house 
being required) is accepted by a majority of the electors voting 
at the next election for members of the legislature, but no 
amendment agreed upon by the convention is to take effect until 
approved by a majority of electors voting on it. Without 
calling a convention, however, the legislature may, by a three- 
fifths vote of all the members of each house, adopt an amendment, 
which is to come into effect only if approved by a majority 
of electors voting at the next election of senators and repre- 
sentatives the publication of the proposed amendment in some 
newspaper in each county once a week for three months before 
the election being required. This has been interpreted by the 
courts as requiring a majority of the votes actually cast for 
senators and representatives. As there is less interest in amend- 
ments than in the election of members of the legislature, only 
two out of a large number of amendments proposed from time 
to time by three-fifths of the members elected to each house 
have been adopted. The first of these, increasing the pay per 
day to the members of the legislature and providing for longer 
sessions, 1 was declared lost by the official canvassers, but when 
(1886) the ballots had been recounted by the legislature it was 
declared adopted. The second (1906), creating a railway com- 
mission, was endorsed by a political party in state convention, 
was printed on the same ballot-paper with the names of the 
party candidates for office in order to secure for it all " straight " 
party votes, and by this procedure, which was upheld by the 
state supreme court in 1907, it was adopted. All male persons 
who are citizens of the United States or have declared their 
intention to become such at least thirty days before an election 
have the right of suffrage provided they have attained the age 
of twenty-one years, have resided in the state six months, are 
not of unsound mind, and have not been convicted of treason 
or felony. Women who have either children or taxable property 
may vote on questions relating to schools. The general election 
of state and local officers is held annually on the first Tuesday 
succeeding the first Monday in November, but municipal and 
school district elections may be held at other times. The secret 
ballot was adopted in 1891; the use of the voting machines 
was authorized in 1899; and the nomination of candidates 
by primaries was made mandatory in 1907. By a provision 
unique in 1875, the constitution authorized the legislature 
to provide that the electors might express their preferences 
for United States senators; but this was not treated as mandatory 
on the legislature, and though votes were at times taken (1886, 
1 894), they were not officially canvassed, nor were any senatorial 

1 The amendment increased the pay of members from three dollars 
to five dollars a day " during their sitting," and provided that sessions 
should last at least sixty days, and that members should not receive 
pay " for more than sixty days at any one sitting " ; the original 
constitution had provided that they should " not receive pay for 
more than forty days at any one session " and had prescribed no 
minimum length for a session. 



elections materially affected by them. In 1907, under a direct 
primary law, the nomination of candidates for United States 
senator was transferred from the party convention directly 
to the people; and in 1909 the " Oregon plan " was adopted, 
whereby each candidate for the legislature must go on record 
as promising, or not, always to vote for the people's choice 
for United States senator; on the ballot which bears the name 
of each candidate for the legislature there appears a statement 
that he " promises," or that he " will not promise," to vote 
for the " people's choice." In the same year the state 
enacted a law providing for the non-partisan nomination of all 
judges, of all superintendents of public instruction and of 
regents of the state university; nominations are by petition, 
and there is a separate " official non-partisan ballot " bearing 
the names and addresses of the nominees and the titles of the 
office for which they are nominated. The legislature of 1909 
also provided for open election primaries and for the framing 
of state party platforms by convention before the time of the 
primary. 

The governor is the chief executive officer of the state, but quite 
independent of him are a lieutenant-governor, a secretary of state, 
an auditor of public accounts, a treasurer, a superintendent of public 
instruction, an attorney-general and a commissioner of public lands 
and buildings, who, as well as the governor, are elected for a term of 
two years. The governor's appointing power is almost entirely 
limited to officers of state institutions, and for every appointment 
he makes the approval of the Senate is required; but he need not 
ask the consent of that body to remove for incompetency, neglect of 
duty or malfeasance in office " any officer whom he may appoint." 
His constitutional power to pardon is regulated by an act of the 
legislature (1907) which requires that he shall in no instance grant a 
pardon until the attorney-general shall have investigated the case and 
conducted a public hearing. His veto power extends to items in 
appropriation bills, but any bill or item may be passed over his veto 
by three-fifths of the members elected to each house of the legis- 
lature. The most important board of which he is chairman is the 
state board of equalization. As the present constitution was adopted 
in the year after a grasshopper plague, which had caused great 
financial loss, it limited the salary of the governor, auditor of public 
accounts and treasurer, as well as that of the judges of the supreme 
and district courts, to $2500 each and that of other important 
officers (including the secretary of state, the attorney-general and 
the superintendent of public instruction) to $2000. This economy 
has somewhat hampered the growing state. Salaries have been too 
low to attract the ablest men; and as the constitution forbade the 
creation of new offices, and no amendment of this clause could be 
secured, resort was had to the creation of additional " secretaries " 
and of boards constituted of existing state officials or their secretaries. 

The legislature consists of a Senate of 33 members and a House of 
Representatives of 100 members, and meets in regular session on the 
first Tuesday in January of every odd-numbered year at Lincoln, the 
capital. Both senators and representatives are apportioned accord- 
ing to population, and are elected by districts in November of each 
even-numbered year for a term of two years. They are paid at the 
rate of five dollars a day during 60 days of a regular session and not 
exceeding 100 days during their entire term. No bill or joint resolu- 
tion may be introduced at a regular session after its fortieth day 
except at the request of the governor. Special legislation of various 
kinds is expressly prohibited, and in the bill of rights it Is declared 
that " all powers not herein delegated remain with the people." 
This clause would seem to leave the state government with no powers 
not expressly granted, and to make the rule for interpreting the 
Nebraska constitution similar to that for interpreting the Federal 
constitution; but in their practice the Nebraska courts have been 
little influenced by it, and it is chiefly of historical interest. 1 

The administration of justice is vested in a supreme court, 15 
district courts, county courts and courts of justices of the peace and 
police magistrates. The supreme court consists of three judges 
elected for a term of six years, one retiring every two years; each 
district court consists of one to seven judges elected for a term of four 
years, and each county court consists of one judge elected for a term 
of two years. The county courts have exclusive original jurisdiction 
in the probate of wills and the administration of estates, concurrent 
jurisdiction with the district courts in civil suits for sums not ex- 
ceeding $1000, and important jurisdiction in criminal cases. Perhaps 
the most unique provision of the Nebraska constitution is that 



5 An almost identical clause was inserted in the Ohio constitution 
of 1802, and one in exactly the same language appears in the present 
(1851) constitution of that state; it appears also in the Kansas 
constitutions of 1855, 1858 and 1859 (present), in the Nebraska 
constitution of 1866, in the North Carolina and South Carolina 
constitutions of 1868, and was retained in the present constitution of 
North Carolina as amended ia 1876. 




NEBRASKA 



329 



relating to appeals; it appears in the bill of rights and reads as 
follows: " The right to be heard in all civil cases in the court of last 
resort, by appeal, error or otherwise, shall not be denied." Regard- 
less of this provision, however, the civil code denies the right of an 
appeal from an inferior court in cases that have been tried by a jury, 
and in which the amount claimed does not exceed $20, and the courts 
have decided that this denial is not in conflict with the constitution ; 
but in at least one instance an appeal was allowed because of the 
constitutional guaranty, and that guaranty has doubtless had much 
influence on judicial legislation. 

County government exists under both the district-commissioner 
system and the township supervisor system, the latter being rare. 
Cities are governed in classes according to population. 

Except in Omaha there is no great field for social economic legis- 
lation; bjt the record of the state has been normally good in this 
respect. Railways have given rise to the most notable laws. Regu- 
lation has been a burning political question since 1876, the constitu- 
tion making it the duty of the legislature to " correct abuses and 
prevent unjust discriminations and extortions in all charges of 
express, telegraph and railroad companies " within the state. The 
influence of the railways has been very great, and a constant drag 
on just taxation and other legislative reforms. In 1885, 1887 and 
1897 the legislature created a Board of Transportation consisting of 
existing state executive officers or their secretaries, but this could do 
little except gather statistics, investigate alleged abuses, and advise 
the legislature, upon which the regulation of rates remained man- 
datory by the constitution. The Board was eventually declared 
unconstitutional by the state supreme court. In 1893 a maximum 
freight-rate Act was passed, but the rates thus fixed were declared 
by the United States Supreme Court to conflict with the Fourteenth 
Amendment, being " unreasonable." The right of the state to fix 
" reasonable " rates remained unquestioned, but American ex- 
perience has not found such laws efficacious. In 1906 all political 
parties conducted campaigns on promises of radical legislation on 
railway rates, passenger and freight; and a constitutional amend- 
ment creating a railway commission was adopted in the manner 
above described. A result of this campaign was a remarkable series 
of enactments in 1907 for the regulation of railways. The legislature 
framed a stringent anti-pass law, reduced passenger fares and express 
and freight charges, provided for equitable local taxation of railway 
terminals, regulated railway labour in the interest of safe travel, fixed 
upon railways the responsibility for the death or injury of their 
employes, and gave to the newly-created railway commission 
complete jurisdiction over all steam-railways in the state, over the 
street railways of the cities, and over express companies, telegraph 
companies, telephone companies and all other common carriers. 
In 1909 provision was made for an annual corporation licence tax 
and for the physical valuation of railways. In the same year, 
following the example of Oklahoma, Nebraska passed a law 
guaranteeing bank deposits from a fund created by an assessment on 
the basis of total deposits. Useful child-labour and pure-food laws 
were enacted in 1907. Prohibition of the liquor traffic had been 
established in the Territory in 1855, but liquor licences were intro- 
duced in 1858; in 1909 the licence fee was fixed at $1000. A law 
enacted in 1907 made it illegal for breweries to own retail liquor 
houses, and one of 1909 required all saloons to close from 8 P.M. to 
7 A.M. A homestead law exempts from judgment liens and forced 
sale a homestead not exceeding $2000 in value and consisting either 
of a farm not exceeding 160 acres or of property not exceeding two 
lots in a city or village ; the exemption, however, does not extend to 
mechanics', labourers' or vendors liens upon said homestead or to a 
mortgage upon it that has been signed by both husband and wife or 
by an unmarried claimant. A woman's rights to her property are not 
affected by marriage, except that it becomes liable for payment of 
debts contracted for necessaries to the family when a judgment 
against the husband for the payment of the same cannot be satisfied. 
The rights of dower and courtesy have been abolished, and husband 
and wife have instead equal rights to inherit property from the 
other; but the portion of the property of a deceased spouse that 
descends to the survivor varies from one-fourth to all according to 
whose and how many are the children concerned. The grounds for a 
divorce are adultery, incompetency at the time of marriage, sentence 
to imprisonment for a term of three years or more, abandonment 
without just cause for two years, habitual drunkenness, extreme 
cruelty, and refusal or neglect of the husband to provide a suitable 
maintenance for his wife. The period of residence in the state re- 
quired to secure a divorce was formerly six months, but in 1909 it 
was made two years. 

Finance. The constitution limited the debt that the state might 
contract to meet casual deficits to $100,000, unless in time of war, 
and required taxes to be laid to maintain interest on such debt 
(bonds). These provisions were construed to mean that not more 
than $100,000 of debt could be contracted in addition to appropria- 
tions made by the legislature. There was from the beginning a 
constant issue of state " warrants " on the general fund, dependent on 
taxation. These warrants when issued and presented for payment 
were paid by the state treasurer, were sold to the permanent school 
fund, and drew 4% interest until cancelled from the general fund. 
The floating debt of warrants was practically cancelled in 1909, after 
a one-mill levy for four years for this purpose. Since 1900 there has 



been no bonded debt whatever. The constitution also prohibited 
state aid to railways and other corporations, leaving this to cities 
and counties under limitations. In 1903 the assessed valuation of 
property was $188,458,379; in 1905, $304,470,961; in 1906, 
$313,060,301; in 1907, $328,757,578, and m 1908, $391.529-673. 
The increase was due largely to a new revenue law of 1903 ordering 
property to be assessed at one-fifth of its actual value. The average 
tax-rate in the year 1904 was 6| mills; in 1905, 1906 and 1907, 7 
mills; and in 1908, 6} mills. 

Education. The public schools have been endowed by the United 
States, beginning in 1854, and by the state; in 1909 the permanent 
school funds derived from the sale of educational lands amounted to 
$8,450,557, invested in state securities, county, school district and 
municipal bonds. The percentage of illiterate population (i.e. popu- 
lation unable to write) above 10 years of age was in 1880 and 1890 
smaller than that in any other state in the Union, and in 1900, when 
it was 2-3% (for native whites, foreign whites and negroes re- 
spectively 0-8, 6-8 and n-8), was smaller than that in any other state 
except Iowa (whose percentage was also 2-3); the percentage for 
males of voting age (2-5 %) being the least in the Union. There are 
four state normal schools one at Peru (opened 1867), one at 
Kearney (1905), one at Wayne (originally private; purchased by the 
state in 1909) and one, provided for by the legislature of 1909, 
situated in the north-western part of the state. The university of 
Nebraska at Lincoln was established in 1869 by an act of the state 
legislature, and was opened in 1871. The university is governed by 
a board of six regents, elected by the electors of the state at large, 
each for six years, two going out of office each year. The revenue of 
the university is from the income of Congressional land grants under 
the Morrill Acts and from a one mill per one dollar tax on the current 
assessment roll of the state. 1 Connected with it and governed by 
the same regents are the State College of Agriculture (including the 
School of Agriculture) and the Agricultural Experiment Station, 
on the university farm of 320 acres, 2j m. E. of the university, 
which receive support from the United States government, and an 
experimental sub-station at North Platte. The botanical and 
geological surveys of the state are carried on by the university; the 
former has been largely under the supervision of Charles Edwin 
Bessey (b. 1845), professor of botany. The university as reorganized 
in 1909 embraces a college of arts and sciences, a graduate college, 
a college cf agriculture, a college of engineering, a teachers' college 
(1908), a college of law (1891), a college of medicine, a school of 
pharmacy, a school of fine arts, an affiliated school of music and a 
summer session. The medical school is in Omaha. The university 
has no preparatory department. Its library in 1909 had about 
85,000 volumes. In 1908-1909 the university had an enrolment of 
3611 students (2077 men and 1534 women). The granting of uni- 
versity degrees is conditioned by a "credit-hour" system; 125 
credit hours are required for a bachelor's degree. Elisha Benjamin 
Andrews 2 (b. 1844) became chancellor of the university in 1900; 
in 1909 he was succeeded by Samuel Avery (b. 1865). Most of the 
educational institutions of the state are coeducational. Among the 
private educational institutions of the state are : Nebraska Wesleyan 
University (1888, Methodist Episcopal), at University Place, a 
suburb of Lincoln; Union College (1891, Adventist), at College View, 
suburb of Lincoln; Creighton University (1879, Roman Catholic), 
at Omaha; York College (1890, United Baptist), at York; Cotner 
University (1889; legally "The Nebraska Christian University"), 
at Bethany, a suburb of Lincoln; Grand Island College (1892, 
Baptist), at Grand Island; Doane College (1872, Congregational), at 
Crete; Hastings College (1882, Presbyterian), at Hastings; and 
Bellevue College (1883, Presbyterian), at Bellevue. State penal and 
charitable institutions include soldiers' and sailors' homes at Grand 
Island and Milford, an Institute for the Blind at Nebraska City 
(1875), an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb at Omaha (1867), an 
Institute for Feeble Minded Youth at Beatrice (1885), an Industrial 
School for Juvenile Delinquents (boys) at Kearney (1879), a Girls' 
Industrial School at Geneva (1881), an Industrial Home at Milford 
(1887) for unfortunate and homeless girls guilty of a first offence, 
asylums or hospitals for the insane at Lincoln (1869), Norfolk (1886) 
and Hastings (1887), an Orthopedic Hospital (1905) for crippled, 
ruptured and deformed children and a state penitentiary (1867), 
both at Lincoln. A Home for the Friendless, at Lincoln, incor- 
porated in 1876, was taken over by the_ state in 1897; admission 
was restricted to children, and in 1909 its name was changed to 
the State Public School. 

1 In 1909 the state legislature refused to accept for the university 
the Carnegie education pensions. 

2 He was born in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the loth of January 
1844; served in the Union army during the Civil War; graduated 
at Brown University in 1870 and at Newton Theological Institution 
in 1874; taught homiletics at Newton in 1879-1882, history and 
economics at Brown in i882-i888,and political economy and finance 
at Cornell in 1888-1889; and was president of Brown University 
in 1889-1898. He was an ardent bi-metallist, and in 1892 was a 
member of the International Monetary Conference at Brussels. 
He wrote on the currency question, and published a History of the 
United States in our Own Times (1904) and other works on American 
history and economics. 



330 



NEBRASKA 



History. Local pride has prompted some Nebraskans to 
begin the history of the white race in their state with the march 
of Coronado, in 1541, across the buffalo plains to " Quivira," 
N. of the Arkansas river in Kansas ; but the claim is not warranted 
by the evidence. Marquette mapped the Platte from hearsay 
in 1673; French explorers followed it to the Forks in 1739; 
and, after Nebraska passed to the United States in 1803 as part 
of the Louisiana Purchase, successive American exploring 
expeditions left traces in its history. Major Stephen H. Long, 
in particular, followed the Platte and South Platte across the 
state in 1819, and his despairing account of the semi-arid buffalo 
plains whence arose the myth of the Great American Desert 
finely contrasts with the later history and latter-day optimism 
of dry-farming and irrigation. Meanwhile, fur traders who drew 
their goods from the country of the Platte had long been active 
on the Missouri. Trading posts were probably established in 
Nebraska in 1795, 1802, 1807 and 1812; the last two near 
the present towns of Ft. Calhoun (about 20 m. N. by W. from 
Omaha) and Bellevue. Manuel de Lisa, a noted Cuban trader 
and plainsman, was probably the first white settler (1807). 
In 1823 Bellevue became an Indian agency, and in 1849 the 
first United States post-office in Nebraska. Ft. Atkinson was 
maintained near the present town of Ft. Calhoun in 1819-1827; 
in 1825 the government acquired the first Indian lands, and 
in the 'thirties of the igth century missionaries began to settle 
among the tribes; the first Ft. Kearney was maintained where 
Nebraska City now stands in 1847-1848, and in the latter year 
was re-established on the Platte, some 175 m. inland from the 
Missouri. Meanwhile there had begun the passage of the Mormons 
across the state (1845-1857), marked by important temporary 
settlements near Omaha (q.v.) and elsewhere, the travel to Oregon, 
and to California, for which dep6ts of supplies were established 
at Bellevue, Plattsmouth, Nebraska City and old Ft. Kearney, 
or Dobey Town. 1 Thus the country was well and favourably 
known before Congress organized it as a Territory in 1854. 

Movements in Congress for the creation of a new Territory 
on the Platte began in 1844, several attempts at organization 
failing in the succeeding decade. In 1852-1853 lowans and 
Missourians along the border of what are now Kansas and 
Nebraska held elections W. of the Missouri and sent delegates 
to Congress. A provisional Territorial government formed 
by Wyandot Indians and licensed white residents on Indian 
lands in Kansas (q.v.) forced Congress to take action. With 
what followed, the rivalry of the Platte and Kansas river valleys 
for the Pacific railway route, and the opposing interests of 
pro-slavery Missouri and anti-slavery Iowa, and possibly the 
personal ambitions of Stephen A. Douglas and Thomas H. 
Benton, had important relations. In the outcome Nebraska 
was one of the two Territories created by the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill of 1854. This creative act bore evident traces of the pro- 
slavery sentiments of the Congress that passed it in the limitation 
of the suffrage to whites, and the explicit application of the 
national fugitive-slave laws for the last time in a federal statute. 
Under the provision of " popular-sovereignty " it was thought 
that Nebraska, as the more northerly Territory, would become 
a " free " state, if not a free Territory. There were slaves 
within its borders from the beginning, and anti-slavery ideas 
were embodied in several legislative bills, until a territorial 
law of 1861 excluded slavery. But the future of slavery was 
settled in Kansas, and events in Nebraska throw only a small 
side-light on that struggle. John Brown and James H. Lane 
spent considerable time in the south-eastern counties, and 
across these an " underground railroad " ran, by which slaves 
were conducted from Kansas to Iowa and freedom. 

As organized in 1854 Nebraska extended from 40 N. lat. 
to British America, and from the Missouri and White Earth 
rivers to the " summit " of the Rockies; but in 1861 and 1863 
it was reduced, by the creation of other Territories, to its present 
boundaries. By 1860 settlement had spread 150 m. W. from 

' In 18 months of 1849-1850 it was officially reported that 8000 
wagons, with 80,000 draught-animals and 30,000 people, passed 
Ft. Kearney on the way to Oregon, California or Utan. 



the Missouri, following the river valleys and the freighting 
routes. Many who had migrated to Pike's Peak in 1859, stopped 
in Nebraska on their return eastward; and settlement was 
stimulated by the national Homestead Act of 1862 (one of the 
first patents granted thereunder, on the ist of January 1863, 
was for a claim near Beatrice, Nebraska), and by the building 
and land-sales of the Union Pacific and Burlington railways 
following 1863. Thus in 1861 there were probably 30,000 
inhabitants in the Territory, and 3300 men were sent into the 
field for the Union army in the Civil War. Until well into the 
'sixties freighting across the plains was a great business. The 
"Oregon Trail," the "Old California Trail," and the "Old Salt 
Lake Trail " all nearly identical in Nebraska ran along the 
Platte across the entire state with various terminal branches 
near the eastern border, to the Missouri river towns; while 
branches from St Joseph, Missouri and Leavenworth, Kansas, 
ran up the valleys of the Big Blue and Little Blue rivers and 
joined the Nebraska roads near Ft. Kearney. The Oregon and 
California migration was of large magnitude by 1846. St Joseph, 
Leavenworth and Nebraska City (<?..) were the great freighting 
terminals of the West. Over these roads was run in 1860-1861 
the famous " pony express " whose service ended with the com- 
pletion of the overland telegraph in the latter year; it covered 
the distance from St Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, 
in eight days, and even less. Freighting ended when the Union 
Pacific was extended across Nebraska between 1863 and 1867. 

Political interest in the Territorial period centred mainly 
in a fight for the capital, waged between the towns of the 
Missouri river front, Bellevue, Brownville, Nebraska City, 
Plattsmouth, Omaha and Florence, those of the North Platte 
interior, and of the South Platte. This struggle engendered 
extraordinary bitterness, since success might mean continued 
life, and defeat prompt demise, to competing towns. As popula- 
tion increased the question of the capital was complicated by 
the question of statehood. Both were involved in the agitation 
in 1858-1859 for the annexation of the South Platte to Kansas 
(q.v.), which gained considerable strength; annexation promising 
to the former much earlier statehood than continued union 
with the backward region of the North Platte, and to northern 
Kansas also promising earlier statehood, and an advantage 
in the sectional struggle with southern Kansas. As the expenses 
of Territorial government were partly borne by the United 
States, statehood was voted against in 1860, and again (virtually) 
in 1864 after Congress had passed an Enabling Act; but in 

1866 a constitution framed by the legislature was declared 
carried by the people by a majority of 100 votes in 7776, and 
Nebraska was admitted as a state (in spite of President Johnson's 
veto) in 1867, after her legislature had accepted a fundamental 
condition imposed by Congress removing the limitation of the 
suffrage to whites by the new constitution. Fraud was charged 
in the Territorial election. At any rate the Republican party 
had worked for admission because it needed senators in Congress, 
and it got them. During part of 18661867 there were two 
de facto governments, the Territorial and the state. 

The capital of the Territory remained always at Omaha, 
although in 1858 a majority of the legislature removed to Florence 
leaving the governor and a legislative rump at Omaha. In 

1867 the South Platte region, having obtained a predominance 
in population capable of overcoming a gerrymander that had 
favoured the North Platte (and incidentally the Democrats), 
secured the appointment of a legislative committee to locate 
the state capital S. of the Platte. Several of the old Missouri 
river contestants had as representatives of their previous 
claims young towns located at strategic points in the interior. 
The committee avoided these and selected the site of Lincoln. 
Just ten years earlier the legislature had considered removal 
to another site on the Salt, to be called " Douglas " in honour 
of Stephen A. Douglas, then still in the heyday of his popularity. 

The decade 1870-1880 was marked by the work of the two 
constitutional conventions described above. The first legislature 
under the constitution of 1875 met in 1877. The following 
decade was marked by a tremendous growth in population, 






NEBRASKA CITY NEBUCHADREZZAR 



33 1 



by a feverish activity in railway construction (the mileage 
in the state being increased from 1953 to 5407 m. in the ten 
years), and by an extraordinary rise in land values, urban and 
rural. Farm-land prices were raised to a basis of maximum 
productiveness when the best interests, especially of the western 
section, demanded steady growth based on average crop results 
under average conditions. The early 'nineties were marked 
by an economic collapse of false values, and succeeding years 
by a painful recovery of stable conditions. 

The Democratic and Republican parties were first effectively 
organized in opposition, as parts of national bodies, in the 
territorial campaigns of 1858. Till then there were practically 
only Democratic factions; after 1861 the Republicans held 
the state securely until 1890. After about 1890 the national 
tendencies towards a re-alignment of political parties on social- 
economic issues were sharply displayed in Nebraska. This 
was in the main only an indication of the general Farmers' 
Movement (q.v.), 1 but this found in Nebraska special stimulus 
in large losses (almost $900,000) suffered by the state from 
the negligence and defalcation of certain Republican office- 
holders. Following 1890 the " Fusion " movement the fusion, 
that is, of Populists, Democrats and (after 1896) of Silver 
Republicans was of great importance. The only year in which 
these elements carried the state against the Republicans for 
presidential electors was in 1896, when William J. Bryan of 
Lincoln was their presidential candidate; although the state 
delegation of representatives and senators in Congress was 
for a time divided. The Fusionists practically controlled the 
state government from 1897-1899; they held the legislature from 
1891-1895 and from 1897-1899, the supreme court from 1899- 
1901, and the governorship and executive departments from 
1895-1901; they elected a Democratic governor also for 1891- 
1893; but he was not of the true Fusion type, and vetoed a 
maximum railway freight-rate bill, although his Republican 
successor approved one. The year 1891 was the most feverish 
political year of this period. Apart from these temporary Fusion 
successes the Republicans have always controlled the state. 

The governors of Nebraska have been as follows : 
Territorial Period. 

Francis Burt II days, Oct. 1854 

Thomas B.Cuming (secretary, acting governor) Oct. l854~Feb. 1855 

Mark W. Izard Feb. i8ss-Oct. 1857 

Thomas B.Cuming (secretary, acting governor) Oct. 1857- Jan. 1858 
William A. Richardson Jan. i858-Dec. 1858 

L Sterling Morton (secretary, acting governor) Dec. i858-Mayi859 
muel W. Black * 

Alvin Saunders 

Algernon S. Paddock (secretary, several times 
acting governor, 1861-1867). 

Stale. 

David Butler (impeached and removed from 
office 1871) 



May 

May i86i-Mar. 1867 



W. H. James (lieut 



-governor, succeeding) 



Robert W. Furnas 
Silas Garber 
Albinus Nance 

ames W. Dawes 

ohn M. Thayer 

ames E. Boyd * 

ohn M. Thayer (acting governor) 

lames E. Boyd 

Lorenzo Crounse 

Silas A. Holcombe 

William A. Poynter 

Charles H. Dietrich (elected U.S. Senator) 



Ezra P. Savage (lieut.-governor, succeeding) 1901-1903 
John H. Mickey 
George L. Sheldon 
A. C. Shallenberger 
Chester H. Aldrich 



1867-1871 Republican 
1871-1873 

1873-1875 
1875-1879 
1870-1883 
1883-1887 
1887-1891 

Democrat 
1891-1892 
1892-1893 

1893-1895 Republican 
1895-1899 Fusion 
1899-1901 
1901 Republican 



1903-1907 
1907-1909 

1909-1911 Democrat 
1911- Republican 



1 Nebraska was one of the states in which the collapse of the co- 
operative enterprises of the Grange was particularly severe. The 
Farmers' Alliance was organized for the state in 1887, became a 
secret organization in 1889, and, as in other states, was a power 
by 1890. The membership of Grange, Alliance and Knights of 
Labour went over generally speaking into the People's party. 

* Removed by decision of state supreme court on grounds of non- 
citizenship, sth of May 1891 ; reinstated by decision of U.S. Supreme 
Court, 1st of February 1892. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. N. H. Darton, Professional Paper No. 17 (in 
U.S. Geological Survey) (1903), Geology and Water Resources of 
(western) Nebraska, and No. 32 (1905), Geology and Underground 
Water Resources of the Central Great Plains; G. E. Condra, Geology 
and Water Resources of the Republican River Valley and Adjacent 
Areas (Washington, 1007), being Water Supply and Irrigation Paper 
No. 216 of the United States Geological Survey; id., Water Supply 
Paper No. 2 1 5, Geology and Water Resources of a Portion of the Missouri 
River Valley in North-Eastern Nebraska (Washington, 1908); J. C. 
Stevens, Surface Water Supply of Nebraska (Washington, 1909) 
Water Supply Paper 230; E. H. Barbour, Nebraska Geological 
Survey (Lincoln, 1903) ; G. E. Condra, Geography of Nebraska (Lincoln, 
1906); R. Pound and F. C. Clements, Phytogeography of Nebraska, 
vol. i. (Lincoln, 1898); general scientific sketches by C. E. Bessey, 
L. Bruner and G. A. Loveland in the Morton history and agricultural 
and horticultural reports; Annual Reports of the State Board of 
Agriculture and State Horticultural Society; Publications of the 
State Bureau of Statistics and Labor; and Bulletins 52 (1904) and 
66 (1905) of theUnited States Bureau of Forestry. For government 
consult the biennial legislative Public Documents, embracing reports 
of state officers and boards; also J. A. Barrett, History and Govern- 
ment of Nebraska (Lincoln, 1891), Nebraska and the Nation (Chicago, 
1898); and C. S. Lobinger, " The Nebraska Constitution, some of its 
Original and Peculiar Features," in Proceedings and Collections of the 
Nebraska State Historical Society, Series 2, vol. v. (Lincoln, 1902). 
For early history see bibliography under article KANSAS. See 
especially the publications (since 1885) of the Nebraska State 
Historical Society; and J. Sterling Morton, Albert Watkins and 
others, Illustrated History of Nebraska (3 vols., Lincoln, 1905 sqq.), 
which has superseded H. Johnson, History of Nebraska (Omaha, 1880). 

NEBRASKA CITY, a city and the county-seat of Otoe county, 
Nebraska, U.S.A., situated on the high W. bank of the Missouri 
river, about 40 m. below Omaha. Pop. (1880) 4183; (1890) 
11,494; (1900) 7380 (882 foreign-born); (1910) 5488. It is 
served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Missouri 
Pacific railway systems. A railway and wagon bridge spans 
the Missouri. The city is the seat of the state Institute for 
the Blind (1875), and has three public parks and a public library. 
The city is a distributing centre for a beautiful farming region, 
the trade in grain being especially large. In 1900 Nebraska City 
ranked third among the manufacturing cities of the state, the 
manufactures including canned fruits and vegetables, packed 
pork, flour, oatmeal, hominy, grits, meal, starch, cider-vinegar, 
agricultural implements, windmills, paving bricks, concrete, 
sewer pipe, beer, over-alls and shirts. It is one of the oldest 
settlements of the state. The first " old Fort Kearney " was 
established on the site of Nebraska City in 1847, but was 
abandoned in 1848, and the fort was re-established farther W. on 
the Platte river (see KEARNEY). Otoe county was organized in 
1855, and the original Nebraska City was incorporated and 
made the county-seat in the same year. This city, together 
with Kearney City, incorporated in 1855 adjacent to the first 
" old " Fort Kearney and South Nebraska City, were con- 
solidated by the legislature into the present Nebraska City in 
1858. (Twelve other city " additions " and so-called " towns," 
all within or closely adjacent to the present city, were in existence 
in 1857.) Nebraska City was for some years the largest city 
of the state. In 1858 it became the headquarters of a great 
freighting-firm that distributed supplies for the United Stages 
government among the army posts between the Missouri river 
and the Rocky Mountains; in seven months in 1859 this one 
firm employed 602 men, used 517 wagons, 5682 oxen, and 75 
mules, and shipped 2,782,258 Ib. of freight. Nebraska City was 
the initial point of several roads, parts atone time or another 
of the" Oregon," " Old California," and " Great Salt Lake " trails. 
(See NEBRASKA (State) : History.) Nebraska City became a city 
of the second class in 1871 and a city of the first class in 1901. 

NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR, king of Babylon, 
the Na/3ou/co5p6<ropos of the Greeks. The first and last are 
nearer to the original name as it is found on the cuneiform 
monuments, viz. Nabu-kudurri-usur, " Nebo, defend the 
landmark." Nebuchadrezzar seems to have been of Chaldean 
origin. He married Amuhia, daughter of the Median king, 
according to Abydenus, and in 605 B.C. defeated Necho at 
Carchemish, driving the Egyptians out of Asia and annexing 
Syria to the Babylonian empire. In, the following year h,e 
succeeded his father Nabopolassar on the Babylonian throne, 



332 



NEBULA 



and continued the restoration of Babylon, which he made one 
of the wonders of the world. His " new palace " there was 
built in fifteen days; temples were erected to the gods, the 
great walls of the city were constructed with a moat surrounding 
them, the Euphrates was lined with brick and a strong fortress 
erected. Canals were dug throughout the country and a great 
reservoir excavated near the capital. Only a fragment of his 
annals has been preserved, recording his campaign against 
Amasis (Ahmosi) of Egypt in his thirty-seventh year (567 B.C.) 
when he defeated the soldiers of " Phut of the lonians." Tyre 
revolted in the seventh year of his reign, and was besieged for 
thirteen years; a contract-tablet dated in his fortieth year 
shows that at that time it was under Babylonian officials. After 
the investment of Tyre Nebuchadrezzar marched against 
Jerusalem, put Jehoiakim to death and placed Jehoiachin 
on the throne. Three months later Jehoiachin was deposed 
and Zedekiah made king in his place. Zedekiah's revolt in 
588 B.C. led to another siege of Jerusalem, which was taken 
and destroyed in 586 B.C. (see JEWS and JERUSALEM). To this 
period probably belong an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar on 
the north bank of the Nahr el-Kelb near Beirut, and another 
in the Wadi Brissa in the Lebanon. From his inscriptions we 
gather that Nebuchadrezzar was a man of peculiarly religious 
character. A younger brother of his is called Nabo-sum-lisir. 

See Josephus, Cont. Apion, i. 19; Eusebius, Praep. Evangel, x. 

NEBULA (Lat. for " cloud," connected with the Gr. vf^rj, 
mist or cloud), in astronomy, the name given to certain luminous 
cloudy patches in the heavens. They resemble the stars in that 
they retain the same relative positions, and thus may be dis- 
tinguished from the comets which appear to wander across the 
stars. When examined with sufficient telescopic power, a great 
many of these luminous patches are perceived to be composed 
of clusters of little stars, which in a smaller telescope are invisible 
separately, but whose rays of light blend together so as to 
produce a confused luminous appearance. Others, however, 
cannot be resolved into individual stars even with the best 
telescopes, and in many cases the spectroscope gives direct 
evidence that the nebula has a constitution altogether different 
from that of a star-cluster. We thus distinguish between the 
nebulae proper and the star-clusters ; but owing to the difficulty of 
deciding the nature in any particular case, and especially owing 
to the fact that some of the earlier observers believed it probable 
that all nebulae would with sufficient telescopic power become 
resolvable into stars, the term nebula is often used to cover 
both star-clusters and the true nebulae. 

An enumeration of nebulae was made by Charles Messier in 
Paris in 1771, who recorded 163; Sir William Herschel increased 
the number known to over 2500; whilst Sir John Herschel 
between 1825 and 1847 catalogued and described 3926 nebulae 
(including 1700 observed at the Cape of Good Hope). About 
1848 the earl of Rosse with his famous six-foot reflector at 
Parsonstown began his examination of the nebulae, which added 
greatly to our knowledge of their forms and structure. In 
more modern times the development of photography has 
enabled the features of the nebulae to be ascertained and 
recorded with a certainty, which, unfortunately, the older visual 
observations and drawings cannot claim to possess. In this con- 
nexion the photographic work of Isaac Roberts, A. A. Common, 
E. E. Barnard and J. E. Keeler in particular must be mentioned. 
The total number of known nebulae has, too, been enormously 
increased; Perrine estimates that the number within the power 
of the Crossley reflector at Lick is not less than half a million. 

Nebulae may be conveniently classified according to their 
telescopic appearance; we enumerate below some of the principal 
forms that have been recognized, but it must be observed that 
this classification is rather superficial, and that the differentia- 
tion is often one of appearance only and not of real structure. 
The types are: (i) Irregular nebulae, examples: the great 
nebula of Orion (M. 42), l the " key-hole " nebula near 77 Argus, 

1 i.e. No. 42 in Messier's catalogue. Nebulae not contained in 
that catalogue are generally known by their number in Dreyer's 
New General Catalogue (N.G.C.). 



the " Omega " nebula (M. 17); (2) Annular nebulae, example: 
M. 37 in Lyra; (3) Double nebulae, example: the dumb-bell 
nebula (M. 27) in Vulpecula; (4) Planetary nebulae, examples: 
the " owl " nebula (M. 97) in Ursa Major, M. i in Taurus; (5) 
Elliptical nebulae, example: the great nebula of Andromeda 
(M. 31); (6) Spiral nebulae, example: M. 51 in Canes Venatici; 
(7) Nebulous stars; (8) Diffused nebulosities. Most of these names 
require little explanation. The first class have ill-defined irregular 
boundaries; their forms often suggest the appearance of curdled 
liquid or wreaths of smoke. The annular nebulae have a ringed 
appearance, the centre being much darker than the outer parts, 
though it is filled with faintly luminous matter. Double nebulae 
have two principal centres of condensation. The planetary 
nebulae are nearly uniformly illuminated compact patches 
of light generally circular or elliptical in shape; they were so 
called because they appeared to possess disks like planets. 
Elliptical nebulae are usually nebulae of some flat type (such 
as annular or spiral) seen rather edgeways, so that the structure 
is not readily recognizable. The typical spiral nebulae are in 
the form of a double spiral, the two branches of which proceed 
from diametrically opposite points of a bright nucleus and 
wind round it in the same sense; the whole is generally studded 
with points of condensation. The great majority of the nebulae, 
including the abundant small nebulae which shine with a white 
light (in contrast with the blue-green light of the planetary 
and irregular nebulae see below Spectra of nebulae), are generally 
classed as spiral nebulae. The spiral structure has been shown 
to exist in a few of them, but for the remainder it is only inferred. 
Nebulous stars are true stars surrounded by an atmosphere 
or aureole of nebulous light. Diffused nebulosities are very 
faint nebulae of enormous extent, sometimes forming the back- 
ground of a whole constellation. We proceed to describe some 
of the more famous nebulae. 

One of the most remarkable nebulae is that which is situated 
in the sword-handle of Orion and about the multiple star 
Orionis; it is faintly visible to the naked eye. It seems to have 
been first noticed by Huygens in 1656, who described and 
figured it in his System Salurnium. It has now been found that 
nebulous streamers connected with the bright nucleus wind 
through the whole constellation of Orion. It is well known 
that all the brighter stars of the constellation except Betelgeuse 
appear to be related to one another by their similarity both 
of spectra and of proper motion; it seems probable that they 
are actually situated in the nebula and in some way connected 
with it. 

The only other nebula which can be seen with the naked eye 
is the elliptical nebula in Andromeda. Modern photographs 
show very clearly that its structure is spiral. The nucleus is 
large and appears circular, but the spirals proceeding from it 
lie in a plane inclined at a rather sharp angle to the line of sight, 
and this gives to the nebula its elliptical appearance. Two 
small dense nebulae accompany it, and appear to belong to the 
system. 

The finest example of a ring nebula is M. 57 between /3 and y 
Lyrae. The ring is slightly elliptical, its dimensions being 
87" by 64". At the ends of the major axis the ring becomes 
very faint, so that the form of the bright part may justly be 
compared to a pair of marks of parenthesis ( ). The centre is 
marked by a star which appears to be intimately associated 
with the ring, for the whole space within the ring is filled with 
a very faint nebulosity. According to Schaeberle, there is 
evidence of a spiral structure in this nebula also. It must, 
however, clearly be of an essentially different character from 
the structure of an ordinary spiral nebula, and the spectroscope 
reveals a fundamental difference between the annular and 
spiral nebulae. 

The " dumb-bell " nebula in Vulpecula consists of two almost 
separated fan-shaped patches of light. It exhibits a close resem- 
blance to the annular nebula; for we have only to assume a 
continuation of the thinning out along the longest diameter and 
a slight filling in of the centre of the Lyra nebula to obtain the 
dumb-bell form. 






NEBULA 



PLATE I. 



Sh 



8- 




i-- 



80. 




XIX. 332. 



PLATE II. 



NEBULA 



o_ 




NEBULAR THEORY 



333 



Of planetary nebulae one of the best known is the "owl 
ebula " in the Great Bear about midway between " the pointers." 

5 seen with Lord Rosse's reflector, it presented a startling appear- 
nce, resembling the face of a goblin; two faint stars shone in 
be centres of the two dark circles which represented the saucer- 
yes of the creature. Some change has certainly taken place 
since then, for the two stars no longer could be supposed to 
represent the pupils of the eyes; the cause may, however, be 
merely the proper motion of the stars or of the nebula. 

The discovery of great regions having a faint nebulous back- 
ground is one of the most remarkable results of modern work. 
Particularly interesting is the fact that, whilst the large telescopes 
are unable to render them perceptible to the eye or to photograph 
them, they are revealed by what at first sight seems an absurdly 
simple apparatus. For the study of the ordinary nebulae 
large reflecting telescopes (preferably of short focal length) are 
used, the great light-gathering power being all important; but 
for photographing these diffused nebulosities portrait lenses 
of very small aperture and focal length are most successful. 
Thus the great extension of the Orion nebula was photographed 
by W. H. Pickering in 1890 with a lens 2-6 in. in aperture 
and of 8-6 in. focal length; the exposure was rather more than 
six hours. Other extensive nebulous regions of a similar character 
have been found by Barnard in the constellations Ophiuchus, 
Scorpio and Taurus. 

Spectra of Nebulae. Owing to the feebleness of their light the 
study of the spectra of nebulae is one of particular difficulty. 
Two varieties of spectra are recognized; the one consists of a 
few narrow bright lines with sometimes a faint continuous 
spectrum for a background,; the other consists of a continuous 
spectrum crossed by dark lines and is indistinguishable from 
that of ordinary stars. The former variety unmistakably 
shows that the light proceeds from diffuse incandescent vapour; 
nebulae showing this spectrum are accordingly called " gaseous." 
Irregular, annular and planetary nebulae are of this nature. 
The visual spectrum is marked by three bright lines in the 
blue and green of wave-lengths 5007, 4959 and 4861. Of 
these the last is the line H |3 of the hydrogen series; the other 
two are of unknown origin, and as they are always found together 
and have always the same relative intensity, they have both 
been attributed to the same unknown element, which has been 
named " nebulium." Usually there are no other conspicuous 
lines in the visual spectrum, but in the ultra-violet region 
numerous lines can be photographed, including most of the 
hydrogen series. The yellow line (Da) of helium can be detected 
in many nebulae. The great majority of the nebulae, however, 
show the second variety of spectrum, and are thus indistinguish- 
able spectroscopicaily from irresolvable star-clusters. The 
great nebula of Andromeda and the spiral nebulae are of this 
kind. It is not necessary to conclude that they, therefore, are 
star-clusters whose components are, owing to their remoteness 
from us, too faint and close together to be separately distinguish- 
able. A gaseous mass only gives a bright line spectrum when 
it is so rarefied as to be transparent through and through. If 
the density and thickness are such that a ray of light cannot 
pass through it the spectrum will, in general, be continuous 
like that of a solid body. 

The inquiry into the physical state and constitution of the 
nebulae raises problems of great difficulty. In the case of 
" gaseous " nebulae it is very hard to understand how such 
extremely tenuous masses are maintained in a state of incan- 
descence. Only one theory has been put forward which at all 
accounts for this fact, and unfortunately, it is not altogether 
satisfactory in other respects. This is Sir Norman Lockyer's 
"Meteoritic Hypothesis," which attributes the light to col- 
lisions between numbers of small discrete solid particles, 
these being vaporized and made luminous owing to the heat 
developed by their impacts. Formidable difficulties, however, 
prevent the entire acceptance of this suggestion. 

The spiral nebulae are not distributed at random over the 
sky, nor are they condensed along the galactic plane like the 
clusters which they spectroscopicaily resemble. There is a 



well-marked centre of aggregation of the northern nebulae near 
the north galactic pole. In the southern hemisphere they are 
more evenly distributed, but the avoidance of the galactic plane 
is marked. The remarkable Nubeculae or Magellanic Clouds 
in the southern hemisphere, which look like detached portions 
of the Milky Way, are found on telescopic examination to consist, 
not of stars alone, like the Milky Way, but of stars and nebulae 
clustering together. In the greater cloud Sir John Herschel 
counted 286 nebulae; in the lesser cloud they are rather less 
numerous: 

REFERENCES. The characters of nebulae receive treatment in all 
text-books on descriptive astronomy; mention may be made of 
Miss A. M. Clerke, The System of the Stars (2nd ed., 1905), which 
contains a full account of these objects, illustrated by many photo- 
graphs; the same work is replete with references to original papers. 
Of recent catalogues of nebula, we notice J. L. E. Dreyer, " A new 
general catalogue of nebulae and clusters of stars," Memoirs R.A.S. 
(1888), published separately in 1890; and " Index Catalogue of 
Nebulae (1888-1894), "Mem. R.A.S. (1895). Excellent photographs 
of the more famous nebulae are given in Sir R. Ball's Popular Guide 
to the Heavens (1905); a more comprehensive collection is given in 
Isaac Roberts, Photographs of Stars, Star Clusters and Nebulae (2 vols., 
1873-1899). (A. S. E.) 

NEBULAR THEORY, a theory advanced to account for the 
origin of the solar system. It is emphatically a speculation; 
it cannot be demonstrated by observation or established by 
mathematical calculation. Yet the boldness and the splendour 
of the nebular theory have always given it a dignity not usually 
attached to a doctrine which from the very nature of the case 
can have but little direct evidence in its favour. 

There are very remarkable features in the solar system which 
point unmistakably to some common origin of many of the 
different bodies which it contains. We may at once put the 
comets out of view. It does not appear that they bear any 
testimony on either side of the question. We do not know 
whether the comets are really indigenous to the solar system 
or whether they may not be merely imported into the system 
from the depths of space. Even if the comets be indigenous 
to the system, they may, as many suppose, be merely ejections 
from the sun. In any case the orbits of comets are exposed 
to such tremendous perturbations from the planets that it is 
unsafe from the present orbit of a comet to conjecture what 
that orbit may have been in remote antiquity. On these grounds 
we discuss the nebular theory without much reference to comets. 
But even after the omission of all cometary objects we can still 
count in the solar system upwards of five hundred bodies, 
almost every one of which pronounces distinctly, though with 
varying emphasis, in favour of the nebular theory. 

The first great fact to be noticed is that the planets revolve 
around the sun in the same direction. This is true not only 
of the major planets Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, 
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune; it is also true of the host of 
more than five hundred minor planets. It is also remarkable 
that all the great planets and many of the small ones have 
their orbits very nearly in the same plane, and nearly circular 
in form. Viewed as a question in probabilities, we calculate 
the chance that five hundred bodies revolving round the sun 
shall all be moving in the same direction. The improbability 
of such an arrangement is enormously great. It is represented 
by the ratio of a number containing about a hundred and sixty 
figures to unity, and so we are at once forced to the conclusion 
that this remarkable feature of the planetary motions must have 
some physical explanation. In a minor degree this conclusion 
is strengihened by observing the satellites. Discarding those 
of Uranus, in which the orbits of the satellites are highly inclined 
to the ecliptic, and in which manifestly some exceptional in- 
fluences have been at work, we find that the satellites revolve 
around the primaries also in the same direction; 1 while, to make 
the argument complete, the planets, so far as they can be 
observed, rotate on their axes in the same manner. 

The nebular theory offers an explanation of this most remark- 
able uniformity. Laplace supposed the existence of a primeval 

1 Exceptions are Saturn ix. (Phoebe), Jupiter vii. (?) and viii., and 
the satellite of Neptune. 



334 



NEBULAR THEORY 



nebula which extended so far out as to fill all the space at present 
occupied by the planets. This gigantic nebulous mass, of 
which the sun was only the central and somewhat more con- 
densed portion, is supposed to have a movement of rotation on 
its axis. There is no difficulty in conceiving how a nebula, 
quite independently of any internal motion of its parts, shall 
also have had as a whole a movement of rotation. In fact a 
little consideration of the theory of probabilities will show it 
to be infinitely probable that such an object should really have 
some movement of rotation, no matter by what causes the 
nebula may have originated. As this vast mass cooled it 
must by the laws of heat have contracted towards the centre, 
and as it contracted it must, according to a law of dynamics, 
rotate more rapidly. The time would then come when the 
centrifugal force on the outer parts of the mass would more 
than counterbalance the attraction of the centre, and thus 
we would have the outer parts left as a ring. The inner portion 
will still continue to contract, the same process will be repeated, 
and thus a second ring will be formed. We have thus grounds 
for believing that the original nebula will separate into a series 
of rings all revolving in the same direction with a central nebulous 
mass in the interior. The materials of each ring would continue 
to cool and to contract until they passed from the gaseous to 
the liquid condition. If the consolidation took place with 
comparative uniformity we might then anticipate the formation 
of a vast multitude of small planets such as those we actually 
do find in the region between the orbit of Mars and that of 
Jupiter. More usually, however, the ring might be expected 
not to be uniform, and, therefore, to condense in some parts 
more rapidly than in others. The effect of such contraction 
would be to draw the materials of the ring into a single mass, 
and thus we would have a planet formed, while the satellites 
of that planet would be developed from the still nascent planet 
in the same way as the planet itself originated from the sun. 
In this way we account most simply for the uniformity in the 
direction in which the planets revolve, and for the mutual 
proximity of the planes in which their orbits are contained. 

Such was the nebular theory as it was originally sketched. 
At the present day when the nebulae that are spiral in form 
have been shown to be so numerous, next to the fixed stars 
themselves, our view of the nebular theory has been somewhat 
modified. It now seems probable that the spiral nebula is 
the fittest illustration of the transformation of a diffused nebula 
into a system of sun and planets. 

The rotation of the planets on their axes is also explained 
as a consequence of the nebular theory, for at the time of the 
first formation of the planet it must have participated in the 
rotation of the whole nebula, and by the subsequent contraction 
of the planet the speed with which the rotation was performed 
must have been accelerated. 

There is quite a different method of considering the nebular 
origin of our system, which leads in a very striking manner 
to conclusions practically identical with those we have just 
sketched. We may commence by dealing 'with the sun as we 
find it at the present moment, and thence inferring what must 
have been the progress of events in the earlier epochs of the 
history of our system. 

The daily outpour of heat from the sun at the present time 
suggests a profound argument in support of the nebular theory. 
The amount of the sun's heat has been estimated, but we 
receive on the earth less than one two-thousand-millionth 
part of the whole radiation. It would seem that the greater 
part of the rest flows away to be lost in space. Now what 
supplies this heat? We might at first suppose that the sun 
was really an intensely heated body radiating out its heat as 
does white-hot iron, but this explanation cannot be admitted, 
for there is no historical evidence that the sun is growing 
colder. We have not the slightest reason to think that the 
radiation from the sun is measurably weaker now than it was 
a. couple of thousand years ago, yet it can be shown that, if the 
sun were merely radiating heat as simply a hot body, then 
it would cool some degrees every year, and must have cooled 



many thousands of degrees within the time covered by historical 
records. We, therefore, conclude that the sun has some other 
source of heat than that due simply to incandescence. It might, 
for example, be suggested that the heat of the sun was supplied 
by chemical combination analogous to combustion. It would 
take 20 tons of coal a day burned on each square foot of the 
sun's surface to supply the daily radiation. Even if the sun 
were made of one mass of fuel as efficient as coal, that mass 
must be entirely expended hi a few thousand years if the present 
rate of radiation was to be sustained. We cannot, therefore, 
admit that the source of the heat in the sun is to be found in any 
chemical combination taking place in its mass. Where then can 
we find an adequate supply of heat ? Only one external source 
can be named: the falling of meteors into the sun must yield 
some heat just as a shooting star yields some heat to our atmo- 
sphere, but the question is whether the quantity of heat obtainable 
from the shooting stars is at all adequate for the purpose. It 
can be shown that unless a quantity of meteors in collective 
mass equal to our moon were to plunge into the sun every year 
the supply of heat could not be sustained from this source. 
Now there is no reason to believe that meteors in anything 
like this quantity can be supplied to the sun, and, therefore, 
we must reject this source as also inadequate. 

The truth about the sun's heat appears to be that the sun is 
really an incandescent body losing heat, but that the operation 
of cooling is immensely retarded owing to a curious circumstance 
due jointly to the enormous mass of the sun and to a remarkable 
law of heat. It is well known that if energy disappears in one 
form it reappears in another, and this principle applied to 
the sun will explain the famous difficulty. 

As the sun loses heat it contracts, and every pair of particles 
in the sun are nearer to each other after the contraction than 
they were before. The energy due to their separation is thus 
less in the contracted state than in the original state, ^nd as that 
energy cannot be lost it must reappear in heat. The sun is thus 
slowly contracting; but as it contracts it gains heat by the 
operation of the law just referred to, and thus the further cooling 
and further contraction of the sun is protracted until the additional 
heat obtained is radiated away. In this way we can reconcile 
the fact that the sun is certainly losing heat with the fact that 
the change in temperature has not been large enough to be 
perceived within historic times. 

It has been estimated that the sun is at present contracting 
so that its diameter diminishes 10 m. every century; there 
is, however, now reason to think that the rate of contraction 
is by no means so rapid as this would indicate. This is an 
inappreciable distance when compared with the diameter of the 
sun, which is nearly a million of miles, but the significance for 
our present purpose depends upon the fact that this contraction 
is always taking place. Assuming the accuracy of the estimate 
just made, we see that a thousand years ago the sun must have 
had a diameter 100 m. greater than at present, ten thousand 
years ago that diameter must have been 1000 m. more than it is 
now, and so on. We cannot perhaps assert that the same rate 
is to be continued for very many centuries, but it is plain that 
the further we look back into the past time the greater must 
the sun have been. 

Dealing then simply with the laws of nature as we know them, 
we can see no limit to the increasing size of the sun as we look 
back. We must conceive a time when the sun was swollen to 
such an extent that it filled up the entire space girdled by the 
orbit of Mercury. Earlier still the sun must have reached to 
the earth. Earlier still the sun must have reached to where 
Neptune now revolves on the confines of our system, but the 
mass of the sun could not undergo an expansion so prodigious 
without being made vastly more rarefied than at present, 
and hence we axe led by this mode of reasoning to the 
conception of the primaeval nebula from which our system has 
originated. 

Considering that our sun is but a star, or but one of the millions 
of stars, it is of interest to see whether any other systems present 
indication of a nebulous origin analogous to that which Laplace 



NECESSITAS NECK 



335 



proposed tor the solar system. In one of his papers, Sir W. 
Herscbei marshals the evidence which can be collected on this 
point He arranges a selection from his observations on the 
nebulae in such a way as to give great plausibility to his view 
of the gradual transmutation of nebulae into stars Herschel 
begins by showing us that there are regions in the heavens where 
a faint diffused nebulosity is all that can be detected by the 
telescope. There are other nebulae in which a nucleus can be 
just discerned, others again in which the nucleus is easily seen, 
and still others where the nucleus is a brilliant star-like point. 
The transition from an object of this kind to a nebulous star 
is very natural, while the nebulous stars pass into the ordinary 
stars by a few graduated stages. It is thus possible to exhibit 
a series of objects beginning at one end with the most diffused 
nebulosity and ending at the other with an ordinary fixed star 
or group of stars. Each object in the series diflers but slightly 
from the object just before it and the object just after it. It 
seemed to Herschel that he was thus able to view the actual 
changes by which masses of phosphorescent or glowing vapour 
became actually condensed down into stars. The condensation 
of a nebula could be followed in the same manner as we can 
study the growth of the trees in the forest, by comparing the 
trees of various ages which the forest contains at the same time. 
In attempting to pronounce on the evidence with regard to 
Herschel's theory, we must at once admit that the transmutation 
of a nebula into a star has never been seen. It is indeed very 
doubtful whether any changes of a nebula have ever been seen 
which are of the same character as the changes Herschel's theory 
would require. It seems, however, most likely that the periods 
of time required for such changes are immense and that the 
changes accomplished in only a century 01 two are absolutely 
inappreciable. 

The nebular theory is a noble speculation supported by plausible 
argument, and the verdict of science on the whole subject cannot 
be better expressed than in the words of S. Newcomb: " At 
the present time we can only say that the nebular hypothesis 
is indicated by the general tendencies of the laws of nature, 
that it has not been proved to be inconsistent with any fact, 
that it is almost a necessary consequence of the only theory 
by which we can account for the origin and conservation of the 
sun's heat, but that it rests on the assumption that this conserva- 
tion is to be explained by the laws of nature as we now see them 
in operation. Should any one be sceptical as to the sufficiency 
of these laws to account for the present state of things, science 
can furnish no evidence strong enough to overthrow his doubts 
until the sun shall be found growing smaller by actual measure- 
ment, or the nebulae be actually seen to condense into stars 
and systems." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. I,aplace, Sysleme du monde; Sir William 
Herschel, Phil. Trans (1814), pp. 248-284; Kant's Cosmogony, 
translated by Professor Hastie; Sir John Herschel, Outlines of 
Astronomy; Professor S. Newcomb, Popular Astronomy; Lick 
Observatory publications, photographs of Nebulae; Sir Robert 
Ball. The Earth's Beginning. (R. S. B.) 

NECESSITAS (Gr. 'Apa-ywj), in Orphic theology, the personifica- 
tion of absolute necessity. She aopears as the mother of the 
Moerae (Fates), as the wife of Demiurgus (Fashioner of the 
World) and mother of Heimarmene (Destiny). Her power 
is irresistible, even greater than that of the gods; to her was 
due the strife (battles with Titans, Giants) that raged amongst 
them of old, before the rule of love began; the world revolves 
round the spindle, which she holds in her lap. According to the 
Egyptian theory, she is one of the four deities present at the 
birth of every human being, her companions being the Daemon 
(guardian spirit), Tyche (Fortune) and Eros. On the citadel 
of Corinth there was a temple sacred to her and Bia (Violence), 
which none were permitted to enter. The Roman Necessitas is 
represented in the well-known ode of Horace (i. 35) as the fore- 
runner aud companion of Fortuna, holding in her brazen hand 
huge nails, a clamp and molten lead, symbolical of fixedness 
and tenacity. 

See Plato, Rep. 616 c, Symp. 195 c, 197 B; Macrobius, Saturnalia, 
i 19: Pausanias ii. 4. 6. 



NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas), a term used technically in 
philosophy for the quality of inevitable happening; for example, 
hot air necessarily tends to rise. Thus it corresponds in the 
sphere of action to certainty in the sphere of knowledge. That 
the sun will rise to-morrow is a necessary event ; and men anticipate 
the rising with certainty. In ordinary language the conception 
of necessity is rendered meaningless by being referred to the 
present or even to the past. A current definition of necessity 
is " the state which cannot be otherwise than it is." Such a 
definition tells us nothing. How can any state be otherwise 
than it is? Necessity can have meaning only in reference to 
the future: it means absence of spontaneous power in that 
which acts necessarily. For the origin of the conception we must 
look to our inward personal experience of constraint. When we 
are acting under physical or mathematical or logical or moral 
necessity we are so far precluded from spontaneous action in 
common phrase, we can do no otherwise though the causes of 
constraint may be of very different kinds. In ethics the term 
necessitarianism is applied to that view of human action which 
regards all action as dictated by external causes (cf . DETERMINISM). 
The sense in which, if at all, the human mind can cognize 
necessity, i.e. causal connexion between events or states, has 
been the subject of vigorous discussion among philosophers. 
By sceptics and empiricists it is held that a law is merely a 
crystallized summary of observed phenomena. Thus J. S. 
Mill denies that a general proposition is more than an enumeration 
of particulars, and hence that syllogistic reasoning cannot 
amplify knowledge (see SYLLOGISM). It is clear that the senses 
cannot apprehend causal connexion, and this impossibility gives 
rise to a prior conception according to which the conception 
of necessity is purely intellectual (see METAPHYSICS). 

NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic 
languages; cf. Dutch nek, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word 
was heals; cf. Ger. Hals), that part of the body which connects 
the head with the trunk (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic). 
The word is transferred to many objects resembling this part 
of the body in shape or function; it is thus applied to an isthmus, 
or to the narrowest portion of a promontory, to the narrow part 
of a musical stringed instrument connecting the head and body, 
as in the violin, or to a narrow pass between mountains, which 
in the Dutch form nek, appears in place-names in South Africa. 
In architecture, the " neck " is that part of the capital just 
above the " astragal," and the term " necking " is applied to 
the annulet or round, or series of horizontal mouldings, which 
separates the capital of a column from the plain part or a shaft. 
In Romanesque work this is sometimes corded. 

In Geology, the term " neck " is given to the denuded stump of an 
extinct volcano. Beneath every volcano there are passages of con- 
duits up which the volcanic materials were forced, and after the mass 
has been levelled by denudation there is always a more or less circular 
pipe which marks the site of the crater. This pipe, which is filled 
with consolidated ashes or with crystalline lava, is the characteristic 
of a volcanic neck. Active volcanoes often stand on the sea-bottom 
and when the eruption comes to an end the volcano is slowly buried 
under layers of sediment. In tropical seas the coral animals cover 
over the submarine volcanoes which rise nearly to the surface and 
form great reefs of limestone around them. Should elevation take 
place after long ages the removal of the overlying strata will bring the 
volcanic mass to light, and in the normal course of things this will 
suffer denudation exactly like a recent volcano. Many instances of 
this are furnished by the geological history of the British Isles. In 
Carboniferous times, for example, before the Coal-measures were 
deposited, a shallow sea occupied the southern part of Scotland and 
the north of England. Volcanic activity broke out on the sea- 
bottom, and many volcanic cones, both small and large, were pro- 
duced. These have long since been uplifted and the superjacent 
strata denuded away over a large part of the area which they occu- 
pied. In Derbyshire, Fife, the Lothians and the Glasgow district 
the remains of Carboniferous volcanoes occur in every state of 
preservation. Some have the conical hills of lavas and ashes well 
preserved (e.g. Largo Law in Fifeshire) ; others retain only a small 
part of the original volcanic pile (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh; the 
Binn of Burntisland) and of the larger number nothing remains but 
the " neck " which shows where once the crater was situated. 

In regions of former volcanic activity necks are the most persistent 
of all volcanic structures, because the active volcanic magma is 
located deep within the earth's crust, and the pipe by which it rises 
to the surface is of great length and traverses a great thickness of 



33^ 



NECKAM 



strata. Many volcanic necks stand on lines of fault. In other cases 
there are groups of necks lying in a straight or sinuous line, which 
may indicate the position of a fracture or at least of a line of least 
resistance. But in Scotland it is often impossible to adduce any 
evidence of the connexion between faults or fissures and the position 
of volcanic necks; and it seems likely that the pressure of the gases 
in the igneous magma increased till an explosion took place which 
perforated the rocks above with a clean tubular passage often nearly 
circular in cross section. This pipe was usually vertical, and nearly 
uniform in diameter for great depths; the material occupying it, 
when exposed by denudation, has a circular ground plan, or if 
shown in vertical section (or elevation) in a cliff is a pillar-shaped 
mass crossing the bedding planes of the strata nearly at right angles. 
It terminates upwards in the remains of the volcanic cone and com- 
municates below with the reservoir from which the lavas were 
emitted, represented in most cases, where it has been exposed, by a 
large irregular mass (a batholith or boss) of coarsely crystalline 
igneous rock. The site of such a neck is generally indicated by a 
low conical hill consisting of volcanic rock, surrounded by sedi- 
mentary or igneous strata of a different kind. The low cone is due 
to the greater hardness and strength of the volcanic materials and 
is not connected with the original shape of the volcano. Such hills 
are common in some parts of Scotland and well-known examples are 
Arthur's Seat and the Castle Rock (Edinburgh), North Berwick Law, 
the Bass Rock; they occur also in the Peak district of Derbyshire, 
and the Wolf Rock off the coast of Cornwall is probably a neck. Two 
splendid sugar-loaf cones known as the Pitons of St Lucia in the West 
Indies, rising from the sea with almost vertical sides to a height of 
nearly 3000 ft., are old volcanic necks. In Texas, New Mexico, 
Arizona, California and many of the western states of North 
America geologists have observed conical volcanic hills having all 
the features which belong to necks. 

Where the volcanic rocks are soft and easily disintegrated they may 
be reduced more rapidly than the strata around them and the 
position of a neck may be indicated by a cup-shaped hollow; this 
is the case with some of the diamond-bearing basic pipes of South 
Africa. Sometimes necks are encountered in underground mining 
operations; in the coal-field of Fife, for instance, the coals are 
sometimes replaced by a circular mass of volcanic rock, a quarter of 
a mile or more in diameter, which rise vertically to the surface. 
Better examples are the Kimberley diamond mines. The blue-ground 
(or serpentine breccia) occupies great pipes or funnels, circular in 
outline with nearly vertical sides, extending downwards to un- 
known depths; these are undoubtedly the necks of old volcanoes. 
If any lavas were poured out from these pipes at the surface they 
have since been carried away by denudation. 

The size of necks varies considerably; the smallest may be only 
20 or 30 yds. in diameter, the largest are several miles. In 
this respect they resemble active craters, but no necks have been 
met with on the earth's surface with dimensions approaching those of 
the so-called " craters " of the moon. Small necks are usually simple, 
i.e. they contain only one or two kinds of igneous rock (ashes and 
dikes) and have been produced, so far as we can judge, by a single 
eruption. Not infrequently they contain no volcanic rock but are 
filled with pieces of slate, sandstone or whatever strata the pipe 
traverses. Such necks must have been produced by a single eruption 
with an outburst of steam, not followed by lava; the disrupted 
fragments of the surrounding rocks and the materials tumbling down 
from the crater's walls ultimately filled up the cavity. Instances 
occur in Fifeshire and in Shetland, and among the recent volcanoes 
of the Eiffel there are some which have thrown out more slate and 
sandstone than lava. 

Large necks, on the other hand, are often of complex structure, 
contain many kinds of rock and seem to have been produced by 
repeated eruptions, each of which more or less completely cleared 
out the material obstructing the orifice, and introduced a series of 
fresh accumulations. The beds of ashes which line the interior of an 
active crater have in nearly all cases a slope or dip towards a central 
point where the base of the depression is situated, and in volcanic 
necks which have been filled with ash (tuffs and agglomerates) this 
funnel-like inward dip is very constant. If there has been only a 
single eruption the beds of ashes have a very conformable or uniform 
arrangement, but if activity has been resumed after a period of 
quiescence a large part of the old material may have been projected 
and a new series of beds laid down, transgressing unconformably 
the edges of the earlier ones. By these structures we can sometimes 
trace a neck within a neck, or of a lateral crater on the margin of a 
principal one. 

Where the crater has filled up with very coarse ashes, or agglomer- 
ate, the bedding is rarely visible. Sometimes large empty craters 
were occupied temporarily by lakes, and level sheets of mud and silt 
have gathered on their floors: hence bedded sediments are not 
infrequently found in volcanic necks. Mixed with the volcanic ashes 
and bombs there are often large broken pieces of sedimentary rocks 
which may have been crystallized and hardened by the heat and 
vapours emitted by the volcano. Sometimes great fragments of the 
walls have foundered or collapsed into the crater, and masses of non- 
volcanic rock, an acre or more in extent, may occur in a volcanic neck. 
In Arran, for example, there is a large neck which contains lumps of 
Cretaceous rocks nowhere else known to occur on the island ; they 



have fallen down from strata once occupying part of the walls of the 
crater but now removed by denudation. 

The lava which rises and flows out from the crater leaves its trace 
also in the necks. Sometimes it forms thin beds or flows alternating 
with the tuffs and having the same basin-shaped dip. More commonly 
it appears as the material filling fissures and pipes, traversing the 
ashes irregularly or rising as a central plug in the interior of the 
neck, and sending out branching veins. Occasionally a whole neck is 
composed of solid crystalline rock representing the last part of the 
magma which ascended from the underground focus and con- 
gealed within the crater. In Mont Pelee, Jor instance, the last stage 
of the eruptions of 1902 to 1905 was the protrusion of a great column 
of solidified lava which rose at one time to a height of 900 ft. above 
the lip of the crater, but has since crumbled down. The Castle Rock 
of Edinburgh is a neck occupied by a plug of crystalline basalt. 
Necks of this kind weather down very slowly and tend to form 
prominent hills. 

After the eruptions terminate gases or hot solutions given out by 
deep-lying masses of molten rock may find a passage upward through 
the materials occupying the crater, greatly modifying their mineral 
nature and laying down fresh deposits. A good example of secondary 
deposits within a volcanic neck is provided by the Cripple Creek 
mining district of Colorado. The ore-bearing veins are connected 
with volcanic rocks and part of these occupy a vertical circular pipe 
which is a typical volcanic neck. A phonolitic breccia, greatly 
altered, is the principal rock, and is cut by dikes of phonolite, 
dolerite, &c. The, country rock is mostly granite and gneiss, and 
blocks of these are common in the breccia. A large volcano was built 
up in Tertiary times on the granite plateau, and has since been almost 
entirely removed by denudation. The gold ores were carried upwards 
by currents of hot water derived from the volcanic magma and were 
deposited along cracks and fissures in the materials which occupied 
the crater, and also in the surrounding rocks (see VOLCANO). 

Q. S. F.) 

NECKAM, ALEXANDER (1157-1217), English schoolman 
and man of science, was born at St Albans in September 1157, 
on the same night as King Richard I. Neckam's mother nursed 
the prince with her own son, who thus became Richard's foster- 
brother. He was educated at St Albans Abbey school, and began 
to teach as schoolmaster of Dunstable, dependent on St Albans 
Abbey. Later he resided several years in Paris, where by 1180 
he had become a distinguished lecturer of the university. By 
1 1 86 he was back in England, where he again held the place 
of schoolmaster at Dunstable. He is said to have visited Italy 
with the bishop of Worcester, but this statement has been 
doubted; the assertion that he was ever prior of St Nicolas, 
Exeter, seems a mistake: on the other hand, he was certainly 
much at court during some part of his life. Having become 
an Augustinian canon, he was appointed abbot of Cirencester 
in 1213. He died at Kempsey in Worcestershire in 1217, and 
was buried at Worcester. Besides theology he was interested 
in the study of grammar and natural history, but his name is 
chiefly associated with nautical science. For in his De naturis 
rerum and De ulensilibus (the former of which, at any 
rate, had become well known at the end of the i2th century, and 
was probably written about 1180) Neckam has preserved to 
us the earliest European notices of the magnet as a guide to 
seamen outside China, indeed, these seem to be the earliest 
notices of this mystery of nature that have survived in any 
country or civilization. It was probably in Paris, the chief 
intellectual centre of his time, that Neckam heard how a ship, 
among its other stores, must have a needle placed above a magnet 
(the De utensilibus assumes a needle mounted on a pivot), 
which needle would revolve until its point looked north, and 
thus guide sailors in murky weather or on starless nights. It 
is noteworthy that Neckam has no air of imparting a startling 
novelty: he merely records what had apparently become the 
regular practice of at least many seamen of the Catholic world. 

See Thomas Wright's edition of Neckam's De naturis rerum and 
De laudibus divinae sapientiae in the Rolls Series (1863), and of 
the De ulensilibus in his Volume of Vocabularies. Neckam also wrote 
Corrogaiiones Promelhei, a scriptural commentary prefaced by a 
treatise on grammatical criticism; a translation of Aesop into Latin 
elegiacs (six fables from this version, as given in a Paris MS., are 
printed in Robert's Fables inedites); commentaries, still unprinted, 
on portions of Aristotle, Martianus Capella and Ovid's Meta- 
morphoses, and other works. Of all these the De not. rer., a sort of 
manual of the scientific knowledge of the I2th century, is much the 
most important: the magnet passage herein is in book ii. chap, 
xcviii. (De vi attractiva), p. 183 of Wright's edition. The correspond- 
ing section in the De utensu, is on p. 114 of the Vol. of Vocabs. 



NECKAR NECKER 



337 



Roger Bacon's reference to Neckam as a grammatical writer (in 
tmutis vera et utilia scripsit: sed . . . inter auctores non potest . . . 
numerari) may be found in Brewer's (Rolls Series) edition of 
Bacon's Opera inedita, p. 457. See also Thomas Wright, Biographia 
Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period, pp. 449-459 (1846: 
some points in this are modified in the 1863 edition of De nat. rer.) ; 
C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 508-509. 

(C. R. B.) 

NECKAR, a river of Germany, and a right-bank tributary 
of the Rhine, rises between the Black Forest and the Swabian 
Alb, near Schwenningen, in Wiirttemberg, at an altitude of 
2287 ft. As far as Rottweil only a mountain stream, it here 
attains the volume of a river, flows N. as far as Horb, thence 
in a north-easterly direction, and with rapid current it passes 
Rottenburg and the university town of Tubingen, taking then 
a generally northerly course. From Essh'ngen the Neckar 
becomes broader and deeper and its valley very picturesque, 
and after passing Cannstatt, from which point it is navigable 
for small craft, it flows through vine-clad hills by the pleasant 
village of Marbach, Schiller's birthplace, receives at Besigheim 
the waters of its most considerable tributary, the Enz, swirls 
down by Lauffen, and enters the beautiful vale of Heilbronn. 
Hence, between hills crowned by frequent feudal castles, it 
runs by Wimpfen and by Hornberg, where Gotz von Berlichingen' 
lived, to Eberbach, where it enters the sandstone formation 
of the Odenwald. It now takes a tortuous westerly course, 
and the scenery on its banks becomes more romantic. Winding 
down by Neckarsteinach and Neckargemiind between lofty 
wooded heights, it sweeps beneath the Konigsstuhl (1900 ft.), 
washes the walls of Heidelberg, and now quitting the valley 
enters the plain of the Rhine and falls into that river from the 
right at Mannheim. Its length is 247 m., and its drainage area 
4790 sq. m. Its more important tributaries are the Enz, Eschach 
and Glatt (left), and the Fils, Rems, Kocher and Jagst (right). 
It is navigable for small steamboats up to Heilbronn, for boats 
up to Cannstatt, and for rafts from Rottweil. It is the principal 
waterway of Wiirttemberg, and is greatly used for floating 
down timber. From Rottenburg downwards its banks are almost 
everywhere planted with vineyards. Up to Frankfort it has 
been deepened and the channel otherwise improved. A com- 
mittee, chiefly promoted by the Wurttemberg government 
and the Stuttgart chamber of commerce, reported in 1901 that 
it was both desirable and practicable to dredge the river and 
to canalize it, from Esslingen down to Mannheim, and that the 
cost would probably be between 2 and i\ millions sterling. 

See T. Eckart, Bilder aus dent Neckartal (1893). 

NECKARGEMUND, a town and climatic health resort of 
Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, situated amid densely 
wooded hills, on the left bank of the Neckar, 6 m. E. from 
Heidelberg by the railway to Wurzburg and at the junction of 
a line to Jagstfeld. Pop. (1905) 2200. It has an important 
trade in wine. The other industries are quarrying, tanning 
and shipbuilding, and there are electrical works. Neckargemiind, 
one of the favourite tourist resorts in the Neckar valley, was 
founded in the loth century and became a free town in 1286. 
In 1395 it passed to the elector palatine and, together with the 
surrounding district, was apportioned to Baden in 1814. 

NECKER, JACQUES (1732-1804), French statesman, finance 
minister of Louis XVI., was born at Geneva in Switzerland. 
His father was a native of Custrin in Pomerania, and had, after 
the publication of some works on international law, been elected 
as professor of public law at Geneva, of which he became a citizen. 
Jacques Necker had been sent to Paris in 1747 to become a 
clerk in the bank of a friend of his father, M. Vernet. He soon 
afterwards established, with another Genevese, the famous 
bank of Thellusson & Necker. Thellusson superintended the 
bank in London (his grandson was made a peer as Lord Rendles- 
ham), while Necker was managing partner in Paris. Both 
partners became very rich by loans to the treasury and specula- 
tions in grain. In 1763 Necker fell in love with Madame de 
Vermenou, the widow of a French officer. But while on a visit 
to Geneva, Madame de Vermenou met Suzanne Curchod, the 
daughter of a pastor near Lausanne, to whom Gibbon had been 



engaged, and brought her back as her companion to Paris in 
1764. There Necker, transferring his love from the widow to 
the poor Swiss girl, married Suzanne before the end of the year. 
She encouraged her husband to try and make himself a public 
position. He accordingly became a syndic or director of the 
French East India Company, and, after showing his financial 
ability in its management, defended it in an able memoir against 
the attacks of A. Morellet in 1769. Meanwhile he had made 
interest with the French government by lending it money, and 
was appointed resident at Paris by the republic of Geneva. 
Madame Necker entertained the chief leaders of the political, 
financial and literary worlds of Paris, and her Fridays became 
as greatly frequented as the Mondays of Madame Geoffrin, or 
the Tuesdays of Madame Helvetius. In 1773 Necker won the 
prize of the Academic Francaise for an eloge on Colbert, and in 
!77S published his Essai sur la legislation et le commerce des 
grains, in which he attacked the free-trade policy of Turgot. 
His wife now believed he could get into office as a great financier, 
and made him give up his share in the bank, which he transferred 
to his brother Louis. In October 1776 Necker was made finance 
minister of France, though with the title only of director of 
..the treasury, which, however, he changed in 1777 for that of 
director-general of the finances. He did great good in regulating 
the finances by attempting to divide the taille or poll tax more 
equally, by abolishing the " vingtieme d'industrie," and establish- 
ing monts de piele (establishments for loaning money on security). 
But his greatest financial measures were his attempt to fund 
the French debt and his establishment of annuities under the 
guarantee of the state. The operation of funding was too 
difficult to be suddenly accomplished, and Necker rather pointed 
out the right line to be followed than completed the operation. 
In all this he treated French finance rather as a banker than as 
a profound political economist, and thus fell far short of Turgot, 
who was the very greatest economist of his day. Politically 
he did not do much to stave off the coming Revolution, and his 
establishment of provincial assemblies was only a timid applica- 
tion of Turgot's great scheme for the administrative reorganiza- 
tion of France. In 1781 he published his famous Compte rendu, 
in which he drew the balance sheet of France, and was dismissed 
from his office. Yet his dismissal was not really due to his book, 
but to the influence of Marie Antoinette, whose schemes for 
benefiting the due de Guines he had thwarted. In retirement 
he occupied himself with literature, and with his only child, 
his daughter, who in 1786 married the ambassador of Sweden 
and became Madame de Stael (?..). But neither Necker nor 
his wife cared to remain out of office, and in 1787 Necker was 
banished by " lettre de cachet " 40 leagues from Paris for 
attacking Calonne. In 1 788 the country, which had at the bidding 
of the literary guests of Madame Necker come to believe that 
Necker was the only minister who could " stop the deficit," 
as they said, demanded Necker's recall, and in September 1788 
he became once more director-general of the finances. Through- 
out the momentous months which followed the biography of 
Necker is part of the history of the French Revolution (q.v.). 
Necker pat a stop to the rebellion in Dauphin^ by legalizing its 
assembly, and then set to work to arrange for the summons 
of the states general. Throughout the early months of 1789 
he was regarded as the saviour of France, but his conduct at 
the meeting of the states general showed that he regarded it 
merely as an assembly which should grant money, not organize 
reforms. But as he had advised the calling of the states general, 
and the double representation of the third estate, and then 
permitted the orders to deliberate and vote in common, he was 
regarded as the cause of the Revolution by the court, and on 
July 1 1 was ordered to leave France at once. Necker's dismissal 
brought about the taking of the Bastille, which induced the 
king to recall him. He was received with joy in every city he 
traversed, but at Paris he again proved to be no statesman. 
Believing that he could save France alone, he refused to act with 
Mirabeau or La Fayette. He caused the king's acceptance of 
the suspensive veto, by which he sacrificed his chief prerogative 
in September, and destroyed all chance of a strong executive 



NECROLOGY NEEDLE 



by contriving the decree of November 7, by which the ministry 
might not be chosen from the assembly. Financially he proved 
equally incapable for a time of crisis, and could not understand 
the need of such extreme measures as the establishment of 
assignats in order to keep the country quiet. His popularity 
vanished when his only idea was to ask the assembly for new 
loans, and in September 1790 he resigned his office, unregretted 
by a single Frenchman. Not without difficulty he reached 
Coppet, near Geneva, an estate he had bought in 1784. Here 
he occupied himself with literature, but Madame Necker pined 
for her Paris salon and died in 1794. He continued to live on 
at Coppet, under the care of his daughter, Madame de Stae'l, 
and his niece, Madame Necker de Saussure, but his time was 
past, and his books had no political influence. A momentary 
excitement was caused by the advance of the French armies 
in 1798, when he burnt most of his political papers. He died 
at Coppet in April 1804. 

AUTHORITIES. Memoires sur la vie privee de M. Necker (Paris and 
London, 1818), by his daughter, Madame de Stael-Holstein, and the 
Notice sur la vie de M. Necker (Paris, 1820), by Auguste de Stael- 
Holstein, his grandson, published in the collection of his works edited 
by the latter in 1820-1821 (Paris, 15 vols.). The bibliography of his 
works is as follows: Reponse au memoire de M. I' Abbe IlonSsta 
(1769); Eloge de J. B. Colbert (1773); Essai sur la legislation et te 
commerce des grains (1775); Compte rendu au rot (1781); De 
{'administration des finances de la France (3 vols., 1784); Memoire 
en reponse au discours prononce par M. de Calonne (1787); De Vim- 
parlance des opinions religieuses (1788); Sur I' administration de M. 
Necker, par lui-meme (1791); Du pouvoir executif dans les grands 
flats (2 vols., 1792); Reflexions sur le prods de Louis XVI. (1792); 
De la revolution fran^aise, several editions, the last in 4 vols. (1797); 
Cours de la morale religieuse (1800); Dernieres vues de poiitique et de 
finance (1802); Manuscrits de M. Necker, published by his daughter 
(1804); Suites funestes d'une seule fattte, published after his death. 
See also Le Salon de Madame Necker, by the Vicomte d'Haussonville 
(2 vols., 1882), compiled from the papers at Coppet; Ch. Gomel, 
Les Causes financieres de la revolution fran^aise (Paris, 1892) ; and for 
contemporary tracts and pamphlets M. Tourneux, Bibl. de I'histoire 
de Paris pendant la revolution (vol. iv., 1906); also (for the earlier 
ones) Collection complete de tous les outrages pour et centre M. Necker, 
avec des notes critiques . . . (3 vols., Utrecht, 1781). 

(H. M.S.; J.T.S.*) 

NECROLOGY (from Med. Lat. necrologium, Gr. veicpfa, 
corpse, the termination being formed from Xifyios, \eyfiv to 
read, in the sense of list, register; cf. " martyrology "), a register 
in a monastery or other ecclesiastical establishment of the names 
of the deceased members of the society, or of those for whom 
the prayers of the foundation were offered as benefactors; 
hence any roll or list of deceased persons or collection of 
obituaries. 

NECROMANCY (Gr. vficpofiavrtia., or vdcvofiavrela, from 
veKpbs or vexus, corpse, and [Mtnela, divination), properly 
divination by communicating with the dead. The latinized 
form of the Greek word was corrupted into nigromantia, con- 
necting the word with niger, black, and so was applied to the 
" black art," " black magic," in the sense of witchcraft, sorcery. 
This corrupted form is common in English to the I7th century 
{see MAGIC and WITCHCRAFT). 

NECROPOLIS, a cemetery (q.v.) or burying-place, literally 
a " city of the dead " (Gr. veupbs, corpse, and iriXis, city). 
Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern 
cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial- 
grounds near the sites of the centres of ancient civilizations. 

NECROSIS (Gr. ?Kp6s, corpse), a term restricted in surgery 
to death of bone. A severe inflammation, caused by a violent 
blow, by cold, or by the absorption of various poisons, as mercury 
and phosphorus, is the general precursor of necrosis. The dead 
part, analogous to the slough in the soft tissues, is called a 
sequestrum or exfoliation. At first it is firmly attached to the 
living bone around; gradually, however, the dead portion is 
separated from the living tissue. The process of separation is 
a slow one. New bone is formed around the sequestrum, which 
often renders its removal difficult. As a rule the surgeon waits 
until the dead part is loose, and then cuts down through the 
new case and removes the sequestrum. The cavity in which 
it lay gradually closes, and a useful limb is the result. 



NECTAR, in ancient mythology generally coupled with am- 
brosia, the nourishment of the gods in Homer and in Greek 
literature generally. Probably the two terms were not originally 
distinguished; but usually both in Homer and in later writers 
nectar is the drink and ambrosia the food. On the other hand, 
in Alcrnan nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides 
ambrosia the drink. Each is used in Homer as an unguent 
(Iliad, xiv. 170; xix. 38). Both are fragrant, and may be used 
as perfume. According to W. H. Roscher (Nektar und Am- 
brosia, 1883; see also his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho- 
logie) nectar and ambrosia were originally only different forms 
of the same substance honey, regarded as a dew, b'ke manna, 
fallen from heaven, which was used both as food and drink. 
(See also AMBROSIA.) 

NEED-FIRE, or WILD-FIRE (Ger. Notfeiter, O. Ger. nodfyr), 
a term used in folklore to denote a curious superstition which 
survived in the Highlands of Scotland until a recent date. Like 
the fire-churning still customary in India for kindling the sacri- 
ficial fire, the need- or wild-fire is made by the friction of one 
piece of wood on another, or of a rope upon a stake. Need-fire 
is a practice of shepherd peoples to ward off disease from their 
.herds and flocks. It is kindled on occasions of special distress, 
particularly at the outbreak of a murrain, and the cattle are 
driven through it. Its efficacy is believed to depend on all 
other fires being extinguished. The kindling of the need-fire 
in a village near Quedlinburg was impeded by a night light 
burning in the parsonage (Prohle, Harz-Bildcr, Leipzig, 1855). 
According to one account, in the Highlands of Scotland the rule 
that all common fires must be previously extinguished applied 
only to the houses situated between the two nearest running 
streams (Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-Eurcpean Tradition and 
Folklore, p. 53 seq.). In Bulgaria even smoking during 
need-fire is forbidden. Two naked men produce the fire by 
rubbing dry branches together in the forest, and with the flame 
they light two fires, one on each side of a cross-road haunted 
by wolves. The cattle are then driven between the two fires, 
from which glowing embers are taken to rekindle the cold hearths 
in the houses (A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren, p. 198). In Caithness 
the men who kindled the need-fire had previously to divest 
themselves of all metal. In some of the Hebrides the men who 
made the fire had to be eighty-one in number and all married. 
In the Halberstadt district in Germany, the rope which was 
wound round the stake, must be pulled by two chaste boys; 
while at Wolfenbiittel, contrary to usual custom, it is said that 
the need-fire had to be struck out of the cold anvil by the smith. 
In England the need-fire is said to have been lit at Birtley 
within the last half-century. The superstition had its origin in 
the early ideas of the purifying nature of flame. 

See also Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 501 sqq. ; Kelly, Curio- 
sities of Indo-European Tradition and Folklore, p. 48 sqq.; Elton, 
Origins of English History, p. 293 sqq.; J. G. Frazer, The Golden 
Bough, iii. 301. 

NEEDLE (O. Eng. needl; the word appears in various forms 
in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being 
ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nzre, to spin, Gr. 
vTJffts, spinning), an instrument adapted for passing a thread 
through fabrics in sewing, consisting of a thin rod of steel, having 
a pointed end and pierced with a hole or " eye " to carry the 
thread. The term is also applied to various other objects that 
more or less resemble a sewing needle in form, though differing 
in function, such as the magnetized piece of steel that points 
north and south in the mariner's compass, the pointer or indicator 
of certain forms of electric telegraph instruments, the slender 
tube by which the contents of a hypodermic syringe are injected 
beneath the skin, a sharp-pointed mountain peak or isolated 
mass of rock, &c. 

Sewing needles have been in use from prehistoric times. 
Originally they were made of fishbone, bone or ivory, and their 
first form was probably a rude bodkin having a hook instead 
of an eye, though bone needles with an eye, sometimes at the 
end and sometimes in the middle, have been found in cave de- 
posits in Great Britain and France and in the Swiss lakes. Bone 



NEEDLE-GUNNEEDLEWORK 



339 



needles continue to be used by uncivilized tribes, but since the 
discovery of bronze metal needles have been employed in civilized 
communities. Steel needles were introduced into Europe by 
the Moors, and it is on record that they were being made at 
Nuremberg in 1370. In England their manufacture was estab- 
lished about 1650. The centre of the trade in England is 
Redditch, in Worcestershire, with several other small towns 
in Warwickshire. Originally the industry was domestic in its 
character, but it is now carried on in factories where mechanical 
appliances have to a great extent supplanted handwork. Large 
quantities of needles are also manufactured on the continent of 
Europe, Aix-la-Chapelle being an important centre of their 
production. In the United States ordinary sewing needles 
are not made, though there is a large output of the special forms 
used in sewing machines. 

The raw material of needle-manufacture consists of Sheffield 
crucible steel drawn down into wire of suitable gauge. The wire is 
supplied in coils of definite weight and diameter, and the first 
operation is to cut the coils into lengths, each sufficient for two 
needles. These lengths are next straightened. For this purpose a 
bundle containing several thousand lengths is packed within two 
strong iron rings, is heated to red heat, and is then pressed on an iron 
plate having two parallel grooves in which the iron rings run. Over 
this plate the bundle is worked backward and forward by the pressure 
of an oblong slightly curved iron tool having two longitudinal slits 
through which the edges of the rings project. Thus, by combined 
pressure and rolling the whole of the lengths quickly become perfectly 
straight and even. The next operation consists in pointing both ends 
of the wires. This was formerly done by hand by a grinder who, 
holding several dozen wires against a grindstone with his left hand 
and slightly revolving them with his right, was able to point about 
100,000 needles a day, the number depending, however, to some 
extent on the size treated. This method, however, is now largely 
superseded by machinery, which is still more expeditious. The wires 
are fed out from a hopper to a revolving wheel, on the periphery of 
which they are held by an india-rubber band. This wheel revolves at 
right angles to a revolving hollow grindstone, and so each wire is 
brought up to the stone in rapid succession and pointed at one end, 
the process being repeated for the other end. The next operations 
are to stamp the grooves which are to be found at the head of a needle 
and to punch the oval eyes, both being done by automatic machinery. 
Each wire now forms two needles attached head to head by a broad 
thin scarf of steel. The operation of separating them is largely per- 
formed by machines which pass the double blanks over the face of an 
emery wheel, but an older method is to spit them on two flattened 
wires, clamp them tightly in a frame, file away the scarf and break 
the blanks in halves, so that two lots of single needles are obtained, 
each spitted on a wire. The next step, after the heads have been filed 
smooth, is to harden and temper the needles, which are heated to 
redness, plunged into cold oil, and then gently heated by being placed 
on a continuous band passing over a series of gas flames. After the 
tempering comes the process of scouring, and then the eyes are 
smoothed and polished so that they will not cut the thread. For this 
purpose the heads used to be softened by blueing, and the needles 
strung loosely on wires covered with a paste of emery and oil. These 
wires were then suspended between uprights on a frame platform 
to which a jerking motion was communicated; in this way the 
needles were made to swing on the wires and the gentle friction 
effected the desired end. Generally, however, the eyes are cleared by 
the action of a concave wire brush, before the scouring process, and 
then subsequent burnishing becomes unnecessary. The bodies are 
next polished by being passed between revolving leather rollers which 
have also a lateral motion in the direction of their axes. The heads 
of the finished needles have now to be brought all in one direction. 
Formerly this was done by a " header," wearing a cloth cap on one of 
her fingers; this being pressed against a batch of the needles which 
had previously been arranged parallel to each other, those whose 
heads were presented to the cloth stuck in it and thus were with- 
drawn. A more modern device is to roll them down a smooth in- 
clined plane, when the pointed ends, owing to their conical form, 
travel more slowly than the thicker ends, and thus the needles are 
all brought round so that they point the same way. They are then 
sorted according to their lengths, and are done up into packets for 
the market. 

Besides ordinary needles for hand sewing, many varieties are made 
for use in sewing machines, and in their production automatic 
machinery is largely utilized. Those used for sewing leather have 
points of various special forms (twist, chisel, wedge, diamond, &c.) 
instead of the round point of the ordinary needle, and sometimes 
have a hook in place of an eye. Knitting needles are long slender 
rods, usually of steel but sometimes of bone or other material, having 
neither hooks nor eyes. Crochet needles are provided with a hook. 
Hooked needles again are employed in knitting and stockinet 
machines; having to be periodically closed by the operation of the 
mechanism the hooks in one type are made flexible so that they can 



be pushed down on the shank, while in another the same end is 
served by providing them with a minute latch. Another special 
class is constituted by the numerous varieties of needles used by 
surgeons for suturing wounds, &c. (see SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS). 

NEEDLE-GUN (ZUNDNADELGEWEHR), a military breech- 
loading rifle, famous as the arm of the Prussians in 1866 and of 
the Germans in 18703-1871. It was the invention of the gunsmith 
Johann Nicholas von Dreyse (1787-1867), who, beginning in 
1824, had made many experiments, and in 1836 produced the 
complete needle-gun. From 1841 onwards the new arm was 
gradually introduced into the Prussian service, and later into 
the military forces of many other German states. Dreyse was 
ennobled in 1864. The principal details of the arm (pattern 
1841) are as follows: 



Breech .... 
Calibre .... 
Weight without bayonet 
Charge (black powder) 
Bullet (lead) 
Muzzle velocity 
Sighted to ... 



Bolt system 

607 in. 

10 Ib 4 oz. 

74- 15 grains 

478 grains 

1000 f.s. 

800 paces (656 yds.) 



In practice the needle-gun proved to have numerous defects; 
its effective range was very short compared to that of the muzzle- 
loading rifles of the day, and conspicuously so as against the 
chassepot: the escape of gas at the breech was, moreover, very 
great. A paper cartridge was used. An improved model, 
giving greater muzzle velocity and increased speed in loading, 
was introduced later, but this was soon replaced by the Mauser 
rifle. 

NEEDLEWORK. This subject may be considered under 
the two headings of (i) Plain Needlework, used for purely 
utilitarian purposes, and (2) Art Needlework for decorative 
purposes. Plain needlework requires no such further explanation 
as may be given in the case of art needlework, under which title 
are included (a) embroidery, and (b) other methods of decorative 
needlework, such as applied or applique work, ornamental 
quilting, patchwork and couching. In these last-mentioned 
methods the needlework is subservient to the decorative effect, 
which depends almost wholly upon the materials selected for 
the purpose; whereas in embroidery the needlework itsejf 
constitutes and is the visible decoration. The aim of this article 
is to indicate briefly different stitches of plain needlework and 
then to show that these stitches are also used in the domain of 
art needlework. 

The more necessary stitche^ in plain needlework for making 
clothes are tacking, running, hemming, feather-stitching or 
herring-boning (all of which are practically of the same type), 
and button-holing in which the thread is looped as each stitch 
is made. Button-holing is allied to another looped stitch, 
namely chain-stitching, which though frequently used in em- 
broidery is rarely if ever used in plain needlework. For repairs of 
clothes and household linen, &c., the principal stitch is darning; 
grafting, however, is a substitute for it, and varies with the 
character of the stuff to be repaired, e.g. knitted stockings, 
damask linen, cloth, &c. Darning is allied to running, and graft- 
ing to patchwork. Patchwork as a form of decorative needle- 
work is exemplified in sumptuous canopies and seat covers 
made several centuries B.C. by Egyptians, and rich hangings 
made by Italian and French workers in the i6th century. 

Long and short stitches, kindred in principle to the running 
stitch in plain needlework, are perhaps the more frequent of 
any stitches used in embroidery, and are especially appropriate 
when the blending of tints with a flat even surface is the effect 
to be aimed at. Much medieval work of this character, as well 
as that done with chain stitch and its allied split stitch, is re- 
garded as typical of opus anglicanum. Chain stitch produces 
a comparatively broken surface in decided contrast with the 
smooth one of long and short stitch, split stitch and satin stitch 
embroidery. Satin stitch is well adapted to express, with even 
flat surface in designs for colour effects, each mass which is 
to be of one tint. In this respect, therefore, satin stitch serves 
a purpose in contrast to that of long and short stitch. A charac- 
teristic of satin-stitching is the sheeny effect produced, on both 



340 



NEEMUCH NEER, VAN DER 



sides of the material embroidered, by parallel stitches taken 
closely together. Buttonhole stitch in relation to art needle- 
work prevails to a great extent in cut linen and drawn-thread 
work (often called Greek lace), and predominates in the making of 
needlepoint lace (see LACE). In much of the Persian drawn-thread 
work, however, it is superseded by whipping or tightly and closely 
twisting a thread round the undrawn threads of the linen. Whip- 
ping has been put to another use in certain 16th-century art 
needlework for ecclesiastical purposes, where round the gold 
threads employed as the ground of a design coloured silks are 
dexterously whipped, closely and openly, producing gradations 
of tint suffused with a corresponding variation of golden shimmer. 
Another important branch of art needlework with gold and silver 
threads is couching. When the metallic threads, arranged 
so as to lie closely together, are simply stitched flatly to the found- 
ation material, the work is called flat couching or laying, a kind 
of treatment more frequent in Chinese and Japanese than in 
European art needlework. Flat couching is also carried out 
with floss silks. When a design for couching includes effects 
in relief, stout strings or cords as required by the design are 
first fastened to the foundation materials, and over them the 
metallic threads or in some cases coloured gimps are laid, and 
so stitched as to have an appearance in miniature of varieties 
of willow-twisting or basket work. 

The principle of relief couching is carried much further in 
certain English art needlework, having cumbersome and gro- 
tesque peculiarities, which was done during the reigns of the 
Stuarts. Crude compositions were wrought in partial relief 
with padded work, of costumed figures of kings and queens 
and scriptural persons with a medley of disproportionate animals, 
insects and trees, &c., in whichfoliage, wings, &c., wereof coloured 
silk needlepoint lace the whole being set as often as not in a 
background of tent or cross-stitch work on canvas. But tent 
and cross-stitch work (in French point compte) was also used 
by itself for cushion covers and later for upholstery. In its 
earlier phases it seems to come under the medieval classification 
of opus pulvinarum. The reticulations of the canvas or those 
apparent in finer material governed the stitching and imparted 
a stiff formal effect to the designs so carried out, a characteristic 
equally strong in the lacis work, or darning on square mesh net 
(see LACE). 

Applique or applied work belongs as much as patchwork 
to the medieval category of opus consutum, or stitching stuffs 
together according to a decorative design, the greater part of 
which was cut out of material different in colour, and generally 
in texture, from that of the ground to which it was applied and 
stitched. Irish art needlework, called Carrickmacross lace, is for 
the most part of cambric applied or applique to net. 

Quilting is also a branch of art needlework rather than em- 
broidery. Indians and Persians using a short running stitch 
have excelled in it in past times. Some good quilting was done 
in England in the i8th century with chain-stitching which lay 
on the inner side of the stuff, the outer displaying the design 
in 'short stitches. In the account of his voyage to the East 
Indies, published in 1655, Edward Terry (1590-1665) writes 
of the Indians " making excellent quilts of satin lined with taffeta 
betwixt which they put cotton wool and worked them together 
with silk." For less bulky quilting, cords have been used; 
and elaborate designs for quilted linen waistcoats were well 
done in the i8th century, with fine short stitches that held the 
cords between the inner and outer materials. 

A large number of names have been given to the many modifica- 
tions of the limited number of essentially different stitches used in 
plain and art needlework, and on the whole are fanciful rather than 
really valuable from a technical point of view. Much descriptive 
information about them, with an abundance of capital illustrations, 
is given in the Dictionary of Needlework, by J. F. Caulfield and 
Blanche Saward (London, 1903). 

NEEMUCH, or NIMACH, a town of Central India, with a 
British military cantonment, within the state of Gwalior, on 
the border of Rajputana, with a station on the Rajputana 
railway, 170 m. N. of Mhow. Pop. (1901) 21,588. In 1857 it was 
the most southerly place to which the Mutiny extended. The 



brigade of native troops of the Bengal army, which was stationed 
there, mutinied and marched to Delhi, the European officers 
taking refuge in the fort, where they were besieged by a rebel 
force from Mandasor, and defended themselves gallantly until 
relieved by the Malwa field force. Since 1895 it has been the 
headquarters of the political agent in Malwa. 

NEENAH, a city of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 
on the N.W. shore of Lake Winnebago, 82 m. N. by E. of Mil- 
waukee. Pop. (1890) 5083; (1900) 5954, of whom 1559 were 
foreign-born; (1905) 6047; (1910) 5734. It is served by the 
Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, 
and the Milwaukee, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways, by two 
interurban electric railways, and by steamboat lines on the lake 
and on the Fox river, which flows out of Lake Winnebago at 
this point. Several bridges connect it with Menasha, on the 
opposite side of the river, and the two cities- form one industrial 
community. Doty Island, at the mouth of the river, belongs 
partly to Neenah and partly to Menasha. Neenah is a trade 
centre of the surrounding agricultural region, in which dairying, 
especially cheese-making, is carried on extensively. The Fox 
river (with a fall of 12 ft.) furnishes good water-power for the 
manufactories. There was a trading post at or near the site of 
Neenah during the French regime in Wisconsin, but there was 
no actual settlement until well into the igth century. Neenah 
was chartered as a city in 1873; its name is derived from an 
Indian word meaning " running water " or " rapids." 

NEER, VAN DER. Aernout and Eglon van der Neer, father 
and son, were Dutch painters whose lives filled almost the whole 
of the i 7th century. 

i. AERNOUT VAN DER NEER (1603-1677), commonly called 
Aert or Artus, was the contemporary of Albert Cuyp and 
Hobbema, and so far like the latter that he lived and died in 
comparative obscurity. Aernout was born at Gorkum and 
died at Amsterdam. Houbraken's statement that Aernout 
had been a steward to a Dutch nobleman, and an amateur 
painter, before he settled in Amsterdam and acquired skill 
with his brush, would account for the absence of any pictures 
dating from his early years. He died in abject poverty, and his 
art was so little esteemed that the pictures left by him were 
valued at about five shillings apiece. Even as early as 1659 
he found it necessary to supplement his income by keeping a 
wine tavern. The earliest pictures in which Aernout coupled 
his monogram of A. V. and D. N. interlaced with a date are a 
winter landscape in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam (dated 
1639), and another in the Martins collection at Kiel (1642) 
immature works both, of poor quality. Far better is the " Winter 
Landscape " (1643) in Lady Wantage's collection, and the 
" Moonlight Scene " (1644) in the d'Arenberg collection in 
Brussels. In 1652 Aernout witnessed the fire which consumed the 
old town-hall of Amsterdam. He made this accident the subject 
for two or three pictures, now in the galleries of Berlin and Copen- 
hagen. Though Amsterdam appears to have been constantly van 
der Neer's domicile, his pictures tell that he was well acquainted 
with the canals and woods about Haarlem and Leiden, and 
with the reaches of the Maes and Rhine. Dort, the home of 
Albert Cuyp, is sometimes found in his pictures, and substantial 
evidence exists that there was friendship between the two 
men. At some period of their lives they laid their hands to the 
same canvases, on each of which they left their joint mark. 
On some it was the signature of the name, on others the more 
convincing signature of style. There are landscapes in the collec- 
tions of the dukes of Bedford and Westminster, in which Cuyp 
has represented either the frozen Maes with fishermen packing 
herrings, or the moon reflecting its light on the river's placid 
waters. These are models after which van der Neer appears 
to have worked. The same feeling and similar subjects are found 
in Cuyp and van der Neer, before and after their partnership. 
But Cuyp was the leading genius. Van der Neer got assistance 
from him; Cuyp expected none from van der Neer. He care- 
fully enlivened his friend's pictures, when asked to do so, with 
figures and cattle. It is in pictures jointly produced by them 
that we discover van der Neer's presence at Dort. We are near 



NEERWINDEN 



Dort in the landscape sunset of the Louvre, in which Cuyp 
evidently painted the foreground and cows. In the National 
Gallery picture Cuyp signs his name on the pail of a milkmaid, 
whose figure and red skirt he has painted with light effectiveness 
near the edge of van der Neer's landscape. Again, a couple of 
fishermen with a dog, and a sportsman creeping up to surprise 
some ducks, are Cuyp's in a capital van der Neer at the Staedel 
Institute in Frankfort. 

Van der Neer's favourite subjects were the rivers and water- 
courses of his native country either at sunset or after dark. 
His peculiar skill is shown in realizing transparence which allows 
objects even distant to appear in the darkness with varieties 
of warm brown and steel greys. Another of his fancies is to paint 
frozen water, and his daylight icescapes with golfers, sleighers, 
and fishermen are as numerous as his moonlights. But he always 
avoids the impression of frostiness, which is one of his great 
gifts. His pictures are not scarce. They are less valuable in 
the market than those of Cuyp or Hobbema; but, possessing 
a charm peculiarly their own, they are much sought after by 
collectors. Out of about one hundred and fifty pictures accessible 
to the public, the choicest selection is in the Hermitage at St 
Petersburg. In England paintings from his brush are to be 
found at the National Gallery and Wallace Collection, and, 
amongst others, in the collections of the marquess of Bute 
and Colonel Holford. 

2. EGLON VAN DER NEER (1643-1703) was born at Amsterdam, 
and died at Dusseldorf on the 3rd of May 1703. He was first 
taught by his father, and then took lessons from Jacob van Loo, 
whose chief business then consisted in painting figures in the 
landscapes of Wynants and Hobbema. When van Loo went 
to Paris in 1663 to join the school from which Boucher afterwards 
emerged, he was accompanied or followed by Eglon. But, 
leaving Paris about 1666, he settled at Rotterdam, where he 
dwelt for many years. Later on he took up his residence at 
Brussels, and finally went to Dusseldorf, where he entered the 
service of the elector-palatine Johann Wilhelm von der Pfalz. 
In each of the places where he stopped Eglon married, and having 
had three wives became the father of twenty-five children. 
A portrait of the princess of Neuberg led to his appointment 
as painter to the king of Spain. 

Eglon van der Neer has painted landscapes imitating those 
of his father, of Berchem, and of Adam Elsheimer. He frequently 
put the figures into the town views of Jan van der Heyden in 
competition with Berchem and Adrian van der Velde. His 
best works are portraits, in which he occasionally came near 
Ter Borch or Metsu in delicacy of touch, de Hooch in effective- 
ness of lighting, or Mieris in polish of surface. One of his earliest 
pieces in which the influence of Ter Borch is apparent is the 
" Lady with the Book," of 1665, which was sold with theBredel 
collection in 1875. A young woman in white and red satin at 
Rotterdam, of 1669, recalls Mieris, whose style also reappears 
in Eglon's " Cleopatra " at Buckingham Palace. Two land- 
scapes with " Tobit and the Angel," dated 1685 and 1694, 
in the museums of Berlin and Amsterdam, illustrate his fashion 
of setting Scripture scenes in Dutch backgrounds. The most 
important of his sacred compositions is the " Esther and 
Ahasuerus," of 1696, in the Uffizi at Florence. But Eglon 
varied his practice also with arrangements of hunting and 
hawking parties, pastures and fords, and cavalry skirmishes. 
The latest of his panels is a mountain landscape of 1702 in 
the gallery of Augsburg. (J . A. C. ; P. G. K.) 

NEERWINDEN, a village of Belgium in the province of Liege, 
a few miles E. by S. of Tirlemont, which gives its name to two 
great battles, the first fought in 1693 between the Anglo- Allied 
army under William III. of England and the French under the 
duke of Luxemburg, and the second in 1 793 between the Austrians 
under Prince Josias of Coburg and the French under General 
Dumouriez. 

Battle of Neerwinden or Landen, 1693 (see GRAND ALLIANCE, 
WAR OF THE). Luxemburg, having by feints induced William 
to detach portions of his army, rapidly drew together superior 
numbers in face of the Allied camps, which lay in a rough 



semicircle from Elissem on the right to Neerlanden, and thence 
along the Landen brook on the left (July 18-28, 1693). 
William had no mind to retire over the Geete river, and en- 
trenched a strong line from Laer through Neerwinden to Neer- 
landen. On the right section of this line (Laer to Neerwinden) 
the ground was much intersected and gave plenty of cover 
for both sides, and this section, being regarded as the key of 
the position, was strongly garrisoned; in the centre the open 
ground between Neerwinden and Neerlanden was solidly en- 
trenched, and in front of it Rumsdorp was held as an advanced 
post. The left at Neerlanden rested upon the Landen brook 
and was difficult of access. William's right, as his line of retreat 
lay over the Geete, was his dangerous flank, and Luxemburg 
was aware that, the front of the Allies being somewhat long for 
the numbers defending it, the intervention of troops drawn from 
one wing to reinforce the other would almost certainly be too 
late. Under these conditions Luxemburg's general plan was 
to throw the weight of his attack on the Laer-Neerwinden 
section, and specially on Neerwinden itself, and to economize 
his forces as " economy of force " was understood before 
Napoleon's time elsewhere, delivering holding attacks or 
demonstrations as might be necessary, and thus preventing 



NEERWINDEN 

Scale, 1:158.000 

English Miles 

! ? 




the Allied centre and left from assisting the right. Luxemburg 
had about 80,000 men to William's 50,000. Opposite the 
entrenchments of the centre he drew up nearly the whole of his 
cavalry in six lines, with two lines of infantry intercalated. 
A corps of infantry and dragoons was told off for the attack of 
Neerlanden and Rumsdorp, and the troops destined for the 
main attack, 28,000 of all arms, formed up in heavy masses 
opposite Neerwinden. This proportion of about one-third of 
the whole force to be employed in the decisive attack in the 
event proved insufficient. The troops opposite the Allied centre 
and left had to act with the greatest energy to fulfil their con- 
taining mission, and at Laer-Neerwinden the eventual success 
of the attack was bought only at the price of the utter exhaustion 
of the troops. 

After a long cannonade the French columns moved to the 
attack, converging on Neerwinden; a smaller force assaulted 
Laer. The edge of the villages was carried, but in the interior 
a murderous struggle began, every foot of ground being contested, 
and after a time William himself, leading a heavy counter-attack, 
expelled the assailants from both villages. A second attack, 
pushed with the same energy, was met with the same determina- 
tion, and meanwhile the French in other parts of the field had 
pressed their demonstrations home. Even the six lines of cavalry 
in the centre, after enduring the fire of the Allies for many hours, 
trotted over the open and up to the entrenchments to meet with 
certain defeat, and at Neerlanden and Rumsdorp there was 



342 



NEES VON ESENBECK NEGLIGENCE 



severe hand to hand fighting. But, meantime, the two intact 
lines of infantry in the French centre had been moved to their 
left and formed the nucleus for the last great assault on Neer- 
winden, which proved too much for the exhausted defenders. 
They fell back slowly and steadily, defying pursuit, and the British 
Coldstream Guards even captured a colour. But at this crisis 
the initiative of a subordinate general, the famous military 
writer Feuquieres (<?.!>.), converted the hard- won local success 
into a brilliant victory. William had begun to move troops 
from his centre and left to the right in order to meet the great 
assault on Neerwinden, and Feuquieres, observing this, led the 
cavalry of the French centre once again straight at the en- 
trenchments. This time the French squadrons, surprising the 
Allies in the act of manoeuvring, rode over every body of troops 
they met, and nothing remained for the Allies but a hurried 
retreat over the Geete. A stubborn rearguard of British troops 
led by William himself alone saved the Allied army, of which 
all but the left wing was fought out and in disorder. Luxemburg 
had won his greatest victory, thanks in a measure to Feuquieres' 
exploit; but had the assaults on Neerwinden been made 
as Napoleon would have made them with one-half or two- 
thirds of his forces instead of one-third, the victory would have 
been decisive, and Feuquieres would have won his laurels, 
not in forcing the decision at the cost of using up his cavalry, 
but in annihilating the remnants of the Allied army in the 
pursuit. The material results of the battle were twelve thousand 
Allies (as against eight thousand French) killed, wounded and 
prisoners, and eighty guns and a great number of standards 
and colours taken by the French. 

The battle of the i8th March 1793 marked the end of Dumouriez's 
attempt to overrun the Low Countries and the beginning of the 
Allies' invasion of France. The Austrians under Coburg, advancing 
from Maastricht in the direction of Brussels, encountered the heads 
of the hurriedly assembling French army at Tirlemont on the I5th 
of March, and took up a position between Neerwinden and Neer- 
landen. On the 1 8th, however, after a little preliminary fighting 
Coburg drew back a short distance and rearranged his army on a 
more extended front between Racour and Dormael, thus parrying 
the enveloping movement begun by the French from Tirlemont. 
Dumouriez was consequently compelled to fight after all on parallel 
fronts, and though in the villages themselves the individuality and 
enthusiasm of the French soldier compensated for his inadequate 
training and indiscipline, the greater part of the front of contact was 
open ground, where the superiority of the veteran Austrian regulars 
was unchallengeable. In these conditions an attempt to win a second 
Jemappes with numerical odds of n to 10 instead of 2 to I in favour 
of the attack was foredoomed to disaster, and the repulse of the 
Revolutionary Army was the signal for its almost complete dis- 
solution. Neerwinden was a great disaster, but not a great battle. 
Its details merely show the impossibility of fighting on the 18th- 
century system with ill-trained troops. The methods by which such 
troops could compass victory, the way to .fight a " sans culotte " 
battle, were not evolved until later. 

NEES VON ESENBECK, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED (1776- 
1858), German botanist and entomologist, was born at Erbach 
on the I4th of February 1776, and was educated at Darmstadt 
and at Jena, where he took the degree of M.D. After spending 
some time in medical practice he was appointed professor of 
botany in Erlangen in 1816. Three years later he became 
professor of natural history in Bonn, and in 183 1 he was appointed 
to the chair of botany in the university of Breslau. In 1848 
he entered political life and made himself so obnoxious to the 
government that in 1851 he was deprived of his professorship, 
and in consequence the latter years of his life were spent in 
great poverty. He died in Breslau on the i6th of March 
1858. 

For about forty years he edited the Nova acta of the " Acad. 
Leopold-Carolina," in which several of his own papers were published. 
His earliest memoirs dealt with the ichneumons, and he published 
a Monographic der Ichneumone in 2 vols. in 1828, and Hymenopterorum 
Ichneumonibiis affinium monpgraphiae, in 2 vols. in 1834. His other 
separate works include: Die Algen des siissen Wassers nach ihren 
Entwickelungsstufen dargestellt (1814); Das System der Ptlze und 
Schwamme (1816); Naturgeschichte der europatschen Lebermoose, in 
4 vols. (1833-1838); " Agrostologia Brasiliensis," in the Flora 
Brasiliensis; and a Systema Launnearum (1836). He also wrote 
numerous monographs in Flora, in Linnaea and in other scientific 
German magazines, either alone or along with other well-known 



botanists. His best-known works are those that deal with the 
Fungi, the Hepaticae and the Glumiferae, in all which groups he made 
valuable additions to knowledge. 

His brother THEODOR FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1787-1837), inspector 
of the botanic gardens at Leiden, and afterwards professor of 
pharmacy at Bonn, also wrote numerous papers on botanical sub- 
jects, dealing more particularly with medicinal plants and their 
products. 

NEFF, FELIX (1798-1829), Swiss Protestant divine and 
philanthropist, was born at Geneva on the 8th of October 
1798. Originally a sergeant of artillery, he decided in 1819 to 
devote himself entirely to evangelistic work. He was ordained 
to the ministry in 1822, and soon afterwards settled in the valley 
of Freissinieres, where he laboured in the manner of J. F. 
Oberlin, being at one and the same time pastor, schoolmaster, 
engineer and agriculturist. He was so successful that he changed 
the character of the district and its inhabitants. In 1827, 
worn out by his labours, he was obliged to return to his native 
place, where he died two years later. 

NEGAPATAM, a seaport of British India, in the Tanjore 
district of Madras, forming one municipality with Nagore, 
a port 3 m. N. at the mouth of the Vettar river. Pop. (1901) 
57,190. It carries on a brisk trade with the Straits Settlements 
and Ceylon, steamers running once a week to Colombo. The 
chief export is rice. Negapatam is the terminus of a branch of 
the South Indian railway, and contains large railway workshops. 
It is also a depot for coolie emigration. Negapatam was one 
of the earliest settlements of the Protuguese on the Coromandel 
coast. It was taken by the Dutch in 1660, becoming their 
chief possession in India, and by the English in 1781. From 
1799 to 1845 it was the headquarters of Tanjore district. There 
is a large population of Labbais, Mahommedans of mixed Arab 
descent, who are keen traders. Jesuit and Wesleyan missions 
are carried on. 

NEGAUNEE, a city of Marquette county, Michigan, U.S.A., 
about 12 m. W. by S. of Marquette and 3 m. E. of Ishpeming, 
in the N. part of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1904) 6797; (1910) 
8460. It is served by the Chicago & North- Western, the Duluth, 
South Shore & Atlantic, and the Lake Superior & Ishpeming 
railways. It is built on a ridge called Iron Mountain, 1564 ft. 
above sea-level, and under and near it are some of the most 
productive iron-ore deposits in the state, the mining of which is 
the principal industry of the city. The settlement of Negaunee 
began about 1870, and the city was chartered in 1873. The 
name is a Chippewa word meaning " first " or " he goes before," 
and is said to have been chosen at the request of the Pioneer 
Iron Company as an equivalent for " Pioneer." 

NEGLIGENCE (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect, 
literally " not to pick up "), a ground of civil law liability, and 
in criminal law an element in several offences, the most conspicu- 
ous of which is manslaughter by negligence. In order to establish 
civil liability on the ground of negligence, three things must be 
proved a duty to take care, the absence of due care, and actual 
damage caused directly by the absence of due care. Mere care- 
lessness gives no right of action unless the person injured can 
show that there was a legal duty to take care. The duty may 
be to the public in general, on the ground that any person who 
does anything which may involve risk to the public is bound to 
take due care to avoid the risk. For instance, in the words of Lord 
Blackburn, " those who go personally or bring property where 
they know that they or it may come into collision with the 
persons or property of others have by law a duty cast upon 
them to use reasonable care and skill to avoid such a collision." 
Where a special duty to an individual is alleged, the duty must 
rest on a contract or undertaking or some similar specific ground. 
Thus, where a surveyor has carelessly given incorrect progress 
certificates, and a mortgagee who has had no contractual relation 
with the surveyor has advanced money on the faith of the 
certificate, the surveyor is not liable to the mortgagee in an action 
of negligence; because he owed no duty to the mortgagee to be 
careful. When a duty to take care is established, the degree of 
care required is now determined by a well-ascertained standard. 
This standard is the amount of care which would be exercised 



NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT NEGRITOS 



343 



in the circumstances by an " average reasonable man." This 
objective standard excludes consideration of the capacity or 
state of mind of the particular individual. It also gets rid of the 
old distinctions between " gross," " ordinary " and " slight " 
negligence, though no doubt the degree of care required varies 
with the circumstances of the case. The application of such a 
standard is a task for which a jury is a very appropriate tribunal. 
In fact the decision of the question whether there has been a 
want of due care is left almost unreservedly to the jury. There 
is this amount of control, that if the judge is of opinion that the 
evidence, if believed, cannot possibly be regarded as showing 
want of due care, or in technical language that there is " no 
evidence of negligence," it is his duty to withdraw the case from 
the jury and give judgment for the defendant. Unless the judge 
decides that there is no duty to take care, or that there is no 
evidence of want of care, the question of negligence or no negli- 
gence is wholly for the jury. 

Ordinarily a man is responsible only for his own negligence 
and for that of his servants and agents acting within the scope 
of their authority. For the acts or defaults of the servants of 
an independent contractor he is not liable. But in certain cases 
a stricter obligation is imposed on him by law. The occupier of 
premises is under a duty to all persons who go there on business 
which concerns him to see that the premises are in a reasonably 
safe condition so far as reasonable care and skill can make 
them so. Thus he cannot release himself by employing an in- 
dependent contractor to maintain or repair the premises. The 
effect of this doctrine is that the occupier may be liable if it can 
be shown that the independent contractor or his servant has been 
guilty of a want of due care. A similar obligation has been 
enforced in the case of a wreck stranded in a navigable river, 
and the owner was held liable for damage caused by the careless- 
ness of the servant of an independent contractor who had under- 
taken to light the wreck. So too any person who undertakes a 
work likely to cause danger if due care is not taken is liable for 
damage caused by the carelessness of the servant of an inde- 
pendent contractor, so long as the carelessness is not casual or 
collateral to the servant's employment. 

In an action of negligence a familiar defence is " contributory 
negligence." This is a rather misleading expression. It is not 
a sufficient defence to show that the plaintiff was negligent, 
and that his negligence contributed to the harm complained of. 
The plaintiff's negligence will not disentitle him to recover unless 
it is such that without it the misfortune would not have happened, 
nor if the defendant might by the exercise of reasonable care on 
his part have avoided the consequences of the plaintiff's 
negligence. The shortest and plainest way of expressing this 
rule is, that the plaintiff's negligence is no defence unless it was 
the proximate or decisive cause of the injury. There was an 
attempt in recent times to extend this doctrine so as to make 
the contributory negligence of a third person a defence, in cases 
' where the plaintiff, though not negligent himself, was travelling 
in a vehicle or vessel managed by the negligent third person, or 
was otherwise under his control. In such circumstances it was 
said that the plaintiff was " identified " with the third person. 
(Waite v. North-Eastern Ry. Co., 1858, E. B. & E., 719). This 
case, in the Exchequer Chamber, was an action on behalf of 
an infant by his next friend. The infant, which was five years 
of age, was with its grandmother, who took a half-ticket for 
the child and a ticket for herself to travel by the defendants' 
line; as they were crossing the railway to be ready for the 
train the child was injured by a passing train. The jury found 
that the defendants were guilty of negligence, and that the 
grandmother was guilty of negligence which contributed to the 
accident, while there was no negligence of the infant plaintiff. 
A verdict was entered for the plaintiff, but in the Queen's 
Bench the verdict was entered for the defendants, without 
calling on them to argue, on the ground that the infant was 
identified with its grandmother. But the case of the 
"Bernina," decided in 1888, where a passenger and an engineer 
on board the " Bushire " were killed in a collision between the 
" Bernina " and the " Bushire " caused by fault in both ships, 



but without fault on the part of the deceased, exploded this 
supposed doctrine, and made it clear that the defence of 
contributory negligence holds good only when the defendant 
contends and proves that the plaintiff was injured by his own 
carelessness. 

The American law of negligence is founded on the English 
common law; but the decisions in different states have occasion- 
ally contradicted English decisions, and also one another. 

See T. Beven, Negligence in Law, 3rd ed., 1908; Shearman and 
Redfield, The Law of Negligence (New York), Thompson, Commen- 
taries on Negligence (Indianapolis). (A. LL. D.) 

NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT, in law, a document or other 
instrument purporting to represent so much money, and the 
property in which passes, like money, by mere delivery. Negoti- 
able instruments arise in either of two ways: (i) by statute, 
(2) by custom of merchants. The most commonly recognized 
negotiable instruments are bills of exchange, promissory notes, 
bills of lading, foreign bonds and debentures payable to bearer. 
Negotiable instruments constitute an exception to the general 
rule that a man cannot give a better title than he has himself 
(see BILL or EXCHANGE). 

NEGRI, ADA (1870- ), Italian poet, was born at Lodi, of an 
artisan family, and became a village school-teacher. Her first 
book of poems, Tempeste (1891), tells the helpless tragedy of the 
forsaken poor, in words of vehement beauty. Her second volume 
of lyrics, Fatalitd (1893), confirmed her reputation as a poet, and 
led to her appointment to the normal school at Milan; but her 
later verse, while striking in its sincerity, suffered by a tendency 
to repetition and consequent mannerism. 

NEGRITOS (Span, for " little negroes "), the name originally 
given by the Spaniards to the aborigines of the Philippine Islands. 
They are physical weaklings, of low, almost dwarf, stature, with 
very dark skin, closely curling hair, flat noses, thick lips and 
large clumsy feet. The term has, however, been more generally 
applied to one of the great ethnic groups into which the popula- 
tion of the East Indies is divided, and to an apparently kindred 
race in Africa (see NEGRO). A. de Quatrefages suggests that 
from the parent negroid stem were thrown off two negrito 
branches to the west and east, the Indo-Oceanic and African, 
and that the Akkas, Wochuas, Batwas and Bushmen of the 
Dark Continent are kinsmen of the Andaman Islanders, the 
Sakais of the Malay Peninsula and the Aetas of the Philippines. 
This view has found much acceptance among ethnologists. The 
result of Quatrefages's theory would be to place the negrito 
races closest to the primitive human type, a conclusion apparently 
justified by their physical characteristics. The true negritos 
are always of little stature (the majority under 5 ft.), have 
rounded forms and their skull is brachycephalic or subbrachy- 
cephalic, that is to say, it is relatively short and broad and of 
little height. Their skin is dark brown or black, sometimes 
somewhat yellowish, their hair woolly (scanty on face and body), 
and they have the flat nose and thick lips and other physical 
features of the negro. Among peoples undoubtedly negrito 
are those of the Andaman Islands (q.v.), the Malay Peninsula 
(q.v.) and some of the Philippines (q.v.), the best types being 
the Sakais (q.v.), Mincopies and Aetas. The question of the so- 
called negrito races of India, the Oraons, Gonds, &c., is in much 
dispute, Quatrefages believing the Indian aborigines to have 
been negritos, while other ethnologists find the primitive people 
of Hindustan in the Dravidian races. Some authorities have 
placed the Veddahs of Ceylon among the negritos, but their 
straight hair and dolichocephalic skulls are sufficient arguments 
against their inclusion. The negrito is often confounded with 
the Papuan; but the latter, though possessing the same woolly 
hair and being of the same colour, is a large, often muscular man, 
with a long, high skull. 

See A. de Quatrefages, Les Pygmees (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans. 
1895); E. H. Man, The Aborigines of the Andaman Islands (London, 
1885); Giglioli, Nuove notizie sui populi negroidi dell' Asia e special- 
mente sui Negriti (Florence, 1879) ; Meyer, Album von Philippinen- 
Typen (Dresden, 1885); Blumentritt, Ethnotraphie der Phihppinen 
(Gotha, 1892); A. B. Meyer, Die Negritos (Dresden, 1899); A. H. 
Keane, Ethnology; A. C. Haddon in Nature for September 1899. 



344 



NEGRO 



NEGRO (from Lat. niger, black), in anthropology, the designa- 
tion of the distinctly dark-skinned, as opposed to the fair, yellow, 
and brown variations of mankind. In its widest sense it embraces 
all the dark races, whose original home is the intertropical and 
sub-tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere, stretching 
roughly from Senegambia, West Africa, to the Fijian Islands in 
the Pacific, between the extreme parallels of the Philippines 
and Tasmania. It is most convenient, however, to refer to the 
dark-skinned inhabitants of this zone by the collective term of 
Negroids, and to reserve the word Negro for the tribes which 
are considered to exhibit in the highest degree the characteristics 
taken as typical of the variety. 

These tribes are found in Africa; their home being south of 
the Sahara and north of a not very well-defined line running 
roughly from the Gulf of Biafra with a south-easterly trend 
across the equator to the mouth of the Tana. In this tract 
are found the true negroes; and their nearest relatives, the 
Bantu-negroids, are found to the south of the last-mentioned 
line. The relation of the yellowish-brown Bushman and Hotten- 
tot peoples of the southern extremity of Africa to the negro is 
uncertain; they possess certain negroid characters, the tightly 
curled hair, the broad nose, the tendency towards prognathism; 
but their colour and a number of psychological and cultural 
differences would seem to show that the relation is not close. 
Between the two a certain affinity seems to exist, and the 
Hottentot is probably the product of an early intermixture of 
the first Hamito-Bantu immigrants with the Bushman aborigines 
(see AFRICA: Ethnology). The relation of the negroids of Africa 
to those of Asia (southern India and Malaysia) and Australasia 
cannot be discussed with profit owing to lack of evidence; still 
less the theories which have been put forward to account for 
the wide dispersal from what seems to be a single stock. It will 
be sufficient to say that the two groups have in common a 
number of well-defined characteristics of which the following 
are the chief: A dark skin, varying from dark brown> reddish- 
brown, or chocolate to nearly black; dark tightly curled hair, 
flat in transverse section, 1 of the " woolly " or the " frizzly " 
type; a greater or less tendency to prognathism; eyes dark 
brown with yellowish cornea; nose more or less broad and flat; 
and large teeth. 

Sharing these characteristics, but distinguished by short 
stature and brachycephaly, is a group to which the name Negrito 
(q.v.) has been given; with this exception the tendency among 
the negroids appears to be towards tall stature and dolichoce- 
phaly in proportion as they approach the pure negro type. As 
the most typical representatives of the variety are found in 
Africa, the Asiatic and Australasian negroids may be dismissed 
with this introduction. The negro and negroid population of 
America, the descendants of the slaves imported from West 
Africa, and in a less degree, from the Mozambique coast, before 
the abolition of the slave-trade, are treated separately below. 

In Africa three races have intermingled to a certain extent 
with the negro; the Libyans (Berbers: q.v.) in the Western 
Sudan; and the Hamitic races (q.v.) and Arabs (q.v.) in the east. 
The identity of the people who have amalgamated with the 
negro to form the Bantu-speaking peoples in the southern portion 
of the continent is not certain, but as the latter appear to ap- 
proach the Hamites in those characteristics in which they differ 
from the true negroes, it seems probable that they are infused 
with a proportion of Hamitic blood. The true negroes show great 
similarity of physical characteristics; besides those already 
mentioned they are distinguished by length of arm, especially 
of fore arm, length of leg, smallness of calf and projection of heel; 
characteristics which frequently fail to appear to the same degree 

1 This point has been fully determined by P. A. Brown (Classifica- 
tion of Mankind by the Hair, &c.), who shows conclusively that, 
unlike true hair and like true wool, the negro hair is flat, issues from 
the epidermis at a right angle, is spirally twisted or crisped, has no 
central duct, the colouring matter being disseminated through the 
cortex and intermediate fibres, while the cortex itself is covered with 
numerous rough, pointed filaments adhering loosely to the shaft; 
lastly, the negro pile will felt, like wool, whereas true hair cannot be 
felted. 



among the Bantu, who are also as a rule less tall, less prognathous, 
less platyrrhine and less dark. A few tribes in the heart of the 
negro domain (the Welle district of Belgian Congo) show a 
tendency to round head, shorter stature and fairer complexion; 
but there seems reason to suppose that they have received an 
infusion of Libyan (or less probably Hamitic) or Negrito blood. 

The colour of the skin, which is also distinguished by a velvety 
surface and a characteristic odour, is due not to the presence of 
any special pigment, but to the greater abundance of the colour- 
ing matter in the Malpighian mucous membrane between the 
inner or true skin and the epidermis or scarf skin. 2 This colouring 
matter is not distributed equally over tne body, and does not 
reach its fullest development until some weeks after birth; 
so that new-born babies are a reddish chocolate or copper colour. 
But excess of pigmentation is not confined to the skin; spots 
of pigment are often found in some of the internal organs, such 
as the liver, spleen, &c. Other characteristics appear to be a 
hypertrophy of the organs of excretion, a more developed venous 
system, and a less voluminous brain, as compared with the 
white races. 

In certain of the characteristics mentioned above the negro 
would appear to stand on a lower evolutionary plane than the 
white man, and to be more closely related to the highest anthro- 
poids. The characteristics are length of arm, prognathism, 
a heavy massive cranium with large zygomatic arches, flat nose 
depressed at base, &c. But in one important respect, the 
character of the hair, the white man stands in closer relation 
to the higher apes than does the Negro. 

Mentally the negro is inferior to the white. The remark of 
F. Manetta, made after a long study of the negro in America, 
may be taken as generally true of the whole race: " the negro 
children were sharp, intelligent and full of vivacity, but on 
approaching the adult period a gradual change set in. The 
intellect seemed to become clouded, animation giving place 
to a sort of lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. We must 
necessarily suppose that the development of the negro and white 
proceeds on different lines. While with the latter the volume of 
the brain grows with the expansion of the brainpan, in the 
former the growth of the brain is on the contrary arrested by 
the premature closing of the cranial sutures and lateral pressure 
of the frontal bone. 3 This explanation is reasonable and even 
probable as a contributing cause; but evidence is lacking on the 
subject and the arrest or even deterioration in mental develop- 
ment is no doubt very largely due to the fact that after puberty 
sexual matters take the first place in the negro's life and thoughts. 
At the same time his environment has not been su:h as would tend 
to produce in him the restless energy which has led to the progress 
of the white race; and the easy conditions of tropical life and 
the fertility of the soil have reduced the struggle for existence 
to a minimum. But though the mental inferiority of the negro 
to [the white or yellow races is a fact, it has often been ex- 
aggerated; the negro is largely the creature of his environment, 

* It is also noteworthy that the dark colour seems to depend neither 
on geographical position, the isothermals of greatest heat, nor even 
altogether on racial purity. The extremes of the chromatic scale are 
found in juxtaposition throughout the whole negro domain, in Sene- 
gambia, the Gabun, upper Nile basin, lower Congo, Shari valley, 
Mozambique. In the last region M de Froberville determined the 
presence of thirty-one different shades from dusky or yellow-brown 
to sooty black. Some of the sub-negroid and mixed races, such as 
many Abyssinians, ( '.alia, Jolof and Mandingo, are quite as black as 
the darkest full-blood negro. A general similarity in the outward 
conditions of soil, atmosphere, climate, food charged with an excess 
of carbon, such as the fruit of the butter-tree, and other undetermined 
causes have tended to develop a tendency towards dark shades every- 
where in the negro domain apart from the bias mainly due to an 
original stain of black blood. Perhaps the most satisfactory theory 
explains the excessive development of pigment in the dark-skinned 
races as a natural protection against the ultra-violet rays in which 
tropical light is so rich and which are destructive of protoplasm 
(see C. E. Woodruff, Tropical Light, London, 1905). The expression 
" jet black " is applied by Schwemfurth to the upper-Nilotic Shilluk, 
Nuer and Dinka, while the neighbouring Bongo and Mittu are de- 
scribed as of a " red-brown " colour " like the soil upon which they 
reside " (Heart of Africa, vol. i. ch. iv.). 

* La Razza Negra net suo stato selvaggio, &c. (Turin, 1864), p. 20. 



NEGRO 



345 



and it is not fair to judge of his mental capacity by tests taken 
directly from the environment of the white man, as for instance 
tests in mental arithmetic; skill in reckoning is necessary to the 
white race, and it has cultivated this faculty; but it is not 
necessary to the negro. 

On the other hand negroes far surpass white men in acuteness 
of vision, hearing, sense of direction and topography. A native 
who has once visited a particular locality will rarely fail to 
recognize it again. For the rest, the mental constitution of the 
negro is very similar to that of a child, normally good-natured 
and cheerful, but subject to sudden fits of emotion and passion 
during which he is capable of performing acts of singular atrocity, 
impressionable, vain, but often exhibiting in the capacity of 
servant a dog-like fidelity which has stood the supreme test. 
Given suitable training, the negro is capable of becoming a 
craftsman of considerable skill, particularly in metal work, 
carpentry and carving. The bronze castings by the cire perdue 
process, and the cups and horns of ivory elaborately carved, 
which were produced by the natives of Guinea after their 
intercourse with the Portuguese of the i6th century, bear ample 
witness to this. But the rapid decline and practical evanescence 
of both industries, when that intercourse was interrupted, shows 
that the native craftsman was raised for the moment >above his 
normal level by direct foreign inspiration, and was unable to 
sustain the high quality of his work when that inspiration failed. 

In speaking of the form or forms of culture found among negro 
and negroid tribes, the dependence of the native upon his 
environment must be kept in mind, particularly in Africa, where 
interchange of customs is continually taking place among 
neighbours. 

Thus the forest regions are distinguished by a particular form 
of culture which differs from that prevailing in the more open 
country (see AFRICA: Ethnology). But it may be said generally 
that the negro is first and foremost an agriculturist. The negritos 
are on a lower cultural plane; they are nomadic hunters who 
do no cultivation whatever. Next in importance to agriculture 
come hunting and fishing and, locally, cattle-keeping. The 
last is not strictly typical of negro culture at all; nearly all the 
tribes by whom it is practised are of mixed origin, and their 
devotion to cattle seems to vary inversely with the purity of race. 
The most striking exception to this statement is the Dinka of 
the upper Nile, the whole of whose existence centres round the 
cattle pen. Of the other tribes where pastoral habits obtain to 
a greater or less extent, the Masai have a large percentage of 
Hamitic blood, the eastern and southern Bantu-speaking negroids 
are also of mixed descent, &c. 

The social conditions are usually primitive, especially among 
the negroes proper, being based on the village community ruled 
by a chief. Where the country is open, or where the forest 
is not so thick as to present any great obstacle to communication, 
it has often happened that a chief has extended his rule over 
several villages and has ultimately built up a kingdom adminis- 
tered by sub-chiefs of various grades, and, has even established 
a court with a regular hierarchy of officials. . Benin and Dahomey 
are instances of this. But the region -where this " empire- 
building " has reached its greatest proportions lies to the south 
of the forest belt in the territory of the Bantu negroids, where 
arose the states of Lunda, Cazembe, &c. 

The domestic life of the negro is based upon polygyny, and 
marriage is almost always by purchase. So vital is polygyny to 
the native social system that the attempts made by missionaries 
to abolish plurality of wives would, if successful (a contingency 
unthinkable under present conditions), result in the most serious 
social disorder. Not only would an enormous section of the 
population be deprived of all means of support, but the native 
wife would be infinitely harder worked; agriculture, the task of 
the women, would be at a standstill; and infanticide would 
probably assume dangerous proportions. 

Descent in the negro world is on the whole more often reckoned 
through the female, though many tribes with a patriarchal 
system are found. Traces of totemism are found sporadically, 
but are rare. 



Of the highest importance socially are the secret societies, 
which are found in their highest development among the negroes 
of the west coast, and in a far less significant form among some 
of the Bantu negroids of the western forest district. In their 
highest form these societies transcend the tribal divisions, and the 
tie which binds the individual to the society takes precedence of 
all others. Bat the secret society cannot be called a definitely 
negro institution, since it is found in the west only. 

As an agriculturist the negro is principally a vegetarian, 
but this form of diet is not the result of direct choice; meat is 
everywhere regarded as a great delicacy, and no opportunity 
of obtaining it is ever neglected, with one exception that the 
cattle-keeping tribes rarely slaughter for food, because cattle 
are a form of currency. Fish is also an important article of diet 
in the neighbourhood of large rivers, especially the Nile and 
Congo. It is worthy of note that the two cultivated plants 
which form the mainstay of native life, manioc in the west and 
centre and mealies in the south and east, are neither of African 
origin. 

Cannibalism is found in its' simplest form in Africa. In that 
continent the majority of cannibal tribes eat human flesh because 
they like it, and not from any magical motive or from lack of 
other animal food. In fact it is noticeable that the tribes most 
addicted to this practice inhabit just those districts where game 
is most plentiful. Among the true negroes it is confined mainly 
to the Welle and Ubangi districts, though found sporadically (and 
due to magical motives) on the west coast, and among the Bantu 
negroids in the south-western part of Belgian Congo and the 
Gabun. 

With regard to crafts the most important and typical is that 
of iron smelting and working. No negro tribe has been found 
of which the culture is typical of the Stone age; or, indeed, 
which makes any use of stone implements except to crush ore 
and hammer metal. Even these are rough pieces of stone of 
convenient size, not shaped in any way by chipping or grinding. 
Doubtless the richness of the African soil in metal ores rendered 
the Stone age in Africa a period of very short duration (see 
AFRICA: Ethnology). A good deal of aptitude is shown in the 
forging of iron, considering the primitive nature of the tools. 
Considerable skill in carving is also found in the west and among 
the Bantu negroids, especially of Belgian Congo south of the 
Congo. Weaving is practised to a large extent in the west; 
the true native material being palm-leaf fibre. The cultivation 
of cotton, which has become important in West Africa, deals 
with an exotic material and has been subjected to foreign 
influences. Among the Bantu of the Kasai district the art of 
weaving palm-cloth reaches its highest level, and in the east 
cotton-weaving is again found. Pottery-making is almost uni- 
versal, though nowhere has it reached a very advanced stage; the 
wheel is unknown, though an appliance used on the lower Congo 
displays the principle in very rudimentary form. The produc- 
tion of fire by means of friction was universal, the method known 
as " twirling " being in vogue, i.e. the rapid rotation between 
the palms of a piece of hard wood upon a piece of soft wood. 

Trading is practised either by direct barter or through the 
medium of rude forms of currency which vary according to 
locality. Value is reckoned among the tribes with pastoral 
tendencies in cattle and goats; among the eastern negroes 
by hoe-and spear-blades and salt blocks; in the west by cowries, 
brass rods, and bronze armlets (manilas); in Belgian Congo 
variously by olhella shells, brass rods, salt, goats and fowls, 
copper ingots and iron spear-blades, &c. 

As regards religion, the question of environment is again 
important; in the western forests where communities are small 
the negro is a fetishist, though his fetishism is often combined 
more or less with nature worship. Where communication is 
easier the nature worship becomes more systematic, and definite 
supernatural agencies are recognized, presiding over definite 
spheres of human life. 1 Where feudal kingdoms have been formed, 
ancestor- worship begins to appear and often assumes paramount 

1 The three volumes by Colonel Ellis mentioned in the biblio- 
graphy form an excellent study of the development of negro religion. 



34^ 



NEGRO 



importance. In fact this form of religion is typical of all the 
eastern and southern portion of the continent (see AFRICA: 
Ethnology). With the negro, as with most primitive peoples, 
it is the malignant powers which receive attention from man, 
with a view to propitiation or coercion. Beneficent agencies 
require no attention, since, from their very nature, they must 
continue to do good. The negro attitude towards the super- 
natural is based frankly on fear; gratitude plays no part in it. 
A characteristic feature of the western culture area, among both 
negro and Bantu negroid tribes, is the belief that any form of 
death except by violence must be due to evil magic exercised 
by, or through the agency of, some human individual; to dis- 
cover the guilty party the poison ordeal is freely used. A 
similar form of ordeal is found in British Central Africa to dis- 
cover magicians, and the wholesale " smelling-out " of " witches," 
often practised for political reasons, is a well-known feature 
of the culture of the Zulu-Xosa tribes. Everywhere magic, 
both sympathetic and imitative, is practised, both by the ordinary 
individual and by professional magicians, and most medical 
treatment is based on this, although the magician is usually a 
herbalist of some skill. Where the rainfall is uncertain, the 
production of rain by magical means is one of the chief duties 
of the magician, a duty which becomes paramount in the eastern 
plains among negroes and Bantu negroids alike. But the negroes 
and negroids have been considerably influenced by exotic 
religions, chiefly by Mahommedanism along the whole extent 
of country bordering the Sahara and in the east. Christianity 
has made less progress, and the reason is not far to seek. Islam 
is simple, categorical and easily comprehended; it tends far 
less to upset the native social system, especially in the matter 
of polygyny, and at the same time discourages indulgence in 
strong drink. Moreover the number of native missionaries is 
considerable. Christianity has none of these advantages, but 
possesses two great drawbacks as far as the negro is concerned. 
It is not sufficiently categorical, but leaves too much to the 
individual, and it discountenances polygyny. The fact that it 
is divided into sects, more or less competitive among them- 
selves, is another disadvantage which can hardly be overrated. 
This division has not, it is true, as yet had much influence upon 
the evangelization of Africa, since the various missions have 
mostly restricted themselves each to a particular sphere; still, 
it is a defect in Christianity, as compared with Islam, which will 
probably make itself felt in Africa as it has in China. 

As regards language, the Bantu negroids all speak dialects of 
one tongue (see BANTU LANGUAGES). Among the negroes the 
most extraordinary linguistic confusion prevails, half a dozen 
neighbouring villages in a small area often speaking each a 
separate language. All are of the agglutinating order. No 
absolutely indigenous form of script exists; though the Hausa 
tongue has been reduced to writing without European assistance. 1 

AUTHORITIES. J. Deniker, Races of Man (London, 1900) ; A. H. 
Keane, Ethnology (London, 1 896) ; Man Past and Present (London, 
1900); A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples (1887); The Ewe- 
speaking Peoples (1890) ; The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894) ; 
B. Ankermann, " Kulturkreise in Afrika," Zeit.f. Eth. (1905), p. 54. 
See also AFRICA, 3, Ethnology. (T. A. J.) 

Negroes in the United States. 

After the migration of the European fair-skinned races in 
large numbers to other parts of the earth occupied by people 
of darker colour, the adjustment of relations between the diverse 
races developed a whole series of problems almost unknown 
to the ancient world or to the life of modern Europe. The wider 
the diversity of physique and especially of skin colour, the greater 
the danger of friction. The more serious the effort to secure 
industrial and social co-operation under representative institu- 
tions, the graver have become the difficulties. They have been 
and are perhaps more acute in the United States than elsewhere, 

1 The Vai alphabet, " invented " by a native, Doalu Bukere, in 
the first half of the igth century, owed its inspiration to European 
influence, and of the characters " many . . . are clumsy adaptations 
of Roman letters or of conventional signs used by Europeans " 
(Sir H. H. Johnston, Liberia, p. 1107 foil., London, 1906). 



because there the lightest and the darkest races have com- 
mingled, because of the theory on which the government of the 
country nominally rests,_ that each freeman should be given 
an equal chance to improve his industrial position and an equal 
voice in deciding political questions, and because of the almost 
irreconcilable differences in the public opinion of the two great 
sections to only one of which do the problems come home as 
everyday matters. They were not solved by the Civil War 
and emancipation, but their nature was radically altered. Neither 
the earlier system of slavery nor the governmental theory during 
the radical reconstruction period that race differences should 
be ignored has proved workable, and the trend is now towards 
some modus vivendi between these extremes. 

The only definition of negro having any statutory basis in 
the United States is that given in the legislation of many Southern 
states prohibiting intermarriage between a white person and 
" a person who has one-eighth or more of African blood." 
Census enumerators in their counts of the American people 
since 1790 have distinguished the two main races of whites and 
negroes, but in so doing they have never been given a definition 
or criterion of race. Consequently they followed the judgment 
of the community enumerated, which usually classes as negro 
all persons known or believed to have in their veins any ad- 
mixture of negro blood. It is probable that this line, the so- 
called " colour line," which is emphasized in regions where 
negroes are numerous by many legal, economic and social dis- 
criminations between the races, is drawn with substantial 
accuracy. Far different has been the result of governmental 
efforts to draw another line within the group of negroes as thus 
defined, that between the negroes of pure African blood and those 
of mixed negro and white blood. This distinction has no legal 
significance, for negroes of pure blood and negroes of mixed blood 
are subject to the same provisions of law, and at least for the 
whites it has little social or economic significance. An attempt 
to draw it was made at each census betweeen 1850 and 1800 
inclusive, and the results, so far as they were published, indicate 
that between one-sixth and one-ninth of the negroes in the United 
States have some admixture of white blood. The figures were 
reached through thousands of census enumerators, nearly all 
of whom were white. Of recent years an effort has been made 
on the part of negro investigators to get an answer to the same 
question by the careful study of communities selected as typical. 
The classification of about 39,000 coloured people, most of them 
in different parts of Georgia, with a study of the other available 
data and inferences from a somewhat wide observation, led Dr 
Dubois to the conclusion that " at least one-third of the negroes 
of the United States have recognizable traces of white blood." 

Perhaps we may believe with some confidence that the in- 
formation from white sources understates, and that from negro 
sources overstates, the proportion, and that the true proportion 
of mulattoes in the United States is between one-sixth and one- 
third of all negroes. To infer that the true proportion in 1850, 
1860, 1870 and 1890, the dates to which the census figures relate, 
was much less than the true proportion in 1895 to 1900, to which 
the unofficial figures relate, is contrary to the general trend of 
the evidence. As the law and the social opinion of the Southern 
whites make little or nothing of this distinction between negroes 
of pure blood and mulattoes, it is often regarded as less important 
than it really is. The recognized leaders of the race are almost 
invariably persons of mixed blood, and the qualities which have 
made them leaders are derived certainly in part and perhaps 
mainly from their white ancestry. Wherever large numbers 
of full-blooded negroes and of persons of mixed central or north 
European and negro blood have lived in the same community 
for some generations, there is a strong and gtpwing tendency 
to establish a social line between them. 

The difficulty of ascertaining the number of mulattoes in 
the United States and the tendency of the testimony to be 
modified by the opinion or desire of the race from which it comes 
are typical. There is hardly any important aspect of the subject 
upon which the testimony of seemingly competent and impartial 
witnesses is not materially affected by the influence of the race 



NEGRO 



347 



to which the witnesses belong. Under these circumstances it 
seems necessary to assume that the testimony of the official 
documents of the federal government is correct, unless clear 
evidence, internal or external, refutes it. The following state- 
ments of fact rest mainly on those sources. 

The number of negroes living in the (continental) United 
States in 1908 was about nine and three-quarter millions, and 
if those in Porto Rico and Cuba be included it reached ten and 
two-thirds millions. This number is greater than the total 
population of the United States was in 1820, and nearly as great 
as the population of Norway, Sweden and Denmark. 

During the colonial period, and down to the changes initiated 
by the invention of the cotton gin, negroes were distributed 
with some evenness along the Atlantic coast. Between the date 
of that invention and the Civil War, and largely as a result of 
the changes the cotton gin set in motion, the tendency was to- 
wards a concentration of the negroes in the great cotton-growing 
area of the country. In 1700, for example, one-ninth of the 
population of the colony of New York was negro; in 1900 only 
one-seventieth of the population of the empire state belonged 
to that race. The division line between the Northern and 
Southern states adopted by the Census Office in 1880, and em- 
ployed since that date in its publications, is Mason and Dixon's 
line, or the southern boundary of Pennsylvania, the Ohio river 
from Pennsylvania to its mouth and the southern boundary of 
Missouri and Kansas. In the states north of that line, the 
Northern states, in all of which but Missouri negro slavery either 
never existed or else was abolished before the Civil War, the 
white population increased tenfold and the negro population 
only fourfold between 1790 and 1860. In the states south of 
that line, on the contrary, the Southern states, the negro popula- 
tion in the same period increased sixfold and the white population 
not so fast. It was a widespread opinion shortly after the Civil 
War that the emancipated slaves would speedily disperse through 
the country, and that this process would greatly simplify the 
problems arising from the contact of the two races. This expec- 
tation has not been entirely falsified by the result. Between 
1860 and 1900 the negroes in the Northern states increased 
somewhat more rapidly than the northern whites, and those 
in the Southern states much less rapidly than the Southern 
whites. As a result, one-tenth of the American negroes lived 
in 1908 in the Northern states, a larger proportion than at any 
time during the igth century. But this process of dispersion 
is so slow as not materially to affect the prospects for the im- 
mediate future, and it is still almost as true as at any earlier 
date that the region in which cotton is a staple crop coincides 
in the main with the region in which negroes are more than one- 
half of the total population. 

This appears if a comparison is made between the northern 
boundary of the so-called Austroriparian zone of plant and animal 
life in the United States, that is " the zone of the cotton plant, 
sugar cane, rice, pecan and peanut," and the northern boundary 
of the " black belt " or region in which the negroes are a majority 
of the population. The coincidence of the two is very close, 
and was much closer in 1900 than' in 1860. It appears yet more 
clearly by a comparison between a map showing the counties 
in which at least 5% of the area was planted to cotton in 1899 
and another map showing the " black belt " counties in 1900. 
. The black belt stretches north through eastern Virginia beyond 
the cotton belt, and the cotton belt stretches south-west through 
eastern central Texas beyond the black belt, but between these 
two extremes there is a close agreement in the boundaries of the 
two areas. 

The question " Have the American negroes progressed, materi- 
ally and morally, since emancipation?" is generally answered 
in the affirmative. But even on this question entire unanimity 
is lacking. A considerable body of men could still be found 
in 1910, mainly among Southern whites, who held that the con- 
dition of the race was worse than it was in the days of slavery. 
Probably all competent students would admit, however, that 
the race has differentiated since 1865, that the distance separating 
the highest tenth from the lowest tenth has become wider, that 



the highest tenth is far better and far better off than formerly, 
and the lowest tenth is worse and perhaps also worse off than 
in slavery. Under such circumstances there are no adequate 
objective tests of progress. The pessimist points to the alleged 
increase of idleness and crime, the meliorist to a demonstrated 
decrease of illiteracy and to considerable accumulations of 
property. The large majority of competent students believe 
that the American negroes have progressed, materially and 
morally, since emancipation, that the central or average 
point is higher than in 1865, although such persons differ 
widely among themselves regarding the amount of that 
progress. 

It would be generally but not universally held, also, that 
the negroes in the United States progressed under slavery, 
that they were far better qualified for incorporation as a Vital 
and contributing element of the country's civilization at the 
time of their emancipation than they were on arrival or than 
an equal number of their African kindred would have been. 
But probably the rate of progress has been more rapid under 
freedom than it was under slavery. 

The evidence regarding the progress of the American 
negro may be grouped under the following heads: numbers, 
birth-rate, health, wealth, education, occupations, morals, 
citizenship. 

Numbers. The dictum of Adam Smith, " The most decisive mark 
of the prosperity of any country is the increase of the number of its 
inhabitants," may be applied, perhaps after changing the word 
" decisive " to " obvious,' to the negro population of the United 
States. The negro population of Africa is probably not increasing 
at all. But during the igth century the negroes in the United States 
increased nearly ninefold. They are now much the most thriving 
offshoot of the race and the most civilized and progressive group of 
negroes in the world. Under a slavery system not permitting the 
importation of new supplies a high rate of increase by excess of 
births over deaths is an advantage to the master class. During the 
slavery period and until about 1880 the increase of southern whites 
and of southern negroes proceeded at about the same rate. But 
during the last score of years in the century the increase of negroes 
was much less rapid, the rate being only about three-fifths of that 
prevailing among southern whites. 

Birth-rate. As the increase of negro population is slackening, as 
the immigration and emigration of negroes are insignificant in 
amount, and as the death-rate is about stationary, it is reasonable to 
infer that the birth-rate is dwindling. This cannot be stated with 
certainty, for there are no registration records giving the number of 
births for any large and representative group of American negroes. 
A good index to the birth-rate, however, may be derived from the 
proportion of children under 5 years of age to women 15 to 49 years 
of age. In the returns negroes are not distinguished from Indians 
and Mongolians. To minimize this slight source of error and at the 
same time to secure a more representative and homogeneous popu- 
lation group, the following figures are confined to the Southern or 
former slave states : 



Date. 


Children under 5 Years of Age to 
1000 Women 15 to 49 Years of Age 
in the Southern States. 


Negroes. 


Whites. 


1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 


705 

661 

737 
601 

577 


695 
682 
60 1 
656 
58o 
5i 



These figures indicate that the proportion of children to child- 
bearing women, and hence probably the birth-rate, changed in the 
same direction during each decade between 1850 and 1890. Between 
1850 and 1870 the proportion of negro children decreased about 6% 
and that of white children about 14%; between 1870 and 1880 the 
proportion of negro children increased about 12% and that of white 
children about 9%; between 1880 and 1890 the proportion of negro 
children decreased about 18 % and that of white children about 12 %; 
between 1890 and 1900 the proportion of negro children decreased 
about 4 % and that of white children remained practically the same. 
Before the war the proportion of living children to potential mothers 
was about the same for the two races at the South, for the first three 
censuses after the war the proportion of negro children was much 
greater than of white children, but by 1900 that proportion was less, 
and the movement during the decade suggests that the proportions 
may have begun to change in opposite directions. 



34 



NEGRO 



Some light upon the influences at work may be derived from the 
comparison between city and country at the south. 



Date. 


Children under 5 Years of Age to 1000 Women 
15 to 44 Years of Age in the Southern States. 


Cities having at least 
25,000 Inhabitants. 


Smaller Cities and 
Country Districts. 


Negroes. 


Whites. 


Negroes. 


Whites. 


1890 
1900 


319 
271 


391 
374 


688 
668 


665 
671 



The noteworthy inference from these figures is that the proportion 
of negro children in southern cities was very low and decreasing. 
In 1890 it was about five-sixths, and in 1900 less than three-fourths 
of the proportion of children among whites in these cities. The 
differences in northern cities are equally marked. City life appears to 
exercise a powerful and increasing influence in reducing the birth- 
rate among the negroes. 

Health. The prosperity and progress of a population group are 
indicated, not merely by growth in numbers but also by the longevity 
of its members. This vitality is roughly measured by the death-rate. 
Other things being equal, a low and sinking death-rate is evidence 
of a high and increasing average duration of life. In the United 
States vital statistics are in charge of the several states and cities, 
and are often defective or entirely lacking. In 1890 and 1900 the 
Federal government compiled such as were of importance, and in 
1864 an official compilation was made of death-rates of negroes 
before the war. The results are worth consideration. 



Date. 


Negro 
Deaths. 


Negro 
Death-rate. 


White Death-rate 
at same Time and 
Places. 


Mainly between 
1818-1863 
1890 
1900 


106,217 
28,579 
37-029 


35-o 
29-9 
29-6 


27-0 
19-1 
17-3 



These figures indicate that the death-rate of each race decreased 
during a half century, but that the decrease among negroes was 
much less rapid than among whites. The negro death-rate at the 
earliest period exceeded that of the whites by 8-0 per thousand, or 
three-tenths of the smaller rate. At the latest period the difference 
was 12-3 per thousand, or seven-tenths of the smaller rate. But 
these figures speak for negroes living mainly in cities where the 
proportion of children and elderly persons is small and that of negroes 
at the healthy ages is large. After making a proper allowance for 
these differences in sex and age composition, it is found that the true 
death-rate of negroes in the registration area is about twice as high 
as that of a white population of like sex and age structure. Whether 
the difference between negro and white residents of the country 
districts in the south is equally great, we have no means for 
judging. 

The leading causes of death among negroes in the registration area 
arranged in the order of importance are stated below. The ratio to 
the corresponding death-rate among whites is added, but the differ- 
ences are affected partly by the greater proportion of negroes in the 
southern cities and the different incidence of diseases in the two 
regions.^ and partly by probable differences in the accuracy of 
diagnosis of disease in the two sections and by physicians attending 
the two races. 



Causes of Death. 


Negro Death-rate 
per 1000. 


Ratio to White 
Death-rate = 100. 


Consumption .... 


4-85 


280 


Pneumonia 


3'55 


192 


Diseases of the nervous 






system 


3-08 


1AA 


Heart disease and dropsy . 


O 

2-21 


16? 


Diarrheal diseases . 


2-14 


165 


Diseases of the urinary 






organs . ... 


i-57 


'57 


Typhoid fever . 
Old age 


68 
67 


204 
125 


Malarial fever .... 


63 


969 


Cancer and tumour 


48 


72 


Diphtheria and croup . 


32 


69 


Influenza 


32 


1 16 


Whooping cough 
Diseases of the liver 


29 

21 


O w 
239 
92 


Measles 


f 


TIC 


Scarlet fever 


*O 
03 


* *O 

25 


These figures bring out in a striking way the very high mortality, 
absolute and relative, of the American negro from consumption. 



When one considers both the great number of deaths caused by 
consumption and pneumonia, 28-4% of the deaths from all causes 
in 1900 and the very high death-rate of negroes from these diseases, 
it is no exaggeration to say that the main cause that the death-rate 
of that race is double that of the white race lies in the ravages of 
these two scourges of mankind. The difference between the two 
races in this respect has apparently increased since 1890, for at that 
date the death-rate of negroes in the registration area from con- 
sumption was only 2-37 times that of the whites, and its death-rate 
from pneumonia only 1-53 times that of the whites. Here as else- 
where there has been an improvement as measured by an absolute 
standard, and at the same time an increased divergence from the 
conditions prevailing among the more numerous race. 

Wealth. An estimate of the property now held by American 
negroes made in 1904 by a committee of the American Economic 
Association indicated about $300,000,000, with a probable error of 
perhaps $50,000,000. This figure indicates a per capita wealth of 
about $34. We have no means for judging what the possessions of 
the race were at the time of its emancipation, but in 1860 there were 
nearly half a million free negroes in the country, many of them 
holding property and some of them wealthy. The per capita wealth 
of the white population of the United States in 1900 was about 
$1320 and that of southern whites about $885, indicating that 
the property of the average negro person or family was about 
one twenty-fifth that of the average southern white person or 
family. 

Education. It is often supposed that the American negroes in 
1865 were without any accumulated property and without any start 
in education. Neither assumption is warranted. On the contrary, 
about two-fifths of the adult free negroes in the country were reported 
in 1850 and 1860 as able to read and write, and there is some reason 
to believe that not far from one-twelfth of the adult slaves also had 
learned to write. In 1900 more than half of the negroes at least ten 
years of age could write, and the proportion was rising at a rate 
which, if continued, would almost eliminate illiteracy by the middle 
of the present century. 

The problem of providing adequate educational facilities for negro 
children is made more difficult by the maintenance in all the former 
slave states of two sets of schools, one for each race. At the present 
time those states with one-third of their population negro assign 
about one-fifth of their public school funds to the support of negro 
schools. About $155,000,000 or one-sixth of the entire amount 
spent by southern communities for public schools between 1870 and 
1906, has gone to support schools for the negroes. The same cause 
has been aided by many private gifts from individuals and organi- 
zations interested in negro education, among which the Peabpdy 
Education Fund of about $2,000,000, now in course of dissolution, 
and the John F. Slater Fund, now of about $1,500,000, may be 
mentioned. Wide differences of opinion exist regarding the char- 
acter of education needed for the race, and the present trend is 
towards a greater emphasis upon manual and industrial training as 
of prime importance for the great majority. 

Occupations. The slavery system furnished industrial training to 
many slaves who seemed likely to turn it to their master's advantage. 
When this system was abolished the opportunities for such training 
open to the race were decreased, and it is doubtful whether even yet 
as large a proportion of skilled negro artizans are being trained in the 
south as were produced there before the Civil War. The demand for 
skilled labour in the south is being met more and more by white 
labour. This derives an advantage from a prejudice in its favour on 
the part of white employers even when other things are equal, from 
its greater skill and efficiency in most cases, its better opportunity 
to accumulate or to borrow the requisite capital, its superior in- 
dustry, persistence and thrift. In consequence negroes are being 
more and more excluded from the field of skilled labour in the 
south. 

Morals. As the death-rate is believed to vary inversely as health 
and longevity and thus to afford a measure of those characteristics, 
so the crime-rate is often thought to vary inversely as morality, and 
thus to measure the self-control, good order and moral health of the 
community. But the analogy cannot be pushed. The crime-rate 
is everywhere far more difficult, and in the United States impossible 
to ascertain. And even if known the connexion between the in- 
frequency of crime or of specific sorts of crime and the prevalence of ' 
good order, obedience to law and morality is far more indirect and 
subject to far more qualifications than the connexion between the 
death-rate and health. Still the data regarding crime with all their 
defects are the best available index of moral progress or retrogression. 
It must be remembered that the comparative infrequency of crime 
among slaves, even if it existed, is no proof of the absence of criminal 
tendencies and actions. Offences on the part of slaves, or at least 
minor offences which are always far more numerous than serious 
offences, were dealt with in most cases privately and without in- 
voking the machinery of the law. An apparent increase of crime 
since emancipation might be due merely to the becoming patent of 
what was before latent. The only statistical measure of crime 
now possible in the United States is the number of prisoners in 
confinement at a given date, and these figures are an inadequate 
and misleading substitute for true judicial statistics. The evidence 
they afford, however, is far better than any other in existence and 



NEGUS NEHAVEND 



349 



deserves careful attention. Enumerations of prisoners affording 
comparable results were made in 1880, 1890 and 1904. 



Date. 


Negro 
Prisoners. 


Number per 
100,000 Pop. 


1880 
1890 
1904 


16,089 

24.277 
26,087 


244 
324 
278 



These figures show a'rapid increase between 1880 and 1890 in the 
number and proportion of negro prisoners, and between 1890 and 
1904 a slow increase in the number and a notable decrease in the 
proportion. 

But in order to make the figures for 1890 and 1904 comparable, it is 
necessary to exclude from those for the earlier date 4473 negro 
prisoners mainly belonging to two classes, persons in confinement 
prior to sentence and persons in prison because of their inability to 
pay a fine, but all belonging to classes which were excluded from the 
enumeration for 1904. This gives the following result: 



Date. 


Negro 
Prisoners. 


Number per 
100,000 Pop. 


Whites. 


1880 
1890 
1904 


16,089 
19,804 
26,087 


244 
264 
278 


96 
84 

77 



The proportion of negro prisoners to population increased rapidly 
between 1880 and 1890 and slightly between 1890 and 1904, the 
increase for the first period being most accurately shown by the 
first set of figures and that for the second period by the second set of 
figures. It is noteworthy also that the proportion of white prisoners 
to population decreased during the same period. Perhaps a more 
significant comparison is that between the proportion of prisoners 
of each race to the population of that race in the northern states and 
the southern states respectively, the distribution of population and 
the systems of penal legislation and administration being widely 
different in the two sections. It is impossible to make the correction 
just referred to except for the United States as a whole, but it must 
be remembered that the figures for 1890 are not comparable with 
those for 1904, and that the true figures for that year would be 
decidedly less. 

Number of Prisoners to each 100,000 People. 



Date. 


Southern States. 


Northern States. 


Negroes. 


Whites. 


Negroes. 


Whites. 


1880 
1890 
1904 


157 
285 

221 


58 
62 
40 


495 
68 1 

743 


99 
in 

83 



These figures indicate that in the southern states in 1890 there 
were about four and a half times as many negro prisoners to popu- 
lation as white prisoners, and in 1904 about five and a half times as 
many; that in the northern states in 1890 there were about six 
times as many negro prisoners to population as white prisoners, and 
in 1904 about nine times as many. They throw no light whatever 
upon a point they are often quoted as establishing, the comparative 
criminality of the northern and southern negroes. Those residing in 
the north include an abnormal number of males, of adults, and of city 
population, influences all tending to increase the proportion of 
prisoners. It seems likely that if the figures for the south in 1890 
could be made strictly comparable with those for the same region in 
1904 the apparent decrease of 22 % in the proportion of negro 
prisoners to population would almost but not quite disappear. The 
evidence regarding crime indicates a continued but slow and slacken- 
ing increase in the proportion of negro prisoners to negro population 
in the country as a whole and in its two main sections, an increase 
in the proportion of white prisoners to white population during the 
first interval and a decrease during the second, and a growing differ- 
ence between the two races in the proportion of prisoners. 

Citizenship. When the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments 
to the Federal Constitution were adopted, the former conferring 
United States citizenship on all native negroes and the latter pro- 
viding that the right of such citizens to vote should not be abridged 
by any state on account of race, colour or previous condition of 
servitude, it was not the practice in northern states to allow negroes 
to vote. Proposals to grant them the suffrage were submitted to 
the voters in 1865 in Connecticut, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Colo- 
rado, and in each state they were rejected. In all states containing 
a large proportion of negroes the results of the Federal policy ol 
reconstruction were disastrous, and those bitter years probably 
contributed more than the Civil War itself to estrange the two sec- 
tions. Since the withdrawal of Federal troops in 1877 the prevailing 
and persistent judgment of southern whites regarding the laws and 
the policy to be adopted upon this subject has been accorded more 
and more weight in determining the action of the states and the 
Federal government. The number of negroes voting or entitled to 
vote has been reduced at first by intimidation or fraud, later by 



egislation or provisions of the state constitutions. If such enact- 
ments are nominally directed not against any race but against certain 
characteristics which may appear mainly in the race, such as illiteracy, 
inability or unwillingness to pay an annual poll tax or to register 
each year, they have been and are likely to be held within the 
constitutional authority of the state. On the part of the over- 
whelming majority of negroes this practical disfranchisement has 
aroused no protest, while it has tended to improve the government 
and to open the way for the gradual development and expression 
in word and vote of differences within the ranks of white voters 
regarding questions of public policy. 

Along with this decrease of pressure from without the southern 
states and the development of economic competition between the 
races within them, there has gone an increased demand on the part 
of the whites for a complete social separation between the races in 
school, in church, in public conveyances and hotels, all founded upon 
a fear that any disregard of such separateness will make intermarriage 
or fruitful illegal unions between the races more frequent. In short, 
these developments are towards a more and more rigid caste system. 

The negroes in the United States have played and are playing an 
important and necessary part in the industrial and economic life of 
the southern states, in which in 1908 they formed about one-third 
of the population. But that life was changing with marvellous 
rapidity, becoming less simple, less agricultural and patriarchal, 
more manufacturing and commercial, more strenuous and complex. 
It was too early to say whether the negroes would be given an equal 
or a fair opportunity to show that they could be as serviceable or 
more serviceable in such a civilization as they had been in that which 
was passing away, and whether the race would show itself able to 
accept and improve such chances as were afforded, and to remain in 
the future under these changing circumstances, as they had been in 
the past, a vital and essential part of the life of the nation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Writings about the American negro fall naturally 
into classes. The official governmental publications include those of 
the Census Bureau, notably Bulletin 8, " Negroes in the United 
States," reprinted in 1906 in the volume called Supplementary 
Analysis, those of the Bureau of Labor, especially important articles 
in the Bulletin of the Bureau, and those of the commissioner of 
education. The information in these is largely statistical, but in the 
later publications not a little interpretative matter has been intro- 
duced. The point of view is usually that of a dispassionate northern 
man. 

Among southern white men who have written wisely on the subject 
may be mentioned: Dr J. L. M. Curry, for many years general agent 
of the Peabody and Slater funds; H. A. Herbert, Why the Solid 
South? or Reconstruction and its Results (Baltimore, 1890); T. N. 
Page, The Negro the Southerner's Problem (New York, 1904); 
E. G. Murphy, Problems of the Present South (New York, 1904); 
E. R. Corson, Vital Equation of the Colored Race; and A. H. Stone, 
Studies in the American Race Problem (New York, 1908). F. L. 
Hoffman's Rj.ce, Trails and Tendencies of the American Negro (New 
York, 1896) contains the most important collection of statistical 
data in any private publication and interpretations thoroughly 
congenial to most southern whites. 

Among the southern negroes doubtless the most important 
writers are the two representatives of somewhat antagonistic views, 
Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery (New York, 1901), Future 
of the American Negro (Boston, 1899), Tuskegee and its People (New 
York, 1905), &c., and W. E. B. Dubois, The Souls of Black Folk 
(Chicago, 1903), The Philadelphia Negro (Boston, 1899), Health and 
Physique of the Negro American (1907), &c. With these should be 
mentioned Atlanta University annual publications, the Proceedings 
of the Hampton Negro Conference and the file of the Southern 
Workman. No northern man since the war has written on the subject 
with the thoughtfulness and weight of Frederick Law Olmsted, 
Journey in the Seaboard Slave Stales (New York, 1856). See also 
Sir H. H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World (1910). (W. F. W.) 

NEGUS, (i) The title of a king or ruler (Amharic negus or 
n'gus), in Abyssinia (q.i>.); the full title of the emperor is negus 
nagasti, " king of kings." (2) The name of a drink made of 
wine, most commonly port, mixed with hot water, spiced and 
sugared. According to Malone (Life of Dryden, Prose Works, 
i. 484) this drink was invented by a Colonel Francis Negus 
(d. 1732), who was commissioner for executing the office of 
master of the horse from 1717 to 1727, when he became master 
of the buckhounds. 

NEHAVEND, a small but very fertile and productive province 
of Persia, situated south-west of Hamadan, west of Malayir, and 
north-west of Burujird. Pop. about 15,000. The capital is 
the ancient city of Nehavend, where Yazdegird, the last monarch 
of the Sassanian dynasty, was finally defeated by the Arabs. 
(A.D. 641). It has a population of about 5000, including 700 to 
800 Jews; there are fine gardens, and an old citadel on a hill. 
It is situated at an elevation of 5540 ft., 27 m. from Doletabad 
(Malayir), and 25 m. from Burujird. 



350 



NEHEMIAH NEISSE 



NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts"), governor 
of Judaea under Artaxerxes (apparently A. Longimanus, 465- 
424 B.C.). The book of Nehemiah is really part of the same work 
with the book of Ezra, though it embodies certain memoirs of 
Nehemiah in which he writes in the first person. Apart from 
what is related in this book we possess little information about 
Nehemiah. The hymn of praise by Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus 
xlix. 13) extols his fame for rebuilding the desolate city of 
Jerusalem and for raising up fresh homes for the downtrodden 
people. According to other traditions he restored the temple- 
service and founded a collection of historical documents (2 Mace. 
i. 18-36, ii. 13). See further EZRA AND NEHEMIAH (Books), 
JEWS: History 21 seq. 

NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. niahgebUr, from nlah, " nigh," " near ") 
and gebur, " boor," literally " dweller," " husbandman "; 
cf. Dan. and Swed. nabo, Ger. Nachbar), properly one who lives in 
a house close to one, hence any one of a number of persons living 
in the same locality. From Biblical associations (Luke x. 27) 
the word is used widely of one's fellow-men. 

NEILE, RICHARD (1562-1640), English divine, was educated 
at Westminster school and at St John's College, Cambridge. 
His first important preferment was as dean of Westminster 
(1605); afterwards he held successively the bishoprics of 
Rochester (1608), Lichfield (1610), Lincoln (1614), Durham 
(1617) and Winchester (1628), and the archbishopric of York 
(1631). When at Rochester he appointed William Laud as his 
chaplain and gave him several valuable preferments. His 
political activity while bishop of Durham was rewarded with a 
privy councillorship in 1627. Neile sat regularly in the courts 
of star-chamber and high commission. His correspondence 
with Laud and with Sir Dudley Carleton and Sir Francis Winde- 
bank (Charles I.'s secretaries of state) are valuable sources for 
the history of the time. 

NEILL, JAMES GEORGE SMITH (1810-1857), British 
soldier, was born near Ayr, Scotland, on the 26th of May 1810, 
and educated at Glasgow University. Entering the service of 
the East India Company in 1827, he received his lieutenant's 
commission a year later. From 1828 to 1852 he- was mainly 
employed in duty with his regiment, the ist Madras Europeans (of 
which he wrote a Historical Record], but gained some experience 
on the general and the personal staffs as D.A.A.G. and as aide-de- 
camp. In 1850 he received his majority, and two years later 
set out for the Burmese War with the regiment. He served 
throughout the war with distinction, became second-in-command 
to Cheape, and took part in the minor operations which followed, 
receiving the brevet of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1854 he was 
appointed second-in-command to Sir Robert Vivian to organize 
the Turkish contingent for the Crimean War. Early in 1857 he 
returned to India. Six weeks after his arrival came the news that 
all northern India was aflame with revolt. Neill acted promptly; 
he left Madras with his regiment at a moment's notice, and pro- 
ceeded to Benares. The day after his arrival he completely and 
ruthlessly crushed the mutineers (4th June 1857). He next 
turned his attention to Allahabad, where a handful of Europeans 
still held out in the fort against the rebels. From the 6th to 
the 1 5th of June his men forced their way under conditions of heat 
and of opposition that would have appalled any but a real 
leader of men, and the place, " the most precious in India at 
that moment," as Lord Canning wrote, was saved. Neill re- 
ceived his reward in an army colonelcy and appointment of 
aide-de-camp to the queen. Allahabad was soon made the con- 
centration of Havelock's column. The two officers, through 
a misunderstanding in their respective instructions, dis- 
agreed, and when Havelock went on from Cawnpore (which 
Neill had reoccupied shortly before) he left his subordinate 
there to command the lines of communication. At Cawnpore, 
while the traces of the massacre were yet fresh, Neill inflicted 
the death penalty on all his prisoners with the most merciless 
rigour. Meanwhile, Havelock, in spite of a succession of victories, 
had been compelled to fall back for lack of men; and Neill 
criticized his superior's action with a total want of restraint. 
A second expedition had the same fate, and Neill himself was now 



attacked, though by his own exertions and Havelock's victory 
at Bithor (i6th August) the tension on the communications 
was ended. Havelock's men returned to Cawnpore, and cholera 
broke out there, whereupon Neill again committed himself to 
criticisms, this time addressed to the commander-in-chief and 
to Outram, who was on the way with reinforcements. In spite of 
these very grave acts of insubordination, Havelock gave his 
rival a brigade command in the final advance. The famous 
march from Cawnpore to Lucknow began on September ipth; on 
the 2ist there was a sharp fight, on the 22nd incessant rain, on 
the 23rd intense heat. On the 23rd the fighting opened with the 
assault on the Alum Bagh, Neill at the head of the leading 
brigade recklessly exposing himself. Next day he was again 
heavily engaged, and on the 25th he led the great attack on 
Lucknow itself. The fury of his assault carried everything 
before it, and his men were entering the city when a bullet killed 
their commander. Strict as he was, he was loved not less than 
feared, and throughout the British dominions he had established 
a name as a skilful and extraordinarily energetic commander. 
The rank and precedence of the wife of a K.C.B. was given to 
his widow, and memorials have been erected in India and at Ayr. 
See J. W. Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers (1889) ; and J. C. Marsh- 
man, Life of Havelock (1867). 

NEILSON, ADELAIDE (1846-1880), English actress, whose 
real name was Elizabeth Ann Brown, was born in Leeds, the 
daughter of an actress, and her childhood and early youth were 
passed in poverty and menial work. In 1865 she appeared in 
Margate as Julia in The Hunchback, a character with which her 
name was long to be associated. For the next few years she 
played at several London and provincial theatres in various 
parts, including Rosalind, Amy Robsart and Rebecca (in Ivanhoe), 
Beatrice, Viola and Isabella (in Measure for Measure). In 1872 
she visited America, where her beauty and talent made her a 
great favourite, and she returned year after year. She died on 
the 1 5th of August 1880. Miss Neilson was married to Philip 
Henry Lee, but was divorced in 1877.- 

NEISSE, three rivers of Germany, (i) The Glatzer Neisse 
rises on the Schneegebirge, at an altitude of 1400 ft., flows 
north past Glatz, turns east and pierces the Eulengebirge in 
the Wartha pass, then continues east as far as the town of Neisse, 
and after that flows north-east until at an altitude of 453 ft. 
it joins the Oder between Oppeln and Brieg. Owing to its 
torrential character the greater part of its course is only used 
for floating down timber. It abounds in fish, and its total length 
is 121 m. (2) The Lausitzer or Gorlitzer Neisse rises ne'ar 
Reichenberg in Bohemia, on the south side of the Riesengebirge, 
at an altitude of 1130 ft., flows north past Reichenberg, Gorlitz, 
Forst and Guben, and enters the Oder above Furstenberg 
at an altitude of 105 ft. Its length is 140 m., of which less than 
40 m. are navigable. (3) The Wutende Neisse is a tributary of 
the Katzbach. 

NEISSE, a town and fortress of Germany, in the province of 
Prussian Silesia, at the junction of the Neisse and the Biela, 
32 m. by rail S.W. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905) 25,394 (mostly 
Roman Catholics) including a garrison of about 5000. It consists 
of the town proper, on the right bank of the Neisse, and the 
Friedrichstadt on the left. The Roman Catholic parish church 
of St James (Jakobikirche) dates mainly from the i3th century, 
but was finished in 1430. The chief secular buildings are the 
old episcopal residence, the new town hall, the old Rathaus, 
with a tower 205 ft. in height (1499), the beautiful Renaissance 
Kammerei (exchequer) with a high gabled roof ornamented with 
frescoes, and the theatre. A considerable trade is carried on 
in agricultural products. 

Neisse, one of the oldest towns in Silesia, is said to have been 
founded in the loth century, and afterwards became the capital 
of a principality of its own name, which was incorporated with 
the bishopric of Breslau about 1200. Its first walls were erected 
in 1350, and enabled it to repel an attack of the Hussites in 1424. 
It was thrice besieged during the Thirty Years' War. The end 
of the first Silesian War left Neisse in the hands of Frederick 
the Great, who laid the foundations of its modern fortifications. 



NEJD 



35 1 



The town was taken by the French in 1807. Neisse can, at the 
will of the garrison, be protected by a system of inundation. 

See Kastner, Urkundliche Geschichte der Stadt Neisse (Neisse and 
Breslau, 1854-1867, 3 vols.); Schutte, Beitrage zur Geschichte von 
Neisse (Neisse, 1881) ; and Ruffert, Aus Neisse's Verga.ngenhe.it (1903). 

NEJD, a central province of Arabia, bounded N. by the Nafud 
desert, E. by El Hasa, S. by the Dahna desert and W. by Asir 
and Hejaz. It lies between 20 and 28 N. and 41 and 48 E.. 
extends nearly 550 m. from north to south, 450 from east 
to west, and covers approximately 180,000 sq. m. The name 
Nejd implies an upland, and this is the distinctive character 
of the province as compared with the adjoining coastal districts 
of Hejaz and El Hasa. Its general elevation varies from 5000 ft. 
on its western border to 2500 in Kasim in the north-east, 
and somewhat less in Yemama in the south-east. In the north 
the double range of Jebel Shammar, and in the east the ranges 
of J. Tuwek and J. 'Arid rise about 1500 ft. above the general 
level, but on the whole it may be described as an open steppe, 
sloping very gradually from S.W. to N.E. of which the western 
and southern portion is desert, or at best pasture land only 
capable of supporting a nomad population; while in the north 
and east, owing to greater abundance of water, numerous fertile 
oases are found with a large settled population. The principal 
physical features are described in the article ARABIA. 

The main divisions of Nejd are the following: Jebel Shammar, 
Kasim, Suder, Wushm, 'Arid, Aflaj, Harik, Yemama and Wadi 
Dawasir. J. Shammar is the most northerly: its principal 
settlements are situated in the valley some 70 m. long, between 
the two ranges of J. Aja and J. Selma, though a few lie on their 
outer flanks. Jauf, Tema and Khaibar, though dependencies 
of the Shammar principality, lie beyond the limits of Nejd. 
The capital, Hail, has been visited by several Europeans, by 
W. G. Palgrave in 1862, when Talal was emir, and by Mr Wilfrid 
and Lady Anne Blunt, Charles Doughty, C. Huber, T. Euting 
and Baron E. Nolde during the reign of Mahommed b. Rashid, 
who from 1892 till his death in 1897 was emir of all Nejd. Its 
well ordered and thriving appearance is commented on by all 
these travellers. The town is surrounded by a wall and dominated 
by the emir's palace, a stately, if somewhat gloomy building, 
the walls of which are quite 75 ft. high, with six towers, the whole 
giving the idea of an old French or Spanish donjon. 

Hail lies at the northern end of the valley, 2 m. S.E. of J. 
Aja, at an altitude of about 3000 ft. The highest point of J. 
Aja, the western and higher of the twin ranges, is according to 
Huber 4600 ft. above sea-level. The valley is about 20 m. in 
width and is intersected with dry ravines and dotted with low 
ridges generally of volcanic origin. Wells and springs are the 
only source of water supply, both for drinking and for irrigation. 
The principal crops are dates, wheat and barley and garden 
produce; forage and firewood are very scarce. The population 
was estimated by Nolde in 1893 at 10,000 to 12,000. 

Among the other settlements of J. Shammar are Jafefa 
and Mukak at the northern foot of J. Aja, Kasr and Kafir 
at its southern foot, Rauda, Mustajidda and Fed at the foot 
of J. Selma, all large villages of 3000 to 5000 inhabitants. 
'Akda is a small valley in the heart of J. Aja, an hour's ride 
from Hail; it was the oldest possession of the Ibn Rashid, 
since 1835 the ruling family of J. Shammar, and is a place of 
great natural strength. Kasim lies E. of J. Shammar in the 
valley of the W. Rumma the great wadi of northern Nejd; 
the chief towns Bureda and 'Aneza are situated about 10 m. 
apart, on the north and south sides of the wadi respectively. 
Doughty described 'Aneza in 1879 as clean and well built with 
walls of sun-dried brick, with well supplied shops. Many 
inhabitants live in distant houses in gardens outside the town 
walls. 'Aneza and Bureda each contain some 10,000 inhabitants. 
The dry bed of the Wadi Rumma in lower Kasim is about 2 m. 
across, fringed in places with palm plantations; water is found 
it 6 or 8 ft. in the dry season and in winter the wells overflow. 
The staple of cultivation is the date-palm, the fruit ripening in 
August or September. Fruit trees and fields of wheat, maize 
or millet surround the villages, but -the extent of cultivation 



is limited by the necessity of artificial irrigation. Kahafa, 
Kuseba and Kuwara are the principal villages of upper Kasim; 
and 'Aneza and Bureda, Madnab, Ayun and Ras of lower 
Kasim. 

Doughty's and Huber's explorations did not extend east of 
Kasim, and for all details regarding eastern and southern Nejd 
Palgrave is the only authority. According to him, a long 
desert march leads from Madnab to Zulfa the first settlement 
in Suder, where the land rises steadily to the high calcareous 
tableland of J. Tuwek. The entire plateau is intersected by a 
maze of valleys, generally with steep banks, as if artificially cut 
out of the limestone. In these countless hollows is concentrated 
the fertility and population of Nejd; gardens and houses, 
cultivation and villages lie hidden from view among the depths 
while one journeys over the dry flats, till one comes suddenly 
on a mass of emerald green beneath. 

Suder forms the northern end of the plateau, "Arid the southern, 
while Wushm appears to lie on its west, and Aflaj and el Harik 
below it and to the south and south-west respectively. The 
principal town is Majma the former capital of Suder, a walled 
town situated on an eminence in a broad shallow valley sur- 
rounded by luxuriant gardens and trees. Tuwem, Jalajil and 
Hula are also described by Palgrave as considerable towns. 

'Arid is entered at Sedus, on the W. Hanifa, a broad valley 
bottom with precipitous sides, here 2 or 3 m. wide, full of trees 
and brushwood. Along its course lie the villages of Ayana, and 
Deraiya the former Wahhabi capital, destroyed by Ibrahim 
Pasha in 1817; and a few miles farther E. the new capital 
Riad, built by the emir Fesal after his restoration and visited 
by Palgrave in 1863, and by Pelly two years later. It was then, 
and still is, a large town of perhaps 20,000 inhabitants with 
thirty or more mosques, well-stocked bazars, and like the towns 
of Kasim, surrounded by well-watered gardens and palm groves. 
To the south the valley opens out into the great plains of Yemama, 
dotted with groves and villages, among which Manfuha is 
scarcely inferior in size to Riad itself. Still farther to the south- 
east lies the district of Harik, with its capital Hauta, the last 
in that direction of the settled districts of Nejd, and on the 
borders of the southern desert. 

Palgrave visited El Kharfa the chief place of the Aflaj district 
some 80 m. S.W. of Riad. This district seems to be scantily 
peopled as compared with Suder or Yemama, and a large propor- 
tion of the inhabitants are of mixed negro origin. While there, 
he made inquiries about the adjoining district of W. Dawasir. 
Its length was stated to be ten days' journey or 200 m.; scattered 
villages consisting of palm-leaf huts lie along the way, which 
leads in a south or south-westerly direction to the highlands of 
Asir and Yemen. 

The Bedouin who occupy the remainder of Nejd consist in 
the main of the four great tribes of the Shammar, Harb, 'Ateba 
and Muter. The first-named represent that part of the great 
Shammar tribe which has remained in its ancestral home on 
the southern edge of the Nafud (the northern branch long ago 
emigrated to Mesopotamia); many of its members have settled 
down to town life, but the tribe still retains its Bedouin character, 
and its late chief, the emir Mahommed Ibn Rashid, the most 
powerful prince in Nejd, used to live a great part of the year in the 
desert with his tribesmen. The Harb are probably the largest of 
the Bedouin tribes in the peninsula; they are divided into a 
number of sections, several of which have settled in the oases 
of Hejaz, while others remain nomadic. Their territory is the 
steppe between Kasim and Medina, and across the pilgrim road 
between Medina and Mecca, for the protection of which they 
receive considerable subsidies from the Turks. The 'Ateba 
circuits extend from the Hejaz border near Mecca along the road 
leading thence to Kasim. The Muter occupy the desert from 
Kasim northwards towards KuwSt. 

Nejd became nominally a dependency of the Turkish empire 
in 1871 when Midhat Pasha established a small garrison in El 
Hasa, and created a new civil district under the government 
of Basra, under the title of Nejd, with headquarters at Hofuf. 
Its real independence was not, however, affected, and the emirs, 



352 



NEJEF NELSON 



Mahommed Ibn Rashid at Hail, and Abdallah Ibn Sa'ud at 
Riad, ruled in western and eastern Nejd respectively, until 1892, 
when the former by his victory at 'Aneza became emir of all 
Nejd. His successor, Abdul Aziz Ibn Rashid, was, however, 
unable to maintain his position, and in spite of Turkish support, 
sustained a severe defeat in 1905 at the hands of Ibn Sa'ud 
which for the time, at any rate, restored the supremacy to Riad. 

No data exist for an accurate estimate of the population; 
it probably exceeds 1,000,000, of which two-thirds may be 
settled, and one-third nomad or Bedouin. Palgrave in 1863, 
perhaps unduly exaggerating the importance of the town 
population, placed it at nearly double this figure. 

The revenue of the emir Mahommed Ibn Rashid of Hail, who 
died in 1897, was estimated by Blunt in 1879 at 80,000, and his 
expenditure at little more than half that amount. Nolde who 
visited Hail in 1893 after the emir's conquest of the Wahhabi 
state, believed that his surplus income then amounted to 60,000 
a year, and his accumulated treasure to 1,500,000. 

AUTHORITIES. W. G. Palgrave, Central and Eastern Arabia 
(London, 1865); Lady Anne Blunt, Pilgrimage to Nejd (London, 
1881); C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserta (Cambridge, 1885); C. Huber, 
Journal d'un voyage en Arabie (Paris, 1891); J. Euting, Reise in 
inner Arabien (Leyden, 1896); E. Nolde, Reise nach inner Arabien 
(Brunswick, 1895). (R. A. W.) 

NEJEF, or MESHED 'ALI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the 
pashalik of Bagdad, 50 m. S. of Kerbela and 5 or 6 m. W. of 
the ruins of ancient Ku-fa, out of the bricks of which it is chiefly 
built. It stands on the eastern edge of the Syrian desert, on 
the north-eastern shore of a deep depression, formerly a sea, 
the Assyrium Stagnum of the old geographers, but in latter years 
drained and turned into gardens for the town. It is a fairly 
prosperous city, supplied with admirable water by an under- 
ground aqueduct from the Hindieh canal, a few miles to the 
north, which also serves to water the gardens in the deep dry 
bed of the former lake. The town is enclosed by nearly square 
brick walls, flanked by massive round towers, dating from the 
time of the caliphs, but now falling into decay. Outside the 
walls, over the sterile sand plateau, stretch great fields of tombs 
and graves, for Nejef is so holy that he who is buried here will 
surely enter paradise. In the centre of the town stands Meshed 
(strictly Meshhed) 'Ali, the shrine of 'Ali, containing the reputed 
tomb of that caliph, which is regarded by the Shi'ite Moslems 
as being no less holy than the Ka'ba itself, although it should 
be said that it is at least very doubtful whether 'Ali was actually 
buried there. The dome of the shrine is plated with gold, and 
within the walls and roof are covered with polished silver, 
glass and coloured tiles. The resting-place of 'Ali is represented 
by a silver tomb with windows grated with silver bars and a 
door with a great silver lock. Inside this is a smaller tomb of 
damascened ironwork. In the court before the dome rise two 
minarets, plated, like the dome, with finely beaten gold from 
the height of a man and upward. While the population of 
Nejef is estimated at from 20,000 to 30,000, there is in addition 
a very large floating population of pilgrims, who are constantly 
arriving, bringing corpses in all stages of decomposition and 
accompanied at times by sick and aged persons, who have come 
to Nejef to die. At special seasons the number of pilgrims exceeds 
many times the population of the town. Nejef is also the point 
of departure from which Persian pilgrims start on the journey 
to Mecca. No Jews or Christians are allowed to reside 
there. The accumulated treasures of Meshed 'Ali were 
carried off by the Wahhabites early in the iQth century, and in 
1843 the town was deprived cf many of its former liberties and 
compelled to submit to Turkish law; but it is again enormously 
wealthy, for what is given to the shrine may never be sold or used 
for any outside purpose, but constantly accumulates. Moreover, 
the hierarchy derives a vast revenue from the fees for burials 
in the sacred limits. 

See W. K. Loftus, Chaldaea and Susiana (1857); J. P. Peters, 
Nippur (1897); B. Meissner, Hirau Huarnaq (1901). (J. P. PE.) 

NELEUS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, brother of 
Pelias. The two children were exposed by their mother, who 
afterwards married Cretheus, king of lolcus in Thessaly. After 



the death of Cretheus, the boys, who had been brought up 
by herdsmen, quarrelled for the possession of lolcus. Pelias 
expelled Neleus, who migrated to Messenia, where he became 
king of Pylos (Apollodorus i. 9: Diod. Sic. iv. 68) and the 
ancestor of a royal family called the Neleidae, who are historically 
traceable as the old ruling family in some of the Ionic states 
in Asia Minor. Their presence is explained by the legend that, 
when the Dorians conquered Peloponnesus, the Neleidae were 
driven out and took refuge in Attica, whence they led colonies 
to the eastern shores of the Aegean. By Chloris, daughter of 
Amphion, Neleus was the father of twelve sons (of whom Nestor 
was the most famous) and a daughter Pero. Through the contest 
for his daughter's hand (see MELAMPUS) he is connected with the 
legends of the prophetic race of the Melampodidae, who founded 
the mysteries and expiatory rites and the orgies of Dionysus in 
Argolis. According to Pausanias (ii. 2. 2, v. 8. 2) Neleus restored 
the Olympian games and died at Corinth, where he was buried 
on the isthmus. 

NELLORE, a town and district of India, in the Madras pre- 
sidency. The town is on the right bank of the Pennar river, and 
has a station on the East Coast railway, 109 m. N. of Madras 
city. Pop. (1901) 32,040. There are United Free Church, 
American Baptist and Catholic missions. 

The DISTRICT OF NELLORE has an area of 8761 sq. m. It 
comprises a tract of low-lying land extending from the base of 
the Eastern Ghats to the sea. Its general aspect is forbidding: 
the coast-line is a fringe of blown sand through which the waves 
occasionally break, spreading a salt sterility over the fields. 
Farther inland the country begins to rise, but the soil is not 
naturally fertile, nor are means of .irrigation readily at hand. 
About one-half of the total area is cultivated; the rest is either 
rocky waste or is covered with low scrub jungle. The chief 
rivers are the Pennar, Suvarnamukhi and Gundlakamma. 
They are not navigable, but are utilized for irrigation purposes, 
the chief irrigation work being the anicut across the Pennar. 
Nellore, however, is subject both to droughts and to floods. 
Copper was discovered in the western hills in 1801, but several 
attempts by European capitalists to work the ore proved unre- 
munerative, and the enterprise has been abandoned since 1840. 
Iron ore is smelted by indigenous methods in many places, 
but the most important mining industry is that of mica. Salt 
is largely manufactured along the sea-coast. Nellore, with the 
other districts of the Carnatic, passed under direct British 
administration in 1801. The population in 1901 was 1,496,987 
showing an increase of 2-3% in the decade. In 1904 a portion 
of the district was transferred to the newly formed district of 
Guntur, reducing the remaining area to 7965 sq. m., with a 
population of 1,272,815. The principal crops are millets, rice, 
other food grains, indigo and oil-seeds. The breed of cattle is 
celebrated. The East Coast railway, running through the 
length of the district, was opened throughout for traffic in 1899. 
The section from Nellore town to Gudur, formerly on the metre 
gauge, has been converted to the standard gauge. Previously 
the chief means of communication with Madras was by the 
Buckingham canal. The sea-borne trade is insignificant. 

NELSON, HORATIO NELSON, VISCOUNT (1758-1805), duke 
of Bronte in Sicily, British naval hero, was born at the parsonage 
house of Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, on the 2gth of September 
1758. His father, Edmund Nelson (1722-1802), who came of a 
clerical family, was rector of the parish. His mother, whose 
maiden name was Catherine Suckling (1725-1767), was a grand- 
niece of Sir Robert Walpole (ist earl of Orford). This connexion 
proved of little or no value to the future admiral, who, in a 
letter to his brother, the Rev. William Nelson, written in 1784, 
speaks of the Walpoles as " the merest set of cyphers that ever 
existed in public affairs I mean." His introduction to the 
navy came from his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling 
(1725-1778), an officer of some reputation who at his death held 
the important post of comptroller of the navy. Horatio, who 
had received a summary, and broken, education at Norwich, 
Downham and North Walsham, was entered on the " Raisonable " 
when Captain Suckling was appointed to her in 1770 on an alarm 



NELSON 



353 



of war with Spain. The dispute was settled, and Captain Suckling 
was transferred to the " Triumph," the guardship at Chatham, 
whither he took his nephew. In order that the lad might have 
more practice than could be obtained on a harbour ship, his 
uncle sent him to the West Indies in a merchant vessel, and on 
his return gave him constant employment in beat work on the 
river. In a brief sketch of his life, which he drew up in 1799, 
Nelson says that in this way he became a good pilot for small 
vessels " from Chatham to the Tower of London, down the Swin, 
and the North Foreland; and confident of myself among rocks 
and sands, which has many times since been of great comfort 
to me." Between April and October of 1772 he served with 
Captain Lutwidge in the " Carcass," one of the vessels which 
went on a not otherwise notable voyage to the Arctic seas 
with Captain Phipps, better known by his Irish title of Baron 
Mulgrave. On his return from the north he was sent to the 
East Indies in the " Seahorse," in which vessel he made the 
acquaintance of his lifelong friend Thomas Troubridge. At 
the end of two years he was invalided home. In after times 
he spoke of the depression under which he laboured during the 
return voyage, till " after a long and gloomy reverie, in which 
I almost wished myself overboard, a sudden glow of patrotism 
was kindled within me, and presented my king and my country 
as my patron. My mind exulted in the idea. 'Well then,' 
I exclaimed, 'I will be a hero, and, confiding in Providence, I 
will brave every danger.' " He spoke to friends of the " radiant 
orb" which from that hour hung ever before him, and "urged 
him onward to renown." On his return home he served during 
a short cruise in the " Worcester " frigate, passed his examination 
as lieutenant on the gth April 1777, and was confirmed in the 
rank next day. He went to the West Indies with Captain Locker 
in the " Lowestoft " frigate, was transferred to the flagship by 
the admiral commanding on the station, Sir Peter Parker (1721- 
1811), and was then by him promoted in rapid succession to the 
command of the " Badger " brig, and the " Hinchinbrook " 
frigate. By this appointment, which he received in 1779, he 
was placed in the rank of post captain (from which promotion 
to flag rank was by seniority), at the very early age of twenty. 
His connexion with Captain Suckling may, no doubt, have been 
of use to him, but in the main he owed his rapid rise to his power 
of winning the affection of all those he met, whether as comrades 
or superiors. Sir Peter Parker and Lady Parker remained 
his friends all through his life. In 1780 he saw his first active 
service in an expedition to San Juan de Nicaragua, which was 
rendered deadly by the climate. He was brought to death's 
door by fever, and invalided home once more. In 1 781 he was 
appointed to the "Albemarle" frigate, and after some convoy 
service in the North Sea and the Sound was sent to Newfoundland 
and thence to the North American station. " Fair Canada," 
as he has recorded in one of his letters, gave him the good health 
he had so far never enjoyed. At Quebec he formed one of those 
passionate attachments to women which marked his career. 
He now made the personal acquaintance of Sir Samuel Hood, 
Lord Hood. In the autobiographical sketch already quoted he 
mentions the high opinion formed of him by the admiral who 
presented him to Prince William, duke of Clarence, afterwards 
King William IV., as an officer well qualified to instruct him 
in " naval tactics," by which we must perhaps understand 
seamanship. Prince William has left a brief but singularly vivid 
account of their first meeting. He appeared, says the Prince, 
"to be the merest boy of a captain I ever beheld; and his dress 
was worthy of attention. He had on a full-laced uniform; his 
lank unpowdered hair was tied in a stiff Hessian tail of an extra- 
ordinary length; the old-fashioned flaps of his waistcoat added 
to the general quaintness of his figure, and produced an appear- 
ance which particularly attracted my notice; for I had never 
seen anything like it before, nor could I imagine who he was or 
what he came about. My doubts were, however, removed when 
Lord Hood introduced me to him. There was something 
irresistibly pleasing in his address and conversation; and an 
enthusiasm, when speaking on professional subjects, that showed 
he was no common being." The slight oddity of appearance, 

XIX. 12 



the power to arouse affection, and the glow indicating the 
fire within, are noted by all who ever looked Nelson in the 
face. 

In March 1783, at the very end of the American War, he saw 
his second piece of active service. He was repulsed in an attempt 
to retake Turk's Island from the French. The peace gave him 
leisure to pay a visit to France, for which country and all its 
ways he entertained a dislike and contempt characteristic of 
his time. In France he formed another attachment, and went 
so far as to apply to a maternal uncle for an allowance to eke 
out his half-pay. It came to nothing, presumably by refusal 
on the lady's part. And now when the navy was cut down to 
the quick on the peace establishment, and the vast majority of 
naval officers were condemned to idleness on shore, he had the 
extraordinary good fortune to be appointed to the command 
of the "Boreas" frigate, for service in the West Indies. Nelson 
found in this commission an opportunity for the display of his 
readiness to assume responsibility. He signalized his arrival 
in the West Indies by refusing to obey an order of the admiral 
which required him to acknowledge a half-pay officer acting as 
commissioner of the dockyard at Antigua as his superior. He 
insisted on enforcing the Navigation Laws against the Americans, 
who by becoming independent had become foreigners. He called 
the attention of the government to the corruption prevailing in 
the dockyard of Antigua. His line was in all cases correct, but 
it impressed the admiralty as somewhat assuming, and his strong 
measures against the interloping trade brought on him many 
lawsuits, which, though he was defended at the expense of the 
government, caused him much trouble for years. In the West 
Indies on the I2th of March 1787 he married Frances Nisbet 
(1761-1831), the widow of a doctor in Nevis, whose favour he first 
gained by being found romping on all fours with her little boy 
under the drawing-room table. The marriage was one of affection 
and prudence, rather than of love. 

Though Nelson had as yet seen little active service, and that 
little had not been specially distinguished, he had already gained 
that reputation within his own service which commonly precedes 
public recognition. His character had been fully developed, 
and his capacity proved. His horizon was narrow, being strictly 
confined to his profession. He had all the convictions of the 
typical John Bull of his generation. The loyalty of a devoted 
subject was strong in him. He burned to win affection, admira- 
tion, distinction. He was a man to do whatever there was to be 
done to the utmost. A_ more magnificent instrument for use in 
the great Revolutionary struggle now close at hand could not 
have been forged. 

War having broken out, he was appointed captain cf the 
"Agamemnon" (64) on the 3oth of November 1793, and joined 
his ship on the 7th of February. From this date till June 1800, 
rather more than seven years, he was engaged on continual 
active service, with the exception of a few months when he was 
invalided home. This period is the most varied, the busiest, 
the most glorious and the most debated of a very full career. 
It subdivides naturally into three sections; (i) From the date 01 
his appointment as captain of the "Agamemnon" till he was 
disabled by the loss of his arm in the unsuccessful attack on 
Santa Cruz de Tenerife on the 24th of July 1797 he served as 
captain, or commodore, under Hood, Hotham and Jervis, 
successive commanders-in-chief in the Mediterranean. (2) After 
an interval of nine months spent at home in recovering from his 
wound, and from the effects of a badly performed operation, 
he returned to the Mediterranean, and was at once sent in pursuit 
of the great French armament which sailed from Toulon under 
the command of Napoleon for the conquest of Egypt. His victory 
of the Nile on the ist of August 1798 placed him at once in the 
foremost rank among the warriors of a warlike time, and made 
him a national hero. With his return to Naples on the 22nd of 
September the second period ends. (3) From now till he landed 
at Leghorn on the 26th of July 1800, on his return home across 
Europe, he was entangled at Naples in political transactions 
and intrigues, which he was ill prepared to deal with either by 
nature or training, and was plunged into the absorbing passion, 



354 



NELSON 



which did increase his popularity with the mob, but cost him 
many friends. 

The first of these three passages in his life is full of events 
which must, however, be told briefly. In May he sailed for the 
Mediterranean with Hood, and was engaged under his orders 
in the occupation of Toulon by the allied British and Spanish 
forces. In August 1793 he was despatched to Naples to convoy 
the troops which the Neapolitan government had undertaken 
to contribute towards the garrison of Toulon. It was on this 
occasion that he made the acquaintance of Emma Hamilton 
(q.v.), the wife of Sir Wilh'am Hamilton, minister at the Court of 
Naples. References to Lady Hamilton begin to appear in his 
letters to his wife, but, as might be expected, they indicate 
little beyond respectful admiration, and he makes a good deal 
of her kindness to his stepson, Josiah Nisbet, whom he had taken 
to sea. Young Nisbet was afterwards promoted to post captain, 
and was put in command of a frigate at an improperly early 
age by Nelson's interest. He proved quite unworthy, and in the 
end died mad. After the allies had been driven from Toulon 
by Napoleon, Nelson was employed throughout 1794 in the 
operations connected with the occupation of Corsica. In April 
and May he was engaged in the capture of Bastia, and June and 
July in the taking of Calvi. Both towns really surrendered from 
want of stores, but the naval brigades under Nelson's personal 
direction were conspicuously active, and their energy was 
favourably contrasted with the alleged formality of the troops. 
During the operations at Calvi, Nelson's right eye was 
destroyed by gravel driven into it by a cannon shot which 
struck the ground close to him. From the date of the occupation 
of Corsica till the island was evacuated, that is to say, from the 
end of 1794 till the middle of 1796, he was incessantly active. 
He served under Hotham, who undertook the command when 
Hood returned to England, and was engaged in the indecisive 
actions fought by him in the Gulf of Lyons in March and July 
1795. The easy-going ways of the new admiral fretted the eager 
spirit of Nelson, and Hotham's placid satisfaction with the 
trifling result of his encounters with the French provoked his 
subordinate into declaring that, for his part, he would never 
think that the British fleet had done very well if a single ship 
of the enemy got off while there was a possibility of taking her. 
His zeal found more satisfaction when he was detached to the 
Riviera of Genoa, where, first as captain, and then as commodore, 
he had an opportunity to prove his qualities for independent 
command by harassing the communications of the French, 
and co-operating with the Austrians. In Sir John Jervis, who 
superseded Hotham, he found a leader after his own heart. 
When Spain, after first making peace with France at Basel, 
declared war on England, and the fleet under Jervis withdrew 
from the Mediterranean, Nelson was despatched to Elba on a 
hazardous mission to bring off the small garrison and the naval 
stores. He sailed in the "Minerve" frigate, having another 
with him. After a smart action with two Spanish frigates which 
he took off Carthagena on the aoth of December, and a narrow 
escape from a squadron of Spanish line of battle ships, he ful- 
filled his mission, and rejoined the flag of Jervis on the eve of the 
great battle off Cape St Vincent on the I4th of February 1797 
(see ST VINCENT, BATTLE or). The judgment, independence 
and promptitude he showed in this famous engagement, were 
rewarded by the conspicuous part he had in the victory, and 
revealed him to the nation as one of the heroes of the navy. 
Nelson receiving the swords of the Spanish officers on the deck 
of the " San Josef " became at once a popular figure. 

A few days after the victory he became rear-admiral by 
seniority, but continued with Jervis, who was made a peer under 
the title of Earl St Vincent. Nelson's own services were recog- 
nized by the grant of the knighthood of the Bath. During the 
trying months in which the fleet was menaced by the sedition 
then rife in the navy, which came to a head in the mutinies at 
Spithead and the Nore, he remained with the flag, and in the 
blockade of Cadiz. In July 1797 he was sent on a desperate 
mission to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. It was believed that a 
Spanish Manilla ship carrying treasure had anchored at that 



place, and Lord St Vincent was desirous of depriving the enemy 
of this resource. The enterprise was, in fact, rash in the last 
degree, for the soldiers from the garrisons of Elba and Corsica 
having gone home, no troops were available for the service, and 
a fortified town was to be taken by man-cf-war boats alone. 
Nelson's well-established character for daring marked him out 
for a duty which could only succeed by dash and surprise, if it 
was to succeed at all. But the Spaniards were on the alert, 
and the attack, made with the utmost daring on the night of the 
24th of July, was repulsed with heavy loss. Some of the boats 
missed the mole in the dark and were stove in by the surf, others 
which found the mole were shattered by the fire of the Spaniards. 
Nelson's right elbow was shot through, and he fell back into the 
boat from which he was directing the attack. The amputation 
of his arm was badly performed in the hurry and the dark. 
He was invalided home, and spent months of extreme pain in 
London and at Bath. On the loth of April 1798 he came back 
to the fleet off Cadiz as rear-admiral, with his flag in the " Van- 
guard " (74). 

He was now one of the most distinguished officers in the navy. 
Within the next six months he was to raise himself far above 
the heads of all his contemporaries. It was notorious that a great 
armament was preparing at Toulon for some unknown destina- 
tion. To discover its purpose, and to defeat it, the British 
government resolved to send their naval forces again into the 
Mediterranean, and Nelson was chosen for the command by 
Jervis, with whom the immediate decision lay, but also by 
ministers. 

Having joined the flag of Lord St Vincent outside of the 
straits of Gibraltar on the joth of April, Nelson was detached 
on the 2nd of May into the Mediterranean, with three line-of- 
battle ships and five frigates, to discover the aim of the Toulon 
armament. Napoleon had, however, enforced rigid secrecy, and 
the British admiral had to confess that the French were better 
than the British at concealing their plans. Beyond the fact that 
a powerful combined force was collected in the French port he 
could learn nothing. On the 2oth of May the " Vanguard " was 
dismasted in a gale. Nelson bore the check in a highly character- 
istic manner. "I ought not," he wrote, "to call what has 
happened by the cold name of accident; but I believe firmly 
that it was the Almighty's goodness to check my consummate 
vanity." The " Vanguard " was saved from going on shore by 
the seaman-like skill of Captain Ball of the "Alexander," against 
whom Nelson had hitherto had a prejudice, but for whom 
he had henceforth a peculiar regard. The " Vanguard " was 
refitted by the exertions of her own crew under cover of the little 
island of San Pietri on the southern coast of Sardinia. In the 
meantime the frigates attached to his command had returned 
to Gibraltar, in the erroneous belief that the liners would be 
taken there to make good the damage suffered in the gale. " I 
thought Hope would have known me better," said Nelson. 
On the 3oth of April he was off Toulon again, only to find that 
the French were gone, and that he could not learn whither they 
were steering. Racked by anxiety and deprived of his best 
means of obtaining information by the disappearance of his 
frigates, he remained cruising till he was joined, on the yth of 
June, by Troubridge with ten sail of the line. And now he started 
on his fierce pursuit of the enemy, seeking him in the dark, for 
there were no scouts at hand; exasperated at being left without 
the eyes of his fleet; half maddened at the thought he might, 
by no fault of his own, miss the renown towards which his pro- 
phetic imagination had seemed to guide him; knowing that St 
Vincent would be blamed for choosing so young an admiral; 
but resolved to follow the enemy to the antipodes if necessary. 
From the coast of Sardinia to Naples, from Naples to Messina, 
from Messina to Alexandria, from Alexandria, where he found 
the roadstead empty, back to Sicily, and then when at last a 
ray of light came to him, back to Alexandria he swept the central 
and eastern Mediterranean. At no time in his life were 
the noble qualities of his nature displayed more entirely free 
from all alloy. He was an embodied flame of resolution, and as 
yet he showed no sign of the vulgar bluster which was to appear 



NELSON 



355 



later. In the midst of his anxieties his kindness of heart shone 
forth without a trace of the tendency of sentimental gush so 
irritatingly obvious in after days. Unlike most admirals of his 
time, he did not live apart from his captains, but saw much of 
them, and freely discussed his plans with them. He had his 
reward in their devotion and perfect comprehension of what 
he wished them to do. At the same time he acquired an absolute 
confidence in the efficiency of his squadron, the magnificent 
force which had been formed by years of successful war, and by 
the careful training of his predecessors. The captains were the 
band of brothers he himself had made them. 

The great victory of the ist of August 1798 (see NILE, BATTLE 
OF) brought Nelson yet another wound. He was struck on the 
forehead by a langridge shot, and had for a time to go below. 
It is perhaps to be lamented in the interest of his fame that the 
wound was not severe enough to compel him to return home. 
After providing for the blockade of what remained of the French 
fleet in Alexandria, he sailed for Naples, and arrived there on the 
22nd of September. There was no rear-admiral of any standing 
in the navy who could not have done what remained to be done 
in the Mediterranean, under the supervision of St Vincent, as 
well as he. For him Naples was a pitfall. There awaited him 
there precisely the influences to folly which he was least able to 
resist. He loved being loved, and was the man to think the gift 
a debt. He had an insatiable appetite for praise. With those 
weaknesses of character which caused Lord Minto, who yet 
never ceased to regard him with sincere friendship, to say that 
he was in some respects a " baby," he was disarmed in the 
presence of the two women who now made a determined attempt 
to capture him. Emma Hamilton, who could not help endeavour- 
ing to conquer every man she met, was naturally eager to 
dominate one who had filled Europe with his fame. Behind 
Emma was the queen of Naples, Maria Carolina, a woman who 
had a share of the ability of her mother Maria Theresa without 
any of her fine moral qualities. Maria Carolina was all her life 
trying to fight the power of revolutionary France, with no better 
resources than were afforded her by the insignificant kingdom 
of Naples, and a husband who was the embodiment of all the 
faults of the Italian Bourbons. She had made use of the English 
minister's wife as an instrument of political intrigue, and now 
she employed her to manage Nelson. We have the repeated 
assertions of Nelson himself in all his ample correspondence 
from September 1798 to July of 1800, and indeed later; to prove 
that he was, in his own tell-tale phrase, persuaded to "Sicilyfy" 
his conscience in other words to turn his squadron into an 
instrument for the ambition, the revenge and the fears of Maria 
Carolina, the " Dear Queen " of his letters to Emma Hamilton. 
It is highly probable that he was secretly influenced by annoyance 
at the pedantry of the British government, which only gave him 
a barony for the splendid victory of the Nile, en the ridiculous 
ground that no higher title could be given to an officer who was 
not a commander-in-chief. All doubt as to the character of 
his relations with Lady Hamilton has been laid at rest by the 
Morrison papers. None ought ever to have existed, for, if Nelson 
did not love this woman in the fullest possible sense of the word, 
his conduct would be inexplicable on any other hypothesis than 
that he was an imbecile. He allowed her to waste his money, 
to lead him about " like a bear," and to drag him into gambling, 
which he naturally hated. For her sake he offended old friends, 
and quarrelled with his wife in circumstances of vulgar brutality. 
That he believed she had borne him a child can no longer be 
disputed, and he carried on with her a correspondence under the 
name of Thompson which was apparently meant to deceive 
her husband, but is varied by grotesque explosions which destroy 
the illusion, such as it was. 

In the hands of these two women, and in the intoxication 
produced on him by flattery, which could not be too copious 
or gross for his taste, Nelson speedily became a Neapolitan 
royalist of far greater sincerity than was to be found among the 
king's subjects except in the ranks of the Lazzaroni. He 
gratified the headlong queen by egging her torpid husband into 
an exceedingly foolish attack on the French garrisons then 



occupying the so-called Roman republic. The collapse of the 
Neapolitan forces was instant and ignominious. The court 
fled to Palermo in December, under the protection of the British 
squadron. At Palermo Nelson remained directing the operations 
of the ships engaged in blockading Malta, then held by the 
garrison placed in it by Napoleon when he took it on his way 
to Egypt, and sinking continually deeper into his slavery to 
Lady Hamilton, till the spring of the following year. He was 
then aroused by a double call. A royalist army led by the 
king's vicar-general, Fabrizio Ruffo (q.v.), had succeeded in 
recovering the greater part of the kingdom of Naples from the 
government set up by the French, and called, in the pedantic 
style of the revolutionary epoch, the Parthenopean republic. 
A French' fleet commanded by Admiral Bruix entered the 
Mediterranean. News of the appearance of Bruix reached 
Nelson just as he was about to sail for Naples with the heir 
apparent to co-operate with Ruffo and his " Christian Army." 
He immediately took steps to concentrate his ships, which had 
been reinforced by a small Portuguese squadron, at Marittimo 
on the western coast of Sicily, where he would be conveniently 
placed to meet the French, if they came, or to unite with the 
ships of Lord St Vincent. He was, however, half distraught 
between his sense of what was required by his duty to his own 
service and the obligations he had assumed towards the sove- 
reigns of Naples. In the end he resolved to sail for Naples, this 
time without the crown prince, in order to carry out a mission 
entrusted to him by the king. 

The story of Nelson's visit to Naples in the June of 1799 will 
probably remain a subject for perpetual discussion. His reputa- 
tion for humanity and probity is considered to depend on the 
view we take of his actions there and at this period. It is true 
that the relative importance of these episodes has been much 
diminished by the publication of the Morrison Papers, and 
that it has at all times been exaggerated. From the Morrison 
Papers we know that, when his passions were concerned, he 
was not incapable of stratagems to deceive his old friend Sir 
William Hamilton. It is the less incredible that he should have 
been willing to use deceit against persons whom he hated so 
fiercely as he did the Neapolitan Jacobins, in his double quality 
of English Tory and Neapolitan Royalist. But apart from his 
laxity in the course of a double adultery, his letters, written to 
many different people during his stay on the coasts of Naples, 
contain more than sufficient evidence to show that he was utterly 
unhinged by excitement, and was unable to estimate the real 
character of many of his own words and deeds. He considered 
himself as owing an equal allegiance to Ferdinand of Naples 
and to his own sovereign. His feelings towards the Jacobin 
subjects of his Italian king are expressed in terms which bear 
a remarkable likeness to the rhetoric of the Jacobins of France 
when they were most vigorously engaged in ridding their country 
of aristocrats. To Troubridge he writes: " Send me word 
some proper heads are taken off, this alone will comfort me." 
To St Vincent he reports that " Our friend Troubridge had a 
present made him the other day of the head of a Jacobin, and 
makes an apology to me, the weather being very hot, for not 
sending it here." Some allowance may be made for a rude taste 
in jocularity, but it is impossible to mistake the scream of fury 
in Nelson's letters, imitated from the style of Lady Hamilton, 
who in these things was the sycophant of the queen. A man 
who allowed his thoughts to dwell in an atmosphere of hysterical 
ferocity, and was above all a man of action, was well on the way 
to interpret his words into deeds. It was while he was in this 
heated state that he was sent to preside over the fall of the 
Parthenopean republic at the end of June 1799. 

King Ferdinand had not been unwilling to offer terms to 
those of his subjects who had joined with the French to establish 
the republic, so long as he was under the influence of fear. 
But when the French had been defeated in northern Italy 
and had left the Republicans to their own resources, he became 
more anxious to make an example. In the early parts of June 
he heard that Ruffo was inclined tc clemency, and grew very 
eager to prevent any such mistake. No more effectual way of 



356 



NELSON 



enforcing rigour could be imagined than to put the control 
of events entirely in the hands of Nelson, whose sentiments were 
well known, who was notoriously under the influence of Emma 
Hamilton, that is to say, of the queen, and who, as a stranger, 
would have no family or social attachments with the republicans, 
no changes of fortune nor future revenges to fear. That he asked 
Nelson to go to Naples, giving him large powers, may be con- 
sidered certain. A commission in the full sense he could not 
give without the consent of the king of Great Britain, and that 
was not even asked for. But Nelson had general instructions 
from home to support the Neapolitan government, and though 
this only meant, and could only mean, as an ally and against the 
common enemy, he understood it in a much wider sense, while 
he considered himself as being bound to Ferdinand in the relation 
of subject to sovereign by the grant of the duchy of Bronte in 
Sicily, which he had just received. He therefore sailed to 
Naples resolved to act in the double capacity of English and 
Neapolitan admiral, of English opponent of the Jacobins, 
and of Neapolitan royalist. The general cause of Europe and 
the particular revenge of the king and queen were of equal 
importance to him. When he entered the Bay of Naples on the 
24th of June he found that a capitulation had been agreed upon 
some thirty-six hours earlier, between Ruffo, acting as vicar- 
general, with the consent of Captain Foote (1767-1833) of the 
" Seahorse," the senior British naval officer present, on the 
one side, and the Neapolitan republicans on the other. The 
republicans had been reduced to the possession of the castles of 
Uovo and Nuovo, and had been glad to secure terms which 
allowed them to go into exile in France. Nelson denounced an 
arrangement which would have precluded all cutting off of 
heads as " infamous." He ordered the white flag to be hauled 
down on the ", Seahorse," and told Ruffo that he would not 
allow the capitulation to be carried out. The same warning 
was given to the republicans in the forts. There is a question 
whether the capitulation had been in part already carried into 
effect. Sir William Hamilton, who, together with his wife, had 
accompanied Nelson from Palermo, asserts that it had, in an 
official despatch to Lord Grenville dated on the i4th July. 
But this letter, written only a fortnight after the transaction, 
contains many inaccuracies, and can be held to prove only that 
Hamilton would have seen nothing discreditable in violating 
a capitulation, or that he was in his dotage, and did not know 
what he was doing. Ruffo refused to be a party to a breach of 
faith. On the afternoon of the 2$th he had an interview with 
Nelson on board the flagship the "Foudroyant," which was con- 
ducted through the Hamiltons and was of a very heated character. 
Next morning, as Ruffo showed a determination to stand aside 
and throw on Nelson the responsibility of provoking a renewal 
of hostilities, messages were sent to him both by the admiral 
and by Hamilton that there would be no interference with the 
"armistice." This assurance put a stop to the dispute between 
them. The republicans came out of the forts and were trans- 
ferred to feluccas under the guard of British marines, where they 
were kept till the king's pleasure was known. As a matter of 
course it was that they should be mostly hanged or shot. Whether 
Nelson meant to deceive Ruffo into thinking that he had accepted 
the capitulation when he named the armistice, whether the 
vicar-general was deceived, and then misled the garrisons in good 
faith or whether he knew perfectly well that the capitulation 
was not included, and took the opportunity afforded him by 
these two English gentlemen to deceive his own countrymen, 
are points much discussed. The republicans in the forts did claim 
that they were covered by the capitulation, and that it had been 
violated. It is difficult to see in what way the service of King 
George was forwarded by Nelson's zeal for King Ferdinand. 
Such discredit as fell on him would have been avoided if he had 
kept to his duty as British admiral, and had not thought it 
incumbent on him to prove himself a good Neapolitan royalist. 
On the 2Qth of June Francesco Caracciolo (q.v.), a Neapolitan 
naval officer who had joined the republicans, was brought to 
Nelson as a prisoner. Out of his desire to make an example 
of a proper head, and in the full knowledge that Caracciolo's 



death would be pleasing to the queen, Nelson, in virtue, seemingly, 
of his supposed commission as Neapolitan admiral (which he 
did not possess), ordered a court martial of Italian officers to sit, 
on an English ship, to try the prisoner. The court could only 
find him guilty, and Caracciolo was hanged. The sentence was 
just, but the procedure was indecent, and Nelson's intervention 
cannot be justified. 

At this period of his life it is indeed difficult to represent 
Nelson's actions in a favourable light. In July he disobeyed the 
order of Lord Keith to send some of his ships to Minorca, on 
the ground that they were needed for the defence of Naples. 
The influence of the queen, exercised through Emma Hamilton 
was partly responsible for his wilfulness, but a great deal must 
be put down to his annoyance at finding that Keith, and not he 
himself, was to succeed St Vincent as commander-in-chief in 
the Mediterranean. After the victory of the Nile he became, 
in fact, incapable of acting as a subordinate. Until he left for 
home in June 1800, except during the short interval when he 
acted as commander-in-chief in the absence of Keith, he was 
captious, querulous and avoided leaving Palermo as much as he 
could, and far more than he ought. When forced out he made 
his health an excuse for going back. He began a quarrel with 
Troubridge which ripened into complete estrangement. He 
wearied out his friends at the Admiralty, and finally extorted 
leave to return. As Keith would not allow him to take a line 
of battleship for his journey home with the Hamiltons, and 
indeed said plainly that Lady Hamilton had commanded the 
Mediterranean station long enough, he returned across Europe 
with his friends. Accounts of the figure they cut, and the 
sensation they created at Vienna and at Dresden, can be found 
in the Minto correspondence, and in the reminiscences of Mrs 
St George, afterwards Mrs Trench (1768-1827). He reached 
home in November. 

In England he was received with the utmost popular en- 
thusiasm, but with coldness by the king, the Admiralty, and by 
the great official and social world. His erratic and self-willed 
conduct towards Lord Keith sufficiently explains the distrust 
shown by My Lords of the Admiralty. Their uneasiness was not 
diminished by their knowledge that his renown made it quite 
impossible to lay him aside at a crisis. The king, a man of strict 
domestic habits and strong religious convictions, was un- 
doubtedly offended by the scandals of Nelson's life at Naples, and 
he cannot but have been displeased by the admiral's openly 
avowed readiness to devote himself to King Ferdinand. English 
society as represented by the First Lord, Lord Spencer, and his 
wife, may not have shared the moral indignation of the pious 
king; but their taste was offended, and so was their self-respect, 
when Nelson insisted on forcing Lady Hamilton on them, and 
would go nowhere where she was not received. When it was 
discovered that he insisted on making his wife live in the same 
house as his mistress, he was considered to have infringed the 
accepted standard of good manners. After enduring insult at 
once cruel and cowardly, to the verge of poorness of spirit, 
Lady Nelson rebelled. A complete separation took place, and 
husband and wife never met again. 

On the ist of January 1801 Nelson became vice-admiral by 
seniority. The alliance of the Northern powers of which the Tsar 
Paul was the inspiring spirit, made it necessary for the British 
government to take vigorous measures in its own defence. A 
fleet had to be sent on a very difficult and dangerous mission 
to the Baltic. The Admiralty would have been unpardonable, 
and would not have been excused by public opinion if, when it 
had at its disposal such an admirable weapon as the conqueror 
of the Nile, it had failed to employ him. Nelson was chosen to 
go as a matter of course, but unfortunately, it was thought proper 
to put him under the command of Sir Hyde Parker (q.v.) an 
officer of no experience, and, as the Admiralty ought to have 
known, of commonplace, not to say indolent, character. Nelson 
bore the subordination with many bitter complaints, but on the 
whole with patience and tact. Sir Hyde Parker began by 
keeping his formidable second in command at arm's length, 
but Nelson handled him with considerable diplomacy. Knowing 






NELSON 



357 



his superior to be fond of good living he caused a turbot to be 
caught for him on the Dogger Bank, and sent it to him with 
a complimentary message. Sir Hyde was not insensible to the 
attention, and thawed notably. We have the good fortune to 
possess the notes taken during the campaign by Colonel Stewart 
(1774-1827), a military officer who did duty with Nelson as a 
marine. Colonel Stewart has put on record many stories of 
Nelson which have a high biographical value. He saw the hero 
when his character was displayed in all its strength and its weak- 
ness. Nelson was at once burning for honour, ardently desirous 
to serve his country at a great crisis, and yet longing for rest and 
for the company of Emma Hamilton. His passion had, if possible, 
been increased by the birth of the child Horatia, whom he 
believed to be his own, and his jealousy was excited by fears that 
Emma would become an object of attention to the prince of 
Wales (afterwards George IV.). His health, as Colonel Stewart 
justly observed, was always affected by anxiety, and during the 
Baltic campaign he complained incessantly of his sufferings. 
Nervous irritation provoked him into odd explosions of excite- 
ment, as when, for instance, he suddenly interfered with the work- 
ing of his flagship while the officer of the watch was tacking 
her on the south coast of England, and so threw her into disorder. 
When he saw the consequences of his untimely intrusion he 
sharply appealed to the officer to tell him what was to be done 
next, and when the embarrassed lieutenant hesitated to reply, 
burst out with, " If you do not know, I am sure I don't," and 
then went into his cabin. His subordinates learnt to take these 
manifestations as matters of course, knowing that they were 
wholly without malignity. To them he was always kind, even 
when they were at fault, taking, as his own phrase has it, a 
penknife where Lord St Vincent would have taken a hatchet. 
Colonel Stewart tells how he was wont to invite the midshipmen 
of the middle watch to breakfast, and romp, with them as if 
he had been the youngest of the party. The playfulness of his 
nature came out, in combination with his heroism, when he 
adorned his refusal to obey Sir Hyde's weak signal of recall in the 
middle of the battle, which would have been disastrous if it had 
been acted on, by putting his telescope to his blind eye and 
declaring that he could not see the order to retire. At such 
moments all could see his agitation; but, as the surgeon of the 
" Elephant," which bore his flag at Copenhagen, says, they could 
also see that " it was not the agitation of indecision, but of 
ardent animated patriotism panting for glory." When Sir Hyde 
Parker was recalled in May, Nelson assumed the command in 
the Baltic; but the dissolution of the Northern Confederation 
left him little to do. His health really suffered in the cold air 
of high latitudes, and in June he obtained leave to come home. 
His services were grudgingly recognized by the title of viscount. 
During the brief interval before the peace he was put in command 
of a flotilla to combat Napoleon's futile threat of invasion. 
In the hope of quieting public anxiety rather than in any serious 
expectation of success, an attack was made on a French flotilla 
strongly protected by its position, at Boulogne, which was 
disastrously repulsed. Nelson was not in command on the spot, 
and if he had been would in all probability have renewed his 
experience at Santa Cruz. He could not do the impossible more 
than other men. He was only more ready to try. 

While the brief peace made at Amiens lasted, he remained on 
shore. His home was with the Hamiltons in the strange house- 
hold in which Sir William showed that his iSth-century training 
had taught him to accept a domestic division with a good grace, 
and had not left him too squeamish to profit by the pecuniary 
advantages which may attend the relation of complacent 
husband. His death on the 6th of April 1803 made no change 
in the life of the admiral. He lived almost wholly at Merton, 
where he had purchased a small house, which Emma filled with 
memorials of his glory and of her now passing beauty. She fed 
him profusely with the flattery which he, in Lord Minto's words, 
swallowed as a child does pap; and she was in turn adored by 
him, and treated with profound deference by his family, with 
the exception of his father. 

When the ambition of Napoleon made it impossible to keep 



up the fiction of peace, Nelson was at once called from retirement, 
and this time there could be no question of putting him under 
the authority of any other admiral. He was appointed to the 
Mediterranean command, and hoisted his flag in May 1803. 
Between this date and his death in the hour of full triumph on 
the zist of October 1805, he was in the centre and was one of 
the controlling spirits of the vast military and naval drama 
which after filling for more than two years the immense stage 
bounded by Europe and the West Indies, found its closing scene 
in Trafalgar Bay (see TRAFALGAR). In spite of the anxieties 
of an arduous command Nelson was serene and at his best in this 
last period of his life. Once only did the ill-advised boasting 
of Latouche Treville provoke him into a scolding mood. The 
French officer spoke of him as having fled before his French 
ships, and the vaunt, which had no better foundation than that 
Nelson had retired before superior numbers when reconnoitring, 
exasperated him into threatening to make the Frenchman eat 
his letter if ever they met. Nelson could boast, but his loudest 
words are not ridiculously out of proportion to his deeds. 

The last hours at Trafalgar will never be forgotten by English- 
men. There is no figure in English history at once so magnificent 
in battle, and so penetrating in its appeal to the emotions, as 
was Nelson on that last day when under his leadership the fleet 
annihilated the last lingering fear that Napoleon would ever 
carry his desolating arms into the British Islands'. It matters 
little that the woman of whom he thought to the last was utterly 
unworthy of him, had perhaps never rendered the services he 
supposed her to have done for their country, and was about to dis- 
honour his memory by mercenary immorality. He must be worse 
than censorious who can think unmoved of Nelson kneeling in 
prayer by his cabin table as the " Victory " rolled slowly down 
on the enemy on the zist of October, appealing to God for help, 
and writing the codicil in which he left his mistress and his child 
to the gratitude of his country. 

It is said that his famous signal was to have been worded 
" Nelson confides that every man will do his duty," and that 
his own name was replaced by that of England on the suggestion 
of one of his officers. The use of his name as an inspiration and 
an appeal would have been perfectly consistent with his tone 
at all times, but he agreed to the alteration with the indifference 
of a man to whom self and country were one at that hour. 
" Expects " replaced " confides that " because the signal 
lieutenant Pascoe pointed out to him that the verb originally 
chosen must be spelt out letter by letter in a long string of 
flags. He parted with Captain Blackwood of the " Euryalus " 
with a prophecy of his approaching fate. The sight of Colling- 
wood, the friend of his youth, leading the lee line into action 
in the " Royal Sovereign " drew from him a cry of admiration 
at the noble example his comrade was showing. When the 
" Victory " had passed astern of the French " Bucentaure," 
and was engaged with her and the " Redoubtable," he walked 
up and down the quarter deck of his flagship by the side of his 
flag-captain, T. M. Hardy, with the brisk short step customary 
with him. As they turned, a musket shot from the top of the 
" Redoubtable " struck him on the upper breast, and, plunging 
down, broke the spine. " They have done for me at last! " 
were the words in which he acknowledged the fatal stroke. He 
lingered for a very few hours of anguish in the fetid cockpit of 
the " Victory," amid the horrors of darkness relieved only by the 
dim light of lanterns, and surrounded by men groaning, or 
raving with unbearable pain. The shock of the broadsides made 
the whole frame of the " Victory " tremble, and extorted a 
moan from the dying admiral. When Captain Hardy came down 
to report the progress of the battle, his inherent love for full 
triumph drew from him the declaration that less than twenty 
prizes would not satisfy him. He clung to his authority to the 
end. The suggestion that Collingwood would have to decide 
on the course to be taken was answered with the eager claim, 
" Not while I live. " But the last recorded words were of 
affection and of duty. He begged Hardy for a kiss, and he 
ended with the proud and yet humble claim, " I have done my 
duty, thank God for that." 



358 



NELSON 



His body was brought home in his flagship and laid to rest 
in St Paul's. He is commemorated in London by the monu- 
ment in Trafalgar Square, completed in 1849 with a colossal 
statue by E. H. Baily, and surrounded by Landseer's bronze 
lions, added in 1867. 

In estimating the character of Nelson, and his achievements, 
there are some elements which must be allowed for more fully 
than has always been the case. He was, to begin with, the 
least English of great Englishmen. He had the excitability, the 
vanity, the desire for approbation without much delicacy as 
to the quarter from which it came, which the average Eng- 
lishman of Nelson's time, his judgment obscured by the effects 
of centuries of racial rivalry culminating in the Napoleonic 
wars, was wont to attribute to Frenchmen. Where there 
is vanity there is the capacity for spite and envy. Nor was 
Nelson altogether free from these unpleasant faults. But in 
the main his desire to be liked combined with a natural kindness 
of disposition to make him appeal frankly to the goodwill 
of those about him. He won to a very great extent the affec- 
tion he valued, and that from men so widely different in char- 
acter as Lord Minto and the simple-hearted seamen among 
whom he passed the best part of his life. He could be cruel 
when his emotions were aroused by evil influences, with the 
downright cruelty he displayed at Naples, or the more subtle 
form of hardness in his conduct to his wife, when his duty 
to her stood in the way of his love for Emma Hamilton. But 
they -were few to whom the evil side of his nature was shown, 
while the captains and seamen for whom he did much to make 
a hard duty more tolerable were to be counted by the thousand. 

As a commander he belonged to the race of Pyrrhus and the 
prince of Conde the fighters of battles. His victories were 
won at the head of a force which had been brought to a high 
level of efficiency by three generations of predecessors, against 
enemies who had been, as in the case of the French, disorganized 
by a social revolution which had ruined their discipline, who 
were inexperienced as the Danes were, or who, as in the case of 
the Spaniards, were sunk in a moral and intellectual decadence. 
But he estimated the vices of his opponents with full insight. 
Wielding a fine instrument, and confronted by inferior enemies, 
he was entitled to dare much, and it is a proof of his sagacity 
that he saw how far he could dare, caring but little for the bulk 
of the force in front of him, and looking to the spirit. Above 
all, he had the power to inspire the enthusiasm he felt, and to 
make men act above themselves because he was there, and because 
they found a joy in pleasing him. Among all the warriors of 
his generation Napoleon alone was a greater master of the souls 
of men, and Bliicher alone came near him. 

Nelson had no children by his wife. His daughter Horatia, 
by Lady Hamilton, became the wife of the Rev. Philip Ward, 
and died in 1881. In November 1805, in recognition of Nelson's 
great services to his country, his brother William (1757-1835) 
was created Earl Nelson of Trafalgar, an annuity of 5000 being 
attached to the title. When William died without sons in 
February 1835 his only daughter Charlotte Mary (1787-1873), 
wife of Samuel Hood, 2nd Baron Bridport (1788-1868), became 
duchess of Bronte, while, according to the remainder, his English 
titles passed to his nephew Thomas Bolton (1786-1835), who 
became 2nd Earl Nelson. Bolton, who took the name of Nelson, 
was succeeded as 3rd Earl Nelson in November 1835 by his 
son Horatio (b. 1823). The duchy of Bronte was in 1910 held 
by Baroness Bridport's grandson, Arthur Wellington Nelson 
Hood, and Viscount Bridport (b. 1839). 

AUTHORITIES. Very much has been written about Nelson/ A 
jarge part of the total mass consists of hasty work done to meet an 
immediate demand, or of repetition not justified by the critical 
faculty or literary skill of the writers. The valuable portion may be 
divided into original authorities, such as correspondence, and the 
testimony of eyewitnesses; and the narratives or criticisms of 
students who tell with original power, and judge with knowledge and 
insight. Under the heading of original authorities, the first place is 
taken by The Dispatches and Letters of Vice-Admiral Lord Viscount 
Nelson, with notes by Sir N. H. Nicolas (7 vols., 1844-1846). Nicolas 
spared no pains to make his collection complete and to illustrate it 
from all trustworthy sources. Thus he includes Sir Edward Berry's 
Account of the Battle of the Nile, Colonel Stewart's Notes on the Copen- 



hagen Campaign, Dr Beatey's Narrative of Nelson's Last Hours, and 
passages from the so-called Reminiscences of the Captain of the 
Victory, Dr Scott. This last authority is of little value, for the book 
consists of recollections by Dr Scott's daughter and son-in-law of 
what he said years after the events he was speaking of. The student 
of Nelson's life should make it a rule to exhaust Nicolas before con- 
sulting any other authority. A collection of Letters from Nelson to 
Emma Hamilton was published under her direction in 1814, but it is 
subject to much suspicion. A great mass of correspondence of the 
Hamiltons and much MS. relating to Nelson came into the hands of 
Dr Pettigrew, and passed into the possession of Mr A. Morrison, 
from whose collection they were transferred to the British Museum. 
A catalogue, in which the text is given, was privately printed and 
can be consulted in the museum. Isolated letters have appeared 
from time to time. Between February and April 1898 some valuable 
extracts from his correspondence with his wife, previously un- 
known, and the correct text of parts of his diary, appeared in the 
extinct weekly, Literature. Among the lives of Nelson's contem- 
poraries, J. S. Tucker's Earl of St Vincent (1844), Ross's Saumarez, 
Lady Bourchier's Codrington and the Letters of Sir William Hoste 
throw light on particular points. The Nelsoman Reminiscences of 
Parsons give an interesting picture of the admiral as he appeared 
to an observant boy. The observations of older and more intelligent 
witnesses will be found in The Diaries and Correspondence of George 
Rose, in The Life and Letters of the First Earl of Minto and in a 
Journal kept during a Visit to Germany, by Mrs St George, afterwards 
Mrs Trench. Incidental mentions of Nelson are to be found in the 
Pagct Papers, the correspondence of the minister who succeeded 
Sir W. Hamilton at the court of Naples. Biographies of Nelson are 
numerous. Emma Hamilton inspired one by a Mr Harrison, an 
odious book which was in reality an advertisement of herself and 
which appeared in 1806. The two quartos of Clarke and McArthur 
(1809), reprinted in three volumes octavo in 1840, were based on 
papers supplied by the family, but the texts were edited with un- 
pardonable freedom and the originals have in many cases been lost. 
Southey's classic'Li/e was based on Clarke and McArthur. All later 
biographies have been superseded by Captain Mahan'sLi/e of Nelson, 
first published in two volumes in 1897 and again in one volume, 
with additions and corrections in 1899. The much-debated Nea- 
politan episode has given rise to a literature of its own. The con- 
troversy began with the appearance of Captain Foote's Vindication 
of his own part in the transaction published in 1810. It drew an 
immediate Counter Vindication of Nelson by Commander Jeaffreson 
Miles. Italian versions will be found in Sacchinelli's Fabrizio Ruffo 
and in the Compendia of Michcroux edited by theMarcheseMaresca. 
The controversy has been revived in England by Mr F. P. Badham 
with his Nelson at Naples (1900). and has provoked the publication 
of a collection of the documents by the Navy Record Society, in 
vol. xxy. of their publications, under the title Nelson and the 
Neapolitan Jacobins (1903). Mr C. Jeaffreson's two works, Lady 
Hamilton and Lord Nelson (1888) and the Queen of Naples and 
Lord Nelson (1889), are based on the papers collected by Mr 
Morrison. See also T. Nelson, Genealogical History of the Nelson 
Family (1908). (D. H.) 

NELSON, ROBERT (1656-1715), English philanthropist and 
religious writer, son of John Nelson, a London merchant, was 
born on the 22nd of June 1656, and was educated as the private 
pupil of George Bull, afterwards bishop of St David's. Having 
inherited a considerable fortune from his father, he followed 
no profession. About 1680 he went abroad and spent much 
time on the continent of Europe till 1691, when he settled at 
Blackheath. For many years he was an intimate friend and 
correspondent of Archbishop Tillotson, though not in agreement 
with his views; and he was also on terms of friendship with 
the astronomer Halley and other men of science. Nelson's 
sympathies were with the Jacobites; and after his return to 
England he associated himself with the nonjurors, under whose 
influence he produced several of his writings on religious subjects. 
He was an active supporter of the Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 
and similar associations, and he used his influence largely in 
the establishment of charity schools and the building of churches 
in London. In 1687 he had published a controversial work 
against transubstantiation, and in 1704 appeared his Companion 
for the Festivals and Fasts of the Church of England, which 
obtained a remarkable popularity lasting till the middle of the 
1 9th century. Within five years of its publication ten thousand 
copies of the Companion were printed, and thirty-six editions 
appeared in a hundred and twenty years. After the death of 
Bishop Bull in 1710 Nelson wrote his biography, which was 
published three years later; and he was also the author of many 
other devotional and controversial works. He died in January 



NELSON NEMATODA 



359 



1715, in which year was published his Address to Persons of 
Quality and Estate, containing suggestions for the establishment 
of special hospitals, schools and theological colleges, many of 
his proposals being afterwards carried into effect. Nelson 
married a Roman Catholic, Lady Theophila Lucy, daughter of 
the earl of Berkeley, and widow of Sir Kingsmill Lucy of 
Broxbourne. 

See Charles F. Secretan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Pious 
Robert Nelson (1860); Thomas Birch, Life of Tillotson (and ed., 
1753); Thomas Lathbury, History of the Nonjurors (1845). 

NELSON, a river of Keewatiu district, Canada, discharging 
the waters of Lake Winnipeg in a north-easterly direction into 
Hudson Bay. It drains an area of 360,000 sq. m. and, including 
its tributary the Saskatchewan, is 1450 m. long. It is navigable 
for small steamers for a distance of about 80 m., after which it 
is unnavigable except for canoes. It has a total fall between the 
lake and sea of 7 10 ft. Here its chief tributary is the Burntwood. 
Norway House at its source and York Factory at its mouth 
are important stations of the Hudson's Bay Company. 

NELSON, a town of British Columbia, situated on the west arm 
of Kootenay lake. Pop. (1906) about 5000. It is the com- 
mercial, administrative and railroad centre of the east and west 
Kootenay districts. It is the northern terminus of a branch of 
the Great Northern railway and is also connected by rail and 
steamboat with the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway at 
Revelstoke and with the Crow's Nest line of the same system at 
Kootenay landing. It has direct railway communication with 
Rossland, Grand Forks and Greenwood. 

NELSON, a municipal borough in the Clitheroe parliamentary 
division of Lancashire, England, 325 m. N. from Manchester by 
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 22,754, 
(1901) 32,816. It is of modern growth, possessing a town hall, 
market hall, free library, technical sehool, pleasant park and 
recreation grounds, and an extensive system of electric tramways 
and light railways, connecting with Burnley and Colne. Its 
chief manufacture is cotton. It was incorporated in 1890, and 
the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 
councillors. Area, 3466 acres. 

NELSON, a seaport of New Zealand, the seat of a bishop and 
capital of a provincial district of the same name; at the head 
of Blind Bay on the northern coast of the South Island. Pop. 
(1906) 8164. The woods and fields in the neighbourhood abound 
with English song-birds, and the streams are stocked with trout; 
while the orchards in the town and suburbs are famous for English 
kinds of fruit, and hops are extensively cultivated. The town 
possesses a small museum and art gallery, literary institute, 
government buildings, and boys' and girls' schools of high repute. 
The cathedral (Christ Church) is finely placed on a mound which 
was originally intended as a place of refuge from hostile natives. 
It is built of wood, the various native timbers being happily 
combined. Railways connect the harbour with the town, and 
the town with Motupiko, &c. The harbour, with extensive 
wharves, is protected by the long and remarkable Boulder Bank, 
whose southern portion forms the natural breakwater to that 
anchorage. The settlement was planted by the New Zealand 
Company in 1842. The borough returns one member to the 
house of representatives, and its local affairs are administered 
by a mayor and council. 

NELSONVILLE, a city of Athens county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the 
Hocking river, 62 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop.dSoo) 4558X1900) 
5421, including 328 foreign-born and 204 negroes; (1910) 6082. 
Nelsonville is served by the Hocking Valley railway. The 
city is in one of the most productive coal sections of the state; 
there are large quantities of clay in the vicinity; and the principal 
industries are the mining and shipping of coal and the manu- 
facture of fire-clay products. Nelsonville was settled in 1818 
and was incorporated in 1838; it was named in honour of Elisha 
Nelson, who built the first house here. 

NEMATODA, in zoology, a group of worms. The name Nema- 
toda (Gr. vfjfm, thread, and eiSos, form) was first introduced by 
Rudolphi, but the group had been previously recognized as 
distinct by Zeder under the name Ascarides. They are now by 



many systematists united with the Acanthocephala and the 
Nematomorpha to form the group Nemathelminthes. 

The Nematoda possess an elongated and thread-like form (see 
fig. i ) , varying in length from a few lines up to several feet. The 
body is covered externally by a chitinous cuticle which is a 
product of the subjacent epidermic layer in which no cell limits 
can be detected though nuclei are scattered through it. The 
cuticle is frequently prolonged into spines and papillae, which 
are especially developed at the anterior end of the body. The 
mouth opens at one extremity of the body and the anus at or 
near the other. Beneath the epidermis is . 

a longitudinal layer of muscle-fibres which 
are separated into four distinct groups 
by the dorsal, ventral and lateral areas; 
these are occupied by a continuation of the 
epidermic layer; in the lateral areas run 
two thin-walled tubes with clear contents, 
which unite hi the anterior part of the 
body and open by a pore situated on the 
ventral surface usually about a quarter 
or a third of the body length from the 
anterior end. These vessels are the nitrogen- 
ous excretory organs. The body-cavity is 
largely occupied by processes from the large 
muscle cells of the skin. These processes 
stretch across the body cavity to be inserted 
in the dorsal and ventral middle lines. 

The body-cavity also contains the so- 
called phagocytic organs. These consist 
of enormous cells with nuclei so large as 
to be in some cases just visible to the naked 
eye. These cells are disposed in pairs, 
though the members of each pair are not 
always at the same level. The number of 
cells is not large (some 2 to 8), and as a 
rule they lie along the lateral lines. In 
some species (Ascaris decipiens) the giant 
cell is "replaced by an irregular mass of 
protoplasm containing a number of small 
nuclei. Such a plasmodium bears, on its 
periphery, groups of rounded projections 
of protoplasm termed end-organs. Similarly 
the giant cells are produced at their peri- 
phery into a number of branching pro- 
cesses which bear similar end-organs on 
their surface and in some cases terminate 
in them. These end-organs are the active Za l - 
agents in taking up foreign granules, or FIG. I. Oxyuris. 
bacteria, which may have found their way < Mouth, 
into the fluid of the body-cavity. From 
the shape and position of the phagocytic 
organs it is obvious that they form admir- 
able strainers through which the fluid of 
the body-cavity filters (figs. 2, 3). 

The alimentary tract consists of a 
straight tube running from the mouth to 
the anus without any cori volutions; it is 
separable into three divisions: (i) a mus- 



Aftcr Caleb, Arc/i. d* 



oe, Oesophagus. 

bd. Enlargement of 
the oesophagus, 
armed with 

chitinous teeth. 

i, Intestine. 

j, Opening of seg- 
mental tubes 
(placed by mis- 
take on the dor- 
sal instead of the 



.... . ventral surface), 

cular oesophagus, which is often provided /,,_ Testes. 

with cuticular teeth; (2) a cellular intes- cd, Vas deferens. 
tine; and (3) a short terminal rectum S P> Cloaca, 
surrounded by muscular fibres. Neither *' pa P lllae - 
here nor elsewhere are cilia found at any period of develop- 
ment. 

A nervous system has been shown to exist in many species, 
and consists of a perioesophageal ring giving off usually six nerves 
which run forwards and backwards along the lateral and median 
lines; these are connected by numerous fine, circular threads in 
the sub-cuticle. Some of the free-living forms possess eye specks. 
The sexes are distinct (with the exception of a few forms that are 
hermaphrodite), and the male is always smaller than the female. 
The generative organs consist of one or two tubes, in the upper 



3 6 



NEMATODA 



portion of which the ova 'or spermatozoa are developed, the lower 
portion serving as an oviduct or vas deferens; the female gener- 
ative organs open at the middle of the body, the male close to 
the posterior extremity into the terminal portion of the ali- 
mentary canal; from this cloaca a diverticulum is given off in 
which are developed one to three chitinous spicules that subserve 
the function of copulation. The spermatozoa differ from those 
of other animals in having the form of cells which sometimes 
perform amoeboid movements. Most remarkable sexual condi- 
tions are found to occur in the free-living genera Rhabditis and 




FIG. 2. Sclerostomum arma- 
tum, 9, X about 3 J, opened to 
show the phagocytic organs. 
(From Nassonov.) 

1, Mouth. 

2, Anterior end of alimentary 

canal. 

3, Posterior end of alimentary FlG - 3- One of the phagocytic 

canal. organs of Sc. armatum, highly 

4, Ovary. magnified. (From Nassonov.) 

5, 6 and 7, Anterior middle and i, Nucleus of giant-cell. 

posterior pairs of phago- 2, One of the processes and end- 
cytic organs. organs of the same. 

Diplogaster. While some of the species are bisexual, others are 
protandrous, self-fertilizing hermaphrodites. In cultures of the 
latter there occur very rare supplemental males which appear in 
no sense degenerate but as fit for reproduction as the males of the 
bisexual species. Though possessing a complete copulatory 
apparatus and producing large quantities of spermatozoa, they 
have lost their sexual instinct and play no part in the economy 
of the species. These " psychically decadent " individuals 
appear to represent the entire male sex of a bisexual species, 
and become unnecessary owing to the grafting of hermaphrodit- 
ism on the female sex. 
Mode of Life and Metamorphoses. While the majority of the 



Nematodes are parasites, there are many that are never at any 
period of their life parasitic. These free-living forms are found 
everywhere in salt and fresh water, in damp earth and moss, 
and among decaying substances; they are always minute in size, 
and like many other lower forms of life, are capable of retaining 
their vitality for a long period even when dried, which accounts 
for their wide distribution; this faculty is also possessed by 
certain of the parasitic Nematodes, especially by those which 
lead a free existence during a part of their life-cycle. The free- 
living differ from the majority of the parasitic forms in under- 
going no metamorphosis; they also possess certain structural 
peculiarities which led Bastian (Trans. Linn. Soc., 1865) to 
separate them into a distinct family, the Anguillulidae. It is 
impossible, however, to draw a strict line of demarcation between 
the free and parasitic species, since ( i ) many of the so-called free 
Nematoda live in the slime of molluscs (Villot), and are therefore 
really parasitic; (2) while certain species belonging to the free- 
living genus Anguillula are normally parasitic (e.g. A. tritici, 
which lives encysted in ears of wheat), other species occasionally 
adopt the parasitic mode of existence, and become encysted in 
slugs, snails, &c.; (3) it has been experimentally proved that 
many normally parasitic genera are capable of leading a free 
existence; 1 (4) transitional forms exist which are free at one 
period of their life and parasitic at another. The parasitic 
Nematodes include by far the greatest number of the known 
genera; they are found in nearly all the orders of the animal 
kingdom, but more especially among the Vertebrata, and of 
these the Mammalia are infested by a greater variety than any 
of the other groups. Some two dozen distinct species have been 
described as occurring in man. The Nematode parasites of the 
Invertebrata are usually immature forms which attain their full 
development in the body of some vertebrate; but there are a 
number of species which in the sexually adult condition are 
peculiar to the Invertebrata? 

The Nematoda contain about as many parasitic species as all 
the other groups of internal parasites taken together; they are 
found in almost all the organs of the body, and by their presence, 
especially when encysted in the tissues and during their migration 
from one part of the body to another, give rise to various patho- 
logical conditions. Although some attain their full development 
in the body of a single host in this respect differing from all 
other Entozoa the majority do not become sexually mature 
until after their transference from an " intermediate " to a 
" definitive " host. This migration is usually accompanied by 
a more or less complete metamorphosis, which is, however, not 
so conspicuous as in most other parasites, e.g. the Trem&toda. 
In some cases (many species of Ascaris) the metamorphosis is 
reduced to a simple process of growth. 

The parasitic and free-living Nematodes are connected by 
transitional forms which are free at one stage of their existence 
and parasitic at another; they may be divided into two classes 
those that are parasitic in the larval state but free when adult, 
and those that are free in the larval state but parasitic when 
adult. 

(i) To the first class belong the so-called " hairworm," Mermis, 
not to be confused with the Gordian worms.' The adult forms of 
M. nigrescens live in damp earth and may be seen after storms or 
early in the morning crawling up the stalks of plants, a fact which 
causes people to talk about showers of worms. The eggs are laid on 



1 Ercolani successfully cultivated Oxyuris curvula, Strongylus 
armatus and other species in damp earth; the free generation was 
found to differ from the parasitic by its small size, and by the females 
being ovoviviparous instead of oviparous. To this phenomenon he 
gave the name of dimorphobiosis. 

2 The genera Ascaris, Filaria, Trichosoma .are found throughout the 
Vertebrata; Cucullanus (in the adult condition) only in fishes and 
Amphibia; Ankylostoma, Trichocephalus, Trichina and Pseudalius 
live only in the Mammalia, the last-mentioned genus being confined 
to the order Cetacea; Strongylus and Physaloptera are peculiar to 
mammals, birds and reptiles, while Dispharagus, Syngamus and 
Hystrichis are confined to birds. Mermis (in the larval state) i 
confined to the Invertebrata and Sphaerularia to bees. Oxyuris, 
though chiefly parasitic in the Mammalia, occurs also in reptiles, 
Amphibia and one or two insects. Dacnitis and Ichlhyonema are 
only found in fishes. 

3 See NEMATOMORPHA. 



NEMATODA 



361 



the ground and the young larvae make their way into grasshoppers, 
in whose bodies they pass most of their larval life. (2) To the second 
class belong Ankylcstoma, Strongylus and many species of Ascaris; 
the embryo on leaving the egg lives free in water or damp earth, and 
resembles very closely the free-living genus Rhabditis. After a longer 
or shorter period it enters the alimentary canal of its proper host with 
drinking-water, or it bores through the skin and reaches the blood- 
vessels, and is so conveyed through the body, in which it becomes 
sexually mature. Rhabditis nigrovenosa has a developmental history 
which is entirely anomalous, passing through two sexual genera- 
tions which regularly alternate. The worm inhabits the lung of 
the frog and toad, and is hermaphrodite (Schneider) or partheno- 
genetic (Leuckart); the embryos hatched from the eggs find their 
way through the lungs into the alimentary canai and thence to the 
exterior; in a few days they develop into a sexual larva, called a 
Rhabditiform larva, in which the sexes are distinct ; the eggs remain 
within the uterus, and the young when hatched break through its 
walls and live free in the perivisceral cavity of the mother, devouring 
the organs of the body until only the outer cuticle is left ; this eventu- 
ally breaks and sets free the young, which are without teeth, and 
have therefore lost the typical Rhabdilis form. They live for some 
time in water or mud, occasionally entering the bodies of water 
snails, but undergo no change until they reach the lung of a frog, 
when the cycle begins anew. Although several species belonging to 
the second class occasionally enter the bodies of water snails and 
other animals before reaching their definitive host, they undergo no 
alteration of form in this intermediate host; the case is different, 
however, in Filaria medinensis and other forms, in which a free 
larval is followed by a parasitic existence in two distinct hosts, all 
the changes being accompanied by a metamorphosis. Filaria medi- 
nensis the Guinea worm is parasitic in the subcutaneous connec- 
tive tissue of man (occasionally also in the horse). It is chiefly 
found in the tropical parts of Asia and Africa, but has also been 
met with in South Carolina and several of the West Indian islands. 
The adult worm in the female sometimes reaches a length of 6 ft. 
The males have only recently been discovered. The female is vivi- 
parous, and the young, which, unlike the parent, are provided with 
a long tail, live free in water; it was formerly believed from the 
frequency with which the legs and feet were attacked by this parasite 
that the embryo entered the skin directly from the water, but it 
has been shown by Fedschenko, and confirmed by Manson, Leiper 
and others, that the larva bores its way into the body of a Cyclops 
and there undergoes further development. It is probable that the 
parasite is then transferred to the alimentary canal of man by means 
of drinking-water, and thence makes its way to the subcutaneous 
connective tissue. 

The Nematoda which are parasitic during their whole life may 
similarly be divided into two classes those which undergo their 
development in a single host, and those which undergo their 
development in the bodies of two distinct hosts. 

(i) In the former class the eggs are extruded with the faeces, and 
the young become fully formed within the egg, and when accidentally 
swallowed by their host are liberated by the solvent action of the 
gastric juice and complete their development. This simple type of 
fife-history has been experimentally proved by Leuckart to be 
characteristic of Trichocephalus affinis, Oxyuris 
ambivua and other species. (2) The life-history 
of OUulanus tricuspis is an example of the second 
class. OUulanus tricuspis is found in the adult 
state in the alimentary canal of the cat; the 
young worms are hatched in the alimentary 
canal, and often wander into the body of their 
host and become encysted in the lungs, liver and 
other organs; during the encystment the worm 
degenerates and loses all trace of structure. 
This wandering appears to be accidental, and to 
have nothing to do with the further evolution 
of the animaT which takes place in those embryos 
which are voided with the excrement. Leuckart 
proved experimentally that these young forms 
become encysted in the muscles of mice, and 
the cycle is completed after the mouse is de- 
voured by a cat. The well-known Trichinella 
spiralis (fig. 4) has a life-history closely resembl- 
jng that of OUulanus. The adult worm, which 
FIG. 4. Trichin- is of extremely minute size, the male being only 
eUa encysted j*sth and the female J of an inch in length 
among muscular inhabits the alimentary canal of man and many 
fibres. (After other carnivorous mammalia; the young bore 

Leuckart.) their way into the tissues and become encysted 

in the muscles within the muscle-bundles 
according to Leuckart, but in the connective tissue between them 
according to Chatin and others. The co-existence of the asexual 
encysted form and the sexually mature adult in the same host, 
jxceptionally found in OUulanus and other Nematodes, is the 
rule in Trichinella; many of the embryos, however, are extruded 
with the faeces, and complete the life cycle by reaching the alimentary 
canal of rats and swine which frequently devour human ordure 




Swine become infested with Trichinella in this way and also by eating 
the dead bodies of rats, and the parasite is conveyed to the body of 
man along with the flesh of " trichinized " swine. 

Importance in Pathology. Among recent advances having 
medical import in our knowledge of the Nematodes, the chief 
are those dealing with the parasites of the blood. F. bancrofli is 
known to live in the lymphatic glands, and its embryos Micro- 
filaria sanguinis hominis nocturne, passing by the thoracic duct, 
reach the blood-vessels and circulate in the blood. Manson 
showed in 1881 that the larvae (Microfilaria^;) were not at all 
times present in the blood, but that their appearance had a 
certain periodicity, and the larvae of F. bancrofti. Microfilaria 
noclurna swarmed in the blood at night-time and disappeared 
from the peripheral circulation during the day, hiding away in 
the large vessels at the base of the lungs and of the heart. Ten 
years later Manson discovered a second species, Filaria Persians, 
whose larvae live in the blood. They, however, show no period- 
icity, and are found continuously both by day and by night; 
and their larval forms are termed Microfilaria Persians. The 
adult stages are found in the sub-peritoneal connective tissue. 
A third form, Microfilaria diurna, is found in the larval stage in 
blood, but only in the daytime. The adult stage of this form is 
the Filaria loa found in the subcutaneous tissues of the limbs. 

The presence of these parasites seems at times to have little 
effect on the host, and men in whose system it is calculated 
there are some 40-50 million larvae have shown no signs of 
disease. In other cases very serious disorders of the lymphatic 
system are brought about, of which the most marked is perhaps 
Elephantiasis. Manson and Bancroft suggested that the second 
host of the parasite is the mosquito or gnat, and for a long time it 
was thought that they were conveyed to man by the mosquito 
dying after laying her eggs in water, the larval nematodes 
escaping from her body and being swallowed by man. It is 
now held that the parasite enters the blood of man through the 
piercing mouth-parts at the time of biting. When first sucked 
up by the insect from an infected man it passes into its stomach, 
and thence makes its way into the thoracic muscles, and there 
for some time it grows. Next the larvae make their way into 
the connective tissue in the pro-thorax, and ultimately bore a 
channel into the base of the piercing apparatus and come to 
rest between the hypopharynx and the labium. Usually two are 
found in this position lying side by side; it would be interesting 
to know if these are male and female. From their position in 
the proboscis the larvae can easily enter the blood of man the 
next time the mosquito bites (Low, Brit. Med. Journ., June 1900; 
James, ibid., Sept. 1900). Shortly after Low had published his 
results, Grassi and Noe issued a paper dealing with the larvae 
of F. immitis, which is spread by means of the mosquito Anopheles 
(Centrbl. Bakter. I. Abth. xxviii., 1900). The larvae of this 
parasite develop in the Malpighian tubules of the insect; at a 
certain stage they cast their cuticle and make their way into 
the space part of the haemocoel found in the labium. During 
the act of biting the labium is bent back, and as the piercing 
stylets enter the skin of the sufferer this bending becomes more 
and more acute. Grassi and Noe think that if the cavity of the 
labium be full of the larval nematodes this bending will burst the 
tissue, and through the rent the larvae will escape and make their 
way into the body of the host. Besides Anopheles, two species 
of Culex, C. penicillaris and C. pipiens, are also accused of trans- 
mitting the larvae. A paper by Noe (Atti Ace. Lincei, ix., 1900) 
seems to prove beyond doubt that the larvae of F. immitis 
are transmitted in the manner indicated. The adult worm is 
chiefly found in the heart of the dog, and usually in the right side, 
which may be so packed with the worms as seriously to interfere 
with the circulation (fig. 5). The females produce thousands 
of larvae, which circulate in the blood, and show a certain 
periodicity in then" appearance, being much more numerous 
in the blood at night than during the day. 

Importance as Pests. Agriculturists now pay increased 
attention to the nematodes that destroy their crops. A good 
example of a fairly typical case is afforded by Heterodera schachtii, 
which attacks beetroot and causes great loss to the Continental 
sugar manufacturers. The young larvae, nourished by the yolk 



362 



NEMATOMORPHA 



which remains over from the egg and by the remains of the 
mother which they have taken into their alimentary canal, 
make their way through the earth, and ultimately coming across 
the root of a beet, begin to bore into it. This they do by means 
of a spine which can be protruded from the mouth. Once within 
the root, they absorb the cell sap of the parenchyma and begin 
to swell until their body projects from the surface of the root in 




FIG. 5. 

A, View of the heart of a dog infested with Filaria immitis Leidy ; 
the right ventricle and base of the pulmonary artery have been 
opened: a, aorta; b, pulmonary artery; c, vena cava; d, right 
ventricle; e, appendix of left auricle; /, appendix of right auricle. 

B, Female F. immitis, X i , removed from the heart to show its length. 

the form of a tubercle (fig. 6). The reproductive organs do not 
begin to appear until the larva has twice cast its skin. After 
this a marked sexual dimorphism sets in. The female, hitherto 
indistinguishable from the male, continues to swell until she 
attains the outlines of a lemon. Doing this she bursts the 
epidermis of the rootlet, and her body projects into the surround- 
ing earth. The male has a different life-history (fig. 7). After 

the second larval 
moult, he passes 
through a passive stage 
comparable to the 
pupa-stadium of an 
insect, and during this 
stage, which occurs 
inside the root, the 
reproductive organs 
are perfected. The 
male next casts his 
cuticle, and by means 
of his spine bores 
through the tissues of 
the root and escapes 
into the earth. Here 
he seeks a female, 
pairs, and soon after- 
wards dies. The eggs 
of the female give 
rise to embryos with- 
in the body of the 
mother; her other organs undergo a 




FIG. 6. 

A,a,Female Heterodera schachtii Schmidt, 
breaking through the epidermis of a root; 
the head is still embedded in the paren- 
chyma of the root. 

B, a, larvae boring their way into a root ; 
b, larva of the immobile kind surrounded 
by the old skin, living as an ectoparasite 
on the outside of the root. (From Strubell.) 



retrogressive change 
and serve as food for the young, until the body-wall only 
of the mother remains as a brown capsule. From this the 
young escape and make their way through the earth to new 
roots. The whole life-history extends over a period of some 
4-5 weeks (fig. 7), so that some 6-7 generations are born during 
the warmer months. If we assume that each female produces 



300 embryos, and that hah 1 of these are females, the number of 
descendants would be, after six generations, some 22,781 milliards 
(A. Strubell, Bibl. Zool., 1888-1889). Other species which have 
been recorded in the United Kingdom are Tylenchus devastatrix 
(Kuhn), on oats, rye and clover roots; T. tritici, causing the 




FIG. 7. 



B, First motile larva. 

C, Second immovable parasitic 

larva casting its skin. 

D, A female with one half of the 

body-wall taken away to 
show the coiling generative 
organs. 

a, Boring apparatus. 

b, Oesophageal bulb. 

c, Excretory pore. 

d, Alimentary canal. 

e, Anus. 
/, Ovary. 

E, A male shortly before casting 

its larval skin. 



A, Male Heterodera schachtii, 
greatly magnified. 

a, Head lappets. 

b, Mouth cavity. 

c, Spine. 

d, Muscle of spine. 

e, Gland. 

/, Oesophagus. 

g. Bulb. 

ft, Nerve-ring. 

i, Excretory pore 

j, Oesophagus. 

k, Testis. 

/, Intestine. 

m, Muscles moving spicule. 

n, Spicule. 

ear-cockle of wheat; Cephalobus rigidus (Schn.), on oats; 
Heterodera radicicola (Greet) , on the roots of tomatoes, cucumbers, 
potatoes, turnips, peach-trees, vines and lettuce, and many 
other plants. 

See N. Nassonov, Arch. Mikr. Anal. (1900); Arch, parasit. (1898); 
Rabot, Lab. Warsaw (1898); Zool. Anz. (1898); L. Jagerskiold, 
Centrbl. Bakter. (1898); J. Spengel, Zool. Anz. (1897); H. Ehlers, 
Arch. Nature. (1899); O. Hamann, Die Nemathelminthen (1895). 

(F. E. B. ; A. E. S.) 

NEMATOMORPHA. This zoological group includes Gordian 
worms which are found swimming in an undulatory manner 
or coiling round water-weeds in ponds and puddles, or knotted 
together in an apparently inextricable coil. They may be several 
inches in length and are no thicker than a piece of whip-cord. 

The male is distinguishable from the female by the presence 
of a fork at the posterior end of the body. The body is covered 
by a cuticle which is sculptured and the various markings are 
of systematic importance: it is secreted by a hypodermis which 
also includes nerve-cells and some gland-cells. In the adult 
aquatic stage the alimentary canal shows signs of degeneration, 
and it seems probable that in this stage Gordian worms take no 
food. The mouth is terminal or subterminal; there is a weak 
sucking pharynx situated behind the brain, and a long intestine 
lying along the medio- ventral body-cavity; it ends in a cloaca 
which receives the vasa deferentia in the male. There is a single 
unsegmented nerve-cord which runs along the ventral middle line 
and enlarges posteriorly into a caudal ganglion and anteriorly 
in a ganglion, the brain, which is not supra-oesophageal. The 
peripheral nervous system is minutely described by T. H. 
Montgomery. There is a median eye on the head. 



NEMERTINA 

The Nematomorpha are nearly solid, quite so at each end, 



363 





From Cambridge Natural Eislory, vol. ii., "Worms,"&c.. by permission of Macmfllan 
& Co., Ltd. 



FIG. i. A water plant around which a 
female Gordius is turning and laying eggs, 
a, a, clump and string of eggs. 



FIG. 2. Abdomen of 
Pteroztichiis niger with the 
terga removed to expose 
the Gordius larva within. 
Slightly magnified. 

and only in the middle region of the body are there any body- 
cavities, the space within the body being usually filled up with 
parenchyma. There are four closed spaces of the nature of 
body-cavities, two lateral and a dorso-median and a ventro- 
median. Into the former the ovaries project, though the lumen 
of the lateral body-cavity is quite shut off from the lumina of 
the ovaries or uteri. In the adult male 
the lateral body-cavities are absent. A 
curious duct with lateral branches termed 
the supra-intestinal organ lies above the 
intestine in the female. There are two 
series of ovaries extending through a large 
part of the body and accompanied by two 
uteri; the latter open by two oviducts 
which debouch into an atrium which also 
receives the intestine and a single recep- 
taculum seminis, and is continued back- 
ward as the cloaca; this opens posteriorly. 
The ovaries are epithelial sacs which open 
into the uteri. The paired testes extend 
through the greater part of the body and 
end in two vasa deferentia which unite 
with the intestine to form a cloaca. 

The eggs are laid in the spring as a rule, 




From 



Cambridge Natural 
''Worms," 



into which two Gordius 
larvae, (a a) have 
penetrated. Magnified. 



History, vol. ..., ________ , 

&c., by permission of Mac- and after about a week they give rise to a 

mulan & Co., Ltd. . - j i -^i. 'i_i 

FIG. 3. Tarsal joint mlnute . nnged larva with a protrusible 
of an Ephemerid larva boring apparatus consisting of three 

chitinous rods. By the aid of this the 
larva makes its way into the soft 
of ^ ^^ ^ EphemeridS) 

nomids, or even of Molluscs, and encysts in the muscles or fat 
body. The insect, which may have become an imago with the 
Gordian larva still in it, is then eaten by a carnivorous insect 
or by a fish, and the contained Gordian larva becomes elongate 
and mature in its second host. After a year or more this larva 
emerges into the water and commences to reproduce. 

The unexpected occurrence of these worms in pools and puddles, 
often in great numbers, has given rise to myths about showers 
of worms. They occasionally make their way into the human 
stomach with the drinking-water and are vomited; but this is a 
case of pseudo-parasitism they are no true parasite of man. 

There are a considerable number of species divided among the 
four genera: Gordius, Paragordius, Chordodes and Parachordodes; 
the last, a genus of Camerano's, is looked upon with some doubt by 
Montgomery. A free swimming marine form with longitudinal rows 
of bristles, known as Nectonema A. E. Verrill, may also come here, 
but at present its life-history is unknown. The Nematomorpha 
form an isolated group; at first sight they seem to be connected 
with the Nematoda, but in reality their only common feature is the 
tubular genitalia opening into a cloaca, and it seems at present 



impossi.ble to connect them with the Annelida. Until more is known 
it seems wisest to look upon them as an isolated assemblage of 
animals with no near affinities to any of the great phyla. 

LITERATURE. L. Camerano, " Monografia dei Gordii," Mem. Ace. 
Torino, xlvii. (1897), contains literature; O. von Linstow, Arch, 
mikr. Anat., li. (1898); T. H. Montgomery, Bull. Mus. Harvard, 
xxxii. (1898); Amer. Natural., xxxiii. (1899); Zool. Jahrb. Anat., 
xviii. (1903) p. 387; F. Vejdovsky, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ivii. (1894); 
A. Villot, Arch. Zool. exp. ii. (1887); C. R. Ac. Sci., cviii. (1889); 
H. B. Ward, Bull. Mus. Harvard, xxiii. (1892). (A. E. S.) 

NEMERTINA, or NEMERTEANS (Nemerlea), a subdivision of 
worms, 1 characterized by the ciliation of the skin, the presence 
of a retractile proboscis, the simple arrangement of the generative 
apparatus, and in certain cases by a peculiar pelagic larval 
stage to which the name " pilidium " has been given. Many of 
them are long thread-shaped or ribbon-shaped animals, more or 
less cylindrical in transverse section. Even the comparatively 
shortest species and genera can always be termed elongate, the 
broadest and shortest of 
all being the parasitic 
Malacobdella and the 
pelagic Pelagoncmeries. 
There are no exterior 
appendages of any kind. 
The colours are often 
very bright and varied. 
Nemertines live in the 
sea, some being common 
amongst the corals and 
algae, others hiding in 
the muddy or sandy 
bottom, and secreting 
gelatinous tubes which 
ensheath the body along 
its whole length. For- 
merly, they were gener- 
ally arranged amongst 
the Platyelminthes as 
a sub-order in the 
order of the Turbel- 
larians, but with the 
advance of our know- 
ledge of these lower 
worms it has been found 
desirable to separate 
them from the Turbel- 
larians and to look upon 
the Nemertina as a 
separate phylum. 

0. Burger classifies 
Nemertines into four 
orders : 

1. Proton emertini, in 
which there are two layers 
of dermal muscles, ex- 
ternal circular and in- 
ternal longitudinal ; the nervous system lies external to the circular 
muscles; the mouth lies behind the level of the brain; the proboscis 
has no stylet; there is no caecum to the intestine. Families, 
CARINELLIDAE, HUBRECHTIIDAE. 

II. Mesonemertini, in which the nervous system has passed into 
the dermal muscles and lies amongst them ; other characters as in 
Protonemertini. Family, CEPHALOTHRICIDAE. 

III. Metanemertini, in which the nervous system lies inside 
the dermal muscles in the parenchyma; the mouth lies in front of 
the level of the brain; the proboscis as a rule bears stylets; the 
intestine nearly always has a caecum. Families, EUNEMERTIDAE, 
OTOTYPHLONEMERTIDAE, PROSORHOCMIDAE, AMPHIPORIDAE, 
TETRASTEMMATIDAE, NECTONEMERTIDAE, PELAGONEMERTIDAE, 
MALACOBDELLIDAE. 

This order represents the Hoplonemertini of Hubrecht. 

IV. Heteronemertini, in which the dermal musculature is in 
three layers, an external longitudinal, a middle circular, an internal 
longitudinal ; the nervous system lies between the first and second 
of these layers; the outer layer of longitudinal muscles is a new 
development; there is no intestinal caecum; no stylets on the 
proboscis and the mouth is behind the level of the brain. Families, 

EUPOLIIDAE, LlNEIDAE. 




FIG. i. Lineus geniculatus. Xj. (From 
Burger.) I, Lateral slits on head; 2, 
anus. 



1 Nemertes was a sea nymph, daughter of Nereus and Doris. 
One of the genera was named Nemertes by Cuvier. 



364 



NEMERTINA 



This order represents the Schizonemertini of Hubrecht and the 
family Eupolidae. 

The first three orders, which have a double muscular layer, 
external circular and internal longitudinal, are sometimes grouped 
together as the DIMYARIA; the Heteroneonertini, in which a third 
coat of longitudinal muscles arises outside the circular layer, are then 
placed in a second branch, the TRIMVARIA. 

The following families and genera are represented on the British 
coasts: CARINELLIDAE, Carinella; CEPHALOTHRICIDAE, Cephalo- 
thrix, Carinoma; EUNEMERTIDAE, Eunemertes; OTOTYPHLONE- 
MERTIDAE, OtotypUonemertes; AMPHIPORIDAE, Amphiporus, Dre- 
panophorus; TETRASTEMMIDAE, Tetrastemma, Prosprhocmus; 
MALACOBDELLIDAE, Malacobdella; EUPOLIIDAE, Eupotia, Valen- 
cinia, Oxypolia; LINEIDAE, Lineus, Euborlasia, Micrura, Cerebratu- 
lus, Micrella. 

ANATOMY. Proboscis and Proboscidian SheaA. The organ most 
characteristic of a Nemertine is without doubt the proboscis. With 
very few exceptions (Malacobdella, Akrostomum. where it has fused 



fo. 





"a 

A. B 

FIG. 2. Diagrams of the organs of a Nemertine. A, From 

below ; B, from above. 

m. Mouth. Br, Brain-lobes. 

div, Intestinal diverticula. In, Longitudinal nerve stems. 

a, Anus. pr. Proboscis. 

m, Ovaries. ps. Proboscidian sheath. 

n, Nephridia. p.o., Opening for proboscis. 

with the mouth into a single exterior opening), there is a terminal 
opening, the rhynchostome (subterminal in Valencinia), at the fore- 
most tip of the body, out of which the proboscis is seen shooting 
backwards and forwards, sometimes with so much force that both its 
interior attachments are severed and it is entirely expelled from the 
body. It then often retains its vitality for a long time, apparently 
crawling as if it were itself a worm, a phenomenon which is at least 
partially explained by the extraordinary development of nervous 
tissue, equally distributed all through the walls of the proboscis, 
and either united into numerous longitudinal nerve-stems (Dre- 
panophorus, Amphiporus) or spread out into a uniform and com- 
paratively thick layer (Cerebratulus, sp.). This very effective and 
elaborate innervation, which has been directly traced to the brain, 
whence strong nerves (generally two) enter the proboscis, renders 
it exceedingly probable that the most important functions of the 
proboscis are of a sensiferous, tactile nature. In Nemertines the 
everted proboscis is retracted in the same way as the tip of a glove 
finger would be if it were pulled backwards by a thread situated in 
the axis and attached to the tip. The comparison may be carried 
still further. The central thread just alluded to is represented in 
the Nemertean proboscis by that portion which is never everted, 
and the tip of the glove by the boundary between the evertible and 
non-evertible portion of the proboscis a boundary which in the 
Metanemertini is marked by the presence of a pointed or serrated 
stylet. This stylet is thus situated terminally when the proboscis 



P.O. 



has reached its maximum eversion. It adds a decisively aggressive 
character to an organ the original significance of which, as we have 
seen, was tactile. This aggressive character has a different aspect in 
several genera which are destitute of a central stylet, but in which 
the surface that is turned outwards upon 
eversion of the proboscis is largely pro- 
vided with nematocysts, sending the 
urticating rods of different sizes in all 
directions. I n others this surface is bext 
with thick, glandular, adhesive papillae. 
The comparison with the glove-finger 
is in so far insufficient as the greater 
portion of the non-evertible half of the 
proboscis is also hollow and clothed by 
glandular walls. Only at the very hinder- 
most end does it pass into the so-called 
retractor-muscle (fig. 2), which is at- 
tached to the wall of the space, or rhyn- 
chocoel, in which the proboscis moves 
about. This retractor-muscle, indeed, 
serves to pull back with great rapidity 
the extruded proboscis, and is aided 
in its action by the musculature of the 

head. The extrusion itself depends en- FIG. 3. Anterior portion 
tirely upon contraction of the muscular 
walls of the space just mentioned, the 
rhynchocoel. As it is (i) closed on all 
sides, and (2) filled with a corpuscular 
fluid, the contractions alluded to send 




of the body of a Nemer- 
tine. 

Br, Brain-lobes. 

N, Lateral nerves. 



PS, Proboscidian sheath. 

this fluid to impinge against the anterior Pr, Proboscis, 
portion, where the proboscis, floating in P.O., Exterior opening 



through which the 
proboscis is everted 
or rhynchostome. 
Oesophagus and 
mouth shown by 
dotted lines. 



its sheath, is attached with it to the 
muscular tissue of the head (fig. 3). 
Partial extrusion lessening the resist- 
ance in this region inevitably follows, 
and when further contractions of the 
walls of the sheath ensue total ex- 
trusion is the consequence. It is 

worthy of notice that in those Nemertines which make a very free 
use of their proboscis, and in which it is seen to be continually 
protruded and retracted, the walls of the proboscidian sheath are 
enormously muscular. On the other hand, they are much less con- 
siderably or even insignificantly so in the genera that are known 
to make a rather sparing use 
of their proboscis. The rhyn- 
chocoel is formed by a split 
which appears in the meso- 
blast surrounding the epi- 
blastic pit which is the fore- 
runner of the proboscis. It 
does not seem to be coelomic. 
The proboscis, which is thus 
an eminently muscular organ, 
is composed of two or three, 
sometimes powerful, layers of 
muscles one of longitudinal 
and one or two of circular 
fibres. In the posterior re- 
tractor the longitudinal fibres 
become united into one bun- 




dle, which, as noticed above, is 
inserted in the wall of the 
sheath. At the circular inser- 
tion of the proboscis in front 
of the brain the muscular fibres 



FIG. 4. FIG. 5. 

FIGS. 4, 5. Proboscis with stylet, 
" reserve " sacs and muscular bulb 
of a Hoplonemertine. Fig. 4 re- 
belonging to the anterior ex- tracted ; fig. 5 everted, 
tremity of the body and those 

connected with the proboscis are very intimately interwoven, forming 
a strong attachment. The short tube between this circular insertion 
and the rhynchostome is called the rhynchodaeum. 

The proboscis broken off and expelled is generally reproduced, 
the posterior ribbon-like end of this reproduced 
portion again fusing with the walls of the sheath. 
There is reason to suppose that, when a wound is 
inflicted by the central stylet, it is envenomed by 
the fluid secreted in the posterior proboscidian 
region being at the same time expelled. A re- 
servoir, a duct and a muscular bulb in the region 
(fig. 4) where the stylet is attached serve for this 
purpose. The significance of two or more (in 
Drepanophorus very numerous) small sacs con- 
taining so-called " reserve " stylets resembling in Drepanophorus. 
shape that of the central dart is insufficiently known. 

The muscular walls of the rhynchocpel, which by their transverse 
contractions serve to bring about eversion of the proboscis in the way 
above traced, are attached to the musculature of the head just in 
front of the ganglionic commissures (fig. 3). In nearly all Nemertines 
the rhynchocoel extends backwards as far as the posterior extremity, 
just above the anus; in Carinetta it is limited to the anterior body- 
region. The corpuscles floating in the fluid it contains are of definite 




FIG. 6. The 
armature from 
proboscis of 



NEMERTINA 



365 



shape, and in Cerebratulus urticans they are deep red, possibly from 
the presence of haemoglobin. They are usually larger than the blood 
corpuscles. Internally the muscular layers are lined by an epi- 
thelium. In the posterior portion this epithelium in certain Hetero- 
nemertea has a more glandular appearance, and sometimes the 
interior cavity is obliterated by cell-proliferation in this region. 
Superiorly the. sheath either closely adheres to the muscular body- 
wall, with which it may even be partly interwoven, or it hangs 
freely in the connective tissue which fills the space between the 
intestine and the muscular body-wall. 

Cutaneous System. Externally in all species a layer of ciliated 
cells forms the outer investment. In it are, moreover, enclosed 
unicellular glands pouring their highly refracting contents, of a more 
or less rod-like shape, directly to the exterior. They appear to 
be the principal source of the mucus these animals secrete. In most 
Heteronemertines these elements are separated by a thin homo- 
geneous basement membrane (fig. 8) from the following that is, 
from a layer in which longitudinal muscular fibres are largely inter- 
mixed with tortuous glands, which by reason of their deeper situation 
communicate with the exterior by a much longer and generally very 
narrow duct. The pigment is also principally localized in this layer, 
although sometimes it is present even deeper down within the 
musculature. The passage from this tegumentary layer to the 
subjacent longitudinal muscular one is gradual, no membrane 
separating them. In Cannella, Cephalothrix, Polio, and the Metane- 
mertines the two tegumentary layers with their different glandular 
elements are fused into one; a thick layer of connective tissue 
is situated beneath them (instead of between them) and keeps the 
entire cutaneous system more definitely separate from the muscular 
(figs. 7, 8). 

Musculature and Connective Tissue. The muscular layers by which 
the body-wall is constituted have been very differently and to some 
extent confusingly described by the successive authors on Nemertean 
anatomy. There is sufficient reason for this confusion. The fact 
is that not only have the larger subdivisions a different arrangement 
and even number of the muscular layers, but even within the same 
genus, nay, in the same species, well-marked differences occur. 




eirtl. 




FIG. 7. 



FIG. 8. 



FIG. 9. 



FIGS. 7-9. The layers of the body-wall in Carinella (fig. 7), the 
Metanemertini (fig. 8) and the Heteronemertini (fig. 9). c, Cellular 
tissue of the integument; Bm, basement membrane; cire. I, outer 
circular, and long., longitudinal layer of muscular tissue; circ. 2, 
long, i, additional circular and longitudinal layers of the same; 
nl, nervous layer. 

Increase in size appears sometimes to be accompanied by the develop- 
ment of a new layer of fibres, whereas a difference in the method of 
preparation may give to a layer which appeared homogeneous in 
one specimen a decidedly fibrous aspect in another. Nevertheless 
there are three principal types under which the different modifications 
can be arranged. One of them is found in the two most primitively 
organized genera, Cannella and Cephalothrix, i.e. an outer circular, a 
longitudinal ^nd an inner circular layer of muscular fibres (fig. 7). 
The second is common to all the Heteronemertines, as well as to Folia 
and Valencinia, and also comprehends three layers, of which, how- 
ever, two are longitudinal, viz. the external and the internal one, 
there being a strong circular layer between them (fig. 9;. To the 
third type all the Metanemertini correspond; their muscular layers 
are only two, an external circular and an internal longitudinal one 
(fig- 8). 

The Heteronemertini thus appear to have developed an extra layer 
of longitudinal fibres internally to those which they inherited from 
more primitive ancestors, whereas the Metanemertini are no longer 
in possession of the internal circular layer, but have on the contrary 
largely developed the external circular one, which has dwindled 
away in the Heteronemertini. The situation of the lateral nerve- 
stems in the different genera with respect to the muscular layers 
lends definite support to the interpretation of their homologies here 
given and forms the basis of Burger's classification. 

In Carinella, Cephalothrix and Polia, as well as in all Metane- 
mertines, the basement membrane of the skin already alluded 
to is particularly strong and immediately applied upon the muscular 
layers. In the Heteronemertines there is a layer in which the 
cutaneous elements are largely represented below the thin basement 
membrane (fig. 8), between it and the bulk of the outer longitudinal 
muscles. The difference in the appearance of the basement mem- 
brane sometimes wholly homogeneous, sometimes eminently 
nbnllar can more especiajly be observed in differently preserved 
specimens of the genus Polia. 





FIG. 10 
FIGS. 10, 



FIG. n 
II. Brain and 



The connective tissue of the integument and basement membrane 
imperceptibly merges into that which surrounds the muscular 
bundles as they are united into denser and definite layers, and this is 
especially marked in those forms (Akrostomum) where the density of 
the muscular body-wall has considerably diminished, and the con- 
nective tissue has thus become much more prominent. It can then at 
the same time be observed, too, that the compact mass of connective 
tissue (" reticulum," Barrois) which lies between the muscular body- 
wall and the intestine is directly continuous with that in which the 
muscular layers are embedded. Nuclei are everywhere present. The 
omnipresence of this connective tissue tends to exclude the formation 
of any perivisceral body cavity in Nemertines. 

In Polia the connective tissue enclosed in the external muscular 
layer is eminently vacuolar all the intermediate stages between 
such cells in which the vacuole predominates and the nucleus is 
peripheral and those in which the granular protoplasm still entirely 
fills them being moreover present. 

In addition to the musculature of the proboscis and proboscidian 
sheath, longitudinal muscular fibres are found in the walls of the 
oesophagus, whilst transverse ones are numerous and united into 
vertical dissepiments between the successive intestinal caeca, thus 
bringing about a very regular internal metamerization. The genital 
products develop in intermediate spaces similarly limited by these 
dissepiments and alternating with the digestive caeca. 

Nervous System and Sense Organs. The nervous system of Nemer- 
tines presents several interesting peculiarities. As central organs 
we have to note the brain-lobes 
and the longitudinal lateral cords 
which form one continuous unseg- 
mented mass ol fibrous and cellular 
nerve-tissue. The fibrous nerve- 
tissue is more dense in the higher 
differentiated, more loose and 
spongy in the lower organized 
forms; the cellular nerve-tissue is 
similarly less compact in the forms 
that are at the base of the scale, lateral organ of a Schizonemer- 
No ganglionic swellings whatever tine (fig. 10) and a Hoplo- 
occur in the course of the longi- nemertine (fig. n). eo, Exterior- 
tudinal cords. The brain must be opening; u.l, superior brain- 
looked upon as the anterior thick- lobe; />./., posterior brain-lobe, 
ening of these cords, and at the same 

time as the spot where the two halves of the central nerve system 
intercommunicate. This is brought about by a double commissure, 
of which the ventral portion is considerably thicker than the dorsal, 
and which, together with the brain-lobes, constitutes a ring through 
which both proboscis and proboscidian sheath pass. The brain-lobes 
are generally four in number, a ventral and a dorsal pair, respectively 
united together by the above-mentioned commissures, and moreover 
anteriorly interfusing with each other, right and left. In Carinella 
this separation into lobes of the anterior thickenings of the cords has 
not yet commenced, the ventral commissure at the same time being 
extremely bulky. There is great probability that the central stems, 
together with the brain, must be looked upon as local longitudinal 
accumulations of ner- 
vous tissue in what was 
in more primitive an- 
cestors a less highly 
differentiated nervous 
plexus, situated in the 
body-wall in a similar 
way to that which still 
is found in the less 
highly organizedCoelen- 
terates. Such a nervous 
plexus indeed occurs 
in the body-wall of all 
Heteronemer tines, 
sometimes even as a 
comparatively thick 
layer, situated, as are 
the nerve stems, be- 
tween the external 
longitudinal and the 
circular muscles (fig. 
9). In Carinella, where 
the longitudinal nerve-stems are situated exteriorly to the mus- 
cular layers, this plexus, although present, is much less dense, 
and can more fitly be compared to a network with wide meshes. 
In both cases it can be shown to be in immediate continuity with the 
coating of nerve-cells forming part of the longitudinal cords. It 
stretches forward as far as the brain, and in Carinella is again con- 
tinued in front of it, whereas in the Heteronemertines the innervation 
of the anterior extremity of the head, in front of the brain, takes the 
form of more definite and less numerous branching stems. The 
presence of this plexus in connexion with the central stems, sending 
out nervous filaments amongst the muscles, explains the absence, in 
Pro-, Meso- and Heteronemertines, of separate and distinct peri- 
pheral nerve stems springing from the central stems innervating 
the different organs and body-regions, the only exceptions being the 




PJf 



FIG. 12. The brain of a Nemertine, with 

its lobes and commissures. 
S.N., Nerves to sensory apparatus. 
Nerves for proboscis. 
Nerves for oesophagus. 
Lateral nerve-stems. 



P.N., 



L. 



3 66 



NEMERTINA 



nerves for the proboscis, those for the sense organs in the head and 
the strong nerve pair (n. vagus) for the oesophagus. At the same 
time it renders more intelligible the extreme sensitiveness of the body- 
wall of the Nemertines, a local and instantaneous irritation often 
resulting in spasmodic rupture of the animal at the point touched. 

In the Metanemertini, where the longitudinal stems lie inside the 
muscular body-wall, definite and metamerically placed nerve 
branches spring from them and divide dichotomously in the different 
tissues they innervate. A definite plexus can here no longer be 
traced. In certain Metanemertines the lateral stems have been 
noticed to unite posteriorly by a terminal commissure, situated 
above the anus, the whole of the central nervous system being in 
this way virtually situated above the intestine. In others there is an 
approximation of the lateral stems towards the median ventral line 
(Drepanophorus) ; in a genus of Heteronemertines (Langia), on the 
other hand, an arrangement occurs by which the longitudinal stems 
are no longer lateral, but have more or less approached each other 
dorsally. 

In addition to the nerves starting from the brain-lobes just now 
especially mentioned, there is a double apparatus which can hardly 
be treated of in conjunction with the sense organs, because its 
sensory functions have not been sufficiently made out, and which 
will therefore rather be considered along with the brain and central 
nervous system. This apparatus is usually known under the name 
of the lateral organs. To it belong (a) superficial grooves or deeper 
slits situated on the integument near the tip of the head, (6) nerve 
lobes in immediate connexion with the nervous tissue of the brain, 
and (c) ciliated ducts penetrating into the latter and communicating 
with the former. Embryology shows that originally these different 
parts are separately started, and only ultimately become united 
into one. Two lateral outgrowths of the foremost portion of the 
oesophagus, afterwards becoming constricted off, as well as two 
ingrowths from the epiblast, contribute towards its formation, at 
least as far as both Meta- and Heteronemertines are concerned. As 
to the Mesonemertini, in the most primitive genus, Carinella, we do 
not find any lateral organs answering to the description above given. 
What we do find is a slight transverse furrow on each side of the head, 
close to the tip, but the most careful examination of sections made 
through the tissues of the head and brain shows the absence of any 
further apparatus comparable to that described above. Only in one 
species, Carinella inexpectata, a step in advance has been made, in 
so far as in connexion with the furrow just mentioned, which is 
here also somewhat more complicated in its arrangement, a ciliated 
tube leads into the brain, there to end blindly amidst the nerve- 
cells. No other intermediate stages have as yet been noticed 
between this arrangement and that of the Heteronemertini, in which 
a separate posterior brain-lobe receives a similar ciliated canal, and 
in which the oesopliaeeal outgrowths have made their appearance 
and are coalesced with the nerve-tissue in the organ of the adult 
animal. The histological elements of this portion remain distinct 
i both by transmitted light and in actual sections. 

These posterior brain-lobes, which in all Heteronemertines are in 
direct continuity of tissue with the upper pair of principal lobes, 
cease to have this intimate connexion in the Metanemertini; and, 
although still constituted of (l) a ciliated duct, opening out exter- 
nally, (2) nervous tissue surrounding it, and (3) histological elements 
distinctly different from the nervous, and most probably directly 
derived from the oesophageal outgrowths, they are nevertheless 
here no longer constantly situated behind the upper brain-lobes and 
directly connected with them, but are found sometimes behind, 
sometimes beside and sometimes before the brain-lobes. Further- 
more, they are here severed from the principal lobes and connected 
with them by one or more rather thick strings of nerve-fibres. 
In some cases, especially when the lobes lie before the brain, their 
distance from it, as well as the length of these nervous connexions, 
has considerably increased. 

These curious neuro-glandular pits (fig. i), absent in" the Mesone- 
mertine and one or two aberrant species, have been shown to possess 
large glandular cells at their base which secrete a mucus. The 
development of these organs, which in the Protonemertine are but 
grooves in the epidermis, not far removed from the similar cephalic 
slits of many Turbellaria, reaches its height in Drepanophorus. Here 
the pits split into two, one part ending in a sac lined with sensory 
epithelium, and embedded in nervous tissue, the other projecting 
backwards as a long, glandular, blind canal. The exit of these organs 
takes many shapes, of value in systematic work. Their function is 
still little understood. Two lateral, shallow pits occur on the side 
of the body about the level of the hinder end of the proboscis in 
some species of the genus Carinella, which are termed side-organs. 
Thesfe are capable of being everted, and are probably sensory in 
function (fig. 20, 17). 

For the Heteronemertines arguments have been adduced to prove 
that here they have the physiological significance of a special respir- 
atory apparatus for the central nervous tissue, which in all these 
forms is strongly charged with haemoglobin. The haemoglobin 
would, by its pre-eminent properties of fixing oxygen, serve to 
furnish the nerve system, which more than any other requires a 
constant supply, with the necessary oxygen. Such could hardly 
be obtained in any other way by those worms that have no special 
respiratory apparatus, and that live in mud and under stones where 



/T\ 



FIG. 13. FIG. 14. 

FIGS. 13, 14. 
Lateral views of head 




the natural supply of freshly oxygenated sea-water is practically 
limited. Whether in the Metanemertines, where the blood fluid is 
often provided with haemoglobiniferous disks, the chief functions 
of the side organs may not rather be a sensory one needs further 
investigation. 

The exterior opening of the duct has been several times alluded to. 
In the Metanemertines it is generally situated towards the middle 
of a lateral transverse groove on either side 
of the head, as was noticed for Carinella, and 
as is also present in Polia. Generally a 
row of shorter grooves perpendicular to the 
first, and similarly provided with strong 
cilia, enlarges the surface of these furrows 
(fig. 14). In Valencinia there is nothing but 
a circular opening without furrow. In all 
Heteronemertines there is on each side of 
the head a longitudinal slit of varying length 
but generally considerable depth, in the 

bottom of which the dark red brain is very of a Het eronemertine 
plainly visible by transparency. These slits (fi } with j ; . 

are continued, into the ciliated duct, being Sfflaarkt, and of a 
at the same time themselves very strongly Meta nemertine (fig 14) 
ciliated. In life they are commonly rhythmi- with transve rse groove 
cally opened and shut by a wavy move- an( j f urrows 
ment. They are the head slits (cephalic 

fissures, " Kopfspalten ") so characteristic of this subdivision 
(figs. 10 and 13). 

With respect to the sense organs of the Nemertines, we find that 
eyes are of rather constant occurrence, although many Hetero- 
nemertines living in the mud appear to be blind. The more highly 
organized species have often very numerous eyes (Amphiporus, 
Drepanophorus), which are provided with a spherical refracting 
anterior portion, with a cellular " vitreous body," with a layer of 
delicate radially arranged rods, with an outer sheath of dark pigment, 
and with a separate nerve-twig each, springing from a common or 
double pair of branches which leave the brain as n. optici, for the 
innervation of the eyes. Besides these more highly differentiated 
organs of vision, more primitive eyes are present in others down to 
simple stellate pigment specks without any refracting apparatus. 

Organs of hearing in the form of capsules containing otoliths 
have only been very rarely observed, apparently only in Metane- 
mertini. 

As to the organ of touch, the great sensitiveness of the body has 
already been noticed, as well as the probable primary significance 
of the proboscis. Small tufts of tactile hairs or papillae are sometimes 
observed in small number at the tip of the head; sometimes longer 
hairs, apparently rather stiff, are seen on the surface, very sparingly 
distributed between the cilia, and hitherto only in a very limited 
number of small specimens. They may perhaps be considered as 
sensory. 

Digestive System. The anterior opening, the mouth, is situated 
ventrally, close to the tip of the head and in front of the brain in the 
Metanemertini, somewhat more backward and behind the brain in 
the other Nemertines. In most Heteronemertines it is found to be 
an elongated slit with corrugated borders; in the Metanemertines 
it is smaller and rounded; in Malacobdella and Akrostomum it, 
moreover, serves for the extrusion of the proboscis, which emerges 
by a separate dorsal opening just inside the mouth. The oesophagus 
is the anterior portion of the digestive canal; its walls are folded 
longitudinally, comparatively thick and provided with longitudinal 
muscular fibres. Two layers are specially obvious in its walls the 
inner layer bordering the lumen being composed of smaller ciliated 
cells, the outer thicker one containing numerous granular cells and 
having a more glandular character. Outside the wait of the oeso- 
phagus a vascular space has been detected which is in direct con- 
tinuity with the longitudinal blood-vessels. In certain cases, how- 
ever, the walls of the oesophagus appear to be very closely applied 
to the muscular body-wall and this vascular space thereby con- 
siderably reduced. 

The posterior portion of the intestine is specially characterized 
by the appearance of the intestinal diverticula horizontally and 
symmetrically placed right and left and opposite to each other. 

In the Metanemertini there is a curious diverticulum of the intes- 
tine which stretches forward in the median line, ventral to the so- 
called stomach. It is at times sacculated, but its chief interest is that, 
as Lebedinsky x has shown, the tip of the caecum in embryonic life 
opens to the exterior as the blastopore. This subsequently closes up, 
and the newly-formed oesophagus and stomach open in the intestine 
above and behind it. It is a curious feature in Nemertines that the 
alimentary canal seldom contains traces of food and yet most of these 
worms are voracious. The food must be digested, absorbed and ex- 
creted with great rapidity. There is some evidence that in thi* 
group the ectoderm of the oesophagus is chiefly concerned with 
digestion, whereas the endoderm of the intestine is limited to the 
absorption of the soluble products. 

Cases of asymmetry or irregularity in the arrangement of the 
intestinal caeca, though sometimes occurring, are not normal. At 
the tip of the tail, where the growth of the animal takes place, the 

1 Arch. mikr. Anal. xlix. (1897) p. 503. 



NEMERTINA 



OT 



caeca are always eminently regular. So they are throughout the 
whole body in most of the Metanemertines. In Carinella they are 
generally deficient and the intestine straight; in young specimens 
of this species, however, they occur, though less regular and more in 
the form of incipient foldings by which the digestive surface is, 
increased. The inner surface of the intestinal caeca is ciliated, the 

caeca themselves are some- 
times especially in the 
hindermost portion of the 
body of a considerably 
smaller lumen than the in- 
termediate genital spaces; 
sometimes, however, the 
reverse is the case, and in 
both cases it is the smaller 
lumen that appears enclosed 
between and suspended by 
the transverse fibres con- 
stituting the muscular dis- 
sepiments above mentioned. 
The anus is situated ter- 
minally, the muscular body- 
wall through which the 
intestine must find its way 
outwards probably acting 
in this region the part of a 
sphincter. The lateral nerve 
stems mostly terminate on 
both sides in closest prox- 
imity to the anus; in cer- 
tain species, however, they 
interfuse by a transverse 
connexion above the anus. 
The longitudinal blood- 
vessels do the same. 

Circulatory Apparatus. 
The chief vessels are three 
longitudinal trunks, a 
median and two lateral ones. 
They are in direct con- 
nexion with each other both 
at the posterior and at the 
anterior end of the body. 
At the posterior end they 
communicate together by a 
T-shaped connexion in a 
simple and uniform way. 
Anteriorly there is a cer- 
tain amount of difference 
in the arrangement. Where- 
FiG. 17. as in the Metanemertines an 

FIGS. 15-17. Diagrammatic sec- arrangement prevails as re- 
tions to show disposition of internal presented in fig. 18, in the 
organs in Carinella (Protonemertini) , Heteronemertines the 
fig. 15, Heteronemertini, fig. 16, and lateral stems, while entirely 




uniform all through the 
posterior portion of the 
body, no longer individually 
exist in the oesophageal 
region, but here dissolve 
themselves into a network 
of vascular spaces surround- 
ing this portion of the di- 
gestive tract. The median 
dorsal vessel, however, re- 



Metanemertini, fig. 17. 
C, Cellular portion of integument. 
B, Basement membrane. 
A, Circular muscular layer. 
A', Longitudinal muscular layer. 
A", Second circular (in Carinella). 
A", Second longitudinal (in Hetero- 
nemertini). 
N, Nervous layer. 
LN, Lateral nerves. 

PS, Cavity of proboscidian sheath (the m , ains 9 lst . inc t- b "t instead 
sheath itself of varying thickness). of continuing its course be- 
P, Proboscis. n L eat h .the proboscidian 

/ Intestine sheath it is first enclosed by 

LBv, Lateral blood-vessel. ^ ventral musculature of 

DBv, Dorsal blood-vessel. S hls or f an - and stl11 farther 

CT, Connective tissue. forwards it even bulges out 

longitudinally into the 

cavity of the sheath. Anteriorly it finally communicates with the 
lacunae just mentioned, which surround the oesophagus, bathe the 
posterior lobes of the brain, pass through the nerve ring together 
with the proboscidian sheath, and are generally continued in front 
of the brain as a lacunar space in the muscular tissue, one on each 
side. 

Special mention must be made of the delicate transverse vessels 
regularly connecting the longitudinal and the lateral ones. They 
are metamerically placed, and belong to the same metamere as the 
digestive caeca, thus alternating with the generative sacs. The 
blood fluid does not flow in any definite direction; its movements 
are largely influenced by those of the muscular body-wall. It is 
colourless and contains definite corpuscles, which are round or 
elliptical, and in many Metanemertines are coloured red by haemo- 
globin, being colourless in other species. The circulatory system 
of Carinella is considerably different, being more lacunar and less 
restricted to definite vascular channels. Two lateral longitudinal 



lacunae form, so to say, the forerunners of the lateral vessels. A 
median longitudinal vessel and transverse connecting trunks have 
not as yet been detected. There are large lacunae in the head in 
front of the ganglia. 

The vascular system is entirely closed. It contains a colourless 
fluid, with flat, oval nucleated corpuscles, as a rule colourless, but in 
some cases tinged with yellow or red haemo- 
globin. Its presence is one of the most dis- 
tinctive features which separate the Nemer- 
tines from the Platyhelminthes. In origin 
the vascular system is due to a fusion of 
spaces which arise in the mesoblast of the 
larva. The blood is probably circulated by 
the general contraction of the whole animal, 
since it is very doubtful if there are any 
intrinsic muscles in the vessel-walls. Its 

function is less that of respiration than of p IG , a Diaeram 

conveying the digested food-products all over of thp ' : rrl) i' 
the body, and the excretory products to the 
nephridia, and doubtless it serves at times to 




MeUnemert, 

.developed genera seem to be partly lacunae and partly true vessels 
with definite walls. 

Nephridia. Associated with the lateral blood-vessels are the single 
pair of nephridia. Each consists of a more or less coiled, ciliated, 
longitudinal canal, which on its external surface gives origin to one 
or more transverse canals, which pass to the exterior and open a 
little way behind the mouth on the sides of the body. On its inner 
surface the longitudinal canal is adpressed to the lateral blood- 
vessel, and gives off a number of small, blind caeca or tags, each of 
which ends in a small clump of cells. These tags indent the blood- 
vessel. From their inner ends, projecting into the lumen of the tag, 
hangs a bunch of cilia, which forms the flickering " flame " so well 
known in the excretory apparatus of the Platyhelminthes and larval 
Annelids (fig. 19). There is no communication between the nephridia 
on one side and the other, but in Eupolia there are ducts opening 
into the alimentary canal as well as to 
the exterior, a condition of things which 
recalls what obtains in certainOligochaetes. 
As a rule these organs only extend a short 
way along the anterior end of the body, 
a concentration which we may associate 
with the development of a vascular system 
to bring the products of excretion to a 
fixed spot. In Stichostemma, however, 
Montgomery l has described a series of 
nephridia lying all along the body, 
and each with a varying number of 
external pores. The excretory system is 
epiblastic in its origin. 

The two external openings of the 
nephridia are situated sometimes more 
towards the ventral, at other times more 
towards the dorsal side. Even in the 
larger Heteronemertines these pores are 
only a few millimetres behind the mouth 
region. I n transverse sections the nephridia 
can be shown to be generally situated in 
the region limited by (l) the proboscidian 
sheath, (2) the upper wall of the intestine, 
(3) the muscular body-wall. No trace of 
nephridia is found posterior to the oeso- 
phagus. 

Generative System. In the Nemertines 
the sexes are separate, with only very FIG. 19. Part of the 
few exceptions (Tetrastemma herma- excretory system lying 
phroditica, Marion). The reproductive on the lateral vessel of 
system is of the simplest, strongly con- Drepanophorus specta- 
trasting with the complicated arrange- bilis. (Magnified about 
ments in the Platyhelminthes. A series 750.) I , The longitudinal 
of sacs lined with an epithelium, the pro- excretory canal ; 2, one 
liferation of which gives rise to the ova of the tags containing the 
or spermatozoa, alternate between the flame-cells, 
caeca of the intestine. When mature, 

each sac pushes out a process to the exterior, and this forms 
the genital duct. The line of the genital openings is usually 
dorsal to the lateral nerve. The whole sac, with its epithelial 
wall and its contained genital cells, arises ultimately from some 
of the parenchymatous cells of the body. The walls and con- 
tents in some forms arise simultaneously; in others the walls are 
first formed and their lining then proliferates. It has been pointed 
out that the cavity of the sacs corresponds in many particulars with 
the coelom of higher animals, and in Lebidinsky's observations on 
the development there is some support to the view that a coelom 
exists. Montgomery has also described certain spaces which may 
be coelomic lying between the alimentary canal and the inner 
longitudinal layer of muscles in the Heteronemertini. The ova and 




1 Zool. Jakrb. Anal., x. (1897) p. 265. 



3 68 



NEMESIANUS 



spermatozoa, when mature, present no peculiarities. As the ova are 
in many species deposited in a gelatinous tube secreted by the body- 
walls, in which they are arranged (three or more together) in flask- 
shaped cavities, impregnation must probably take place either before 
or at the very moment of their being deposited. The exact mode has 
not yet been noticed. 



pharynx, and he sums up their relationship to the Annelids by the 
statement that to a certain extent the Nemertines represent Turbel- 
laria which in the course of time have copied certain features of an 
Annelid character. 

LITERATURE. T. Barrois, " Recherches sur 1'embryologie des 
Ndmertes," Annales des Sc. Naturelles, vi. (1877); O. Biitschli, 




FIG. 20. Anterior end of a Carinella, partly diagrammatic. Magnified. (From Burger.) I, Opening of proboscis; 2, cephalic 
glands running to frontal organ; 3, dorsal commissure of brain; 4, cerebral organ; 5, upper dorsal nerve; 6, under dorsal nerve; 
7, rhynchocoelic blood-vessel; 8, fore-gut; 9, rhynchocoel; 10, nerve to proboscis; II, proboscis; 12, genital sac; 13, genital pore; 
14, mid-gut; 15, circular nerves; 16, pore of excretory system; 17, jateral organ; 18, excretory canal; 19, lateral vessel; 20, 
lateral nerve; 21, oesophageal nerve; 22, mouth; 23, ventral ganglion of brain; 24, dorsal ganglion of brain; 25, rhynchodaeum. 




Prosorhocmus daparedii is a viviparous form. 
DEVELOPMENT. The embryology of the Nemertines offers some 
very remarkable peculiarities. Our knowledge of the development 
of the most primitive forms is scanty. Both Hetero- and Metane- 
mertini have been more exhaustively studied than the other two 
groups, the first, as was noticed above, being characterized by peculiar 
larval forms, the second developing without metamorphosis. 

The larva of Ccrebratulus is called the pilidium. In exterior shape 
it resembles a helmet with spike and ear-lobes, the spike being a 
strong and long flagellum or a tuft of long cilia, the ear-lobes lateral 
ciliated appendages (fig. 21). It encloses the primitive alimentary 

tract. Two pairs of invaginations of 
the skin, which originally are called 
the prostomial and metastomial disks, 
grow round the intestine, finally fuse 
together, and form the skin and mus- 
cular body-wall of the future Nemer- 
tine, which afterwards becomes cili- 
ated, frees itself from the pilidium in- 
vestment and develops into the adult 
worm without further metamorphosis. 
The eggs of these species are not 
enveloped by such massive gelatinous 
strings as are those of the genus 
Lineus. In the latter we find the 
young Nemertines crawling about 
after a period of from six to eight 
weeks, and probably feeding upon a 
portion of this gelatinous substance, 
which is found to diminish in bulk. 
In accordance with these more seden- 
tary habits during the first phases of 
life, the characteristic pilidium larva, 
which is so eminently adapted for a 

Oesophageal outgrowth pelagic existence, appears to have 
for lateral organ. been reduced to a close-fitting exterior 

am, Amnion. layer of cells, which is stripped off 

pr.d., Prostomial disk. after the definite body-wall of the 

po.d., Metastomial disk. Nemertine has similarly originated 

out of four ingrowths from the 

primary epiblast. To this reduced and sedentary pilidium the 
name of " larva of Desor " has been given. 

In the Metanemertini, as far as they have been investigated, a 
direct development without metamorphosis has been observed. 
It appears probable that this is only a further simplification of the 
more complicated metamorphosis described above. 

As to the development of the different organs, there is still much 
that remains doubtful. The hypoblast in some forms originates by 
invagination, in others by delamination. The proboscis is an in- 
vagination from the epiblast; the proboscidian sheath appears in 
the mesoblast, but is perhaps originally derived from the hypoblast. 
The origin of the lateral organs has already been noticed ; that of the 
nerve system is essentially epiblastic. 

AFFINITIES. The position of the Nemertines in the animal king- 
dom is now looked upon as more isolated than was formerly thought, 
and recent writers have been inclined to treat them as a separate 
phylum. _ Whether this view be adopted or not, and whether the 
Turbellaria be regarded as nearly related or only remotely connected, 
there can be little doubt that the Nemertines resemble the Turbel- 
laria more nearly than they do any other group of animals. Burger 
even goes so far as to homologize the proboscis with the Turbellarian 



FIG. 21. Pilidium-larva. 
B, Bunch of cilia or flagel- 
lum. 

oe, Oesophagus. 
st, Stomach. 
cs, 



" Einige Bemerkungen zur Metamorphose des Pilidium," Archiv 
fur Natureeschichte (1873); L. von Graff, Monographic der Tur- 
bellarien (1882); A. A. W. Hubrecht, "Untersuchungen uber 
Nemertinen a. d. Golf von Neapel," Niederl. Archiv fur Zoologie, 
ii.; Id., " The Genera of European Nemerteans critically revised," 
Notes from the Leyden Museum (1879); !&> "Zur Anatomic u. 
Physiologic d. Nervensystems d. Nemertinen," Verb. kon. Akad. 
v. Wetensch. (Amsterdam, 1880), vol. xx.; Id., "The Peripheral 
Nervous System of the Palaeo- and Schizonemertini, one of the layers 
of the Body-wall," Quart. Journal of Micr. Science, vol. xx.; Id., 
" On the Ancestral Forms oi the Chordata," 76. (July 1883); W. 
Keferstein, " Untersuchungen iiber niedere Seethiere," Zeitschr. 
f. wissensch. Zool. vol. xii. (1863); J. von Kennel, " Beitriige 
zur Kenntniss der Nemertinen," Arbeiten a. d. zool.-zoot. Instit. 
ii. (Wiirzburg, 1878); W. C. Macintosh, A Monograph of British 
Annelida: I. Nemerteans (Ray Society, 1873-1874); A. F. Marion, 
" Recherches sur les animaux inferieurs du Golfe de Marseille," 
Ann. des Sc. Nat. (1873); E. Metschnikoff, " Studien tiber die 
Entwickelung der Echinodermen und Nemertinen," Mem. de I'Acad. 
Imp. de St Peter sb. xiv. (1869); Max Schultze, Beitrage zur Natur- 
geschichte der Turbellarien (Greifswald, 1851) and Zeitschr. fur 
wissensch. Zool. iv. (1852), p. 178; W. B. Benham, Quart. Journ. 
Micr. Set. xxxix. (1896), p. 19; A. Brown, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ixi. 
(1897), p. 28; O. Burger, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 1. (1890), p. i; Id., 
Mitt. Zool. St Neapel, x. (1891), p. 206; Id., Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 
liii. (1892), p. 322; Id., Verh. Deutsch. zool. GeseUsch. (1893); 
Id., Fauna u. Flora d. Golfe d. Neapel, Monograph 22 (1895); 
A. Dendy, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria (n.s.),iv. (1892), p. 85, v. p. 127 
'1-1892); B. Haller, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, viii. (1889), p. 276; 



. A. W. Hubrecht, " Challenger " Reports, xix. (1887); L. Joubin, 
Arch. Zool. Exper. (2), viii. (1890), p. 461 ; Id., " Nemertines," in 
Blanchard's Traite de zoologie (1894); J. N. Lebedinsky, Arch. 




Connecticut Acad. New Haven, viii. (1892), p. 382; D. Bergendal, 
Zool. Anzeiger, xxiii. (1900), p. 313; W. R. Coe, Zool. Jahrb. (Anal ) 
xii. (1899), p. 425; Id., Trans. Connect. Acad. ix. (1895), p. 479; 
Id., Proc. Wash. Acad. iii. (1901), p. I ; T. H. Montgomery, Journ. 
Morph., xiii. (1897) p. 381; Id., Zool. Jahrb. (Anat.) x. (1897), 
p. 265; R. C. Punnett, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc. xliv. (1900), p. ill; 
Id., Willey's Zool. Results, pt. v. (1900), p. 569; Id., Quart. Journ. 
Mic. Sc. xliv. (1901), p. 547; Staub, Semon's Forschungsreisen 
(5 Bd., 1900); C. B. Thompson, Zool. Anzeiger, xxiii. (1900), pp. 151, 
627; C. B. Wilson, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc. xliii. (1900), p. 97. 

(A. A. W. H.;A. E. S.) 

NEMESIANUS, MARCUS AURELIUS OLYMPIUS, Roman 
poet, a native of Carthage, flourished about A.D. 283. He was 
a popular poet at the court of the Roman emperor Carus 
(Vopiscus, Carus, ii). He wrote poems on the arts of fishing 
(Halieutica), aquatics (Nautica) and hunting (Cynegetica) , but 
only a fragment of the last, 325 hexameter lines, has been 
preserved. It is neatly expressed in good Latin, and was used 
as a school text-book in the gth century. Four eclogues, formerly 
attributed to Titus Calpurnius (q.v.) Siculus, are now generally 
considered to be by Nemesianus, and the Praise of Hercules, 
generally printed in Claudian's works, may be by him. 

Complete edition of the works attributed to him in E. Bahrens, 



NEMESIS NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF 



369 



Poetae Lalini Minores, iii. (1881); Cynegetica: ed. M. Haupt (with 
Ovid's Halifutica and Grattius Faliscus) 1838, and R. Stern, with 
Grattius (1832); Italian translation with notes by L. F. Valdrighi 
(1876). The four eclogues are printed with those of Calpurnius in 
the editions of H. Schenkl (1885) and E. H. Keene (1887); see 
L. Cisorio, Studio sulle Egloghe di N. (1895) and Dell' imitazior.e 
nelle Egloghe di N. (1896) ; and M. Haupt, De Carminibus Bucolicis 
Calpurnii et N. (1853), the chief treatise on the subject. 

NEMESIS, the personification of divine justice. This is the 
only sense in which the word is used in Homer, while Hesiod 
(Theog. 22$) makes Nemesis a goddess, the daughter of Night 
(some, however, regard the passage as an interpolation); she 
appears in a still more concrete form in a fragment of the Cypria. 
The word Nemesis originally meant the distributor (Gr. veptiv) 
of fortune, whether good or bad, in due proportion to each man 
according to his deserts; then, the resentment caused by any 
disturbance of this proportion, the sense of justice that could 
not allow it to pass unpunished. Gruppe and others prefer to 
connect the name with vtiitaav, vtp.faifa&ai ("to feel just 
resentment "). In the tragedians Nemesis appears chiefly as 
the avenger of crime and the punisher of arrogance, and as such 
is akin to Ate and the Erinyes. She was sometimes called 
Adrasteia, probably meaning " one from whom there is no 
escape "; the epithet is specially applied to the Phrygian 
Cybele, with whom, as with Aphrodite and Artemis, her cult 
shows certain affinities. She was specially honoured in the 
district of Rhamnus in Attica, where she was perhaps originally 
an ancient Artemis, partly confused with Aphrodite. A festival 
called Nemeseia (by some identified with the Genesia) was held 
at Athens. Its object was to avert the nemesis of the dead, 
who were supposed to have the power of punishing the living, 
if their cult had been in any way neglected (Sophocles, Electro, 
792; E. Rohde, Psyche, 1007, i. 236, note i). At Smyrna 
there were two divinities of the name, more akin to Aphrodite 
than to Artemis. The reason for this duality is hard to explain; 
it is suggested that they represent two aspects of the goddess, the 
kindly and the malignant, or the goddesses of the old and the 
new city. Nemesis was also worshipped at Rome by victorious 
generals, and in imperial times was the patroness of gladiators 
and venatores (fighters with wild beasts) in the arena and one of 
the tutelary deities of the drilling-ground (Nemesis campestris) . 
In the 3rd century A.D. there is evidence of the belief in an all- 
powerful Nemesis-Fortuna. She was worshipped by a society 
called Nemesiaci. In early times the representations of Nemesis 
resembled Aphrodite, who herself sometimes bears the epithet 
Nemesis. Later, as the goddess of proportion and the avenger 
of crime, she has as attributes a measuring rod, a bridle, a sword 
and a scourge, and rides in a chariot drawn by griffins. 

See C. Walz, De Nemesi Graecorum (Tubingen, 1852) ; E. Tournier, 
Nemesis (1863), and H. Posnansky, " Nemesis und Adrasteia," in 
Breslauer phtlologische Abhandlungen, v. heft 2 (1890), both ex- 
haustive monographs; an essay, " Nemesis, or the Divine Envy," 
by P. E. More, in The New World (N. Y., Dec. 1899) ; L. R. Farnell, 
Cults of the Greek States, ii.; and A. Legrand in Daremberg and 
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquMs. For the Roman Nemesis, see 
G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (Munich, 1902). 

NEMESIUS (fl. c. A.D. 390), a Christian philosopher, author 
of a treatise irepi <#>6<7os dj'Spcbiroii (On Human Nature), was, 
according to the title of his book, bishop of Emesa (in Syria); 
of his life nothing further is known, and even his date is uncertain, 
but internal evidence points to a date after the Apollinarian 
controversy and before the strife connected with the names of 
Eutyches and Nestorius, i.e. about the end of the 4th century. 
His book is an interesting attempt to compile a system of anthro- 
pology from the standpoint of the Christian philosophy. Moses 
and Paul are put side by side with Aristotle and Menander, 
and there is a clear inclination to Platonic doctrines of pre- 
existence and metempsychosis. In physiological matters he 
is in advance of Aristotle and Galen, though we can hardly 
assert as has sometimes be?n thought that he anticipated 
Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood. The treatise 
is conclusive evidence as to the mutual influence of Christianity 
and Hellenism in the 4th century. John of Damascus and the 
schoolmen, including Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, 



held Nemesius in high esteem, believing his book to be the work 
of Gregory of Nyssa, with whom he has much in common. 

Editions: Antwerp, 1575; Oxford, 1671; Halle, 1802; Migne's 
Patrol. Gr. vol. 40. Versions: Latin by Alsanus, ed. Holzinger 
(1887); by Burgundio, ed. Burkhardt (1891-1896). Literature: 
Bender, Untersuch. fiber Nemesius (1898). See further Herzog- 
Hauck's Realencyklop, s.v. 

NEHORENSIS LACUS (mod. Nemi), a lake in the Alban 
Hills, in an extinct subsidiary crater in the outer ring of the 
ancient Alban crater, E. of the Lake of Albano. It is about 
35 m. in diameter and some no ft. deep; the precipitous slopes 
of its basin are over 300 ft. high, and on the side towards the 
modern village a good deal more, and are mainly cultivated. 
It is now remarkable for its picturesque beauty. In ancient times 
it was included in the territory of Aricia, and bore the name 
" Mirror of Diana." The worship of Diana here was a very 
ancient one, and, as among the Scythians, was originally, so it 
was said, celebrated with human sacrifices; even in imperial 
times the priest of Diana, was a man of low condition, a gladiator 
or a fugitive slave, who won his position by slaying his pre- 
decessor in fight, having first plucked a mistletoe bough from 
the sacred grove, and who, notwithstanding, bore the title of 
rex (king). It is curious that in none of the inscriptions that have 
been found is the priest of Diana mentioned; and it has indeed 
been believed by Morpurgo and Frazer that the rex was not the 
priest of Diana at all, but, according to the former, the priest 
of Virbius, or, according to the latter, the incarnation of the 
spirit of the forest. The temple itself was one of the most splendid 
in Latium; Octavian borrowed money from it in 31 B.C., and 
it is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Its remains are 
situated a little above the level of the lake, and to the N.E. of 
it. They consist cf a large platform, the back of which is formed 
by a wall of concrete faced with opus reliculatum, with niches, 
resting against the cliffs which form the sides of the crater. 
Excavations in the i7th and the last quarter of the ipth centuries 
(now covered in again), and also in 1905, led to the discovery 
of the temple itself, a rectangular edifice, 98 by 52 ft., and of 
various inscriptions, a rich frieze in gilt bronze, many statuettes 
(ex-votos) from the favissae of the temple in terra-cotta and 
bronze, a large number of coins, &c. None of the objects seem 
to go back beyond the 4th century B.C. A road descended to 
it from the Via Appia from the S.W., passing through the modern 
village of Genzano. The lake is drained by a tunnel of about 
2 m. long of Roman date. On the W, side of the lake remains 
of two ships (really floating palaces moored to the shore) have been 
found, one belonging to the time of Caligula (as is indicated by 
an inscription on a lead pipe), and measuring 210 ft. long by 
66 wide, the other even larger, 233 by 80 ft. The first was 
decorated with marbles and mosaics, and with some very fine 
bronze beamheads, with heads of wolves and lions having rings 
for hawsers in their mouths (and one of a Medusa), now in the 
Museo delle Terme at Rome, with remains of the woodwork, 
&c., &c. Various attempts have been made to raise the first 
ship, from the middle of the isth century onwards, by which 
much harm has been done. The neighbourhood of the lake was 
naturally in favour with the Romans as a residence. Caesar 
had a villa constructed there, but destroyed again almost at 
once, because it did not satisfy him. 

See F. Barnabei, Notizie degli scavi (1895), 361, 461 ; (1896), 188; 
V. Malfatti, Notizie degli scavi (1895), 471; (1896), 393; Rivista 
marittima (1896), 379; (1897), 293; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough 
(London, 1900) ; L. Morpurgo in Monumenti dei Lincei, xiii. (1903), 
297 sqq. (T. As.) 

NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF. In the izth and i3th 
centuries the lordship of Nemours, in Gatinais, France, was in 
possession of the house of Villebeon, a member of which, Gautier, 
was marshal of France in the middle of the I3th century. The 
lordship was sold to King Philip III. in 1274 and 1276 by Jean 
and Philippe de Nemours, and was then made .a county and 
given to Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch in 1364. In 1404 
Charles VI. of France gave it to Charles III. of Evreux, king of 
Navarre, and erected it into a duchy in the peerage of France 
(duche-pairie). Charles III.'s daughter, Beatrix, brought the 



370 



NEMOURS, DUG DE 



duchy to her husband Jacques de Bourbon, count of La Marche, 
and by the marriage of their daughter, Eleanor, to Bernard of 
Armagnac, count of Pardiac, it passed to the house of Armagnac. 
After being confiscated and restored several times, the duchy 
reverted to the French crown in 1505, after the extinction of the 
house of Armagnac-Pardiac. In 1 507 it was given by Louis XII. 
to his nephew, Gaston de Foix, who was killed at Ravenna in 
1512. The duchy then returned to the royal domain, and was 
detached from it successively for Giuliano de Medici and his 
wife Philibcrta of Savoy in 1515, for Louise of Savoy in 1524, and 
for Philip of Savoy, count of Genevois, in 1528. The descend- 
ants of the last-mentioned duke possessed the duchy until its 
sale to Louis XIV. In 1572 Louis gave it to his brother Philip, 
duke of Orleans, whose descendants possessed it until the 
Revolution. The title of due de Nemours was afterwards given 
to Louis Charles, son of King Louis Philippe, who is dealt with 
separately below. 

The following are the most noteworthy of the earlier dukes 
of Nemours. 

JAMES OF ARMAGNAC, duke of Nemours (c. 1433-1477), was 
the son of Bernard d' Armagnac, count of Pardiac, and Eleanor of 
Bourbon-La Marche. As comte de Castres, he served under 
Charles VII. in Normandy in 1449 and 1450 ; and afterwards in 
Guienne. On the accession of Louis XI. the king loaded him 
with honours, married him to his god-daughter, Louise of Anjou, 
and recognized his title to the duchy of Nemours in 1462. Sent 
by Louis to pacify Roussillon, Nemours f :it that he had been 
insufficiently rewarded for the rapid success of this expedition, 
and joined the League of the Public Weal in 1465. He subse- 
quently became reconciled with Louis, but soon resumed his 
intrigues. After twice pardoning him, the king's patience 
became exhausted, and he besieged the duke's chateau at Carlat 
and took him prisoner. Nemours was treated with the utmost 
rigour, being shut up in a cage ; and was finally condemned to 
death by the parlement and beheaded on the 4th of August 1477. 

See B. de Mandrot, Jacques d' Armagnac, due de Nemours (Paris, 
1890). 

PHILIP or SAVOY, duke of Nemours (1490-1533), was a son 
of Philip, duke of Savoy, and brother of Louise of Savoy, mother 
of Francis I. of France. Originally destined for the priesthood, 
he was given the bishopric of Geneva at the age of five, but 
resigned it in 1510, when he was made count of Genevois. He 
served under Louis XII., with whom he was present at the battle 
of Agnadello (1509), under the emperor Charles V. in 1520, and 
finally under his nephew, Francis I. In 1528 Francis gave him 
the duchy of Nemours and married him to Charlotte of Orl6ans- 
Longueville. He died on the 2Sth of November 1533. 

His son, JAMES (1531-1585), became duke of Nemours in 
1533. He distinguished himself at the sieges of Lens and Metz 
(1552-1553), at the battle of Renty (1554) and in the campaign 
of Piedmont (1555). He was a supporter of the Guises, and had 
to retire for some time into Savoy in consequence of a plot. 
On his return to France he fought the Huguenots, and signalized 
himself by his successes in Dauphine and Lyonnais. In 1 567 he 
induced the court to return from Meaux to Paris, took part in 
the battle of St. Denis, protested against the peace of Long- 
jumeau, and repulsed the invasion of Wolfgang, count palatine 
of Zweibriicken. He devoted his last years to letters and art, 
and died at Annecy on the 15th of June 1585. 

By his wife Anne of Este, the widow of Francis, duke of 
Guise, the duke left a son, CHARLES EMMANUEL (1567-1595), 
who in his youth was called prince of Genevois. Involved 
in political intrigues by his relationship with the Guises, he was 
imprisoned after the assassination of Henry, duke of Guise, 
and his brother the cardinal of Lorraine, in 1 588, but contrived to 
escape. He fought at Ivry and Arques, and was governor of 
Paris when it was besieged by Henry IV. After quarreling 
with his half-brother Charles of Lorraine, duke of Mayenne, he 
withdrew to his government of Lyonnais, where he endeavoured 
to make himself independent. He was imprisoned, however, 
in the chateau of Pierre-Encise by the archbishop of Lyons. 
After his escape he attacked Lyons, but was defeated owing 



to the intervention of the constable de Montmorency. He died 
at Annecy in July 1595. 

His brother HENRY (1572-1632), called originally marquis de 
Saint-Sorlin, succeeded him as duke. In 1588 he took the 
marquisate of Saluzzo from the French for his cousin, the duke 
of Savoy. The princes of Guise, his half-brothers, induced 
him to join the League, and in 1591 he was made governor of 
Dauphine in the name of that faction. He made his submission 
to Henry IV. in 1596. After quarrelling with the duke of Savoy 
he withdrew to Burgundy and joined the Spaniards in their 
war against Savoy. After peace had been proclaimed on the 
i4th of November 1616, he retired to the French court. He died 
in 1632, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis, and on the 
death of the latter in 1641 by his second son, CHARLES AMADEUS 
(1624-1652), who served in the army of Flanders in 1645, an d 
in the following year commanded the light cavalry at the siege 
of Courtrai. In 1652 he took part in the war of the Fronde, and 
fought at Bleneau and at the Faubourg St Antoine, where he 
was wounded. On the 3oth of July of the same year he was 
killed in a duel by his brother-in-law, Francois de Vendome, 
duke of Beaufort. He had two daughters, Marie Jeanne Baptiste 
(d. 1724), who married Charles Emmanuel of Savoy in 1665; 
and Marie Francoise Elisabeth, who married Alphonso VI., 
king of Portugal, in 1666. His brother Henry (1625-1659), 
who had been archbishop of Reims, but now withdrew from 
orders, succeeded to the title. In 1657 he married MARIE 
D'ORLEANS-LONGUEVILLE (1625-1707), daughter of Henry II. 
of Orleans, duke of Longueville. This duchess of Nemours is 
a famous personage. At an early age she was involved in 
the first Fronde, which was directed by her father and her 
stepmother. Anne Genevieve de Bourbon-Conde, the cele- 
brated duchesse de Longueville; and when her husband died 
in 1659, leaving her childless, the rest of her life was mainly 
spent in contesting her inheritance with her stepmother. She 
left some interesting Memoir es, which are published by C. B. 
Petitot in the Collection complete des memoires (1819-1829). 

NEMOURS, LOUIS CHARLES PHILIPPE RAPHAEL, Due DE 
(1814-1896), second son of the duke of Orleans, afterwards 
King Louis Philippe, was born on the 25th of October 1814. 
At twelve years of age he was nominated colonel of the first 
regiment of chasseurs, and in 1830 he became a chevalier of the 
order of the Saint Esprit and entered the chamber of peers. 
As early as 1825 his name was mentioned as a possible candidate 
for the throne of Greece, and in 1831 he was elected king of 
the Belgians, but international considerations deterred Louis 
Philippe from accepting the honour for his son. In February 1 83 1 
he accompanied the French army which entered Belgium to 
support the new kingdom against Holland, and took part in 
the siege of Antwerp. He accompanied the Algerian expedition 
against the town of Constantine in the autumn of 1836, and in a 
second expedition (1837) he was entrusted with the command 
of a brigade and with the direction of the siege operations before 
Constantine. General Damre'mont was killed by his side on the 
1 2th of October, and the place was taken by assault on the i3th. 
He sailed a third time for Algeria in 1841, and served under 
General Bugeaud, taking part in the expedition to revictual 
Medea on the 29th of April, and in sharp fighting near Miliana 
on the 3rd to 5th of May. In the expedition against the fortified 
town of Takdempt he commanded the ist infantry division. 
On his return to France he became commandant of the camp 
of Compiegne. He had been employed on missions of courtesy 
to England in 1835, in 1838 and in 1845, and to Berlin and 
Vienna in 1836. The occasion of his marriage in 1840 with 
Victoria, daughter of Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, was 
marked by a check to Louis Philippe's government in the form 
of a refusal to bestow the marriage dowry proposed by Thiers in 
the chamber of deputies. The death of his elder brother, 
Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, in 1842 gave him a position of greater 
importance as the natural regent in the case of the accession of 
his nephew, the young count of Paris. His reserve and dislike 
of public functions, with a certain haughtiness of manner, how- 
ever, made him unpopular. On the outbreak of the revolution of 



NEMOURS NENNI US 



1848 he held the Tuileries long enough to cover the king's retreat, 
but refrained from initiating active measures against the mob. 
He followed his sister-in-law, the duchess of Orleans, and her two 
sons to the chamber of deputies, but was separated from them 
by the rioters, and only escaped finally by disguising himself 
in the uniform of a national guard. He embarked for England, 
where he settled with his parents at Claremont. His chief aim 
during his exile, especially after his father's death, was a re- 
conciliation between the two branches of the house of Bourbon, 
as indispensable to the re-establishment of the French monarchy 
in any form. These wishes were frustrated on the one hand 
by the attitude of the comte de Chambord, and on the other 
by the determination of the duchess of Orleans to maintain the 
pretensions of the count of Paris. Nemours was prepared to 
go further than the other princes of his family in accepting the 
principles of the legitimists, but lengthy negotiations ended 
in 1857 with a letter, written by Nemours, as he subsequently 
explained, at the dictation of his brother, Francois, prince de 
Joinville, in which he insisted that Chambord should express 
his adherence to the tricolour flag and to the principles of con- 
stitutional government. In 1871 the Orleans princes renewed 
their professions of allegiance to the senior branch of their house, 
but they were not consulted when the count of Chambord came 
to Paris in 1873, and their political differences remained until 
his death in 1883. 

Nemours had lived at Bushey House after the death of Queen 
Marie Amelie in 1866. In 1871 the exile imposed on the French 
princes was withdrawn, but he only transferred his establishment 
to Paris after their disabilities were also removed. In March 
1872 he was restored to his rank in the army as general of division, 
and placed in the first section of the general staff. After his 
retirement from the active list he continued to act as president 
of the Red Cross Society until 1881, when new decrees against 
the princes of the blood led to his withdrawal from Parisian 
society. During the presidency of Marshal MacMahon, he had 
appeared from time to time at the Elysee. He died at Versailles 
on the 26th of June 1896, the duchess having died at Claremont 
on the loth of November 1857. Their children were Louis 
Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston, comte d'Eu (b. 1842), who 
married Isabella, eldest daughter of Don Pedro II. of Brazil; 
Ferdinand Philippe Marie, due d'Alencon (b. 1844), who married 
Sophie of Bavaria (1847-1897), sister of the empress Elizabeth 
of Austria; Margaret (1846-1893), who married Prince Ladislas 
Czartoryski; and Blanche (b. 1857). 

See R. Bazin, Le Due de Nemours (1907); Paul Thureau-Dangin, 
Histoire de la monarchic de juittet (4 vols., 1884, &c.). 

NEMOURS, a town of northern France, in the department of 
Seine-et-Marne, on the Loing and its canal, 26 m. S. of Melun, 
on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4814. The church, 
which dates mainly from the i6th century, has a handsome 
wooden spire, and there is a feudal castle. A statue of the 
mathematician Bezout (d. 1783), a native of the town, was erected 
in 1885. In the vicinity is a group of fine sandstone rocks, and 
sand is extensively quarried. Nemours is supposed to derive its 
name from the woods (nemora) in the midst of which it formerly 
stood, and discoveries of Gallo-Roman remains indicate its early 
origin. It was captured by the English in 1420, but derives its 
historical importance rather from the lordship (afterwards 
duchy) to which it gave its name. In 1585 a treaty revoking 
previous concessions to the Protestants was concluded at Nemours 
between Catherine de Medici and the Guises. 

NENADOVICH, MATEYA (1777-1854), Servian patriot, was 
born in 1777. He is generally called Prota Mateya, since as a 
boy of sixteen he was made a priest, and a few years later became 
archpriest (Prota) of' Valyevo. His father, Alexa Nenadovich, 
Knez (chief magistrate) of the district of Valyevo, was one of the 
most popular and respected public men among the Servians at 
the beginning of the igth century. When the four leaders of 
the Janissaries of the Belgrade Pashalic (the so-called Dahis) 
thought that the only way to prevent a general rising of the 
Servians was to intimidate them by murdering all their principal 
men, Alexa Nenadovich was one of the first victims. The 



policy of the Dahis, instead of preventing, did actually and 
immediately provoke a general insurrection of the Servians 
against the Turks. Prota Mateya became the deputy-commander 
of the insurgents of the Valyevo district (1804), but did not 
hold the post for long, as Karageorge sent him in 1805 on a secret 
mission to St Petersburg, and afterwards employed him almost 
constantly as Servia's diplomatic envoy to Russia, Austria, 
Bucharest and Constantinople. After the fall of Karageorge 
(1813), the new leader of the Servians, Milosh Obrenovich, sent 
Prota Mateya as representative of Servia to the Congress of 
Vienna (1814-1815), where he pleaded the Servian cause inde- 
fatigably. During that mission he often saw Lord Castlereagh, 
and for the first time the Servian national interests were brought 
to the knowledge of British statesmen. 

Prota Mateya's memoirs are the most valuable authority for the 
history of the first and second Servian insurrections against the 
Turks. The best edition of the Memoari Profe Mateye Nenadovicha 
was published by the Servian Literary Association in Belgrade in 
1893- 

NENAGH, a market town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, finely 
situated in a rich though hilly country near the river Nenagh, 
965 m. S.W. from Dublin by the Ballybrophy and Limerick 
branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901) 
4704. Of the old castle, called Nenagh Round, dating from the 
time of King John, there still exists the circular donjon or keep. 
There are no remains of the hospital founded in 1 200 for Austin 
canons, nor of the Franciscan friary, founded in the reign of 
Henry III. and one of the richest religious houses in Ireland. The 
town is governed by an urban district council. It was one of the 
ancient manors of the Butlers, who received for it the grant of a 
fair from Henry VIII. In 1550 the town and friary were burned 
by O'Carroll. In 1641 the town was taken by Owen Roe O'Neill, 
but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin. 
It surrendered to Ireton in 1651, and was burned by Sarsfield in 
1688. 

NENNIUS (fl. 796), a Welsh writer to whom we owe the 
Historia Britonum, lived and wrote in Brecknock or Radnor. 
His work is known to us through thirty manuscripts; but the 
earliest of these cannot be dated much earlier than the year 1000; 
and all are defaced by interpolations which give to the work so 
confused a character that critics were long disposed to treat it 
as an unskilful forgery. A new turn was given to the controversy 
by Heinrich Zimmer, who, in his Nennius vindicates (1893), 
traced the history of the work and, by a comparison of the 
manuscripts with the nth-century translation of the Irish 
scholar, Gilla Coemgim (d. 1072), succeeded in stripping off the 
later accretions from the original nucleus of the Hisloria. Zimmer 
follows previous critics in rejecting the Prologus maior ( i, 2), 
the Capitula, or table of contents, and part of the Mirabilia 
which form the concluding section. But he proves that Nennius 
should be regarded as the compiler of the Historia proper ( 7-65). 
Zimmer's conclusions are of more interest to literary critics than 
to historians. The only part of the Historia which deserves to 
be treated as a historical document is the section known as the 
Genealogiae Saxonum ( 57-65). This is merely a recension of 
a work which was composed about 679 by a Briton of Strathclyde. 
The author's name is unknown; but he is, after Gildas, our 
earliest authority for the facts of the English conquest of England. 
Nennius himself gives us the oldest legends relating to the 
victories of King Arthur; the value of the Historia from this 
point of view is admitted by the severest critics. The chief 
authorities whom Nennius followed were Gildas' De excidio 
Britonum, Eusebius, the Vita Patricii of Murichu Maccu Mach- 
theni, the Collectanea of Tirechan, the Liber occupationis (an 
Irish work on the settlement of Ireland), the Liber de sex 
aetatibus mundi, the chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine, the 
Liber beali Germani. The sources from which he derived his 
notices of King Arthur ( 56) have not been determined. 

See J. Stevenson's edition of the Historia Britonum (English Hist. 
Soc., 1838), based on a careful study of the MSS. ; A. de la Borderie, 
L'Historia Britonum (Paris and London, 1883), which summarizes 
the older negative criticism; H. Zimmer, Nennius vindicatus 
(Berlin, 1893); T. Mommsen in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur 
tiltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, xix. 283. (H. W. C. D.) 



372 



NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF NEOPLATONISM 



NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF, a synod held shortly after that 
of Ancyra, probably about 314 or 315 (although Hefele inclines 
to put it somewhat later). Its principal work was the adoption 
of fifteen disciplinary canons, which were subsequently accepted 
as ecumenical by the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and of which the 
most important are the following: i. degrading priests who 
marry after ordination; vii. forbidding a priest to be present 
at the second marriage of any one; viii. refusing ordination 
to the husband of an adulteress; xi. fixing thirty years as the 
age below which one might not be ordained (because Christ 
began His public ministry at the age of thirty) ; xiii. according 
to city priests the precedence over country priests; xiv. per- 
mitting Chorepiscopi to celebrate the sacraments; xv. requiring 
that there be seven deacons in every city. 

See Mansi ii. pp. 539-551; Hardouin i. pp. 282-286; Hefele 
(2nd ed.) i. pp. 242-251 (Eng. trans, i. pp. 222-230). (T. F. C.) 

NEOCOMIAN, in geology, the name given to the lowest stage 
of the Cretaceous system. It was introduced by J. Thurmann 
in 1835 on account of the development of these rocks at Neuchatcl 
(Neocomum), Switzerland. It has been employed in more than 
one sense. In the type area the rocks have been divided into 
two sub-stages, a lower, Valanginian (from Valengin, E. Desor, 
1854) and an upper, Hauterivian (from Hauterive, E. Renevier, 
1874) ; there is also another local sub-stage, the infra- Valanginian 
or Berriasian (from Berrias, H. Coquand, 1876). These three 
sub-stages constitute the Neocomian in its restricted sense. 
A. von Koenen and other German geologists extend the use 
of the term to include the whole of the Lower Cretaceous up to 
the top of the Gault or Albian. Renevier divided the Lower 
Cretaceous into the Neocomian division, embracing the three 
sub-stages mentioned above, and an Urgonian division, including 
the Barremian, Rhodaniau and Aptian sub-stages. Sir A. 
Geikie (Text Book of Geology, 4th ed., 1903) regards " Neocomian" 
as synonymous with Lower Cretaceous, and he, like Renevier, 
closes this portion of the system at the top of the Lower Green- 
sand (Aptian). Other British geologists (A. J. Jukes-Browne, 
&c.) restrict the Neocomian to the marine beds of Speeton and 
Tealby, and their estuarine equivalents, the Weald Clay and 
Hastings Sands (Wealden). Much confusion would be avoided 
by dropping the term Neocomian entirely and employing 
instead, for the type area, the sub-divisions given above. This 
becomes the more obvious when it is pointed out that the 
Berriasian type is limited to Dauphine; the Valanginian has 
not a much wider range; and the Hauterivian does not extend 
north of the Paris basin. 

Characteristic fossils of the Berriasian are Hoplites euthymi, H. 
occitanicus; of the Valanginian, Natica leviathan, Belemnites pistil- 
liformis and B. dilatatus, Oxynoticeras Cevrili; of the Hauterivian, 
Hoplites radiatus, Crioceras capricornu, Exogyra Couloni and Toxaster 
complanaius. The marine equivalents of these rocks in England are 
the lower Speeton Clays of Yorkshire and the Tealby beds of Lincoln- 
shire. The Wealden beds of southern England represent approxi- 
mately an estuarine phase of deposit of the same age. The Hils 
clay of Germany and Wealden of Hanover; the limestones and 
shales of Teschen; the Aptychus and Pygope diphyoides marls of 
Spain, and the Petchorian formation of Russia are equivalents of 
the Neocomian in its narrower sense. 

See CRETACEOUS, WEALDEN, SPEETON BEDS. (J. A. H.) 

NEOCORATE, a rank or dignity granted by the Senate under 
the Roman Empire to certain cities of Asia, which had built 
temples for the worship of the emperors or had established 
cults of members of the imperial family. The Greek word 
vo/c6pos meant literally a temple-sweeper (vos, temple, Koptiv, 
to sweep), and was thence used both of a temple attendant 
and of a priestly holder of high rank who was in charge of a 
temple. 

NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vkas, new, and Xi0os, 
stone), a term employed first byLordAvebury and since generally 
accepted, for the period of highly finished and polished stone 
implements, in contrast with the rude workmanship of those 
of the earlier Stone Age (Palaeolithic). Knowledge of Neolithic 
times is derived principally from four sources, Tumuli or ancient 
burial-mounds, the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland, the Kitchen- 
middens of Denmark and the Bone-Caves. No trace of metal 



is found, except gold, which seems to have been sometimes used 
for ornaments. Agriculture, pottery, weaving, the domestica- 
tion of animals, the burying of the dead in dolmens, and the 
rearing of megalithic monuments are the typical developments 
of man during this stage. , 

See ARCHAEOLOGY ; also Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (1900) ; 
Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain (1897); 
Sir J. Prestwich, Geology (1886-1888). 

NEOPHYTE (Gr. veoQvros , from vkas, new, <j>vr6v, a plant, 
" newly planted "), a word used in the Eleusinian and other 
mysteries to designate the newly initiated, and in the early 
church applied to newly baptized persons. These usually 
wore the white garments which they received at their admission 
to the church (see BAPTISM) for eight days, from Easter eve till 
the Sunday after Easter (hence called Dominica in albis), but 
they were subject to strict supervision for some time longer 
and, on the authority of i Tim. iii. 6, were generally held 
ineligible for election as bishops, a rule to which, however, history 
shows some notable exceptions, as in the cases of St Ambrose 
at Milan in 374 and Synesius of Cyrene at Ptolemais in 409, 
who were chosen bishops before they were even baptized. By 
the council of Nicaea (325) this rule was extended to the priest- 
hood. The ancient discipline is still maintained in the Roman 
Church, and applies to converts from Christian sects as well 
as to those from heathenism. The period, however, is deter- 
mined by circumstances. The term " neophyte " is also some- 
times applied in the Roman Church to newly ordained priests, 
and even though rarely to novices of a religious order. In 
a transferred sense the word is also given to one beginning to 
learn any new subject. 

See Bergier, Diet, de theologie, s.v. ; Martigny, Diet, des antiquMs, 
PP- 433~435; Siegel, Christliche Alterthiimer, iii. 17 seq.; Riddle, 
Christ. Antiquities, pp. 313, 522 ; \Vnlcott, Sacred Archaeology, s.v. 

NEOPLATONISM, the name given specially to the last school 
of pagan -philosophy, which grew up mainly among the Greeks 
of Alexandria from the 3rd century onwards. The term has 
also been applied to the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, 
and in modern times, somewhat vaguely, to thinkers who have 
based their speculations on the Platonic metaphysics or on 
Plotinus, and incorporated with it a tendency towards a mystical 
explanation of ultimate phenomena. 

Historical Position and Significance. The political history 
of the ancient world ends with the formation, under Diocletian 
and Constantine, of a universal state bearing the cast of Oriental 
as well as Graeco-Roman civilization. The history of ancient 
philosophy ends in like manner with a universal philosophy 
which assimilated elements of almost all the earlier systems, 
and worked up the results of Eastern and Western culture. 
Just as the Later Roman empire was at once the supreme effort 
of the old world and the outcome of its exhaustion, so Neo- 
platonism is in one aspect the consummation, in another the 
collapse, of ancient philosophy. Never before in Greek or 
in Roman speculation had the consciousness of man's dignity 
and superiority to nature found such adequate expression; 
never before had real science and pure knowledge been so under- 
valued and despised by the leaders of culture as they were by 
the Neoplatonists. Judged from the standpoint of empirical 
science, philosophy passed its meridian in Plato and Aristotle, 
declined in the post- Aristotelian systems, and set in the darkness 
of Neoplatonism. But, from the religious and moral point of 
view, it must be admitted that the ethical " mood " which 
Neoplatonism endeavoured to create and maintain is the highest 
and purest ever reached by antiquity. 

It is a proof of the strength of the moral instincts of mankind 
that the only phase of culture which we can survey in all its 
stages from beginning to end culminated not in materialism, 
but in the boldest idealism. This idealism, however, is also 
in its way a mark of intellectual bankruptcy. Contempt for 
reason and science leads in the end to barbarism its necessary 
consequence being the rudest superstition. As a matter of fact, 
barbarism did break out after the flower had fallen from Neo- 
platonism. The philosophers themselves, no doubt, still lived 



NEOPLATONISM 



373 



on the knowledge they repudiated; but the masses were trained 
to a superstition with which the Christian church, as the executor 
of Neoplatonism, had to reckon and contend. By a fortunate 
coincidence, at the very moment when this bankruptcy of the 
old culture must have become apparent, the stage of history 
was occupied by barbaric peoples. This has obscured the fact 
that the inner history of antiquity, ending as it did in despair 
of this world, must in any event have seen a recurrence of 
barbarism. The present world was a thing that men would 
neither enjoy nor master nor study. A new world was discovered, 
for the sake of which everything else was abandoned; to 
make sure of that world insight and intelligence were freely 
sacrificed; and, in the light that streamed from beyond, the 
absurdities of the present became wisdom, and its wisdom 
became foolishness. 

Such is Neoplatonism. The pre-Socratic philosophy took 
its stand on natural science, to the exclusion of ethics and 
religion. The systems of Plato and Aristotle sought to adjust 
the rival claims of physics and ethics (although the supremacy 
of the latter was already acknowledged); but the popular 
religions were thrown overboard. The post - Aristotelian 
philosophy in all its branches makes withdrawal from the 
objective world its starting-point. It might seem, indeed, that 
Stoicism indicates a falling off from Plato and Aristotle towards 
materialism, but the ethical dualism, which was the ruling 
tendency of the Stoa, could not long endure its materialistic 
physics, and took refuge in the metaphysical dualism of the 
Platonists. But this originated no permanent philosophical 
creation. From one-sided Platonism issued the various forms 
of scepticism, the attempt to undermine the trustworthiness 
of empirical knowledge. Neoplatonism, coming last, borrowed 
something from all the schools. First, it stands in the line 
of post-Aristotelian systems; it is, in fact, as a subjective philo- 
sophy, their logical completion. Secondly, it is founded on 
scepticism; for it has neither interest in, nor reliance upon, 
empirical knowledge. Thirdly, it can justly claim the honour 
of Plato's name, since it expressly goes back to him for its 
metaphysics, directly combating those of the Stoa. Yet even 
on this point it learned something from the Stoics; the Neo- 
platonic conception of the action of the Deity on the world and 
of the essence and origin of matter can only be explained by 
reference to the dynamic pantheism of the Stoa. Fourthly, 
the study of Aristotle also exercised an influence on Neoplatonism. 
This appears not only in its philosophical method, but also 
though less prominently in its metaphysic. And, fifthly, Neo- 
platonism adopted the ethics of Stoicism; although it was 
found necessary to supplement them by a still higher conception 
of the functions of the spirit. 

Thus, with the exception of Epicureanism which was always 
treated by Neoplatonism as its mortal enemy there is no out- 
standing earlier system which did not contribute something to 
the new philosophy. And yet Neoplatonism cannot be described 
as an eclectic system, in the ordinary sense of the word. For, in 
the first place, it is dominated by one all-pervading interest the 
religious; and in the second place, it introduced a new first 
principle into philosophy, viz. the supra-rational, that which 
lies beyond reason and beyond reality. This principle is not to 
be identified with the " idea " of Plato or with the " form " of 
Aristotle. Neoplatonism perceived that neither sense perception 
nor rational cognition is a sufficient basis or justification for 
religious ethics; consequently it broke away from rationalistic 
ethics as decidedly as from utilitarian morality. It had therefore 
to find out a new world and a new spiritual function, in order 
first to establish the existence of what it desiderated, and then 
to realize and describe what it had proved to exist. Man, how- 
ever, cannot transcend his psychological endowment. If he will 
not allow his thought to be determined by experience, he falls 
a victim to his imagination. In other words, thought, which will 
not stop, takes to mythology; and in the place of reason we 
have superstition. Still, as we cannot allow every fancy of the 
subjective reason to assert itself, we require some new and potent 
principle to keep the imagination within bounds. This is found 



in the authority of a sound tradition. Such authority must be 
superhuman, otherwise it can have no claim on our respect; it 
must, therefore, be divine. The highest sphere of knowledge 
the supra-rational as well as the very possibility of knowledge, 
must depend on divine communications that is, on revelations. 
In short, philosophy as represented by Neoplatonism, its sole 
interest being a religious interest, and its highest object the supra- 
rational, must be a philosophy of revelation. 

This is not a prominent feature in Plotinus or his immediate 
disciples, who still exhibit full confidence in the subjective pre- 
suppositions of their philosophy. But the later adherents of the 
school did not possess this confidence 1 ; they based their philo- 
sophy on revelations of the Deity, and they found these in the 
religious traditions and rites of all nations. The Stoics had 
taught them to overstep the political boundaries of states and 
nationalities, and rise from the Hellenic to a universal human 
consciousness. Through all history the spirit of God has breathed ; 
everywhere we discover the traces of His revelation. The older 
any religious tradition or mode of worship is, the more venerable is 
it, the richer in divine ideas. Hence the ancient religions of the 
East had a peculiar interest for the Neoplatonist. In the inter- 
pretation of myths Neoplatonism followed the allegorical method, 
as practised especially by the Stoa; but the importance it 
attached to the spiritualized myths was unknown to the Stoic 
philosophers. The latter interpreted the myths and were done 
with them; the later Neoplatonists treated them as the proper 
material and the secure foundation of philosophy. Neoplatonism 
claimed to be not merely the absolute philosophy, the keystone 
of all previous systems, but also the absolute religion, reinvigorat- 
ing and transforming all previous religions. It contemplated a 
restoration of all the religions of antiquity, by allowing each to 
retain its traditional forms, and at the same time making each a 
vehicle for the religious attitude and the religious truth embraced 
in Neoplatonism; while every form of ritual was to become a 
stepping-stone to a high morality worthy of mankind. In short, 
Neoplatonism seizes on the aspiration of the human soul after a 
higher life, and treats this psychological fact as the key to the 
interpretation of the universe. Hence the existing religions, 
after being refined and spiritualized, were made the basis of 
philosophy, i 

Neoplatonism thus represents a stage in the history of religion; 
indeed this is precisely where its historical importance lies. 
In the progress of science and enlightenment it has no positive 
significance, except as a necessary transition which the race had 
to make in order to get rid of nature-religion, and that under- 
valuing of the spiritual life which formed an insuperable obstacle 
to the advance of human knowledge. Neoplatonism, however, 
failed as signally in its religious enterprise as it did in its phil- 
osophical. While seeking to perfect ancient philosophy, it really 
extinguished it; and in like manner its attempted reconstruction 
t>f ancient religions only resulted in their destruction. For in 
requiring these religions to impart certain prescribed religious 
truths, and to inculcate the highest moral tone, it burdened them 
with problems to which they were unequal. And further, by 
inviting them to loosen, though not exactly to dissolve, their 
political allegiance the very thing that gave them stability 
it removed the foundation on which they rested. But might it 
not then have placed them on a broader and firmer foundation? 
Was not the universal empire of Rome ready at hand, and might 
not the new religion have stood to it in the same relation of 
dependence which the earlier religions had held to the smaller 
nations and states? This was no longer possible. It is true that 
the political and spiritual histories of the peoples on the Mediter- 
ranean run in parallel lines, the one leading up to the universal 
monarchy of Rome, the other leading up to monotheism and 
universal human morality. But the spiritual development had 
shot far ahead of the political; even the Stoa occupied a height 
far beyond the reach of anything in the political sphere. It is 
also true that Neoplatonism sought to come to an understanding 

1 Porphyry wrote a book, tttpl rfjs in Xo-ylwi' 4>iXo<ro<#>ias, but this 
was before he became a pupil of Plotinus; as a philosopher he was 
independent of the Xo-yia. 



374 



NEOPLATONISM 



with the Byzantine Roman empire; Julian perished in the 
pursuit of this project. But even before his day the shrewder 
Neoplatonists had seen that their lofty religious philosophy could 
not stoop to an alliance with the despotic world-empire, because 
it could not come in contact with the world at all. To Neo- 
platonism political affairs are at bottom as indifferent as all other 
earthly things. The idealism of the new philosophy was too 
heavenly to be naturalized in the Byzantine empire, which stood 
more in need of police officials than of philosophers. Important 
and instructive, therefore, as are the attempts made from time 
to time by the state and by individual philosophers to unite 
Neoplatonism and the universal monarchy, their failure was a 
foregone conclusion. 

There is one other question which we are called upon to raise 
here. Why did not Neoplatonism set up an independent religious 
community? Why did it not provide for its mixed multitude of 
divinities by founding a universal church, in which all the gods of 
all nations might be worshipped along with the one ineffable 
Deity? The answer to this question involves the answer to 
another Why was Neoplatonism defeated by Christianity? 
Three essentials of a permanent religious foundation were want- 
ing in Neoplatonism; they are admirably indicated in Augustine's 
Confessions (vii. 18-21). First, and chiefly, it lacked a religious 
founder; second, it could not tell how the state of inward peace 
and blessedness could become permanent; third, it had no 
means to win those who were not endowed with the speculative 
faculty. The philosophical discipline which it recommended 
for the attainment of the highest good was beyond the reach of 
the masses; and the way by which the masses could at tain .the 
highest good was a secret unknown to Neoplatonism. Thus it 
remained a school for the " wise and prudent "; and when Julian 
tried to enlist the sympathies of the common rude man for the 
doctrines and worship of this school, he was met with scorn and 
ridicule. 

It is not as a philosophy, then, nor as a new religion, that 
Neoplatonism became a decisive factor in history, but, if one 
may use the expression, as a " mood." The instinctive certainty 
that there is a supreme good, lying beyond empirical experience, 
and yet not an intellectual good this feeling, and the accom- 
panying conviction of the utter vanity of all earthly things, 
were produced and sustained by Neoplatonism. Only it could 
not describe the nature of this highest good; and there- 
fore it had to abandon itself to imagination and aesthetic im- 
pressions. It changed thought into an emotional dream; 
it plunged into the ocean of sentiment ; it treated the old world 
of fable as the reflection of a higher reality, and transformed 
reality into poetry; and after all these expedients, to borrow 
a phrase of Augustine's, it only saw afar off the land of its 
desire. 

Yet the influence of Neoplatonism on the history of our 
ethical culture is immeasurable, above all because it begot 
the consciousness that the only blessedness which can satisfy 
the heart must be sought higher even than the sphere of reason. 
That man shall not live by bread alone, the world had learned 
before Neoplatonism; but Neoplatonism enforced the deeper 
truth a truth which the older philosophy had missed that 
man shall not live by knowledge alone. And, besides the pro- 
paedeutic importance which thus belongs to it, another fact 
has to be taken into account in estimating the influence of 
Neoplatonism. It is to this day the nursery of that whole type 
of devotion which affects renunciation of the world, which 
strives after an ideal, without the strength to rise above aesthetic 
impressions, and is never able to form a clear conception of the 
object of its own aspiration. 

Origin. As forerunners of Neoplatonism we may regard, 
on the one hand, those Stoics who accepted the Platonic dis- 
tinction between the sensible world and the intelligible, and, 
on the other hand, the so-called Neopythagoreans and religious 
philosophers like Plutarch of Chaeronea and especially Numenius 
of Apamea. But these cannot be considered the actual pro- 
genitors of Neoplatonism; their philosophic method is quite 
elementary as compared with the Neoplatonic, their fundamental 



principles are uncertain, and unbounded deference is still paid 
to the authority of Plato. The Jewish and Christian thinkers 
of the first two centuries approach considerably nearer than 
Numenius to the later Neoplatonism. 1 Here we have Philo, 
to begin with. Philo, who translated the Old Testament religion 
into the terms of Hellenic thought, holds as an inference from 
his theory of revelation that the divine Supreme Being is " supra- 
rational," that He can be reached only through " ecstasy ", 
and that the oracles of God supply the material of moral and 
religious knowledge. The religious ethics of Philo a compound 
of Stoic, Platonic and Neopythagorean elements already 
bear the peculiar stamp which we recognize in Neoplatonism. 
While his system assigns the supremacy to Greek philosophy 
over the national religion of Israel, it exacts from the former, 
as a sort of tribute to the latter, the recognition of the elevation 
of God above the province of reason. The claim of positive 
religion to be something more than the intellectual apprehension 
of the reason in the universe is thus acknowledged. Religious 
syncretism is also a feature of Philo's system, but it differs 
essentially from what we find in later Neoplatonism. For 
Philo pays no respect to any cultus except the Jewish; and he 
believed that all the fragments of truth to be found amongst 
Greeks and Romans had been borrowed from the books of Moses. 
The earliest Christian philosophers, particularly Justin and 
Athenagoras, likewise prepared the way for the speculations 
of the Neoplatonists partly by their attempts to connect 
Christianity with Stoicism and Platonism, partly by their 
ambition to exhibit Christianity as " hyperplatonic." In the 
introduction to his Dialogue with Trypho, Justin follows a 
method which bears a striking resemblance to the later method 
of Neoplatonism: he seeks to base the Christian knowledge 
of God that is, the knowledge of the truth on Platonism, 
Scepticism and " Revelation." A still more remarkable parallel 
to the later Neoplatonism is afforded by the Christian Gnostics 
of Alexandria, especially Valentinus and the followers of Basilides. 2 
Like the Neoplatonists, the Basilidians believed, not in an 
emanation from the Godhead, but in a dynamic manifestation 
of its activity. The same is true of Valentinus, who also placed 
an unnameable being at the apex of his system, and regarded 
matter, not as a second principle, but as a product of the one 
divine principle. It must be added that the dependence of 
Basilides and Valentinus on Zeno and Plato is beyond dispute. 
But the method observed by these Gnostics in thinking out the 
plan and the history of the universe is by no means thoroughgoing. 
Ancient myths are admitted without undergoing analysis; the 
most naive realism alternates with daring efforts at spiritualiz- 
ing. Philosophically considered, therefore, the Gnostic systems 
are very unlike the rigorous self-consistency of Neoplatonism; 
although they certainly contain almost all the elements which 
enter into the Neoplatonic theory of the universe. 

But were the oldest Neoplatonists really acquainted with 
the speculations of Philo, or Justin, or Valentinus, or Basilides? 
Did they know the Oriental religions, Judaism and Christianity 
in particular? And, if so, did they really derive anything from 
these sources? 

To these questions we cannot give decided, still less definite 
and precise, answers. Since Neoplatonism originated in 
Alexandria, where Oriental modes of worship were accessible 
to every one, and since the Jewish philosophy had also taken 
its place in the literary circles of Alexandria, we may safely 
assume that even the earliest of the Neoplatonists possessed 

1 The resemblance would probably be still more apparent if we 
thoroughly understood the development of Christianity at Alexandria 
in the 2nd century; but unfortunately we have only very meagre 
fragments to guide us here. 

*The dogmas of the Basilidians, as given by Hippolytus, read 
almost like passages from Neoplatonic works : lire* oW?c fa oi>x 5Xi), 
O&K obaia, oi>K drofouop, ofrx iirXoOp, ob abvdfTov, O(IK iivirriTov, ofa 
dxaitrflijToy, ou/c SirJpwiros. . . . OVK &v Btfn dro^ruis, bvaurffriTus, d/SouXws, 
dirpoaiperajs, Airaflus, dvejtSu^ijTws K&apov rtdi\7ia( roirj<r<u . . . oiiTui 
ofa Siv Otoj eirajjue nbanov ofa Avra. t OUK Srrwv, i.c.raffa\6^(foi nal 
6iro<rTi7<7aj aTripy.a TI Iv IXOP fS-aav iv lavrt? rf/v TOV Kixruav ir 
(Philos. vii. 20 seq.). See GNOSTICISM, BASILIDES, &c. 



NEOPLATONISM 



375 



an acquaintance with Judaism and Christianity. But if we 
search Plotinus for evidence of any actual influence of Jewish 
and Christian philosophy, we search in vain; and the existence 
of any such influence is all the more unlikely because it is only 
the later Neoplatonism that offers striking and deep-rooted 
parallels to Philo and the Gnostics. The Philonic and Gnostic 
philosophies thus appear to be merely an historical anticipation 
of the Neoplatonic, without any real connexion. Nor is there 
anything mysterious in such an anticipation. It simply means 
that a certain religious and philosophical tendency, which 
grew up slowly on Greek soil, was already implanted in those 
who occupied the vantage-ground of a revealed religion of redemp- 
tion. We have to come down to lamblichus and his school 
bsfore we find complete correspondence with the Christian 
Gnosticism of the 2nd century; that is to say, it is only in the 
4th century that Greek philosophy in its proper development 
reaches the stage at which certain Greek philosophers who 
had embraced Christianity had arrived in the 2nd century. 
The influence of Christianity whether Gnostic or Catholic 
on Neoplatonism was at no time very considerable, although 
individual Neoplatonists, after Amelius, used Christian texts 
as oracles, and put on record their admiration for Christ. 

History and Doctrines. The founder of the Neoplatonic school 
in Alexandria is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccas (q.v.). 
, ,. But the Enneads of his pupil Plotinus are the primary 

Plotinus. . J 

and classical document of Neoplatonism. The doctrine 
of Plotinus is mysticism, and like all mysticism it consists of 
two main divisions. The first or theoretical part deals with the 
high origin of the human soul, and shows how it has departed 
from its first estate. In the second or practical part the way 
is pointed out by which the soul may again return to the Eternal 
and Supreme. Since the soul in its longings reaches forth beyond 
all sensible things, beyond the world of ideas even, it follows 
that the highest being must be something supra-rational. The 
system thus embraces three heads (i) the primeval Being, 
(2) the ideal world and the soul, (3) the phenomenal world. 
We may also, however, in accordance with the views of 
Plotinus, divide thus: (A) the invisible world (i) the primeval 
Being, (2) the ideal world, (3) the soul; (B) the phenomenal 
world. 

The primeval Being is, as opposed to the many, the One; 
as opposed to the finite, the Infinite, the unlimited. It is the 
source of all life, and therefore absolute causality and the only 
real existence. It is, moreover, the Good, in so far as all finite 
things have their purpose in it, and ought to flow back to it. 
But one cannot attach moral attributes to the original Being 
itself, because these would imply limitation. It has no attributes 
of any kind; it is being without magnitude, without life, without 
thought; in strict propriety, indeed, we ought not to speak 
of it as existing; it is " above existence," " above goodness." 
It is also active force without a substratum; as active force 
the primeval Being is perpetually producing something else, 
without alteration, or motion, or diminution of itself. This 
production is not a physical process, but an emission of force; 
and, since the product has real existence only in virtue of the 
original existence working in it, Neoplatonism may be described 
as a species of dynamic pantheism. Directly or indirectly, 
everything is brought forth by the " One." In it all things, 
so far as they have being, are divine, and God is all in all. Derived 
existence, however, is not like the original Being itself, but is 
subject to- a law of diminishing completeness. It is indeed an 
image and reflection of the first Being; but the further the line 
of successive projections is prolonged the smaller is its share 
in the true existence. The totality of being may thus be con- 
ceived as a series of concentric circles, fading away towards 
the verge of non-existence, the force of the original Being in 
the outermost circle being a vanishing quantity. Each lower 
stage of being is united with the " One " by all the higher stages, 
and receives its share of reality only by transmission through 
them. All derived existence, however, has a drift towards, 
a longing for, the higher, and bends towards it so far as its 
nature will permit. 



The original Being first of all throws out the nous, which is a perfect 
image of the One and the archetype of all existing things. It is at 
once being and thought, ideal world and idea. As image, the nous 
corresponds perfectly to the One, but as derived it is entirely different. 
What Plotinus understands by the nous is the highest sphere acces- 
sible to the human mind (KIW/IOS vojjris), and, along with that, 
pure thought itself. 

The image and product of the motionless nous is the soul, which, 
according to Plotinus is, like the nous, immaterial. Its relation to 
the nous is the same as that of the nous to the One. It stands 
between the nous and the phenomenal world, is permeated and 
illuminated by the former, but is also in contact with the latter. 
The nous is indivisible ; the soul may preserve its unity and remain 
in the nous, but at the same time it has the power of uniting" with 
the corporeal world and thus being disintegrated. It therefore 
occupies an intermediate position. As a single soul (world-soul) it 
belongs in essence and destination to the intelligible world; but it 
also embraces innumerable individual souls; and these can either 
submit to be ruled by the nous, or turn aside to the sensual and lose 
themselves in the finite. 

Then the soul, a moving essence, generates the corporeal or pheno- 
menal world. This world ought to be so pervaded by the soul that 
its various parts should remain in perfect harmony. Plotinus is no 
dualist, like the Christian Gnostics; he admires the beauty and 
splendour of the world. So long as idea governs matter, or the soul 
governs the body, the world is fair and good. It is an image 
though a shadowy image of the upper world, and the degrees of 
better and worse in it are essential to the harmony of the whole. 
But in the actual phenomenal world unity and harmony are replaced 
by strife and discord; the result is a conflict, a becoming and 
vanishing, an illusive existence. And the reason for this state of 
things is that bodies rest on a substratum of matter. Matter is the 
basework of each (r6 fiaBos tKaarov 1) 5Xj); it is the dark principle, the 
indeterminate, that which has no qualities, the ^ &v. Destitute of 
form and idea, it is evil ; as capable of form it is neutral. 

The human souls which have descended into corporeality are those 
which have allowed themselves to be ensnared by sensuality and 
overpowered by lust. They now seek to cut themselves loose from 
their true being; and, striving after independence, they assume a 
false existence. They must turn back from this; and, since they 
have not lost their freedom, a conversion is still possible. 

Here, then, we enter upon the practical philosophy. Along the 
same road by which it descended the soul must retrace its steps back 
to the supreme Good. It must first of all return to itself. This is 
accomplished by the practice of virtue, which aims at likeness to 
God, and leads up to God. In the ethics of Plotinus all the older 
schemes of virtue are taken over and arranged in a graduated series. 
The lowest stage is that of the civil virtues, then follow the purifying, 
and last of all the divine virtues. The civil virtues merely adorn 
the life, without elevating the soul. That is the office of the purifying 
virtues, by which the soul is freed from sensuality and led back to 
itself, and thence to the nous. By means of ascetic observances the 
man becomes once more a spiritual and enduring being, free from all 
sin. But there is still a higher attainment; it is not enough to be 
sinless, one must become " God." This is reached through contem- 
plation of the primeval Being, the One in other words, through an 
ecstatic approach to it. Thought cannot attain to this, for thought 
reaches only to the nous, and is itself a kind of motion. It is only in 
a state of perfect passivity and repose that the soul can recognize 
and touch the primeval Being. Hence the soul must first pass 
through a spiritual curriculum. Beginning with the contemplation 
of corporeal things in their multiplicity and harmony, it then retires 
upon itself and withdraws into the depths of its own being, rising 
thence to the nous, the world of ideas. But even there it does not 
find the Highest, the One; it still hears a voice saying, " not we 
have made ourselves." The last stage is reached when, in the highest 
tension and concentration, beholding in silence and utter forgetful- 
ness of all things, it is able as it were to lose itself. Then it may see 
God, the fountain of life, the source of being, the origin of all good, 
the root of the soul. In that moment it enjoys the highest indescrib- 
able bliss; it is as it were swallowed up of divinity, bathed in the 
light of eternity. 1 

Such is the religious philosophy of Plotinus, and for himself 
personally it sufficed, without the aid of the popular religion 
or worship. Nevertheless he sought for points of support in 
these. God is certainly in the truest sense nothing but the 
primeval Being; but He reveals Himself in a variety of emana- 
tions and manifestations. The nous is a sort of second god, 
the \6-yot which are wrapped up in it are gods, the stars are gods, 
and so on. A rigid monotheism appeared to Plotinus a miserable 
conception. He gave a meaning to the myths of the popular 
religions, and he had something to say even for magic, sooth- 
saying and prayer. In support of*image-worship he advanced 

1 Porphyry tells us that on four occasions during the six years of 
their intercourse Plotinus attained to this ecstatic union with God. 



NEOPLATONISM 



arguments which were afterwards adopted by the Christian 
image-worshippers. Still, as compared with the later Neo- 
platonists, he is comparatively free from crass superstition and 
wild fanaticism. He is not to be classed amongst the " deceived 
deceivers," and the restoration of the worship of the old gods 
was by no means his chief object. 

Amongst his pupils, Amelius and Porphyry are the most 

eminent. Amelius modified the teaching of Plotinus on certain 

points; and he also put some value on the prologue 

"orphyiy. to the Gospe j of j ohn To p orp hyry (q.v.) belongs the 

credit of having recast and popularized the system of his master 
Plotinus. He was not an original thinker, but a diligent student, 
distinguished by great learning, by a turn for historical and 
philological criticism, and by an earnest purpose to uproot false 
teaching especially Christianity, to ennoble men and train 
them to goodness. The system of Porphyry is more emphatically 
practical and religious than that of Plotinus. The object of 
philosophy, according to Porphyry, is the salvation of the soul. 
The origin and the blame of evil are not in the body, but in the 
desires of the soul. Hence the strictest asceticism (abstinence 
from flesh, and wine, and sexual intercourse) is demanded, as 
well as the knowledge of God. As he advanced in life, Porphyry 
protested more and more earnestly against the rude faith of the 
common people and their immoral worships. But, outspoken 
as he was in his criticism of the popular religions, he had no 
wish to give them up. He stood up for a pure worship of the 
many gods, and maintained the cause of every old national 
religion and the ceremonial duties of its adherents. His work 
Against the Christians was directed, not against Christ, nor even 
against what he believed to be Christ's teaching, but against 
the Christians of his own day and their sacred books, which, 
according to Porphyry, were the work of deceivers and ignorant 
people. In his trenchant criticism of the origin of what passed 
for Christianity in his time, he spoke bitter and severe truths, 
which have gained for him the reputation of the most rabid and 
wicked of all the enemies of Christianity. His work was 
destroyed, 1 but the copious extracts which we find in Lactantius, 
Augustine, Jerome, Macarius Magnus and others show how 
profoundly he had studied the Christian writings, and how great 
was his talent for real historical research. 

Porphyry marks the transition to a new phase of Neoplatonism, 
in which it becomes completely subservient to polytheism, and 
seeks before everything else to protect the Greek and 
Oriental religions from the formidable assault of 
Christianity. In the hands of lamblichus (q.v.), the 
pupil of Porphyry, Neoplatonism is changed " from a philo- 
sophical theory to a theological doctrine." The distinctive tenets 
of lamblichus cannot be accounted for from scientific but only 
from practical considerations. In order to justify superstition 
and the ancient forms of worship, philosophy becomes in his hands 
a theurgy, a knowledge of mysteries, a sort of spiritualism. 

To this period also belongs a set of " philosophers," with 
regard to whom it is impossible to say whether they are dupes 
or impostors the "decepti deceptores" of whom Augustine 
speaks. In this philosophy the mystical properties of numbers 
are a leading feature; absurd and mechanical notions are 
glossed over with the sheen of sacramental mystery; myths are 
explained by pious fancies and fine-sounding pietistic reflections; 
miracles, even the most ridiculous, are believed in, and miracles 
are wrought. The " philosopher " has become a priest of magic 
and philosophy a method of incantation. Moreover, in the 
unbridled exercise of speculation, the number of divine beings 
was increased indefinitely; and these fantastic accessions to 
Olympus in the system of lamblichus show that Greek philosophy 
is returning to mythology, and that nature-religion is still a 
power in the world. And yet it is undeniable that the very 
noblest and choicest minds of the 4th century are to be found 
in the ranks of the Neoplatonists. So great was the general 
decline that this Neoplatonjc philosophy offered a welcome 
shelter to many earnest and influential men, in spite of the 

1 It was condemned by an edict of the emperors Theodosius II. and 
Valentinian in the year 448. 



lambll- 
cbus. 



charlatans and hypocrites who were gathered under the same 
roof. On certain points of doctrine, too, the dogmatic of 
lamblichus indicates a real advance. Thus his emphatic asser- 
tion of the truth that the seat of evil is in the will is noteworthy; 
and so also is his repudiation of Plotinus's theory of the divinity 
of the soul. 

The numerous followers of lamblichus Aedesius, Chrysan- 
thius, Eusebius, Priscus, Sopater, Sallust, and, most famous of 
all, Maximus (?..), rendered little service to speculation. Some 
of them (Themistius in particular) are known as commentators 
on the older philosophers, and others as the missionaries of 
mysticism. The work De mysteriis Acgypliorum is the best 
sample of the views and aims of these philosophers. Their hopes 
rose high when Julian ascended the imperial throne (361-363). 
But the emperor himself lived long enough to see that his 
romantic policy of restoration was to leave no results; and 
after his early death all hope of extinguishing Christianity was 
abandoned. 

But undoubtedly the victory of Christianity in the age of 
Valentinian and Theodosius had a purifying influence on Neo- 
platonism. During the struggle for supremacy, the 
philosophers had been driven to make common cause Influence 
with everything that was hostile to Christianity, ogiijjy*" 
But now Neoplatonism was thrust from the great stage 
of history. The church and church theology, to whose guidance 
the masses now surrendered themselves, took in along with them 
their superstition, their polytheism, their magic, their myths, 
and all the machinery of religious witchcraft. The more all 
this settled and established itself certainly not without opposi- 
tion in the church the purer did Neoplatonism become. While 
maintaining intact its religious attitude and its theory of know- 
ledge, it returned with new zest to scientific studies, especially 
the study of the old philosophers. If Plato still remains the 
divine philosopher, yet we can perceive that after the year 400 
the writings of Aristotle are increasingly read and valued. 
In the chief cities of the empire Neoplatonic schools flourished 
till the beginning of the sth century; during this period, indeed, 
they were the training-schools of Christian theologians. At 
Alexandria the noble Hypatia (q.v.) taught, to whose memory 
her impassioned disciple Synesius, afterwards a bishop, reared a 
splendid monument. But after the beginning of the sth century 
the fanaticism of the church could no longer endure the presence 
of " heathenism." The murder of Hypatia was the death of 
philosophy in Alexandria, although the school there maintained 
a lingering existence till the middle of the 6th century. But there 
was one city of the East which, lying apart from the crowded 
highways of the world, had sunk to a mere provincial town, and 
yet possessed associations which the church of the sth century felt 
herself powerless to eradicate. In Athens a Neoplatonic school 
still flourished. There, under the monuments of its glorious 
past, Hellenism found its last retreat. The school of Athens 
returned to a stricter philosophical method and the cultivation 
of scholarship. Still holding by a religious philosophy, it under- 
took to reduce the whole Greek tradition, as seen in the light of 
Plotinus, to a comprehensive and closely knit system. Hence 
the philosophy which arose at Athens was what may fairly be 
termed scholasticism. For every philosophy is scholastic 
whose subject-matter is imaginative and mystical, and which 
handles this subject-matter according to established rules in 
logical categories and distinctions. Now to these Neoplatonists, 
the books of Plato, along with certain divine oracles, the Orphic 
poems, and much more which they assigned to a remote antiquity, 
were documents of canonical authority; they were inspired 
divine writings. Out of these they drew the material of their 
philosophy, which they then proceeded to elaborate with the 
appliances of dialectic. 

The most distinguished teachers at Athens were Plutarch 
(q.v.), his disciple Syrianus (who did important work as a com- 
mentator on Plato and Aristotle, and further deserves Pnclus. 
mention for his vigorous defence of the freedom of the 
will), but above all Proclus (411-485). Proclus is the great 
schoolman of Neoplatonism. It was he who, combining religious 



NEOPLATONISM 



377 



ardour with formal acuteness, connected the whole mass of 
traditional lore into a huge system, 'making good defects, and 
smoothing away contradictions by means of distinctions and 
speculations. " It was reserved for Proclus," says Zeller, " to 
bring the Neoplatonic philosophy to its formal conclusion by the 
rigorous consistency of his dialectic, and, keeping in view all 
the modifications which it had undergone in the course of two 
centuries, to give it that form in which it was transferred to 
Christianity and Mahommedanism in the middle ages." Forty- 
four years after the death of Proclus the school of Athens was 
closed by Justinian (A.D. 529); but it had already fulfilled its 
mission in the work of Proclus. The works of Proclus, as the 
last testament of Hellenism to the church and the middle ages, 
exerted an incalculable influence on the next thousand years. 
They not only formed one of the bridges by which the medieval 
thinkers got back to Plato and Aristotle; they determined the 
scientific method of thirty generations, and they partly created 
and partly nourished the Christian mysticism of the middle ages. 

The disciples of Proclus are not eminent (Marinus, Asclepio- 
dotus, Ammonius, Zenodotus, Isidorus, Hegias, Damascius). 
The last president of the Athenian school was Damascius (g.v.). 
When Justinian issued the edict for the suppression of the school, 
Damascius along with Simplicius (the painstaking commentator 
on Aristotle) and five other Neoplatonists set out to make a home 
in Persia. They found the conditions were unfavourable and 
were allowed to return (see CHOSROES I.). 

At the beginning of the 6th century Neoplatonism had ceased 
to exist in the East as an independent philosophy. Almost at 
the same time, however and the coincidence is not accidental 
it made new conquests in the church theology through the writings 
of the pseudo-Dionysius. It began to bear fruit in Christian 
mysticism, and to diffuse a new magical leaven through the 
worship of the church. 

In the West, where philosophical efforts of any kind had been 
very rare since the 2nd century, and where mystical contempla- 
tion did not meet with the necessary conditions, Neoplatonism 
found a congenial soil only in isolated individuals. C. Marius 
Victorinus (q.v.) translated certain works of Plotinus, and thus 
had a decisive influence on the spiritual history of Augustine 
(Confess, vii. 9, viii. 2). It may be said that Neoplatonism 
influenced the West only through the medium of the church 
theology, or, in some instances, under that disguise. Even 
Boetius (it may now be considered certain) was a catholic 
Christian, although his whole mode of thought was certainly 
Neoplatonic (see BOETIUS). His violent death in the year 525 
marks the end of independent philosophy in the West. But 
indeed this last of the Roman philosophers stood quite alone 
in his century, and the philosophy for which he lived was neither 
original, nor well-grounded, nor methodically developed. 

Neoplatonism and the Theology of the Church. The question as to 
the influence of Neoplatonism on the development of Christianity 
is not easily answered, because it is scarcely possible to get a com- 
plete view of their mutual relations. The answer will depend, in 
the first instance, upon how much is included under the term " Neo- 
platonism." If Neoplatonism is understood in the widest sense, 
as the highest and fittest expression of the religious movements at 
work in the Graeco-Roman empire from the 2nd to the 5th century, 
then it may be regarded as the twin-sister of the church dogmatic 
which grew up during the same period; the younger sister was 
brought up by the elder, then rebelled against her and at last tyran- 
nized over her. The Neoplatonists themselves characterized the 
theologians of the church as intruders, who had appropriated the 
Greek philosophy and spoiled it by the admixture of strange fables. 
Thus Porphyry says of Origen (Euseb. H.E. vi. 19), " The outer 
life of Origen was that of a Christian and contrary to law; but, as 
far as his views of things and of God are concerned, he thought like 
the Greeks, whose conceptions he overlaid with foreign myths." 
This verdict of Porphyry's is at all events more just and apt than 
that of the theologians on the Greek philosophers, when they accused 
them of having borrowed all their really valuable doctrines from the 
ancient Christian books. But the important point is that the rela- 
tionship was acknowledged on both sides. Now, in so far as both 
Neoplatonism and the church dogmatic set out from the felt need of 
redemption, in so far as both sought to deliver the soul from sensu- 
ality and recognized man's inability without divine aid without a 
revelation to attain salvation and a sure knowledge of the truth, 
they are at once most intimately related and at the same time 



mutually independent. It must be confessed that when Chris- 
tianity began to project a theology it was already deeply impregnated 
by Hellenic influences. But the influence is to be traced not so 
much to philosophy as to the general culture of the time, and the 
whole set of conditions under which spiritual life was manifested. 
When Neoplatonism appeared, the Christian church had already laid 
down the main positions of her theology; or if not r she worked 
them out alongside of Neoplatonism that is not a mere accident 
but still independently. It was only by identifying itself with the 
whole history of Greek philosophy, or by figuring as pure Platonism 
restored, that Neoplatonism could stigmatize the church theology 
of Alexandria as a plagiarism from itself. These assumptions, how- 
ever, were fanciful. Although our sources are unfortunately very 
imperfect, the theology of the church does not appear to have learned 
much from Neoplatonism in the 3rd century partly because the 
latter had not yet reached the form in which its doctrines could 
be accepted by the church dogmatic, and partly because theology 
was otherwise occupied. Her first business was to plant herself 
firmly on her own territory, to make good her position and clear 
away old and objectionable opinions. Origen was quite as inde- 
pendent a thinker as Plotinus; only, they both drew on the same 
tradition. From the 4th century downwards, however, the influence 
of Neoplatonism on the Oriental theologians was of the utmost im- 
portance. The church gradually expressed her most peculiar con- 
victions in dogmas, which were formulated by philosophical methods, 
but were irreconcilable with Neoplatonism (the Christological 
dogmas); and the further this process went the more unrestrainedly 
did theologians resign themselves to the influence of Neoplatonism 
on all other questions. The doctrines of the incarnation, the resur- 
rection of the flesh and the creation of the world in time marked the 
boundary line between the church's dogmatic and Neoplatonism; 
in every other respect, theologians and Neoplatonists drew so closely 
together that many of them are completely at one. In fact, there 
were special cases, like that of Synesius, in which a speculative 
reconstruction of distinctively Christian doctrines by Christian men 
was winked at. If a book does not happen to touch on any of the 
above-mentioned doctrines, it may often be doubtful whether the 
writer is a Christian or a Neoplatonist. In ethical precepts, in 
directions for right living (that is, asceticism), the two systems 
approximate more and more closely. But it was here that Neo- 
platonism finally celebrated its greatest triumph. It indoctrinated 
the church with all its mysticism, its mystic exercises and even its 
magical cultus as taught by lamblichus. The works of the pseudo- 
Dionysius contain a gnosis in which, by means of the teaching of 
lamblichus and Proclus, the church's theology is turned into a 
scholastic mysticism with directions on matters of practice and 
ritual. And as these writings were attributed to Dionysius, the 
disciple of the apostles, the scholastic mysticism which they unfold 
was regarded as an apostolic, not to say a divine, science. The 
influence exercised by these writings, first on the East, and then 
after the 9th (or I2th) century on the West, cannot be overestima- 
ted. It is impossible to enlarge upon it here; suffice it to say that the . 
mystical and pietistic devotion of our own day, even in the Protestant 
churches, is nourished on works whose ancestry can be traced, 
through a series of intermediate links, to the writings of the pseudo- 
Areopagite. 

In the ancient world there was only one Western theologian who 
came directly under the influence of Neoplatonism ; but that one is 
Augustine, the most important of them all. It was through Neo- 
platonism that Augustine got rid of scepticism and the last dregs of 
Manichaeism. In the seventh book of his Confessions he has recorded 
how much he owed to the perusal of Neoplatonic works. On al! the 
cardinal doctrines God, matter, the relation of God to the world, 
freedom and evil Augustine retained the impress of Neoplatonism; 
at the same time he is the theologian of antiquity who most clearly 
perceived and most fully stated wherein Neoplatonism and Chris- 
tianity differ. The best ever written by any church father on this 
subject is to be found in chaps, ix.-xxi. of the seventh book of the 
Confessions. 

Why Neoplatonism succumbed in the conflict with Christianity is 
a question which the historians have never satisfactorily answered. 
As a rule, the problem is not even stated correctly. We have nothing 
to do here with our own private ideal of Christianity, but solely 
with catholic Christianity and catholic theology. These are the forces 
that conquered Neoplatonism, after assimilating nearly everything 
that it contained. Further, we must consider the arena in which 
the victory was won. The battlefield was the empire of Constantine 
and Theodosius. It is only when these and all other circumstances 
of the case are duly realized that we have a right to inquire how 
much the essential doctrines of Christianity contributed to the vic- 
tory, and what share must be assigned to the organization of the 
church. 

In medieval theology and philosophy mysticism appears as the 
powerful opponent of rationalistic dogmatism. The empirical 
science of the Renaissance and the two following centuries was itself 
a new development of Platonism and Neoplatonism, as opposed to 
rationalistic dogmatism, with its contempt for experience. Magic, 
astrology and alchemy all the outgrowth of Neoplatonism gave 
the first effectual stimulus to the observation of nature, and conse- 
quently to natural science, and in this way finally extinguished barren 



NEOPTOLEMUS NEPAL 



rationalism. Thus in the history of science Neoplatonism has played 
a part and rendered services of which Plotinus or lamblichus or 
Proclus never dreamt. So true is it that sober history is often 
stranger and more capricious than all the marvels of legend and 
romance. 

AuTHORiTiES.-pOn the relation of Neoplatonism to Christianity, 
and the historical importance of Neoplatonism generally, see the lead- 
ing church histories, and the Histories of Dogma by Baur, Nitzsch, 
Harnack, &c. Compare also Loffler, Der Plalonismus der Kirchen- 
vdter (17821; Huber, Die Philosophic der Kirchenvater (1859); 



Tzchirner, Fall des Heidenthums (1829), pp. 574-618; Burckhardt, 

n (1853) ; Chastel, Hist, de la destruc- 
tion du Paganisme dans V empire d Orient (1850); Beugnot, Hist. 



Die Zeit Constantin's des Grossen 



de la destruction du Paganisme en Occident (1835); E. von Lasaulx, 
Der Untergang des Hellenismns (1854); Vogt, Neuplatonismus und 
Chrisienthum (1836); Ullmann, " Einfluss des Christenthums auf 
Porphyrius," in the Stud. u. Kritiken (1832); Jean ReVille, La 
Religion a Rome sous les Severes (1886); C. Bigg, The Christian 
Platonists of Alexandria (1886) and Neoplatonism (1895); Rufus M. 
Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909), pp. 70 foil. See further, 
C. Schmidt, Gnostische Schriften in Koptischer Sprache (1892); K. P. 
Hasse, Von Plotin zu Goethe (1909); Thomas Whittaker, The Nep- 
Platonists (1901); Petrie, Personal Religion in Egypt before Christ 
(1909) ; M. Heinze, " Neuplatonismus," in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. 
vol. xiii. (1903). On the after-effects of Neoplatonisrn on the 
church's dogmatic, see Ritschl, Theologie und Metaphysik (1881). 
On the relation of Neoplatonism to Monachism, compare Keim, Aus 
dem Urchristenthum (1878). On the history of Neoplatonism with 
special reference to the decline of Roman polytheism, see, e.g., 
Samuel Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western 
Empire (1898), pp. 82 foil. On Plotinus, Porphyry, &c., see separate 
articles. (A. HA.; J. M. M.) 

NEOPTOLEMUS (also called PYRRHTJS), in Greek legend, the 
son of Achilles and Dei'dameia. He was brought up by his 
grandfather Lycomedes in the island of Scyros, and taken to 
Troy in the last year of the war by Odysseus, since Helenus had 
declared that the city could not be captured without the aid of a 
descendant of Aeacus. Neoptolemus was famed for his beauty, 
eloquence and bravery. He was one of the warriors in the 
wooden horse and slew Priam at the sack of Troy (Odyssey, 
xi. 508-526; Aeneid, ii. 527). Apart from these Trojan tales, 
Neoptolemus is a prominent figure in the legends of Epirus and 
of Delphi. He was the ancestor of the Molossian kings, who 
therefore claimed to be of pure Hellenic stock. He was murdered 
at Delphi, where he was buried, and a festival was held in his 
honour every eighth year. 

NEOPYTHAGOREANISM, a Graeco-Alexandrian school of 
philosophy, which became prominent in the ist century A.D. 
Very little is known about the members of this school, and there 
has been much discussion as to whether the Pythagorean litera- 
ture which was widely published at the time in Alexandria was 
the original work of ist-century writers or merely reproductions 
of and commentaries on the older Pythagorean writings. The 
only well-known members of the school were Apollonius of Tyana 
and Mqderatus of Gades. In the previous century Cicero's 
learned friend P. Nigidius Figulus (d. 45 B.C.) had made an 
attempt to revive Pythagorean doctrines, but he cannot be 
described as a member of the school. Further, it is necessary 
to distinguish from the Neopythagoreans a number of Eclectic 
Platonists, who, during the ist century of our era, maintained 
views which had a similar tendency (e.g. Apuleius of Madaura, 
Plutarch of Chaeronea and, later, Numenius of Apamea). 

Neopythagoreanism was the first product of an age in which 
abstract philosophy had begun to pall. The Stoics discovered 
that their " perfect man " was not to be found in the luxurious, 
often morbid society of the Graeco-Roman world; that some- 
thing more than dialectic ethics was needed to reawaken a 
sense of responsibility. A degenerate society cared nothing for 
syllogisms grown threadbare by repetition. Neopythagoreanism 
was an attempt to introduce a religious element into pagan 
philosophy in place of what had come to be regarded as an arid 
1 formalism. The founders of the school sought to invest their 
doctrines with the halo of tradition by ascribing them to Pytha- 
goras and Plato, and there is no reason to accuse them of insin- 
cerity. They went back to the later period of Plato's thought, 
the period when Plato endeavoured to combine his doctrine 
of Ideas with the Pythagorean number-theory, and identified 
the Good with the One, the source of the duality of the Infinite 



and the Measured (rt> airapov and irtpas) with the resultant 
scale of realities from the One down to the objects of the material 
world. They emphasized the fundamental distinction between 
the Soul and the Body. God must be worshipped spiritually 
by prayer and the will to be good, not in outward action. The 
soul must be freed from its material surrounding, the " muddy 
vesture of decay," by an ascetic habit of life. Bodily pleasures 
and all sensuous impulses must be abandoned as detrimental 
to the spiritual purity of the soul. God is the principle of good; 
Matter (v\ri) the groundwork of Evil. In this system we dis- 
tinguish not only the asceticism of Pythagoras and the later 
mysticism of Plato, but also the influence of the Orphic mysteries 
and of Oriental philosophy. The Ideas of Plato are no longer 
self-subsistent entities; they are the elements which constitute 
the content of spiritual activity. The Soul is no longer an 
appanage of ovaia, it is oiiaia itself: the non-material universe 
is regarded as the sphere of mind or spirit. 

Thus Neopythagoreanism is a link in the chain between the 
old and the new in pagan philosophy. It connects the teaching 
of Plato with the doctrines of Neoplatonism and brings it into 
line with the later Stoicism and with the ascetic system of the 
Essenes. A comparison between the Essenes and the Neo- 
pythagoreans shows a parallel so striking as to warrant the theory 
that the Essenes were profoundly .influenced by Neopythago- 
reanism. Lastly Neopythagoreanism furnished Neoplatonism 
with the weapons with which pagan philosophy made its last 
stand against Christianity. 

See PYTHAGORAS, NEOPLATONISM, ESSENES; and Zeller's Philo- 
sophie d. Griechen. For members of the school see APOLLONIUS OF 
TYANA and MODERATUS OF GADES. 

NEPAL, NEPAUL or NIPAL, an independent state, situated on 
the north-eastern frontier of India, lying between 80 15' and 
88 10' E., and 26 20' and 30 10' N.; area, 54,000 sq. m. Its 
extreme length is about 525 m., and its breadth varies from go 
to 140 m. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet; on the E. by 
Sikkim; on the S. by Bengal and the United Provinces; and 
on the W. by Kumaon, from which it is separated by the Kali 
river. Its population is estimated by the natives at about 
5,200,000, the common phrase used by the rulers in speaking 
of popular opinion being, " but what will the Bawan (i.e. fifty- 
two) Lakh say to this." 

Nepal consists physically of two distinct territories: (l) the 
tarai, or strip of level, cultivated and forest land lying along the 
southern border; and (2) the great mountainous tract stretching 
northwards to Tibet. Along the northern frontier stand many of 
the highest peaks of the Himalayan range, such as Dhaulagiri 
(26,837 ft.), Mutsiputra, Gaurishankar and Yasa (24,000), Gosa'in 
Than (26,313), Mount Everest (29,002 according to the survey value), 
Kinchinjunga (28,146), and numerous peaks varying from 20,000 
to 24,000 ft. In clear weather this magnificent snowy range may be 
seen in an almost continuous line from the top of some of the lower 
ranges near Katmandu. South of these are numerous parallel lower 
ranges, varying from 16,000 to 6000 ft. in height, which are broken 
up at intervals by cross ranges, thus forming a series of glens with a 
few hill-girt valleys interspersed. 

These mountain ranges determine the course of the rivers, which 
are divided by the cross ranges into four groups. The first of these 
extends from Kumaon eastward as far as Dhaulagiri, and consists 
of the affluents of the Kali (Sarda), Sarju, Kurnali, Eastern Sarju, 
and Rapti, all of which ultimately form the Gogra or Gogari, and 
flow into the Ganges. The second group, known to the Nepalese 
as the Sapt Gandaki, rises from the peaks between Dhaulagiri and 
Gosa'in Than, and unite at Trebeni Ghat to form the Gandak. 
The third is a group of smaller rivers draining the great valley of 
Nepal, the valleys of Chitlong, Benepa, and Panouti, and portions 
of the tarai around the Chunaghati range of hills. These are the 
various branches of the Bara Gandak, the lesser Rapti, the Bagmati 
and Kumla. East of this again is the fourth group, known to the 
Nepalese as the Sapt Kosi, rising from the peaks between Gosa'in 
Than and Kinchinjunga, and uniting to form the Soon Kosi, which 
falls into the Ganges. 

There is thus a natural division of the country into four portions. 
The most western is the country of the Baisi (or twenty-two) rajas, 
and contains the towns of Jumla, Doti and Sulliana. The second 
is the country of the Chaubisi (or twenty-four) rajas, and contains 
the towns of Malebum, Palpa, Gurkha and Noakote. The third is 
the district containing Nepal proper, with the capital and many 
large towns to be mentioned afterwards. The fourth is the eastern 
portion of Nepal, comprising the country of the Kiratis, and many 
small towns, such as Dhankota, Ham and Bijapur. 



NEPAL 



379 



Route into Nepal The portion of Nepal, exclusive of the tarai, 
which is open to Europeans is the " valley of Nepal," containing 
the capital of the country, and a few adjacent smaller valleys. 
There is only one means of access open to Europeans, and this 
indeed is in general resorted to by the natives, as the other 
routes to the capital are longer and far more difficult. The 
road runs nearly north from Segauli, passing through the tarai 
and sal forests, to Bhichhkhori ; then through the beds of mountain 
streams, through a pass in the Churiyaghati range, and through 
another sal forest, to Hetoura; thence by a wide and good road to 
Bhimphedi at the foot of the Sisaghari range of hills. So far the 
route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from this 
point the road is a mere rugged footpath over the Sisaghari Pass, 
through the Chitlong valley and over the Chandragiri range. The 
distance from Segauli to Katmandu is 90 m. 

The valley in extreme length from east to west is about 26 m., 
and in breadth from north to south about 15. The surrounding 
hills vary in height from 6000 to 9720 ft., the level of the valley 
itself being about 4500 ft. above the sea. Tradition has it that 
Nepal was once a lake, and appearances are in favour of this view. 
It is crossed from east to west by a low limestone range, through 
which the waters have gradually forced a passage, and in like manner 
the collected rivers have escaped at the south-east corner of the 
valley. 

There are three principal streams, the Bagmati, Vishnumati, and 
Manohora, besides many small tributaries of these. All the rivers 
rise within the valley, except the Bagmati, which springs from the 
northern side of the Shiupuri peak, and enters the valley through a 
ravine at the north-east corner. They all unite and pass through 
a long narrow gorge in the limestone range, already mentioned, at 
Chobhar, and ultimately escape from the valley at Kotwaldar. 

Climate. In and around the Nepal valley, as in India, the year 
may be divided into the rainy, cold and hot seasons. The rains 
begin in June and last till October, but the fall is not so heavy or 
continuous as in the plains of Hindustan. The cold season extends 
from the middle of October to the middle of April. During these 
months the climate is delicious. Hoar-frost and thin ice are common 
in the mornings, and the thermometer sometimes falls as low as 25 
Fahr., but the days are bright and warm. From Christmas to the 
end of February there are occasional showers of rain; and snow 
falls on the surrounding low ranges, but is very rarely seen in the 
valley itself. From April to the beginning of the rains is the hot 
season, but the thermometer seldom reaches 85 in the shade. The 
result of observations extending over many years gives an average 
mean temperature of 60 Fahr., and an annual rainfall of about 
60 in. Violent thunderstorms are not uncommon, and occasionally 
severe earthquakes occur, as in 1833 and 1866. 

Flora and Fauna. In a country possessing such a range of 
altitudes the flora and fauna are of course very varied. For descrip- 
tive purposes, Nepal may again be divided into three zones. These 
are (l) the tarai and lower ranges of hills up to 4000 ft. in height; 

(2) the central ranges and high-lying valleys, up to 10,000 ft. ; and 

(3) the alpine region, from 10,000 to 29,000 ft. in height. These 
zones are not, however, sharply defined, as the climate varies 
according to the latitude, the height of intermediate ranges, and the 
depth of the valleys; so that tropical plants and animals are some- 
times found far in the interior, and the more northern species descend 
along the loftier spurs into the southern zones. 

The low alluvial land of the tarai is well adapted for cultivation, 
and is, so to speak, the granary of Nepal; but owing to scantiness 
of population and other causes the greater portion of it consists of 
swamps, jungles and forests. Considerable stretches of land are, 
however, being reclaimed from year to year. The productions here 
are those of British India cotton, rice, wheat, pulse, sugar-cane, 
tobacco, opium, indigo, and the fruits and vegetables familiar in 
the plains of India. The forests yield a magnificent supply of sal, 
sisli, and other valuable forest trees; and the jungles abound with 
acacias, mimosas, cotton tree (Bombay), dak (Butea frondosa), large 
bamboos, rattans, palms, and numerous ferns and orchids. On the 
Churiaghati range the common Pinus longifolia grows freely. Tea 
can be grown at a height of from 2000 to 4000 ft. The middle zone 
supplies rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, ginger, turmeric, chillies, 
potatoes, Cucurbitaceae, pineapples, and many varieties of European 
fruits, vegetables and flowers. The forests contain tree rhododen- 
drons, Pinus longifolia, oaks, horse-chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill 
bamboos, wild cherry, pear, allies of the tea plant, paper plants 
(Daphne), roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate climes, 
with various orchids, ferns and wild flowers. In the alpine zone 
exist Coniferae of many kinds, junipers, yew, box, hollies, birch, 
dwari rhododendrons and the usual alpine flora. 

The wild animals follow a similar distribution, and the following 
typical species may be mentioned. In the lowest zone are found the 
tiger, leopard, wolf, hyena and jackal, the elephant and rhinoceros, 
the gaur (Gavaeus gaurus), gayal (Gavaeus frontalis) , wild buffalo or 
arna, many species of deer, and the black bear (Ursus labiatus). 
Among the birds are found the pea-fowl, francolins, wild jungle 
fowl, and the smaller vultures, &c. In the middle zone there are the 
leopard, the Himalayan black bear (Ursus tibetanus), the wild dog, 
cats of many sorts, squirrels, hares, porcupines, the pangolin, and 
some species of deer and antelope. Among the birds are the larger 



vultures and eagles, pheasants (Gallophasis) , chukor, hill partridges, 
&c. In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursus isabellinus, 
or brown bear), the yak, musk deer, wild goats and sheep, marmots, 
&c. Among the birds are the eagle- vulture (Gypaetus), the blood 
pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snow pheasant (Tetraogallus hima- 
layensis), snow partridge (Lerwa nivicola), the horned pheasant 
(Ceriornis saiyra), crested pheasant (Catrens wallichi) . &c. Geese, 
ducks, waders of all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in 
abundance in the two lower zones. 

Minerals. The lowest zone in some directions abounds in fossils; 
and deposits of lignite, and even of true coal, are met with, the 
latter notably at a spot south of Palpa. The middle zone is rich in 
limestone and marbles, and abounds with minerals, such as iron, 
copper, zinc, lead and sulphur. Copper is found near the surface 
in many places, and there are remains of mines both at Markhu and 
in the great valley of Nepal. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are 
numerous. Traces of silver, and also of gold, have been found in 
the alpine zone. 

People. The races occupying Nepal are of mixed Mongol 
origin. To the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and 
valleys, dwell the Bhutias or Tibetans. To the west lie the 
Gurungs and Magars. The Murmis, Gurkhalis and Newars 
occupy the central parts; and the Kiratis, Limbus and Lepchas 
occupy the eastern districts. There are also Brahmans and 
Chhatris in the hills. Besides these there are many small tribes 
residing in the tarai and some other malarious districts, known 
as Kumhas, Tharus, Manjis, &c., but generally classed together 
by the Nepalese as Aoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or aoul 
districts. These are probable descendants of immigrants from 
the lower castes of Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the 
tarai. Among the forests of the lower eastern region are also 
to be found some small savage tribes, known as Chepangs and 
Kusundas. 

All the races except the Aoulias are of a decidedly Mongolian 
appearance, being generally short and robust, and having flat 
faces, oblique eyes, yellow complexions, straight black hair, 
and comparatively hairless faces. The Newars, according to 
the Vamqavall or native history, trace their descent from the 
races of southern India, but this is rendered more than doubtful 
by both their appearance and language. The Gurkhalis (Gurkhas 
or Ghurkhas) are descendants of the Brahmans and Rajputs who 
were driven out of Hindostan by the Moslems, and took refuge in 
the western hilly lands, where they ultimately became dominant, 
and where they have become much mixed with the other races 
by intermarriage. 

Religions. The Bhutias, Newars, Limbus, Keratis, and Lepchas 
are all Buddhists, but their religion has become so mixed up with 
Hinduism that it is now hardly recognizable. The Newars have 
entirely abandoned the monastic institutions of Buddhism, and 
have in great measure adopted the rules of caste, though even these 
sit but lightly upon them. They burn their dead, cat the flesh of 
buffaloes, goats, sheep, ducks, and fowls, and drink beer and spirits. 
The Gurkhalis, Magars, and Gurungs are Hindus, but the last two 
are by no means strict in the observance of their religion, though 
there are some peculiarities which they carefully preserve. Thus, 
for instance, the Magars will eat pork but not buffalo's flesh, whereas 
the Gurungs eat the buffalo but not the hog. 

Priests. Where temples are so numerous (there are 2733 shrines 
in the valley) priests naturally abound, both of the Hindu and 
Buddhist religions. The festivals too are many in number, and in 
consequence holidays are incessant. The raj guru, or high priest, is 
an influential person in the state, a member of council, and has a 
large income from government lands as well as from the fines for 
offences against caste, &c. Many other priests, gurus and purohits, 
have lands assigned to them, and most of the temples have been 
richly endowed by their founders. Every family of rank has a 
special priest, whose office is hereditary. 

Astrologers are also numerous, and their services are in constant 
request. One cannot build a house, set out on a journey, com- 
mence a war, or even take a dose of physic, without having an 
auspicious moment selected for him. 

Languages. The various races have all separate languages, or 
at least dialects. The Gurkhalis and western tribes use Khas (see 
PAHARI), which, unlike the other dialects, is of Sanskrit origin. The 
Newars have a distinct language and alphabets, for there are three 
known to their pandits, though only one is in use now. Their 
language, called Gubhajius, greatly resembles Tibetan, but is now 
interspersed with many Sanskrit words. The Bhutias use the 
Tibetan language and alphabet. 

Education. There is a central educational institution at Kat- 
mandu with sixteen branches, or schools, over the valley of Nepal. 
This central institution has three departments, English, Sanskrit 
and Persian or more correctly perhaps Urdu. Education is provided 



3 8o 



NEPAL 



free by the state, and is encouraged by grants of scholarships 
and prizes. Boys passing out well are sent at government expense 
to the various universities of northern India to complete their 
education, and some have lately been sent to Japan. The evil 
effects of higher education, as taught in the Indian colleges, on the 
youth of Bengal, &c., has, however, given the Gurkha durbar a 
distinct shock, and it seems not unlikely that education in Nepal 
may receive a set-back in consequence. Some of the upper classes 
speak English fluently, but the bulk of the labouring classes is quite 
illiterate. 

Katmandu is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature, 
and some of the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to 
scholars have been found there. There is also a fair English library. 
Both are lodged in a good building. 

Calendar. There are three principal eras in use in Nepal. The 
Samvat of Vikramaditya begins fifty-seven years before the Christian 
era, the Saka era of Salivanhn begins seventy-eight years after 
the Christian era, and the Nepalese Samvat dates from October A.D. 
880. The Sri-Harsha and Kaligat eras are also sometimes used. 
Day is considered to begin when the tiles on a house can be counted, 
or when the hairs on the back of a man's hand can be discerned 
against the sky. Sixty bipalas = l pala; 60 palas = i ghari or 
24 minutes; 60 gharis = I day of 24 hours. 

Health. All families of good position have at least one laid, or 
medical man, in constant attendance, and there are also many 
general practitioners. There is a large central hospital at Katmandu, 
and some thirteen other smaller hospitals are distributed over the 
country, with free beds, and provision for outdoor treatment. 
There is also a small hospital attached to the British Residency. 
The diseases most prevalent in the country are rheumatism, chronic 
dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, goitre, smallpox, cholera and 
leprosy. In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent fever, 
diarrhoea, and dysentery are met with. Fever of a severe typhoid 
type is common in the crowded lanes and dirty villages. Vaccination 
is being gradually introduced into the country, and the general 
health of the inhabitants of the principal cities in the valley has 
greatly improved since the introduction of fresh water, which has 
been brought in by pipes from mountain springs. 

Towns. There are three large towns in the Nepal valley, Kat- 
mandu, the capital, said to contain approximately 50,000 inhabitants, 
Patan and Bhatgapn about 30,000 each. The houses are from two to 
four storeys in height, built of brick and tiled. The windows and 
balconies are of wood, arid some are elaborately carved. There 
are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the majority of 
which are pagoda-shaped and built of brick, with roofs of copper, 
which is sometimes gilt. The streets are narrow, and they, as well 
as the squares, are all paved with brick or stone. In front of the 
temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garuda, 
or of the founder, made of brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone. 
Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller 
towns and numerous villages in the valley, ail of which possess 
many temples. Some of these, as for instance those of Pashupati, 
Bodhnatha and Symbhunatha, are considered of great sanctity. 
Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to worship at 
Pashupati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed 
in the Bagmati, and the dead are burned on its banks. 

Agriculture. While the Gurkhalis are occupied in military affairs, 
the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newars. The 
soil is varied in character, from light micaceous sand to dense 
ferruginous clay. The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated 
where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced, 
so that there is little grazing ground, and few sheep or cattle are 
kept. There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are either 
stall-fed or grazed in the jungles at the foot of the hills. Animals 
for consumption and sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed 
as fast as they are brought in. In the cold season the Bhutias bring 
large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of borax, salt and 
saltpetre. These are sold for consumption, except a few tnat are 
retained to carry back the bags. These droves are generally accom- 
panied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan dogs ; the latter are 
powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about the size of a small Newfound- 
land dog. Poultry are kept and used by the Newars, especially 
ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the 
orthodox Hindus. The crops grown in th-a valley consist of rice, 
both the transplanted and the dry-sown or ghaiya varieties, wheat, 
pulse, murwah, maize, buckwheat, chillies, radishes, mustard, 
garlic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, potatoes, ground nuts, 
many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c. Nothing but 
articles of food are allowed to be grown in the valley; hence its 
capabilities for producing tea, cotton and tobacco are unknown. 
All of these, however, are grown in other parts of the country, both 
in the hills and the tarai. Large cardamoms are extensively grown 
in the eastern hills, and form an important article of export. The 
hemp plant (Cannabis indica) grows wild, and is used both for manu- 
facturing purposes and for producing the resinous extract and other 
intoxicating products which are exported. Plants producing dyes, 
such as madder or maniit, are grown in some places; and drugs, 
such as chirata, are collected and exported. The better class of 
soils yields a return of about Rs. 180 per khait, and the poorest 
about Rs. 90 per khait. From some of the finer soils as many as 



three crops of various sorts are obtained annually. The land- 
measures in use are different in different parts of the country. 
Thus, in the eastern tarai a bigha measures 90X90 yds. English, 
while in the western tarai it is only 15X15 yds. In the hills the 
unit of land measurement is called ropni, which is about twice the 
size of a western tarai bigha, and twenty-five ropnis make one 
khait. This measurement applies only to rice lands. Other land 
measurements for the valley are as follows: One Nepali bigha is 
90 yds. X 90 yds. British. (A British Indian bigha is 40 yds. X 40 
yds. and 3 Nepali bighas equal about 5 acres.) Sixteen ropnis 
equal i Nepali bigha. 

Land Taxes. The tarai lands pay from two to nine rupees 
(British) per Nepali bigha according to quality of land. In the hills 
taxes are charged on the plough, thus: one plough pays 13 annas; 
one bullock without plough about 10 annas; one spade 6 annas. 
These taxes are termed Hal, Patay and Kodaley. 

Horticulture. The Newars are also fond of horticulture. Many 
European fruits, flowers and vegetables have been introduced 
and grow freely. The country is famous for its oranges and pine- 
apples. Flowers are grown and sold for religious purposes, and even 
wild flowers are brought into the market and much used by the 
Newar women in adorning their hair, as well as for offerings at 
the shrines. Many wild fruits are collected and sold in the 
markets. Apples and pears, of English stock, thrive well; apricots 
and plums are good; peaches and grapes grow freely and are 
of large size, but they seldom ripen before the rains begin, when 
they rot. 

Trade. All the trade and manufactures of the country are in 
the hands of the Newars, and a few Kashmiris and natives of Hindu- 
stan. The trade in European goods is chiefly carried on by the 
latter, whilst the Newars deal in corn, oil, salt, tobacco and articles 
of domestic manufacture. The trade with India is carried on at 
numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs 
station is established, and the taxes are collected by a thikadar 
or farmer. The Newars also carry on the trade with Tibet, through 
a colony which has been for many years established at Lhasa, but 
this trade has been a shrinking item since the opening of the Lhasa- 
Darjeeling route. There are two principal routes to Tibet. One of 
these runs north-east from Katmandu to the frontier-station of 
Kuti or Nilam, crossing the Himalayan range at a height of 14,000 ft. ; 
the other passes out of the valley at the north-west corner, and 
runs at first upwards along the main branch of the Gandak, crossing 
the Himalayas, near Kerung, at a height of 9000 ft. All goods on 
these routes are carried on men's backs, except the salt, &c., carried 
in bags by the Bhutia sheep and goats. The principal imports from 
Hindustan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and 
velvets, hardware, cutlery, beads, jewels, coral, saddlery, shoes, 
guns, gunpowder, glassware, vermilion, indigo, lac, tea, betel-nut, 
spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, oils, sheet copper, goats, cattle, 
buffaloes; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks tails, tea, woollen 
cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, honey, wax, 
sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold. The exports to Hindustan 
include wax, paper-plant, music, yaks' tails, medicines, cardamoms, 
borax, sulphate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants, 
hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, ghee, oil seeds, red chillies, 
madder, cobalt, potatoes, oranges; and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw 
cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls, 
spices, betel-nut, copper pots, iron pots and hardware. The 
Nepalese are utterly regardless of statistics, but recent estimates 
value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces 
at 3 million sterling annually. Duties are levied on exports and 
imports, which will be noticed under the head of revenue. 

Manufactures. The Newars are skilful workmen. Their bricks 
are excellent, and so also is their pottery, for which certain towns 
are famous, such as Themi and Noakote. As carpenters they excel, 
though the use of the large saw is still unknown, and planks are cut 
with chisel and mallet. Some of the wood carvings on the temples 
and large houses are most artistic in design and bold in execution, 
though unfortunately they are sometimes of a most obscene char- 
acter. The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse 
cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plants 
(Daphne), bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornaments 
of gold and silver. 

Coinage. At one time Nepal supplied Tibet with its silver coinage, 
but this was abandoned on account of the adulterations introduced 
by the Nepalese. The ancient coins, specimens of which are still to 
be met with, were made by hand. The modern coinage is struck by 
machinery, a regular mint having been established by Sir Jung 
Bahadur at Katmandu, and since improved by his successors. 

Government. The Nepalese have relations with China, and 
occasionally send an embassy with presents to Peking. The 
British too have considerable influence with the government 
in regard to their foreign relations, and a British resident is 
stationed at Katmandu. But in all matters of domestic policy 
the Nepalese brook no interference, and they are most jealous 
of anything that has a tendency to encroach on their inde- 
pendence. Theoretically the government of Nepal is a pure 
despotism, and the maharajah is paramount. Practically, all 



NEPAL 



real power ha? long been in the hands of the prime minister, 
and much of the modern history of the country consists of 
accounts ef the struggles of the various factions for power. 
Under the prime minister there is a council, consisting of the 
relations of the king, the raj guru, the generals, and a few other 
officials known as kajis and sirdars and bhardars, which is con- 
sulted on all important business, and which forms a court of 
appeal for disputed cases from the courts of law. There are 
separate civil and criminal courts, but the distinction is not 
always observed, as difficult cases are often transferred from 
one to the other. 

Law and Justice. The old savage legal code with its ordeals by 
fire and water, and its punishments by mutilation and torture was 
abolished by Sir Jung Bahadur after his return from England in 
1851. Treason, rebellion and desertion in war-time are punished 
by death. Bribery and peculation by public servants are punished 
by dismissal from office, and a fine and imprisonment, the latter of 
which can be commuted by payments at various rates, according 
to the nature of the offence. Murder and the killing of cows are 
capital offences. Manslaughter and maiming cows are punished by 
imprisonment for life and other offences against the person or 
property by imprisonment or fine. Brahmans and women are 
exempted from capital punishment. Offences against caste are 
heavily punished by fine and imprisonment. In some cases indeed 
all the offender's property is confiscated, and he and his family may 
be sold as slaves. Bankruptcy laws have been recently introduced. 
The marriage laws are somewhat peculiar. Among the Gurkhas 
the laws resemble those of other Hindus as regards the marriage of 
widows, polygamy &c , but among the Newars every girl while still 
an infant is married with much ceremony to a bel fruit, which is 
then thrown into some sacred stream. . As the fate of the fruit is 
unknown, a Newari is supposed never to become a widow. At the 
age of puberty a husband is selected, but the woman can at any 
moment divorce herself by placing a betel-nut under her husband's 
pillow and taking her departure Adultery is punished by the im- 
prisonment and fine of both the adulteress and her paramour. Sati 
has been abolished in Nepal by law. 

Gaols. There are three large prisons in the Nepal valley, one 
for males and two for females; there are also a considerable number 
of gaols throughout the country. The prisoners are kept in irons, 
ana employed in public works of various sorts. They are allowed 
six pice a day for subsistence at the capital, and five pice in other 
places. Their relatives are allowed to minister to their creature 
comforts. 

Slavery is an institution of the country, and all families of rank 
possess many slaves, who are employed in domestic and field work. 
They are generally treated well, and are carefully protected by law. 
The price of slaves ranges from Rs. 100 to Rs. 200. 

Revenue. The revenue of Nepal is about one hundred and fifty 
lakhs of rupees, i.e. 10,000,000. The chief sources of it are the 
land-tax, customs, mines, forests and monopolies. About 10% 
of the tarai lands, and 20% of the hill lands, are private property. 
Some lands were assigned by the Gurkhali rajas to Brahmans, 
soldiers and others, and these are untaxed. Others, which were 
the gifts of the old Newar kings, pay from 4 to 8 annas per bigha. 
All such grants of land, however, are subject to a heavy fine on the 
coronation of a new raja. Land which does not produce rice is 
lightly taxed, but in the valley of Nepal, and wherever rice is grown, 
the government tax or rent is one half of the produce of the land. 
Waste lands, when brought into cultivation, are rent free for ten 
years, after which for five years the tax is only 4 annas per bigha, 
and the cultivator receives one-tenth of the cleared land rent free 
for his life. A considerable revenue in the shape of royalty is 
obtained from mines of copper, iron, &c. The taxes on merchandise 
amount to from 12 to 14% on the value of the goods carried to and 
from British India, and from 5 to 6 % is charged on goods exported 
to Tibet. 

Army. Much attention is devoted by the Gurkhalis to military 
matters and the bulK of that race may be said to be soldiers. The 
standing army consists of about 50,000 men. in a fair state of effici- 
ency. Besides this force there is a reserve, consisting of men who 
have served for a few years and taken their discharge, but in case 
of necessity can be called on again to enter the ranks. These would 
probably raise the strength to between 70000 and 80,000 men. 
The regiments are formed on the European system, and similarly 
drilled and officered. Each man carries in addition to a bayonet a 
kukri or native knife There is practically no cavalry, as the country 
is not suited for horses. The artillery, however, is on a larger scale, 
and consists nearly entirely of batteries of mountain artillery. 
There is a large arsenal well provided with supplies of gunpowder 
and military stores There are workshops where cannon are cast, 
and rifles and ammunition of all sorts turned out in large quantities, 
but of an indifferent quality. 

In addition to its own army, Nepal supplies to the British army in 
India a large force of splendid soldiers, who were raised under the 
following circumstances. In 1815 the British enlisted three battalions 



of Gurkhas from amongst the soldiers of that race who were thrown 
out of employment, owing to the termination of the first phase of 
the war with Nepal. These regiments were styled the 1st. 2nd 
and 3rd Gurkhas, and were soon employed on active service. The 
ist and 2nd behaved with much gallantry at the siege and storming 
of Bharatpur, and in the First Sikh War, while the 2nd and 3rd 
won a great name for loyalty and courage during the Mutiny of 1857- 
58, especially at the siege of Delhi. This induced the British to 
raise, in 1858, two more battalions, which they numbered the 4th 
and 5th, and the whole Gurkha force has since proved its usefulness 
and loyalty on many occasions, particujarly during the Afghan War 
of 1878-80, and on many frontier expeditions. Battalions have also 
been sent on service to Burma, Egypt, China and Tibet. The 
Gurkhas in the British service now consist of ten regiments of 
riflemen of two battalions each, and number about 20,000 men. 

History. Nepal and the somewhat similar country of Kashmir 
are peculiar among the Hindu states of India in possessing an 
historical literature. The Nepalese Vantfdvali professes to start 
from a very early period in the Satya Yuga, when the present 
valley was still a lake. The earlier portion of it is devoted to 
the Satya and Treta Yugas, and contains mythological tales 
and traditions having reference to various sacred localities 
in the country. During these two Yugas, and also the Dwapur 
Yuga, the Vamfdvali deals in round numbers of thousands of 
years. 

In the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the Gupta dynasty is said 
to have been founded by Ne-Muni, from whom the country takes 
its name of Nepal. Lists are then given of the various dynasties, 
with the lengths of the reigns of the rajas. The dynasties 
mentioned are the Gupta, Ahir, Kirati, Somavanshi, Suryavanshi, 
Thakuri or first Rajput, Vaishya Thakuri, second Rajput and 
Karnataki dynasties. The country was then invaded by Mukun- 
dasena, and after his expulsion various Vaishya Thakuri dynasties 
are said to have held the throne for a period of 225 years. The 
chronology of the Vam$avali up to this period is very confused 
and inaccurate; and, though the accounts of the various 
invasions and internal struggles, mixed up as they are with 
grotesque legends and tales, may be interesting and amusing, 
they can hardly be considered authentic. Some of the names of 
the rajas, and the dates of their reigns, have been determined 
by coins, the colophons of old MSS., and certain inscriptions 
on the temples and ancient buildings. For instance, Ancuvarma, 
of the Thakuri dynasty, reigned about A.D. 633, as he is men- 
tioned by the Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang, who visited Nepal. 
His name too is found in an Inscription still extant. In like 
manner it is ascertained from MSS. that Rudra-deva-Varma 
was reigning in 1008; Lakshmikama-deva from 1015 to 1040; 
Padma-deva, of the Vaishya Thakuri dynasty, in 1065; Mana- 
deva, of the second Rajput dynasty, in 1139; Ananta-Malla, 
1286-1302; Harisinha-deva, 1324; Jayastithi-Malla, 1385-1391. 
Much information as to the chronology of the various dynasties 
can be obtained from the catalogue of the Cambridge MSS. com- 
piled by Cecil Bendall, and also from his papers on the ancient 
coins of the country. Inscriptions too have been edited by 
Professor Btthler in the Indian Antiquary, vol. ix. Detailed 
lists of the rajas are to be found in Kirkpatrick's Account of 
Nepal, in Hodgson's Essays, Prinsep's papers in the Asiatic 
Society's Journal and Wright's History of Nepal. 

The records begin to be more accurate from the time of the 
invasion and conquest of the country by Harisinha-deva, the 
raja of Simraun, 1324. This raja was driven from Simraun 
by Tughlak Shah of Delhi, but seems to have found little difficulty 
in the conquest of Nepal. There were only four rajas of this 
Ayodhya dynasty, and then the throne was occupied by Jaya- 
bhadra-Malla, a descendant of Abhaya-Malla, one of the Rajput 
dynasty, who reigned in the I3th century. There were eight 
rajas of this dynasty. The seventh, Jayastithi-Malla, who 
reigned for forty-three years (1386-1429), appears to have done 
much in forming codes of laws, and.introducing caste and its rules 
among the Newars. In the reign of the eighth raja, Yaksha- 
Malla, the kingdom was divided into four separate states 
namely, Banepa, Bhatgaon or Bhaktapur, Kantipur or Kat- 
mandu, and Lalitapur or Patan. There was only one raja of 
Banepa, who died without issue. The Malla dynasty in the other 



382 NEPAL 

three branches continued in power up to the conquest of the 
country by the Gurkhas in 1768. 

The Gurkhas claim descent from the Rajputs of Chitor, in 
Rajputana. They were driven out of their own country by 
the victorious Moslems, and took refuge in the hilly districts 
about Kumaon, whence they gradually pushed their way east- 
wards to Lamjung, Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the 
valley of Nepal, which under Raja Prithwi Narayana they finally 
captured. In the struggle which took place at Bhatgaon, Jaya- 
prakasa (the raja of Katmandu) was wounded, and shortly 
afterwards he died at Pashupati. Ranjit-Malla, the aged raja 
of Bhatgaon, was allowed to retire to Benares, where he ended 
his days. Tej Narsinha, the raja of Patan, was kept in confine- 
ment till his death. During the latter years of the war Jaya- 
prakasa applied to the British for assistance, and a small force, 
under Captain Kinloch, was sent into the tarai in 1765, but it was 
repulsed by the Gurkhas. 

Prithwi Narayana died in 1774. He left two sons, Pratapa- 
sinha Sah and Bahadur Sah. The former succeeded his father, 
but died in 1777, leaving aninfant son, Rana Bahadur Sah. On 
the death of Pratapa-sinha, his brother, who had been in exile, 
returned to Nepal and became regent. The mother of the infant 
king, however, was opposed to him, and he had again to flee to 
Bettia, in British territory, where he remained till the death of 
the rani, when he again becameregent,andcontinuedso till 1795. 
During this time the Gurkhas were busily annexing all the 
neighbouring petty states, so that in 1790 their territories 
extended from Bhutan to the Sutlej river, and from Tibet to the 
British provinces. At length, in 1790, they invaded Tibet, and 
were at first successful; but they were thus brought into contact 
with the Chinese, who in 1791 sent a large force to invade Nepal. 
In 1792 the Chinese advanced as far as Noakote, and there 
dictated terms to the Nepalese. 

In 1791 the Gurkhas had entered into a commercial treaty with 
the British and hence, when hard pressed, they applied for 
assistance against the Chinese to Lord Cornwallis. In con- 
sequence of this Kirkpatrick was despatched to Nepal, and 
reached Noakote in the spring of 1 792, but not till after peace had 
been concluded. One result of this embassy was the ratification 
of another commercial treaty on the ist of March 1792. 

In 1795 Rana Bahadur removed his uncle, Bahadur Sah, from 
the regency, and two years subsequently put him to death. 
From this time up to 1799 the king, who seems to have been 
insane, perpetrated the most barbarous outrages, till at length 
his conduct became so intolerable that he was forced to abdicate 
in favour of his son, Girvan-yuddha Vikrama Sah, who was still 
an infant. Rana Bahadur once again recovered the throne in 
1804, but was assassinated in 1805. 

In October 1801 another treaty was signed by the British and 
Nepalese authorities, and a British resident was sent to the 
Nepalese court, but was withdrawn in 1803, owing to the conduct 
of the Nepalese. From this time the Nepalese carried on a 
system of encroachment and outrage on the frontier, which led 
to a declaration of war by the British in November 1814. At first 
the British attacks were directed against the western portion of 
the Nepalese territory, and under Generals Marly, Wood and 
Gillespie several disasters were met with. General Gillespie 
himself was killed while leading an assault on a small fort called 
Kalunga. General Ochterlony was more successful, and the 
Gurkhas were driven eastward beyond the Kali river, and began 
to negotiate for peace. Arms, however, were soon taken up again, 
and Ochterlony, who was put in command, in January 1816, 
advanced directly on the capital in the line of the route that is 
now in use. He soon fought his way as far as Mukwanpur, and 
the Nepalese sued for peace. A treaty was concluded in March, 
by which the Nepalese relinquished much of their newly acquired 
territory, and agreed to allow a British residency to be estab- 
lished at Katmandu. In November the raja died, and was 
succeeded by his infant son, Surendra Bikran Sah, the reins of 
government being held by General Bhimsena Thapa. 

From this time the records for many years furnish little of 
interest except a history of struggles for office between the Thapa 



and Pandry factions, and futile attempts at forming combinations 
with other states in Hindustan against the British. 

In 1839 Bhimsena's enemies succeeded in driving him from 
power, and he committed suicide, or was murdered, in prison. 
The Kala Pandry faction then came into power, and there were 
frequent grave disputes with the British. War, however, was 
averted by the exertions of the resident, Mr Brian Hodgson. 

In 1843 Malabar Singh, the nephew of Bhimsena, returned 
from exile, soon got into favour at court, and speedily effected 
the destruction of his old enemies the Kala Pandrys, who were 
seized and executed in May 1843. At this time mention begins 
to be made of a nephew of Matabar Singh, Jung Bahadur, the 
eldest of a band of seven brothers, sons of a kaji or state official. 
He rose rapidly in the army and in favour at the court, especially 
with one of the ranis, who was of a most intriguing disposition. 
In 1844 he was a colonel, and on the i8th of May 1845 killed his 
uncle, and immediately, with the aid of the rani, took a prominent 
part in the government. After a short but turbulent interval of 
intrigue, he got rid of his enemies at one fell swoop, by what is 
known as the Kot massacre, on the isth of September 1846. 
From that time till the day of his death Jung Bahadur was in 
reality the ruler of Nepal. His old friend, the rani, was banished, 
and all posts of any consequence in the state were filled by Jung, 
his brothers and other relatives. In 1850, finding himself 
securely seated in power, Jung Bahadur paid a visit to England, 
which made a great impression on his acute intellect, and ever 
after he professed and proved himself to be a stanch friend of the 
British. On his return in 1851 he at once devoted himself to 
reforming the administration of the country, and, whatever may 
have been the means by which he gained power, it must be 
allowed that he exercised it so as to prove himself the greatest 
benefactor his country has ever possessed. In 1853 a treaty for 
the extradition of criminals was proposed, but it was not ratified 
till February 1855. In 1854 the Nepalese entered into a war 
with Tibet, which lasted with varying success till March 1856, 
when peace was concluded on terms very favourable to Nepal. 

In June 1857 intelligence of the mutiny c-f the native troops in 
Hindustan reached Nepal, and produced much excitement. Jung 
Bahadur, in spite of great opposition, stood firm as a friend of the 
British. On the 26th June 4000 troops were sent off to assist, 
and these rendered good service in the campaign against the 
mutineers. Jung himself followed on the loth of December, with 
a force of 8000 men, 500 artillerymen and 24 guns, but too late 
to be of much use. Many of the mutineers and rebels, including 
the infamous Nana Sahib, took refuge in the Nepalese tarai, 
and it was not till the end of 1859 that they were finally swept 
out of the country. The Nana was said to have died of fever in 
the tarai, and it is probable that this was the case. His wives 
and a few attendants resided for many years near Katmandu. 

In return for the aid afforded to the British, Jung Bahadur was 
well rewarded. He was created a G.C.B., and in 1873 a G. C.S.I., 
honours of which he was not a little proud. The troops employed 
received food and pay from the day of leaving Katmandu; 
handsome donations were given to those severely wounded, and 
to the relatives of the killed; great quantities of muskets and 
rifles were presented to the Nepalese government; and, to crown 
all, a large portion of the tarai was restored to Nepal. This 
ground contains most valuable sal and sisu forests, and yields a 
revenue of several lakhs of rupees yearly. 

From the termination of the mutiny Nepalese history has been 
uneventful. The country has been prosperous, and the relations 
with the British have continued to be most friendly. Neverthe- 
less the restrictions on commerce, and the prohibitions against 
Europeans entering the country, or travelling beyond certain 
narrow limits, are as rigidly enforced as they were a hundred 
years ago. Sir Jung Bahadur died suddenly in the tarai in 1877. 
In spite of all the exertions he had made to bring about a better 
state of things, three of his wives were allowed to immolate 
themselves on his funeral pyre. His brother, Sir Ranadip Singh 
Bahadur, G. C.S.I., succeeded him as prime minister. Shortly 
after his accession to power a plot was formed against him, but 
nearly forty of the conspirators were seized and executed, while 



NEPENTHES NEPHELINE-SYENITE 



383 



others escaped into exile. He was, however, murdered in 1885 
and was succeeded by his nephew Sir Shamsher Jung, G. C.S.I., 
who died in 1901 and was succeeded by his brother Deb Shamsher 
Jung. But in June of that year a palace revolution placed another 
brother, Chandra Shamsher Jung, in power, whilst Deb Shamsher 
fled to India. Maharajah Chandra Shamsher has ruled Nepal 
with much ability. He gave effective aid to the British during the 
Tibet war of 1904, and the relations with the government of 
India became more cordial after his accession to power. In 
1906 Chandra Shamsher was created a G. C.S.I., and in 1908 he 
visited England as a guest of the government, when he was in- 
vested with the G.C.B. by King Edward VII. He was also made 
a major-general in the British army, and honorary colonel of the 
4th Gurkha Rifles. 

For authorities see Dr Daniel Wright, History of Nepal (1877); 
Colonel Kirkpatrick, Account of Nepal; Brian Houghton Hodgson's 
essays; Dr H. A. Oldfield's sketches; Sir C. M. Aitchison, Treaties 
and Engagements; Sir Joseph Hooker's writings; and Sir Richard 
Temple, Hyderabad and Nepal (1887). . (D. WR.; H. WY.) 

NEPENTHES (Gr. vrprevQis, sc. <f>apna.Kov, a drug that takes 
away grief, from vrj- privative, and irtvOos, " grief "), an 
Egyptian drug spoken of by Homer in the Odyssey (iv. 221). 
Generally in the form " nepftithe " the name is given to any 
drug having a like property, and also occasionally to the herb 
or plant from which such a drug is produced. It is also applied 
to a special genus of plants, chiefly East Indian, known as the 
" pitcher-plants," on account of the formation of the leaves. 

NEPHELINE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of sodium, 
potassium and aluminium silicate, Nael^AlgSigOs^ Its crystals 
belong to the hexagonal system, and usually have the form of 
a short six-sided prism terminated by the basal plane. The 
unsymmetrical etched figures produced artificially on the 
prism faces indicate, however, that the crystals are hemimorphic 
and tetartohedral, the only element of symmetry being a polar 
hexad axis. The hardness is 55. The specific gravity (2-6), 
the low index of refraction and the feeble double refraction are 
nearly the same as in quartz; but since in.nepheline the sign of 
the double refraction is negative, whilst in quartz it is positive, 
the two minerals are readily distinguished under the microscope. 
An important determinative character of nepheline is the ease 
with which it is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with separa- 
tion of gelatinous silica (which may be readily stained by 
colouring matters) and cubes of salt. A clear crystal of nepheline 
when immersed in acid becomes for this reason cloudy; hence 
the name nepheline, proposed by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, from Gr. 
vec/fcXij, a cloud. 

Although in naturally occurring nepheline sodium and potas- 
sium are always present in approximately the atomic ratio 3:1, 
artificially prepared crystals have the composition NaAlSiO*; 
the corresponding potassium compound, KAlSiCX, which is 
the mineral kaliophilite, has also been prepared artificially. 
It has therefore been suggested that the orthosilicate formula, 
(NaK)AlSiO4, represents the true composition of nepheline. 

The mineral is one specially liable to alteration, and in the 
laboratory various substitution products of nepheline have been 
prepared. In nature it is frequently altered to zeolites (especially 
natrolite), sodalite, kaolin, or compact muscovite. Gieseckite 
and liebenerite are pseudomorphs. 

Two varieties of nepheline are distinguished, differing in their 
external appearance and in their mode of occurrence, being 
analogous in these respects to sanidine or glassy orthoclase and 
common orthoclase respectively. " Glassy nepheline " has the 
form of small, colourless, transparent crystals and grains with 
a vitreous lustre. It is characteristic of the later volcanic rocks 
rich in alkalis, such as phonolite, nepheline-basalt, leucite- 
basalt, &c., and also of certain dike-rocks, such as tinguaite. 
The best crystals are those which occur with mica, sanidine, 
garnet, &c., in the crystal-lined cavities of the ejected blocks 
of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. The other variety, known as 
elaeolite, occurs as large, rough crystals, or more often as 
irregular masses, which have a greasy lustre and are opaque, or 
at most translucent, with a reddish, greenish, brownish or grey 
colour. It forms an essential constituent of certain alkaline 



plutonic rocks of the nepheline-syenite series, which are typically 
developed in southern Norway. 

The colour and greasy lustre of elaeolite (a name given by 
M. H. Klaproth in 1809, from Gr. t\aiov, oil, and Xi0os, stone; 
Ger. Feltstein) are due to the presence of numerous microscopic 
enclosures of other minerals, possibly augite or hornblende. 
These enclosures sometimes give rise to a chatoyant effect like 
that of cat's-eye and cymophane; and elaeolite when of a good 
green or red colour and showing a distinct band of light is some- 
times cut as a gem-stone with a convex surface. 

Closely allied to nepheline, and occurring with it in some 
nepheline-syenites, is the species cancrinite, which has the 
composition HeNasCa(NaCOj)2Al8(SiO 4 )9. It is frequently of 
a bright yellow colour, and has sometimes been cut as a gem- 
stone. (L. J. S.) 

NEPHELINE-SYENITE, or ELAEOLITE-SYENITE, a holocrystal- 
line plutonic rock which consists largely of nepheline and 
alkali felspar. The rocks are mostly pale coloured, grey or pink, 
and in general appearance they are not unlike granites, but dark 
green varieties are also known. They do not contain quartz, 
as that mineral and nepheline are mutually exclusive. From 
ordinary syenites they are distinguished not only by the presence 
of nephsline but also by the occurrence of many other minerals 
rich in alkalis or in rare earths. Orthoclase and albite are the 
principal felspars; usually they are intergrown to form perthite. 
In some rocks the potash felspar, in others the soda felspar 
predominates. Soda-lime felspars such as oligoclase and andesine 
are rare or entirely absent. Fresh clear microcline is very char- 
acteristic of some types of nepheline-syenite. Sodalite, colourless 
and transparent in the slides, but frequently pale blue in the 
hand specimens, is the principal felspathoid mineral in addition 
to nepheline. As a rule these two crystallize before felspar, 
but they may occur in perthitic intergrowth with it. The 
commonest ferro-magnesian mineral is pale green augite, which 
may be surrounded by rims of dark-green, pleochroic soda-augite 
(aegirine). The latter forms long flat prisms or bundles of 
radiating needles. A dark reddish-brown biotite is very common 
in some of these rocks and a white mica, probably not muscovite 
but lepidolite, is occasionally present. The hornblende may be 
brown, brownish-green, blue or blue-black, belonging as a rule 
to the varieties which contain soda; it is often intergrown with 
the pyroxene or enclosed in it. The dark-brown triclinic horn- 
blende aenigmatite occurs also in these rocks. Olivine is rare, 
but may be found in some basic forms of nepheline-syenite. 

The commonest accessories are sphene, zircon, iron ores and 
apatite. Cancrinite occurs in several nepheline-syenites; in 
others there is fluor-spar or melanite garnet. A great number 
of interesting and rare minerals have been recorded from 
nepheline-syenites and the pegmatite veins which intersect 
them. Among these we may mention eudialyte, eukolite, mos- 
andrite, rinkite, johnstrupite, lavenite, hiortdahlite, perofskite 
and lamprophylh'te. Many of these contain fluorine and the 
rare earths. 

Nepheline-syenites are rare rocks; there is only one occurrence 
in Great Britain and one in France and Portugal. They are 
known also in Bohemia and in several places in Norway, Sweden 
and Finland. In America these rocks have been found in Texas, 
Arkansas and Massachussetts, also in Ontario, British Columbia 
and Brazil. South Africa, Madagascar, India, Tasmania, Timor 
and Turkestan are other localities for the rocks of this series. 
They exhibit also a remarkable individuality as each occurrence 
has its own special features; moreover a variety of types 
characterizes each occurrence, as these rocks are very variable. 
For these reasons, together with the numerous rare minerals 
they contain, they have attracted a great deal of attention from 
petrographers. 

Many types of nepheline-syenite have received designations 
derived from the localities in which they were discovered. The 
laurdalites (from Laurdal in Norway) are grey or pinkish, and in 
many ways closely resemble the laurvikites of southern Norway, 
with which they occur. They contain anorthoclase felspars of 
lozenge-shaped forms, biotite or greenish augite, much apatite and 
sometimes olivine. Some of these rocks are porphyritic. The 



NEPHELINITES NEPI 



foyaites include the greater number of known nepheline-syenites 
and are called after Foya in the Serra de Monchique (southern 
Portugal), from which they were first described. They are grey, 
green or reddish, and mostly of massive structure with preponderat- 
ing potash felspar, some nepheline, and a variable (often small) 
amount of femic minerals. Pyroxene-, hornblende- and biotite- 
foyaites have been recognized according to their mineral com- 
position. Examples of the first-named occur in southern Nprway 
with the laurdalites; they contain aegirine and black mica. At 
Alnq Island in the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden) similar rocks are found 
bearing enclosures or altered limestone with wollastonite and 
scapolite. In Siebenburgen (Hungary) there is a well-known rock 
of this group, very rich in microcline, blue sodalite and cancrinite. 
It contains also orthoclase, nepheline, biotite, aegirine_, acmite, &c. 
To this type the name ditroite has been given from the place where 
it occurs (Ditro). Pyroxene-foyaite has been described also from 
Pouzac in the Pyrenees (S. France). Mica-foyaite is not very 
common, but is known at Miask in the Ural Mountains (miaskite), 
where it is coarse-grained, and contains black mica, sodalite and 
cancrinite. The hornblende-foyaites are usually brown or blue, 
and intensely dichroic, but may contain also biotite or augite. 
Rocks of this class occur in Brazil (Serra de Tingua) containing 
sodalite and often much augite, in the western Sahara and Cape 
Verde Islands; also at Zwarte Koppies in the Transvaal, Madagascar, 
Sao Paulo (in Brazil), Paisano Pass (West Texas) and Montreal, 
Canada. The rock of Salern, Mass., U.S.A., is a mica-foyaite rich in 
albite and aegirine ; it accompanies granite and essexite. 

Litchfieldite is another well-marked type of nepheline-syenite, 
in which albite is the dominant felspar. It is named after Litch- 
field, Maine, U.S.A., where it occurs in scattered blocks. Biotite, 
cancrinite and sodalite are characteristic of this rock. A similar 
nepheline-syenite is known from Hastings Co., Ontario, and con- 
tains hardly any orthoclase, but only albite felspar. Nepheline is 
very abundant and there is also cancrinite, sodalite, scapolite, calcite, 
biotite and hornblende. The lujaurites are distinguished from the 
rocks above described by their dark colour, which is due to the 
abundance of minerals such as augite, aegirine, arfvedsonite and 
other kinds of amphibole. Typical examples are known near Lujaur 
on the White Sea, where they occur with umptekites and other 
very peculiar rocks. Other localities for this group are at Julianehaab 
m Greenland (with sodalite-syenite) ; at their margins they contain 
pseudomorphs after leucite. The lujaurites frequently have a 
parallel-banding or gneissose structure. 

Sodalite-syenites in which sodalite very largely or completely 
takes the place of nepheline occur in Greenland, where they contain 
also microcline-perthite, aegirine, arfvedsonite and eudialyte. 
Cancrinite-syenite, with a large percentage of cancrinite, has been 
described from Dalekarlia (Sweden) and from Finland. We may 
also mention urtite from Lujaur Urt on the White Sea, which con- 
sists very largely of nepheline, with aegirine and apatite, but no 
felspar. Jacupirangite (from Jacupiranga in Brazil) is a blackish 
rock composed of titaniferous augite, magnetite, ilmenite, perofskite 
and nepheline, with secondary biotite. 

The chemical peculiarities of the nepheline-syenites are well 
marked, as will be seen from the following analyses. They are 
exceedingly rich in alkalis and in alumina (hence the abundance of 
felspathoids and alkali felspars) with silica varying from 50 to 56%, 
while lime, magnesia and iron are never present in great quantity, 
though somewhat more variable than the other components. As a 
group, also, these rocks have a low specific gravity. 





SiOj. 


AI 2 0. 


FeO. 


FesOs. 


CaO. 


MgO. 


K 2 0. 


Na 2 O. 


Laurdalite . 
Ditroite 
Litchfieldite 
Lujaurite . 


54-55 
56-30 
60-39 

54-14 


19-07 
24-14 
22-57 
20-61 


3-12 

2-26 
2-08 


2-41 
1-99 
0-42 
3-28 


3-15 
0-69 
0-32 
I-8 5 


I- 9 8 
0-13 
0-13 
0-83 


4-84 
6-79 
4-77 
5-25 


7-6 7 
9-28 

8-44 
9-87 



0- S. F.) 

NEPHELINITES. The group of effusive rocks which contains 
nepheline with plagioclase felspar is subdivided into nepheline- 
tephrites and nepheline-basanites, while those which contain 
nepheline but not felspar are nephelinites and nepheline-basalts. 
The tephrites differ from the basanites in the absence of olivine, 
and the same distinction subsists between the nephelinites and 
nepheline-basalts. 

Lavas with nepheline, plagioclase and augite = nepheline- 
tephrites. 

Lavas with nepheline, plagioclase, augite and olivine = nepheline- 
basanites. 

Lavas with nepheline and augite = nephelinites. 

Lavas with nepheline, augite and olivine = nepheline-basalts. 

In their essential and accessory minerals, appearance and 
structure, these rocks have much in common, and they tend to 
occur in a natural association as basic rocks comparatively rich 
in alkalis and alumina. The nephelinites and tephrites are rather 



closely linked to the phonolites and pass into them by various 
gradations. They are usually richer in alkalis and silica and 
contain less iron, lime and magnesia than the basanites and 
nepheline-basalts, a difference which finds expression in the 
presence of olivine and the smaller amount of felspars and 
felspathoids in the latter. 

The nepheline is colourless and transparent when fresh, often 
in six-sided prisms, but also as irregular interstitial masses 
filling the spaces between the other minerals, and hard to identify 
owing to its low double refraction and frequent decomposition. 
Leucite appears in some tephrites; haiiyne is more frequent as 
small dodecahedra often filled with black inclusions. The 
augite varies a gcod deal, being bright green or dark green 
(aegirine) and rich in sdda in some tephrites and nephelinites, 
while in basanites and basalts it is often brown " basaltic " 
augite or purple " titaniferous " augite. It has often good 
crystalline form, and occurs as eight-sided monoclinic prisms, 
but the soda augites may be of late crystallization and form 
mossy or irregular growths in the matrix. Brown hornblende is 
much less common, and a red biotite is very characteristic of 
certain nephelinites. Of the felspars, labradorite is probably the 
most common, with more acid varieties of plagioclase. Sanidine 
is by no means absent, but may be considered as an accessor}'. 
The olivine presents no peculiarities. Melilite, perofskite, 
pseudobrookite, melanite garnet, iron oxides, apatite and 
chromite are occasionally met with. 

All these rocks are practically confined to lavas of Tertiary and 
recent age, though some occur as dikes or small intrusive masses. 
The plutonic facies of these rocks are found among the theralites, 
shonkinites, essexites and ijolites. In the British Isles they are 
exceedingly scarce, though nepheline-basanite occurs in a dike 
which is presumably Tertiary, cutting the Triassic rocks at Butterton 
in Staffordshire, and nepheline-basalt has been found in a single 
neck at John o' Groat's in Caithness and at one or two places near 
North Berwick in Haddingtonshire. They attain a great develop- 
ment in the Canary Islands (Teneriffe, Grand Canary, &c.) and in 
the Azores, Cape Verde Islands and Fernando Noronha. In Germany 
they are represented among the Tertiary eruptive rocks of the 
Rhine district and Thuringia, at the extinct craters of the Eiffel 
and at the Kaiserstuhl. In central Bohemia there are many occur- 
rences of nepheline-tephrites, basanites and basalts which though 
fine grained contain all their minerals in excellent preservation. 
The nephelinite of Katzenbuckel in the Odenwald is well known. 
Contrasted with the phonolites and leucitophyres these rocks are 
scarce in Italy and the Mediterranean province, but leucite-bearing 
nepheline-tephrites occur at Monte Vulture and nepheline-basalts in 
Tripoli. In America these rocks occur in Texas, in the Bearpaw 
Mountains of Montana and at Cripple Creek, Colorado. From 
Argentina some members have been described: thay have a great 
extension in East Africa (Somaliland and Masai-land) and occur also 
in North Nigeria. A few also have been described from New South 
Wales, New Zealand (Dunedin) and Tasmania. (J. S. F.) 

NEPHEW, the son of a brother or sister. The word is adapted 
from Fr. neveu, Lat. nepos (originally " grandson " or " de- 
scendant "). The O. Eng. nefa survived in the form neve till the 
iSth century; this represents the Teutonic branch, cf. Ger. 
Nejfe, Dutch neef; the ultimate root is seen in the cognate 
Gr. viiroSes, " descendants," avef/UK, " kinsman," and Sans. 
napdt, napt, " descendants " or " descendant." The correlative 
" niece," the daughter of a brother or sister, is from Fr. niece, 
Lat. neplis, the feminine form of nepos; the O. Eng. word was nift, 
cf. Ger. Nichte. A euphemistic use of " nephew " is that of the 
natural son of a pope, cardinal or other ecclesiastic; and from 
the practice of granting preferments to such children the word 
" nepotism " is used of any favouritism shown in finding positions 
for a man's family. 

NEPI (anc. Nepet or Nepete), a town and episcopal see of Italy, 
in the province of Rome, 7$ m. S.W. of the town of Civita 
Castellana, 738 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2973. The site, 
surrounded by ravines and accessible only on the W., is naturally 
strong and characteristic of an Etruscan town; on this side 
there is a considerable fragment of the ancient Etruscan wall, 
built of rectangular blocks of tufa (whether the rest of the site 
was protected by walls is uncertain), and a ruined castle, erected 
by Antonio da Sangallo the elder in 1499, for Pope Alexander VI., 
and restored by Pope Paul III. The municipio (town hall) is 
from the designs of Vignola, and contains some ancient 



NEPOMUK NEPTUNE 



385 



inscriptions. The cathedral was burnt down by the French in 1 7 89 
and restored in 1831. A mile and a half E.N.E. is the Roman- 
esque church of S Elia, founded about A.D. 1000, with frescoes 
of the period. It contains a pulpit of the time of Pope Gregory 
IV. (827-844), the sculptures of which are scattered about the 
church (F. Mazzanti in Nuovo Bollettino d' Archaeologia Cristiana, 
1896, 34). 

Nepet had become Roman before 386 B.C., when Livy speaks 
of it and Sutrium as the keys of Etruria. In that year it was 
surrendered to the Etruscans and recovered by the Romans, 
who beheaded the authors of its surrender. It became a colony 
in 383 B.C. It was among the twelve Latin colonies that refused 
further help to Rome in 209 B.C. After the Social War it became 
a municipium. It is hardly mentioned in imperial times, except 
as a station on the road (Via Amerina) which diverged from the 
Via Cassia near the modern Settevene and ran to Ameria and 
Tuder. In the 8th century A.D. it was for a short while the seat 
of a dukedom. 

See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883, 
i. 82). (T. As.) 

NEPOMUK (or POMUK), JOHN OF, the national saint of 
Bohemia. It is necessary to distinguish between the John of 
Nepomuk of history and the legendary one. In 1393 a dispute 
arose between King Wenceslaus IV. of Bohemia and the arch- 
bishop of Prague, John of Jenzenstein. Wenceslaus, wishing to 
found a new bishopric in south-western Bohemia, determined to 
seize the revenues of the abbey of Kladrub as soon as the aged 
abbot RaCek should die. The archbishop opposed this plan, 
and by his orders his vicar-general, John of Pomuk son of a 
German named Wolfel, a citizen of Pomuk advised the monks 
to elect a new abbot immediately after RaJek's death. This 
greatly incensed the king, who summoned the archbishop and 
some of his clergy among whom was Pomuk to appear before 
him. He ordered them to be immediately arrested, and though 
the archbishop escaped his four companions among them 
Pomuk were seized and subjected to cruel torture. They were 
ordered to abandon the archbishop. Three of them consented, 
but Pomuk, who refused to submit and was already on the point 
of death, was carried to the bridge of Prague and thrown into 
the Vltava. It is difficult to connect this historical event with 
the legend of St John of Nepomuk, who was canonized by the 
church of Rome in 1729, mainly by the influence of the Jesuits, 
who hoped that this new cult would obliterate the memory of 
Hus. The Austrian chronicler Thomas Ebendorffer of Hasel- 
bach, who lived two generations later, first states that it was 
reported that King Wenceslaus had ordered that the confessor 
of his queen an office that John of Pomuk never held should 
be thrown into the Vltava because he would not reveal the secret 
of confession. The story is afterwards told in greater detail by 
the untrustworthy Bohemian historian Wenceslaus Hajek. It 
appears certain that the person canonized in 1729 was not the 
historical John of Pomuk or Nepomuk. 

See A. H. Wratislaw, Life, Legend and Canonization of St John 
Nepomuk (1873), a valuable work founded on the best Bohemian 
authorities; also A. Frind, Der geschichtliche Heilige Johann von 
Nepomuk (1861); O. Abel, Die Legende vpm heiligen Johann von 
Nepomuk (1855); and particularly vol. iii. of W. W. Tomek's 
History of the Town of Prague (Czech) (12 vols., Prague, 1855-1901). 

NEPOS, CORNELIUS (c. 99-24 B.C.), Roman historian, friend 
of Catullus, Cicero and At ticus, was born in Upper Italy (perhaps 
at Verona or Ticinum). He wrote: Chronica, an epitome of 
universal history; Exempla, a collection of anecdotes after the 
style of Valerius Maximus; letters to Cicero; lives of Cato the 
elder and Cicero; and De viris illustribus, parallel lives of dis- 
tinguished Romans and foreigners, in sixteen books. One section 
of this voluminous work (De excellentibus ducibus exterarum 
gentium, more commonly known as Vitae excellentium impera- 
torum) and the biographies of Cato and Atticus from another 
(De Latinis historicis) have been preserved. Erotic poems and 
a geographical treatise are also attributed to him. Nepos is not 
altogether happy in the subjects of his biographies, and he writes 
rather as a panegyrist than as a biographer, although he can 
rebuke his own countrymen on occasion. The Lives contain 
xix. 13 



many errors (especially in chronology), but supply information 
not found elsewhere. The language is as a rule simple and 
correct. The Lives were formerly attributed to Aemilius Probus 
of the 4th century A.D.; but the view maintained by Lambinus 
(in his famous edition, 1569) that they are all the work of Nepos 
is now generally accepted. A dedicatory epigram written by 
Probus to the emperor Theodosius and inserted after the life of 
Hannibal, was the origin of the mistake. This dedication, if 
genuine, would only prove that Probus copied (and perhaps modi- 
fied and abridged) the work. In modern times G. F. Unger (Der 
sogenannle C.N., 1881) has attempted to prove that the author 
was Hyginus, but his theory has not been favourably received. 

Editions of the Lives (especially selections) are extremely numer- 
ous; text by E. O. Winstedt (Oxford, 1904), C. L. Roth (1881), 
C. G. Cobet (1881), C. Halm and A. Fleckeisen (1889), with lexicon 
for school use; with notes, O. Browning and W. R. Inge (1888), 
J. C. Rolfe (U.S. 1894), A. Weidner and J. Schmidt (1902), C. Erbe 
(1892), C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus (ed. maj., 1879, school ed., 
1895), J. Siebehs and O. Stange (1897). 

NEPOS, JULIUS, the last but one of the Roman emperors 
of the West (474-475). He was a nephew of Marcellinus, prince 
of Dalmatia, whom he succeeded in his principality. After 
the death of Olybrius the throne of the West remained vacant 
for some months, during which Italy was abandoned to bar- 
barians. Being connected by marriage with Leo I., emperor of 
the East, he was selected by him to succeed Olybrius on the 
Western throne, and proclaimed at Ravenna. After capturing 
his rival Glycerius, who had been nominated by the army in 
473, at the mouth of the Tiber, he was recognized as emperor 
in Rome, Italy and Gaul. The only event of the reign of Nepos 
was the inglorious cession to the Visigoths of the province of 
Auvergne. In 475 Orestes, father of Augustulus, afterwards 
the last emperor of the West, raised the standard of revolt and 
marched against Nepos at Ravenna. The emperor fled into 
Dalmatia, and continued to reside at Salona until his assassina- 
tion by two of his own officers in 480, possibly at the instigation 
of Glycerius, who had been compelled to enter the church and 
had been appointed bishop of Salona. 

See Tillemont, Hist, des empereurs, vi. ; Gibbon, Decline and 
Fall, ch. 36. 

NEPTUNE (Lat. NEPTUNTJS), an Italian god, of unknown 
origin and meaning, paired with Salacia, possibly the goddess 
of the salt water. At an early date (399 B.C.) he was identified 
with the Greek Poseidon (?..), when the Sibylline books ordered 
a lectisternium in his honour (Livy v. 13). His festival, Nep- 
tunalia, at which tents were made from the branches of trees, 
was celebrated on the 23rd of July, and his temple, containing a 
famous marine group by Scopas, stood near the Circus Flaminius. 
In earlier times it was the god Fortunus who was thanked for naval 
victories; but Sextus Pompeius called himself son of Neptune, 
and Agrippa dedicated to Neptune a temple (Basilica Neptuni) in 
the Campus Martius in honour of the naval victory of Actium. 

NEPTUNE, in astronomy, the outermost known planet of 
our solar system; its symbol is ty . Its distance from the sun is 
a little more than 30 astronomical units, i.e. 30 times the mean 
distance of the earth from the sun, or about 2,796,000,000 m. 
It deviates greatly from Bode's law, which would give a 
distance of nearly 39. Its orbit is more nearly circular than 
that of any other major planet, Venus excepted. Its time of 
revolution is 165 years. Being of the 8th stellar magnitude it 
is invisible to the naked eye. In a small telescope it cannot 
be distinguished from a fixed star, but in a large one it is seen 
to have a disk about 2-3" in diameter, of a pale bluish hue. No 
features and no change of appearance can be detected upon it, so 
that observation can give no indication of its rotation. Both its 
optical aspect and the study of its spectrum seem to show that it 
resembles Uranus. Its spectrum shows marked absorption-bands 
in the red and yellow, indicating an atmosphere of great depth 
of which hydrogen would seem to be aconstituent. (See PLANET.) 

Only a single satellite of Neptune is yet known. This was dis- 
coverea by William Lassell soon after the discovery of the planet. 
Its period of revolution is sd. 21 h. Its motion is retrograde, in a 
plane making an angle of about 35 with the orbit of the planet. 
This was the first case of retrograde motion found in any of the 



3 86 



NEPTUNE 



planets or satellites of the solar system. The most noteworthy feature 
connected with the satellite is a secular change which is going on in 
the position of its orbital plane. Were the planet spherical in form, 
no such change could occur, except an extremely slow one produced 
by the action of the sun. The change is therefore attributed to a 
considerable ellipticity of the planet, which is thus inferred to be in 
rapid rotation. It will ultimately be possible to determine from this 
motion the position of the aids of rotation of Neptune with much 
greater precision than it could possibly be directly observed. 

The following elements of the satellite were determined by H. 
Struve from all the observations available up to 1892: 

Varying Elements of Neptune's Satellite. 

Inclination to earth's equator . 119 -35 o -165 (t-l8ox>) 
R.A. of node on earth's equator . 185 -15+ o -148 (1-1890) 
Distance from node at epoch . 234 -42 
Mean daily motion . . . . 61 -25748 
Mean distance at logA = 1-47814 16 -271* 
Epoch, 1890, Jan. o, Greenwich 

mean noon 

The eccentricity, if any, is too small to be certainly determined. 
From the above mean distance is derived as the mass of Neptune 
rs Jim- The motion of Uranus gives a mass r^hr- 

Discovery of Neptune. The detection of Neptune through 
its action upon Uranus before its existence had been made known 
by observation is a striking example of the precision reached 
by the theory of the celestial motions. So many agencies were 
concerned in the final discovery that the whole forms one of 
the most interesting chapters in the history of astronomy. The 
planet Uranus, before its actual discovery by Sir William 
Herschel in 1781, had been observed as a fixed star on at least 
17 other occasions, beginning with Flamsteed in 1690. In 1820 
Alexis Bouvard of Paris constructed tables of the motion of 
Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, based upon a discussion of observa- 
tions up to that year. Using the mutual perturbations of these 
planets as developed by Laplace in the Mecanique Celeste, he 
was enabled satisfactorily to represent the observed positions 
of Jupiter and Saturn; but the case was entirely different 
with Uranus. It was found impossible to represent all the 
observations within admissible limits of error, the outstanding 
differences between theory and observation exceeding i'. In 
these circumstances one of two courses had to be adopted, 
either to obtain the best general representation of all the observa- 
tions, which would result in the tables being certainly erroneous, 
or to reject the older observations which might be affected with 
errors, and base the tables only on those made since the discovery 
by Herschel. A few years of observation showed that Uranus 
was deviating from the new tables to an extent greater than 
could be attributed to legitimate errors of theory of observation, 
and the question of the cause thus became of growing interest. 
Among the investigators of the question was F. W. Bessel, 1 
who tried to reconcile the difficulty by an increase of the mass 
of Saturn, but found that he could do so only by assigning a 
mass not otherwise admissible. Although the idea that the 
deviations were probably due to the action of an ultra-Uranian 
planet was entertained by Bouvard, Bessel and doubtless 
others, it would seem that the first clear statement of a con- 
viction that such was the case, and that it was advisable to 
reach some conclusion as to the position of the disturbing body, 
was expressed by the Rev. T. J. Hussey, an English amateur 
astronomer. In a letter to Sir George B. Airy in 1834 he inquired 
Airy's views of the subject, and offered to search for the planet 
with his own equatorial if the required estimate of its position 
could be supplied. Airy expressed himself as not fully satisfied 
that the deviation might not arise from errors in the perturba- 
tions. He therefore was not certain of any extraneous action; 
but even if there was, he doubted the possibility of determining 
the place of a planet which might produce it. In 1837 Bouvard, 
in conjunction with his nephew Eugene, was again working 
on the problem; but it does not seem that they went farther 
than to collect observations and to compare the results with 
Bouvard 's tables. 

In 1835 F. B. G. Nicolai, director of the observatory at 
Mannheim, in discussing the motion of Halley's comet, con- 
sidered the possibility that it was acted upon by an ultra- 
1 Briefwechsel zwischen Otters u. Bessel, ii. 250 (Oct. 9, 1823). 



Uranian planet, the existence of which was made probable by 
the disagreement between the older and more recent observations. 2 

In 1838 Airy showed in a letter to the Astronomische Nack- 
richten that not only the heliocentric longitude, but the tabulated 
radius vector of Uranus was largely in error, but made no 
suggestions as to the cause. 3 

In 1843 the Royal Society of Sciences of Gottingen offered 
a prize of 50 ducats for a satisfactory working up of the whole 
theory of the motions of Uranus, assigning September 1846 
as the time within which competing papers should be presented. 

It is also recorded that Bessel, during a visit to England 
in 1842, in a conversation with Sir John Herschel, expressed 
the conviction that Uranus was disturbed by an unknown 
planet, and announced his intention of taking up the subject. 4 
He went so far as to set his assistant Fleming at the work of 
reducing the observations, but died before more was done. 

The question had now reached a stage when it needed only 
a vigorous effort by an able mathematician to solve the problem. 
Such a man was found in John Couch Adams, then a student 
of St John's College, Cambridge, who seriously attacked the 
problem in 1843, the year in which he took his bachelor's degree. 
He soon found that the observations of Uranus could be fairly 
well represented by the action of a planet moving in a radius 
of twice the mean distance of Uranus, which would closely 
correspond to Bode's law. During the two following years he 
investigated the possible eccentricity of the orbit, and in 
September 1845 communicated his results to Professor James 
Challis. In 1845, about the ist of November, Adams also sent 
his completed elements to Airy, stating that according to his 
calculations the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus 
could be accounted for by the action of an exterior planet, of 
which the motions and orbital elements, were given. It is 
worthy of note that the heliocentric longitude of the unknown 
body as derived from these elements is only between one and 
two degrees in error, while the planet was within half a degree 
of the ecliptic. Two or three evenings assiduously devoted to 
the search could not therefore have failed to make the planet 
known. Adams's paper was accompanied by a comparison of 
his theory with the observations of Uranus from 1780, showing 
an excellent agreement. Airy in replying to this letter inquired 
whether the assumed perturbation would also explain the error 
of the radius-vector of Uranus, which he seemed to consider 
the crucial test of correctness. It does not seem that any 
categorical reply to this question was made by Adams. 

Meanwhile, at the suggestion of Arago, the investigation had 
been taken up by U. J. J. Leverrier, who had published some 
excellent work in theoretical astronomy. Leverrier's first 
published communication on the subject was made to the French 
Academy on the loth of November 1845, a few days after 
Adams's results were in the hands of Airy and Challis. A second 
memoir was presented by Leverrier in 1846 (June i). His 
investigation was more thorough than that of Adams. He first 
showed that the observations of Uranus could not be accounted 
for by the attraction of known bodies. Considering in succession 
various explanations, he found none admissible except that of 
a planet exterior to Uranus. Considering the distances to be 
double that of Uranus he then investigated the other elements 
of the orbit. He also attempted, but by a faulty method, to 
determine the limits within which the elements must be contained. 

The following are the elements found by Adams and Leverrier: 





Leverrier. 


Adams. 


Hypothesis I. 


Hypothesis II. 


Semi -major axis . 
Eccentricity . 
Long, of perihelion 
Mean longitude . 
Epoch 
True longitude 


36-I54 
0-1076 

284 45; 
318 47' 
1847, Jan. i 
326 32' 


38-38 
0-16103 

315 sf 

325 8 
1846, Oct. i 
328 


37-27 
0-12062 
299 n' 

323 2' 

1846, Oct. i 
329 


1 Astron. Nach. xiii. 94. 'Ibid. xv. J 217. 
4 See Astron. Nach., Erganzungsheft, p. 6. 



NERAC 



387 



The longitude of the actual planet was 327 57' on the ist of 
October 1846. 

The close agreement of these elements led Airy to suggest 
to Challis, on the oth of July 1846, a search for the planet with 
the Northumberland telescope. He proposed an examination 
of a part of the heavens 30 long in the direction of the ecliptic 
and 10 broad, and estimated the number of hours' work likely 
to be employed in this sweep. The proposed sweeps were 
commenced by Challis on the 2gth of July. The plan required 
each region to be swept through twice, and the positions of all 
the known stars found to be compared, in order that the position 
of the planet might be detected by its motion. On the 3ist of 
August Leverrier's concluding paper was presented to the French 
Academy, and on the i8th of September he wrote to John G. 
Galle (1812-1910), then chief assistant at the Berlin observatory, 
suggesting that he should search for the computed planet, with 
the hope of detecting it by its disk, which was probably more 
than 3* in diameter. This letter, probably received on the 23rd 
of September, was communicated to J. F. Encke, the director 
of the observatory, who approved of the search. H. L. d' Arrest, 
a student living at the observatory, expressed a wish to assist. 
In the evening the search was commenced, but it was not found 
possible to detect any planet by its disk. Star charts were at 
the time being prepared at the observatory under the auspices 
of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. It was suggested by d' Arrest 
that this region might be covered by one of the charts. Referring 
to the chart, which was lying in a drawer, it was found that such 
was the case. Comparing the stars on the chart one by one 
with the heavens it was found that an eighth magnitude star 
now visible was not on the chart. This object was observed 
until after midnight, but no certain motion was detected. On 
the following evening the object was again looked for, and found 
to have actually moved. The existence of the planet was thus 
established. It was afterwards found that Challis in his sweeps 
had observed the planet on the 4th of August, but, not having 
compared his observations with those made subsequently, had 
, failed to detect it. 

The question whether Leverrier should receive the sole credit 
of the discovery was warmly discussed. Arago took the extreme 
ground that actual publication alone should be considered, 
rejecting Adams's communications to Airy and Challis as quite 
unworthy of consideration. He also suggested that the name 
of Leverrier should be given to the planet, but this proposal 
was received with so little favour outside of France that he 
speedily withdrew it, proposing that of Neptune instead. 

The observations at the first opposition showed that the planet 
was moving in a nearly circular orbit, and was at a mean distance 
from the sun much less than that set by Leverrier as the smallest 
possible. The latter had in fact committed the error of deter- 
mining the limits by considering the variations of the elements 
one at a time, assuming in the case of each that while it varied 
the others remained constant. But a simultaneous variation 
of all the elements would have shown that the representation 
of the observations of Uranus would be improved by a simul- 
taneous diminution of both the eccentricity and the mean 
distance, the orbit becoming more nearly circular and the 
planet being brought nearer to the sun. But this was not at 
first clearly seen, and Benjamin Peirce of Harvard University 
went so far as to maintain that there was a discontinuity between 
the solution of Adams and Leverrier and the solution offered 
by the planet itself, and that the coincidence in direction of the 
actual and computed planet was an accident. But this view 
was not well founded, and the only explanation needed was to 
be found in Leverrier's faulty method of determining the limits 
within which the planet must be situated. As a matter of 
fact the actual motion of the planet during the century preceding, 
as derived from Leverrier's elements, was much nearer the truth 
than the elements themselves were. This arose from the fact 
that his very elliptic orbit, by its large eccentricity, brought the 
planet near to the sun, and therefore near to its true position, 
during the period from 1780 to 1845, when the action on Uranus 
was at its greatest. 



The observations of the first opposition enabled Sears Cook 
Walker of the National Observatory, Washington, in February 
1847 to compute the past positions of the planet, and identify 
it with a star observed by Lalande at Paris in May 1795. This 
being communicated to the Paris observatory, an examination 
of Lalande's manuscript showed that he had made two observa- 
tions of the planet, on the 8th and loth of May, and finding 
them discordant had rejected one as probably in error, and 
marked the other as questionable. A mere re-examination of 
the region to see which observation was in error would have led 
him to the discovery of the planet more than half a century 
before it was actually recognized. The identity of Lalande's 
star with Neptune was also independently shown by Petersen 
of Altona, before any word of Walker's work had reached him. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal sources for the history of the 
discovery of Neptune are the Astronomische Nachrichten, vols. xxv., 
xxvi., xxviii., and Lindenau's paper in the Ergdnzungsheft to this 
publication, pp. 1-31 (Altona, 1849). In the Memoirs of the Royal 
Astronomical Society, vol. xyi., Airy gave a detailed history of the 
circumstances connected with the discovery, so far as he was cog- 
nizant of them. Documents pertaining to the subject are found in 
the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astron. Society* B. A. Gould, 
Report to the Smithsonian Institution on the History of the Discovery 
of Neptune, published by the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 
1850), is the most complete and detailed history of all the circum- 
stances connected with the discovery, and with the early investiga- 
tions on the orbit of the planet, that has been published. Leverrier's 
investigation was published in extenso as an addition to the Con- 
naissance des temps, and Adams's as an appendix to the Nautical 
Almanac for 1851. Peirce's discussions, so far as published at all, 
are found in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and 
Sciences. The first computations of the orbit after the discovery 
were made by Sears Cook Walker, and published by the Smithsonian 
Institution (1848-1850). General tables of the motion of Neptune are 
in Kowalski's Tables du mouvement de la planete Neptune; Newcomb's 
Investigation of the Orbit of Neptune, Washington, Smithsonian In- 
stitution (1866); Leverrier's Annales de I'Observatoire de Paris; 
Memoirs, vol. xiv. (1877), and lastly Newcomb's " Tables " in 
Astron. Papers of the American Ephemeris, vol. vii., part iv. Tables 
of the satellite are found in Newcomb, The Uranian and Nep- 
tunian Systems; appendix to the Washington observations for 
1873- (S. N.) 

N&RAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arron- 
dissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 16 m. W.S.W. 
of Agen by road. Pop. (1906) town, 4018; commune, 6318. 
The town, once the capital of the dukes of Albret, is divided by 
the Baise into two parts, Grand-Nerac on the left bank and 
Petit-Nerac on the right bank. The river is spanned by a bridge 
of the 1 6th century, called the Pont Vieux, and by the Pont 
Neuf, of modern construction. Narrow winding streets often 
bordered by old houses ascend from the narrow quays on both 
banks. From the left bank a staircase leads to the Rue Henri 
Quatre, where stands a wing of the castle in which Henry IV. 
lived. A statue of the king stands in one of the squares. The 
former palace of the Chambre des Comptes is now occupied 
by the tribunal of commerce, the library and the museum. The 
church of Grand-N6rac of the i8th century and the church 
of Petit-Nerac of the I9th century offer no remarkable features. 
On the left bank of the Baise, above- Grand-Neiac, market 
gardens have taken the place of the old gardens of the Sires 
d' Albret, but remains of the Palais des Mariannes and of the 
Pavilion des Bains du Roi de Navarre, both of Renaissance 
architecture, are left. The famous promenade of La Garenne 
laid out by Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, stretches 
for more than a mile along the opposite bank of the river. The 
remains of a Roman villa, including a fragment of mosaic, have 
been found there. A road leads from the south end of La 
Garenne to the ruins of the feudal castle of Nazareth. The 
Chateau du Tasta of the isth century is within a short distance 
of Nerac. The town has a sub-prefecture, and the industries 
include brewing and cork-working. 

N6rac appears at the beginning of the nth century as a 
possession of the monks of St Pierre de Condom. The lords of 
Albret gradually deprived them of their authority over the town, 
and at the beginning of the I4th century founded a castle on the 
left bank of the Baise. In the i6th century the castle was the 
residence of Henry IV. during much of his youth and of 



3 88 



NERBUDDA NERGAL 



Marguerite de Valois, sister of Francis I., of Jeanne d'Albret, 
and of the second Marguerite de Valois, wife of Henry IV., 
who held a brilliant court there. Nerac, the inhabitants of which 
had adopted the Reformed religion, was seized by the Catholics 
in 1562. The conferences, held there at the end of 1578 between 
the Catholics and Protestants, ended in February 1579 in the 
peace of N6rac. In 1580 the town was used by Henry IV. as 
a base for attacks on' the Agenais, Armagnac and Guienne. 
A Chambre de PEdit for Guienne and a Chambre des Comptes 
were established there by Henry IV. In 1621, however, the 
town took part in the Protestant rising, was taken by the troops 
of Louis XIII. and its fortifications dismantled. Soon after it 
was deprived both of the Chambre de 1'Edit and of the Chambre 
des Comptes, and its ruin was completed by the revocation of 
the Edict of Nantes in 1685. 

NERBUDDA, or NARBADA, a river of India. It is traditionally 
regarded as the boundary between Hindustan proper and the 
Deccan. It rises on the summit of Amarkantak hill in Rewa 
state, and for the first 200 m. of its course winds among the 
Mandla hills, which form the head of the Satpura range; then 
at Jubbulpore, passing through the " Marble Rocks," it enters its 
proper valley between the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges, and 
pursues a direct westerly course to the Gulf of Cambay. Its 
total course through the Central Provinces and Gujarat amounts 
to about 800 m., and it falls into the sea in the Bombay district 
of Broach. It receives the drainage of the northern slopes 
of the Satpuras, but not that of the Vindhyan tableland, the 
streams from which flow into the Ganges and Jumna. After 
leaving the Central Provinces, the river widens out in the fertile 
district of Broach, with an average breadth of $ m. to i m. 
Below Broach city it forms an estuary which is 13 m. broad 
where it enters the Gulf of Cambay. The Nerbudda is nowhere 
utilized for irrigation, and navigation is confined to the lower 
section. In the rainy season boats of considerable size sail about 
60 m. above Broach city. Sea-going vessels of abqut 70 tons 
frequent the port of Broach, but they are entirely dependent 
on the tide. In sanctity the Nerbudda ranks only second 
to the Ganges among the rivers of India, and along its whole 
course are special places of pilgrimage. The most meritorious 
act that a pilgrim can perform is to walk from the sea to the source 
of the river and back along the opposite bank. This pilgrimage 
takes from one to two years to accomplish. 

The Nerbudda has given its name to a division of the Central 
Provinces, comprising the five districts of Narsinghpur, Hoshanga- 
bad, Nimar, Betul and Chhindwara. Area, 18,382 sq. m. ; 
pop. (1001) 1,785,008. 

NERCHINSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, in the government 
of Transbaikalia, 183 m. by rail E. of Chita, on the left bank of 
the Nercha, 2| m. above its confluence with the Shilka. Pop. 
(1897) 6713. It is badly built of wood, and its lower parts 
frequently suffer from inundations. It has a small museum. 
The inhabitants support themselves mainly by agriculture, 
tobacco-growing and cattle-breeding; a few merchants trade in 
furs and cattle, in brick-tea from China, and manufactured 
wares from Russia. 

The fort of Nerchinsk dates from 1654, and the town was 
founded in 1658 by Pashkov, who in that year opened direct 
communication between the Russian settlements in Transbaikalia 
and those on the Amur which had been founded by Cossacks and 
fur-traders coming from the Yakutsk region. In 1689 was signed 
between Russia and China the treaty of Nerchinsk, which 
stopped for two centuries the farther advance of the Russians into 
the basin of the Amur. After that Nerchinsk became the chief 
centre for the trade with China. The opening of the western 
route through Mongolia, by Urga, and the establishment of a 
custom-house at Kiakhta in 1728 diverted this trade into a new 
channel. But Nerchinsk acquired fresh importance from the 
influx of immigrants, mostly exiles, into eastern Transbaikalia, 
the discovery of rich mines and the arrival of great numbers of 
convicts, and ultimately it became the chief town of Trans- 
baikalia. In 181 2 it was transferred from the banks of the Shilka 
to its present site, on account of the floods. Since the foundation, 



in 1851, of Chita, the present capital of Transbaikalia, Nerchinsk 
has been falling into decay. 

NERCHINSK (in full NERCHINSKI? ZAVOD), a town and silver- 
mine of East Siberia, in the government of Transbaikalia, 150 m. 
E.S.E. of another Nerchinsk (q.v.) (with which it is often con- 
fused), on a small affluent of the Argun. Pop. (1897) 3000. 
It lies in a narrow valley between barren mountains, and is much 
better built than any of the district towns of East Siberia. It 
has a chemical laboratory for mining purposes, and a meteoro- 
logical observatory (51 18' N., 119 37' E., 2200 ft. above 
sea-level), where meteorological and magnetical observations 
have been made every hour since 1842. The average yearly 
temperature is 25-3 F., with extremes of 97-7 and -52-6. 

NERCHINSK MINING DISTRICT extends over an area of 29,450 
sq. m., and includes all the silver-mines and gold-fields between 
the Shilka and the Argun, together with a few on the left bank 
of the Shilka. It is traversed by several parallel chains of moun- 
tains which rise to 4500 ft., and are intersected by a complicated 
system of deep, narrow valleys, densely wooded, with a few 
expansions along the larger rivers, where the inhabitants with 
difficulty raise some rye and wheat. The population (75,625 
in 1897) consists of Russians, Buryats and Tunguses. Included 
in this number were some 2300 convicts. The mountains, so 
far as they have been geologically explored, consist of crystalline 
slates and limestones probably Upper Silurian and Devonian 
interspersed with granite, syenite and diorite; they contain 
rich ores of silver, lead, tin and iron, while the diluvial and 
alluvial valley formations contain productive auriferous sands. 

The Nerchinsk silver mines began to be worked in 1704, but 
during the first half of the l8th century their yearly production did 
not exceed 8400 oz., and the total amount for the first 150 years 
(1704-1854) amounted to 11,540,000 oz. The lead was mostly 
neglected on account of the difficulties of transport, but its pro- 
duction is at present on the increase. Gold was first discovered in 
1830, and between 1833 and 1855 260,000 oz. of gold dust were 
obtained. In 1864 a large number of auriferous deposits were dis- 
covered. Until 1863 all the labour was performed by serfs, the 
property of the emperor, and by convicts, numbering usually 
nearly four thousand. 

NEREUS, in Greek mythology, the eldest son of Pontus and 
Gaea, and father of the fifty Nereids. He is a beneficent and 
venerable old man of the sea, full of wisdom and skilled in 
prophecy, but, like Proteus, he will only reveal what he knows 
under compulsion. Thus Heracles seized him when asleep, and, 
although he attempted to escape by assuming various forms, 
compelled him to reveal the whereabouts of the apples of the 
Hesperides (Apollodorus ii. 5). His favourite dwelling-place is a 
cavern in the depths of the Aegean. The fifty daughters of 
Nereus, the Nereids, are personifications of the smiling, quiet sea. 
Of these, Thetis and Amphitrite rule the sea according to the 
legend of different localities; Galatea is a Sicilian figure, who 
plays with and deludes her rustic lover of the shore, Polyphemus. 
Nereus is represented with the sceptre and trident; the Nereids 
are depicted as graceful maidens, lightly dad or naked, riding on 
tritons and dolphins. The name has nothing to do with the 
modern Greek vtpb (really veap&v, " fresh " [water]) : it is prob- 
ably a short form of N^ptTos. 

NERGAL, the name of a solar deity in Babylonia, the main 
seat of whose cult was at Kutha or Cuthah, represented by the 
mound of Tell-Ibrahim. The importance of Kutha as a religious 
and at one time also as a political centre led to his surviving the 
tendency to concentrate the various sun-cults of Babylonia in 
Shamash (q.v.). He becomes, however, the representative of 
a certain phase only of the sun and not of the sun as a whole. 
Portrayed in hymns and myths as a god of war and pestilence, 
there can be little doubt that Nergal represents the sun of noon- 
time and of the summer solstice which brings destruction to man- 
kind. It is a logical consequence that Nergal is pictured also as the 
deity who presides over the nether-world, and stands at the head 
of the special pantheon assigned to the government of the dead, 
who are supposed to be gathered in a large subterranean cave 
known as Aralu or Irkalla. In this capacity there is associated 
with him a goddess Allatu, though there are indications that at 
one time Allatu was regarded as the sole mistress of Aralu, ruling 



NERI, PHILIP 



389 



in her own person. Ordinarily the consort of Nergal is Laz. 
Nergal was pictured as a lion and on boundary-stone monuments 
his symbol is a mace surmounted by the head of a lion. 

As in the case of Ninib, Nergal appears to have absorbed 
a number of minor solar deities, which accounts for the various 
names or designations under which he appears, such as Lugalgira, 
Sharrapu (" the burner," perhaps a mere epithet), Ira, Gibil 
(though this name more properly belongs to Nusku, q.v.) and 
Sibitti. A certain confusion exists in cuneiform literature 
between Ninib and Nergal, perhaps due to the traces of two 
different conceptions regarding these two solar deities. Nergal 
is called the " raging king," the " furious one," and the like, and 
by a play upon his name separated into three elements Ne-uru- 
gal " lord of the great dwelling " his position at the head of the 
nether-world pantheon is indicated. In the astral-theological 
system he is the planet Mars, while in ecclesiastical art the great 
lion-headed colossi serving as guardians to the temples and 
palaces seem to be a symbol of Nergal, just as the bull-headed 
colossi are probably intended to typify Ninib. 

The name of his chief temple at Kutha was E-shid-lam, from 
which the god receives the designation of Sbidlamtaea, " the 
one that rises up from Shidlam." The cult of Nergal does not 
appear to have been as widespread as that of Ninib. He is 
frequently invoked in hymns and in votive and other inscriptions 
of Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, but we do not learn of many 
temples to him outside of Kutha. Sennacherib speaks of one 
at Tarbisu to the north of Nineveh, but it is significant that 
although Nebuchadrezzar II. (606-5863.0.), the great temple- 
builder of the neo-Babylonian monarchy, alludes to his opera- 
tions at E-shid-lam in Kutha, he makes no mention of a sanctuary 
to Nergal in Babylon. Local associations with his original 
seat Kutha and the conception formed of him as a god of 
the dead acted in making him feared rather than actively 
worshipped. (M. JA.) 

NERI, PHILIP (FiLippo DE) (1515-1595), Italian churchman, 
was born at Florence on the 2ist of July 1515. He was the 
youngest child of Francesco Neri, a lawyer of that city, and 
his wife Lucrezia Soldi, a woman of noble birth, whose family 
had long served the state. He was carefully brought up, and 
received his early teaching from the friars at San Marco, the 
famous Dominican monastery in Florence. He was accustomed 
in after life to ascribe most of his progress to the teaching of 
two amongst them, Zenobio de' Medici and Servanzio Mini. 
When he was about sixteen years old, a fire destroyed nearly 
all his father's property. Philip was sent to his father's childless 
brother Romolo, a merchant at San Germane, a Neapolitan 
town near the base of Monte Cassino, to assist him in his business, 
and with the hope that he might inherit his possessions. So 
far as gaining Romolo's confidence and affection, the plan was 
entirely successful, but it was thwarted by Philip's own resolve 
to take holy orders. In 1533 he left San Germano, and went 
to Rome, where he became tutor in the house of a Florentine 
gentleman named Galeotto Caccia. Here he was able to pursue 
his own studies under the guidance of the Augustinians, and to 
begin those labours amongst the sick and poor which gained 
him in later life the title of "Apostle of Rome," besides paying 
nightly visits for prayer and meditations to the churches of the 
city and to the catacombs. In 1538 he entered on that course 
of home mission work which was the distinguishing charac- 
teristic of his life; somewhat in the manner of Socrates he 
traversed the city, seizing opportunities of entering into con- 
versation with persons of all ranks, and of leading them on, 
with playful irony, with searching questions, with words of wise 
and kindly counsel, to consider the topics he desired to set 
before them. 

In 1548 he founded the celebrated confraternity of the San- 
tissima Trinita de' Pellegrini e de' Convalescente, whose primary 
object is to minister to the needs of the thousands of poor 
pilgrims who flock to Rome, especially in years of jubilee, and 
also to relieve the patients discharged from hospitals, but still 
too weak for labour. In 1551 he passed through all the minor 
orders, and was ordained deacon, and finally priest on the 23rd 



of May. He had some thought of going to India as a missionary, 
but was dissuaded by his friends who saw that there was abundant 
work to be done in Rome, and that he was the man to do it. 
Accordingly he settled down, with some companions, at the 
hospital of San Girolamo della Carita, and while there tentatively 
began, in 1556, the institute with which his name is more especi- 
ally connected, that of the Oratory. The scheme at first was 
no more than a series of evening meetings in a hall (the Oratory), 
at which there were prayers, hymns, readings from Scripture, 
from the fathers, and from the Martyrology, followed by a 
lecture, or by discussion of some religious question proposed 
for consideration. The musical selections (settings of scenes 
from sacred history) were called oratorios. The scheme was 
developed, and the members of the society undertook various 
kinds of mission work throughout Rome, notably the preaching 
of sermons in different churches every evening, a wholly novel 
agency at that time. In 1564 the Florentines requested him to 
leave San Girolamo, and to take the oversight of their church 
in Rome, San Giovanni dei Yiorentini, then newly built. He 
was at first reluctant, but by consent of Pius IV. he accepted, 
while retaining the charge of San Girolamo, where the exercises 
of the Oratory were kept up. At this time the new society 
included amongst its members Caesar Baronius, the ecclesi- 
astical historian, Francesco Maria Tarugi, afterwards archbishop 
of Avignon, and Paravicini, all three subsequently cardinals, 
and also Gallonius, author of a well-known work on the Sufferings 
of the Martyrs, Ancina, Bordoni, and other men of ability and 
distinction. 

The Florentines, however, built in 1574 a large oratory or 
mission-room for the society contiguous to San Giovanni, in 
order to save them the fatigue of the daily journey to and from 
San Girolamo, and to provide a more convenient place of 
assembly, and the headquarters were transferred thither. As 
the community grew, and its mission work extended, the need 
of having a church entirely its own, and not subject to other 
claims, as were San Girolamo and San Giovanni, made itself 
felt, and the offer of the small parish church of Santa Maria in 
Vallicella, conveniently situated in the middle of Rome, was 
made and accepted. The building, however, as not large 
enough for their purpose, was pulled down, and a splendid 
church erected on the site. It was immediately after taking 
possession of their new quarters that Neri formally organized, 
under permission of a bull dated July 15, 1575, a community 
of secular priests, entitled the Congregation of the Oratory. The 
new church was consecrated early in 1577, and the clergy of 
the new society at once resigned the charge of San Giovanni 
dei Fiorentini, but Neri himself did not migrate from San Giro- 
lamo till 1583, and then only in virtue of an injunction of the 
pope that he, as the superior, should reside at the chief house 
of his congregation. He was at first elected for a term of three 
years (as is usual in modern societies), but in 1587 was nominated 
superior for life. He was, however, entirely free from personal 
ambition, and had no desire to be general over a number of 
dependent houses, so that he desired that all congregations 
formed on his model outside Rome should be autonomous, 
governing themselves, and without endeavouring to retain 
control over any new colonies they might themselves send out 
a regulation afterwards formally confirmed by a brief of Gregory 
XV. in 1622. Much as he mingled with society, and with persons 
of importance in church and state, his single interference in 
political matters was in 1593, when his persuasions induced the 
pope, Clement VIII., to withdraw the excommunication and 
anathema of Henry IV. of France, and the refusal to receive 
his ambassador, even though the king had formally abjured 
Calvinism. Neri saw that the pope's attitude was more than 
likely to drive Henry to a relapse, and probably to rekindle 
the civil war in France, and directed Baronius, then the pope's 
confessor, to refuse him absolution, and to resign his office of 
confessor, unless he would withdraw the anathema. Clement 
yielded at once, though the whole college of cardinals had 
supported his policy; and Henry, who did not learn the facts 
till several years afterwards, testified lively gratitude for the 



39 



NERO 



timely and politic intervention. Neri continued in the govern- 
ment of the Oratory until his death, which took place on the 
26th of May 1595 at Rome. He was succeeded by Baronius. 
There are many anecdotes told of him which attest his possession 
of a playful humour, united with shrewd mother-wit. He 
considered a cheerful temper to be more Christian than a melan- 
choly one, and carried this spirit into his whole life. This is 
the true secret of his popularity and of his place in the folk-lore 
of the Roman poor. Many miracles were attributed to him 
alive and dead, and it is said that when his body was dissected 
it was found that two of his nbs had been broken, an event 
attributed to the expansion of his heart while fervently praying 
in the catacombs about the year 1545. This phenomenon is 
in the same category as the stigmata of St Francis of Assisi. 
Neri was beatified by Paul V. in 1600, and canonized by Gregory 
XV. in 1622. . 

" Practical commonplaceness," says Frederick William Faber in 
his panegyric of Neri, was the special mark which distinguishes his 
form of ascetic piety from the types accredited before his day. 
" He looked like other men ... he was emphatically a modern 
gentleman, of scrupulous courtesy, sportive gaiety, acquainted with 
what was going on in the world, taking a real interest in it, giving and 
getting information, very neatly dressed, with a _ shrewd common 
sense always alive about him, in a modern room with modern furni- 
ture, plain, it is true, but with no marks of poverty about it in a 
word, with all the ease, the gracefulness, the polish of a modern 
gentleman of good birth, considerable accomplishments, and a very 
various information." Accordingly, he was ready to meet the needs 
of his day to an extent and in a manner which even the versatile 
Jesuits, who much desired to enlist him in their company, did not 
rival; and, though an Italian priest and head of a new religious 
order, his genius was entirely unmonastic and unmedieval ; he was 
the active promoter of vernacular services, frequent and popular 
preaching, unconventional prayer, and unsystematized, albeit 
fervent, private devotion. 

Neri was not a reformer, save in the sense that in the active dis- 
charge of pastoral work he laboured to reform individuals. He had 
no difficulties in respect of the teaching and practice of his church, 
being in truth an ardent Ultramontane in doctrine, as was all but 
inevitable in his time and circumstances, and his great merit wls the 
instinctive tact which showed him that the system of monasticism 
could never be the leaven of secular life, but that something more 
homely, simple, and everyday in character was needed for the new 
time. 

Accordingly, the congregation he founded is of the least con- 
ventional nature, rather resembling a residential clerical club than 
a monastery of the older type, and its rules (never written by Neri, 
but approved by Paul V. in 1612) would have appeared incredibly 
lax, nay, its religious character almost doubtful, to Bruno, Stephen 
Harding, Francis or Dominic. It admits only priests aged at least 
thirty-six, or ecclesiastics who have completed their studies and are 
ready for ordination. The members live in community, and each 
pays his own expenses, having the usufruct of his private means 
a startling innovation on the monastic vow of poverty. They have 
indeed a common table, but it is kept up precisely as a regimental 
mess, by monthly payments from each member. Nothing is pro- 
vided by the society except the bare lodging, and the fees of a 
visiting physician. Everything else clothing, books, furniture, 
medicines must be defrayed at the private charges of each member. 
There are no vows, and every member of the society is at liberty to 
withdraw when he pleases, and to take his property with him. 
The government, strikingly unlike the Jesuit autocracy, is ot a 
republican form; and the superior, though first in honour, has to 
take his turn in discharging all the duties which come to each priest 
of the society in the order of his seniority, including that of waiting 
at tabje, which is not entrusted in the Oratory to lay brothers, 
according to the practice in most other communities. Four deputies 
assist the superior in the government, and all public acts are decided 
by a majority of votes of the whole congregation, in which the 
superior has no casting voice. To be chosen superior, fifteen years 
of membership are requisite as a qualification, and the office is 
tenable, as all the others, for but three years at a time. No one can 
vote till he has been three years in the society; the deliberative 
voice is not obtained before the eleventh year. There are thus three 
classes of members novices, triennials and decennials. Each house 
can call its superior to account, can depose, and can restore him, 
without appeal to any external authority, although the bishop of 
the diocese in which any house of the Oratory is established is its 
ordinary and immediate superior, though without power to interfere 
with the rule. Their churches are non-parochial, and they can 
perform such rites as baptisms, marriages, &c., only by {permission 
of the parish priest, who is entitled to receive all fees due in respect 
of these ministrations. The Oratory chiefly spread in Italy and in 
France, where in 1760 there were 58 houses all under the government 
of a superior-general. Malebranche, Thomassin, Mascaron and 



Massillon were members of the famous branch established in Paris 
in 1611 by B6rulle (after cardinal), which had a great success and 
a distinguished history. It fell in the crash of the Revolution, but 
was revived by P6re P6t6tot, cur6 of St Roch, in 1852, as the 
" Oratory of Jesus and the Immaculate Mary "; the Church of the 
Oratory near the Louvre belongs to the Reformed Church. An 
English house, founded in 1847 at Birmingham, is celebrated as the 
place at which Cardinal Newman fixed his abode after his sub- 
mission to the Roman Catholic Church. In 1849 a second congrega- 
tion was founded in King William Street, Strand, London, with F. W. 
Faber as superior; in 1854 it wa s transferred to Brompton. The 
society has never thriven in Germany, though a few houses have been 
founded there, in Munich and Vienna. 

AUTHORITIES. J. Marciano, Memorie istoriche della Congregazione 
dell' Oratorio (5 vols., Naples, 1693-1702); Perraud, L'Oratoire de 
France (2nd ed., Paris, 1866) ; Jourdain de la PassardiSre, L'Oratoire 
de Si Ph. de Neri (1880); Ant. Gallonius, Vita Ph. Neri (Rome, 
1600); Giacomo Bacci, Life of Saint Philip Neri, trans. Faber 
(2 vols., London, 1847); Crispino, La Scuola di San Filippo Neri 
(Naples, 1875); F. W. Faber, Spirit and Genius of St Philip Neri 
(London, 1850) ; F. A. Agnelli, Excellencies of the Oratory ofSt Philip 
Neri, trans. F. I. Antrobus (London, 1881); articles by F. Theiner 
and Hilgers in Wetzer und Welte's Kirchenlexicon, and by Reuchlin 
and Zockler in Herzog's Realencyklopddie. Neri's own writings 
include Ricordi, or Advice to Youth, Letters (Padua, 1751), and a few 
sonnets printed in the collection of the Rime Oneste. Other lives by 
Posl (Regensburg. 1847); P. Guerin (Lyons, 1852); Mrs Hope 
(London, 1859); Abp. Capecelatro (2 vols., 1879; 2nd ed., 1884; 
Eng. trans., 1882; 2nd ed. by T. A. Pope, 1894). 

NERO (37-68), Roman emperor 54-68, was born at Antium 
on the i sth of December 37. He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius 
Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the younger, and his name was 
originally L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. His father died when Nero 
was scarcely three years old. In the previous year (39) his mother 
had been banished by order of her brother Caligula (Gaius) 
on a charge of treasonable conspiracy, and Nero, thus early 
deprived of both parents, found shelter in the house of his aunt 
Domitia, where two slaves, a barber and a dancer, began his 
training. The emperor Claudius recalled Agrippina, who spent 
the next thirteen years in the determined struggle to win for Nero 
the throne which had been predicted for him. Her first decisive 
success was gained in 48 by the disgrace and execution of 
Messallina (q.v.), wife of Claudius. In 49 followed her own 
marriage with Claudius, and her recognition as his consort in the 
government. 1 The Roman populace already looked with favour 
on Nero, as the grandson of Germanicus, but in 50 his claims 
obtained formal recognition from Claudius himself, who adopted 
him under the title of Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. 2 
Agrippina's next step was to provide a suitable training for her 
son. The scholar L. Annaeus Seneca was recalled from exile 
and appointed his tutor. On the isth of December 51 Nero 
completed his fourteenth year, and Agrippina, in view of 
Claudius's failing health, determined to delay no 'longer his 
adoption of the toga virilis. The occasion was celebrated in a 
manner which seemed to place Nero's prospects of succession 
beyond doubt . He was introduced to the senate by Claudius him- 
self. The proconsular imperium and the title of princeps juven- 
tutis were conferred upon him. 3 He was specially admitted as an 
extraordinary member of the great priestly colleges; his name 
was included by the Arval Brethren in their prayers for the 
safety of the emperor and his house; at the games in the circus 
his appearance in triumphal dress contrasted significantly with 
the simple toga praetexta worn by Britannicus. During the next 
two years Agrippina followed this up with energy. Britannicus's 
leading partisans were banished or put to death, and the all- 
important command of the praetorian guard was transferred 
to Afranius Burrus, a Gaul by birth, who had been the trusted 
agent first of Livia and then of Tiberius and Claudius. Nero 
himself was put prominently forward. The petitions addressed 
to the senate by the town of Bononia and by the communities 
of Rhodes and Ilium were gracefully supported by him in Latin 
and Greek speeches, and during Claudius's absence in 52 at 
the Latin festival it was Nero who, as praefect of the city, 
administered justice in the forum. Early in 53 his marriage with 

1 Tac. Ann. xii. 26, 36; see also Schiller, Nero, 67. 
' Tac. Ann. xii. 26; Zonaras xi. 10. 
3 Tac. Ann. xii. 41. 



NERO 



39 1 



Claudius's daughter Octavia drew still closer the ties which 
connected him with the imperial house. Agrippina determined 
to hasten the death of Claudius, and the absence, through illness, 
of the emperor's trusted freedman Narcissus, favoured her 
schemes. On the I3th of October 54 Claudius died, poisoned, as 
all our authorities declare, by her orders, and Nero was presented 
to the soldiers on guard as their new sovereign. From the steps 
of the palace he proceeded to the praetorian camp to receive 
the salutations of the troops, and thence to the senate-house, 
where he was promptly invested with all the honours, titles and 
powers of emperor. 1 

Agrippina's bold stroke had been completely successful. 
Only a few voices were raised for Britannicus; nor is there any 
doubt that Rome was prepared to welcome the new emperor 
with genuine enthusiasm. His prestige and his good qualities, 
carefully fostered by Seneca, made him popular, while his 
childish vanity, ungovernable selfishness and savage temper 
were as yet unsuspected. His first acts confirmed this favourable 
impression. He modestly declined the title of pater patriae; 
the memory of Claudius, and that of his own father Domitius 
were duly honoured. The senate listened with delight to his 
promises to rule according to the maxims of Augustus, and to 
avoid the errors which had rendered unpopular the rule of his 
predecessor, while his unfailing clemency, liberality and affa- 
bility were the talk of Rome. Much no doubt of the credit of all 
this is due to Seneca and Burrus. Seneca had seen from the 
first that the real danger with Nero lay in the savage vehemence 
of his passions, and he made it his chief aim to stave off by every 
means in his power the dreaded outbreak. The policy of indulging 
his tastes and helping him to enjoy the sweets of popularity 
without the actual burdens of government succeeded -for the 
time. During the first five years of his reign, the golden quin- 
quennium Neronis, little occurred to damp the popular enthusiasm. 
Nero's promises of constitutional moderation we're amply 
fulfilled, and the senate found itself free to discuss and even 
to decide important administrative questions. Abuses were 
remedied, the provincials protected from oppression, and the 
burdens of taxation lightened. On the frontiers, thanks chiefly 
to Corbulo's energy and skill, no disaster occurred serious enough 
to shake the general confidence, and even the murder of Britanni- 
cus seems to have been accepted as a necessary measure of self- 
defence. But Seneca's fear lest Nero's sleeping passions should 
once be roused were fully verified, and he seems to have seen 
all along where the danger lay, namely in Agrippina's imperious 
temper and insatiable love of power. The success of Seneca's 
own management of Nero largely depended on his being able 
gradually to emancipate the emperor from his mother's control. 
During the first few months of Nero's reign the chances of such 
an emancipation seemed remote, for he treated his mother with 
elaborate respect and consulted her on all affairs of state. 
In 55, however, Seneca found a powerful ally in Nero's 
passion for the beautiful freedwoman Acte, a passion which 
he deliberately encouraged. Agrippina's angry remonstrances 
served only to irritate Nero, and caresses equally failed. She 
then rashly tried intimidation and threatened to espouse the 
cause of Britannicus. Nero retaliated by poisoning Britannicus. 
Agrippina then tried to win over Nero's neglected wife Octavia, 
and to form a party of her own. Nero dismissed her guards, and 
placed her in a sort of honourable confinement (Tac. Ann. 
xiii. 12-20). During nearly three years she disappears from the 
history, and with her retirement things again for the time went 
smoothly. In 58, however, fresh cause for anxiety appeared, 
when Nero was enslaved by Poppaea Sabina, a woman of a very 
different stamp from her predecessor. High-born, wealthy and 
accomplished, she was resolved to be Nero's wife, and set herself 
to remove the obstacles which stood in her way. Her first object 
was the finalruin of Agrippina, and by rousing Nero's jealousy 
and fear she induced him to seek her death, with the aid of a 
freedman Anicetus, praefect of the fleet of Misenum. Agrippina 
was invited to Baiae, and after an affectionate reception, was 
conducted on board a vessel so constructed as, at a given signal, 
1 Tac. Ann. xii. 96; Suet. Nero, 8. 



to fall to pieces. But Agrippina saved herself by swimming, 
and wrote to her son, announcing her escape, and affecting entire 
ignorance of the plot. A body of soldiers under Anicetus then 
surrounded her villa, and murdered her in her own chamber. 
Nero was horrorstruck at the enormity of the crime and terrified 
at its possible consequences. But a six months' residence in 
Campania, and the congratulations which poured in upon him 
from the neighbouring towns, where the report had been officially 
spread that Agrippina had fallen a victim to her treacherous 
designs upon the emperor, gradually restored his courage. In 
September 59 he re-entered Rome amid universal rejoicing. 
A prolonged carnival followed. Chariot races, musical and 
dramatic exhibitions, games in the Greek fashion rapidly 
succeeded each other. In all the emperor was a prominent 
figure, but these revels at least involved no bloodshed, and 
were civilized compared with the gladiatorial shows. 

A far more serious result of the death of Agrippina was the 
growing influence over Nero of Poppaea and her friends. In 62 
Burrus died, it was said by poison, and Seneca retired from 
the unequal contest. Their place was filled by Poppaea, and the 
infamous Tigellinus, whose sympathy with Nero's sensual tastes 
had gained him the command of the praetorian guards in 
succession to Burrus. The haunting fear of conspiracy was skil- 
fully used by them to direct Nero's suspicions against possible 
opponents. Cornelius Sulla, who had been banished to Massilia 
in 58, was put to death on the ground that his residence in Gaul 
was likely to arouse disaffection in that province, and a similar 
charge proved fatal to Rubellius Plautus, who had for two years 
been living in retirement in Asia. 2 Nero's taste for blood thus 
whetted, Octavia was divorced, banished to the island of Panda- 
teria and barbarously murdered. Poppaea's triumph was now 
complete. She was formally married to Nero; her head appeared 
on the coins side by side with his; and her statues were erected 
in the public places of Rome. 

In the course of the year 61 Rome was startled by the news of a 
disaster in Britain. At the time of the Claudian invasion of Britain 
in A.D. 43 Prasutagus, the king of the Iceni, had concluded a treaty 
with Claudius, by which no doubt he recognized the suzerainty of 
Rome and was himself enrolled among " the allies and friends of 
the Roman people." The alliance was of value to Claudius, for the 
territory of the Iceni (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire) lay 
immediately north of the new province and its capital town Col- 
chester, and Prasutagus had loyally kept faith with Rome. But in 
A.D. 61 he died, leaving no male heir. His kingdom therefore lapsed 
to Rome, and Prasutagus, anxious that the transfer should be 
effected in an orderly way, divided his accumulated wealth between 
his two daughters and the emperor. His plan failed, for the local 
Roman officials acted as though the kingdom had been conquered 
in war; they seized on the property of the late king and his chiefs 
and insulted his family. Fearing that worse might follow when the 
kingdom should be annexed, and encouraged by the absence of the 
legate and his legions, the Iceni, led by Prasutagus's daughter 
Boudicca (Boadicea) rose in revolt and were joined by the Trino- 
bantes in Essex, who had been long subject to Rome and had their 
own grievances to redress. Colchester, since A.D. 50 a Roman colony, 
was sacked. The ninth legion which had hurried from Lincoln was 
cut to pieces, and the insurgents prepared to march on London. 
The news of the outbreak found the legate Suetonius Paulinus en- 
gaged in attacking Anglesey. His resolution was at once taken. 
At the head of such light troops as he could collect, he marched in 
haste along the Wathng Street, leaving orders for the legions to 
follow. Though the tribes along the road were rising, Suetonius 
succeeded in reaching London, only however to find himself too 
weak to hold it. He was obliged to fall back along the road by 
which he had come. London first, and then Verulam, were abandoned 
to the Britons. At last at some undefined point on the Watling 
Street his legions joined him. Thus reinforced he turned to face 
the enemy. The engagement was severe but the Roman victory 
was decisive, and Roman authority was restored throughout central 
and southern Britain. 

The profound impression produced in Rome by the " British 
disaster " was confirmed two years later in A.D. 63 by the partial 
destruction of Pompeii by an earthquake, and the news of the 
evacuation of Armenia by the Roman legions. A far deeper and 
more lasting impression was produced by the great fire in Rome. 
The fire broke out on the night of the i8th of July, 64, among the 
wooden booths at the south-east end of the Circus Maximus. 
Thence in one direction it rapidly spread over the Palatine and 
1 Tac. Ann. xiv. 59. 



392 



NERO 



Velia up to the low cliffs of the Esquiline, and in another it laid 
waste the Aventine, the Forum Boarium and Velabrum till it 
reached the Tiber and the solid barrier of the Servian wall. 
After burning fiercely for six days it suddenly started afresh in 
the northern quarter of the city and desolated the regions of the 
Circus Flaminius and the Via Lata, and by the time that it was 
finally quenched only four of the fourteen regiones remained un- 
touched; three had been utterly destroyed and seven reduced 
to ruins. The conflagration is said by all authorities later than 
Tacitus to have been deliberately caused by Nero himself. 1 
But Tacitus, though he mentions the rumours, declares that its 
origin was uncertain, and in spite of such works as Profumo's 
Le fonti ed i tempi dello incendio Neroniano (1905), there is no 
proof of his guilt. 2 By Nero's orders, the open spaces in the 
Campus Martius were utilized to give shelter to the homeless 
crowds, provisions were brought from Ostia and the price of 
-corn lowered. In rebuilding the city every precaution was taken 
against the recurrence of such a calamity. Broad regular streets 
replaced the narrow winding alleys. The new houses were 
limited in height, built partly of hard stone and protected by 
open spaces and colonnades. The water-supply, lastly, was 
carefully regulated. 

There is, however, no doubt that this great disaster told against 
Nero in the popular mind. It was regarded as a direct mani- 
festation of the wrath of the gods, even by those who did not 
suspect the emperor. This impression no religious ceremonies, 
nor even the execution of a number of Christians, as convenient 
scapegoats, could altogether dispel. But Nero proceeded with 
the congenial work of repairing the damage. In addition to the 
rebuilding of the streets, he erected a splendid palace, the 
" golden house," for himself. The wonders of his Domus aurea 
were remembered and talked of long after its partial demolition 
by Vespasian. It stretched from the Palatine across the low 
ground, afterwards occupied by the Colosseum, to the Esquiline. 
Gold, precious stones and Greek masterpieces adorned its walls. 
Most marvellous of all were the grounds in which it stood, with 
their meadows and lakes, their shady woods and their distant 
views. To defray the enormous cost, Italy and the provinces, 
says Tacitus, were ransacked, and in Asia and Achaia especially 
the rapacity of the imperial commissioners recalled the days of 
Mummius and of Sulla. 3 It was the first occasion on which the 
provincials had suffered from Nero's rule, and the discontent it 
caused helped to weaken his hold over them at the very moment 
when the growing dissatisfaction in Rome was gathering to a 
head. Early in 65 Nero was panic-stricken by the discovery of a 
formidable conspiracy involving such men as Faenius Rufus, 
Tigellinus's colleague in the prefecture of the praetorian guards, 
Plautius Lateranus, one of the consuls elect, the poet Lucan, 
and, lastly, not a few of the tribunes and centurions of the 
praetorian guard itself. Their chosen leader, whom they destined 
to succeed Nero, was C. Calpurnius Piso (q.v.), a handsome, 
wealthy and popular noble, and a boon companion of Nero 
himself. The plan to murder Nero was frustrated by a freedman 
Milichus, who, in the hope of a large reward, disclosed the 
whole plot. Piso, Faenius Rufus, Lucan and many of their 
less prominent accomplices, and even Seneca himself (though 
there seems to have been no evidence of his complicity) were 
executed. 

But, though largesses and thanksgivings celebrated the 
suppression of the conspiracy, and the round of games and 
shows was renewed with even increased splendour, the effects 
of the shock were visible in the long list of victims who during 
the next few months were sacrificed to his restless fears and 
resentment. Conspicuous among them was Paetus Thrasea, 
whose unbending virtue had long made him distasteful to Nero, 
and who was now suspected, possibly with reason, of sympathy 
with the conspirators. The death of Poppaea in the autumn of 

'Tac. Ann. xv. 38; Suet. Nero, 38; Dio Cass. Ixii. 16; Pliny, 
N.H. xvii. 5. 

* This work is a reply to C. Pascal's L'Incendio di Roma e i primi 
Cristiani (Milan, 1900), which throws the guilt on the Christians. 

*Tac. Ann. xv. 42; Suet. Nero, 31; cf. Friedlander, Sitten- 
geschichle, iii. 67-69. 



65 was probably not lamented by any one but her husband, but 
the general gloom was deepened by a pestilence, caused, it 
seems, by the overcrowding at the time of the fire. 

Early, however, in the summer of 66, the Parthian prince 
Tiridates visited Italy. This event was a conspicuous tribute 
to the ability both as soldier and statesman of Cn. Domitius 
Corbulo. As long ago as 54 the news reached Rome that the 
Parthian king Vologaeses had expelled the king recognized by 
Rome from Armenia and installed in his place his own brother 
Tiridates. Orders were at once issued to concentrate all available 
forces on the Cappadocian frontier under Corbulo, the first soldier 
of his day. After some time spent in making his army efficient, 
Corbulo invaded Armenia and swept victoriously through the 
country. Armenia was rescued and Corbulo proposed that 
Tiridates should become king of Armenia on condition of his 
receiving his crown as a gift from Nero. But the government in 
Rome had a plan of its own, and a certain Tigranes, long resident 
in Rome, but a stranger to the Armenians, was sent out, and 
Corbulo was obliged reluctantly to seat him on the Armenian 
throne. Tigranes's position, always insecure, soon became un- 
tenable, and it became necessary for Rome to intervene once 
more. A Roman force under Caesennius Paetus was sent to 
restore Tigranes and re-establish Roman predominance. Paetus, 
however, was no Corbulo. He was defeated, and Corbulo, now 
legate of Syria, was obliged to come to his rescue. The result 
was the final triumph of Corbulo's policy. Tiridates agreed to 
accept the crown of Armenia from the hands of Nero. In royal 
state he travelled to Italy, and the ceremony of investiture was 
performed at Rome with the utmost splendour. Delighted with 
this tribute to his greatness, Nero for a moment dreamt of 
rivalling Alexander. Expeditions were talked of to the Caspian 
Sea and Ethiopia, but Nero was no soldier and quickly turned 
to a more congenial field. He had already, in 64, appeared on 
the stage before the half-Greek public of Naples. But his mind 
was now set on challenging the applause of the Greeks themselves 
in the ancient home of art. Towards the end of 66 he arrived 
in Greece with a retinue of soldiers, courtiers, musicians 
and dancers. The spectacle presented by Nero's visit was 
unique. 4 He went professedly as an enthusiastic worshipper of 
Greek art and a humble candidate for the suffrages of Greek 
judges. At each of the great festivals, which to please him were 
for once crowded into a single year, he entered in regular form 
for the various competitions, scrupulously conformed to the 
tradition and rules of the arena, and awaited in nervous suspense 
the verdict of the umpires. The dexterous Greeks humoured 
him to the top of his bent. Everywhere the imperial competitor 
was victorious, and crowded audiences importuned him to 
display his talents. The emperor protested that only the Greeks 
were fit to hear him, and rewarded them when he left by the 
bestowal of immunity from the land tax on the whole province, 
and by the gift of the Roman franchise; he also planned and 
actually commenced the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus 
of Corinth. If we may believe report, Nero found time in the 
intervals of his artistic triumphs for more vicious excesses. The 
stories of his mock marriage with Sporus, his execution of wealthy 
Greeks for the sake of their money, and his wholesale plundering 
of the temples were evidently part of the accepted tradition 
about him in the time of Suetonius, and are at least credible. 
Far more certainly true is his ungrateful treatment of Domitius 
Corbulo, who, when he landed at Cenchreae, fresh from his 
successes in Armenia, was met by an order for his instant 
execution and at once put an end to his life. 

Meanwhile the general dissatisfaction was coming to a head, 
as we may infer from the urgency with which the imperial 
freedman Helius insisted upon Nero's return to Italy. Far more 
serious was the disaffection which now showed itself in the rich 
and warlike provinces of the west. In northern Gaul, early in 
68, the standard of revolt was raised by Julius Vindex, governor 
of Gallia Lugdunensis, and himself the head of an ancient and 
noble Celtic family. South of the Pyrenees, P. Sulpicius Galba, 
governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and Poppaea's former 
4 Suet. Nero, 19-24; Dio Cass. Epit. Ixiii. 8-16. 



NERVA 



393 



husband, Marcus Salvius Otho, governor of Lusitania, followed 
Vindex's example. At first, however, fortune seemed to favour 
Nero. It is very probable that Vindex had other aims in view 
than the deposition of Nero and the substitution of a fresh 
emperor in his place, and that the liberation of northern Gaul 
from Roman rule was part of his plan. 1 If this was so, it is 
easy to understand both the enthusiasm with which the chiefs 
of northern Gaul rallied to the standard of a leader belonging 
to their own race, and the opposition which Vindex encountered 
from the Roman colony of Lugdunum and the legions on the 
Rhine. For it is certain that the latter at any rate were not 
animated by loyalty to Nero. Though they defeated Vindex 
and his Celtic levies at Vesontio (Besanfon), their next step 
was to break the statues of Nero and offer the imperial purple 
to their own commander Virginius Rufus. He declined their 
offer, but appealed to them to declare for the senate and people 
of Rome. Meanwhile in Spain Galba had been saluted imperator 
by his legions, had accepted the title, and was already on his 
march towards Italy. On the road the news met him that 
Vindex had been crushed by the army of the Rhine, and for 
the moment he resolved to abandon his attempt. Meanwhile, 
Nero had reluctantly left Greece, but returned to Italy only 
to renew his revels. When on the igth of March the news 
reached him at Naples of the rising in Gaul, he allowed a week 
to elapse before he could tear himself away from his pleasures, 
and then contented himself with proscribing Vindex, and setting 
a price on his head. The revolts in Spain and Germany terrified 
him too late into something like energy. The senate almost 
openly intrigued against him, and the populace were silent or 
hostile. The fidelity of the praetorian sentinels even was more 
than doubtful. When finally the palace guards forsook their posts, 
Nero despairingly stole out of Rome to seek shelter in a freed- 
man's villa some four miles off. There he heard of the senate's 
proclamation of Galba as emperor, and of the sentence of death 
passed on himself. On the approach of the horsemen sent to 
drag him to execution, he collected sufficient courage to save 
himself by suicide. Nero died on the gih of June 68, in the 
thirty-first year of his age and the fourteenth of his reign, and 
his remains were deposited by the faithful hands of Acte in the 
family tomb of the Domitii on the Pincian Hill. With his death 
ended the line of the Caesars, and Roman imperialism entered 
upon a new phase. His statues were broken, his name every- 
where erased, and his golden house demolished; yet, in spite 
of all, no Roman emperor has left a deeper mark upon subsequent 
tradition. The Roman populace for a long time reverenced his 
memory as that of an open-handed patron, and in Greece the 
recollections of his magnificence, and his enthusiasm for art, 
were still fresh when the traveller Pausanias visited the country 
a century later. The belief that he had not really died, but 
would return again to confound his foes, was long prevalent, 
not only in the remoter provinces, but even in Rome itself; 
and more than one pretender was able to collect a following 
by assuming the name of the last of the race of Augustus. More 
lasting still was the implacable hatred of those who had suffered 
from his cruelties. Roman literature, faithfully reflecting the 
sentiments of the aristocratic salons of the capital, while it 
almost canonized those who had been his victims, fully avenged 
their wrongs by painting Nero as a monster of wickedness. In 
Christian tradition he even appears as the mystic Antichrist, 
who was destined to come once again to trouble the saints. Even 
in the middle ages, Nero was still the very incarnation of splendid 
iniquity, while the belief lingered obstinately that he had only 
disappeared for a time, and as late as the nth century his 
restless spirit was supposed to haunt the slopes of the Pincian 
Hill. 

The chief ancient authorities for Nero's life and reign are Tacitus 
(Annals, xiii.-xvi., ed. Furneaux), Suetonius, Dio Cassius (Epit. 
Ixi., Ixii., Ixiii.), and Zonaras (Ann. xi.). The most important 
modern work is that of B. W. Henderson, The Life and Prmcipate 
of the Emperor Nero (London, 1903; see an important notice in 

J Suet. Nero, 40; Dio Cass. Epit. Ixiii. 22; Plut. Galba, 4; 
cf. also Schiller's Nero, pp. 261 seq. ; Mommsen in Hermes, xiii. 90. 



Class. Rev. vol. xviii. p. 57), which contains complete bibliography 
of ancient and modern writers; see also H. Schiller's Nero, and 
Geschichte d. Kaiserzeit; Lehmann, Claudius und Nero; histories of 
Rome in general. (H. F. P.) 

NERVA, MARCUS COCCEIUS, Roman emperor from the 
1 8th of September 96 to the 25th of January 98, was born at 
Narnia in Umbria on the 8th of November, probably in the year 
35. He belonged to a senatorial family, which had attained 
considerable distinction under the emperors, his father and 
grandfather having been well-known jurists. A single inscription 
(C.I.L. vi. 31,297) gives the name of his mother as Sergia 
Plautilla, daughter of Laenas. In his early manhood he had been 
on friendly terms with Nero, by whom he was decorated in 65 
(Tacitus, Annals, xv. 72) with the triumphal insignia after the 
suppression of the Pisonian conspiracy (further valuable informa- 
tion as to his career is given in an inscription from Sassoferrato, 
(C.I.L. xi. 5743). 

He was praetor (66) and twice consul, in 71 with the emperor 
Vespasian for colleague, and again in 90 with Domitian. Towards 
the close of the latter's reign (93) he is said to have excited sus- 
picion and to have been banished to Tarentum on a charge of 
conspiracy (Dio Cass. Ixvii. 15; Philostr. A poll. Tyan. vii. 
8). On the murder of Domitian in September 96 Nerva was 
declared emperor by the people and the soldiers. He is described 
as a quiet, kindly, dignified man, honest of purpose, but unfitted 
by his advanced age and temperament, as well as by feeble 
health, to bear the weight of empire. Nevertheless, his selection, 
in spite of occasional exhibitions of weakness, justified the choice. 
His accession brought a welcome relief from the terrible strain 
of the last few years. The new emperor recalled those who had 
been exiled by Domitian; what remained of their confiscated 
property was restored to them, and a stop was put to the vex- 
atious prosecutions which Domitian had encouraged. But the 
popular feeling demanded more than this. The countless 
informers of all classes who had thriven under the previous 
regime now found themselves swept away, to borrow Pliny's 
metaphor (Pliny, Pane.g. 35), by a hurricane of revengeful fury, 
which threatened to become as dangerous in its indiscriminate 
ravages as the system it attacked. It was finally checked by 
Nerva, who was stung into action by the sarcastic remark of 
the consul Titus Catius Caesius Fronto that, " bad as it was 
to have an emperor who allowed no one to do anything, it was 
worse to have one who allowed every one to do everything " 
(Dio Cass. Ixviii. i). 

Nerva seems to have followed the custom of announcing the 
general lines of his future policy. Domitian had been arbitrary 
and high-handed, and had heaped favours on the soldiery while 
humiliating the senate; Nerva showed himself anxious to 
respect the traditional privileges of the senate, and such maxims 
of constitutional government as still survived. He pledged 
himself to put no senator to death. His chosen councillors in 
all affairs of state were senators, and the hearing of claims 
against the fiscus was taken from the imperial procuratores and 
entrusted to the more impartial jurisdiction of a praetor and a 
court of judices (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 2; Digest, i. 2, 2; Pliny, 
Paneg. 36). 

No one probably expected from Nerva a vigorous admini- 
stration either at home or abroad, although during his reign a 
successful campaign was carried on in Pannonia against the 
Germans (Suebi), for which he assumed the name Germanicus. 
He appears, however, to have set himself honestly to carry out 
reforms. The economical condition of Italy evidently excited 
his alarm and sympathy. The last mention of a lex agraria in 
Roman history is connected with his name, though how far the 
measure was strictly speaking a law is uncertain. Under the 
provisions of this lex, large tracts of land were bought up and 
allotted to poor citizens. The cost was defrayed partly from the 
imperial treasury, but partly also from Nerva 's private resources, 
and the execution of the scheme was entrusted to commissioners 
(Dig. xlvii. 21, 3; Dio Cass. Ixviii. 2; Pliny, Ep. vii. 31; 
Corp. Inscr. Lot. vi. 1548). He also founded or restored colonies 
at Verulae, Scyllacium and Sitifis in Mauretania. The agrarian 



394 



NERVAL NERVE 



law was probably as short-lived in its effects as preceding ones 
had been, but a more lasting reform was the maintenance at the 
public cost of the children of poor parents in the towns of Italy 
(Aur. Viet. Ep. 24), the provision being presumably secured by a 
yearly charge on state and municipal lands. Private individuals 
were also encouraged to follow the imperial example. In the 
hands of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines, Nerva's example 
bore fruit in the institution of the alimentationes, the most 
genuinely charitable institution of the pagan world. These 
measures Nerva supplemented by others which aimed at lighten- 
ing the financial burdens on the declining industry of Italy. 
The cost of maintaining the imperial postal system (vehiculatio) 
was transferred to thefiscus; from the same source apparently 
money was found for repairing the public roads and aqueducts; 
and lastly, the lucrative but unpopular tax of 5 % on all legacies 
or inheritances (vicesima hereditatum) , was so readjusted as to 
remove the grosser abuses connected with it (Pliny, Paneg. 37). At 
the same time Nerva did his best to reduce the overgrown expendi- 
ture of the state (Pliny, Ep. ii. i). A commission was appointed to 
consider the best modes of retrenchment, and the outlay on shows 
and games was cut down to the lowest possible point. Nerva 
seems nevertheless to have soon wearied of the uncongenial task 
of governing, and his anxiety to be rid of it was quickened by the 
discovery that not even his blameless life and mild rule protected 
him against intrigue and disaffection. Early, apparently, in 
97 he detected a conspiracy against his life headed by L. (or C.) 
Calpurnius Crassus, but he contented himself with a hint to the 
conspirators that their designs were known, and with banishing 
Crassus to Tarentum. This ill-judged lenity provoked' a few 
months later an intolerable insult to his dignity. The praetorian 
guards had keenly resented the murder of their patron Domitian, 
and now, at the instigation of one of their two prefects, Casperius 
Aelianus, whom Nerva had retained in office, they imperiously 
demanded the execution of Domitian's murderers, the chamber- 
lain Parthenius and Petronius Secundus, Aelianus's colleague. 
Nerva vainly strove to save, even at the risk of his own life, the 
men who had raised him to power, but the soldiers brutally 
murdered the unfortunate men, and forced him to propose a 
vote of thanks for the deed (Dio Cass. Epit, Ixviii. 4; Aur. 
Viet. Ep. 24) . This humiliation convinced Nerva of the necessity 
of placing the government in stronger hands than his own. 
Following the precedent set by Augustus, Galba and Vespasian, 
he resolved to adopt as his colleague and destined successor, 
M. Ulpius Trajanus, a distinguished soldier, at the time in com- 
mand of the legions on the Rhine. In October 97, in the temple 
of Jupiter on the Capitol, Trajan was formally adopted as his son 
and declared his colleague in the government of the empire 
(Pliny, Paneg. 8). For three months Nerva ruled jointly with 
Trajan (Aur. Viet. Ep. 24); but on the 25th (according to 
others, the 27th) of January 98 he died somewhat suddenly. 
He was buried in the sepulchre of Augustus, and divine honours 
were paid him by his successor. The verdict of history upon his 
reign is best expressed in his own words " I have done nothing 
which should prevent me from laying down my power, and living 
hi safety as a private man." The memory of Nerva is still pre- 
served by the ruined temple in the Via Alessandrina (il Colonacce) 
which marks the site of the Forum begun by Domitian, but which 
Nerva completed and dedicated (Suet. Dom. 5; Aur. Viet. 12). 

AUTHORITIES. Dio Cass. Ixviii. 1-4; Aurelius Victor 12, and 
Epit. 24; Zonaras xi. 20; compare also Pliny, Epistolae and 
Paneeyrtcus; Tillemont, Histoire des empereurs remains, ii. ; 
C. Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 63; H. 
Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2 (1883), p. 538; 
J. Asbach, Romisches Kaiserthum und Verfassung bis auf Trajan 
(Cologne, 1896); A. Stein in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopadie 
(s.v. Cocceius, 16); J. B. Bury, The Student's Roman Empire, ch. 23 
(1893)- (H. F. P.) 

NERVAL, GERARD DE (1808-1855), the adopted name of 
Gerard Labrunie, French man of letters, born in Paris on the 
22nd of May 1808. His father was an army doctor, and the 
child was left with an uncle in the country, while Mme Labrunie 
accompanied her husband in his campaigns. She died in Silesia. 
In 1811 his father returned, and beside Greek and Latin taught 



the boy modern languages and the elements of Arabic and 
Persian. Gerard found his favourite reading in old books on 
mysticism and the occult sciences. He distinguished himself 
by his successes at the College Charlemagne, however, and his 
first work, La France guerriere, elegies nationales, was published 
while he was still a student. In 1828 he published a translation 
of Goethe's Faust, the choruses of which were afterwards used 
by Berlioz for his legend-symphony, The Damnation of Faust. 
A number of poetical pieces and three comedies combined to 
acquire for him, at the age of twenty-one, a considerable literary 
reputation, and led to his being associated with Theophile 
Gautier in the preparation of the dramatic feuilleton for the 
Presse. He conceived a violent passion for the actress Jennie 
Colon, in whom he thought he recognized a certain Adrienne, 
who had fired his childish imagination. Her marriage and her 
death in 1842 were blows from which his nervous temperament 
never really recovered. He travelled in Germany with Alexandre 
Dum^, and alone in various parts of Europe, leading a very 
irregular and eccentric life. In 1843 he visited Constantinople 
and Syria, where, among other adventures, he nearly married 
the daughter of a Druse sheikh. He contributed accounts of his 
travels to the Revue des Deux Mondes and other periodicals. 
After his return to Paris in 1844 he resumed for a short time his 
feuilleton for the Presse, but his eccentricities increased and he 
committed suicide by hanging, on the 25th of January 1855. 
The literary style of Gerard is simple and unaffected, and he has 
a peculiar faculty of giving to his imaginative creations an air of 
naturalness and reality. In a series of novelettes, afterwards 
published under the name of Les Illumines, ou les precurseurs 
du socialisme (1852), containing studies on Retif de la Bretonne, 
Cagliostro and others, he gave a sort of analysis of the feelings 
which followed his third attack of insanity. Among his other 
works the principal are Les Filles du feu (1854), which contains 
his masterpiece, the semi-autobiographical romance of Sylvie; 
Scenes de la vie orientale (1848-1850); Contes et faceties (1852); 
La Boheme galante (1856); and L Alchimiste, a drama in five 
acts, the joint composition of Gerard and Alexandre Dumas. 
His Poesies completes were published in 1877. 

There are many accounts of Gerard de Neryal's unhappy life. 
Among them may be mentioned notices by his friend Theophile 
Gautier and by Arsene Houssaye, prefixed to the posthumous 
Le Reve et la vie (1855); Maurice Tourneux's sketch in his Age du 
romantisme (1887); and a sympathetic study of temperament in 
the Nevroses (1898) of Mme Arvede Barine. See also G. Ferrieres, 
Gerard de Nerval (1906). 

NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring) , originally a sinew 
or tendon (and still so used in the phrase " to strain every nerve "), 
but now a term practically confined to the fibres of the nervous 
system in anatomy, though consequentially employed as a general 
psychical term in the sense of courage or firmness, and sometimes 
(but more usually " nervousness ") in the opposite sense. In 
the present article the anatomy of the nerves is dealt with; see 
also NERVOUS SYSTEM, MUSCLE AND NERVE, NEUROPATHOLOGY, 
&c. 

I. CRANIAL 

The cranial nerves are those which rise directly from the 
brain, and for the most part are concerned with the supply of the 
head. With one exception they all contain medullated fibres 
(see NERVOUS SYSTEM). Twelve pairs of these nerves are 
recognized, and they are spoken of as often by their numbers as 
by their names. The f olio wing is a list : 

(i) Olfactory; (2) Optic; (3) Oculo-motor or Motor oculi; 
(4) Trochlearis or Patheticus; (5) Trigeminal or Trifacial; (6) 
Abducens; (7) Facial; (8) Auditory; (9) Glosso-pharyngeal; 
(10) Vagus or Pneumogastric; (ii) Spinal accessory; (12) 
Hypoglossal. 

The first, or olfactory nerve, consists of the olfactory bulb and tract, 
which are a modified lobe of the brain and he beneath the sulcus 
rectus on the frontal lobe of the brain (see fig. i). At its posterior 
end the tract divides to become continuous with the two extremities 
of the limbic lobe (see BRAIN), while at its anterior end is the bulb 
from which some twenty small non-medullated nerves pass through 
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid to supply the sensory organs in 
the olfactory mucous membrane (see OLFACTORY ORGAN). 






NERVE 



395 



The second or optic nerve consists of the optic tract, the optic 
commissure or chiasma, and the optic nerve proper. The optic tract 
begins at the lower visual centres or internal and external geniculate 
bodies, the superior quadrigeminal body and the pulvinar (see fig. i), 
but these again are connected with the higher visual centre in the 
occipital lobe by the optic radiations (see fig. 2). In the chiasma 
some of the fibres cross and some do not, so that the right optic 
tract forms the right half of both the right and left optic nerves. 
In addition to this the fibres coming from the internal geniculate 
body of one side cross in the chiasma to the same body of the op- 
posite side, forming Gudden's commissure. The optic nerve passes 
through the optic foramen in the skull into the orbit, where it is 
penetrated by the central artery of the retina, and eventually pierces 
the scelerotic just internal to the posterior pole of the eyeball. Its 
final distribution is treated in the article EYE. 

The third or oculomotor nerve rises from a nucleus in the floor of 



pass into a small compartment of the dura mater, in front of the 
apex of the petrous bone, known as Meckel's cave; here the large 
crescentic Gasserian ganglion is formed upon the sensory root, and 
from this the three branches come off, earning the nerve its name 
of trigeminal. The first of these divisions is the ophthalmic, the 
second the maxillary, and the third the mandibular, while the motor 
root only joins the last of these. The first or ophthalmic division of 
the fifth runs in the outer wall of the cavernous sinus, where it 
divides into frontal, lachrymal and nasal branches. They all enter 
the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure. The frontal nerve divides 
into supraorbital and supratrochlear, which pass out of the upper 
part of the anterior opening of the orbit and supply the skin of the 
forehead and upper part of the scalp as well as the inner part of the 
eyelids. The lachrymal nerve supplies that gland and the outer 
part of the upper eyelid. The nasal nerve gives off a branch to the 
ciliary or lenticular ganglion, which lies in the outer part of the 



Olfactory bulb 



Olfactory tract 



Olfactory tubercle 

Optic nerve 

Optic chiasma 

Oculo-motor nerve 
Trochlear nerve 

Trigeminal nerve. 
Abducent nerve- 

Facial nerve 
Pars intermedia 1 
Auditory 



bulb 



tract 

Broca's area 
Olfactory tubercle 
Mesial root of olfactory 
nerve 
Lateral root 

chiasma 

Ant. perforated spot 
'Temporal lobe (cut) 

tract 

-motor nerve 



the aqueduct of Sylvius (see BRAIN, fig. 8), and comes to the surface ; orbit, and through which, as well as through its own long ciliary 

branches, it supplies the eyeball 
with sensation. It leaves the 
orbit through the anterior eth- 
rnoidal canal, and lies for a short 
distance on the cribriform plate 
of the ethmoid; it then enters 
the nasal cavity through the nasal 
slit and supplies this cavity, as 
well as the surface of the nose as 
far as the tip, with ordinary 
sensation. The second or maxil- 
lary division of the fifth nerve leaves 
the skull through the foramen 
rotundum, and then runs across 
the roof of the spheno-maxillary 
fossa; here the spheno-maxillary 
or Meckel's ganglion hangs from 
it by two roots. The nerve then 
runs in the floor of the orbit, 
giving off superior dental branches, 
until it emerges on to the face at 
the infraorbital foramen, where it 
divides into palpebral, nasal and 
labial branches, the names of 
which indicate their distribution. 
The third or mandibular division 
of the fifth leaves the skull 
through the foramen ovale, and 
at once gives off a set of motor 
branches for the muscles cf mas- 
tication; these are derived from 
the motor root of the fifth, except 
that for the buccinator, which 
really supplies only the skin and 
mucous membrane in contact 
with the muscle. After the motor 
branch is given off, the third 
division of the fifth divides into 
lingual, inferior dental and 
auricula-temporal. The lingual is 
joined by the chorda tympani 
branch of the facial nerve, and 
then passes to the anterior two- 
thirds of the tongue. In its course 
it passes deep to the submaxillary 
gland, and here the small sub- 
maxillary ganglion is connected 
with it by two roots. The in- 
ferior dental nerve gives off a small 




Glosso-pharyngeal nervi 

Vagus nei _ _ 
Spinal accessory nerve (accessory) 

Spinal accessory nerve (spinal) 

Hypoglossal nerve 



.Trochlear nerve 
.Taenia semicircularis 
Trigeminal nerve 
Ext. geniculate body 
.bducent nerve 
Int. geniculate body 
Pulvinar 
Facial nerve 
Pars intermedia 
Auditory nerve 
Lateral ventricle 
Mid. cerebellar peduncle 
Glosso-pharyngeal nerve 
Vagus nerve 
Spinal accessory nerve 
(accessory) 

Spinal accessory nerve 
(spinal) 
Occipital lobe (cut) 



Hypoglossal nerve 
Spinal cord 
Vermis of Cerebellum (cut) 



From D. J. Cunningham, in Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. 

FIG. I . View of the Under Surface of the Brain, with the lower portion of the temporal and occipital 
lobes, and the cerebellum on the left side removed, to show the origins of the cranial nerves. 



in a groove on the inner side of the crus cerebri (fig. i); it soon 
pierces the dura mater, and lies in the outer wall of the cavernous 
sinus, where it divides into an upper and! lower branch. Both 
these enter the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure, the upper 
branch supplying the superior rectus and levator palpebrae 
superioris muscles, the lower the inferior and internal rectus and the 
inferior oblique, so that it supplies five of the seven orbital muscles. 

The fourth or trochlear nerve is very small, and comes from a 
nucleus a little lower than that of the third nerve. It is specially 
remarkable in that it crosses to the opposite side in the substance 
of the valve of Vieussens of the fourth ventricle, after which it 
winds round the outer side of the crus cerebri (fig. i) and enters the 
outer wall of the cavernous sinus to reach the orbit through the 
sphenoidal fissure. Here it enters the superior oblique muscle 
on its orbital surface. 

The fifth or trigeminal nerve consists of motor and sensory roots. 
The motor root rises from a nucleus in the upper lateral part of the 
floor of the fourth ventricle, as well as by a descending (mesence- 
phalic) tract from the neighbourhood of the Sylvian aqueduct 
(see fig. 3). The large sensory root goes to a sensory nucleus a 
little external to the motor one, and also, by a spinal or descending 
root, to the substantia gelatinosa Rolandi as low as the second 
spinal nerve (see fig. 3). The superficial origin of the fifth nerve is 
from the side of the pons (see fig. i), and the two roots at once 



motor branch to the mylohyoid and posterior belly of the digastric 
muscles, and then enters a canal in the lower jaw, where it gives 
off twigs to all the lower teeth. A mental branch comes out through 
the mental foramen to supply the skin of the chin. The auricula 
temporal nerve rises by two roots, which embrace the middle men- 
ingeal artery, and runs backward and then upward close to the 
lower jaw joint to supply the parotid gland, the skin on the outer 
side of the ear, and the side of the scalp. At its beginning it com- 
municates with the otic ganglion, which lies just internal to it below 
the foramen ovale, ana also receives a communication from the 
nerve to the internal pterygoid muscle. 

The sixth or abducent nerve rises from a nucleus in the floor of the 
fourth ventricle deep to the eminentia teres (see fig. 3). It appears 
on the surface of the brain just below the pons and close to the 
middle line (see fig. i), soon after which it pierces the dura mater 
and runs in the floor of the cavernous sinus to the sphenoidal fissure. 
Entering the orbit through this, it quickly supplies the external 
rectus muscle. 

The seventh or facial r^rve begins in a nucleus which is about the 
same level as that for the sixth, but much deeper from the floor of 
the fourth ventricle as well as farther from the middle line (see fig. 3). 
The fibres of the facial loop round the nucleus of the sixth, and 
then emerge in the triangular interval between the medulla, pons 
and cerebellum, close to the eighth nerve, and having the pars 



39 6 



NERVE 






intermedia between (see fig. l). Entering the internal auditory 
meatus with these structures the facial nerve soon passes into a 
canal in the petrous bone known as the agueductus FaUopii, and in 

this it makes a sudden 
bend and 
geniculate 




forms the 
ganglion, 

from which the great 
superficial petrosal 
branch to Meckel's 
ganglion is given off. 
The canal ends at the 
stylo-mastoid fora- 
men on the base of 
the skull, and here the 
nerve enters the par- 
otid gland, in which it 
forms a plexus called 
the pes anserinus. 
From this, branches 
pass to all the muscles 
of the face except 
those of mastication. 
In the aqueduct the 
pars intermedia joins 
the seventh, and, be- 
yond the geniculate 
ganglion, leaves it as 
the chorda tympani, 
which runs through 
the tympanum (see 
EAR) to join the lin- 
gual branch of the 
fifth. It is prob- 
able that the pars 
intermedia, geni- 
culate ganglion 
and chorda tym- 
pani, represent 
the sensory root 
of the facial 
nerve. Just out- 
side the stylo- 
mastoid foramen 
From D. J. Cunningham, in Cunningham's Text-Book of th e facial gives 

off the posterior 

FIG. 2. Diagram of the Central Connexions auricular branch 
of the Optic Nerve and Optic Tract. to the occipitalis 

and posterior 

auricular muscles, as well as a branch of supply to the stylo- 
hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric muscles. 

The eighth or auditory nerve is in two bundles, cochlear and 
vestibular. The former comes from the cochlear nuclei which lie 
deep to the acoustic tubercle in the floor of the fourth ventricle 
(see fig. 3) , while the latter rises from the dorsal nucleus, nucleus 
of Deiters and the nucleus of the descending root, which are 
more deeply placed. The nucleus of Deiters is connected with 
the cerebellum, and is concerned in maintaining the equilibrium 
(q.v.) of the body, while, as is pointed out in the article BRAIN, 
tne cochlear nuclei are connected with the inferior quadri- 
-geminal body by the lateral fillet as well as with the internal 
geniculate body, while this body again is connected with the 
higher auditory centre in the grey cortex of the temporo- 
sphenoidal lobe by the auditory radiations. The vestibular 
root passes in front of the restiform body (see fig. 3), and the 
cochlear behind that body. Together they enter the internal 
auditory meatus, and, at the end of it, pierce the lamina 
cribrosa, the vestibular nerve supplying the utricle and superior vcus 
and external semicircular canals, the cochlear nerve the posterior 
canal, the saccule and the cochlea (see EAR). 

The ninth or glossopharyngeal nerve is chiefly, if not entirely, 
sensory, and its deep termination in the brain is the solitary 
bundle (see fig. 3; and BRAIN, fig. 4). It appears on the surface VAGUS 
between the olive and restiform body (see fig. l), and leaves the 
skull through the posterior lacerated foramen ; as it does so two 
ganglia, the jugular and petrous, are formed on it, after which 
it runs downward and forward, between the internal and ex- 
ternal carotid arteries, and eventually reaches the back of the 
tongue (see TONGUE). On its way it supplies the tympanum, 
the stylopharyngeus muscle, though there is grave doubt as to 
whether these fibres are not really derived from the facial nerve, 
contributions to the pharyngeal plexus, the tonsil and part of 
, the epiglottis. 

The tenth nerve or vagus has sensory and motor fibres; the 
former go to the solitary bundle mentioned in the description of the 
last nerve (see fig. 3), while the latter come from the dorsal nucleus and 
nucleus ambiguus, both of which are found deep to the lower half 
of the fourth ventricle. The nerve appears on the surface between 
the olive and restiform body and just below the ninth (see fig. i). 
It leaves the skull through the posterior lacerated foramen, and, 
like the glossopharyngeal, has two ganglia developed on it; the 



upper of these is the ganglion of the root, and the lower the ganglion 
of the trunk (see fig. 4). From the former the auricular branch or 
Arnold's nerve (see EAR) comes off, while from the latter are given 
off the pharyngeal branches to the pharyngeal plexus (fig. 4, Ph.) 
and the superior laryngeal branch which is the sensory nerve of the 
larynx (fig. 4, S.L.). Between the two ganglia the accessory part of 
the eleventh nerve joins the tenth, and it is from this communication 
that the motor twigs to the pharynx, larynx, alimentary and re- 
spiratory tracts are derived, as well as the inhibitory fibres of the 
heart. In the neck the vagus accompanies the carotid artery and 
internal jugular vein, and here it gives off superior and inferior 
cardiac branches. The left inferior cardiac branch passes to the 
superficial, while the three others go to the deep cardiac plexus. 
The nerve now enters the thorax, passing between the subclavian 
artery and vein. On the right side its recurrent laryngeal branch 
loops under the subclavian artery (fig. 4, R.), and runs up to supply 
all the muscles of the larynx except one (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). 
In the thorax the left vagus passes in front of the arch of the aorta, 
under which the left recurrent laryngeal loops, and on both sides a 
thoracic cardiac branch is given to the deep cardiac plexus. Both 
vagi pass behind the root of their own lung, and break up to form the 
posterior pulmonary plexus after giving off some -branches for the 
much smaller anterior pulmonary plexus; they then reach the 
oesophagus, where they again break up into an oesophageal plexus 
or plexus gulae. As the diaphragm is approached the two nerves 
become distinct again, but the left one now lies in front and the 
right behind the food tube, so that, when the stomach is reached, 
the left vagus supplies the front of the organ and communicates with 
the hepatic plexus, while the right goes to the back and communicates 
with the coeliac, splenic and renal plexuses. 

The eleventh or spinal accessory nerve is entirely motor, and con- 
sists of a spinal and an accessory part. The former rises from the 




rACiAL 



From D. J. Cunningham, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. 3. Deep Origins of Cranial Nerves from the Fourth Ventricle, 
anterior horn of the grey matter of the spinal cord as low as the 
fifth cervical nerve. Its fibres come to the surface mid-way between 
the anterior and posterior nerve-roots, and run up through the 
foramen magnum to join the accessory part, the deep origin of 
which is the lower part of the nucleus ambiguus. The accessory 
part, as has been noticed, joins the vagus, while the spinal part 
pierces the sternc-mastoid muscle and runs obliquely downward 



NERVE 



397 



Cl. 



cz. 




From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 4. The Distribution of the Pneumogastric Nerve. 



Va.R, Right vagi. 

Va.L, Left vagi. 

r, Ganglion of the root and 
connexions with 

Sy, Sympathetic, superior cer- 
vical ganglion. 

G.Ph, Glosso-pharyngeal. 

Ace, Spinal accessory nerve. 

m, Meningeal branch. 

Aur, Auricular branch. 

I, Ganglion of the trunk 
and connexions with 

Hy, Hypoglossal nerve. 

Cl, 2 Loop between the first 
two cervical nerves. 

Sy, Sympathetic. 

Ace, Spinal accessory nerve. 

Ph, Pharyngeal branch. 

Ph.Pl, Pharyngeal plexus. 

S.L, Superior laryngeal nerve. 

I.L, Internal laryngeal branch. 

E.L, External laryngeal branch. 



I.C, Internal, and 

E.C, External carotid arteries. 

Co I, Superior cervical cardiac 

branch. [branch. 

Ca2, Inferior cervical cardiac 
R.L, Recurrent laryngeal nerve. 
Co3, Cardiac branches from 

recurrent laryngeal 

nerves. 
Co4, Thoracic cardiac branch 

(right vagus). 
A. P. PI, Anterior, and 
P. P. PI, Posterior pulmonary 

plexuses. 

Oes.Pl, Oesophageal plexus. 
Gast.R, and Gast.L, Gastric 
branches of vagus (right 
and left). 

Coe.Pl, Coeliac plexus. 
Hep. PI, Hepatic plexus. 
Spl.Pl, Splenic plexus. 
Ren. PI, Renal plexus. 



and backward across the posterior triangle of the neck to enter 
the trapezius; both these muscles are in part supplied by the 
nerve. 

The twelfth or hypoglossal nerve is motor, and rises from a nucleus 
in the floor of the fourth ventricle deep to the trigonum hypoglossi 
(see BRAIN, fig. 3). It emerges from the brain between the anterior 
pyramid and the olive (see fig. i), and leaves the skull in two bundles 
through the anterior condylar foramen. Soon after this it is closely 
bound to the vagus, and, in front of the atlas, receives an important 
contribution from the loop between the first and second cervical 
nerves. The nerve then passes downward until it reaches the 
origin of the occipital artery, round which it loops, and then runs 
forward on the surface of the hyo-glossus to the muscles of the 
tongue. As it bends round the occipital artery it gives off its de- 
scendens hypoglossi branch, which derives its fibres from the com- 
munication with the first cervical already mentioned. This branch 
runs down and forms a loop with the communicans cervicis branch 
from the second and third cervical nerves, and from this loop (ansa 
hypoglossi) many of the depressor muscles of the hyoid bone and 
larynx are supplied. Farther forward special branches are given 
off to the thyro-hyoid and genio-hyoid muscles, and these, like the 
descendens hypoglossi, are derived from the first and second cervical 
loop, thus leaving all the true muscles of the tongue to be supplied 
by the medullary part of the nerve. 

For the embryology and comparative anatomy of the cranial 
nerves, see NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

II. SPINAL 

The spinal nerves are those which arise from each side of the 
spinal cord and are distributed to the trunk and limbs, though 
some of the upper ones supply the lower parts of the head and 
face. As is shown in the article NERVOUS SYSTEM, the division 
between cranial and spinal nerves is rather one of convenience 
than of any real scientific difference. There are generally 
thirty-one pairs of these nerves, which are subdivided according 
to the part of the vertebral column through which they pass out; 
thus there are eight cervical (abbreviated C.), twelve thoracic 
(Th.) formerly called dorsal, five lumbar (L.), five sacral (S.) 
and one coccygeal (Coc.). As the thoracic nerves are the simplest 
and most generalized in their arrangement, a typical one of these, 
say the fourth or fifth, will be first described. 

The nerve is attached to the spinal cord by two roots, of which 
the ventral is purely efferent or motor and the dorsal purely afferent 
or sensory. On the dorsal root is a fusiform ganglion which lies in 
the foramen be- 
tween the verte- tirrmu. 
brae through 
which the nerve 
passes. The two 
roots then join to- 
gether to form a 
mixed nerve (see 
fig. 5), but very 
soon divide once 
more into anterior 
(ventral) and pos- 
terior (dorsal) 
primary divisions. 
These, however, 
each contain sen- 
sory and motor 
fibres. Just before 
it divides in this 
way the mixed 
nerve gives and 
receives its rami 
communicantes 
with the sympa- 
thetic (see NER- 
VOUS SYSTEM). 

The anterior 
primary division 
runs round the 
trunk, between the 
ribs, forming an 
intercostal nerve 
and giving off a 
lateral cutaneous 
branch, when the 
side of the body is 
reached, which divides into anterior and posterior secondary branches. 
The rest of the division runs forward, supplying the intercostal 
muscles, as far as the edge of the sternum, when it ends in an 
anterior cutaneous branch to the front of the chest. The dorsal 
primary division divides into an external (lateral) and internal 




From A. M. Paterson. in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. 5. Scheme of the Distribution of a 
Typical Spinal Nerve. 



398 



NERVE 



(mesial) branch through which the skin and muscles of the back are 
supplied. 

It will be seen from the foregoing that the thoracic nerves are 
almost completely segmental in their distribution, in other words, 




From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book oj Anatomy. 

FIG. 6. The Distribution of Cutaneous Nerves on the front of 
the Trunk. On one side the distribution of the several nerves is 
represented, the letters indicating their nomenclature. 



G.A., Great auricular nerve. I.H, 

S.C, Superficial cervical nerve. I.C, 

S.Cl, Supraclavicular nerves. M.S, 
Acr, Acromial. 

Cl, Clavicular. E.C, 

St, Sternal. G.C, 

T. 2-12, Lateral and anterior M.C 1 - 2 

branches of thoracic nerves. I.C 1 , 
I.H, Ilio-hypogastric nerve. 

/./, Ilio-inguinal nerve. P, 

Circ, Cutaneous branch of cir- S.Sc, 

cumflex nerve, [nerve. 
L.I.C, Lesser internal cutaneous 



Intercostohumeral. 

Internal cutaneous. 

Cutaneous branch of mus- 
culo-spiral nerve. 

External cutaneous nerve. 

Genito-crural nerve. 
Middle cutaneous nerve. 

Branch of internal cutane- 
ous nerve. 

Branches of pudic nerve. 

Branches of small sciatic 
nerve. 



each supplies a slice of the body, but in the other regions this seg- 
mental character is masked by the development of the branchial 
skeleton and the limbs. In the cervical region the first cervical or 
suboccipital nerve comes put between the occiput and atlas and does 
not always have a posterior root. When it has not, it obviously can 



supply no skin. Its anterior primary division joins those of the 
second, third and fourth cervical nerves to form the cervical plexus, 
from which the skin of the side of the neck and lower part of the 
head and face are supplied by means of the small occipital, great 
auricular, superficial cervical, suprasternal, supraclavicular and supra- 
acromial nerves (see fig. 7), as well as those muscles of the neck 
which are not supplied by the cranial nerves. The phrenic nerve, 
which comes chiefly from the fourth cervical, deserves special notice 
because it runs down, through the thorax, to supply the greater part 
of the diaphragm. The explanation of this long course (see DIA- 
PHRAGM) is that the diaphragm is formed in the neck region of the 
embryo. The posterior primary division of the second cervical nerve 
is very large, and its inner (mesial) branch is called the great occipital 
and supplies most of the back of the scalp (fig. 7). The fifth, sixth, 
seventh and eighth anterior primary divisions of the cervical nerves 
as well as a large part of that of the first thoracic are prolonged into 
the arm, and in the lower part of the neck and armpit communicate 
with one another to form the brachial plexus. As a general law 
underlies the composition of the limb plexuses it will be worth while 
to study the structure and distribution of this one with some little 
care. It will be seen from the accompanying diagram (fig. 8) that 
each component nerve with the exception of the first thoracic 
divides into an anterior (ventral) and a posterior (dorsal) division 
which are best spoken of as secondary divisions in order to prevent 
any confusion with the anterior and posterior primary divisions 
which all the spinal nerves undergo. In the diagram the anterior 
secondary divisions are white, while the posterior are shaded. It 
has been suggested by A. M. Paterson that the posterior secondary 
branches correspond with the lateral branches of the thoracic nerves 
already mentioned, but there are still certain difficulties to be 
explained before altogether accepting this. Later on in the plexus 
three cords are formed of which the posterior is altogether made up 
of the posterior secondary divisions, while the anterior secondary 
divisions of the fifth, sixth and seventh cervical nerves form the 




From Gray's Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical. 

FIG. 9. Plan of the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses. 

external cord, and those of the eighth cervical and first thoracic 
the inner. As a general rule the nerves which rise from the ventral 
secondary divisions of the limb plexuses run only to that surface of 
the limb which was ventral in the embryo, while the dorsal secondary 
divisions are confined to the original dorsal area, but, in order to 
apply this to the human adult, it must be realized that the limbs 



NERVE 



399 



are at one time flattened buds coming off at right angles from the 
side of the body and having dorsal and ventral surfaces, one (pre- 
axial) border toward the head of the embryo, and one (postaxial) 
toward the tail. If a person lies prone upon the floor with the arms 
outstretched and the palms downward the embryqlogical position 
of the forelimb is to some extent restored, and it will now be easily 
understood that the more preaxial part of the limb will be supplied 
by those nerves which enter it from nearer the head, while the 
postaxial part draws its nerve supply from lower down the spinal 
cord. To use Herringham's words: " (A) Of two spots on the skin, 
that nearer the preaxial border tends to be supplied by the higher 
nerve. (B) Of two spots in the preaxial area the lower tends to be 
supplied by the lower nerve, and of two spots in the postaxial area 
the lower tends to be supplied by the higher nerve." Other points 
of general importance in regard to cutaneous nerve supply are, 
firstly, that the area of skin supplied by one spinal nerve is not 
sharply marked off from that of the next, but the two are separated 



Great occ-'pit 
nerve 

Small occipital 

nerve 

Great auricular 

nerve 



Mylo-hyoid 
nerve 




Nerves to levator 
anguli scapulae 

Superficial cervical 
nerv 

Spinal accessory 

Nerve to trapezius 

branches f 
Clavicular Ij 



Posterior scapular 
nerve 

Posterior thoracic 
nerve 



From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 7. The Triangles of the Neck (Nerves). 

by an overlapping region; and, secondly, that the area supplied by 
any one spinal nerve is liable to variation in different individuals 
within moderate limits. This variation may affect the whole plexus, 
and the term " prefixed plexus " has been devised by C.S. Sherring- 
ton to indicate one in which the spinal nerves entering into its 
formation are rather higher than usual, while, when the opposite 
is the case, the plexus is spoken of as " postfixed." 

With regard to the muscular supply of a limb the general rule is 
that each muscle is supplied by fibres derived from more than one 
spinal nerve; this, of course, is made possible by the redistribution 
of fibres in the plexuses. Moreover, the muscular supply does not 
necessarily correspond to that of the overlying skin, because (see 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM) some of the primitive muscles have been sup- 
pressed, others have fused together, while others have shifted their 
position to a considerable distance. Bearing the foregoing facts in 
mind, the main distribution of the nerves of the brachial plexus may 
be surveyed, though the exact details must be sought in the human 
anatomy text-books. The outer cord of the plexus gives off the 
external anterior thoracic nerve (C. 5, 6, 7) to the pectoralis major, 
the musculo-cutaneous nerve (C. 5, 6) to the muscles on the front of 
the arm, and to the skin of the outer side of the forearm and the 



outer head of the median nerve (C. 5?, 6, 7), which joins the inner 
head (C. 8, Th. i) and supplies most of the flexor muscles of the 
front of the forearm as well as those of the ball of the thumb, the 
outer two lumbricals and also the skin of the outer part of the palm 
including the outer three digits and half the fourth. 

From the inner cord come the inner head of the median just 
mentioned, the ulnar nerve (C. 8, Th. i), which passes down behind 
the internal condyle of the humerus, where it is popularly known as 
the " funny bone " and supplies the flexor carpi ulnans, half the 
flexor profundus digitorum, and most of the muscles of the hand 
as well as the inner digit and a half on the palmar and dorsal 
aspects. Other branches of the inner cord are the internal cutaneous 
(C. 8, Th. i) supplying the inner side of the forearm, the lesser 
internal cutaneous (Th. i) which often joins the intercosto-humeral or 
lateral cutaneous branch of the second intercostal nerve to supply 
the skin on the inner side of the upper arm, and the internal anterior 
thoracic nerve (C. 8, Th. i) to the pectoralis minor and major. 

From the posterior cord are derived the 
three subscapular nerves (C. 5, 6, 7, 8) 
which supply the subscapularis, teres 
major and latissimus dorsi muscles, the 
circumflex nerve (C. 5, 6) supplying the 
deltoid and teres minor muscles, and the 
skin over the lower part of the deltoid, 
and the musculo-spiral nerve (C. 5, 6, 7, 8) 
which is the largest branch of the 
brachial plexus and gives off cutaneous 
twigs to the outer side and back of the 
arm and to the back of the forearm, as well 
as muscular twigs to the triceps and 
adjacent muscles. At the elbow this 
nerve divides into the radial and posterior 
interosseous. The radial is entirely sen- 
sory and supplies the skin of the outer side 
of the back of the hand, including three 
digits and a half, while the posterior inter- 
osseous is wholly muscular, supplying the 
muscles on the back of the forearm. It 
will be seen that the posterior cord is 
derived altogether from posterior second- 
ary divisions of the plexus, but there 
are three other nerves derived from these 
which should be mentioned. 

The posterior thoracic or respiratory 
nerve of Bell comes off the back of the 
fifth, sixth and seventh cervical nerves 
Internal laryn- before the anterior and posterior secondary 
divisions separate,and runs down to supply 
the serratus magnus muscle. 

The posterior scapular or nerve to the 
rhomboid muscles runs to those muscles 
from the fifth cervical. 

The suprascapular nerve (C, 5, 6) passes 
through the suprascapular notch to supply 
the supraspinatus and infraspinatus 
muscles. 

The spinal nerves which are distributed 
to the lower limbs first intercommunicate 
in the lumbar and sacral plexuses, which, 
with the perineal nerves, are sometimes 
spoken of together as the lumbo sacral 
plexus. The lumbar plexus (see fig. 9) is 
formed as a rule of the first four lumbar 
nerves, though the greater part of the first 
number is segmental in its distribution 
and resembles one of the thoracic nerves. 
It early divides into an ilio-hypogastric 
and ilio-inguinal branch, which run 
round the abdominal wall in the sub- 
stance of the muscles, and of which the former gives off an iliac 
branch, which is in series with the lateral cutaneous branches of the 
intercostal nerves and passes over the crest of the ilium to the 
gluteal region, while the hypogastric branch runs round to the skin 
of the pubic region. The iho-mguinal, on the other hand, gives off 
no lateral cutaneous or iliac branch, but is prolonged down the 
inguinal canal to supply the skin of the scrotum as well as that of 
the thigh which touches it. In all probability the hypogastric 
branch of the ilio-hypogastric and the whole of the ilio-inguinal 
represent the anterior secondary division of the first lumbar nerve, 
while the posterior secondary division is the iliac branch of the ilio- 
hypogastric. 

The other anterior secondary divisions of the lumbar plexus is 
the obturator (see fig. 8). The obturator nerve (L. 2, 3, 4) supplies 
the adductor group of muscles on the inner side of the thigh as 
well as the hip and knee joints; it occasionally has a cutaneous 
branch on the inner side of the thigh. The posterior secondary 
branches of the plexus are the genito-crural, the external cutaneous 
and the anterior crural. The genito-crural nerve (L. 1,2) is partly 
anterior (ventral) and partly posterior (dorsal). It sends one 
anterior branch through the inguinal canal to supply the cremaster 



Hypoglossal 
nerve 



geal nerve 
Nerve to 
thyro-hyoid 

Descenders 
lypoglossi 



400 



NERVI NERVOUS SYSTEM 



muscle, and another (posterior) to the skin of the thigh just below 
the groin. 

The external cutaneous nerve (L.2, 3) supplies the skin of the 
outer side of the thigh, while the anterior crural (L.2, 3, 4) innervates 
the muscles on the front of the thigh, the skin on the front and inner 




From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 8. The Nerves of the Brachial Plexus. 

Cb, Nerve to coraco-brachialis. 
M, Median nerve. 

Inner Cord. 



Sy, Sympathetic gangliated cord. 

Phr, Phrenic nerve. 

C.4, 5, 6, 7, 8, r.i, 2, 3, Anterior primary divi- 



anterior thoracic nerve. 

pV^I^fho^-^n^f t0 "^ mUSClCS - c U inte r maUutaneous nerve. 
^N^rvfto'XmboidlWerior scapular). ^ Lesser internal cutaneous nerve. 
Subcl, Nerve to subclavius muscle. Posterior Cord. 

Int, Intercostal nerves. Circ, Circumflex nerve. 

S.Sc, Supra-scapular nerve. The intercostal M.S, Musculo-spiral nerve, 
part of the first thoracic nerve is omitted. S.Sub, Short subscapular nerve. 
_ _ , M.Sub, Lower subscapular nerve. 

Outer Cord. L.Sub, Long subscapular nerve. 

E.A.T, External anterior thoracic nerve. I.H, Intercosto-humeral nerve. 
M.C, Muscular-cutaneous nerve. Lot, Lateral branch of third intercostal nerve. 

side of the thigh, through its middle and internal cutaneous branches, 
and the skin of the inner side of the leg and foot through the internal 
saphenous branch. At first sight it is difficult to understand how the 
anterior crural nerve, which supplies the skin of the front of the 
thigh, is a posterior secondary division of the lumbar plexus, but 
the explanation is that the front of the human thigh was originally 
the dorsal surface of the limb bud, and the distribution of the nerve 
is quite easily understood if the position of the hind limb of a lizard 
or crocodile is glanced at. The fourth lumbar nerve is sometimes 
called the nervus furcalis, because, dividing, it partly goes to the 
lumbar, and partly to the sacral plexus (fig. 8), though, when the 
plexus is prefixed, the third lumbar may be the nervus furcalis, or, 
when it is postfixed, the fifth lumbar. Under ordinary conditions 
the descending branch of the fourth lumbar nerve joins the fifth, and 
together they make the lumbo-sacral cord, which, with the first three 
sacral nerves, forms the sacral plexus. This plexus, like the others, 
contains anterior and posterior secondary divisions of its spinal 
nerves, and it resembles the brachial plexus in that the lowest nerve 
to enter it contributes no dorsal secondary division. 

All the constituent nerves of the plexus run into one huge nerve, 
the great sciatic, which runs down the back of the thigh and, before 
reaching the knee, divides into external and internal popliteal nerves. 
These two nerves are sometimes separate from their first formation 
in the plexus, and may always be separated easily by the handle of 
a_ scalpel, since they are only bound together by loose connective 
tissue to form the great sciatic nerve. When they are separated in 
this way _ it is seen that the external popliteal is made up entirely 
of posterior (dorsal) secondary divisions (see fig. 9), and is derived 
from the fourth and fifth lumbar and first and second sacral nerves, 
while the internal popliteal is formed by the anterior (ventral) 
secondary divisions of the fourth and fifth lumbar and first, second 
and third sacral nerves. The external popliteal nerve supplies the 
short head of the biceps femoris (see MUSCULAR SYSTEM), and, just 
below the knee, divides into anterior tibial and musculo-cutaneous 
branches, which both supply the dorsal surface of the leg and foot. 
The anterior tibial nerve is chiefly muscular, innervating the muscles 
in front of the tibia and fibula as well as the extensor brevis digitorum 
pedis on the dorsum of the foot, though it gives one small cutaneous 
branch to the cleft between the first and second toes. Themusculo- 



cutaneous nerve supplies the peroneus longus and brevis muscles, 
and the rest of the skin of the dorsum, of the foot, and lower part of 
the leg, while the skin of the upper part of the dorsum of the leg, 
below the knee, is supplied by the external popliteal before its 
division. The internal popliteal nerve, after supplying the ham- 
strings, is continued into the calf of the leg 
as the posterior tibial and innervates all the 
muscles on this, the ventral, surface. Behind 
the inner ankle it divides into the external and 
internal plantar nerves, from which the 
muscles and skin of the sole are supplied. A 
little above the knee each popliteal nerve 
gives off a contribution to help form the 
external or short saphenous nerve. That from 
the internal popliteal is called the com- 
municans tibialis, while that from the ex- 
ternal popliteal is the communicans fibularis. 
These join about the middle of the back of 
the calf, and the, now formed, short saphenous 
nerve runs down behind the outer ankle to 
supply the outer side of the foot. Some- 
times it encroaches on the dorsum of the 
foot, replacing part of the musculo-cutaneous, 
though, when this is the case, its dorsal con- 
tribution from the external popliteal (com- 
municans fibularis) is always larger than 
usual. To return to the sacral plexus: 
branches are given off from the anterior 
secondary divisions to the short external 
rotator muscles of the hip (pyriformis, quad- 
ratus femoris, &c.), while from the posterior 
secondary divisions come the superior glu- 
teal (L. I.S. 4, 5) and the inferior gluteal 
[L-5. S. i, 2) to the muscles of the buttocks. 
In modern descriptions the lower branches 
of the lumbo-sacral plexus are grouped into 
a pudendal plexus, and the plan, though open 
to criticism on morphological grounds, has 
such descriptive advantages that it is followed 
here. Contributions from the first, second, 
third and fourth sacral, and the coccygeal 
nerve, form it, and these contributions are 
almost all anterior (ventral) secondary divi- 
sions. The branches of this plexus are the 
small sciatic, pudic, visceral, perforating 
cutaneous, muscular and sacro-cpccygeal 
nerves. The small sciatic (5.1, 2, 3) is partly 
dorsal and partly ventral in its origin and 
distribution; it supplies the skin of the 
perineum, buttock and the back of the 
thigh. The pudic nerve (S.2, 3, 4) helps 

to supply 'the skin and muscles of the perineum and genital 
organs. The visceral branches form the pelvic stream of white 
rami communicantes (see NERVOUS SYSTEM); they run from 
the second and third or third and fourth sacral nerves to the pelvic 
plexuses of the sympathetic system. The perforating cutaneous 
nerve (S.2, 3) pierces the great sacro-sciatic ligament and supplies 
the skin over the lower internal part of the buttock. The muscular 
branches (8.3, 4) supply the external sphincter, levator ani and 
coccygeus. 

The sacro-coccygeal nerve (8.4, 5, Coc.i) runs down on each side 
of the coccyx to supply the adjacent skin, and represents the ventro- 
lateral nerve of the tail of lower mammals. (F. G. P.) 

NERVI, a coast town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 
from which it is 75 m. S.E. by rail (also electric tramway), 82 ft. 
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3480 (town); 6317 (commune). 
It is much frequented as a winter resort. It is surrounded with 
groves of olives, oranges and lemons, and its villas have beautiful 
gardens. It is moister and less dusty than the western Riviera, 
and is especially in favour with those who suffer from lung 
complaints. At Quarto, 2\ m. N.W., 1000 Garibaldians (i mille) 
embarked for Marsala in 1860. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system forms an extremely 
complicated set of links between different parts of the body, 
and is divided into (A) the central nervous system, composed of 
(i) the brain, and (2) spinal cord; (B) the peripheral nervous 
system, consisting of (i) the cranial nerves, (2) the spinal nerves, 
(3) the various sense organs, such as the eye, ear, olfactory organ, 
taste organ and tactile organs, and (4) the motor end plates; 
(C) the sympathetic system. The anatomy and physiology of 
many of these parts are treated in separate articles (see BRAIN, 
SPINAL CORD, NERVE, EYE, EAR, OLFACTORY ORGAN, TASTE, 
TOUCH, MUSCLE AND NERVE, SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM). 
The object here is to deal with anatomical points which are 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



401 



Axis 
cylinder 



Myelin 



common to the whole system, or for which a place does not 
conveniently occur elsewhere. 

HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Three kinds of tissue are found in the nervous system, nerve 
fibres, nerve cells, and a supporting tissue called neuroglia. NERVE 
FIBRES may be medullated or non-medullated, but, whichever they 
are, they consist of the long process or axon of a nerve cell; in a 
non-medullated nerve this process is either naked or enclosed in a 
delicate membrane called the primitive sheath or neurilemma, but in 
a medullated nerve the process or axis cylinder is encased by a white 
fatty substance called myelin, and so the term " myelinated " is 
often used instead of " medullated " for these nerves (see fig. i). 
Outside this white sheath the neurilemma is 
present in most nerves, but is lost when they 
are massed to form the white matter of the 
central nervous system and in the optic nerve. 
At regular intervals the myelin is interrupted 
by some substance which stains deeply with 
silver nitrate, and these breaks are known as 
nodes of Ranvier. They do not, however, affect 
the axis cylinder. In a large nerve, such as the 
median, the nerve fibres are collected into small 
Primitive bundles called funiculi, enclosed in a connective 
sheath tissue sheath, the perineurium, and separated 
from it by a lymph space. From this sheath 
delicate processes penetrate among the fibres, 
and_ these are known as the endoneurium. The 
funiculi are collected into bundles called fasciculi, 
and the whole nerve consists of a variable num- 
ber of fasciculi surrounded by a dense fibrous 
sheath, the epineurium. The various bundles 
do not remain distinct, but break up and re- 
arrange themselves, so that following them up 
with the scalpel is a difficult and tedious work. 
The nerve fibres, however, never join one another 
and are often several feet in length. 

NERVE CELLS are unipolar, bipolar or multi- 
polar. Unipolar cells are found in the ganglia on 
the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, and only 
give off an axon or axis cylinder process; this, 
however, soon divides in a T-shaped manner, and 
all these cells were originally bipolar, though the 
cell has grown away from its two axons (or, as 
they are often regarded, axon and dendrite), 
leaving a stalk joining it to them at right angles. 
Bipolar cells are found as an embryonic stage of 
unipolar, though in fish they persist in the spinal 
ganglia throughout life. They are also some- 
times found in the sympathetic ganglia. Multi- 
polar cells are found in the brain and cord, and 
are best studied in the anterior horns of the grey 
matter of the latter, where they are nearly visible 
Cunningham's Text, to the naked eye (see fig. 2). Of their many 
Book of Anatomy. processes only one is an axon, and it becomes 

p IG j Nerve- tne ax i a ' cylinder of a motor spinal nerve. The 

fibre from a Frog, other fibres are called dendrites, and break up 
(After v. Kolliker.j mto delicate branches some of which surround, 
but, it is generally believed, are not actually 
continuous with, neighbouring cells or their processes. It is known 
that the axons are made up of delicate fibrils, and it is thought 
by some observers that there is actual continuity between some 
of these and those of an adjacent neuron, as the combination 
of a nerve cell, its axon and dendrites, is called. The cells of 
Purkinje in the cerebellum show a particularly rich arborization of 
dendrites (see BRAIN, fig. 7). Nerve cells have generally a large clear 
nucleus. 

THE NEUROGLIA is the delicate connective tissue which supports 
and binds together the nervous elements of the central nervous 
system. One part of it, which lines the central canal of the cord 
and ventricles of the brain, is formed of columnar cells, and is 
called ependyma, while the rest consists of small cells with numerous 
processes which sometimes branch and sometimes do not. These 
fibres interlace with one another to form a delicate felt-work which 
is unmixed with nervous elements on the surface of the grey matter 
of the brain (see BRAIN, figs. 7 and 15). though elsewhere it is inter- 
woven with them. 

NERVE ENDINGS. Sensory nerves end by breaking up _ into 
fibrillae or by various tactile organs. In the former case the minute 
fibrils, of which it has been shown that the axons or nerve fibres 
consist, separate and end among epithelial cells of the mucous 
membrane or skin. In the latter case the nerve fibres lose their 
coating of myelin and end in one of the seven following organs: 

i. End bulbs ofKrause (fig. 3, A), oval bulbs composed of elongated 
cells among which the nerve fibrils end in knobs or coils; each _is 
surrounded by a sheath of neurilemma, and the organs are found in 
the lips, tongue, conjunctiva, epineurium of nerves, synovial mem- 
branes of joints, and in the glans penis et clitoridis, where they have 
a mulberry-like appearance. 



2. Pacinian corpuscles (fig. 3, B) are large enough to be seen by 
the naked eye, and are oval bodies made up of a series of concentric 
capsules of connective tissue rather resembling the structure of an 
onion; in the centre of this is a structureless core, at the distal 
extremity of which the nerve fibre ends in one or more knobs. These 




Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 2. Three Nerve-Cells from the Anterior Horn of Gray Matter 
of the Human Spinal Cord. 

bodies are found in the palm and sole, in the mesentery, the genital 
organs and in joints. 

3-_ Tactile corpuscles of Meissner and Wagner (fig. 3, C) are oval 
bodies found in certain of the skin papillae and mucous membrane, 
especially of very sensitive parts like the hand and foot, lips, tongue 
and nipple. They are oval and made of a connective tissue capsule 
from which septa enter the interior. The nerve fibre generally 
takes a spiraj course through them, loses its myelin sheath, and 
ends by breaking up into its fibrils, which eventually become bulbous. 

4. Tactile corpuscles of Grandry are found in the skin of those 
parts devoid of hair, and consist of a capsule containing two or more 






From Robert Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 3. Tactile Corpuscles. A, End bulb (Krause) ; B, Corpuscle 
_ofPacini; C, Corpuscle of Meissner. (B, C, after Ranvier.) 

largish cells, between which the nerve fibre ends in the so-called 
tactile discs. 

5._ Rujjini's endings are flattened oval bodies with a thick con- 
nective tissue capsule, in which the nerve fibre divides into many 



402 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



branches which have a varicose appearance, form a rich plexus, and 
end in knobs. These organs are found between the true skin and 
subcutaneous tissue of the fingers. 

6. Organs of Golgi are found in tendons. Nerve fibres penetrate 
the tendon bundles and divide in a tree-like manner to end in little 
disks and varicosities. 

7. Ncuro-muscular spindles are small fusiform bundles of em- 
bryonic muscle fibres among which the nerve fibres end by en- 
circling them and forming flattened disks. These are sensory endings, 
and must not be confused with the motor end plates. They are 
found in most of the striped muscles of the body. 

Motor nerves end in striped muscle by motor end plates. These 
are formed by a nerve fibre approaching a muscle fibre and suddenly 
losing its myelin sheath while its neurilemma becomes continuous 
with the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre. The axis cylinder divides, 
and its ramifications are surrounded by a disk of granular matter 
containing many clear nuclei. In very long muscle fibres more 
than one of these end plates are sometimes found. Involuntary 
motor endings are usually found in sympathetic nerves going to 
unstriped muscle. The fibres form minute plexuses, at the points 
of union of which small triangular ganglion cells are found. After 
this the separate fibrils of the nerve divide, and each ends opposite 
the nucleus of an unstriped muscle cell. 

THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM 

This system is made up of two gangliated cords running down one 
on each side of the vertebral column and ending below in the median 




From A. 'M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 



Cord 



vertebrae. In addition to these cords there are numerous ganglia 
and plexuses through which the sympathetic nerves pass on their 
way to or from the viscera and blood-vessels. 

A typical ganglion of the sympathetic chain is connected with its 
corresponding spinal nerve by two branches called rami communi- 
cantes, one of which is 
grey and the other white 
(see fig. 4). The white 
consists of medullated 
fibres belonging to the 
central nervous system, 
and these are splanchnic 
afferent or centripetal, 
and efferent or centri- 
fugal. The efferent fibres 
lie in the anterior roots 
of the spinal nerves, and, 
like all the fibres there, 
are either motor or secre- 
tory. They are the 
motor paths for the 
unstriped muscle of the 
vessels and viscera, and 
the secretory paths for 
the cells of the viscera. 
In the course of each 
fibre from the nerve cell 

in the spinal cord, 

of which it is an 

axon, to the vessel 

or viscus it supplies, 

there is always a 

break where it 

arborizes round a 

ganglion cell, and 

this may be in its 

own ganglion of the 

sympathetic chain, 

in a neighbouring 

ganglion above or 

below, or in one of 

the so-called col- 
lateral ganglia in- 
terposed between 

the sympathetic 

chain and the vis- 
cera. In addition 

to these there are a From ^ M Patcreon> , Cunningham's Tea-Book oj 

certain number of Anatomy. 

vaso-dilator and p IG . ._The Distribution of the Sym- 

viscero-inhibitory pathetic Gangliated Cord in the Neck. 

fibres, which run c c . . , 

without any cell %" Superior cervical ganglion, and con- 
connexions from ,~ nexions and branches. 

the sninal or cranial *- C ' Internal carotid artery. 

ne e rve P to the v^a! ^ Glosso-pharyngeal. 

.The splanchnic %*' Vagus. 

afferent or centri- * Hypoglossal. 

petal fibres are the C ' 1 ' 2 ' 3 ' 4 ' Flrst four cervlcal nerves. 

sensory nerves from 

the viscera, and 

have no cell con- 
nexions until they 

reach the spinal ,-, , T" C ^\. 

ganglia on the pos- f & 6 - fifth and sixth cervical nerves. 
T.Thv. Inferior thyroid artery. 
Ansa Vieussenii. 

Inferior cervical ganglion, con- 
nexions and branches. 




Cir. 



E.C, 
Sy.2, 



Glosso-pharyngeal nerve. 
To external carotid artery. 
Middle cervical ganglion, connexions 
and branches. 



terior roots of the 
spinal nerves, which 
they do by travers- 
ing 
cord of 



the left the roots and trunks of spinal nerves ,.,, ,,... i,. c amuse- 
ment of the white ramus communicans above and of the gray ramus below. 

coccygeal ganglion (g. impar). In the neck the cords lie in front of 
the anterior tubercles of the transverse processes of the cervical 
vertebrae, in the thorax, in front of the heads of the ribs, while 
in the 'abdomen they lie in front of the sides of the bodies of the 



^?" gl 't t f, d C-7, 8, Seventh and eighth cervical nerves, 
pathetic. ThefiCs - Vertebral plexus, 
of the white rami Car - Cardiac branches, 
communicantes are remarkable for their small diameter, and 
the efferent fibres, at all events, are only found in two regions, 
one of which is called the thoracico-lumbar stream and extends 
from the first or second thoracic to the second or third lumbar 
nerve, while the pelvic stream is found from the second to the 
fourth sacral nerves. 

The grey rami communicantes are found in connexion with all 
the spinal nerves, though they are irregular in the paths by which 
they reach the sympathetic ganglia from the cells of which they 
spring; their fibres are mainly non-medullated, and pass into 
roots of the spinal nerves and also into the anterior and 

nerves. In this way they 
d are somatic vaso-motor, 

secretory and pilo-motor fibres, supplying the vessels, glands 
and hair muscles of the skin and its glands. The sympathetic 
ganglia, from which these nerves come, contain multipolar nerve 
cells with one axon and several dendrites as well as a number of 
medullated fibres passing through, and much connective tissue. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



403 



Some of the axons of these cells pass in the connectives to ganglia 
above and below, while others pass with the splanchnic efferent 
nerves to the viscera. 

The above sketch will give the general scheme of the sympathetic 
system, but its exact topographical details in man must be sought 
in the modern text-books such as those of Gray, Quain or Cunning- 
ham. Here only the larger and more important details can pe 
given. In the gangliated chain there is a ganglion corresponding 
to nearly each spinal nerve, except in the neck, where only three are 
found ; of these the superior cervical ganglion is more than an inch 
long, and is connected with the first four spinal nerves as well as 

From A. M. Paterson, in Cun- 
ningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 6. The Arrange- 
ment of the Sympathetic 
System in the Thorax, 
Abdomen and Pelvis. 

T.I-I2, .1-5, 5.1-5, Co, 
Anterior primary 
divisions of spinal 
nerves, connected 
to the gangliated 
cord of the sym- 
pathetic by rami 
communicant es, 
white (double lines) 
and gray (single 
lines). 

Oes, Oesophagus and 
oesophageal plexus. 

Ao, Aorta and aorta 
plexus. 

Va, Vagus nerve joining 
oesophageal plexus. 

S.I, Great splanchnic 
nerve. 

X, ,Great splanchnic 
ganglion. 

5.2, Small splanchnic 

nerve. 

5.3, Least splanchnic 

nerve. 

Co, Coronary artery 
and plexus. 

Spl, Splenic artery and 
plexus. 

H, Hepatic artery and 
plexus. 

SL, Semilunar ganglion. 

Di, Diaphragm. 

5..R, Suprarenal capsule. 

Re, Renal artery and 
plexus. 

S.M, Superior mesenteric 
artery and plexus. 

Sp, Spermatic artery 
and plexus. 

I.M, Inferior mesenteric 
artery and plexus. 

Hy, Hypogastric nerves 
and plexus. 

Rec, Rectal plexus. 
Ut, Uterine plexus. 
Ves, Vesical plexus. 

V. V. V, Visceral branches 
from sacral nerves. 
REC. UT VES 

with the ninth, tenth and twelfth cranial nerves (see fig. 5, 5y.i). 
Branches of distribution pass from it to the pharyngeal plexus, 
the heart and the two carotid arteries. Of these the branch accom- 
panying the internal carotid artery passes to the carotid and cavern- 
ous plexuses, and through these communicates with the spheno- 
maxillary, otic and ciliary ganglia, while the branch to the external 
carotid communicates with the submaxillary ganglion. The middle 
cervical ganglion (fig. 5, 5y.2), when it is present, gives rami com- 
municantes to the fifth and sixth cervical nerves, as well as branches 
of distribution to the thyroid body and heart. 

The inferior cervical ganglion (fig. 5, Sy-3) lies behind the sub- 
clavian artery, and, besides the main connective cord, has a loop 




(ansa Vieussenii) joining it to the middle cervical ganglion in front 
of that vessel. It communicates with the seventh and eighth spinal 
nerves, and gives branches of distribution to the heart and to the 
subclayian artery and its branches, especially the vertebral. The 
thoracic part of the sympathetic cord has usually eleven ganglia, 
which receive both white and grey rami communicantes from the 
spinal nerves (fig. 6) ; of the former the upper ones run up in the 
chain and come off from the cervical ganglia as already described, 
while the lower ones form the three abdominal splancnnics which 
pass through the diaphragm (q.v.) and join the abdominal plexuses. 

The great splanchnic (fig. 6, 5.i) comes from the sixth to the ninth 
ganglia, and ends in the semi-lunar ganglion of the solar plexus 
(fig. 6, SL). The small splanchnic (fig. 6, 5.2) comes from the ninth 
and tenth, or tenth and eleventh ganglia, and ends in the aortico- 
renal ganglion of the solar plexus, while the smallest splanchnic 
(fig. 6, 5.3) comes from the last thoracic ganglion, whether it be the 
tenth or eleventh, and ends in the renal plexus. 

In the lumbar region the gangliated cord is very irregular; there 
may be four or more ganglia, and these are often fused. Grey rami 
communicantes are given to all the lumbar spinal nerves, and white 
ones are received from the first two. Most of the branches of dis- 
tribution pass to the aortic plexus. The sacral gangliated cord runs 
down just internal to the anterior sacral foramina; it usually has 
four small ganglia, and the two cords end by joining the coccygeal 
ganglion or ganglion impar, though the two-fourth sacral ganglia are 
united by transverse interfunicular commissures. The white rami 
communicantes, already mentioned as the pelvic stream, from the 
second to the fourth sacral spinal nerves, do not enter the ganglia 
but pass directly to the pelvic plexuses (fig. 6, V). 

Sympathetic Plexuses. In the thorax are the superficial and deep 
cardiac plexuses and the coronary plexuses; the former receives the 
left superior cervical cardiac of the vagus, and lies in the concavity 
of the arch of the aorta. The deep cardiac plexus is larger, and 
lies in front of the bifurcation of the trachea; it receives all the 
other cardiac nerves, and communicates with the anterior pulmonary 
plexuses of the vagus (see NERVES: Cranial). The right and left 
coronary plexuses accompany the coronary arteries; the former 
communicates with both the cardiac plexuses, the latter only with 
the deep cardiac plexus. 

In the abdomen the solar plexus is by far the most important. 
It lies behind the stomach and surrounds the coeliac axis; in it are 
situated the semilunar, aortico-renal and superior mesenteric 
ganglia, and from it are prolonged subsidiary plexuses along the main 
arteries, so that diaphragmatic, suprarenal, renal, spermatic, coeliac, 
superior mesenteric, aortic and inferior mesenteric plexuses, are 
recognized. The hypogastric plexus is the continuation downward 
of the aortic, and lies just below the bifurcation of the aorta (see 
fig. 6, Hy); it divides into two branches, which accompany the 
internal iliac arteries and are joined by the pelvic stream of white 
rami communicantes from the sacral spinal nerves and some twigs 
from the ganglia of the sacral sympathetic to form the pelvic 
plexuses. These are prolonged to the viscera along the branches of 
the internal iliac artery, so that haemorrhoidal, vesital, prostatic, 
vaginal and uterine plexuses are found. By the side of the neck of 
the uterus in the last-named plexus several small ganglia are seen. 
(For the literature of the sympathetic system, see Quain's Anatomy, 
London, 1895.) 

EMBRYOLOGY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 

The development of the brain, spinal cord and organs of special 
sense (eye, ear, tongue), will be found in separate articles. Here 
that of the cranial and spinal nerves and the sympathetic system is 
dealt with. The thoracic spinal nerves are the most typical, and 
one of them is the best to begin with. In fig. 7, A the ganglion on 
the dorsal root (DR) is seen growing out from the neural crest, and 
the cells or neuroblasts of which it is composed become fusiform and 
grow in two directions as the ganglion recedes from the cord. Those 
which run toward the spinal cord are the axons, while those growing 
into the mesoderm are probably enlarged dendrites. The ventral 
roots (VR) rise as the axons of the large cells in the ventral horn of 
the grey matter, and meet the fibres of the dorsal root on the distal 
side of the ganglion (fig. 7, B). As the two roots join each divides 
into an anterior (ventral) and a posterior (dorsal) primary division 
(fig. 7, D), the latter growing into the dorsal segment of its muscle 
plate and the skin of the back. The anterior primary division 
grows till it reaches the cardinal vein and dorsal limit of the coelom, 
and there forks into a somatic branch to the body wall (fig. 7_, C, So), 
and a splanchnic or visceral branch (fig. 7, C, Vi) which joins the 
sympathetic and forms the white ramus communicans. The somatic 
branch grows round the body wall and gives off lateral and anterior 
branches (fig. 7, E). In the limb regions the anterior primary 
djvisions of the nerves divide into anterior and posterior secondary 
divisions, which probably correspond to the anterior and lateral 
branches of the thoracic nerves (fig. 7, E and F). These unite with 
neighbouring nerves to form plexuses, and divide again, but the 
anterior nerves keep to the ventral side of the limb and the posterior 
to the dorsal. 

The cranial nerves are developed in the same wayas the spinal, 
so far as concerns the facts that the motor fibres are the axons 
of cells situated in the basal lamina of the mesencephalon and 



404 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



rhombencephalon (see BRAIN), and the sensory are the axons and den- 
drites of cells situated in ganglia which have budded off from the 
brain. The evidence of comparative anatomy, however, shows that 




From A. M. Patcrson, in Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 7. Development of the Spinal Nerves. 



A, Formation of nerve roots. 

D.R, Dorsal root. 

V.R, Ventral root. 

N.T, Neural tube. 

No, Notochord. 

Al.C, Alimentary canal. 

Ao, Aorta. 

V, Cardinal vein. 

M.P, Muscle plate. 

B, Formation of nerve trunk (N) 

D.G, Dorsal ganglion. 

Sy, Sympathetic ccrd. 

W.D, Wolffian duct. 

Co, Coelom. 



C, Formation of nerves. 
So, Somatic division. 
Vi, Visceral branch. 
P, Posterior primary division. 



there are two ventral roots to one dorsal. In the fishes and higher 
vertebrates the dorsal and ventral roots unite, though in selachian 
(shark) embryos F. M. Half our says that the dorsal and ventral 
roots alternate (The Development of Elasmobranch 
Fishes, London, 1878). When limbs are developed, 
beginning with fishes, limb plexuses are formed. 
Where the limbs are suppressed rudimentary 
plexuses may persist, as in the snake, though 
usually they disappear. 

The cranial nerves are only represented by two 
pairs in Amphioxus. In the Cyclostomata, fishes 
and Amphibia, ten pairs of nerves are found, 
which in their distribution do not always agree 
with those of man. In the Amniota or reptiles, 
birds and mammals, the eleventh and twelfth 
nerves have been added. The researches of W. 
H. Gaskell (" On the structure, distribution and 
functions of the nerves which innervate the 
visceral and vascular systems," J. of Phys. vii. 
i, 1886), Q. S. Strong (" The cranial nerves 
of Amphibia," /. Morph. x. 101), I. B. 
Johnston (/. Comp. Neural, xii. 2 and 87), 
and others, show that the cranial nerves are 
formed of at least five components: (i) Ven- 
tral motor, (2) Lateral motor, (3) Somatic 
sensory, (4) Visceral sensory, (5) Lateral line 
nerves. 

_ The ventral motor components are those which 
rise from cells situated close to the mid line, and 
probably correspond to the ventral roots of the 
spinal nerves. The nerves to the eye muscles 
(motor oculi, trochlearis and abducens) have this 
origin (see NERVE : Cranial), as also has the hypo- 
glossal, which doubtless is a cephalized spinal 
nerve. 

The lateral motor components rise from cells situ- 
ated more laterally, and comprise the motor roots 
of the fifth (trigeminal), seventh (facial), and 
ninth, tenth and eleventh (glossopharyngeal, 
vagus and spinal accessory). These nerves 
supply muscles belonging to the branchial 
skeleton, instead of the muscles of the primi- 
tive cranium, of which the eye muscles are the 
remnants. 

The somatic sensory components supply the 
skin, and end in cells which, among the cyclo- 
stomes and fishes, form a considerable elevation 



D, E, Formation of subordinate branches, in the rhombencephalon, known as the lobus 
Lot, Lateral, and trigemini (fig. 8, Nuc. V.). These components, 

Ant, Anterior, branches. in the lower forms, are found in the fifth, seventh 

and tenth nerves, but in mammals practically 

F, Formation of nerve trunks in relation n 'y the fifth contains them. They correspond 
to the limb ; dorsal and ventral to the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves, 
trunks corresponding to lateral and The splanchnic sensory or viscera sensory corn- 
anterior trunks in D and E. ponents end in the brain in the medullary cells 

known as the fasciculus communis in fishes, and 



the cranial nerves cannot be directly homologized with the spinal, nor 
can the fact of there being twelve of them justify us in assuming 
that the head contains the rudiments of twelve fused or unsegmented 
somites. To this we will return later. The case of the optic nerve 
is different to that of any of the others. A. Robinson (Journ. Anat. 
and Phys., vol. 30, p. 319) has shown that most of its fibres are the 
axons of ganglion cells in the retina, and, as the retina is part of 
the optic vesicle and an outgrowth from the brain, the so-called 
optic nerve is only comparable to a tract of fibres within the brain. 

The twelfth or hypoglossal nerve is regarded as a fusion of the 
motor roots of three spinal nerves, and embryology bears this out, 
for Froriep has described a small and transitory ganglion corre- 
sponding to the posterior root ganglion of this nerve. Another link 
in the chain of reasoning is that the first spinal or sub-occipital nerve 
often has its posterior root suppressed. 

The sympathetic system is developed from the posterior root 
ganglia of the spinal nerves, by cells which in man migrate a few 
at a time. A. M. Paterson, however, believes that the sympathetic 
is developed, independently of the cerebro-spinal system, in the 
mesoderm (Phil. Trans, clxxxi. pt. B. p. 159). In embryos of 
14-5 m.m. there are found masses of cells on each side of the ab- 
dominal aorta, permeated with blood vessels, and having the same 
structure as the carotid and coccygeal bodies. They are known as 
the organs of Zuckerkandl, and disappear soon after birth. 

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY 

_The comparative anatomy of the brain and spinal cord is dealt 
with in the separate articles devoted to them. 

Spinal Nerves. In Amphioxus the dorsal and ventral roots do 
not unite with one another but alternate, a dorsal root on one side 
being opposite a ventral on the other. The dorsal roots are both 
sensory and motor, the ventral only motor. In the Cyclostomata 
(Petromyzon) the arrangement is nearly the same, but in some regions 



fasciculus sohtanus in mammals (see BRAIN, fig. 4), 
as well as in- the lobus trigemini and lobus vagi (fig. 8, Nuc. X.). They 
are found in the fifth, seventh, ninth, tenth and eleventh nerves, 
and supply visceral surfaces. In mammals the lingual and palatine 




EPIPH. 



'OPT.N. 
6AN6.HAB. 
OPT. LOBE 



-Nuci'v: 



NUC.X. 



From Catalogue of Ike Museum of Ike Royal College of Surgeons of England, vol. a 
2nd cd. 

FIG. 8. Brain (A) and Choroid Plexuses (B) of Lamprey. 

branches of the fifth, the chorda tympani and great superficial 
petrosal (?) of the seventh, and all the sensory fibres of the ninth 
and tenth except Arnold's nerve, represent these. In fishes and 
Amphibians the palate is supplied by the seventh nerve instead of 



NESFIELD NESSELRODE 



405 



the fifth, but the explanation given for this difference is that in 
these lower forms the Gasserian and geniculate ganglia are not 
distinct, and so fibres from the compound ganglion may pass into 
either nerve. These splanchnic sensory components of the cranial 
nerves evidently correspond to the branches which have already 
been mentioned as the splanchnic afferent fibres of the sympathetic. 

The system of the lateral line or acustico-lateralis component is 
sometimes regarded merely as a subdivision of the somatic sensory. 
It is best developed in the fish, and may be divided into pre- and 
post-auditory, and auditory. The pre-auditory part comprises the 
pit and canal end organs supplied by the seventh, and also probable 
the olfactory organ supplied by. the first nerve. The auditory 
apparatus, supplied by the eighth nerve, is, according to modern 
opinion, undoubtedly a part of this system, while the tenth nerve 
sends a large branch along the lateral line supplying the special end 
organs of the post-auditory part. All these components of the 
lateral line pass to the tuberculum acusticum in the fourth ventricle, 
as well as to the cerebellum, which J. B. Johnston (Zoo/. Bull. 
I, S, p. 221, Boston) regards as a derivative of the rostral (anterior) 
end of the acusticum. In mammals no doubt the olfactory and 
auditory apparatus and nerves have the same morphological signi- 
ficance as in fishes, but the seventh does not supply any cutaneous 
sense organs en the head or face, and the only vestige of the post- 
auditory supply of the tenth nerve to the lateral line is the small 
auricular branch of the vagus, often called Arnold's nerve. 

The following table, slightly modified from the one drawn up by 
J. McMurrich, gives a fair idea of the present state of our knowledge 
of the nerve components in the Mammalia. 



Nerve. 


Ventral 
Motor. 


Lateral 
Motor. 


Somatic 
Sensory. 


Splanchnic 
Sensory. 


Lateral 
Line. 


I. 










+ (?) 


II. 1 












III. 


-|- 










IV. 


-j- 










V. 




-)- 


.|> 


-|- 




VI. 


.f. 










VII. 




-|- 




J. 




VIII. 










-j- 


IX. ) 












X. { 

XI. } 




+ 


+ 


+ 


+ 


XII. 


-|- 










Spinal 


+ 


(?) 


+ 


+ 





1 A tract of the brain. 

For further details and literature of the nervous system see 
Quain's Anatomy (latest edition); R. Wiedersheim's Comp. Anal, of 
Vertebrates (Lpnd. 1907) ; Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thier- 
reichs ; C. S. Minot's Human Embryology (1892) ; McMurrich's Develop- 
ment of the Human Body (London, 1906). For the theory of nerve 
components see Onera Merritt, Journ. Anal, and Phys., vol. 39, 
p. 199. A general discussion on the comparative anatomy and 
morphology of limb plexuses will be found in Miss C. W. Saberton's 
paper on the " Nerve Plexuses of Troglodytes Niger " Studies in 
Anatomy, University of Manchester, vol. iii. (1906), p. 165. She 
refers to most of the literature on the subject, but the papers of 
H. Braus, Jena Zeitschr. v. 31 (1898), p. 239 on fish, of M. 
Davidoff, Morph. Jahrb. v. 5 (1879), p. 450 on the pelvic plexuses 
of fish, and of M. Fiirbringer, Ge^enb. Festschr. v. 3 (1897), on 
the spino-occipital nerves and brachial plexus of fish, are also very 
important. (F. G. P.) 

NESFIELD, WILLIAM EDEN (1835-1888), British architect, 
one of the leaders of the Gothic revival in England, was born 
in Bath on the 2nd of April 1835. His father, Major William 
Andrew Nesfield, a well-known landscape gardener, laid out 
Regent's Park and St James's Park, and remodelled Kew. 
Educated at Eton, Nesfield was articled first to Mr Burn, a 
classicist, and then to his uncle, Anthony Salvin, who took the 
Gothic side in the " battle of the styles." Nesfield travelled 
for study in France, Italy and Greece, afterwards publishing a 
volume, Sketches from France and Italy (London, 1862), which 
became one of the text-books of the Gothic revival. In 1859 
Nesfield settled down in London. His first important commission 
was to build a new wing to Combe Abbey for Lord Craven. In 
1862 began a nominal partnership with Norman Shaw, the fruits 
of which have been exaggerated; they shared rooms in Argyle 
Street for some years, but never col'aborated. It was in Argyle 
Street that the principal work of Nesfield 's life was conceived 
Combe Abbey, Cleverly Hall and Kinmel Park. Here he showed 
a mastery of planning and construction, a conscientious regard 
for detail, an eye for the picturesque, an unfailing regard for 



dignity, which make his achievements landmarks in the history 
of his art. He built the lodge in Regent's Park (1864) and that 
in Kew Gardens (1866). Combe Abbey and Cleverly are some- 
what " early French " in style, but as Nesfield developed he 
adopted a purely English manner, and presented his newer ideas 
in Loughton Hall and Kinmel Park. The gate lodge at Kinmel 
Park, Abergele, is entirely " English Renaissance "; Cleverly 
Hall (1864), planned when he was twenty-nine, with its great 
hall, fine approaches to the staircase, and the staircase itself, 
is already half English, and Eastlake, in his History of Gothic 
Revival, praises it on that very ground. The full development 
of the revived classic taste in Nesfield came with his addition to 
Kinmel Park red brick, stone dressings, grey-green slated roofs 
which elevated that originally unpretentious 18th-century 
building into a small Renaissance palace. For contrast in style, 
harmonious as they are in artistic expression, Cleverly and 
Kinmel are the typical examples of the artist's style. Other 
works are Farnham Royal House near Slough, Lea Wood, 
Loughton Hall and Westcombe Park. His more notable urban 
works are the bank at Saffron Walden (1873), and the Rose 
and Crown Hotel; they stand next door to each other and exhibit 
another contrast, the former being medieval and the latter what 
is called " Queen Anne." Though he built no new important 
church, Nesfield rebuilt the Early Decorated St Mary's, Farnham 
Royal, near Slough, mainly on the old lines. He restored King's 
Walden church, Herts (1868), and Rad winter church, Essex 
(1871), and Cora church near Whitchurch, Salop; but no great 
public building came from him. Nesfield's career was a com- 
paratively short one. On the 3rd of September 1885 he married 
Mary Annetta, eldest daughter of John Sebastian Guilt and 
granddaughter of Joseph Guilt, and he retired from practice some 
years before his death at Brighton on the 2Sth of March 1888. 
He left behind him a valuable series of sketches and measured 
drawings, most of which are now in the library of the Royal 
Institute of British Architects. (J. M. BY.) 

NESLE, the name of a place in France (dep. of Somme), which 
gave its name to an old feudal family. This family became 
extinct at the beginning of the I3th century, and the heiress 
brought the lordship to the family of Clermont in Beauvaisis. 
Simon de Clermont, seigneur de Nesle, was regent of the kingdom 
of France during the second crusade of St Louis. Raoul de 
Clermont, constable of France, and Guy I. (d. 1302) and Guy II. 
(d. 1352) de Clermont, both marshals of France, were members of 
the family. The lordship of Nesle was erected into a countship 
for Charles de Sainte-Maure in 1467 and into a marquisate 
for Louis de Sainte-Maure in 1546. It was acquired in 1666 by 
Louis Charles de Mailly. His grandson, Louis de Mailly, had five 
daughters, of whom four (the countess of Mailly, the duchess 
of Lauragais, the countess of Vintimille, and the marquise de 
la Tournelle, afterwards duchess of Chateauroux) were succes- 
sively, or simultaneously, mistresses of Louis XV. 

NESSELRODE, KARL ROBERT, COUNT (1780-1862), Russian 
diplomatist and statesman, was born on the i4th of December 
1780 at Lisbon, where his father (d. 1810) was Russian 
ambassador. In deference to his mother's Protestantism he was 
baptized in the chapel of the British embassy, thus becoming 
a member of the Church of England. The Nesselrodes were of 
Westphalian origin , but had long been settled in Livonia. Nessel- 
rode's German origin was emphasized by his education in a Berlin 
gymnasium, his father having been appointed ambassador to the 
Prussian court about 1787. When he was sixteen he entered the 
Russian navy, and his father's influence procured for him the 
position of naval aide-de-camp to the emperor Paul. He 
presently exchanged into the army, obtained a further court 
appointment, and entered the diplomatic service. Nesselrode 
was attached to the Russian embassy at Berlin, and transferred 
thence to the Hague. In August 1806 he received a commission 
to travel in South Germany to report on the French troops; 
he was then attached as diplomatic secretary to Generals 
Kamenski, Buxhoewden and Bennigsen in succession. He 
was present at the battle of Eylau in January 1807, and assisted 
at the negotiation of the peace of Tilsit . Immediately afterwards 



406 



NEST NESTOR 



he was sent to Paris to join the embassy of Count Peter 
Tolstoy, whom he accompanied in the spring of the next year 
to the meeting of the two emperors at Erfurt. After his return 
to Paris he strengthened the understanding between Alexander I. 
and Talleyrand consequent on the Erfurt meeting, and acted as 
intermediary between the two. On the appointment of a 
successor to Count Tolstoy he retired to St Petersburg, but 
returned to Paris early in 1810 charged with a commission from 
Speranski to Talleyrand and the marquis de Caulaincourt, 
formerly ambassador in St Petersburg, both of whom were 
hostile to Napoleon's policy of aggression. After the breach of 
diplomatic relations with Russia in 1811, Nesselrode returned 
to St Petersburg by way of Vienna in order to exchange views 
with Metternich. He sought to persuade Alexander to open 
negotiations with Napoleon, if only to throw the onus of breaking 
the peace entirely on the French side. He joined the tsar's 
headquarters at Vilna in March 1812 and, though Rumiantzov 
was still foreign minister, it was Nesselrode who directed the 
foreign policy of Russia from this time forward. He was present 
at the battle of Leipzig, and accompanied the invading army 
to Paris; he negotiated the capitulation of Marmont and 
Mortier at Clichy, and signed the treaty of Chaumont on the ist 
of March 1814. His former relations with Talleyrand facilitated 
negotiations in Paris, and his great influence with the emperor 
was used in favour of the restoration of the Bourbons, and, after 
Waterloo, against the imposition of a ruinous war indemnity on 
France. At the congress of Vienna he was associated with 
Count Capo d'Istria, and when, in August 1816, Alexander 
made him secretary of state for foreign affairs in succession 
to Rumiantzov, it was again in conjunction with the Greek 
statesman, from whom he differed widely in temperament 
and ideas. The emperor Alexander I., however, was apt to keep 
the direction of affairs in his own hands and so long as Alexander 
inclined to Liberalism Capo d'Istria was the interpreter of his 
will, but as the emperor veered towards Metternich's system 
Nesselrode became his mouthpiece. After Alexander's final 
" conversion " to reactionary principles, Capo d'Istria was dis- 
missed (1822) and Nesselrode definitely took his place. He had 
consistently advocated Alexander's project of a " universal 
union," symbolized by the Holy Alliance, in contradistinction to 
the narrower system of the alliance of the great powers; and, 
when the Greek insurrection broke out, he did much to determine 
the tsar to sacrifice his sympathy with the Orthodox Greeks 
to his dream of the European confederation (see ALEXANDER I., 
emperor of Russia). 

After Alexander's death in 1825 Nesselrode retained office 
under Nicholas I. He was responsible for the change of policy 
of Russia towards the Ottoman empire after 1829, viz. that 
of abandoning the traditional idea of conquering Constantinople 
in favour of keeping the Ottoman power weak and dependent 
on the tsar. This was his policy during the revolt of Mehemet 
Ali (<?..), and it was Nesselrode who inspired the terms of the 
famous treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833). Nicholas I. was, 
however, even less inclined than his brother to place himself 
in the hands of a minister; and Nesselrode showed himself 
amenable, though when his views differed from those of the 
emperor he stated them with great frankness. He conducted 
the negotiations which led to the shelving of the treaty of 
Unkiar Skelessi and to the alliance between Russia and Great 
Britain which, issuing ultimately in the Straits Convention of 
1841 to which France also was a party healed the breach 
which had so long divided the powers of eastern and western 
Europe. 

In 1849 it was Nesselrode who suggested the intervention of 
Russia in Hungary in favour of the Austrian government, 
although he restrained the tsar from active intervention in 
France then as in 1830. During the crisis of 1853 he prolonged 
negotiation in the hope of averting war. The last of his im- 
portant political acts, the signing of the treaty of Paris in 1856, 
undid the results of his patient efforts to establish Russian 
preponderance in the Balkan peninsula. He then retired from 
the foreign office, retaining the chancellorship, which he had 



held since 1844. He died at St Petersburg on the 23rd of March 
1862. 

See Lettres et papiers du chancelier comte de Nesselrode 1760-1850, 
the first volume of which was issued by his grandson Count Anatole 
Nesselrode at Paris in 1904. This work includes letters of the 
chancellor's father, Count William, Nesselrode's correspondence, and 
important state papers. In vol. ii. is a fragment of an autobio- 
graphy (to 1814), which Count Nesselrode did not live to complete. 
See also Correspondance diplomatique du comte Pozzo di Borgo et du 
comte de Nesselrode, edited by Charles Pozzo di Borgo (Paris, 2 vols., 
1890-1897). 

NEST, the place where a bird lays its eggs, hatches them out, 
and shelters them until they are fledged. The word is used by 
analogy of other animals than birds, insects, &c. It appears 
in much the same form in Teutonic languages; related to it 
are Irish nead, and Lat. nidus, whence Fr. nid. It has been 
referred to the Gr. v6ar<K, return home, but it is now established 
that it represents a form nizdo- for nisido-, from ni-, down; 
cf. " nether," and sed-, to sit. Sanskrit has nida. The Lat. 
nidus has given the scientific term for nest-building, nidification 
(q.v.). 

NESTOR, in Greek legend, son of Neleus and Chloris, king 
of Pylos in Messenia. When all his brothers were slain by 
Heracles, in consequence of the refusal of Neleus to purify him 
for the murder of Iphitus, Nestor alone escaped, being absent 
at Gerenia hence his epithet Gerenios in Homer (Apollodorus 
i. 9). He is the old warrior of the Iliad and the wise counsellor 
of the Greeks before Troy. After the fall of the city he returned 
to Pylos, where Telemachus visited him to obtain news of his 
father. In his earlier years he took part in the battle of the 
Centaurs and Lapithae, the Calydonian boar hunt, and the 
Argonautic expedition. The name is used in modern times 
for any old man of ripe experience, or the oldest member of a 
class or corporation. 

NESTOR (c. ios6-c. 1114), the reputed author of the earliest 
Russian chronicle, was a monk of the Pecherskiy cloister of 
Kiev from 1073. The only other fact of his life is that he was 
commissioned with two other monks to find the relics of St 
Theodosius, a mission which he succeeded in fulfilling. The 
chronicle begins with the deluge, as those of most chroniclers 
of the time did. The compiler appears to have been acquainted 
with the Byzantine historians; he makes use especially of 
John Malalas and George Hamartolus. He also had in all 
probability other Slavonic chronicles to compile from, which 
are now lost. Many legends are mixed up with Nestor's 
Chronicle; the style is occasionally so poetical that perhaps he 
incorporated bilini which are now lost. The early part is rich in 
these stories, among which are the arrival of the three Varangian 
brothers, the founding of Kiev, the murder of Askold and Dir, 
the death of Oleg, who was killed by a serpent concealed in the 
skeleton of his horse, and the vengeance taken by Olga, the 
wife of Igor, on the Drevlians, who had murdered her husband. 
The account of the labours of Cyril and Methodius among the 
Slavs is also very interesting, and to Nestor we owe the tale 
of the summary way in which Vladimir suppressed the worship 
of Perun and other idols at Kiev. As an eyewitness he could 
only describe the reigns of Vsevolodand Sviatopolk (1078-1112), 
but he gathered many interesting details from the lips of old 
men, two of whom were Giurata Rogovich of Novgorod, who 
gave him information concerning the north of Russia, Petchora, 
and other places, and Jan, a man ninety years of age, who died 
in 1106, and was son of Vishata the voivode of Yaroslavl and 
grandson of Ostromir the Posadnik, for whom the Codex was 
written. Many of the ethnological details given by Nestor of 
the various races of the Slavs are of the highest value. 

The latest theory about Nestor is that the Chronicle is a patchwork 
of many fragments of chronicles, and that the name of Nestor was 
attached to it because he wrote the greater part or perhaps because 
he put the fragments together. The name of a certain Sylvester, 
an Igumen, is affixed to several of the manuscripts as the author. 

The Chronicle has come down to us in several manuscripts, but 
unfortunately no contemporary ones, the oldest being the so-called 
Lavrientski of the I4th century (1377). It was named after the 
monk Lavrentii, who copied it out for Dimitri Constantinovich, 
the prince of Souzdal. The work, as contained in this manuscript, 



NESTOR NESTORIANS 



407 



has had many additions made to it from previous and contemporary 
chronicles, such as those of Volinia and Novgorod. Soloviey, the 
Russian historian, remarks that Nestor cannot be called the earliest 
Russian chronicler, but he is the first writer who took a national 
point of view in his history, the others being merely local writers. 
The language of his work, as shown_in the earliest manuscripts just 
mentioned, is Palaeo-Slavonic with many Russisms. It has formed 
the subject of a valuable monograph by Professor Miklosich. 

The Chronicle has been translated into Polish, Bohemian, German 
and French. The compiler cannot very well be the author of the 
lives of Boris and Gleb, the martyrs, and of the life of St Theodosius, 
because they contradict many passages in the Chronicle. The 
work is of primary importance for early Russian history, and, 
although devoid of literary merit, is not without its amusing episodes 
of an Herodotean character. The reputed body of the ancient 
chronicler may be seen among the relics preserved in the Pecherskiy 
monastery at Kiev. 

See Louis Leger's Chronique dile de Nestor (Paris, 1884); 
Bestuzhev Riumin, On the Composition of the Russian Chronicles 
till the end of the I4th century (in Russian), (St Petersburg, 1869). 

(W. R. M.) 

NESTOR, the name of a small but remarkable group of parrots 
peculiar to the New Zealand sub-region, of which the type 
is the Psittacus meridionalis of Gmelin, founded on a species 
described by J. Latham (Gen. Synopsis i. 264), and subse- 
quently termed by him P. nestor, in allusion to its hoary head, 
but now usually known as Nestor meridionalis, the " Kaka " 
of the Maories and English settlers in New Zealand, in some 
parts of which it was very abundant, though its numbers are 
fast decreasing. Forster, who accompanied Cook in his second 
voyagej described it in his MSS. in 1773, naming it P. hypopolius, 
and found it in both the principal islands. The general colour 
of the kaka is olive-brown, nearly all the feathers being tipped 
with a darker shade, so as to give a scaly appearance to the 
body. The crown is light grey, the ear-coverts and nape purplish- 
bronze, and the rump and abdomen of a more or less deep 
crimson-red; but much variation is presented in the extent and 
tinge of the last colour,' which often becomes orange and some- 
times bright yellow. The kaka is about the size of a crow; 
but a larger species, generally resembling it, though with plumage 
mostly dull olive-green, the Nestor notabilis of J. Gould, was 
discovered in 1856 by Walter Mantell, in the higher mountain 
ranges of the Middle Island. This is the " Kea " of the Maories, 
and incurred the enmity of colonists by developing an extra- 
ordinary habit of assaulting sheep, picking holes with its powerful 
beak in their side, wounding the intestines, and so causing 
death. The bird is admittedly an eater of carrion in addition 
to its ordinary food, which, like that of the kaka, consists of 
fruits, seeds and the grubs of wood-destroying insects, the last 
being obtained by stripping the bark from trees infested by them. 
The amount of injury the kea inflicts on flock-masters has 
doubtless been much exaggerated, for Dr Menzies states that 
on one " run," where the loss was unusually large, the proportion 
of sheep attacked was about one in three hundred, and that 
those pasturing below the elevation of 2000 ft. are seldom 
disturbed. 

On the discovery of Norfolk Island (October 10 1774) a 
parrot, thought by Forster to be specifically identical with the 
kaghaa (as he wrote the name) of New Zealand though his 
son ( Voyage, ii. 446) remarked that it was " infinitely brighter 
coloured " was found in its hitherto untrodden woods. Among 
the drawings of Bauer, the artist who accompanied Robert 
Brown and Flinders, is one of a Nestor marked " Norfolk Isl. 
19 Jan. 1805," on which Herr von Pelzeln in 1860 founded his 
N. norfolcensis. Meanwhile Latham, in 1822, had described, 
as distinct species, two specimens evidently of the genus Nestor, 
one said, but doubtless erroneously, to inhabit New South 
Wales, and the other from Norfolk Island. In 1836 Gould de- 
scribed an example, without any locality, in the museum of the 
Zoological Society, as Plyctolophus productus, and when some 
time after he was in Australia, he found that the home of this 
species, which he then recognized as a Nestor, was Phillip Island, 
a very small adjunct of Norfolk Island, and not more than 5 m. 
distant from it. Whether the birds of the two islands were 
specifically distinct or not we shall perhaps never know, since 
they are all extinct, and no specimen undoubtedly from Norfolk 



Island seems to have been preserved. The Phillip-Island Nestor 
may be distinguished from both of the New-Zealand species 
by its somewhat smaller size, orange throat, straw-coloured 
breast, and the generally lighter shade of its tints. 

The position of the genus Nestor in the order Psittaci must 
be regarded as uncertain, but it is now usually placed in the 
sub-family Nestorinae of the Trichoglossidae (see PARROT). 

Further knowledge of t;his very .interesting form may be facilitated 
by the following references to the Transactions and Proceedings 
of the New Zealand Institute, ii. 64, 65, 387, iii. 45-52, 81-90, v. 207, 
vi. 114, 128, ix. 340, x. 192, xi. 377; and to Sir W. Buller's 
Birds of New Zealand. (A. N.) 

NESTORIANS. i. The Early Nestorians. Among those who 
had been present at Ephesus in support of Nestorius (q.v.) was 
Ibas, presbyter and head of the theological school of Edessa. 
In 435 he became bishop of Edessa and under his influence the 
Nestorian teaching made considerable progress. On the accusa- 
tion of the orthodox he was deposed by the " Robber Synod " 
of Ephesus, but at Chalcedon in 451 was pardoned on condition 
of anathematizing both Nestorius and Eutyches and accepting 
the Tome of Leo. He had not, however, changed his views, and 
this was generally recognized. Meanwhile one of his pupils, 
Barsumas, had settled at Nisibis hi Persian territory where he 
became bishop in 435 and established a Nestorian school. And 
when the emperor suppressed the school of Edessa (" the Athens 
of Syria ") in 489, and expelled its members, they travelled far 
afield as eager and successful missionaries of the Gospel. In 
Persia their numbers and their zeal stimulated the old churches 
into vigour and led to the founding of new ones. And as they 
were under ban from Rome and out of communion with the 
Byzantine Church the Persian government welcomed them as a 
political ally, though the religious opposition of the Magi was 
still largely retained. In their new environment the Nestorians 
abandoned some of the rigour of Catholic asceticism, and at a 
synod held in 499 abolished clerical celibacy even for bishops 
and went so far as to permit repeated marriages, in striking 
contrast not only to orthodox custom but to the practice of 
Aphraates at Edessa who had advocated celibacy as a condition 
of baptism. The liberty here granted to bishops was enjoyed 
as late as the I2th century, but since then the Nestorian Church 
has assimilated its custom to that of the Greek Church. That 
the ascetic ideal was by no means wholly extinct is evident 
from the Book of Governors written by Thomas, bishop of Marga, 
in 840 which bears witness to a Syrian monasticisin founded by 
one Awgin of Egyptian descent, who settled in Nisibis about 
350, and lasting uninterruptedly until the time of Thomas, 
though it had long been absorbed in the great Nestorian move- 
ment that had annexed the church in Mesopotamia. 

The Nestorian Church in Eastern Syria and Persia was under 
the jurisdiction of an archbishop (catholikos) , who in 498 assumed 
the title " Patriarch of the East " and had his seat at Seleucia- 
Ctesiphon on the Tigris, a busy trading city and a fitting centre 
for the great area over which the evangelizing activity of the 
Nestorians now extended. The church traced its doctrines 
to Theodore of Mopsuestia rather than to Nestorius, whose name 
at first they repudiated, not regarding themselves as having 
been proselytized to any new teaching. 

2. The Later Nestorians. In 608 Magian influence was so 
strong in Persia that the Christians were persecuted and the 
office of catholicus was vacant for 20 years, being filled again by 
Jesu-Jabus, during whose patriarchate the Mahommedan 
invasion overran Persia. The patriarch was able to secure 
from the caliph permission for the Christians to practice their 
religion hi return for tribute money and this was afterwards 
remitted. Ibn Ali Talib, anxious to perpetuate their severance 
from the orthodox church and" the Byzantine empire, confirmed 
these privileges by charter and in 762 the patriarchate was 
removed to Bagdad. For five centuries the Nestorians were 
a recognized institution within the territory of Islam, though 
their treatment varied from kindly to harsh. Blruni, a Mahom- 
medan writer, who lived at Khiva c. A.D. 1000, speaks of them 
as comprising the bulk of the population of Syria, Irak and 
Khorasan, and as superior to the orthodox in intellectual ability. 



408 



NESTORIANS 



They agreed with Byzantines in observing Lent, Christmas 
and Epiphany, but differed from them in the observance of all 
other feasts and fasts. The Latin church tried in vain during 
the Crusades to secure their adhesion to Rome. The barbaric 
invasions of the i3th and i4th centuries fell with crushing 
force on the Nestorians. In 1258 Hulagu Khan took Bagdad, 
and about 1400 Timur again seized and sacked the city. Though 
the Nestorians were numerous, their moral influence and their 
church life had greatly deteriorated. Those who escaped capture 
by Timur fled to the mountains of Kurdistan, and the community 
that had played so large a part in Mesopotamian history for a 
thousand years was thus shattered. In 1552 they were further 
weakened by a large secession known as " the Chaldeans " 
arising out of a dispute about the succession to the patriarchate. 
The discontented appealed to Rome, and the pope (Julius III.) 
consecrated the Chaldean catholikos. The Chaldeans are now 
chiefly found in rural districts east of the Tigris. They have a 
see at Bagdad, a monastery (Rabban Hormuz) at Elkoosh, and 
are called by those Syrian Christians who have resisted the papal 
overtures, Maghlabin (" the conquered ") Other attempts 
during the i6th century to promote union between the Nestorians 
and Rome proved fruitless, but the Roman Church has never 
ceased in its efforts to absorb this ancient community. The 
history of the Jacobites or Syrian Monophysites who, like the 
Nestorians, diverged from the Byzantine Church, but in an 
exactly opposite direction, is told elsewhere (see JACOBITE 
CHURCH, &c.). Like the Nestorians they were great missionaries, 
and up to the 7th century, and again in the i2th and i3th, pro- 
duced the bulk of Syriac literature (<?..). The chief Nestorian 
authors were (a) in the 7th, 8th and gth centuries, Babbai the 
elder and Isho-yabh of Gedhala, commentators; Sahdona, who 
wrote on the monastic life; Abraham the Lame, a devotional 
and penitential writer; Dionysius of Tell Mahre (see DIONYSIUS 
TELMAHARENSIS), whose Annals are important; and Thomas 
(q.v.) of Marga; (b) in the I4th century, Abdh-isho bar Berikha 
(d. 1318) the author of a theological treatise Marganitha (" the 
Pearl"), 1298, and the Paradise of Eden, a collection of 50 
theological poems. 

3. The Nestorian Missionary Enterprise. The combined 
hostility of the orthodox church and the Byzantine empire 
drove the Nestorians into exile, but they went much further 
than was needed simply to secure immunity from persecution. 
They showed a zeal for evangelization which resulted in the 
establishment of their influence throughout Asia, as is seen 
from the bishoprics founded not only in Syria, Armenia, Arabia 
and Persia, but at Halavan in Media, Merv in Khorasan, Herat, 
Tashkent, Samarkand, Baluk, Kashgar, and even at Kambaluk 
(Pekin) and Singan fu Hsi'en fu in China, and Kaljana and 
Kranganore in India. In 1265 they numbered 25 Asiatic 
provinces and over 70 dioceses. Mongolian invasions and 
Mahommedan tyranny have, of course, long since swept away 
all traces of many of these. The 400,000 Syrian Christians 
(" Christians of St Thomas," see THOMAS, ST) who live in 
Malabar no doubt owe their origin to Nestorian missionaries, 
the stories of the evangelization of India by the Apostles Thomas 
and Bartholomew having no real historical foundation, and the 
Indian activity of Pantaenus of Alexandria having proved 
fruitless, in whatever part of India it may have been exercised. 
The theology of the Indian Syrian Christians is of a Nestorian 
type, and Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century) puts us on the 
right track when he says that the Christians whom he found in 
Ceylon and Malabar had come from Persia (probably as refugees 
from persecution, like the Huguenots in England and the 
Pilgrim Fathers in America). Pahlavi inscriptions 1 found on 
crosses at St Thomas's Mount near Madras and at Kottayam 
in Travancore, are evidence both of the antiquity of Christianity 
in these places (7th or 8th century), and for the semi-patri- 
passianism (the apparent identification of all three persons 
of the Trinity in the sufferer on the cross) which marked the 
Nestorian teaching. In 745 Thomas of Kana brought a new 

1 " In punishment by the cross (was) the suffering of this One; 
He who is the true Christ, and God alone, and Guide ever pure." 



band of emigrants from Bagdad and Nineveh, and possibly the 
name " Christians of St Thomas " arose from confusion between 
this man and the apostle. Other reinforcements came from 
Persia in 822, but the Malabar church never developed any 
intellectual vigour or missionary zeal. They had their own 
kings, lived as a close caste, and even imitated the Hindus in 
caste regulations of food and avoidance of pollution. In 1330 
Pope John XXII. issued a bull appointing Jordanus, a French 
Dominican, bishop of Quilon, and inviting the Nestorians to 
enter " the Christian Church." The invitation was declined, 
but in the i6th century the Syrian Christians sought the help 
of the Portuguese settlers against Mussulman oppression, only 
to find that before long they were subjected to the fiercer perils 
of Jesuit antagonism and the Inquisition. The Syrians submitted 
to Rome at the synod of Dampier in 1599, but it was a forced 
submission, and in 1653 when the Portuguese arrested the Syrian 
bishop just sent out by the catholicus of Babylon, the rebellion 
broke out. The renunciation was not quite thorough, one party 
adhering to the Roman Church as Rome-Syrians, the others 
reverting wholly to Syrian usages and forming to-day about 
three-fourths of the whole community. In 1665 a curious thing 
happened. Gregory, the Jacobite metropolitan of Jerusalem, 
visited Malabar, and, as the people had no consecrated bishop 
at the time, he consecrated Mar Thomas, who had been filling 
the office at the people's request, and remained in the country 
jointly administering the affairs of the Church with Thomas. 
Thus the Nestorian Church in India, voluntarily and with perfect 
indifference to theological dogmas, passed under Jacobite rule, 
and when early in the i8th century, Mar Gabriel, a Nestorian 
bishop, came to Malabar, he had a cool reception, and could only 
detach a small following of Syrians whom he brought back 
to the old Nestorianism. The approaches of the Anglican Church 
through the Church Missionary Society in the first part of the 
igth century were politely repelled. On the death of the bishop 
Mar Athanasius Matthew in 1877, litigation began as to his 
successor; it lasted ten years, and the decision (since reversed) 
was given against the party that held by the Nestorian connexion 
and the habitual autonomy of the Malabar church in favour of 
the supremacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Antioch. The great 
need of the Indian Syrian church to-day is an educated ministry. 

Early evidence of Nestorian missions in China is extant in the 
tablet found in 1625 at Chang'an in the district of Hsi'en-fu, 
province of Shensi. It commemorates " the introduction and 
propagation of the noble law of Tat'sin in the Middle Kingdom," 
and beneath an incised cross sets out in Chinese and Syriac an 
abstract of Christian doctrine and the course of a Syrian mission 
in China beginning with the favourable reception of Olopan, 
who came from Judaea in 636. For two generations the little 
cause prospered, and again after persecutions in 699 and 813. 
Later on a second mission arrived, many churches were built 
and several emperors patronized the faith. This evidence is 
confirmed by (a) the canon of Theodore of Edessa (800) allowing 
metropolitans of China, India and other distant lands to send 
their reports to the catholikos every six years; (b) the edict of 
Wu Tsung destroying Buddhist monasteries and ordering 300 
foreign priests to return to the secular life that the customs of 
the empire might be uniform; (c) two 9th-century Arab travellers, 
one of whom, Ibn Wahhab, discussed the contents of the Bible 
with the emperor; (d) the discovery in 1725 of a Syrian MS. 
containing hymns and a portion of the Old Testament. 

In the loth century the Nestorians introduced Christianity 
into Tartary proper; in '1274 Marco Polo saw two of their 
churches. The legend of Prester John is based on the idea of 
the conversion of a Mongol tribe, the Karith, whose chieftain 
Ung Khan at baptism received the title Malek Juchana (King 
John). And there has lately come to light a MS. of the gth or 
toth century in Sogdianese, an Indo-Iranian language spoken 
in the north-east of Asia, which shows that theNestorianshad trans- 
lated the New Testament into that tongue and had taught the 
natives the alphabet and the doctrine. Their activity may well 
be said to have covered the continent. Their campaign was one 
of deliberate conquest, one of the greatest ever planned by 



NESTORIUS 



409 



Christian missionaries. Marco Polo is witness that there were 
Nestorian churches all along the trade routes from Bagdad to 
Pekin. (A. J. G.) 

4. The Modern Nestorians. The Nestorians or East Syrians 
(Surayi) of Turkey and Persia now inhabit a district bounded 
by Lake Urmia, or Urumia, on the east, stretching westwards 
into Kurdistan, to Mosul on the south, and nearly as far as Van 
on the north. They are divided into the Persian Nestorians of 
the plain of Azerbaijan, and the Turkish Nestorians, inhabiting 
chiefly the sanjak of Hakkiari in the vilayet of Van, who are 
subdivided into the Rayat or subject, and the Ashiret or tribal, 
the latter being semi-independent in their mountain fastnesses. 
Forming at once a church and a nation, they own allegiance 
to their hereditary patriarch, Mar Shimun, Catholicus of the 
East, who resides at Qudshanis, a village about 7000 ft. above 
the sea-level, near the Kurdish town of Julamerk. It is only of 
late years, under the influence of the different missions, that 
education, ruined by centuries of persecution, has revived 
amongst the Nestorians; and even now the mountaineers, cut 
off from the outer world, are as a rule destitute of learning, 
and greatly resemble their neighbours, the wild and uncivilized 
Kurds. They are, however, extraordinarily tenacious of their 
ancient customs, and, almost totally isolated from the rest of 
Christendom since the 5th century, they afford an interesting 
study to the eccesiastical student. Their churches are rude 
buildings, dimly lighted and destitute of pictures or images, 
save that of the Cross, which is treated with the deepest venera- 
tion. The qanki, or sanctuary, is divided from the nave, by a 
solid wall, pierced by a single doorway; it contains the altar, or 
madhb'kha (literary, the sacrificing place), and may be entered 
only by persons in holy orders who are fasting. Here is cele- 
brated the Eucharist (Qurbana, or the offering; cf. "Corban"), 
by the priest (qasha), attended by his deacon (shamasha). Vest- 
ments are worn only at the ministration of the sacraments; 
incense is used invariably at the Eucharist and frequently at 
other services. There are three liturgies of the Holy Apostles, 
of Theodore and of Nestorius. The first is quite free from 
Nestorian influence, dates from some remote period, perhaps 
prior to 431, and is certainly the most ancient of those now in 
use in Christendom; the other two, though early, are un- 
doubtedly of later date. The Nestorian canon of Scripture 
seems never to have been fully determined, nor is the sacra- 
mental system rigidly denned. Nestorian writers, however, 
generally reckon the mysteries as seven, i.e. Priesthood, Oil of 
Unction, the Offering of the Body and Blood of Christ, Absolu- 
tion, The Holy Leaven, the Signation of the life-giving Cross. 
The " Holy Leaven " is reputed to be a part of the original 
bread of the first Eucharist, brought by Addai and Mari * and 
maintained ever since in the Church; it is used in the confection 
of the Eucharistic wafers, which are rather thicker than those 
used in the Western Church. Communion is given in both kinds, 
as throughout the East; likewise, confirmation is administered 
directly after baptism. Sacramental confession is enjoined, 
but has recently become obsolete; prayers for the departed 
and invocation of saints form part of the services. The bishops 
are always celibates and are chosen from episcopal families. 
The service-books were wholly in MS. until the press of the 
archbishop of Canterbury's mission at Urmia issued the Takhsa 
(containing the liturgies, baptismal office, &c.) and several other 
liturgical texts. 

The Nestorians commemorate Nestorius as a saint, and invoke 
his aid and that of his companions. They reject the Third 
Oecumenical Council, and though showing the greatest devotion 
to the Blessed Virgin, deny her the title of Theotokos, i.e. the 
mother or bearer of God. Their theological teaching is 
misty and perplexing; their earliest writings contain no 
error, and the hymns of their great St Ephrem, still sung 
in their services, are positively antagonistic to " Nestorianism " ; 
their theology dating from the schism is not so satisfactory. 
They attribute two Kiani, two Qnumi and one Parsopa in 

1 The legendary founders of the Syrian Church. Addai was sup- 
posed to be one of the Seventy of Luke x. I, and Mari his disciple. 



Christ (see J. F. Bethune-Baker's Nestorius and his Teaching). 
To say that the modern Nestorians are not definitely and 
firmly orthodox is perhaps fairer than to charge them with 
being distinctly heretical. 

5. Missions amongst the Nestorians. The peculiar circum- 
stances, both ecclesiastical and temporal, of the Nestorians have 
attracted much attention in western Christendom, and various 
missionary enterprises amongst them have resulted. 

1. The Roman Catholic Missions. In Turkey these consist of the 
Dominican mission, established at Mosul during the i8th century, 
and in Persia of the French Lazarist mission, which sprang out of 
some schools established by a French layman and scientific traveller, 
Eugene Bore', in 1838. At M. Bora's entreaty the Propaganda sent 
the first Lazarist father to Persia in 1840. The chief stations of the 
Lazarists are at Khosrova and Urmia. At the latter place there is 
an orphanage under the superintendence of the Sisters of St Vincent 
de Paul. The work of these missions is to extend and consolidate 
that Catholicized and partly Latinized offshoot of the Nestorians 
known as the Uniat-Chaldean Church (see ante). 

2. The American Presbyterian Mission, established in Persia in 
1834-1835 by the Rey.Justin Perkins and Dr A.Grant, comprises large 
buildings near Urmia, a college and a hospital. The influence of 
this mission does not extend much beyond the Turkish frontier, but 
it is strong in the Persian plains. The original aim was to influence 
the old Nestorian Church rather than to set up a new religious body, 
but the wide difference between Presbyterians and an Oriental Church 
rendered the attempt abortive, and the result of the labours of the 
Americans has been the establishment since 1862 of a Syrian Pro- 
testant community in Persia, with some adherents in Turkey. 

3. The Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission to the Assyrian 
Christians. This Anglican mission was promoted by Archbishop 
Tait, and finally established by Archbishop Benson in 1886. Its 
aim is thus officially defined : " To aid an existing Church, . . . not 
to Anglicanize, . . . not to change any doctrines held by them which 
are not contrary to that faith which the Holy Spirit, speaking 
through the Oecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church of 
Christ, has taught us as necessary to be believed by all Christians, 
but ... to strengthen an ancient Church, at the earnest request 
of the Cathojicos, and with the knowledge and blessing of the 
Catholic patriarch of Antioch, one of the four patriarchs of the 
Holy Orthodox Eastern Church, and occupant of the Apostolic See 
from which the Church of the East revolted at the time of Nestorius." 
This mission has its headquarters at Urmia, with a college for 
candidates for holy orders and a printing-press. Two mission- 
priests reside in Turkey, one at Qudshanis with Mar Shimun, the 
Nestorian Catholicus and Patriarch. The Anglican Church in 
America co-operates with the mission. 

4. The Russian Mission. One of the Nestorian bishops joined 
the Russian Orthodox Church in 1898, and returned the same year 
with a small band of missionaries sent by the Holy Synod of Russia. 
This mission enrolled a very large number of adherents drawn 
from the old Church, the Protestant Nestorians, and the Uniat- 
Chaldeans, but it can hardly be said to have commenced any active 
work, although the Anglican mission withdrew from competition by 
closing its schools in the dioceses occupied by the Russians. 

AUTHORITIES. J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, ii. and iv. ; 
A. J. Maclean and G. F. Browne, The Catholicps of the East and his 
People (London, 1892); G. P. Badger, Nestorians and their Rituals 
(London, 1852) ; M. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans I'empire perse 
(Paris, 1904); W. F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches, 
PP- 477-53 8 (Edinburgh, 1908) ; J. Rendel Harris, Sidelights on New 
Testament Research, Lect. iv. (London, 1908); G. Milne Rae, The 
Syrian Church in India (1892); K. Heussi und H. Mulert, Atlas 
zur Kirchengeschichte, Map III. (Tubingen, 1905); P. Cams, The 
Nestorian Monument (Chicago and London, 1909); E. Gibbon, 
Decline and Fall, ch. xlvii.; J. W. Etheridge, Syrian Churches 
(1846) ; The Liturgy of the Holy Apostles Adai and Mari, Sfc. (London, 
1893) ; Piolet, Les Missions catholiques au XIX" 4 siecle (Paris, vol. i.) ; 
Quarterly Papers and Annual Reports of the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury's Assyrian Mission. (J. A. L. R.) 

NESTORIUS (d. c. 451), Syrian ecclesiastic, patriarch of 
Constantinople from 428 to 431, was a native of Germanicia 
at the foot of Mount Taurus, in Syria. The year of his birth is 
unknown. He received his education at Antioch, probably under 
Theodore of Mopsuestia. As monk in the neighbouring monastery 
of Euprepius, and afterwards as presbyter, he became celebrated 
in the diocese for his asceticism, his orthodoxy and his eloquence; 
hostile critics, such as the church historian Socrates, allege that 
his arrogance and vanity were hardly less conspicuous. On the 
death of Sisinnius, patriarch of Constantinople (December 427), 
Theodosius II., perplexed by the various claims of the local 
clergy, appointed the disinguished preacher of Antioch to the 
vacant see. The consecration took place on the loth of April 
428, and then, almost immediately afterwards, in what is 



NESTORIUS 



said to have been his first patriarchal sermon, Nestorius exhorted 
the emperor in the famous words " Purge me, O Caesar, the 
earth of heretics, and I in return will give thee heaven. Stand 
by me in putting down the heretics and I will stand by thee in 
putting down the Persians." In the spirit of this utterance, 
steps were taken within a few days by the new prelate to suppress 
the assemblies of the Arians; these, by a bold stroke of policy, 
anticipated his action by themselves setting fire to their meeting- 
house, Nestorius being forthwith nicknamed " the incendiary." 
The Novatiansand the Quartodecimans were the next objects 
of his orthodox zeal a zeal which in the case of the former at 
least was reinforced, according to Socrates, by his envy of their 
bishop; and it led to serious and fatal disturbances at Sardis 
and Miletus. The toleration the followers of Macedonius had 
long enjoyed was also rudely broken, the recently settled Pela- 
gians alone finding any respite. While these repressive measures 
were being carried on outside the pale of the catholic church, 
equal care was taken to instruct the faithful in such points of 
orthodoxy as their spiritual head conceived to be the most im- 
portant or the most in danger. One of these was that involved 
in the practice, now grown almost universal, of bestowing the 
epithet GeoroKos, " Mother of God," upon Mary the mother of 
Jesus. In the school of Antioch the impropriety of the expres- 
sion had long before been pointed out, by Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
among others, in terms precisely similar to those afterwards 
attributed to Nestorius. From Antioch Nestorius had brought 
along with him to Constantinople a co-presbyter named Anas- 
tasius, who enjoyed his confidence and is called by Theophanes 
his " syncellus." This Anastasius, in a pulpit oration which the 
patriarch himself is said to have prepared for him, caused great 
scandal to the partisans of the Marian cultus then beginning by 
saying, " Let no one call Mary the mother of God, for Mary was 
a human being; and that God should be born of a human being 
is impossible." The opposition, which was led by one Eusebius, 
a " scholasticus " or pleader who afterwards became bishop of 
Dorylaeum, chose to construe this utterance as a denial of the 
divinity of Christ, and so violent did the dispute upon it become 
that Nestorius judged it necessary to silence the remonstrants 
by force. The situation went from bad to worse, and the dispute 
not only grew in intensity but reached the outer world. 

Matters were soon ripe for foreign intervention, and the 
notorious Cyril (q.v.) of Alexandria, in whom the antagonism 
between the Alexandrian and Antiochene schools of theology, 1 
as well as the jealousy between the patriarchate of St Mark 
and that of Constantinople, found a determined and unscrupulous 
exponent, did not fail to make use of the opportunity. He 
stirred up his own clergy, he wrote to encourage the dissidents 
at Constantinople, he addressed himself to the sister and wife of 
the emperor (Theodosius himself being known to be still favour- 
able to Nestorius), and he beggared the clergy of his own diocese 
to find bribes for the officials of the court. 2 He also sent to Rome 
a careful selection of Nestorius's sayings and sermons. Nestorius 
himself, on the other hand, having occasion to write to Pope 
Celestine I. about the Pelagians (whom he was not inclined to 
regard as heretical) , gave from his own point of view an account 
of the disputes which had recently arisen within his patriarchate.* 
While ordinarily Rome might have been expected to hold the 
balance between the contrasted schools of thought, as Leo was 
able later to do, it is not surprising that this implied appeal proved 
unsuccessful, for Celestine naturally resented any questioning 
of the Roman decision concerning the Pelagians and was jealous 
of the growing power of the upstart see of the Nova Roma of the 
East. He was not slow to use the opportunity of gaining what 
was at once an official triumph and a personal satisfaction. In 
a synod which met in 430, he decided in favour of the epithet 

1 At Alexandria the mystic and allegorical tendency prevailed, 
at Antioch the practical and historical, and these tendencies showed 
themselves in different methods of study, exegesis and presentation 

of doctrine. 

2 Letters of the archdeacon Epiphanius to the patriarch Maxi- 
mianus (Migne, Pair. Gr. Ixxxiv. 826). 

The letter is given in F. Loofs, Nestoriana 166-168, partly trans- 
lated in J. F. Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and Ms Teaching, p. l6seq. 



>for6nos, and bade Nestorius retract his erroneous teaching, on 
pain of instant excommunication, at the same time entrusting 
the execution of this decision to the patriarch of Alexandria. 
On hearing from Rome, Cyril at once held a synod and drew up 
a doctrinal formula for Nestorius to sign, and also twelve ana- 
themas covering the various points of the Nestorian dogmatic. 
Nestorius, instead of yielding to the combined pressure of his 
two great rivals, merely replied by a counter excommunication. 

In this situation of affairs the demand for a general council 
became irresistible, and accordingly Theodosius and Valentinian 
III. issued letters summoning the metropolitans of the catholic 
church to meet at Ephesus at Whitsuntide 431, each bringing 
with him some able suffragans. Nestorius, with sixteen bishops 
and a large folio wing of armed men, was among the first to arrive; 
soon afterwards came Cyril with fifty bishops. Juvenal of Jeru- 
salem and Flavian of Thessalonica were some days late. It 
was then announced that John of Antioch had been delayed on 
his journey and could not appear for some days; he, however, 
is stated to have written politely requesting that the opening 
of the synod should not be delayed on his account. Cyril and 
his friends accordingly assembled in the church of the Theotokos 
on the 22nd of June, and summoned Nestorius before them to 
give an account of his doctrines. The reply they received was 
that he would appear as soon as all the bishops were assembled ; 
and at the same time the imperial commissioner, Candidian, 
presented himself in person and formally protested against the 
opening of the synod. Notwithstanding these circumstances, 
Cyril and the one hundred and fifty-nine bishops who were with 
him proceeded to read the imperial letter of convocation, and 
afterwards the letters which had passed between Nestorius and 
his adversary. Almost immediately the entire assembly with 
one voice cried out anathema on the impious Nestorius and his 
impious doctrines, and after various extracts from the writings 
of church fathers had been read the decree of his exclusion from 
the episcopate and from all priestly communion was solemnly 
read and signed by all present, whose numbers had by this time 
swelled to one hundred and ninety-eight. The accused and his 
friends never had a hearing. As Nestorius himself said, " the 
Council was Cyril "; it simply registered the Alexandrian 
patriarch's views. 

When the decision was known the populace, who had been 
eagerly waiting from early morning till night to hear the result, 
accompanied the members with torches and censers to their 
lodgings, and there was a general illumination of the city. A 
few days afterwards (June 26th or 27th) John of Antioch arrived, 
and efforts were made by both parties to gain his ear; whether 
inclined or not to the cause of his former co-presbyter, he was 
naturally excited by the precipitancy with which Cyril had acted, 
and at a conciliabulum of forty-three bishops held in his lodgings 
shortly after his arrival he was induced by Candidian, the friend 
of Nestorius, to depose the bishops of Alexandria and Ephesus 
on the spot. The efforts, however, to give effect to this act on the 
following Sunday were frustrated by the zeal of J;he Ephesian 
mob. Meanwhile a letter was received from the emperor declar- 
ing invalid the session at which Nestorius had been deposed 
unheard; numerous sessions and counter-sessions were after- 
wards held, the conflicting parties at the same time exerting them- 
selves to the utmost to secure an effective superiority at court. 
In the end Theodosius decided to confirm the depositions which 
had been pronounced on both sides, and Cyril and Memnon 
as well as Nestorius were by his orders laid under arrest. Re- 
presentatives from each side were now summoned before him 
to Chalcedon, and at last, yielding to the sense of the evident 
majority, he gave a decision in favour of the " orthodox," and 
the council of Ephesus was dissolved. Maximian, one of the 
Constantinopolitan clergy, a native of Rome, was promoted to 
the vacant see, and Nestorius was henceforward represented 
in the city of his former patriarchate only by one small con- 
gregation, which also a short time afterwards became extinct. 
The commotion which had been thus raised did not so easily 
subside in the more eastern section of the church; the Antio- 
chenes continued to maintain for a considerable time an attitude 






NESTORIUS 



411 



of antagonism towards Cyril and his creed, and were not pacified 
until an understanding was reached in 433 on the basis of anew 
formula involving some material concessions by him. The union 
even then met with resistance from a number of bishops, who, 
rather than accede to it, submitted to deposition and expulsion 
from their sees; and it was not until these had all died out that, 
as the result of stringent imperial edicts, Nestorianism may be 
said to have become extinct throughout the Roman empire. 
Their school at Edessa was closed by Zeno in 489. As for 
Nestorius himself, immediately after his deposition he withdrew 
into private life in his old monastery of Euprepius, Antioch, 
until 435, when the emperor ordered his banishment to Petra in 
Arabia. A second decree, it would seem, sent him to Oasis, 
probably the city of the Great Oasis, in Upper Egypt, where he 
was still living in 439, at the time when Socrates wrote his 
Church History. He was taken prisoner by the Blemmyes, a 
nomad tribe that gave much trouble to the empire in Africa, and 
when they set him free in the Thebaid near Panopolis (Akhmim) 
c. 450, they exposed him to further persecution from Schenute 
the great hero of the Egyptian monks. There is some evidence 
that he was summoned to the Council of Chalcedon, 1 though 
he could not attend it, and the concluding portion of his book 
known as The Bazaar of Heraclides not only gives a full account 
of the " Robber Synod " of Ephesus 449, but knows that Theo- 
dosius is dead (July 450) and seems aware of the proceedings of 
Chalcedon and the flight of Dioscurus the unscrupulous successor 
of Cyril at Alexandria. Nestorius was already old and ailing 
and must have died very soon after. 

The Nestorian Heresy. What is technically and conventionally 
meant in dogmatic theology by " the Nestorian heresy " must now 
be noticed. As Eutychianism is the doctrine that the God-man 
has only one nature, so Nestorianism is the doctrine that He has 
two complete persons. So far as Nestorius himself is concerned, 
however, it is certain that he nev*r formulated any such doctrine; 2 
nor does any recorded utterance of his, however casual, come so 
near the heresy called by his name as Cyril's deliberately framed 
third anathema (that regarding the " physical union " of the two 
hypostases or natures) approaches Eutychianism. It must be 
remembered that Nestorius was as orthodox at all events as 
Athanasius on the subject of the incarnation, and sincerely, even 
fanatically, held every article of the Nicene creed. Hefele himself, 
one of the most learned and acute of Cyril's partisans, is compelled 
to admit that Nestorius accurately held the duality of the two 
natures and the integrity of each, was equally explicitly opposed 
to Arianism and Apollinarianism, and was perfectly correct in his 
assertion that the Godhead can neither be born nor suffer; all that 
he can allege against him is that " the fear of the communicatio 
idiomatum pursued him like a spectre." But in reality the question 
raised by Nestorius was not one as to the communicatio idiomatum, 
but simply as to the proprieties of language. " I cannot speak of 
God," he said, " as being two or three months old," a remark which 
was twisted to his disadvantage. He did not refuse to speak of 
Mary as being the mother of Christ or as being the mother of 
Emmanuel, but he thought it improper to speak of her as the mother 
of God, and Leo in the Letter to Flavian which was endorsed at 
Chalcedon uses the term " Mother of the Lord " which was exactly 
what Nestorius wished. And there is at least this to be said for 
him that even the most zealous desire to frustrate the Arian had 
never made it a part of orthodoxy to speak of David as BeoT&Twp 
or of James as d5e\<#>69eos. The secret of the enthusiasm of the 
masses for the analogous expression Theotokos is to be sought not 
so much in the Nicene doctrine of the incarnation as in the recent 
growth in the popular mind of notions as to the dignity of the Virgin 
Mary, which were entirely unheard of (except in heretical circles) 
for nearly three centuries of the Christian era. That the Virgin 
should be given a title that was quasi-divine mattered little. The 
danger was that under cover of such a title an unhistorical con- 
ception of the facts of the Gospel should grow up, and a false doctrine 
of the relations between the human and the Divine be encouraged, 
and this was to Nestorius a double danger that needed to be ex- 
posed. He was thus forced into the position of one who brings 
technical objections against a popular term. 

The fact that Nestorius was trained at Antioch and inherited the 
Antiochene zeal for exact biblical exegesis and insistence upon the 
recognition of the full manhood of Christ, is of the first importance 
in understanding his position. From the days of Ignatius, down 
through Paul of Samosata and Lucian to the great controversies 
of the sth century which began with the theories of Apollinarius, 
the theologians of Antioch started from the one sure fact, that 

1 Coptic Life of Dioscurus (Rev. gyptologique, 1880-1883). 

2 J. F. Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and his Teaching, ch. vi. 



Christ lived on earth the life of man, and without questioning the 
equally genuine Divine element laid stress on this genuine human 
consciousness. There is no reason to suppose that Nestorius in- 
tended to introduce any innovations in doctrine, and in any estimate 
of him his strong religious interest and his fervent pastoral spirit 
must have due weight. He was a great extempore preacher and 
exposed to the peril of the unconsidered " telling " phrase. That 
a man of such conspicuous ability, who impressed himself at the 
outset on the people of Constantinople as an uncompromising 
opponent of heresy should within a few short years be an excom- 
municated fugitive, sacrificed to save the face of Cyril and the 
Alexandrians, is indeed, as Duchesne says, a tragedy. No suc- 
cessor of Chrysostom was likely to receive much good-will from the 
nephew and successor of Theophilus of Alexandria. 

It is only within recent years that an attempt has been made to 
judge Nestorius from some other evidence than that afforded by 
the accusations of Cyril and the inferences drawn therefrom. This 
other evidence consists partly of letters from Nestorius, preserved 
among the works of those to whom they were written, some sermons 
collected in a Latin translation by Marius Mercator, an African 
merchant who was doing business m Constantinople at the time of 
the dispute, and other material gathered from Syriac manuscripts. 
Since the helpful collection of Nestoriana published by Dr F. Loofs 
in 1905 there has also come to our knowledge the most valuable 
evidence of all, Nestorius's own account of the whole difficulty, 
viz. The Bazaar * of Heraclides of Damascus. This pseudonym served 
to protect the book against the fate that overtook the writings of 
heretics, and in a Syriac version it was preserved in the Euphrates 
valley where the followers of Nestorius settled. Ebed Jesu in the 
I4th century mentions it together with Letters and Homuies, as well 
as the Tragedy, or a Letters to Cosmos, the Theopaschites (of which 
some fragments are still extant) and the Liturgy, which is still used 
by the Nestorian Church. The discovery of The Bazaar, which is 
the Apologia of Nestorius, was made public by Dr H. Goussen 
(though members of the Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission to the 
Assyrian Christians had previously been acquainted with the book). 
The text has been edited by P. Paul Bedjan (Leipzig, 1910) and a 
French translation has been made by M. I'abb6 F. Nau. A repre- 
sentative selection of extracts has been given to English readers in 
J. F. Bethune-Baker's Nestorius and his Teaching (Cambridge, 
1908), chapter ii. of which describes the MS. and its accounts. 
Much of the argument is thrown into the form of a dialogue between 
(l) Nestorius and an imaginary opponent Superianus, (2) Nestorius 
and Cyril. The book reveals a strong personality and helps us to 
know the man and his teaching, even though we have to gather his 
own views largely from his criticism of his antagonists. He is 
throughout more concerned for the wrong done to the faith at 
Ephesus than to himself, saying that if he held the views attributed 
to him by Cyril he would be the first to condemn himself without 
mercy. All through the years of conflict he had " but one end in 
view, that no one should call the Word of God a creature, or the 
Manhood which was assumed incomplete." In his letters to Celestine 
he had laid stress on the point that the teaching he attacked was 
derogatory to the Godhead and so he called its champions Arians. 
" If the Godhead of the Son had its origin in the womb of the Virgin 
it was not Godhead as the Father's, and He who was born could 
not be homoousios with God, and that was what the Arians denied 
Him to be." It is thus increasingly difficult to believe that Nestorius 
was a " Nestorian." Pere J. Mah6 has shown (Revue d'Inst. eccUs. 
July, 1906) that in spite of notable differences of terminology and 
form the chronologies of Antioch and Alexandria were in essence 
the same. Personal rather than doctrinal reasons had by far the 
larger part in determining the fate of Nestorius, who was sacrificed 
to the agreement between the two great schools. This view is 
confirmed by the evidence of the Synodicon Orientale (the collection 
of the canons of Nestorian Councils and Synods), which shows that 
the Great Syriac Church built up by the adherents of Nestorius 
and ever memorable for its zeal in carrying the Gospel into 
Central Asia, China and India cannot, from its inception, be rightly 
described as other than orthodox. The " attenuated " (i.e. un- 
" Nestorian ") form which some historians have noted in the 
early centuries of Persian Nestorianism was really there from the 
beginning. The Nestorian Church, following its leader, formally 
recognizes the Letter of Leo to Flavian and the decrees of the 
Council of Chalcedon. " When I came," said Nestorius (Baz. Herac.), 
" upon that exposition and read it, I gave thanks to God that the 
Church of Rome was rightly and blamelessly making confession, 
even though they happened to be against me personally." His aim, 
lie tells us, had been to maintain the distinct continuance of the two 
natures of Christ when united through the Incarnation into one 
Person. " In the Person the natures use their properties mutually. 
. . . The manhood is the person of the Godhead and the Godhead 
is the person of the manhood." The ultimate union of these two 
natures appears to lie in the will " For there was one and the same 
will and mind in the union of the natures, so that both should will 
or not will exactly the same things. The natures have, moreover, a 



1 Syriac, tegurta, lit. " merchandise. " The Greek word may have 
been tn*t>pu>v. Nothing is certainly known of any such Heraclides. 



412 



NESZLER NET 



mutual will, since the person of this is the person of that, and the 
person of that the person of this." The manner in which this 
union is realized is thus stated by Nestorius: "The Word also 
passed through Blessed Mary inasmuch as He did not receive a 
beginning by birth from her, as is the case with the body which was 
born of her. For this reason I said that God the Word passed and 
not was born, because He did not receive a beginning from her. 
But the two natures being united are one Christ. And He who 
was born of the Father as to the Divinity, and from the Holy Virgin 
as to the humanity is and is styled one; for of the two natures 
there was a union." It may truly be said that the ideas for which 
Nestorius and the Antiochene school strove " won the day as regards 
the doctrinal definitions of the church. The manhood of Christ was 
safeguarded, as distinct from the Godhead: the union was left an 
ineffable mystery." 

AUTHORITIES. On Nestorius, in addition to the modern literature 
cited in the article, and the standard histories of dogma (A. Harnack, 
F. Loofs, R. L. Ottley's Doctrine of the Incarnation, &c.) see R. 
Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Bd. ii. 27 (Leipzig, 1910), 
L. Duchesne, Histoire ancienne de I'eglise, vol. iii. chs. x. xi. (Paris, 
1910). (J-S. BL.; A. J. G.) 

NESZLER, VICTOR (1841-1890), German musical composer, 
was born on the 28th of January 1841 at Baldenheim, near 
Schlettstadt. At Strassburg he began his university career 
with the study of theology, but he concluded it with the pro- 
duction of a light opera entitled Fleurelte (1864). To complete 
his knowledge of music Neszler went to Leipzig to study under 
Hauptmann. His opera Der Trompeter von Sackingen, based 
on Scheffel's poem, was composed and performed in 1884. 
Besides a number of other operas, Neszler wrote many songs 
and choral works; but it is with the Trompeter von Sackingen 
that his name is associated. He died at Strassburg on the a8th of 
May 1890. In 1895 a monument to him by Marzolff was erected 
there. 

NET, 1 a fabric of thread, cord or wire, the intersections of 
which are knotted so as to form a mesh. The art of netting is 
intimately related to weaving, knitting, plaiting and lace-making, 
from all of which, however, it is distinguished by the knotting 
of the intersections of the cord. It is one of the most ancient 
and universal of arts, having been practised among the most 
primitive tribes, to whom the net is of great importance in hunting 
and fishing. 

Net-making, as a modern industry, is principally concerned 
with the manufacture of the numerous forms of net used in 
fisheries, but netting is also largely employed for many other 
purposes, as for catching birds, for the temporary division of 
fields, for protecting fruit in gardens, for screens and other 
furniture purposes, for ladies' hair, bags, appliances used in 
various games, &c. Since the early part of the igth century 
numerous machines have been invented for netting, and several 
of these have attained commercial success. Fishing nets were 
formerly made principally from hemp fibre technically called 
" twine "; but since the adaptation of machinery to net-making 
cotton has been increasingly used, such nets being more flexible 
and lighter, and more easily handled and stowed. 

The forms of fishing nets vary according to the manner in 
which they are intended to act. This is either by entangling the 
fish in their complicated folds, as in the trammel; receiving 
them into pockets, as in the trawl; suspending them by the body 
in the meshes, as in the mackerel-net; imprisoning them within 
their labyrinth-like chambers, as in the stake-net; or drawing 
them to shore, as in the seine. The parts of a net are the head or 
upper margin, along which the corks are strung upon a rope 
called the head-rope; the foot is the opposite or lower margin, 
which carries the foot-rope, on which in many cases leaden 
plummets are made fast. The meshes are the squares composing 
the net. The width of a net is expressed by the term " over "; 
e.g. a day-net is three fathoms long and one over or wide. The 
lever is the first row of a net. There are also accrues, false 
meshes or quarterings, which are loops inserted in any given 
row, by which the number of meshes is increased. To bread or 

'This is a common Teut. word, of which the origin is unknown; 
it is not to be connected with " knit " or " knot." The term " net," 



i.e. remaining after all deductions, charges, &c., have been made, as 
in "net profit," is a variant of " neat," tidy, clean, Lat. nttidus, 



j.i' 
in 
shining. 



breathe a net is to make a net. Dead netting is a piece without 
either accrues or stole (stolen) meshes, which last means that a 
mesh is taken away by netting into two ineshe$ of the preceding 
row at once. 

Hand-Netting. The tools used in hand-netting are the needle, 
an instrument for holding and netting the material; it is made with 
an eye E, a tongue T, and a fork F (fig. i). The 
twine is wound on it by being passed alternately 
between the fork and round the tongue, so that 
the turns of the string lie parallel to the length of the 
needle, and are kept on by the tongue and fork. A 
spool or mesh-pin is a piece of round or flat wood 
on which the loops are formed, the perimeter of the 
spool determining the size of the loops. Each loop 
contains two sides of the square mesh; therefore, 
supposing that it be required to make a mesh I in. 
square that is, measuring i in. from knot to knot, 
a spool 2 in. in circumference must be used. 
Large meshes may be formed by giving the twine 
two or more turns round the spool, as occasion 
may require; or the spool may be made flat, and of 
a sufficient width. The method of making the 
hand-knot in nets known as the fisherman's knot 
is more easily acquired by example than described in 
writing. Fig. 2 shows the course of the twine in form- 
ing a single knot. From the last-formed knot the twine _ 
passes over the front of the mesh-pin h, and is caught ' IG ' I- 
behind by the little finger of the left hand, forming the loop 5, 
thence it passes to the front and is caught at d by the left thumb, 
then through the loops 5 and m as indicated, after which the twine 
is released by the thumb and the knot is drawn " taut " or tight. 
Fig. 3 is a bend knot used for 
uniting two ends of twine. a b 

Machine-Netting. In 
1778 a netting-machine was 
patented by William Hor- 
ton, William Ross, Thomas 
Davies and John Golby. 
In 1802 the French govern- 
ment offered a reward of 
10,000 francs to the person 
who should invent an auto- 
matic machine for net- 
making. Jac- 
quard submitted 
a model of a 
machine which 

was brought under the notice of Napoleon I. 
and Carnot, and he was summoned to Paris by 
the emperor who asked " Are you the man 
who pretends to do what God Almighty cannot 
tie a knot in a stretched string?" Jac- 
quard's model, which is incomplete, was de- 
posited in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers; 
it was awarded a prize, and he himself received 
an appointment in the Conservatoire, where he 
perfected his famous attachment to the com- 
mon loom. In the United Kingdom, the first 
to succeed in inventing an efficient machine 
and in establishing the industry of machine net-making was 
James Paterson of Musselburgh. Paterson, originally a cooper, 
served in the army through the Peninsular War, and was discharged 
after the battle of Waterloo. He established a net factory in Mussel- 
burgh about 1820; but the early form of machine 
was imperfect, the knots it formed slipped readily, 
and, there being much prejudice against machine 
nets, the demand was small. Walter Ritchie, 
native of Musselburgh, devised a method for 
forming the ordinary hand-knot on the machine 
nets, and the machine, patented in July 1835, 
became the foundation of an extensive and 
flourishing industry. 

The Paterson machine is very complex. It 
consists of an arrangement of hooks, needles and 
sinkers, one of each being required for every mesh 
in the breadth being made. The needles hold the 
meshes, while the hooks seize the lower part of each and twist it 
into a loop. Through the series of loops so formed a steel wire is 
shot, carrying with it twine for the next range of loops. This twine 
the sinkers successively catch and depress sufficiently to form the 
two sides and loop of the next mesh to be formed. The knot formed 
by threading the loops is now tightened up, the last formed mesh is 
freed from the sinkers and .transferred to the hooks, and the process 
of looping, threading and knotting thus continues. 

Another form of net-loom, working on a principle distinct from 
that of Paterson, was invented and patented in France by Onesiphore 
Pecqueur in 1840, and again in France and in the United King- 
dom in 1849. This machine was improved by many subsequent 



d 




FIG. 2. 




FIG. 3. 



NETHERLANDS 




FIG. 4. 




inventors; especially by Baudouin and Jouannin, patented in the 
United Kingdom in 1861. In this machine separate threads or 

cords running longitudinally for 
each division of the mesh are em- 
ployed (fig. 4). It will be observed 
that the alternate threads a and 
b are differently disposed the a 
series being drawn into simple 
loops over and through which the 
threads of the b series nave to pass. 
On the machine the a series of 
threads are arranged vertically, 
while the b series are placed hori- 
zontally in thin lenticular spools. 
Over the horizontal b series is a 
range of hooks equal in number 
with the threads, and set so that 
they seize the 6 threads, raise 
them, and give them a double 
twist, thus forming a row of open 
loops. The loops are then de- 
pressed, and, seizing the vertical a 
threads, draw them crotchet-like 
through the b loops into loops sufficiently long and open to pass 
right over the spools containing the b threads (fig. 5), after which 
it only remains to tighten the threads and 
the mesh is complete. 

Wire-netting, which is in extensive de- 
mand for garden use, poultry coops, and 
numerous like purposes, is also a twisted 
structure made principally by machine 
power. The industry was mainly founded 
by Charles Barnard in 1844, the first net- 
ting being made by hand on wooden rollers. 
The first machine appeared in 1855, and, 
since that time many devices, generally of extremely complex con- 
struction, have come into use. The wire chiefly used is common 
annealed Bessemer or mild steel (see B. Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture 
and Uses, New York, 1891). 

NETHERLANDS. The geographical features of the countries 
formerly known collectively as the Netherlands or Low Countries 
are dealt with under the modern English names of HOLLAND 
and BELGIUM. Here we are concerned only with their earlier 
history, which is put for convenience under this heading in order 
to separate the account of the period when they formed practically 
a single area for historical purposes from that of the time when 
Holland and Belgium became distinct administrative units. 

The sources of our knowledge of the country down to the 8th 
century are Caesar's De Bella Gallico, iv., the history of Velleius 
Paterculus, ii. 105, the works of Tacitus, the Historia 
P rancorum (i.-iii.) of Gregory of Tours, the Fredegar's 
Chronica (for the last two of which see D. Bouquet's 
Recueil de historiens des Gaules et de la France, 1738- 
1876). The Netherlands first became known to the Romans 
through the campaigns of Julius Caesar. He found the country 
peopled partly by tribes of Gallo-Celtic, partly by tribes of 
Germanic stock, the river Rhine forming roughly the line of 
demarcation between the races. Several of the tribes along the 
borderland, however, were undoubtedly of mixed blood. The 
Gallo-Celtic tribes bore the general appellation of Belgae, and 
among these the Nervii, inhabiting the district between the 
Scheldt and the Sambre were at the date of Caesar's invasion, 
57 B.C., the most warlike and important. To the north of the 
Meuse, and more especially in the low-lying ground enclosed 
between the Waal and the Rhine (insula Batavorum) lived the 
Batavi, a clan of the great Germanic tribe, the Chatti. Beyond 
these were found the Frisians (<?..), a people of German origin, 
who gave their name to the territory between the Rhine and the 
Ems. Of the other tribes the best known are the Caninefates, 
Chauci, Usipetes, Sicambri, Eburones, Menapii, Morini and 
Aduatici. 

Julius Caesar, after a severe struggle with the Nervii and their 
confederates, was successful in bringing the Belgic tribes into 
Their subjection to Rome. Under Augustus, 15 B.C., the 
relations conquered territory was formed into an imperial 
with the province, Gallia Belgica, and the frontier line, the 
Romans. R nmC) was strongly held by a series of fortified camps. 
With regard to the region north of the Rhine we first obtain 
information from the accounts of the campaigns of Nero, Claudius, 



Drusus and Tiberius. The Batavians were first brought under 
Roman rule in the governorship of Drusus, A.D. 13. They were 
not incorporated in the empire, but were ranked as allies, socii 
or auxtiia. Their land became a recruiting ground for the Roman 
armies, and a base for expeditions across the Rhine. The 
Batavians served with fidelity and distinction in all parts of the 
empire, and from the days of Augustus onwards formed a con- 
siderable part of the Praetorian guard. The Frisians struggled 
against Roman over-lordship somewhat longer, and it was not 
until A.D. 47 that they finally submitted to the victorious arms 
of Domitius Corbulo. The Frisian auxiliaries were likewise 
regarded as excellent troops. 

In the confusion of the disputed succession to the imperial 
throne after the death of Nero, the Batavians (A.D. 60-70) under 
the influence of a great leader, known only by his 
Roman name, Claudius Civilis, rose in revolt. Civilis of 'J/t/y/s. 
had seen much service in the Roman armies, and was 
a man of statesmanlike ability. In revenge for his own 
imprisonment, and the death of his brother by order of Nero, 
he took advantage of the disorder in the empire not only 
to stir up his fellow-countrymen to take up arms for independ- 
ence, but to persuade a large number of German and Belgic tribes 
to join forces with them. A narrative of the revolt is given 
in detail by Tacitus. At first success attended Civilis and the 
Romans were driven out of the greater part of the Belgic province. 
Even the great fortress of Castra Vetera (Xanten) was starved 
into submission and the garrison massacred. But dissensions 
arose between the German and Celtic elements of Civilis's follow- 
ing. The Romans, under an able general, Cerealis, took 
advantage of this, and Civilis, beaten in fight, retired to the 
island of the Batavians. But both sides were exhausted, and 
it was arranged that Cerealis and Civilis should meet on a broken 
bridge over the Nabalia (Yssel) to discuss terms of peace. At 
this point the narrative of Tacitus breaks off, but it would appear 
that easy conditions were offered, for the Batavians returned to 
their position of socii, and were henceforth faithful in their steady 
allegiance to Rome. The insula Batavorum, lined with forts, 
became for a long period the bulwark of the empire against the 
inroads of the Germans from the north. 

Of this period scarcely any record remains, but when at the 
end of the 3rd century the Franks (q.v.) began to swarm over the 
Rhine into the Roman lands,' the names of the old 
tribes had disappeared. The peoples within the 
frontier had been transformed into Romanized pro- 
vincials; outside, the various tribes had become merged in the 
common appellation of Frisians. The branch of the Franks 
who were a confederacy, not a people which gradually over- 
spread Gallia Belgica, bore the name of the Salian Franks. 
Nominally they were taken under the protection of the empire, 
hi reality they were its masters and defenders. In the days of 
their great king Hlodwig or Clovis (481-511) they were in 
possession of the whole of the southern and central',Netherlands. 
The strip of coast from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the 
Ems remained, however, in the hands of the free Frisians (<?..), 
in alliance with whom against the Franks were the Saxons (q.v.), 
who, pressing forward from the east, had occupied a portion of 
the districts known later as Gelderland, Overyssel and Drente. 
Saxon was at this period the common title of all the north German 
tribes; there was but little difference between Frisians and 
Saxons either in race or language, and they were closely united 
for some four centuries in common resistance to the encroach- 
ments of the Prankish power. 

The conversion of Clovis and his rude followers to Christianity 
tended gradually to civilize the Franks, and to facilitate the 
fusion which soon took place between them and the 
Gallo-Roman population. It tended also to accentuate 
the enmity to the Franks of the heathen Frisians and 
Saxons. In the south (of the Netherlands) Christianity 
was spread by the labours of devoted missionaries, foremost 
amongst whom were St Amandus, St Bavon and St Eligius, 
and bishoprics were set up at Cambrai, Tournai, Arras, Th6rou- 
anne and Liege. In the north progress was much slower, and 



The 

Franks. 



Spread of 
Christi- 
anity. 



414 



NETHERLANDS 



though a church was erected at Utrecht by Dagobert I. about 
A.D. 630, it was destroyed by the Frisians, who remained obstin- 
ately heathen. The first successful attempt to convert them 
was made, under the powerful protection of Pippin of Heristal, 
by Willebrord, a Northumbrian monk, who became, A.D. 695, 
the first bishop of Utrecht (see UTRECHT). His labours were 
continued with even more striking results by another English- 
man, Winfred, better known as St Boniface, the Apostle of the 
Germans, who suffered martyrdom at Dokkum in A.D. 754 at 
the hands of some heathen Frisians. The complete conversion 
was, however, in the end due rather to the arms of the Carolingian 
kings than to the unaided efforts of the missionaries. Towards 
the end of the century, Charlemagne, himself a Netherlander 
by descent and ancestral possessions, after a severe struggle, 
thoroughly subdued the Frisians and Saxons, and compelled them 
to embrace Christianity. 

In the triple partition of the Carolingian empire at Verdun in 
843, the central portion was assigned to the emperor Lothaire, 
separating the kingdoms of East Francia (the later 
of Lowe? German x) from West Francia (the later France). 
Lorraine. This middle kingdom formed a long strip stretching 
across Europe from the North Sea to Naples, and 
embraced the whole of the later Netherlands with the exception 
of the portion on the left bank of the Scheldt, which river was 
made the boundary of West Francia. On the death of the 
emperor, his son Lothaire II. received the northern part of his 
father's domain, known as Lotharii or Hlutharii Regnum, 
corrupted later into Lotharingia or Lorraine. Lothaire had no 
heir, and in 870 by the treaty of Meerssen his territory was 
divided between the kings of East and West Francia. In 879 
East Francia acquired the whole; from 912 to 924 it formed 
part of West Francia. Finally in 924 Lorraine passed in the 
reign of Henry the Fowler under German (East Frankish) 
overlordship. Henry's son, Otto the Great, owing to the 
disordered state of the country, placed it in 953 in the hands 
of his able brother, Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, for pacification. 
Bruno, who kept for himself the title of archduke, divided 
the territory into the two duchies of Upper and Lower Lorraine. 
Godfrey of Verdun was invested by him with the government 
of Lower Lorraine (Nieder-Lothringen). The history of the 
Netherlands from this time forward with the exception of 
Flanders, which continued to be a fief of the French kings 
is the history of the various feudal states into which the duchy 
of Lower Lorraine was gradually broken up. 

It is a melancholy history, telling of the invasion of the North- 
men, and of the dynastic struggles between the petty feudal 
Growth sovereigns who . carved out counties and lordships 
of the for themselves during the dark centuries which 
feudal followed the fall of the Carolingian empire. It was a 
states. time of oppression and cruelty, and of war and devasta- 
tion, during which the country remained chiefly swamp and 
tangled woodland, with little communication save up and down 
the rivers and along the old Roman roads. Its remoteness from 
the control of the authority of the German and French kings, 
together with its inaccessibility, gave special facilities in Lower 
Lorraine to the growth of a number of practically independent 
feudal states forming a group or system apart. Chief among 
these states were the duchy of Brabant, the counties of Flanders, 
Hainault, Holland, Gelderland, Limburg and Luxemburg, 
and the bishoprics of Utrecht and Liege. For their separate 
local histories and their dynasties, their wars and political 
relations with one another and with neighbouring countries, 
reference must be made to the separate articles FLANDERS, 
HOLLAND, BRABANT, GELDERLAND, LIMBURG, LUXEMBURG, 
UTRECHT, LIEGE. 

During the gth and loth centuries the Netherlands suffered 
cruelly from the attacks of the Northmen, who ravaged the 
The in- shores an,d at times penetrated far inland. In 834 
vasioas Utrecht and Dorestad were sacked, and a few years 
of the later all Holland and Friesland was in their hands. 
""" Year after year the raids went on under a succession of 
leaders Heriold, Roruk, Rolf, Godfrey and far and wide 



there was pillaging, burning, murder and slavery. In 873 Rolf 
seized Walcheren, and became the scourge of the surrounding 
districts. In 880 the invaders took Nijmwegen, erected a 
permanent camp at Elsloo and pushed on to the Rhine. Liege, 
Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne and Bonn fell into their hands. The 
emperor, Charles the Fat, was roused to collect a large army, 
with which he surrounded the main body of the Northmen under 
their leader Godfrey in the camp at Elsloo. But Charles .pre- 
ferred negotiation and bribery to fighting. Godfrey received 
a large sum of money, was confirmed in the possession of Fries- 
land, and on being converted to Christianity in 882, received 
in marriage Gisela, daughter of Lothaire II. Three years later, 
however, Godfrey was murdered, and although the raids of the 
Northmen did not entirely cease for upwards of another century, 
no further attempt was made to establish a permanent dynasty 
in the land. 

At the close of the nth century the system of feudal states 
had been firmly established in the Netherlands under stable 
dynasties hereditary or episcopal, and, despite the 
continual wars between them, civilization had begun to crusades. 
develop, orderly government to be carried on, and the 
general condition of the people to be less hopeless and miserable. 
It was at this time that the voice of Peter the Hermit roused the 
whole of western Europe to enthusiasm by his preaching of the 
first crusade. Nowhere was the call responded to with greater 
zeal than in the Netherlands, and nowhere had the spirit of 
adventure and the stimulus to enterprise, which was one of the 
chief fruits of the crusades, more permanent effects for good. The 
foremost heroes of the first crusade were Netherlanders. Godfrey 
of Bouillon, the leader of the expedition and the first king of 
Jerusalem, was duke of Lower Lorraine, and the names of his 
brothers Baldwin of Edessa and Eustace of Boulogne, and of 
Count Robert II. of Flanders are only less famous. The third 
crusade numbered among its chiefs Floris III. of Holland, Philip of 
Flanders, Otto I. of Gelderland and Henry I. of Brabant. The 
so-called Latin crusade of 1203 placed the imperial crown of 
Constantinople on the head of Baldwin of Flanders. At the siege 
and capture of Damietta (1218) it was the contingent of North- 
Netherlanders (Hollanders and Frisians under Count William I. 
of Holland) who bore the brunt of the fighting and specially 
distinguished themselves. To the Netherlands, as to the rest of 
western Europe, the result of the crusades was in the main 
advantageous. They broke down the intense narrowness of the 
life of those feudal times, enlarged men's conceptions and intro- 
duced new ideas into their minds. They first brought the 
products and arts of the Orient into western Europe; and in the 
Netherlands, by the impulse that they gave to commerce, they 
were one of the primary causes of the rise of the chartered towns. 

Little is known about the Netherland towns before the izth 
century. The earliest charters date from that period. No place 
was reckoned to be a town unless it had received a Rlse ot 
charter from its sovereign or its local lord. The the cities 
charters were of the nature of a treaty between the '" ** 
city and its feudal lord, and they differed much in 
character according to the importance of the place 
and the pressure it was able to put upon its sovereign. The 
extent of the rights which the charter conceded determined 
whether the town was a free town (wye stodt villa franca) 
or a commune (gemeenle communia). In the case of a commune 
the concessions included generally the right of inheritance, 
justice, taxation, use of wood, water, &c. The lord's repre- 
sentative, entitled " justiciary " (schout) of " bailiff " (baljuw), 
presided over the administration of justice and took the command 
of the town levies in war. The gemeenle consisting only of those 
bound by the communal oath for mutual help and defence 
elected their own magistrates. These electors were often a small 
proportion of the whole body of inhabitants: sometimes a few 
influential families alone had the right, and it became hereditary. 
This governing oligarchy was known as " the patricians." The 
magistrates bore the name of scabini (schepenen or 6ckevins), 
and at their head was the seigneurial official the schout or 
baljuw. These schepenen appointed in their turn from the 



NETHERLANDS 



4*5 



citizens to assist them a body of sworn councillors (gezworenen 
or juris), whose presidents, styled " burgomasters," had the 
supervision of the communal finances. Thus grew up a number 
of municipalities practically self-governing republics semi- 
independent feudatories in the feudal state. 

The most powerful and flourishing of all were those of Flanders 
Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. In the i3th century these towns 
Tlle had become the seat of large industrial populations 

Flemish (varying according to different estimates from 100,000 
com- to 200,000 inhabitants), employed upon the weaving 
muaes. o f C i t n ^th Jt s dependent industries, and closely 
bound up by trade interests with England, from whence they 
obtained the wool for their looms. Bruges, at that time connected 
with the sea by the river Zwijn and with Sluis as its port, was 
the central mart and exchange of the world's commerce. In 
these Flemish cities the early oligarchic form of municipal 
government speedily gave way to a democratic. The great mass 
of the townsmen organized in trade gilds weavers, fullers, dyers, 
smiths, leather-workers, brewers, butchers, bakers and others, 
of which by far the most powerful was that of the weavers 
as soon as they became conscious of their strength rebelled against 
the exclusive privileges of the patricians and succeeded in ousting 
them from power. The patricians (hence called leliaerts) relied 
upon the support of the French crown, but the fatal battle of 
Courtrai (1302), in which the handicraftsmen (clauwaerls) laid 
low the chivalry of France, secured the triumph of the democracy. 
The power of the Flemish cities rose to its height during the 
ascendancy of Jacques van Artevelde (1285-1345), the famous 
citizen-statesman of Ghent, but after his downfall the mutual 
jealousies of the cities undermined their strength, and with the 
crushing defeat of Roosebeke (1382) in which Philip van Artevelde 
perished, the political greatness of the municipalities had entered 
upon its decline. 

In Brabant Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Malines(Mechlin) 
and in the episcopal territory of Liege Liege, Huy, Dinant 
Other there was a feebler repetition of the Flemish conditions. 
Nether- Flourishing communities were likewise to be found in 
land Hainault, Namur, Cambrai and the other southern 

districts of the Netherlands, but nowhere else the 

vigorous independence of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, 
nor the splendour of their civic life. In the north also the I3th 
century was rich in municipal charters. Dordrecht, Leiden, 
Haarlem, Delft, Vlaardigen, Rotterdam in Holland, and Middle- 
burg and Zierikzee in Zeeland, repeated with modifications the 
characteristics of the communes of Flanders and Brabant. 
But the growth and development of the northern communal 
movement, though strong and instinct with life, was slower and 
less tempestuous than the Flemish. In the bishopric of Utrecht, 
in Gelderland and Friesland, the privileges accorded to Utrecht, 
Groningen, Zutphen, Stavoren, Leeuwarden followed rather on 
the model of those of the Rhenish " free cities " than of the 
Franco-Flemish commune. In the northern Netherlands gener- 
ally up to the end of the I4th century the towns had no great 
political weight; their importance depended upon their river 
commerce and their markets. Thus at the close of the i4th 
century, despite the constant wars between the feudal sovereigns 
who held sway in the Netherlands, the vigorous municipal life 
had fostered industry and commerce, and had caused Flanders 
in particular to become the richest possession in the world. 

It was precisely at this time that Flanders, and gradually the 
other feudal states of the Netherlands, by marriage, purchase, 

treachery or force, fell under the dominion of the 
n<//aiT house of Burgundy. The foundation of the Burgundian 
dominion. ru l e in the Netherlands was laid by the succession of 

Philip the Bold to the counties of Flanders and Artois 
in 1384 in right of his wife Margaret de Male. In 1404 Antony, 
Philip's second son (killed at Agincourt 1415), became duke 
of Brabant by bequest of his great-aunt Joan. The consolidation 
of the Burgundian power was effected by Philip the Good, 
grandson of Philip the Bold, in his long and successful reign of 48 
years, 1410-1467. He inherited Flanders and Artois, purchased 
the county of Namur (1427) and compelled his cousin Jacqueline, 



munici- 
palities. 



the heiress of Holland, Zeeland, Hainault and Friesland, to 
surrender her possessions to him, 1428. On the death in 1430 of 
his cousin Philip, duke of Brabant, he took possession of Brabant 
and Limburgjthe duchy of Luxemburg he acquired by purchase, 
1443. He made his bastard son David bishop of Utrecht, and 
from 1456 onwards that see continued under Burgundian 
influence. Two other bastards were placed on the episcopal 
throne of Liege, an illegitimate brother on that of Cambrai. 
Philip did not live to see Gelderland and Liege pass definitively 
under his rule; it was reserved for his son, Charles the Bold, 
to crush the independence of Liege (1468) and to incorporate 
Gelderland in his dominions (1473). 

This extension of dominion on the part of the dukes of Bur- 
gundy implied the establishment of a strong monarchical 
authority. They had united under their sway a number 
of provinces with different histories and institutions Ooo( 
and speaking different languages, and their aim was 
to centralize the government. The nobility and clergy were on 
the side of the ducal authority; its opponents were the munici- 
palities, especially those of Flanders. Their strength had been 
seriously weakened by the overthrow of Roosebeke, but Philip 
on his accession found them once more advancing rapidly in 
power and prosperity. He was quite aware that the industrial 
wealth of the great Flemish communes was financially the main- 
stay of his power, but their very prosperity made them the chief 
obstacle to his schemes of unifying into a solid dominion the 
loose aggregate of states over which he was the ruler. On this 
matter Philip would brook no opposition. Bruges was forced 
after strenuous resistance to submit to the loss of its most 
cherished privileges in 1438, and the revolt of Ghent was quenched 
in the " red sea " (as it was styled) of Gavre in 1453. The 
splendour and luxury of the court of Philip surpassed that of 
any contemporary sovereign. A permanent, memorial of it 
remains in the famous Order of the Golden Fleece, which was 
instituted by the duke at Bruges in 1430 on the occasion of his 
marriage with Isabel of Portugal, a descendant of John of Gaunt, 
and was so named from the English wool, the raw material used 
in the Flemish looms, for which Bruges was the chief mart. 
The reign of Philip, though marred by many acts of tyranny 
and harshness, was politically great. Had his successor been as 
prudent and able, he might have made a unified Netherlands 
the nucleus of a mighty middle kingdom, interposing between 
France and Germany, and a revival of that of the Carolingian 
Lothaire. 

Before the accession of Charles, the only son of Philip, two 
steps had been taken of great importance in the direction of 
unification. The first was the appointment of a grand 
council with supreme judicial and financial functions, the Bold 
whose seat was finally fixed at Malines (Mechlin) in 
1473; the other the summoning of deputies of all the provincial 
" states " of the Netherlands to a states-general at Brussels 
in 1465. But Charles, rightly surnamed the Bold or Head- 
strong, did not possess the qualities of a builder of states. Im- 
patient of control and hasty in action, he was no match for his 
crafty and plotting adversary, Louis XL of France. His 
ambition, however, was boundless, and he set himself to realize 
the dream of his father a Burgundian kingdom stretching from 
the North Sea to the Mediterranean. At first all went well with 
him. By his ruthless suppression of revolts at Dinant and Liege 
he made his authority undisputed throughout the Netherlands. 
His campaigns against the French king were conducted with 
success. His creation of a formidable standing army, the first 
of its kind in that age of transition from feudal conditions, gave 
to the Burgundian power all the outward semblance of stability 
and permanence. But Charles, though a brave soldier and good 
military organizer, was neither a capable statesman nor a skilful 
general. He squandered the resources left to him by his father, 
and made himself hateful to all classes of his subjects by his 
exactions and tyranny. When at the very height of power, all 
his schemes of aggrandisement came to sudden ruin through a 
succession of disastrous defeats at the hands of the Swiss at 
Grandson (March 2, 1476), at Morat (June 22, 1476) 



416 



NETHERLANDS 



and at Nancy (January 5, 1477). At Nancy Charles was 
himself among the slain, leaving his only daughter Mary of 
Burgundy, then in her twentieth year, sole jheiress to his 
possessions. 

The catastrophe of Nancy threatened the loosely-knit Bur- 
gundian dominion with dissolution. Louis XI. claimed the 
Mary at reversion of the French fiefs, and seized Burgundy, 
Burgundy Tranche Comte and Artois. But the Netherland 
and Mail- provinces, though not loving the Burgundian dynasty, 
mil/an of j^j no (j es i re to have a French master. Deputies 
Austria. representing Flanders, Brabant, Hainault and Holland 
met at Ghent, where Mary was detained almost as a 
prisoner, and compelled her (February 10, 14.77) to sign the 
" Great Privilege." This charter provided that no war could 
be declared nor marriage concluded by the sovereign, nor taxes 
raised without the assent of the states, that natives were alone 
eligible for high office, and that the national language should be 
used in public documents. The central court of justice at 
Malines was abolished, but the Grand Council was reorganized 
and made thoroughly representative. The Great Privilege was 
supplemented by provincial charters, the Flemish Privilege 
granted (February 10), the Great Privilege of Holland and 
Zeeland (February 17), the Great Privilege of Namur and the 
Joyeuse Entrie of Brabant, both in May, thus largely curtailing 
the sovereign's power of interference with local liberties. On 
these conditions Mary obtained the hearty support of the states 
against France, but her humiliations were not yet at an end; 
two of her privy councillors, accused of traitorous intercourse 
with the enemy, were, despite her entreaties, seized, tried and 
beheaded (April 3). Her marriage four months later to 
Maximilian of Austria was the beginning of the long domination 
of the house of Habsburg. The next fifteen years were for 
Maximilian a stormy and difficult period. The duchess Mary 
died from the effects of a fall from her horse (March 1482), and 
Maximilian became regent (mambourg) for his son. The peace of 
Arras with France (March 1483) freed him to deal with the dis- 
cords in the Netherland provinces, and more especially with the 
turbulent opposition in the Flemish cities. With the submission 
of Ghent (June 1485) the contest was decided in favour of the 

archduke, who in 1494, on his election as emperor, 
Joanna" was a ^' e to na ncl over the country to his son Philip 

in a comparatively tranquil and secure state. Philip, 
surnamed the Fair, was fifteen years of age, and his accession 
was welcomed by the Netherlanders with whom Maximilian had 
never been popular. Gelderland, however, which had revolted 
after Nancy, had Charles of Egmont for its duke, and the two 
bishoprics of Liege and Utrecht were no longer subject to 
Burgundian authority. In 1496 Philip married Joanna of 
Aragon, who in 1500 became heiress apparent to Castile and 
Aragon. That same year she gave birth at Ghent to a son, 
afterwards the emperor Charles V. Philip's reign in the Nether- 
lands was chiefly noteworthy for his efforts for the revival of 
trade with England. On the death of Queen Isabel, Philip and 
Joanna succeeded to the crown of Castile and took up their 
residence in their new kingdom (January 1506). A few months 
later Philip unexpectedly died at Burgos (September 25th). 
His Burgundian lands passed without opposition to his son 
Charles, then six years of age. 

The claim of the emperor Maximilian to be regent during 
the minority of his grandson was recognized by the states-general. 

Maximilian nominated his daughter Margaret, widow 
of Austria. ^ Philibert, duke of Savoy, to act as governor-general, 

and she filled the difficult post for eight years with 
great ability, courage and tact; and when Charles, at the age 
of fifteen assumed the government he found the Netherlands 
thriving and prosperous. In the following year, by the death 
of Ferdinand of Aragon, his maternal grandfather, and the 
incapacity of his mother Joanna, who had become hopelessly 
insane, he succeeded to the crowns of Castile and Aragon, which 
carried with them large possessions in Italy and the dominion 
of the New World of America. In 1519 Maximilian died, and 
the following year his grandson, now the head of the house 



of Austria, was elected emperor. Charles V. had been born and 
brought up in the Netherlands, and retained a strong predilection 
for his native country, but necessarily he had to pass Charles Y 
the larger part of his life, at that great crisis of the 
world's history, in other lands. During his frequent absences 
he entrusted the government of the Netherlands to the tried 
hands of his aunt, Margaret, who retained his confidence until 
her death (November 1530), and secured the affection of all 
Netherlanders. Margaret was assisted by a permanent council 
of regency, and there was a special minister charged with the 
administration of the finances, sometimes under the name of 
superintendent of the finances, sometimes under the title of 
treasurer-general and controller-general. The duties of this 
minister were of special importance, for it was to the Netherlands 
that Charles looked for much of the resources wherewith to 
carry on his many wars. During this time Charles consolidated 
his dominion over the Netherlands. In 1524 he became lord 
of Friesland by purchase, and in 1528 he acquired the tempor- 
alities of Utrecht. He now ruled over seventeen provinces 
i.e. four duchies, Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg and Luxemburg; 
seven counties, Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zeeland, 
Namur and Zutphen; the margraviate of Antwerp; and 
five lordships Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, and 
Groningen with its dependent districts. 

After the death of Margaret, Charles appointed his sister 
Mary, the widowed queen of Hungary, to the regency, and for 
twenty years she retained herpost, until the abdication 
in fact of Charles V. in 1555. She too governed ably, Hungary. 
though in entire subservience to her nephew, but was 
not in such intimate touch with the national peculiarities of 
the Netherlanders as her predecessor. At the time of her 
accession to office Charles changed the form of administration 
by the creation^ of three separate councils, those of State, of 
Finance, and the Privy Council. The regent was president of 
the council of state, of which the knights of the Golden Fleece 
were members. The policy of Charles towards the Netherlands 
was for many years one of studied moderation. He redressed 
many grievances, regulated the administration of justice, 
encouraged commerce, reformed the coinage, but as time went on 
he was compelled to demand larger subsidies and to take severer 
measures against heretical opinions. Mary was forced to impose 
taxation which met with violent resistance, especially in 1 539 
from the stiff-necked town of Ghent. The emperor himself 
was obliged to intervene. On the I4th of February 1540 he 
entered Ghent at the head of a large army and visited the 
city with severe punishment. All its charters were annulled, 
its privileges and those of its gilds swept away, and a heavy 
fine imposed. It was a lesson intended to teach the Netherlanders 
the utter futility of opposition to the will of their lord. The 
struggle, however, with the Protestant princes of Germany not 
only led to continual demands of Charles for men and money 
from his Netherland dominions, but to his determination to 
prevent the spread of Protestant opinions; and a series of 
edicts was passed, the most severe of which (that of 1550) was 
carried out with extreme rigour. Its preamble stated that its 
object was " to exterminate the root and ground of this pest." 
By its enactments, men holding heretical opinions werecondemned 
to the stake, women to be buried alive. Yet despite the efforts 
of the government the Reformation made progress in the land. 
In 1548 Charles laid before the states a scheme for making the 
Netherlands an integral part of the empire under the name of 
the Circle of Burgundy; but the refusal of the German Electors 
to make his only son Philip king of the Romans led him to 
abandon the project, which was never renewed. Already the 
emperor was beginning to feel weary of the heavy burdens 
which the government of so many realms had imposed upon him, 
and in 1 549 he presented Philip to the states of the Netherlands, 
that they might take the oath of allegiance to him, and Philip 
swore to maintain all ancient rights, privileges and customs. 

The abdication of Charles V. took place on the zsth of October 
1555 in the great hall of the palace at Brussels, and Philip II. 
entered upon his long and eventful reign. His external policy 



NETHERLANDS 



Philip It. 



was at first successful. Chiefly through the valour of Lamoral, 
count of Egmont, two great victories were won over the French 

at St Quentin (August 10, 1557) and at Gravelines 

(July 13, 1558), The terms of the treaty of Cateau- 
Cambre'sis (February 1559) were entirely favourable to Philip. 
Internal difficulties, however, confronted him. His proposal 
to impose a tax of i % on real property and of 2 % on movable 
property was rejected by all the larger provinces. As a thorough 
Spaniard who did not even understand the language of his 
Netherland subjects Philip was from the first distrusted and his 
acts regarded with suspicion. He himself never felt at home 
at Brussels, and in August 1559 he set sail for Spain, never again 
to revisit the Netherlands. 

He appointed as regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, a natural 
daughter of Charles V. by a Flemish mother, and like the other 

women of the House a strong and capable ruler, 
o/parma She was nomma lly assisted by the members of the 

three councils the Council of State, the Privy Council 
and the Council of Finance, but in reality all power had been 
placed by Philip in the hands of three confidential councillors 
styled the Consulla Barlaymont, president of the Council 
of Finance, Viglius, president of the Privy Council, and Antony 
Perrenot, bishop of Arras, better known by his later title as 
Cardinal Granvelle. This extremely able man, a Burgundian 
by birth, was the son of one of Charles V.'s most trusted 
councillors, and it was largely to him that the government 
of the Netherlands was confided. Two burning questions at 
the outset confronted Margaret and Granvelle the question 
of the new bishoprics and the question of the presence in the 
Netherlands of a number of Spanish troops. The proposal to 
reorganize the bishoprics of the Netherlands was not a new one, 
but was the carrying out of a long-planned project of Charles V. 
In 1555 there were but three dioceses in the Netherlands those 
of Tournay, Arras and Utrecht, all of unwieldy size and under 
the jurisdiction of foreign metropolitans. It was proposed now 
to establish a more numerous hierarchy, self-contained within 
the limits of Burgundian rule, with three archbishops and fifteen 
diocesans. The primatial see was placed at Malines (Mechlin), 
having under it Antwerp, Hertogenbosch, Roermond, Ghent, 
Bruges, and Ypres constituting the Flemish province; the 
second archbishopric was at Cambray, with Tournay, Arras, St 
Omer, and Namur, the Walloon province; the third at 
Utrecht, with Haarlem, Middleburg, Leeuwarden, Groningen and 
Deventer, the northern (Dutch) province. All these with the 
exception of Cambray and St Omer were within the boundaries 
of the Netherlands. The scheme aroused almost universal 
distrust and opposition. It was believed that its object was 
the introduction of the dreaded form of the Inquisition established 
in Spain, and in any case more systematic and stringent measures 
for the stamping out of heresy. It excited also the animosity 
of the nobles jealous of their privileges, and of the monasteries, 
which were called upon to furnish the revenues for the new sees. 
Granvelle was made first archbishop of Malines, and all the 
odium attaching to the increase of the episcopate was laid at 
his door, though he was in reality opposed to it. The continued 
presence of the Spanish troops caused also great dissatisfaction. 
The Netherlanders detested the Spaniards and everything 
Spanish, and this foreign mercenary force, together with the 
new bishops, was looked upon as part of a general plan for the 
gradual overthrow of their rights and liberties. So loud was the 
outcry that Margaret and Granvelle on their own responsibility 
sent away the Spanish regiments from the country (January 
1561). The most serious difficulty with which Margaret had to 
deal arose from the attitude of the great nobles, and among these 
especially of William (the " Silent ") of Nassau, prince of Orange, 
Lamoral, count of Egmont, and Philip de Montmorency, count 
of Hoorn. These great, magnates, all of them Knights of the 
Fleece and men of peculiar weight and authority in the country, 
were disgusted to find that, though nominally councillors of 
state, their advice was never asked, and that all power was 
placed in the hands of the Consulta. They began to be alarmed 
by the severity with which the edicts against heresy were being 
xix. 14 



carried out, and by the rising indignation among the populace. 
William, Egmont, and Hoorn therefore placed themselves at 
the head of a league of nobles against Granvelle (who had 
become cardinal in 1561) with the object of undermining his 
influence and driving him from power. They resigned their 
positions as councillors of state, and expressed their grievances 
personally to Margaret and by letter to the king in Madrid, 
asking for the dismissal of Granvelle. The duchess, herself 
aggrieved by the dictatorial manners of the cardinal, likewise 
urged upon her brother the necessity of the retirement of the 
unpopular minister. At last Philip unwillingly gave way, and 
he secretly suggested to the cardinal that he should ask per- 
mission from the regent to visit his mother at Besancon. 
Granvelle left Brussels on the I3th of March 1 564, never to return. 
But the king was only temporizing; he had no intention of 
changing his policy. He did but bide his time. 

The Council of Trent had recently brought its long labours 
to a close (December 4, 1563), and Philip resolved to enforce 
its decrees throughout his dominions. He issued an 
order to that effect (August 18, 1564), and it was sent J^rfentfn* 
to the duchess of Parma for publication. The nobles decrees. 
protested, and Egmont was deputed to go to Madrid 
and try to obtain from the king a mitigation of the edicts and 
redress of grievances. Philip was inexorable. The activity of 
the Inquisition was redoubled, and persecution raged throughout 
the Netherlands. Everywhere intense indignation was aroused 
by the cruel tortures and executions. In the presence of the 
rising storm the duchess was bewildered, seeing clearly the folly 
of the policy she was obliged to carry out no less than its difficulty. 
Following the example of William of Orange, Hoorn, Berghen 
and other governors, the magistrates generally declined to enforce 
the edicts, and offered to resign rather than be the instruments 
for burning and maltreating their fellow-countrymen. It was 
at this time that the lesser nobility, foremost among whom were 
Louis of Nassau (brother of William), Philip de Marnix, lord of 
Sainte Aldegonde, and Henry, count of Brederode, 
began to organize resistance, and in 1 566 a confederacy 
was formed, all the members of which signed a docu- 
ment called "The Compromise," by which they bound themselves 
to help and protect one another against persecution, and to 
extirpate the Inquisition from the land. The signatories drew 
up a petition, known as the " Request," which was presented by 
the confederates to the regent (April 5, 1566) in the council 
chamber at Brussels. As they approached, Barlaymont had 
been heard to say to Margaret, " What, Madam, is 
your Highness afraid of these beggars (gueux)?" 
The phrase was seized upon and made a party name, 
and it became the fashion for patriots to wear beggar's garb and 
a medal round the neck, bearing Philip's image on one side and 
a wallet on the other, with two hands crossed, and the legend 
Fiddles au roi jusqu'd la besace. 

William of Orange, Egmont, and Hoorn were alarmed at the 
violent passions that had been aroused, and held aloof at first 
from Brederode and his companions. At their instance, and 
carrying with them instructions from the regent and the council, 
the marquis of Berghen and Hoorn's brother (the lord of Mon- 
tigny) were persuaded to go to Spain and lay before Philip the 
serious character of the crisis. Philip received them courteously, 
but took care that neither of them should return home. Mean- 
while in the Netherlands the sectaries had been making rapid 
headway in spite of the persecution. Open-air conventicles were 
held in all parts of the provinces, and the fierce Calvinist 
preachers raised the religious excitement of their hearers 
to such a pitch that it found vent in a furious outburst c / a s <s ^ 
of iconoclasm. During the month of August bands of 
fanatical rioters in various parts of the country made havoc in 
the churches and religious houses, wrecking the altars, smashing 
the images and pictures, and carrying off the sacred vessels and 
other treasures on which they could lay their hands. These acts 
of wild and sacrilegious destruction reached their climax at 
Antwerp (August 16 and 17), where a small body of rioters 
forced their way into the cathedral and were permitted without 

5 



The 

Beggars. 



NETHERLANDS 



any interference on the part of the magistracy to wreak their 
will upon its spendid and priceless contents. 

The effect of the outbreak was in every way disastrous. The 
regent was alienated from the popular leaders, and was no longer 
disposed to help William of Orange, Egmont, and Hoorn to secure 
a mitigation of religious persecution; and the heart of Philip 
was hardened in its resolve to exterminate heresy in the Nether- 
lands. He dissembled until such time as he could despatch his 
greatest general, the duke of Alva, to Brussels at the head of a 
picked force to crush all opposition. 

William of Orange was not deceived by the specious temporiz- 
ing of the king. He foresaw the coming storm, and he did his 

utmost to induce Egmont, Hoorn and other prominent 
Oran members of the patriotic party to unite with him in 

taking measures for meeting tne approaching danger. 
Egmont and Hoorn refused to do anything that might be con- 
strued into disloyalty; in these circumstances William felt that 
the time had come to provide for his personal safety. He with- 
drew (April 1567) first to his residence at Breda, and then to the 
ancestral seat of his family at Dillenburg in Nassau. 

Margaret of Parma meanwhile, with the aid of a considerable 
body of German mercenaries, had inflicted exemplary punish- 
Puntsh- ment upon the iconoclasts and Calvinist sectaries. 
went of A body of some 2000 men drawn principally from 
the sect- Antwerp were cut to pieces at Austruweel (March 13, 
*** 1567), and their leader John de Marnix, lord of Thou- 

seule, slain. Valenciennes, the chief centre of disturbance in 
the south, was besieged and taken by Philip de Noircarmes, 
governor of Hainault, who inflicted a savage vengeance (April 
1567). The regent therefore represented to her brother that the 
disorders were entirely put down and that the time had come to 
show mercy. But Philip's preparations were now complete, and 
Alva set out from Italy at the head of a force of some 10,000 
veteran troops, Spaniards and Italians, afterwards increased by 
a body of Germans, with which, after marching through Bur- 
gundy, Lorraine and Luxemburg, he reached the Netherlands 
(August 8), and made his entry into Brussels a fortnight 
later. 

The powers conferred on Alva were those of military dictator. 
The title of regent was left to the duchess Margaret, but she 

speedily sent in her resignation, which was accepted 
The (October 6). Before this took place events had been 

of Blood moving fast. On the 9th of September Egmont and 

Hoorn were arrested as they left a council at the duke's 
residence and were confined in the castle of Ghent. At the same 
time Orange's friend, the powerful burgomaster of Antwerp, 
Anthony van Stralen, was seized. The next step of Alva was 
to create a special tribunal which was officially known as the 
" Council of Troubles," but was popularly branded with the name 
of the " Council of Blood," and as such it has passed down to 
history. As a tribunal it had no legal status. The duke himself 
was president and all sentences were submitted to him. Two 
members only, Vargas and del Rio, both Spaniards, had votes. 
A swarm of commissioners ransacked the provinces in search of 
delinquents, and the council sat daily for hours, condemning the 
accused, almost without a hearing, in batches together. The 
executioners were ceaselessly at work with stake, sword and 

gibbet. Crowds of fugitives crossed the frontier to 

see ^ refuge in Germany and England. The prince of 

Orange was publicly declared an outlaw and his 
property confiscated (January 24, 1568). A few weeks later his 
eldest son, Philip William, count of Buren, a student at the 
university of Louvain, was kidnapped and carried off to Madrid. 
William had meanwhile succeeded in raising a force in Germany 
with which his brother Louis invaded Friesland. He gained a 
victory at Heiligerlee (May 23) over a Spanish force under Count 
Aremberg. Aremberg himself was killed, as was Adolphus of 
Nassau, a younger brother of William and Louis. But Alva 
himself took the field, and at Jemmingen (July 21) completely 
annihilated the force of Louis, who himself narrowly escaped 
with his life. One result of the victory of Heiligerlee 
was the determination of Alva that Egmont and Hoorn 



should die before he left Brussels for the campaign in 
Friesland. They were pronounced by the Council of 
Blood to be guilty of high treason (June 2, 1568). 
On the 6th of June they were beheaded before the 
Broodhuis at Brussels. 

A few months after the disaster of Jemmingen, Orange, who 
had now become a Lutheran, himself led a large army into 
Brabant. He was met by Alva with cautious tactics. 
The Spaniards skilfully avoided a battle, and in AJva 
November the invaders were compelled to withdraw ^Jj nip *" 
across the French frontier through lack of resources, 
and were disbanded. Alva was triumphant; but though 
Alva's master had supplied him with an invincible army, he was 
unable to furnish him with the funds to pay for it. Money had 
to be raised by taxation, and at a meeting of the states-general 
(March 20, 1569) the governor-general proposed (ij an immediate 
tax of i% on all property, (2) a tax of 5% on all transfers of 
real estate, (3) a tax of 10% on the sale of all articles of commerce, 
the last two taxes to be granted in perpetuity. Everywhere the 
proposal met with uncompromising resistance. After a pro- 
longed struggle, Alva succeeded in obtaining a subsidy of 
2,000,000 fl. for two years only. All this time the brutal work of 
the Blood Council went on, as did the exodus of thousands upon 
thousands of industrious and well-to-do citizens, and with 
each year the detestation felt for Alva and his rule steadily 
increased. 

All this time William and Louis were indefatigably making 
preparations for a new campaign, and striving by their agents 
to rouse the people to active resistance. The first 
successes were however to be not on land, but on the 
sea. In 1569 William in his capacity as sovereign 
prince of Orange issued letters-of-marque to a number 
of vessels to prey upon the Spanish commerce in the narrow 
seas. These corsairs, for such they were, were known by the 
name of Sea-Beggars (Gueux-de-Mer). Under the command of the 
lord of Lumbres, the lord of Treslong, and William de la Marck 
(lord of Lumey) they spread terror and alarm along the coast, 
seized much plunder, and in revenge for Alva's cruelty com- 
mitted acts of terrible barbarity upon the priests and monks and 
catholic officials, as well as upon the crews of the vessels that fell 
into their hands. Their difficulty lay in the lack of ports in 
which to take refuge. At last by a sudden assault the 
Sea-Beggars seized the town of Brill at the mouth of 
the Maas (April i, 1572). Encouraged by this success 
they next attacked and took Flushing, the port of 
Zeeland, which commanded the approach to Antwerp; and the 
inhabitants were compelled to take the oath to the prince of 
Orange, as stadtholder of the king. They next mastered Delfs- 
haven and Schiedam. These striking successes caused a wave of 
revolt to spread through Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland, jy evoft 
Utrecht and Friesland. The principal towns gave in t n the 
their submission to the prince of Orange, and acknow- northern 
ledged him as their lawful stadtholder. Within three P mvlac "- 
months of the capture of Brill, Amsterdam was the only town in 
Holland in the hands of the Spaniards. 

This revolt of the northern provinces was facilitated by the 
fact that Alva had withdrawn many of the garrisons, and was 
moving to oppose an invasion from the south. Louis 
of Nassau, with a small force raised in France with the 
connivance of Charles IX., made a sudden dash into 
Hainault (May 1572) and captured Valenciennes and 
Mons. Here he was shut in by a superior force of Spaniards, and 
made preparations to defend himself until relieved by the army 
which Orange was collecting on the eastern frontier. On the 
9th of July William crossed the Rhine, and captured Malines, 
Termonde and Oudenarde, and was advancing southwards 
when the news reached him of the massacre of St Bartholomew, 
which deprived him of the promised aid of Coligny and his army 
of 12,000 men. He made an attempt, however, to relieve Mons, 
but his camp at Harmignies was surprised by a night attack, and 
William himself narrowly escaped capture. The next morning 
he retreated, and six days later Mons surrendered. 



NETHERLANDS 



419 



Orange however did not despair, and resolved to throw 
in his lot for good and all with the rebel province of the north. 
Already at his summons the states of Holland had 
met at Dort (July 15) under the presidency of Philip 
his nsi- de Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde, and they had 
deuce at unanimously recognized William as their lawful stadt- 
holder and had voted a large grant of supplies. The 
prince now took up his permanent residence at Delft, and a 
regular government was established, in which he exercised 
almost dictatorial authority. 

Alva was now free to deal with rebellion in the north. Malines, 
which had surrendered to William, was given over for three 
days to the mercy of a brutal soldiery. Then the army under 
Alva's son, Don Frederick of Toledo, marched northwards, 
and the sack of Zutphen and the inhuman butchery of Naarden 
are among the blackest records of history. But the very horrors 
of Don Frederick's advance roused a spirit of indomitable 
resistance in Holland. 

The famous defence of Haarlem, lasting through the winter 
of 1572 to July 1573, cost the besiegers 12,000 lives, and gave 
the insurgent provinces time to breathe. The example 
Haarlem f Haarlem was followed by Alkmaar, and with better 
and success. The assault of the Spaniards was repulsed, 

A/tmaar - the dykes were cut, and Don Frederick, fearing for 
his communications, beat a hasty retreat (August). A few 
weeks later (Oct. n) the fleet of Alva on the Zuyder Zee was 
completely defeated by the Sea-Beggars and its 
draws ' admiral taken prisoner. Disgusted by these reverses, 
from the in bad odour with the king, and with his soldiers 
Netber- mutinying for lack of pay, the governor-general 
resigned. On the i8th of December 1573 Alva, who 
to the end had persisted in his policy of pitiless severity, 
left Brussels, carrying with him the curses of the people over 
whom he had tyrannized for six terrible years of misery and 
oppression. 

Philip sent the grand commander, Don Luis Requesens, 
as governor-general in his place, and after some futile attempts 
Don Luis at negotiation the war went on. The prince of Orange, 
Requesens, who had now formally entered the Calvinist communion, 
governor- was inexorable in laying down three conditions as 
general. indispensable: (i) Freedom of worship and liberty 
to preach the gospel according to the Word of God; (2) the 
restoration and maintenance of all the ancient charters, privileges, 
and liberties of the land; (3) the removal of all Spaniards and 
other foreigners from all posts and employments civil and military. 
In February 1574 the Spaniards by the fall of Middleburg lost 
their last hold upon Walcheren and Zeeland. This triumph was 
however far more than counterbalanced by the complete defeat 
of the army, led by Count Louis of Nassau, at Mookerheide near 
Nijmwegen (i4th March). The gallant Louis and his younger 
brother Henry both lost their lives. This was a grievous blow 
to William, but his courage did not fail. The Spaniards laid 
siege to Leiden, and though stricken down by a fever at Delft 
the prince spared no exertion to save the town. The 
Th ~. sle .f e f dykes were cut, the land flooded, but again and again 
Leiden. a relieving force was baulked in its attempts to reach 
the place, which for more than four months bravely 
defended itself. But when at the very last extremity through 
famine, a tempestuous flood enabled the vessels of Orange 
to reach Leiden, and the investing force was driven to retreat 
(October 3, 1574). This was the turning-point of the first stage 
in the struggle for Dutch independence. In honour of this 
great deliverance, the state of Holland founded the university, 
which was speedily to make the name of Leiden illustrious 
throughout Europe. 

In the spring of 1575 conferences with a view to peace were 
held at Breda, and on their failure Orange, in the face of Spanish 
successes in Zeeland, was forced to seek foreign 
succ ur. He sought at first in vain. The sovereignty 
f Holland and Zeeland was offered to the queen of 
England, but she, though promising secret support, 
declined. The situation was, however, relieved through the 



sudden death of Requesens (March 1576). The stadtholder 
summoned a meeting of the states of Holland and Zeeland to 
Delft, and on the 25th of April an act of federation 
between the two provinces was executed. By this 
compact the prince was invested with all the pre- between 
rogatives belonging to the sovereign. He was made Holland 
commander-in-chief of both the military and naval l"^ fallrf 
forces with supreme authority, and in his hands was 
placed the final appointment to all political and judicial posts 
and to vacant city magistracies. He was required to maintain 
the Protestant reformed religion and to suppress " all religion 
at variance with the gospel." He also had authority to confer 
the protectorate of the federated provinces upon a foreign 
prince. 

In June 1576 the long siege of Zierikzee, the capital of 
Schouwen, ended in its surrender to the Spanish general Mon- 
dragon, after the failure of a gallant attempt by 
Admiral Boisot to break the leaguer, in which he lost e great 
his life. Things looked ill for the patriots, and Zeeland MMay. 
would have been at the mercy of the conqueror had 
not the success been followed by a great mutiny of the Spanish 
and Walloon troops, to whom long arrears of pay were due. 
They chose their leader (eletto), marched into Brabant, and 
established themselves at Alost, where they were joined by 
other bands of mutineers. The principal fortresses of the country 
were in the hands of Spanish garrisons, who refused obedience 
to the council. William seized his opportunity, and with a body 
of picked troops advanced into Flanders, occupied Ghent, and 
entered into negotiations with the leader of the states- 
general at Brussels, for a union of all the provinces on 
the basis of exclusion of foreigners and non-interference 
with religious belief. The overtures were favourably 
received, the council at Brussels was forcibly dissolved, and a 
congress met at Ghent on the loth of October to consider what 
measures must be taken for the pacification of the country. 
In the midst of their deliberations the news arrived that the 
mutineers had marched from Alost on Antwerp, overpowered 
the troops of Champagney, and sacked the town with terrible 
barbarities (Nov. 3). This tragedy, known as " the Spanish 
Fury," silenced all disputes and differences among the repre- 
sentatives of the provinces. A treaty establishing a firm alliance 
between the provinces, represented by the states-general, 
assembled at Brussels on the one part, and on the other by the 
prince of Orange, and the states of Holland and 
Zeeland, was agreed upon and ratified under the title 
of the " Pacification of Ghent." It was received with 
great enthusiasm. The provinces agreed first to eject 
the foreigner, then to meet in states-general and regulate all 
matters of religion and defence. It was stipulated that there 
was to be toleration for both Catholics and Protestants; that the 
Spanish king should be recognized as de jure sovereign, and the 
prince of Orange as governor with full powers in Holland and 
Zeeland. 

Meanwhile Philip had appointed his natural brother, Don 
John of Austria, to be governor-general in the place of Requesens. 
After many delays he reached Luxemburg on the 4th rjoajoha 
of November (the date of the Spanish Fury at Ant- O f Austria 
werp) and notified his arrival to the council of state, become* 
His letter met with a cold reception. On the advice Oovernor- 
of the prince of Orange the states-general refused to 
receive him as governor-general unless he accepted the " Paci- 
fication of Ghent." Negotiations were entered into, but a dead- 
lock ensued. At this crisis the hands of Orange and the patriotic 
party were greatly strengthened by a new compact entitled 
" The Union of Brussels," which was extensively 
signed, especially in the southern Netherlands. This Brussels"" 
document (Jan. 1577) engaged all its signatories to 
help in ejecting the foreign soldiery, in carrying out the 
" Pacification," in recognizing Philip's sovereignty, and at the 
same time in maintaining the charters and constitutions which 
that king on his accession had sworn to observe. The popular 
support given to the Union of Brussels forced Don John to yield. 



t 



420 



NETHERLANDS 



He promised to accept the " Pacification of Ghent," and finally 
an agreement was drawn up, styled the " Perpetual Edict," 
which was signed by Don John (February i2th) and 
" Per j ratified by Philip a few weeks later. The states- 
firffct" general undertook to accept Don John as governor- 
general and to uphold the Catholic religion, while 
Don John, in the name of the king, agreed to carry out the 
provisions of the " Pacification." The authority conferred upon 
Orange as stadtholder by the provinces of Holland and Zeeland 
was thus ratified, but that astute statesman had no confidence 
that Philip intended to observe the treaty any longer than it 
suited his convenience. He therefore refused, with the approval 
of the representatives of these provinces, to allow the publica- 
tion of the " Perpetual Edict " in Holland and Zeeland. As 
events were to prove, he was in the right. 

Don John made his state entry into Brussels on the ist of May, 
but only to find that he had no real authority. " The prince of 
Orange," he informed the king, " has bewitched the 
Brussels, rninds of all men. They keep him informed of every- 
thing, and take no resolution without consulting 
him." In vain the fiery young soldier strove to break loose 
from the shackles which hampered him. He was, to quote the 
words of a contemporary, " like an apprentice defying his 
master." Irritated and alarmed, the governor suddenly left 
Brussels in the month of July with some Walloon troops and 
went to Namur. It was a virtual act of abdication. The eyes 
of all men turned to the prince of Orange. Through his exertions 
the Spanish troops had not only been expelled from Holland 
and Zeeland, but also from the citadels of Antwerp and Ghent, 
which were now in the hands of the patriots. He was invited 
to come to Brussels, and after some hesitation, and not without 
having first obtained the approval of the states of Holland and 
Zeeland, he assented. William made his triumphal entry into 
the capital (September 23), which he had quitted as an outlawed 
fugitive ten years before. In a brief period he was the acclaimed 
leader of the entire Netherland people. 

But it was not to last. The jealousy of Catholic against 
Protestant, of south against north, was too deeply rooted. 
Two distinctive nationalities, Belgian and Dutch, were 
Matthias, already in course of formation, and not even the 
tactful and conciliatory policy of the most consummate 
statesman of his time could unite those whom the whole trend 
of events was year by year putting farther asunder. On the 6th 
of October, at the secret invitation of the Catholic nobles headed 
by the duke of Aerschot, the archduke Matthias, brother of the 
emperor, arrived in Brussels to assume the sovereignty of the 
Netherlands. He was but twenty years of age, and his sudden 
intrusion was as embarrassing to the prince of Orange as to Don 
John. William, however, whose position had been strengthened 
by his nomination to the post of ruwaard of Brabant, determined 
to welcome Matthias and use him for his own purposes. Matthias 
was to be the nominal ruler, he himself with the title of lieutenant- 
general to hold the reins of power. 

But Philip had now become thoroughly alarmed, and he 
despatched Alexander Farnese, son of the duchess of Parma, to 
The Date J* n ^' s unc ^ e Don John with a veteran force of 20,000 
otAajou troops. Strengthened by this powerful reinforcement, 
and John Don John fell upon the patriot army at Gemblours 
Casimir. near Namur on t }je ^tst of January 1578, and with 
scarcely any loss completely routed the Netherlanders. All was 
now terror and confusion. The " malcontent " Catholics now 
turned for help from Matthias to the duke of Anjou, who had 
invaded the Netherlands with a French army and seized Mons. 
At the same time John Casimir, brother of the elector palatine, 
at the invitation of the Calvinist party and with the secret 
financial aid of Queen Elizabeth, entered the country at the head 
of a body of German mercenaries from the east. Never did the 
diplomatic talents of the prince of Orange shine brighter than at 
this difficult crisis. The duke of Anjou at his earnest instigation 
accepted the title of " Defender of the liberties of the Nether- 
lands," and promised, if the provinces would raise an army of 
10,000 foot and 2000 horse, to come to their assistance with a 



like force. At the same time negotiations were successfully 
carried on with John Casimir, with Elizabeth and with Henry of 
Navarre, and their help secured for the national cause. Mean- 
while Don John had aroused the mistrust of his brother, who met 
his urgent appeal for funds with cold silence. Deeply 
hurt at this treatment and disappointed at his failure, n ** h ,,f 

' Don John. 

the governor-general fell ill and died on the ist of 
October. Philip immediately appointed Alexander Farnese to 
the vacant post. In him Orange was to find an adversary 
who was not only a great general but a statesman of insight 
and ability equal to his own. 

Farnese at once set to work with subtle skill to win over to 
the royalist cause the Catholic nobles of the south. The moment 
was propitious, and his efforts met with success. Alexander 
Ghent had fallen into the hands of John Casimir, Farnese 
and under his armed protection a fierce and intolerant governor- 
Calvinism reigned supreme in that important city. * eflerat 
To the " Malcontents " (as the Catholic party was styled) the 
domination of heretical sectaries appeared less tolerable than the 
evils attendant upon alien rule. This feeling was widespread 
throughout the Walloon provinces, and found expres- 
sion in the League of Arras (sth of January 1579). 
By this instrument the deputies of Hainault, Artois 
and Douay formed themselves into a league for the defence of the 
Catholic religion, and, subject to his observance of the political 
stipulations of the Union of Brussels, professed loyal allegiance 
to the king. The Protestant response was not long in coming. 
The Union of Utrecht was signed on the 2pth of January by the 
representatives of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelder- 
land and Zutphen. By it the northern provinces 
bound themselves together "as if they were one 
province " to maintain their rights and liberties " with life-blood 
and goods " against foreign tyranny, and to grant complete 
freedom of worship and of religious opinion throughout the 
confederacy. This famous compact was the work of John of 
Nassau, at that time governor of Gelderland, and did not at first 
commend itself to his brother. William was still struggling to 
carry out that larger scheme of a union of all the seventeen 
provinces, which at the time of the " Pacification of Ghent " 
had seemed a possibility. But his efforts were already doomed 
to certain failure. The die was cast, which decreed that from 
1579 onwards the northern and southern Netherlands were to 
pursue separate destinies. For their later history see HOLLAND 
and BELGIUM. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. General history: For the early authorities 
consult Collections de chroniques Beiges inedites, publ. par ordre du 
gouvernement (89 vols., 1836-1893) ; and Collections des chroniqueurs. 
Trouveres Beiges, publ. par I'Acadfimie de Bruxelles (58 vols., 1868^- 
1870); among later writers, J. P. Arend, Algemeane geschiedenis 
des vaderlands van de vroegste tijden (4 vols., 1840-1883); J. Wage- 
naar, Vaderlandsche hislorie (21 vols., 1749-1759); J. P. Blok, 
A History of the People of the Netherlands (trans, from the Dutch by 
O. Bierstadt and R. Putnam), vols. i. and ii. (1898-1900). For the 
Burgundian period A. B. de Burante, Histoire des dues de Burgogne 
(1364-1477), (13 vols., 1824-1826); L. Vanderkindere, Le Sikcle 
des Artevelde (1879); J. F. Kirk, History ef Charles the Bold, Duke 
of Burgundy (3 vols., 1863-1868). For the Habsburg period to 
J555 Th. Juste, Charles Quint et Marguerite d'Autriche (1858); 
A. Le Glay, Maximilienl. et Marguerite d Autriche (1839) ; A. Henne, 
Histoire du regne de Charles V. en Belgique (10 vols., 1858-1860). 

The Revolt of the Netherlands: Contemporary authorities: 
P. C. Gachard, Correspondance de Philippe II. sur les affaires des 
Pays-Bas (5 vols., 1848-1879); Correspondance de Guillaume le 
taciturne (6 vols., 1847-1857); G. Groen van Prinsterer, Archives 
ou Correspondance inedite de la maison d' Orange, ! s6rie (9 vols., 1841- 
1861) ; Poullet et Plot, Correspondance du cardinal Granvelle (12 vols., 
1879-1899); J. M. B. C. Kervyn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques 
des Pays-Bas et de I'Angleterre sous le regne de Philippe II. (5 vols., 
1882-1886); Collection de memoires sur I'histoire de Belgique au 
X VI; X VII', et X VIII' sticks (47 vols., 1858-1875) (chiefly dealing 
with the period of the Revolt) P. Bor, Oorspronch, begin ende aenwang 
der Nederlandscher oorlogen, beroertcn ende borgelijcke oneenicheyden 
('595); ] Ghysius, Oorsprong en voortgang der nederlandscher 
beroerten (1626) ; Hugo Grotius, Annales et histoire de rebus belgicis 
(1657); P. C. Hooft, Nederlandscher historien, 1555-1587 (1656); 
E. V. Reyd, Voornaenste gheschiedennissen in de Nederlanaen, 1566- 
1601 (1626); A. Carnero, Historia de las guerras civiles que ha avido 
en los estados de Flandres des del anno 1559 hasta el de 1609, y lot 



NETHERSOLE NETTLE 



421 



causasde la, rebelion de los dichos eslados (1625); B. Mendoca, 
Commentaires memorable! des guerres de Flandres et Pays-Bas, avec 
une sommaire description des Pays-Bas 1567-1577 (1591); F. 
Strada, De hello Belgico decades duae (1640-1647); L. Guicciardini, 
Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi (1588). Later works: R. Fruin, 
Het voorspel van den tachtigjariger oorlog (1866) ; J. M. B. C. Kervyn 
de Lettenhove, Les Huguenots et les Gueux 1560-1585 (6 vols., 1883- 
1885) ; Th. Juste, Histoire de la revolution des Pays-Bas sous 
Philippe II., 1555-1577 (4 vols., 1855-1867); W. J. Nuyens, Ge- 
schiedenis der Nederlandsche berverten (2 vols., 1889); E. Marx, 
Studien zur Geschichie des niederldndischen Aufstandes (1902); 
W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Philip II. 1555-1568 (1855) ; 
J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic 1555-1584 (3 vols., 1856) ; 
Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., c. xiii. (1902), and vol. Hi., cc. vi. 
and vii. (1904). (Bibliographies, vol. i. pp. 761-769, vol. iii. pp. 
798-809). (G. E.) 

NETHERSOLE, OLGA (1863- ), English actress, of Spanish 
descent, was born in London, and made her stage d6but at 
Brighton in 1887. From 1888 she played important parts in 
London, at first under John Hare at the Garrick, and in 1894 
took the Court Theatre on her own account. She also toured in 
Australia and America, playing leading parts in modern plays, 
notably Clyde Fitch's Sapho (produced in London in 1902), 
which was strongly objected to in New York. Her powerful 
emotional acting, however, made a great effect in some other 
plays, such as Carmen, in which she again appeared in America 
in 1906. 

NETHINIM, the name given to the Temple assistants in 
ancient Jerusalem. They are mentioned at the return from 
the Exile and particularly enumerated hi Ezra ii. and Neh. vii. 
. The original form of the name was Nethunim, as in the Khetib 
(consonantal reading) of Ezra viii. 17 (cf. Numbers iii. 9), and 
means " given " or " dedicated," i.e. to the temple. The Talmud 
has also the singular form Nathin. In all, 612 Nethinim came 
back from the Exile and were lodged near the " House of the 
Nethinim " at Ophel, towards the east wall of Jerusalem so as to 
be near the Temple, where they served under the Levites and were 
free of all tolls, from which they must have been supported. 
It is mentioned that they had been ordered by David and the 
princes to serve the Levites (Ezra viii. 20). 

Notwithstanding their sacred service, the Nethinim were 
regarded by later Jewish tradition as especially degraded, being 
placed in tables of precedence below bastards (Talm. Jer. Hor. 
iii. 5, Jeb. vii. 5) and hi the Mishna (Jeb. viii. 3) it is stated 
that the prohibition against intermarriage with the Moabites, 
Ammonites, Egyptians and Edomites, though given in the Bible, 
only applied for a certain number of generations and did not 
apply at all to their daughters, but, it is added, " Bastards and 
Nethinim are prohibited (to marry Israelites), and this prohibition 
is perpetual and applies both to males and females." 

To explain this combination of sacred service and exceptional 
degradation, it has been suggested by Joseph Jacobs that the 
Nethinim were the descendants of the Kedishoth, i.e. women 
dedicated to the worship of Astarte and attached to the Temple 
before the Exile. There is evidence of these practices from the 
time of Solomon (i Kings xi. 5) down to Josiah (2 Kings xiii. 4-6) , 
and even as late as Ezekiel (Ezek. xxiii. 36-48), giving rise to 
the command of Deuteronomy xxiii. 17. 

An examination of the name lists given in duplicate in Ezra 
ii. 43-58, Neh. vii. 46-59, together with the additional names in 
the Greek Esdras (v. 29-35), shows that the Nethinim were in 
charge of the rings and hooks connected with the temple service; 
they sheared the sheep offered for sacrifice in the temple and 
poured the libations. Some of them were derived from the wars 
with the Meunim; others from the campaign with Rezin of 
Damascus. One of the names given in i Esdras v. 34, viol 
Sou/Si, ed. Fritzsche, Sou/Sis, ed. Swete, would seem to throw 
light on the puzzling reading D'ID (A.V. " Sabeans," R.V. 
" Drunkards ") of Ezek. xxiii. 42, and if so would directly 
connect the list of the Nethinim with the degraded worship of 
Astarte in the Temple. 

A large majority of the names of the parents mentioned seem 
to be feminine in form or meaning, and suggest that the Nethinim 
could not trace back to any definite paternity; and this is con- 
firmed by the fact that the lists are followed by the enumeration 



of those who could not " show their father's house " (Ezra 
ii. 60; Neh. vii. 62). The Greek versions, as well as Josephus, 
refer to them as Up65ov\oi, which can mean one thing only. 

The Talmudic authorities have an abstract term, Nethinuth, 
indicating the status of a Nathin (Tos. Kidd. v. i) ed. Zucker- 
mandel, p. 341), and corresponding to the abstract Mamziruth, 
" bastardy." The existence of this degraded class up to the 
Exile throws considerable light upon the phraseology of the 
prophets hi referring to idolatry as adultery and the scenes 
connected with it as prostitution. Their continued existence 
as a pariah class after the Exile would be a perpetual reminder 
of the dangers and degradation of the most popular Syrian 
creed. 

These unfortunate creatures had no alternative but to accept 
the provisions made for them out of the Temple treasury, but 
after the fall of the Temple they would naturally disappear 
by intermarriage with similar degraded classes (Mishna Kidd. 
viii. 3). In the Code of Khammurabi 191, 192, they could 
be adopted by outsiders. 

The above explanation of the special degradation of the 
Nethinim, though they were connected with the Temple service, 
seems to be the only way of explaining the Talmudic reference 
to their tabooed position, and is an interesting example of the 
light that can be reflected on Biblical research by the Talmud. 

See Joseph Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Archaeology (1894), 104-122 ; 
W. Ba\idissin,GeschichtedesAlttestamentlichen Priesterthums, 142 sea,. 
This view, however, is not accepted by Cheyne, Encyclopaedia 
Biblica, s.v. (]. JA.) 

NETLEY, a village in the Fareham parliamentary division of 
Hampshire, England, 3 m. S.E. of Southampton on the east 
shore of Southampton Water, and on a branch of the London 
& South Western railway. Here a Cistercian abbey was founded 
in 1237 by Henry III., and its ruins are extensive, including a 
great part of the cruciform church, abbot's house, chapter house 
and domestic buildings. The style is Early English and 
Decorated, and many beautiful details are preserved. The 
gatehouse was transformed into a fort hi the time of Henry VIII. 
Netley Hospital for wounded soldiers (i m. S.E. of the abbey), 
was built hi 1856 after the Crimean War. It is a vast pile giving 
accommodation for upwards of a thousand patients, and is the 
principal military hospital in Great Britain. 

NETSCHER, CASPAR (1630-1684), German portrait and 
genre painter, was born at Heidelberg in 1639. His father died 
when he was two years of age, and his mother, fleeing from 
the dangers of a civil war, carried him to Arnheim, where he was 
adopted by a physician named Tullekens. At first he was 
destined for the profession of his patron, but owing to his great 
aptitude for painting he was placed under an artist named de 
Koster, and, having also studied under Ter Borch, he set out for 
Italy to complete his education there. Marrying, however, at 
Lige, he settled at Bordeaux, and toiled hard to earn a livelihood 
by painting those small cabinet pictures which are now so highly 
valued on account of their exquisite finish. After removing to 
The Hague, he turned his attention to portrait-painting, and in 
this branch of his art was more successful. He was patronized by 
William III., and his earnings soon enabled him to gratify his 
own taste by depicting musical and conversational pieces. It 
was in these that Netscher's genius was fully displayed. The 
choice of these subjects, and the habit of introducing female 
figures, dressed in glossy satins, were imitated from Ter Borch; 
they possess easy yet delicate pencilling, brilliant and correct 
colouring, and pleasing light and shade; but frequently their 
refinement passes into weakness. The painter was gaining both 
fame and wealth when he died prematurely in 1684. His sons 
Constantyn (1668-1722), and Theodorus (1661-1732), were also 
painters after their father's style, but inferior in merit. 

NETTLE (O. Eng. netele, cf. Ger. Nessel), the English equivalent 
of Lat. Urtica, a genus of plants which gives its name to the 
natural order Urticaceae. It contains about thirty species in 
the temperate parts of both east and west hemispheres. They 
are herbs covered with stinging hairs, and with unisexual flowers 
on the same or on different plants. The male flowers consist of a 



422 



NETTLERASH NETZE 



perianth of four greenish segments enclosing as many stamens, 
which latter, when freed from the restraint exercised upon them 
by the perianth-segments while still in the bud, suddenly uncoil 
themselves, and in so doing liberate the pollen. The female 
perianth is similar, but encloses only a single seed-vessel with a 
solitary seed. The stinging hairs consist of a bulbous reservoir 
filled with acrid fluid, prolonged into a long slender tube, the 
extremity of which is finely pointed. By this point the hair 
penetrates the skin and discharges its irritant contents beneath 
the surface. Nettle tops, or the very young shoots of the nettle, 
may be used as a vegetable like spinach; but from the abundance 
of crystals (cystoliths) they contain they are apt to be gritty, 
though esteemed for their antiscorbutic properties, which they 
do not possess in any exceptional degree. The fibre furnished 
by the stems of several species is used for cordage or paper- 
making. Three species of nettle are wild in the British Isles: 
Urtica dioica, the common stinging nettle, which is a hairy 
perennial with staminate and pistillate flowers in distinct plants; 
U. urens, which is annual and, except for the stinging hairs, 
glabrous, and has staminate and pistillate flowers in the same 
panicle; and U. pilulifera (Roman nettle), an annual with the 
pistillate flowers in rounded heads, which occurs in waste places 
in the east of England, chiefly near the sea the more virulent 
of the British species. From their general presence in the neigh- 
bourhood of houses, or in spots where house refuse is deposited, 
it has been suggested that the nettles are not really natives, a 
supposition that to some extent receives countenance from the 
circumstance that the young shoots are very sensitive to frost. 
In any case they follow man in his migrations, and by their 
presence usually indicate a soil rich in nitrogen. The trailing 
subterranean root-stock renders the common nettle somewhat 
difficult of extirpation. 

NETTLERASH, or URTICARIA, a disorder of the skin char- 
acterized by an eruption resembling the effect produced by the 
sting of a nettle, namely, raised red or red and white patches 
occurring in parts or over the whole of the surface of the body 
and attended with great irritation. It may be acute or chronic. 
In the former variety the attack often comes on after indulgence in 
certain articles of diet, particularly various kinds of fruit, shell- 
fish, cheese, pastry, &c., also occasionally from the use of certain 
drugs, such as henbane, copaiba, cubebs, turpentine, &c. There 
is at first considerablefeverishnessandconstitutional disturbance, 
together with sickness and faintness, which either precede or 
accompany the appearance of the rash. The eruption may appear 
on any part of the body, but is most common on the face and 
trunk. The attack may pass off in a few hours, or may last for 
several days, the eruption continuing to come out in successive 
patches. The chronic variety lasts with interruptions for a 
length of time often extending to months or years. This form 
of the disease occurs independently of errors in diet, and is not 
attended with the feverish symptoms characterizing the acute 
attack. As regards treatment, the acute variety generally yields 
quickly to a purgative and the use of some antacid, such as mag- 
nesia or liquor potassae. The local irritation is allayed by 
sponging with a warm alkaline solution (soda, potash or ammonia) , 
or a solution of acetate of lead, and a lotion of ichthyol has 
been found useful. Chronic cases have been known to benefit 
from the administration of creosote or salol. 

NETTLESHIP, HENRY (1830-1893), English classical scholar, 
was born at Kettering on the 5th of May 1839. He was educated 
at Lancing, Durham and Charterhouse schools, and Corpus 
Christi College, Oxford. In 1861 he was elected to a fellowship 
at Lincoln, which he vacated on his marriage in 1870. In 
1868 he became an assistant master at Harrow, but in 1873 
he returned to Oxford, and was elected to a fellowship at Corpus. 
In 1878 he was appointed to succeed Edwin Palmer in the 
professorship of Latin, which post he held till his death at Oxford 
on the loth of July 1893. Nettleship had been from the first 
attracted to the study of Virgil, and a good deal of his time 
was devoted to his favourite poet. After Conington's death 
in 1869, he saw his edition of Virgil through the press, and revised 
and corrected subsequent editions of the work. In 1875 he had 



undertaken to compile a new Latin lexicon for the Clarendon 
Press, but the work proved more than he could accomplish, 
and in 1887 he published some of the results of twelve years' 
labour in a volume entitled Contributions to Latin Lexicography , 
a genuine piece of original work. In conjunction with J. E. 
Sandys, Nettleship revised and edited Seyffert's Dictionary of 
Classical Antiquities, and he contributed to a volume entitled 
Essays on the Endowment of Research an article on " The Present 
Relations between Classical Research and Classical Education 
in England," in which he pointed out the great value of the 
professorial lecture in Germany. In his views on the research 
question he was a follower of Mark Pattison, whose essays he 
edited in 1889 for the Clarendon Press. In Lectures and Essays 
on Subjects connected with Latin Literature and Scholarship, 
Nettleship revised and republished some of his previous publica- 
tions. A second series of these, published in 1895, and edited 
by F. Haverfield, contains a memoir by Mrs M. Nettleship, 
with full bibliography. 

See obituary notices in The Times (iith of July, 1893); Classical 
Review (October, 1893); Oxford Magazine (i8th of October, 1893). 

NETTLESHIP, RICHARD LEWIS (1846-1892), English 
philosopher, youngest brother of Henry Nettleship, was born on 
the 1 7th of December 1846, and educated at Uppingham and 
Balliol College, Oxford, where he held a scholarship. He won 
the Hertford scholarship, the Ireland, the Gaisford Greek verse 
prize, a Craven scholarship and the Arnold prize, but took only 
a second class in Litterae Humaniores. He became fellow and 
tutor of his college and succeeded to the work of T. H. Green, 
whose writings he edited with a memoir (London, 1880). He 
left an unfinished work on Plato, part of which was published 
after his death, together with his lectures on logic and some 
essays. His thought was idealistic and Hegelian. His literary 
style was excellent; but, though he had considerable personal 
influence on his generation at Oxford, a certain nebulousness 
of view prevented his making any permanent contribution to 
philosophy. He was fond of music and outdoor sports, and 
rowed in his college boat. He died on the 25th of August 1892, 
from the effects of exposure on Mont Blanc, and was buried at 
Chamounix. 

NETTLE TREE, the name applied to certain trees of the genus 
Celtis, belonging to the family or natural order Ulmaceae. 
The best-known species have usually obliquely ovate, or lanceo- 
late leaves, serrate at the edge, and marked by three prominent 
nerves. The flowers are inconspicuous, usually hermaphrodite, 
with a 4- or 5-parted perianth, as many stamens, a hairy disk 
and a i -celled ovary with a 2-parted style. The fruit is succulent 
like a little drupe, a character which serves to separate the genus 
alike from the nettles and the elms, to both of which it is allied. 
Celtis australis is a common tree, both wild and planted, through- 
out the Mediterranean region extending to Afghanistan and the 
Himalayas; it is also cultivated in Great Britain. It is a rapidly 
growing tree, from 30 to 40 ft. high, with a remarkably sweet 
fruit, recalling a small black cherry, and was one of the plants 
to which the term " lotus " was applied by Dioscorides and the 
older authors. The wood, which is compact and hard and takes 
a high polish, is used for a variety of purposes. C. occidentalis, 
a North American species, is the hackberry (q.v.). 

NETTUNO, a fishing village of the province of Rome, Italy, 
2 m. E.N.E. of Anzio by rail, and 39 m. S.S.E. of Rome, 36 ft. 
above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 3406 (town), 5072 (commune). 
It has a picturesque castle built by Alexander VI. from the 
designs of Antonio da Sangallo the elder in 1496. It is said to 
have been a Saracen settlement. The picturesque costume 
of the women is now worn only at festivals. To the E. on the 
sandy coast on the way to Astura is a military camp and a range 
for the trial of field artillery. 

NETZE, a river of Germany, having a small portion of its 
upper course in Poland. It is a right-bank tributary of the 
Warthe, and rises in the low-lying lake district, through which 
the Russo-German frontier runs, to the south of Inowrazlaw. 
The frontier crosses Lake Goplo, which is not far from the source 
of the Netze, which on leaving it (in Prussian territory), flows 



NEU-BRANDENBURG NEUCHATEL 



423 



north-west to the Trlonger lake, and continues thereafter in 
the same general direction, but with wide fluctuations, to Nakel. 
Here it joins the Bromberg canal, which gives access to the river 
Brahe and so to the Vistula. The Netze then turns west- 
south-west and waters the moorland (much of which, however, 
has been brought under cultivation) known as the Netzebruch. 
It joins the Warthe at Zantoch, after a course of 273 m. It is 
navigable for 130 m. up to the Bromberg canal and thereafter 
for smaller boats for 40 m. up to Pakosch on the Trlonger lake. 
Its drainage area is 5400 sq. m. From 1772 to 1807 that part 
of Poland which was given to Prussia at the first partition 
was known as the Netze District, as it extended along the 
Netze. It was almost all given back to Russia at the peace 
of Tilsit, but was restored to Prussia in 1815 under the treaty 
of Vienna. 

NEU-BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand 
duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, is situated on a small lake called 
the Tollense See, 58 m. N.W. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1903) 
11,443. It is still partly surrounded with walls, and possesses 
four interesting old Gothic gates, dating from about 1300. The 
principal buildings are the Marienkirche, a Gothic building of 
the I3th century, the Johanniskirche, the town-hall and the 
grand ducal palace. It possesses a bronze statue of Fritz Reuter 
(1893); a monument to Bismarck (1895); another commemorat- 
ing the war of 1870-71 (1895); a small museum of antiquities; 
and an art collection. On the other side of the lake is the grand- 
ducal palace, Belvedere. Iron-founding, machine-making, wool- 
spinning and the making of paper, tobacco and musical instru- 
ments are carried on here, and the trade in wool and agricultural 
products is considerable. The horse fair is also important. 
Neu-Brandenburg was founded in 1248, and has belonged to 
Mecklenburg since 1292. 

See Boll, Chronik der Vordersladt Neubrandenburg (1875). 

NEUBREISACH, a town and fortress of Germany in the 
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Rhine- 
Rhone canal, 12 m. E. from Colmar by the railway to Freiburg- 
im-Breisgau. Pop. (1905 including a garrison of 2300 men) 
3520. It is built in the form of a hectagon, and together with 
Fort Mortier, which lies on an arm of the Rhine opposite, forms 
a place of great strategic strength. It contains an Evangelical 
(garrison) church, a Roman Catholic church and a non-com- 
missioned officers' school. There are electrical works in the 
town. 

Neubreisach was founded by Louis XIV. in 1699 and fortified 
by Vauban, the Neubreisacher canal being constructed to 
transport the necessary materials. In the Franco-German War, 
it was bombarded by the Germans from the 2nd to the loth of 
November 1870, when it capitulated. 

See Wolff, Geschichte des Bombardements von ScUettstadt wid 
Neubreisach (Berlin, 1874); and von Neumann, Die Eroberung von 
ScUettstadt und Neubreisach im Jahre 1870 (Berlin, 1876). 

NEUBUR6, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 
is pleasantly situated on the Danube, 12 m. W. of Ingolstadt, 
on the railway to Neuoffingen. Pop. (1005) 8532. It is a place 
of ancient origin, but is chiefly noteworthy because formerly 
for two centuries it was the capital of the principality of Pfalz- 
Neuburg. Its most important building is the old residence of its 
princes, the handsomest part of which is in the Renaissance style 
of the i6th century. The town also contains an Evangelical 
and seven Roman Catholic churches, a town hall, several 
schools and convents, a theatre, and an historical museum with 
a valuable library. It has electrical works and breweries, while 
fruit and vegetables are cultivated in the neighbourhood, a 
considerable trade in these products being carried on by the 
Danube. 

Neuburg was originally an episcopal see. In the roth century 
it passed to the counts of Scheyern, and through them to Bavaria, 
being ceded to the Rhenish Palatinate at the close of a war in 1 507. 
From 1557 to 1742 it was the capital of a small principality 
ruled by a cadet branch of the family of the elector palatine of the 
Rhine. This principality of Pfalz-Neuburg had an area of about 
1000 sq. m. and about 100,000 inhabitants. In 1742 it was 



united again with the Rhenish Palatinate, with which it passed 
in 1777 to Bavaria. 

See Gremmel, Geschichte des Herzogtums Neuburg (Neuburg, 
1872); and Fuhrer durch die Stadt Neuburg und deren Umgebung 
(Neuburg, 1904). 

NEUCHATEL (Ger. Neuenburg), one of the cantons of western 
Switzerland, on the frontier towards France. It is the only 
Swiss canton that is situated entirely in the Jura, of which it 
occupies the central portion (its loftiest summit is the Mont 
Racine, 4731 ft. in the Tete de Rang range). The canton has 
a total area of 311-8 sq. m.,of which 267-1 sq. m. are reckoned 
" productive " (forests occupying 88-6 sq. m. and vineyards 
4-4 sq. m.). It consists, for the most part, of the longitudinal 
ridges and valleys characteristic of the Jura range, while its 
drainage is very unequally divided between the Thiele or Zihl, 
and the Doubs, which forms part of the north-west boundary 
of the canton, and receives only the streams flowing from the Le 
Locle and La Chaux de Fonds valley. Three regions make up 
the territory. That stretching along the shore of the lake is 
called Le Vignoble (from its vineyards) and extends from about 
1500 ft. to 2300 ft. above the sea-level. An intermediate region 
is named Les Values, for it consists of the two principal valleys 
of the canton( the Val de Ruz, watered by the Seyon, and the Val 
de Travers, watered by the Areuse) which lie to a height of about 
2300 ft. to 3000 ft. above the sea-level. The highest region is 
known as Les Montagues, and is mainly composed of the long 
valley in which stand the industrial centres of La Chaux de 
Fonds (q.v.), and Le Locle (q.v.) to which must be added those 
of La Sagne, Les Fonts and Les Verrieres, the elevation of these 
upland valleys varying from 3000 ft. to 3445 ft. The canton is 
well supplied with railways, the direct line from Bern past 
Kerzers (Chietres), Neuchatel, the Val de Travers and Les 
Verrieres to Pontarlier for Paris passing right through it, while 
La Chaux de Fonds is connected by a line past Le Locle with 
Morteau in France. Other lines join the capital, Neuchatel, 
to La Chaux de Fonds, as well as to Yverdon at the south-west 
extremity of the lake, and to St Blaise at its north-east end, not 
very far from Bienne. 

In 1900 the population numbered 126,279 souls according to 
the federal census (a cantonal census of 1906 makes the figure at 
that date 134,014), of whom 104,551 were French-speaking, 
1 7,629 German-speaking and 3664 Italian-speaking, while 107,291 
were Protestants, 17,731 Romanists or Old Catholics, and 1020 
Jews. There are three " established and state-endowed " 
churches, the National Evangelical (in 1907 a proposal to 
disestablish it was rejected by a huge majority), the Roman 
Catholic, and the Old Catholic (this sect in La Chaux de Fonds 
only), while the pastors of the Free Evangelical church and of 
the Jews (mostly in La Chaux de Fonds) are so far recognized 
as such by the state as to be exempt from military service. 

Besides the capital, Neuchatel (q.v.), the chief towns are La 
Chaux de Fonds (the most populous of all), Le Locle and 
Fleurier (3746), the principal village in the Val de Travers. 

The most valuable mineral product is asphalt, of which there is 
a large and rich deposit in the Val de Travers, belonging to the 
state but worked by an English company. The wine of the 
Vignoble region (both sparkling and still) is plentiful and has a 
good reputation, the red wines of Neuchatel, Boudry and Cor- 
taillod being largely exported, though the petit vin blanc of 
Neuchatel is all but wholly consumed within the canton. 
Absinthe is largely manufactured in the Val de Travers, but 
lace is no longer made there as of old. The well-known manu- 
factory of Suchard's chocolate is at Serrieres, practically a 
suburb of the town of Neuchatel, while in the canton there are 
also cement factories and stone quarries. But the most char- 
acteristic industry is that of watch-making and the making of gold 
watch cases, which is chiefly carried on (since the early i8th 
century) in the highland valleys of La Chaux de Fonds and of 
Le Locle, as well as at Fleurier in the Val de Travers. At 
Couvet, also in the Val de Travers, there is a large factory of 
screws and knitting machines. 

The canton is divided into 6 administrative districts, which 



NEUCHATEL NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF 



4.24 

comprise 63 communes. The cantonal constitution dates in 
its main features from 1858, but has been modified in several 
important respects. The legislature or Grand Consett consists 
of members elected (since 1903) in the proportion of one to every 
1200 (or fraction over 600) of the population, and holds office for 
three years, while since 1906 the principles of proportional repre- 
sentation and minority representation obtain in these elections. 
Since 1906 the executive of 5 members (since 1882) or Conse.il 
d'tat is elected by a popular vote. The 2 members of the federal 
Conseil des tats are named by the Grand Conseil, but the 6 
members of the federal Conseil National are chosen by a popular 
vote. Since 1879, 3000 citizens have the right of " facultative 
referendum " as to all laws and important decrees, while since 
1882 the same number have the right of initiative as to all 
legislative projects, this right as to the partial revision of the 
cantonal constitution dating as far back as 1848, the number in 
the case of a total revision having been raised in 1906 to 5000. 

We first hear of the novum castettum, regalissimam sedem in 
the will (ion) of Rudolf III., the last king of Burgundy, on 
whose death (1032) that kingdom reverted to the empire. About 
1034 the emperor Conrad II. gave this castle to the lord of 
several neighbouring fiefs, his successors establishing themselves 
permanently there in the i2th century and then taking the title 
of " count." In 1288 the reigning count resigned his domains 
to the emperor Rudolf, who gave them to the lord of Chalon-sur- 
Sa6ne, by whom they were restored to the count of Neuchatel on 
his doing homage for them. This act decided the future history 
of Neuchatel, for in 1393 the house of Chalon succeeded to the 
principality of Orange by virtue of a marriage contracted in 1388. 
The counts gradually increased their dominions, so that by 1373 
they held practically all of the present canton, with the exception 
of the lordship of Valangin (the Val de Ruz and Les Montagnes, 
this last region only colonized in the early I4th century), which 
was held by a cadet line of the house till bought in 1592. In 
1395 the first house ended in an heiress, who brought Neuchatel 
to the count of Freiburg im Breisgau. As early as 1290 the 
reigning count had made an alliance with the Swiss Fribourg, in 
1308 with Bern, and about 1324 with Soleure, but it was not till 
1406 that an " everlasting alliance " was made with Bern (later 
in 1495 with Fribourg, and in 1501 with Lucerne). This alliance 
resulted in bringing the county into the Swiss confederation 
four centuries later, while it also led to contingents from Neuchatel 
helping the Confederates from the battle of St Jakob (1444) 
onwards right down into the early iSth century. In 1457, through 
another heiress, the county passed to the house of the marquises 
of Baden-Hochberg, and in 1504 similarly to that of Orleans- 
Longueville (a bastard line of the royal house of France). From 
1512 to 1529 the Swiss occupied it as the count was fighting for 
France and so against them. In 1532 the title of "prince" 
was taken, while by the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the princi- 
pality became sovereign and independent of the empire. In 1530 
(the very year Farel introduced the Reformation at Neuchitel) 
the overlordship enjoyed by the house of Chalon-Orange passed, 
by virtue of a marriage contracted in 1515, to that of Nassau- 
Orange, the direct line of which ended in 1702 in the person of 
William III., king of England. In 1707 the Longueville house 
of Neuchatel also became extinct, and a great struggle arose as 
to the succession. Finally the parliament (states) of Neuchatel 
decided in favour of Frederic I., the first king of Prussia, whose 
mother was the elder paternal aunt of William III., and so heiress 
of the rights (given in 1288) of the house of Chalon, to which the 
fief had reverted on the extinction of the line of the counts of 
Neuchatel. Thus the act of 1288 determined the fate of the 
principality, partly because Frederic I. was a Protestant, while 
the other claimants were Romanists. The nominal rule of the 
Prussian king (for the country enjoyed practical independence) 
lasted till 1857, with a brief interval from 1806 to 1814, when the 
principality was held by Marshal Berthier, by virtue of a grant 
from Napoleon. In 1814 its admission into the Swiss confedera- 
tion was proposed and was effected in 1815, the new canton 
being the only non-republican member, just as the hereditary 
rulers of Neuchatel were the last to maintain their position in 



Switzerland. This anomaly led in 1848 to the establishment 
(attempted in 1831) of a republican form of government, brought 
about by a peaceful revolution led by A. M. Piaget. A royalist 
attempt to regain power in 1856 was defeated, and finally, 
after long negotiations, the king of Prussia renounced his claims 
to sovereignty, though retaining the right (no longer exercised) 
to bear the title of "prince of Neuchatel." Thus in 1857 
Neuchatel became a full republican member of the Swiss con- 
federation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Bachelin, L'Horlogerie Neuchdteloise (Neu- 
chatel, 1888); E. Bourgeois, Neuchatel etla politique prussienne en 
Franche Comte, 1702-1713 (Paris, 1887) ; J. Boyve, Annales historiques 
du comte de Neuchdtel et de Valangin (6 vols., Berne and Neuchatel, 
1855); F. de Chambrier, Histoire de Neuch&tel et Valangin jusqu'a 
Vavknement de la maison de Prusse, 1707 (Neuchatel, 1840); L. . 
Grandpierre, Histoire du canton de Neuchatel sous les rots de Prusse, 
1707-1848 (Neuchatel, 1889), L. Junod, Histoire du canton de 
Neuchatel sous les rois de Prusse, 1707-1848 (Neuchatel, 1889); A. 
Humbert and J. Clerc, A. M. Piaget et la republique neuchdteloise de 
1848 a 1858 (2 vols., Neuchatel, 1888-1895); G. A. Matile, Monu- 
ments de I histoire de Neuchatel (3 vols., Neuchatel, 1844-1848), and 
Histoire de la seigneurie de Valangin jusqu'a sa reunion a la directe, 
1502 (Neuchatel, 1852); Musee Neuchatelois (published by the 
Cantonal Historical Society), from 1864; Le Patois neuchatelois 
(an anthology) (Neuchatel, 1895); A. Pfleghart, Die schweizerische 
Uhrenindustrie (Leipzig, 1908); E. Quartier-la-Tente, Revue 
historique et monographique des communes du canton de Neuchatel 
(Neuchatel, 1897-1904). (W. A. B. C.) 

NEUCHATEL, capital of the above Swiss canton, situated 
near the north-east corner of the lake of Neuchatel. It is the 
meeting-point of several important railway lines, from Bern 
past Kerzers (27 m.), from Bienne (19 m.), from La Chaux de 
Fonds (19 m.), from Pontarlier (in France), by the Val de Travers, 
(33$ m.), and from Yverdon (23 m.). The railway station (1575 
ft.) at the top of the town is connected by an electric tramway 
with the shore of the lake some 150 ft. lower. The older portion 
of the town is built on the steep slope of the Chaumont, and 
originally the waters of the lake bathed the foot of the hill on 
which it stood. But the gradual growth of alluvial deposits, 
and more recently the artificial embankment of the shore of 
the lake, have added much dry ground, and on this site the 
finest modern buildings have been erected. The 16th-century 
castle and the 13th-century collegiate church of Notre Dame 
(now Protestant) stand close together and were founded in the 
1 2th century when the counts took up their permanent residence 
in the town, to which they granted a charter of liberties in 1214. 
Among the buildings on the quays are the Musee des Beaux 
Arts (modern Swiss paintings and also various historical collec- 
tions, including that of Desor relating to the Lake Dwellings), 
the Gymnase or College Latin (in which is also the museum of 
natural history and the town library), the university (refounded 
in 1866 and raised from the rank of an academy to that of a 
university in 1909), the Ecole de Commerce and the post office. 
The town owes much to the gifts of citizens. Thus David de 
Purry (1709-1786) founded the town hospital and built the town 
hall, while James de Purry bequeathed to the town the villa 
in which the ethnographical museum has been installed (1904). 
In 1811 J. L. de Pourtales (1722-1814) founded the hospital 
which bears his name, while in 1844 A. de Meuron (1789-1852) 
constructed the lunatic asylum at Pr6fargier, a few miles from 
the town. Among natives of the town are the theologians J. F. 
Ostervald (1663-1747) and Frederic Godet (1812-1900), the 
geologist E. Desor (1811-1882), the local historian G. A. Matile 
(1807-1881) and the politicians A. M. Piaget (1802-1870) and 
Numa Droz (1844-1899). Neuchatel (partly because very good 
French is spoken there) attracts many foreign students, while the 
town is a literary centre. In 1900 Neuchatel numbered 20,843 
inhabitants (in 1850 only 7727 and in 1870, 12,683), 15,277 being 
French-speaking and 4553 German-speaking; there were 17,237 
Protestants, 3459 Romanists and 80 Jews. (W. A. B. C.) 

NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF. This lake, in W. Switzerland, is 
with the neighbouring lakes of Bienne and Morat (both connected 
with it by canals), the modern representative of the large body of 
water which at one time seems to have filled the whole of the 
lower valley of the Aar. It is now the most considerable sheet 



NEUENAHR NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE 



425 



of water which is.wholly within Switzerland (since parts of those 
of Geneva and Constance belong to foreign countries), though it 
does not belong entirely to any one Canton of its total area 
of 925 sq. m., 365 sq. m. are in the Canton of Neuchatel and 
rather over 33 sq. m. in that of Vaud, while Fribourg claims 
2oJ sq. m. and Berne 2 sq. m. It is about 23$ m. in length, 
varies from 35 to 5 m. in width, and has a maximum depth of 
502 ft., while its surface is 1427 ft. above sea-level. It is mainly 
formed by the Thiele or Zihl river, which enters it at its south- 
western end and issues from it at its north-eastern extremity, 
but it also receives, near its north-west end, the Areuse (flowing 
through the Val de Travers) and the Seyon (which traverses 
the Val de Ruz), as well as, near its north-east end, the Broye 
(that flows through a canal from the Lake of Moral). Successive 
drainages have brought to light the remains of many lake dwell- 
ings, of which there is a good collection in the natural history 
museum at Neuchatel. The scenery of the lake, though pleasing, 
cannot compare with that of the other Swiss lakes, despite the 
fact that from it the giants of both the Mont Blanc and Bernese 
Oberland ranges are clearly seen. The first steamer was placed 
on the lake in 1827. On the south-eastern shore the picturesque 
and historical little town of Estavayer is the chief place. At 
the south-western extremity of the lake is Yverdon (the Eburo- 
dunum of the Romans and the residence of the educationalist 
Pestalozzi, 1806-1825). Far more populated is the north- 
western shore, where, from S.W. to N.E., we find Grandson 
(famous for the battle of 1476 wherein Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss), Cortaillod (producing 
excellent sparkling wine), Serrieres (with the famous manu- 
factories of Suchard chocolate) and Neuchatel itself. On the 
north shore is La Tene, famous for the remarkable relics cf the 
Iron Age that have been discovered there. (W. A. B. C.) 

NEUENAHR, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine 
province, situated at the foot of a basalt peak, in the pleasant 
valley of the Ahr, 10 m. N.W. of Remagen on the Rhine by the 
railway to Adenau. Pop. (1905) 3388. It is well laid out, 
has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, and 
carries on a considerable trade in the red wines of the district. 
There are five alkaline springs with temperatures from 69 to 
102 F., the waters of which are specific in chronic catarrh of 
the respiratory organs, gout, rheumatism and diabetes. In the 
immediate vicinity lies the Apollinaris spring. 

See Schmitz, Erfahrungen uber Bad Neuenahr (sth ed., Ahrweiler, 
1887); and Schwenke, Die Kurmittel des Bodes Neuenahr (Halle, 
1900). 

NEUENDORF, a village of Germany, in the province of 
Brandenburg, 2 m. E. from Potsdam, on the Nuthe, with a 
station on the railway from Berlin to Potsdam. Pop. (1905) 
6877. The place has considerable industries, chief among 
which are carpet- weaving, jute-spinning and the manufacture of 
railway plant. Within its area lies the colony of Nowawes laid 
out by Frederick the Great in 1754. 

NEUFCH ATEAU, a town of eastern France, in the department 
of Vosges at the confluence of the Meuse and the Mouzon, 49 m. 
W.N.W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906) 3924. The churches of 
St Christopher (i3th and isth centuries) and St Nicholas, the 
latter combining the Romanesque and Gothic styles and built 
above a Romanesque crypt, are of interest. A sub-prefecture, 
a tribunal of first instance and communal colleges are among 
the public institutions. Neufchateau carries on wool-spinning 
and the manufacture of embroidery, nails and chains. The 
town, which is said to occupy the site of the Roman Neomagus, 
belonged in the middle ages to the dukes of Lorraine, ruins 
of whose chateau are still to be seen. In 1641 it passed to 
France. 

NEUHALDENSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the province 
of Prussian Saxony on the Ohre, situated 18 m. N.W. from 
Magdeburg by the railway to Obisfelde and at the junction of a 
line to Eisleben. Pop. (1905) 10,421. It has an Evangelical 
church, an old equestrian statue of Henry the Lion and a gym- 
nasium. There are several active industries, notably the 
manufacture of majolica and terra-cotta wares, machinery, 



gloves, beer, malt, cheese and sugar, while large pig markets are 
held here. 

See Behrends, Chronik Her Stadt Neuhaldensleben (new ed., 1903). 

NEUHOF, THEODORE STEPHEN, BARON VON (c. 1690-1756), 
German adventurer and for a short time nominal king of Corsica, 
was a son of a Westphalian nobleman and was born at Metz. 
Educated at the court of France, he served first in the French 
army and then in that of Sweden. Baron de Goertz, minister to 
Charles XII., realizing Neuhof's capacity for intrigue, sent 
him to England and Spain to negotiate with Cardinal Alberoni. 
Having failed in this mission he returned to Sweden and then 
went to Spain, where he was made colonel and married one of 
the queen's ladies-in-waiting. Deserting his wife soon afterwards 
he repaired to France and became mixed up in Law's financial 
affairs; then he wandered about Portugal, Holland and Italy, 
and at Genoa he made the acquaintance of some Corsican 
prisoners and exiles, whom he persuaded that he could free their 
country from Genoese tyranny if they made him king of the 
island. With their help and that of the bey of Tunis he landed 
in Corsica in March 1736, where the islanders, believing his 
statement that he had the support of several of the great powers, 
proclaimed him king. He assumed the style of Theodore I., 
issued edicts, instituted an order of knighthood, and waged 
war on the Genoese, at first with some success. But he was 
eventually defeated, and civil broils soon broke out in the 
island; the Genoese having put a price on his head and published 
an account of his antecedents, he left Corsica in November 
1736, ostensibly to seek foreign assistance. After trying in 
vain to induce the grand duke of Tuscany to recognize him, 
he started off on his wanderings once more until he was arrested 
for debt in Amsterdam. On regaining his freedom he sent his 
nephew to Corsica with a supply of arms; he himself returned 
to the island in 1738, 1739 and 1743, but the combined Genoese 
and French forces and the growing strength of the party opposed 
to him again drove him to wandering about Europe. Arrested 
for debt in London he regained his freedom by mortgaging 
his " kingdom " of Corsica, and subsisted on the charity of 
Horace Walpole and some other friends until his death in 
London on the nth of December 1756. His only son, Frederick 
(c. 1725-1797), served in the army of Frederick the Great 
and afterwards acted as agent in London for the grand-duke of 
Wiirttemberg. 

Frederick wrote an account of his father's life, Memoires pour 
servir a I'histoire de la Corse, and also an English translation, both 
published in London in 1768. In 1795 he published a new edition 
on Description of Corsica with an account of its union to the crown of 
Great Britain. See also Fitzgerald, King Theodore of Corsica (London, 
1890). 

NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the 
department of Seine, 3^ m. N.W. of the centre of Paris, of which 
it is a suburb, between the fortifications and the Seine. Pop. 
(1906) 39,222. A castle at Neuilly, built by the count of Argenson 
in the i8th century, ultimately became the property and favourite 
residence of the duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe), the birthplace 
of nearly all his children, and the scene of the offer of the crown 
in 1830. The buildings were pillaged and burned by the mob 
in 1848. The park, which extended from the fortifications to the 
river, as well as the neighbouring park of Villiers (also belonging 
to the princes of Orleans), was broken up into building lots, and 
is occupied by many small middle-class houses and a few fine 
villas. Within the line of the fortifications, but on Neuilly 
soil, stands the chapel of St Ferdinand, on the spot where the 
duke of Orleans died in 1842 from the results of a carriage 
accident. The stained-glass windows were made at Sevres after 
designs by Ingres; the ducal cenotaph, designed by Ary Scheffer, 
was sculptured by de Triqueti; and the chapel also contains 
a " Descent from the Cross," by the last-named artist, and 
an angel executed in Carrara marble by the princess Marie 
d'Orleans, sister of the duke. The fine bridge, designed in the 
i8th century by Perronet, is noteworthy as the first level bridge 
constructed in France. The Galignani Institution, founded by 
the brothers Galignani for aged booksellers, printers and others, 
has accommodation for 100 residents. The manufactures 



426 



NEUMANN, F. E. NEUQUEN 



include perfumery, chocolate, colours, varnish, automobiles, 
carpets, &c. 

NEUMANN, FRANZ ERNST (1798-1895), German mineralogist, 
physicist and mathematician, was born at Joachimstal on the 
nth of September 1798. In 1815 he interrupted his studies at 
Berlin to serve as a volunteer in the campaign against Napoleon, 
and was wounded in the battle of Ligny. Subsequently he 
entered Berlin University as a student of theology, but soon 
turned to scientific subjects. His earlier papers were mostly 
concerned with crystallography, and the reputation they gained 
him led to his appointment as Privatdozent at Konigsberg, 
where in 1828 he became extraordinary, and in 1829 ordinary, 
professor of mineralogy and physics. In 1831, from a study 
of the specific heats of compounds, he formulated " Neumann's 
law," which expressed in modern language runs: " The mole- 
cular heat of a compound is equal to the sum of the atomic 
heats of its constituents." Devoting himself next to optics, 
he produced memoirs which entitle him to a high place among 
the early searchers after a true dynamical theory of light. In 
1832, by the aid of a particular hypothesis as to the constitution 
of the ether, he reached by a rigorous dynamical calculation 
results agreeing with those obtained by A. L. Cauchy, and 
succeeded in deducing laws of double refraction closely resembling 
those of A. J. Fresnel; and in subsequent years he attacked 
the problem of giving mathematical expression to the conditions 
holding for a surface separating two crystalline media, and 
worked out from theory the laws of double refraction in strained 
crystalline bodies. He also made important contributions to the 
mathematical theory of electrodynamics, and in papers published 
in 1845 an d I ^47 established mathematically the laws of the 
induction of electric currents. His last publication, which 
appeared in 1878, was on spherical harmonics (Beitrdge zur 
Theorie der Kugelfunclionen) . He took part in founding the Mathe- 
matisch-Physikalisches Seminar, to give students a practical 
acquaintance with the methods of original research. He retired 
from his professorship in 1876, and died at Konigsberg on the 
23rdof May 1895. His son, CARL GOTTFRIED NEUMANN (b. 1832), 
became in 1858 Privatdozent, and in 1863 extraordinary 
professor of mathematics at Halle. He was then appointed 
to the ordinary chair of mathematics successively at Basel (1863), 
Tubingen (1865) and Leipzig (1868). 

NEUMANN, KARL FR1EDRICH (1793-1870), German 
orientalist, was born, under the name of Bamberger, at 
Reichsmannsdorf, near Bamberg, on the 28th of December 
1793. He studied philosophy and philology at Heidelberg, 
Munich and Gottingen, became a convert to Protestantism and 
took the name of Neumann. From 1822 to 1825 he was a teacher 
at Spires; then he learned Armenian in Venice and visited 
Paris and London. In 1829 he went to China, where he studied 
the language and amassed a large library of valuable books 
and manuscripts. These, about 12,000 in number, he presented 
to the royal library at Munich. Returning to Germany in 1831 
Neumann was made professor of Armenian and Chinese in the 
university of Munich. He held this position until 1852, when, 
owing to his pronounced revolutionary opinions, he was removed 
from his chair. Ten years later he settled in Berlin, where he 
died on the I7th of March 1870. 

Neumann's leisure time after his enforced retirement wasoccupied 
in historical studies, and besides his Geschichte des englischen Reichs 
in Asien (Leipzig, 1851), he wrote a history of the United States of 
America, Geschichte der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (Berlin, 
1863-1866). His other works include Versuch einer Geschichte der 
ormenischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1836); Die Volker des sudlichen 
Russland (1846, and again 1855); and Geschichte des englisch- 
chinesischen Kriegs (1846, and again 1855). He also issued some 
translations from Chinese and Armenian : Catechism of the Shamans 
(1831); Vahram's Chronicle of the Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia 
(1831) and History of the Pirates in the China Sea (1831). The 
journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (London, 1871) contains a full 
list of his works. 

NEUMAYR, MELCHIOR (1845-1800), German palaeontologist, 
was born at Munich on the 24th of October 1845, the son of 
Max von Neumayr, a Bavarian Minister of State. He was 
educated in the university of Munich, and completed his studies 



at Heidelberg, where he graduated Ph.D. After some experience 
in field-geology under C. W. von Giimbel he joined the Austrian 
geological survey in 1868. Four years later he returned to 
Heidelberg, but in 1873 he was appointed professor of palaeon- 
tology in Vienna, and occupied this post until his death on the 
29th of January 1890. His more detailed researches related 
to the Jurassic and Cretaceous Ammonites and to the Tertiary 
freshwater mollusca; and in these studies he sought to trace 
the descent of the species. He dealt also with the zones of 
climate during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and en- 
deavoured to show that the equatorial marine fauna differed 
from that of the two temperate zones, and the latter from 
that of the arctic zone, much as the faunas of similar zones differ 
from each other in the present day; see his "Uber klimatische 
Zonen wahrend der Jura und Kreidezeit" (Denkschr. K. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien, 1883); he was author also of Erdgeschichte (2 vols., 
1887); and Die Stiimme des Thierreiches (vol. i only, 1889). 

Obituary by Dr W. T. Blanford in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
(1890). 

NEUMUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Schleswig-Holstein, lies on both banks of the small river 
Schwale, in the basin of the Stor, 40 m. N. of Altona-Hamburg 
by rail, and at the junction of lines to Kiel, Vamdrup (Denmark) 
and Tonning. Pop. (1905) 31,347. It has an Evangelical and 
a Roman Catholic church and several schools. It is, after 
Altona, the most important industrial town in the province, and 
contains extensive cloth-factories, besides manufactories of 
leather, cotton, wadding, carpets, paper, machinery, beer and 
sweetmeats. Its trade is also brisk. The name, which was 
originally Wipendorp, is derived from an Augustine monastery, 
founded in 1130 by Vicelin, the apostle of Holstein, and is 
mentioned as " novum monasterium " in a document of 1136. 
Its industrial importance began in the I7th century, when the 
cloth-workers of Segeberg, a town to the south-east, migrated 
to it. It became a town in 1870. 

See Kirmis, Geschichte der Stadt Neumunster (1900) ; and Dittmann, 
Aus dem alien Neumunster (1879). 

NEUNKIRCHEN, or OBER-NEUNKIRCHEN, a town of Germany, 
in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Blies, 12 m. N.W. of 
Saarbrucken by rail. Pop. (1005) 32,358, consisting almost 
equally of Protestants and Roman Catholics. It contains two 
Gothic Evangelical and a Romanesque Roman Catholic church, 
several schools, and a monument to Freiherr von Stumm (d.igoi), 
a former owner of the iron-works here. The principal industrial 
establishment is a huge iron-foundry, employing upwards of 
4800 hands, and producing about 320,000 tons of pig-iron per 
annum; and there are also boiler- works, saw- mills, soap manu- 
factories and a brewery. Around the town are important 
coal mines from which about 2\ million tons of coal are raised 
annually. The castle built in 1570 was destroyed in 1797, and is 
now a ruin. The town is first mentioned in 1280, and became 
important industrially during the i8th century. 

NEUQUEN, an inland territory of Argentina on the Chilean 
frontier, between the Colorado and Limay rivers, with the 
province of Mendoza on the N. and the territory of Rio Negro 
on the E. and S. Area, 42,345 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 14,517; 
(1904, estimate) 18,022. The greater part of the territory is 
mountainous, with fertile, well-watered valleys and valuable 
forests. The eastern part, however, contains large barren 
plains, showing some stunted vegetation, and having numerous 
saline deposits. Long drouths prevail in this region and there 
is no inducement for settlement, the nomadic Indians visiting 
it only on their hunting expeditions. Guanacos and Argentine 
hares are found in abundance in Neuquen, and to a lesser degree 
the South American ostrich. The Neuquen, which unites with 
the Limay near the 68th meridian to form the Rio Negro, is the 
principal river of the territory. The largest of a group of beauti- 
ful lakes in the higher Andean valleys is the celebrated Nahuel- 
Huapi (Lion Grass), which is nearly 50 m. long from E. to W. 
and about 20 m. from N. to S. at its widest part, and which h'es 
partly in the S.W. angle of the territory, partly in Rio Negro, 
and partly in the republic of Chile. It is the source of the Rio 



NEURALGIA 



427 



Limay and receives the overflow from two smaller neighbouring 
lakes. The temperature of the Andean region .is cold even in 
summer, but on the lower plains it is hot in summer, and only 
moderately cold in winter. The principal industry is the raising 
of stock for the Chilean markets, as there is little cultivation. 
Cereals, forage crops, vegetables and fruits of the cold temperate 
zone can be produced easily, but distance from markets and lack 
of transport have restricted their production to local needs. 
The territory is reached by a light-draft river steamer which 
ascends the Rio Negro to Fort Roca at the confluence of the 
Limay and Neuquen, and by a branch of the Great Southern 
railway from Bahia Blanca to the same point. The population 
is concentrated in a few small towns on the rivers and in some 
colonies, established by the national government to check 
Chilean invasions, in the fertile districts of the Andes. A 
majority of the population, however, is of Chilean origin. The 
capital is Chos Malal, a small town on the upper Neuquen, in 
the mountainous district in the northern part of the territory. 

NEURALGIA (Gr. veupov, nerve, and 0X70$, pain), a term 
denoting strictly the existence of pain in some portion or through- 
out the whole of the distribution of a nerve without any distinctly 
recognizable structural change in the nerve or nerve centres. 
This strict definition, if adhered to, however, would not be 
applicable to a large number of cases of neuralgia; for in not a 
few instances the pain is connected with some source of irritation, 
by pressure or otherwise, in the course of the affected nerve; 
and hence the word is generally used to indicate pain affecting 
a particular nerve or its branches from any cause. There are 
few ailments which give rise to greater human suffering. The 
existence of neuralgia usually betokens a depressed or enfeebled 
state of health. It is often found to affect the hereditarily rheu- 
matic or gouty. In weakened conditions of the system from 
improper or insufficient food, or as a result of any drain upon the 
body, or in anaemia from any cause, and in such diseases as 
syphilis or malaria, neuralgia is a frequent concomitant. Any 
strain upon the nervous system, such as mental overwork or 
anxiety, is a potent cause; or exposure to cold and damp, 
which seems to excite irritation in a nerve already predisposed 
to suffer. But irritation may be produced by numerous other 
causes besides this such as a decayed tooth, diseased bone, 
local inflammations in which nerves are implicated, by some 
source of pressure upon a nerve trunk, or by swelling of its sheath 
in its passage through a bony canal or at its exit upon the surface. 

The pain is generally localized, but may come to extend beyond 
the immediate area of its first occurrence. It is usually of 
paroxysmal character, and not unfrequently periodic, occurring 
at a certain time of the day or night. It varies in intensity, 
being often of the most agonizing character, or less severe and 
more of a" tingling kind. Various forms of perverted nerve 
function may be found co-existing with or following neuralgia. 
Thus there may be hyperaesthesia, anaesthesia, paralysis, 
or alterations of nutrition, such as wasting of muscles, whitening 
of the hair, &c. 

The forms in which neuralgia most commonly shows itself 
are facial neuralgia or tic douloureux, migraine (hemicrania or 
brow ague), intercostal neuralgia and sciatica. 

Facial neuralgia, or tic d&wltntreux, affects the great nerve of 
sensation of the face (fifth nerve), and may occur in one or more 
of the three divisions in which the nerve is distributed. It is 
usually confined to one side. When the first or upper division 
of the nerve is involved the pain is mostly felt in the forehead 
and side of the head. It is usually of an intensely sharp, cutting 
or burning character, either constant or with exacerbations, 
and often periodic, returning at a certain hour each day while 
the attack continues. The skin over the affected part is often 
red and swollen, and, even after the attack has abated, feels 
stiff and tender to the touch. In this, as in all forms of neuralgia, 
there are certain localities where the pain is more intense, these 
" painful points," as they are called, being for the most part in 
those places where the branches of the nerves emerge from bony 
canals or pierce the fascia to ramify in the skin. Hence, in this 
form, the greater severity of the pain above the eyebrow and 



along the side of the nose. There is also pain in the eyelid, 
redness of the eye, and flow of tears. When the second division 
of the nerve is affected the pain is chiefly in the cheek and upper 
jaw, the painful points being immediately below the lower eyelid, 
over the cheek bone, and about the upper lip. When the third 
division of the nerve suffers the pain affects the lower jaw, 
and the chief painful points are in front of the ear and about the 
chin. 

Hemicrania, migraine, brow-ague and sick headache are various 
terms employed to describe what by some is considered to be 
another form of neuralgia. An attack may come on suddenly, 
but, in general, begins by a dull aching pain in the brow or 
temple, which steadily increases in severity and extent, but 
remains usually limited to one side of the head. It attains at 
times an extreme degree of violence, and is apt to be aggravated 
by movement, loud noises or bright light. Accompanying the 
pain there is more or less of nausea, and when the attack reaches 
its height vomiting may occur, after which relief comes, especially 
if sleep supervene. An attack of this kind may last for a few 
hours or for a whole day, and after it is over the patient feels 
comparatively well. It may recur periodically, or, as is more 
common, at irregular intervals. During the paroxysms, or even 
preceding them, certain sensory disturbances may be experienced, 
more especially affections of vision, such as ocular spectra, 
hemiopia, diplopia, &c. Gout, eyestrain and intestinal toxaemia 
have been put forward as causes of migraine, and Sir W. Gowers 
regards it as the equivalent of a true epileptic attack. 

Intercostal neuralgia is pain affecting the nerves which emerge 
from the spinal cord and run along the spaces between the ribs to 
the front of the body. This form of neuralgia affects the left side 
more than the right, is much more common in women than in 
men, and occurs generally in enfeebled states of health. It might 
be mistaken for pleurisy or some inflammatory affection of the 
lungs; but the absence of any chest symptoms, its occurrence 
independently of the acts of respiration, and other considerations 
well establish the distinction. The specially painful points are 
chiefly at the commencement of the nerve as it issues from the 
spinal canal, and at the extremities towards the front of the body, 
where it breaks up into filaments which ramify in the skin. This 
form of neuralgia is occasionally the precursor of an attack of 
shingles (Herpes zoster) as well as a result of it. 

Sciatica is another of the more common forms of neuralgia. 
It affects the great sciatic nerve which emerges from the pelvis 
and runs down the leg to the foot. It is in most instances 
traceable to exposure to cold or damp, to overuse of the limbs 
in walking, &c. Any source of pressure upon the nerve within 
the pelvis, such as may be produced by a tumour or even by 
constipation of the bowels, may excite an attack of sciatica. 
It is often connected with a rheumatic or gouty constitution. 
In general the nerve of one side only is affected. The pain which 
is felt at first a little behind the hip-joint steadily increases in 
severity and extends along the course of the nerve and its branches 
in many instances as far as the toes. The specially painful 
points are about the knee, and ankle joints; besides which a 
feeling of numbness is experienced throughout the whole limb. 
In severe cases all movement of the limb aggravates the pain, 
and the patient is obliged to remain in bed. In prolonged attacks 
the limb may waste and be drawn up and fixed in one position. 
Attacks of sciatica are often attended with great suffering, and 
are apt to be very intractable to treatment. 

In the treatment of all forms of neuralgia it is of first im- 
portance to ascertain if possible whether any constitutional 
morbid condition is associated with the malady. When the 
attack is periodic the administration of a large dose of quinine 
two or three hours previous to the usual time of the seizure 
will often mitigate, and may even prevent the paroxysm. Many 
topical applications are of great efficacy. Liniments containing 
opium, belladonna or aconite rubbed into the affected part 
will often soothe the most severe local pain. And antipyrin, 
phenacetin, aspirin and similar analgetics are commonly taken. 
The plan at one time resorted to of dividing or excising a portion 
of the affected nerve is now seldom employed, but the operation 



428 



NEURASTHENIA NEURITIS 



of nerve-stretching in some forms of neuralgia, notably sciatica, 
is sometimes successful. It consists in cutting down upon and 
exposing the nerve, and in seizing hold and drawing upon it 
so as to stretch it. Such an operation is obviously justifiable 
only in cases where other less severe measures have failed to 
give relief. The employment of electricity, in long continued 
and intractable forms of neuralgia, proves in many instances 
eminently serviceable. In the severest forms of tic doloureux 
complete relief has followed the extirpation of the Gasserian 
ganglion. (F. W. Mo.) 

NEURASTHENIA (Gr. vevpov, nerve, and &<r6ev.a, weakness), 
the general medical term for a condition of weakness of the 
nervous system. The symptoms may present themselves as 
follows: (i) general feeling of malaise, combined with a mixed 
state of excitement and depression; (2) headache, sometimes 
with the addition of vertigo, deafness and a transitory clouding 
of consciousness simulating petit mat or migraine; (3) disturbed 
and restless, unrefreshing sleep, often troubled with dreams; 
(4) weakness of memory, especially for recent events; (5) 
blurring of sight, noises or ringing in the ears; (6) variable 
disturbances of sensibility, especially scattered analgesia (partial 
and symmetrical) affecting the backs of the hands especially, 
and in women the breasts; (7) various troubles of sympathetic 
origin, notably localized coldness, particularly in the extremities, 
morbid heats, flushings and sweats; (8) various phenomena of 
nervous depression associated with functional disturbances of 
organs, e.g. muscular weakness, lack of tone, and sense of fatigue 
upon effort, dyspepsia and gastric atony with dilatation of the 
stomach and gastralgia; pseudo-anginal attacks and palpitation 
of the heart; loss of sexual power with nocturnal pollutions 
and premature ejaculations leading to apprehension of oncoming 
impotence. Objective signs met with in organic disease are 
absent, but the knee-jerks are usually exaggerated. 

According to the complexity of symptoms, the neurasthenia 
is more particularly defined as cerebral, spinal, gastric and 
sexual. The cerebral form is sometimes termed psychasthenia, 
and is liable to present morbid fears or phobias, e.g. agoraphobia 
(fright in crowds), monophobia (fright of being alone), claustro- 
phobia (fright of being in a confined place), anthropophobia 
(fright of society), batophobia (fright of things falling), sidero- 
dromophobia (fright of railway travelling). There may also be 
mental ruminations, in which there is a continuous flow of 
connected ideas from which there is.no breaking away, often 
most insistent at night and leading to insomnia. Sometimes 
there is arithmomania (an imperative idea to count). Such 
cases often exhibit a marked emotionalism and readily manifest 
joy or sorrow; they may be cynical, pessimistic, introspective 
and self-centred, only able to talk about themselves or matters 
of personal interest, yet they frequently possess great intellectual 
ability, and although there may be mental depression, there is 
an absence of the insane ideas characteristic of melancholia. 

Traumatic neurasthenia is the neurasthenia following shock 
from injury; it is sometimes termed " railway spine," " railway 
brain," from the frequency with which it occurs after railway 
accidents, especially in people of a nervous temperament. The 
physical injury at the time may be sh'ght, so that the patient 
is able to resume work, but symptoms develop later which may 
simulate serious organic disease. As in all forms of neurasthenia, 
the subjective symptoms may be numerous and varied, whereas 
the objective signs are but few and slight. Many difficulties, 
therefore, present themselves in arriving at a sound opinion 
as to the future in such cases. It is desirable not only to study 
the case carefully, but to obtain some knowledge of the previous 
history of an individual who is claiming damages on account of 
traumatic neurasthenia. (F. W. Mo.) 

NEURI, an ancient tribe placed by Herodotus (iv. 105) to 
the north-east of Scythia. He says of it that it is not Scythian, 
but has Scythian customs. Every member of it, being a wizard, 
becomes a wolf once a year. The position assigned to their 
district appears to be about the head waters of the Dniester 
and Bug (Bugh) and the central course of the Dnieper just the 
region which, on general grounds, place-names, recorded migra- 



tions and modern distribution, appears to be the original location 
of the Slavs (q,v.). The wolf story again recalls the tales of 
werewolves so common among Slavonic peoples, and there is 
much probability in Schafarik's conjecture that the Neuri are" 
nothing but the ancestors of the Slavs. (E. H. M.) 

NEURITIS (Gr. vevpov, nerve), a term applied to the in- 
flammation of one or more bundles of nerve fibres. Two varieties 
are known, the localized and the multiple. The localized form 
frequently follows on exposure to cold and may attack a single 
nerve. Facial paralysis (Bell's palsy) is commonly seen following 
a neuritis of the facial nerve. Neuritis may follow blows and 
wounds of a nerve, injuries involving stretching of a nerve or 
long continued pressure such as may occur in a dislocation of 
the elbow joint, or the nerve may share in the extension of a 
neighbouring inflammation. The first symptom of a localized 
neuritis is pain of a boring character along the course of a nerve 
and its distribution, the part being sensitive to pressure. There 
may be slight redness and oedema along the course of the nerve, 
movement becomes painful in the muscles to which the nerve 
is distributed, numbness may follow and the tactile sense be 
impaired, finally the muscles atrophy, and degenerative changes 
may take place in the nerve or nerve sheath. Slight cases follow- 
ing cold or injury may pass off in a few days, while severe cases 
such as those following the pressure of an unreduced dislocation 
may last for months. 

Multiple neuritis or polyneuritis is a disease which may affect 
many of the peripheral nerves symmetrically and at the same 
time. For the pathological changes see NEUROPATHOLOGY. The 
difference in these changes is due mostly to the difference in the 
aetiology of the neuritis. The causes may be divided as follows: 

(1) The toxins of acute infective diseases, such as diphtheria, 
influenza, typhoid fever, malaria, scarlet fever and septicaemia. 

(2) Acute or chronic poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, copper 
and phosphorus. (3) General disorders: gout, rheumatism, 
tubercle, carcinoma. (4) The local action of leprosy and syphilis. 
(5) Endemic disease: beri-beri. (6) Alcohol, the most common. 

Alcoholic neuritis occurs as a result of constant steady drinking, 
particularly in those who drink beer rather than spirit. The earliest 
symptom is numbness of the feet and later of the hands, then painful 
cramps in the legs appear and there is pain on moving the limbs, or 
the patient complains of deadness, tingling and burning in the hands 
and feet, and superficial tenderness is occasionally present. In 
other varieties of the disease the earliest symptoms are weakness of 
the legs and extreme fatigue, leading to a characteristic " steppage 
gait," or marked inco-ordination of movement may occur and the 
gait become ataxic. Trophic changes soon appear, in some cases 
early and rapid muscular wasting occurs, the skin becomes dry and 
glossy, the nails brittle and the hair thin. In time actual con- 
tractures takes place, the hip and knee-joints become flexed and the 
foot dropped at the ankle. In cases that recover there may be 
permanent deformity. Should the case progress the patient may 
become bedridden and powerless, and degenerative mental changes 
may take place, loss of memory, irritability of temper and emotional 
instability. Various complications such as bronchitis, fatty changes 
in the heart, albuminuria and a liability to pulmonary tuberculosis, 
tend to carry off the victim of chronic alcoholic neuritis. Cases seen 
early in the progress of the disease, who can be placed under 
supervision, may recover under treatment, but those in whom the 
attacks have recurred several times and >n whom there is much 
mental impairment rarely make a complete recovery. The treat- 
ment consists in putting the patient to bed, with the administration 
of strychnine hypodermically, and attention should be paid to the 
position of the limbs so as to avoid the development of contractures, 
cradles being used, the limbs kept in the correct positions by sand- 
bags, and gentle massage being employed as soon as possible. Should 
contractures have already formed some mechanical device adapted 
to stretch the contracted muscle must be resorted to. Biers' hyper- 
aemic suction apparatus is very useful in the painless stretching of 
contracted joints, or old-standing adhesions may have to be broken 
down under an anaesthetic, extension apparatus being afterwards 
worn. In the later treatment the galvanic and faradaic currents 
combined with massage are useful in helping to restore the wasted 
muscles, and hot-air baths and warm applications are appreciated. 

Arsenical neuritis mostly affects the lower extremities, as con- 
trasted with lead, which mainly paralyses the fingers and wrists; 
recovery is even sjower than in alcoholic neuritis, the treatment 
being on the same lines, with the removal of the cause of the disease. 
In the neuritis of chronic lead poisoning a fine tremor of the hands is 
an early symptom and sensory symptoms are usually absent; the 
muscles affected are the extensors of the wrists, thumb and fingers 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



429 



(see LEAD POISONING). The course of the disease is long, and an 
attempt should be made to eliminate the lead from the system by 
purgatives and the administration of potassium iodide. 

The diabetic neuritis paraesthesia is slight, and the legs are chiefly 
affected; weakness and ataxia may be present. Trophic sores on 
the feet are of frequent occurrence in this variety. The treatment is 
that of the disease. 

Post-diphtheritic neuritis occurs in about 10% of all cases of 
diphtheria. In this form paralysis of the soft palate is the earliest 
symptom, and this may be the only one, or the pharynx may be 
affected. The limbs are affected much later, usually about the 5th 
or 6th week. Atrophy of the muscles is frequently rapid. If the 
respiratory muscles are unaffected the prognosis is good, but the/ 
paralysis of the limbs may last for several months. The treatment^ 
is complete rest, good food and the administration of strychnine. 

Acute polyneuritis with numbness and motor weakness has been 
noted after influenza, together with slight muscular wasting and 
electrical degeneration. Later, loss of sensation in the peripheral 
portion of the limbs is complained of, and the motor weakness may 
affect the muscles of the trunk and face. Such cases tend towards 
complete recovery. 

NEUHOPATHOLOGY, the general name for the science con- 
cerned with diseases of the nervous system. As regards the 
anatomy and physiology, see the articles NERVE, NERVOUS 
SYSTEM, BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, and SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 
The morbid processes affecting the nervous system are numerous 
and varied, but usually they are clinically divided into two great 
groups of (i) organic disease, (2) functional disturbance. Such 
a classification depends upon whether or not symptoms observed 
during life can be associated with recognizable changes of the 
nervous system, gross or microscopical, after death. Sometimes 
this is the morbid process itself, sometimes only the ultimate 
result of the process. It must be remarked, however, that many 
diseases which we now look upon as functional may be found 
due to recognizable changes when suitable methods of investiga- 
tion shall have been discovered. The paroxysmal neuroses and 
psychoses may be considered a priori to be due to temporary 
morbid functional conditions. Our knowledge of the first group 
is naturally much more advanced than of the latter, for, given 
certain symptoms during life, we are able, as a rule, to predict 
not only the nature of the morbid process, but its particular 
locality. 

The histological elements which make up the nervous system 
may also be divided into two groups: (i) the nervous units or 
neurones, (2) the supporting, protecting and nutrient tissues. 
Organic diseases may start primarily in the nervous units or 
neurones and cause their degeneration; such are true diseases 
of the nervous system. But the nervous units may be affected 
secondarily by diseases starting in the supporting, protecting 
and nutrient tissues of the nervous system; such are essentially 
diseases within the nervous system, and include diseases of the 
blood-vessels, lymphatics, membranes and the special nervous 
connective tissue, neuroglia (a residue of the embryonal structure 
from which the nervous system was developed). Tumours and 
new growths must also be included. 

The modern conception of the " neurone " as an independent 
complex cell with branching processes, in physiological rather 
than anatomical association with other neurones, has modified 
our ideas of the morbid processes affecting the nervous system, 
especially as regards degenerations of systems, communities or 
collections of neurones subserving special functions. It was 
formerly believed, and generally taught, that the primary 
systemic degenerations were due to a sclerosis; thus locomotor 
ataxy was believed to be caused by an overgrowth of the sup- 
porting glia tissue of the posterior columns of the spinal cord, 
which caused a secondary atrophy of the nervous tissue. We 
now know that this overgrowth of glia tissue is secondary to the 
atrophy of the nervous elements, and the only true primary 
overgrowth of glia tissue is really of the nature of the new 
growth (gliosis). But even in this case it is doubtful if the mere 
proliferation of the glia tissue elements could destroy the nervous 
elements, if it were not for the fact that it leads to changes in 
the vessel walls and to haemorrhages. 

The symptoms manifested during life depend upon the nature 
of the morbid process and the portion of the nervous system 
affected. A correct understanding of neuropathology involves 



the study of (i) the causes which give rise to morbid conditions, 
which are often complex and due to various combinations of 
factors arising from without and within the body, and (2) the 
changes in the structure and functions of the nervous system 
brought about by intrinsic and extrinsic causes. 

The causes of pathological processes occurring in the nervous 
units (neurones) may be divided into internal and external, and 
it may be remarked that in all cases except direct injury the 
two groups are generally more or less combined. 

A. Internal Causes. Of all the causes of nervous disease 
hereditary predisposition stands pre-eminently first; it may be 
convergent, paternal, maternal; from grandparents or even 
more remote ancestors. Moreover, no study of heredity is com- 
plete that does not take into consideration collaterals. Especially 
does this statement apply to functional neuroses, e.g. epilepsy, 
migraine, hysteria and neurasthenia; and to psychoses, e.g. 
delusional insanity, mania and melancholia, manic-depressive, 
recurrent or periodic insanity and dementia-praecox or adolescent 
insanity. 

In 70% of 150 cases of idiocy or imbecility in the London county 
asylums, Dr Tredgold found a family history of insanity in some form 
or another. Strictly speaking, it is the tendency to nervous disease 
rather than the disease itself that is inherited, and this is frequently 
spoken of as a neuropathic or psychopathic taint. There are, 
besides, a number of inherited diseases, which, although somewhat 
rare, are of interest inasmuch as they affect members of a family, 
the same disease frequently commencing in each individual at about 
the same age. These are termed family diseases, and include 
hereditary ataxia (Friedreich's disease), myotonia (Thomson's 
disease), hereditary (Huntingdon's) chorea, amaurotic idiocy and 
various forms of idiopathic muscular atrophy. Alcoholism, tubercu- 
losis and syphilis in the parents, especially if one or both come from 
a neuropathic or psychopathic stock, frequently engender idiocy, 
imbecility, epilepsy and general paralysis in the offspring, by the 
production of defects in the vitality of the germinal plasm, causing 
arrest, imperfect development or premature decay of groups, com- 
munities or systems of neurones, especially those which are latest 
developed the symptoms manifested depending upon the portions 
of the nervous system affected. To explain the hereditary neuro- 
pathic tendency morphologically, we may suppose that there is an 
inherited defect in the germinal plasm which is concerned in the 
formation of the neurones. We may regard the neurone as a complex 
cell, and the nervous system as a community of neurones arranged in 
systems and groups having special functions. Like all cells, the 
neurone nourishes itself and is not nourished; certainly it depends 
for its development, life and functional activity upon a suitable 
environment, but it must also possess an inherent vital energy by 
which it can assimilate and store up nutrient material which may be 
regarded as potential (latent nerve energy), to be converted into 
nerve force as required. A constant constructive and destructive 
bio-chemical process occurs in the neurones of a healthy nervous 
system, latent nervous energy is high and the sense of fatigue is the 
natural indication for sleep and repose, whereby it is constantly 
recuperated. In the neuropathic or psychopathic individual it may 
be conceived that in some portion of the nervous system, especially 
the brain, there may exist communities, systems or groups of neu- 
rones with inherited low potential, readily becoming exhausted, and, 
under the influence of altered blood states or stress, especially liable 
to functional depression, from which arise function-paralysis and 
melancholia. Again, the bio-chemical substance which represents 
potential in the nervous system may be in a chemically unstable 
condition, so as readily to fulminate when excited by abnormal 
conditions (e.g. toxic conditions of the blood), thus acting as a centre 
of discharge of nervous energy, which may be manifested by mental 
or bodily symptoms. We know that in strychnia and tetanus 
poisoning the most localized peripheral excitation will cause general 
muscular spasm; in both toxic conditions the spread is probably 
due to a bio-chemical change in the protoplasm of the spinal neurones, 
whereby the excitability is greatly increased and a slight stimulus is 
sufficient to fulminate the whole system of motor neurones. In 
epilepsy and other paroxysmal neuroses and psychoses it is possible 
that some altered condition of the blood, when associated with an 
inherited bio-chemical instability of certain groups, systems or 
communities of neurones, may act as a fulminating agent. In 
neuralgia and local hyperaesthesia the slightest general or distant 
local irritation suffices to produce pain; thus coughing, the vibration 
of a passing train or the slamming of a door may produce pain by 
the stimulation of the hyper-excitable neurones. -Moreover, it must 
be borne in mind that the symptoms of nervous disease are due as 
much to normal physiological functional activity improperly applied, 
as to actual loss of function occasioned by disease. Thus squint, 
caused by paralysis of one of the muscles of the eyeball, causes less 
trouble to the patient than the double vision occasioned by the physio- 
logical activity of the two retinae, upon the corresponding points 
of which the images are prevented by the paralysis from falling. 



430 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



B. The external causes producing morbid changes in the 
nervous elements are: I. Abnormal conditions of the blood and 
lymph, by which the neurones are poisoned and their metabolism 
morbidly affected. II. Excess or deficiency of normal stimula- 
tion, or existence of abnormal stimulation. III. Injury or 
diseases of supporting, enclosing or vascular tissues. 

I. Abnormal Conditions of the Blood and Lymph. The im- 
mediate environment of all the cellular elements of the body is 
lymph, and in the central nervous system there is a special form 
of lymph, the cerebro-spinal fluid, which is secreted by the choroid 
plexus in the venticles of the brain. The neurones, like other 
cellular elements, are bathed in the lymph, and extract from it 
the materials necessary for their growth and vital activities, 
casting out the waste products incidental to the bio-chemical 
changes which are continually taking place. The lymph, there- 
fore, serves as a medium of exchange between the blood and the 
tissues, consequently the essential causes of change in environ- 
ment of the nervous elements (neurones) are: (i) Deficiency or 
absence of blood-supply to the nervous system in general (as 
after severe haemorrhage), or to some particular portion, owing 
to local vascular disturbance or occlusion. (2) Alterations in 
the normal condition of the blood, due to (a) deficiency or 
absence of certain essential constituents, (b) excess of certain 
normal constituents, (c) the presence of certain abnormal 
constituents produced within the body, or entering it from 
without. 

(1) Quantity of Blood Supply. Syncope or fainting occurs when the 
blood supply suddenly fails to reach the higher centres of the brain ; 
this usually arises from sudden reflex arrest of the heart's action. 
If a portion of the central nervous system is cut off from its arterial 
blood supply by embolic plugging or by clotting of the blood in a 
vessel with diseased walls, the portion of the brain substance thus 
deprived of blood undergoes softening, the nervous elements are 
destroyed, and the systems of nerve fibres, which have had their 
trophic and genetic centres in the area destroyed, undergo secondary 
degeneration. Clotting of the blood in the veins may also give rise 
to destructive softening of the brain, and similar secondary 
degeneration. 

(2) Quality of Blood Supply. (a) Insufficiency of oxygen, due to 
poverty of the colouring matter or of the number of the red corpuscles, 
which constitutes the various forms of anaemia, leads to functional 
depression, lassitude and mental fatigue. Impoverishment of the 
blood in women by frequent pregnancies and excessive lactation 
causes neuralgia, nervous exhaustion and, in the neuropath, hysteria, 
neurasthenia, melancholia and mania. The mental depression, and 
the tendency that the various neuroses and psychoses have to occur 
and recur at the time of the menstrual and climacteric periods in 
women, suggests the possibility of an alteration in the composition 
of the blood, either in the nature of an auto-intoxication or " sub- 
minimal deficiency," as the probable contributory factor of the 
mental disturbance. It may be remarked that eclampsia, puerperal 
and lactational mania are relatively common forms of insanity in 
women ; although sometimes of septic origin, they more frequently 
are occasioned by some morbid metabolism as yet little understood. 
The most striking examples we have, however, of the effect of 
absence or " sub-minimal " deficiency of a normal constituent of the 
blood upon the development and functions of the nervous system 
are afforded by cretinous idiots, who are born without thyroid glands, 
and whose brains never develop in consequence; and by those 
people who suffer from the disease known as myxoedema, occasioned 
by the absence of iodothyrin, a product of the internal secretion of 
the thyroid gland. The proof of this is shown by the disappearance 
of the nervous phenomena, slowness of thought, slowness of speech, 
&c., after a preparation of the gland has been continuously ad- 
ministered by the mouth. Even cretinous idiots when subjected in 
early life to thyroid treatment improve considerably. The removal 
of the testicles in the male may produce a profound effect upon the 
nervous temperament; for probably there is an internal secretion 
of this gland in the male, as of the ovary in the female, which has 
some subtle influence upon the functional activity of the nervous 
system. The seminal fluid contains a large amount of complex 
phosphorus-containing substances, which, lost to the body by 
sexual excess or onanism, have to be replaced by the blood; the 
nervous system, which also needs these complex organic phosphorus 
compounds, is thereby robbed, and neurasthenia ensues. Brown- 
Sequard s testicular injection treatment for many nervous com- 
plaints, based upon this idea, has not, however, met with much 
success. 

(6) Excess of certain Normal Constituents in the Blood. Excess of 
carbonic acid causes drowsiness, and probably in asphyxia is one of 
the causes of the convulsions. All the series of the nitrogenous 
waste products the most highly oxidized, most soluble and least 
harmful of which is urea are normal constituents of the blood ; but 



should the oxidation process be incomplete, owing to functional or 
organic disease of the liver, or should these substances accumulate in 
the blood, owing to inadequate function of the kidneys, a toxic 
condition, called uraemia, may supervene, the nervous manifestations 
of which are headache, drowsiness, unconsciousness or coma, epilepti- 
form convulsions and sometimes symptoms of polyneuritis. Again, 
in Graves's disease.neryous phenomena, in the form of exophthalmos. 
fine tremors, palpitation and mental excitement, have by some 
authorities been explained by the excess of thyroid internal secretion, 
due to the enlargement and increased functional activity of the 
gland. The successful treatment of Graves's disease by the ad- 
ministration of the blood serum and milk of animals (goats), which 
had the thyroid glands removed, supports this theory. 

(c) The presence of abnormal constituents in the blood is a most 
important cause of disease of the nervous elements. We may 
consider the subject under the following headings : Poisons produced 
within the body (a) by perverted function of organs or tissues, auto- 
intoxication ; (ft) by the action of micro-organisms, protozoa and 
bacteria, upon the living fluids and tissues of the body ;'()) poisons 
introduced into the body from without, in the food and drink, or 
by inhalation. 

(a) Poisons resulting from perverted Function of the Organs. In 
the process of digestion a number of poisonous substances, e.g. 
albumoses, &c., are produced, which, although absorbed in the ali- 
mentary canal, are prevented by the living epithelium, and possibly 
by the liver, from entering the systemic circulation. Fatigue pro- 
ducts, e.g. sarcolactic acid in prolonged muscular spasms, may lead 
to auto-intoxication. Excess of uric acid in the blood is associated 
with high arterial pressure, deposits of lithates in the urine, headache 
and nervous irritability; it is an indication of imperfect metabolism 
and auto-intoxication, as shown by the fact that marked improve- 
ment occurs by suitable diet and treatment. Phosphoruria, oxaluria 
and glycosuria, tokens of deranged metabolism, may be associated 
with various nervous phenomena. Bile in the blood, cholaemia, 
resulting from obstructive jaundice, may be attended by stupor and 
psychical depression; and the term melancholia, signifying " black 
bile," indicates the importance which has long been attached to the 
liver as an organ the derangement of which causes nervous depression. 
The rapidly fatal results attending acute yellow atrophy of the iiver, 
namely, the profound changes in the urine, the jaundice and the 
nervous phenomena of delirium, motor irritation, delusions, stupor 
and coma, demonstrate the important part this organ plays in pre- 
serving the normal quality of the blood. The delirium and coma 
which sometimes supervene in diabetes, heralded by acetonaemia, 
is another instance of auto-intoxication. The coma is very possibly 
due to the saturation of the sodium salts of the blood by aceto-acetic 
and oxybutyric acids, products of imperfect proteid metabolism. 
The effect of this would be an interference with the elimination of 
carbonic acid in the processes of tissue and pulmonary respiration. 
Again, in pernicious and certain grave anaemias, the degenerative 
changes in the spinal cord found in some cases is due, not so much 
to the defect in the red corpuscles, as to some neuro-toxin.which 
probably arises from imperfect metabolism or absorption from the 
alimentary canal. In this question of auto-intoxication, it must be 
remarked that all the tissues of the body are mutually interde- 
pendent. If one suffers, all suffer, and a disease of one organ or tissue 
is thereby apt to establish a vicious circle which is constantly en- 
larging; therefore nervous symptoms manifesting themselves in the 
course of a disease add much to the gravity of the complaint. 

03) Poisons produced by Infective Micro-organisms. Some of these 
poisons have a general devitalizing influence, by an alteration of the 
blood and the production of fever. In the course of the acute 
infectious diseases, typhoid, typhus, smallpox, scarjet fever, measles, 
influenza, also tuberculosis and septicaemia, delirium is a frequent 
complication; it may be the result of high fever or prolonged fever, 
or directly due to the poison, or the two combined. In severe cases 
stupor and coma may occur, and it has been shown that in this 
extreme stage the nerve cells undergo an acute morbid bio-chemical 
change. These particular poisons have no selective toxic action upon 
a particular part of the nervous system, and symptoms not only 
during, but after, the acute illness are liable to supervene, especially 
in a neuropathic individual. Thus many cases of neurasthenia, 
insanity, neurosis, also neuritis, date their origin from an acute 
specific fever. In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tubercular meningitis, 
acute delirious mania and leprous neuritis, the inflammation of the 
membranes of the brain and spinal cord is due to the growth of the 
specific organism in the lymph and interstitial tissue elements. 

Poisons may have a selective influence upon some part of the nervous 
system. The syphilitic poison is the most important factor in the 
production of two progressive degenerations of the nervous system 
one affecting especially the afferent conducting tracts of the spinal 
cord, namely, locomotor ataxy, and the other affecting espe -ially 
the frontal and central convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres, 
namely, general paralysis of the insane^. A striking instance of the 
selective action of the syphilitic poison is shown in the fact that only 
in persons affected with acquired or inherited syphilis is a syi iptom 
known as Argyll-Robertson pupil found ; this is the absence of the 
pupil reflex contraction to light, while that for accommodation 
persists. Seeing that this is the most common objective phenomenon 
in the two diseases mentioned, it strengthens the presumption, 




NEUROPATHOLOGY 



PLATE I. 



FlG. I. Left hemisphere, case of delusional 
insanity; this in all respects might pass for a 
normal brain. 





FIG. 3. Left hemisphere, case of abscess 
of the frontal lobe: the convolutions and 
sulci are obliterated and the membranes 
thickened, so that the fore part of the 
brain presents the appearance of a mem- 
branous bag; this contained a large amount 
of pus. 




FIG. 2. Brain of a micro-cephalic idiot, 
which weighed only eight ounces although 
its possessor was an adult woman. The 
striking lack of development of the 
hemispheres is shown in their small 
size, whereby the cerebellum is 
almost entirely uncovered ; more- 
over the convolutional pattern 
is simpler than that of an an- 
thropoid ape's brain. 




FIG. 4. Right hemisphere seen from above 
instead of laterally : a hole corresponding to the 
middle of the central convolutions is seen, out of 
which a tumour is Displaced towards the middle 
line. 



w 




FIG. 7. Left hemisphere: a case of ad- 
vanced dementia, showing atrophy of the 
convolutions, with deep and wide sulci in- 
tervening. 




FIG. 6. Brain from a case 
of apoplexy: the tops of 
the hemispheres have been 
sliced off to show the hae- 
morrhagp (dark patch) in 
the right centrum ovale, 
which has ruptured the 
FIG. 5. Left hemisphere of a woman who for n years fibres proceeding from the 
suffered with Motor aphasia paralysis of the lower half of the motor a ea of th j b . raln ; 
right side of the face, deviation of the tongue to the right sl uated between the basal 
and some weakness in the right leg and arm. ganglia. 




FIG. 8. The brain of an adult congenital imbecile. 
There is a very simple convolutional pattern in com- 
parison with the other brains shown in the figures. 
The convolutions are small, the secondary gyri are 
deficient in numbers. The sylvian fissure turns 
obliquely upwards and there is an obvious deficiency 
in the superior and inferior parietal lobes. 





FIG. 9. Right hemisphere of a woman who for many years was the 
subject of sensory aphasia. The left hemisphere showed a similar 
lesion to the right but rather more extensive. 



FIG. 10. Left hemisphere and cerebellum of a case of porencephaly. 
A local atrophy of the convolutions, owing to a vascular lesion 
before birth, is seen in the parietal lobe. 



PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE BRAIN (ABOUT $ THEIR NATURAL SIZE) ILLUSTRATING VARIOUS 

PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 



PLATE II. 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 




FIG. I. Trypanosoma gambiense in the 
blood from a case of sleeping sickness in 
a European. The undulatory membrane 
is clearly seen ; the head of the organism 
with its micronucleus is in contact with 
a red blood corpuscle. Magnification 
2000 diameters. 




FIG. 2. A. and B. The spirochaete 
pallidum. A shows the organisms seen 
in a section of mucous tubercle stained 
by Levaditi's silver method ; the lowest 
with 8 equal spirals and a pointed end is 
the most typical. Magnification 1200. 
B. Spirochetes in a smear preparation 
stained by Leishman. Magnification 2260. 




FIG. 3. Section of the brain of a 
European who died of sleeping sickness, 
showing an enormous increase of large 
branching neuroglia cells around a small 
vessel of the cortex. Magnification 450. 




FIG. 4. Very marked syphilitic arter- 
itis, showing great diminution of the 
lumen, mainly caused by an inflammatory 
thickening of the inner coat. Magnifica- 
tion 5. 




FIG. 5. Section of the base of the 
brain of a monkey that died of experi- 
mental sleeping sickness caused by in- 
oculation of the Trypanosoma gambiense. 
Magnification 250. 




FIG. 6. Longitudinal section of a 
perivascular sheath of the cortex of a 
monkey that died of experimental 
sleeping sickness. The large branching 
neuroglia cells are seen undergoing pro- 
liferation. Magnification 600. 




FIG. 7. Longitudinal section of a 
small vessel of the cortex from a case of 
well-marked general paralysis of the 
insane. Magnification 250. 




FIG. 8. Transverse section of a small 
vessel of the cortex from a case of sleep- 
ing sickness, showing the perivascular 
cell infiltration of lymphocytes and 
plasma cells. Magnification 250. 



IT 

' s && 

* * V ' ' *" % \pr 

e Vt* W3> ** 

v^x^C 

' -. 



FIG. 9. Transverse section of a small 
vessel of the cerebral cortex from a case 
of syphilitic gummatous meningitis, show- 
ing the same perivascular cell infiltration 
of lymphocytes and plasma cells as seen 
in figs. 7 and 8. Magnification 250. 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



based on experience, that the syphilitic poison is the cause of these 
diseases in the majority of instances. Again, syphilis, when it 
attacks the supporting, enclosing and nutrient vascular tissues, 
shows a predilection to affect structures about the base of the brain, 
and paralyses of the third nerve are almost pathognomonic of this 
disease. In rabies, although the whole nervous system is charged 
with the poison, the medulla oblongata (as shown by the symptoms) 
is especially affected. Again, in' tetanus the bacilli are only found in 
the wound; they must therefore be comparatively few in number, 
but they elaborate a virulent poison, which affects particular groups 
of neurones. The fact that lockjaw nearly always occurs first, shows 
that the poison selects the motor nucleus of the fifth nerve ; but it is 
remarkable that experiment has shown that the tetanus toxin, if 
mixed with an emulsion of nervous matter before injection into an 
animal, loses its toxicity. This fact indicates its affinity for nervous 
matter, and also a power of absorption of the poison by some chemical 
substance in the iwffvous matter. Another example is offered by 
diphtheria. A neuro-toxin is produced by the local action of the 
bacilli, for they do not become freely generalized in the blood and 
tissues. Whether the poison is a direct production of the bacilli 
themselves, or is an auto-toxin created in the body itself, by an 
influence exerted on the living fluids and tissues by a ferment-like 
product of the bacilli, is not determined. But whatever may be the 
source of the toxin, its effects upon the neurones are constant, as 
shown by the sufferings of the patients paralysis of the soft palate, 
with nasal speech ancf regurgitation of fluids through the nose when 
swallowing is attempted; inability to read, owing to the paralysis 
of the muscle of accommodation; weakness and mco-ordination of 
the limbs, which may amount to paralysis; absence of the knee- 
jerks; and often skin anaesthesia 

The relation of protozoa to the existence of widespread diseases 
affecting men and animals is becoming yearly of 
greater importance and interest. -Certain hitherto ob- 
scure diseases in which the nervous Bvgtpm is profoundly 
affected are now explained by the inva's'lUll ol Uie tissues 
of the body by these lowly organisms, for example, 
Sleeping Sickness, the cause of which has been definitely 
proved to be the Trypanosoma gambiense (see Plate II. 



Protozoa 
and 

diseases 
of the 

nervous 
system. 

fig. I). 



The discovery by Schaudinn of the presence of the Spirochaete 
Pallida (see Plate II. fig. 2) in the primary and secondary lesions of 
seventy successive cases of syphilis, and the general acceptance of 
this organism as the cause of the disease, taken together with the 
fact that in many respects it simulates the trypanosome in its mode 
of division and other characters, tend to prove that syphilis is also a 
protozoal disease. 

The bacterial invasion of tissues is generally characterized by a 
migration of polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, but protozoal invasion 
is characterized by a formative hyperplasia of the fixed cell tissues, 
endothelial, epithelial and conjunctival, and there is a close similarity 
in the defensive reaction of the tissues to all forms of protozoal 
invasion (see Plate II. with explanatory text). 

If the cause of rabies be regarded as proved since the discovery of 
Negri bodies, we may assume that just as in malaria the Haematozoon 
malariae undergoes its endocellular development in the red blood 
corpuscle, the protozoon of rabies undergoes its endocellular de- 
velopment in the nerve cell. 

Only a short time has elapsed since Negri showed that in cases of 
rabies, whether experimental or otherwise, curious bodies measuring 
from i /i to 20 n could be constantly found in the nerve cells, and that 
these bodies are not found in the nerve cells in any other disease; 
so that even if the theory advanced that they are endocellular forms 
of protozoa prove not true, yet the discovery affords a valuable and 
expeditious means of determining whether a suspected animal 
suffered with rabies or not. It is known that the salivary glands and 
saliva contain the virus, even before the animal shows symptoms. 
It is known too that the central nervous system contains the virus 
and that it multiplies there. Experimental inoculation can be made 
either from the saliva or an emulsion of the central nervous system 
of an animal suffering with rabies. Moreover, the virus can pass 
through a Berkfeldt filter; and if the filtrable product be injected 
into an animal, the animal thus inoculated will die of rabies and 
exhibit the Negri bodies. There are only two conclusions to be drawn 
from these observations : (l) If it be a protozoal disease, the organism 
at one period of its developmental cycle must be so small as to be able 
to pass through the pores of the Berkfeldt filter. (2) Negri bodies 
are the result of intra-cellular degenerative changes caused by an 
elective affinity of the virus for the protoplasm of the nerve cell. 
The virus, whatever it may be, does not exist in the blood and other 
organs and tissues. Seeing that the Negri bodies cannot be found in 
the saliva, although the saliva contains the virus, nor can they be 
found in the peripheral nerves, although the virus passes by the 
lymphatics of the nerves to the nerve cells of the spinal ganglia and 
central nervous system, it must be concluded that the filtrable virus 
travels to the central nervous system and there increases. 

It is a remarkable fact that before the discovery of the Negri 
bodies, the diagnosis of rabies was made by microscopic examination 
of the spinal and sympathetic ganglia, particularly the ganglia of the 
vagus and fifth nerves. Changes were found similar to those met 
with in other protozoal diseases, namely, sleeping sickness, dourine 



and syphilis. These changes were proliferation of the interstitial 
connective tissue cells forming the supporting structure of the 
ganglion and hyperplasia of the lymphatic endothelial cells forming 
the capsule containing the nerve cells. 

The diagram here given (fig. i) after Volpino explains the supposed 
developmental cycle of the protozoon which is presumed to be the 
cause of rabies. The weak link in the chain is the assumed sporozoit 
which is so small as to be capable of passing through a Berkfeldt 
filter. It has taken twenty years to lead to the complete knowledge 
of the life history of the malarial parasite and its relation to the 
disease, and all we can say is that there is now a certain amount of 
evidence forthcoming which tends to show that rabies is due to a 
protozoon, which Calkins, who discovered a similar body in the 
epithelial cells of variola, places among the rhizopods. 

There are certain chronic trypanosome infections in which the 
nervous symptoms form a special feature of the disease, TWMHO- 
nptably sleeping sickness (see Plate II. fig. i) and a S0l ae^ 
disease affecting horses, termed mal de coit or dourine. /*;.. 

T*l_ !_ ff 1 Qi&KBaeS 

1 he chronic trypanosome affections resemble in many M| j 
respects syphilis ; they are characterized by local infection, a // ed / ons 
enlargement of the nearest lymphatic glands, a general oftl]e 
polyadenitis and successive eruptions, accompanied by 

-,., . r . J nervous 

fever. The tissue changes are the same whether we sysiem 

examine the primary seat of infection, papular eruptions 

on the mucous membrane or the skin, or the lymphatic glands. 

When the nervous system is affected a local or general chronic 
meningo-encephalitis is set up, characterized by a meningeal and 



8 



Stadlo del virus f iltrabik 




From a coloured plate 
Fischer. 



Centralblati far Bakleriolcgie, by permission of Gustav 

FIG. i. 



perivascular infiltration with lymphocytes and plasma cells, occa- 
sioned by a chronic irritative process, presumably caused in the 
case of sleeping sickness by the presence of trypanosomes in the 
cerebro-spinal fluid (see fig. 8, Plate II.). The same perivascular 
and meningeal infiltration with plasma cells and lymphocytes is 
found in syphilitic and parasyphihtic diseases of the nervous system 
(see Plate II., figs. 7 and 9). 

The significance of pathological changes in the cerebro-spinal fluid 
has recently become of great importance in the diagnosis of nervous 
diseases, and a short account of the subject in this article 
will therefore not be out of place. The cerebro-spinal 
fluid is clear like water; it has a specific gravity of 1006 reb 
and resembles in its composition the blood minus its 
corpuscular and albuminous constituents. It is secreted 
by the choroid plexus, and if any cause, such as tumour or 
meningitis, should interfere with its escape from the ventricles it 
gives rise by pressure to internal hydrocephalus and cerebral anaemia 
which may occasion epileptic convulsions and various degrees of 
drowsy stupor, lethargy, unconsciousness and even coma. With- 
drawal of the fluid by lumbar puncture and by tapping the ventricles 
of the brain has been employed in treatment, but without very 
satisfactory results. If, however, lumbar puncture has proved of but 
little use in treatment, it has proved of inestimable service in the 
diagnosis of various diseases of the central nervous system. The 
fluid withdrawn may be examined in various ways which are comple- 
mentary to one another. 

It should be centrifuged and the deposit examined microscopically 
if necessary after staining by suitable methods; the existence of cells 



splaal 

fluid. 



432 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



in a fluid which normally contains no cellular elements indicates 
disease of the central nervous system. In general paralysis, syphilis 
of the nervous system and tabes dorsalis even in early stages of these 
diseases, the deposit is seen to consist almost entirely of lymphocytes. 
Some evidence of the progress of the disease and the effect of treat- 
ment may be obtained by counting the number of cells at different 
periods. In tubercular meningitis there are also lymphocytes in 
abundance although usually tubercle bacilli cannot readily be found, 
yet bacilli are present, for injection of the fluid into a guinea pig is a 
certain means of determining whether it is tubercular meningitis or 
not; for if it is, the animal is sure to develop tubercle. In epidemic 
cerebro-spinal meningitis the cells in the deposit are polymorpho- 
nuclear leucocytes, and in the leucocytes can be seen the specific 
organism Diplococcus intracettularis with its characteristic staining 
and cultural characters. Septic, pneumonic and pypgenic organisms 
may also invade the central nervous system giving rise to meningitis, 
and in these cases the deposit will be polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, 
and perhaps the specific organisms may be seen in stained prepara- 
tions; but if not, they can be obtained by cultural methods. In all 
operations of this kind antiseptic precautions must be adopted both 
for the safety of the patient and the reliability of the findings, other- 
wise organisms in the skin may contaminate the fluid withdrawn. 

Other formed elements which may be found are large cells, macro- 
phages containing blood pigment; these cells indicate that some 
haemorrhage has occurred. One of the most important uses of 
lumbar puncture has been the discovery of the cause of sleeping 
sickness. The fluid withdrawn and centrifuged contains, as one 
would expect from the lesions in the brain and spinal cord, large 
numbers of lymphocytes and plasma cells (see Plate II. fig. 10), but 
besides, the actively moving organisms (Trypanosoma gambiense) 
(see Plate II. fig. i) which are the essential cause of the disease. It 
has been remarked that the normal cerebro-spinal fluid is devoid of 
proteins, but in the various forms of disease above described as con- 
taining cells in the centrifuged deposit, there is also in the fluid an 
appreciable amount of proteins. If pathological cerebro-spinal fluid 
be added to an equal quantity of saturated solution of sodium 
sulphate there will be a distinct turbidity indicating the presence of 
proteins in appreciable quantity. This appreciable quantity of 
proteins is especially significant in the case of fluid withdrawn from 
cases of general paralysis or tabes, for it goes pari passu in amount 
with a reaction which is known as the Wassermann sero-diagnostic 
reaction for syphilis; a reaction, however, which is too complicated 
to explain here, but which is of the greatest importance for the 
diagnosis of general paralysis and tabes dorsalis. The finding of the 
Trypanosoma gambiense in the cerebro-spinal fluid in sleeping sickness 
led to the belief that the specific organism of syphilis, Spirochoete 
pallidum might be found in the cerebro-spinal fluid in syphilitic 
diseases of the nervous system, but although in a few instances 
successful inoculation of animals with syphilis by injection of the 
cerebro-spinal fluid has been effected, yet the organism has only once 
been found in the fluid withdrawn by lumbar puncture. It has long 
been a puzzle why only certain individuals, about 5 %-8 % of those 
infected with syphilis, should subsequently suffer with diseases of the 
nervous system. The skin and mucous orifices are the most common 
sites of secondary and tertiary lesions and after this the nervous 
system, but no tissue or structure in the body is exempt. It is 
probable that the virus attacks tissues when in a low state of re- 
sistance in a random metastatic manner. It is necessary to dis- 
tinguish between these true syphilitic lesions which are the result of 
the reaction of the tissues to the living virus and the parasyphilitic 
affections, which own a different cause. The former may be most 
successfully treated with mercury, which has the power of devitaliz- 
ing the specific virus and preventing its multiplication, the same as 
atoxyl prevents the multiplication of the trypanosomes. Iodide of 
potassium favours the absorption of the degenerative products of the 
cells, and syphilitic tumours may rapidly resolve and disappear under 
the influence of these drugs. Nervous symptoms even so severe as to 
threaten a rapidly fatal termination may disappear with energetic 
treatment when they are due to the syphilitic virus producing an 
inflammatory reaction of the tissues; not so, however, when the 
symptoms are slow, insidious and progressive, due to a primary 
decay of the neurones, e.g. the parasyphilitic affections tabes dorsalis 
and general paralysis of the insane, which are really one and the same 
disease owning the same cause. We can understand that it may be 
a chance whether a man suffers with true brain or spinal cord 
syphilis, because it may be a chance whether the virus is carried 
there by the blood-vessels and lymphatics, and if carried there finds a 
suitable nidus to develop. But the parasyphilitic affections appear to 
be due to a premature primary decay of the neural elements owing to 
bio-chemical changes in the body induced by reaction to the syphilitic 
virus. There are a good many facts now forthcoming which show 
that the subjects of parasyphilis present mild symptoms of syphilis, 
and upon an average it is not until ten years later that they develop 
nervous symptoms, _which are aggravated rather than benefited by 
mercury. Such subjects are immune to a second attack of syphilis, 
and the examination of the blood and cerebro-spinal fluid by the 
Wassermann reaction of the deviation of the Complement reveals the 
fact that there is a bio-chemical change; the presence of this reaction 
may be correlated with the fact that these fluids contain lipoid sub- 
stances and a globulin in excess. The cerebro-spinal fluid contains 



these lipoid substances and globulin in proportion to the degree of 
decay of the neural structure; they arise from the destructive . 
metabolism of the neural elements. But the same lipoid substances 
and globulin are found only in the blood of syphilitic individuals, 
consequently it must be supposed that in general paralysis and tabes 
certain groups and systems of neurones undergo decay from ex- 
cessive metabolic activity which is brought about by two factors 
(i) a bio-chemical stimulus, the syphilitic poison, (2) excessive 
physiological stress, which in non-syphilitic individuals would only 
lead to cerebral or spinal neurasthenia. 

Sleeping Sickness is characterized by a progressive lethargy, 
paresis, tremors and the signs and symptoms of neural exhaustion 
without neural destruction; it comes on slowly and insidiously 
often years after infection and eventually terminates fatally by 
intercurrent disease or paralysis of the bulbar centres. Examination 
of the central nervous system explains the fatal lethargy; the 
perivascular and meningeal lymphatics are filled with lymphocytes 
and plasma cells (Plate II. fig. 6.); moreover, the neuroglia support- 
ing cells have undergone a rapid formative proliferation (Plate II. figs. 
3 and 5). The effect of this morbid process is to deprive the neural 
elements of oxygen and nutrition; the neurones in consequence, 
although not destroyed, are nevertheless unable to function for more 
than a brief period. 

(y) Poisons introduced into the Body. The most widespread and 
potent cause of nervous and mental disease is the abuse of alcoholic 
stimulants. At least 20 % of the inmates of the asylums of London 
are admitted with a history of alcoholism. In not more than 10 % is 
alcohol the efficient cause of the mental disease; in many it is only 
a contributory factor, and in not a few the lapse from moderation to 
intemperance is the first sign of the mental breakdown. Most of 
the patients admitted inherit the neuropathic tendency, and it is a 
rare thing, among such, to find cirrhosis of the liver with ascites, a 
condition which indicates long persistent spirit-drinking. The 
writer, from a very large experience as pathologist to the asylums of 
London, only remembers one such case, and that was in a notorious 
woman who was convicted nearly four hundred times for drunken- 
ness before she could be certified as of unsound mind, a fact which 
indicates that she inherited a very stable nervous constitution. To 
people with unstable nervous systems a relatively small quantity 
of alcohol may act as a poison. Thus epileptics, imbeciles, criminals, 
potential lunatics, hysterics, neurasthenics and the subjects of head 
injury are liable to become anti-social and dangerous to themselves 
and others by indulgence in quantities of alcohol which would have 
no harmful effect upon the mentally stable and sound individual. 
Alcohol may produce acute delirium, with fine tremors, and, gener- 
ally, visual hallucinations of a horrible nature, indicating acute toxic 
influence upon the brain. This apparently acute form of alcohol 
poisoning is met with in chronic inebriates especially; it is much 
commoner in men than in women, and it is remarkable how a severe 
injury or illness, such as pneumonia, will bring out delirium tremens 
in a drunkard. Chronic alcoholism manifests itself in a variety of 
ways according to the inborn temperament of the individual. The 
well-fed man with an inborn stable well-balanced mental organization 
is able to consume daily large quantities of alcohol with no other 
obvious effect than the lowered moral sense of indulgence in a vicious 
habit. However, chronic alcoholics form a large proportion of those 
convicted for crimes of violence, homicide, suicide and sexual 
offences. Alcohol acts especially upon the higher centres of the 
brain, and a drunken man may exhibit " the abstract and brief 
chronicle of insanity, going through its successive phases in a short 
period of time " (Maudsley). The effect on the nervous system of 
chronic tippling may be dementia, a very characteristic manifesta- 
tion of the mental degradation being absence of knowledge of time 
and place, personal illusions and loss of memory of recent events, 
indicating a failure of receptivity and of the formation of memory- 
pictures in the higher centres, mental confusion, delusions of persecu- 
tion, and especially a morbid jealousy with suspicions of fidelity of 
the husband by the wife or of the wife by the husband. A certain 
amount of improvement may occur when total abstinence is enforced, 
which shows the poison has damaged but not destroyed the nervous 
elements. There is also a form of mental disease characterized 
especially by hallucinations of hearing and vision, associated with 
delusions usually of a persecuting nature, unaccompanied by other 
marked mental disorder. Abstinence and proper control generally 
ends in recovery, but such cases so frequently relapse that it is_ fairly 
certain that alcohol is an exciting factor to a morbid or insane 
temperament. Besides mental symptoms of chronic alcoholic 
poisoning, there is frequently paralysis, affecting especially the lower 
limbs (structures suffer most where vitality is least), although the 
upper limbs, and even the respiratory muscles, may be affected in 
severe cases. The patient, usually of the female sex, becomes help- 
less and bedridden, and death frequently occurs from heart failure. 
Characteristic features of this affection are great tenderness on 
pressure of the muscles, especially of the calves, absence of reflexes, 
a variable degree of skin anaesthesia, wasting of muscles and altera- 
tion of the normal electrical reactions, and frequently pyrexia. There 
is no loss of control over the bladder and bowels, unless there is very 
marked dementia. This "complex of symptoms" points to a 
peripheral polyneuritis, although frequently changes occur also in the 
ganglion cells, from which the axis cylinders of the nerves have their 






NEUROPATHOLOGY 



433 



origin (vide figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). Alcoholic polyneuritic psychosis 
affecting women in many ways resembles delirium tremens; the 
fact that neuritis occurs much more frequently in women is probably 
associated with a greater liability to the influence of microbial 
toxins by absorption from the organs of reproduction. Many other 

poisons, notably lead and 
arsenic, the specific fevers 
before mentioned, syphilis 
and alterations of the blood 
due to imperfect meta- 
bolism, such as occur in 
diabetes and gout, may 
produce, or become impor- 
tant factors in producing, 
peripheral neuritis. The 
outbreak of arsenical 
neuritis from beer contain- 
ing this poison in Man- 
chester in 1900 is of in- 
terest, from the fact that 
the symptoms closely re- 
sembled acute alcoholic 
neuritis. A distinctive 
feature, however, was the 
pigmentation of the skin 
and the severity of the 
nervous symptoms. A 
disease which is common 
in the East, termed Beri- 
beri, is a form of neuritis, 
the cause of which is not 
exactly known (see BERI- 
BERI). Anaesthetic leprosy 
is an interstitial inflamma- 
tion of the nerves due to 
the Lepra bacillus. Among 
the nervous diseases due to 
occupation may be cited 
lead-poisoning. This is 
peculiar in selecting the 
nerve which supplies the 
extensor muscles of the 
wrist and fingers, so that 
dropped wrist is almost 
characteristic of this form 
of toxic neuritis. Lead 
also produces a chronic in- 
flammation of the cerebral 
cortex, Encephalitis satur- 
nina, causing a complex of 
symptoms, namely, de- 
mentia, loss of memory, 
weakened intellect, paresis 
and epileptiform seizures, 
hallucinations of sight and 
hearing, and mental 
exaltation or depression. 
Mirror-makers suffer with 
characteristic fine tremors, 
from the slow absorption of 
mercury into the system. 
Workmen at indiarubber 
factories may suffer from 
severe mental symptoms, 
owing to the inhalation of 
the fumes of bisulphide of 
carbon. Serious nervous 
symptoms have followed 
carbon monoxide poison- 
ing. Cases which have re- 
covered from the immedi- 
ate effects have suffered 
with dementia and symptoms of disseminated sclerosis, the result of 
multiple haemorrhagic softenings. 

There are a certain number of poisons, besides alcohol, which act 
upon the nervous system when continually entering the body as the 
result of a habit, namely, absinthe, ether, cocaine, opium, morphia, 
hashish and tobacco. Each of these poisons produces a train of 
symptoms denoting a selective influence upon certain parts of the 
nervous system. In illustration thereof may be mentioned impair- 
ment of central vision in tobacco amblyopia. 

The disease pellagra, an affection of the skin associated with de- 
generative changes in the brain and spinal cord and characterized by 
melancholy with suicidal impulses, sometimes mania associated with 
paresis, was long considered to be due to the eating of bad maize. 
But in 1910 the recent research on this disease, still in progress, 
seemed to negative this theory (see PELLAGRA). Another disease, 
ergotism, in an epidemic form, has affected poor people in Russia and 
North Germany when obliged to subsist upon bread made of rye 
which has been attacked by the ergot fungus. The poison thus intro- 




FiG. 5. 



FIGS. 2,3,4 ands- Spinal motor cells 
in various stages of destruction, from a 
case of acute alcoholic poly-vacuolation. 
Compare with the appearances of a nor- 
mal cell, fig. 12. 




duced into the system produces progressive degenerative changes in 
the brain and spinal cord, which are manifested by psychical dis- 
turbances, such as slowness of thought, weakness of memory, dulness 
of perception, sometimes 
delirium and incoherence; - 

othersymptomsareblunted 
sensibility, dilated pupils, 
muscular spasms, perhaps 
even epileptiform seizures 
and ataxy, and, lastly, 
stupordeepeningintocoma. 
Sausage disease, due to eat- 
ing decayed meat and fish 
infected with Bacillus bolu- 
linus, is associated with 
symptomswhichfrequently 
terminate fatally, and it 
has been shown that the 
symptoms are due to a 
poison which has a very 
destructive effect upon the 
nerve cells (fig. 6). 

II. Normal and Abnor- 
mal Stimulation. The 
nervous system, irf order 
to develop and manifest 
functional activity, re- FIG. 6. Cell illustrating swelling of 
quires suitable stimula- nucleus and chromatolysis in acute tox- 
tion from without Strnr aemia produced by poison of bacillus 
mt. btruc- botulinus Compare with the appear- 
ture and function are ances presented by a normal cell, fig. 12. 
mutually reciprocal and 

interdependent; for a structure which is not used will 
gradually lose its function, while its nutrition will also 
suffer, and in time atrophy may occur. Consciously and 
unconsciously, a continuous stream of impulses is pouring into 
the nervous system from without by the sensory channels, 
which are the avenues of experience and intelligence, and our 
somatic and psychical life depends upon the existence of such 
stimuli. The nervous system in the form of systems, groups and 
communities of neurones, each with special functions, yet all 
woven together in one harmonious whole, develops in a particular 
way in consequence of the awakening influence of these stimuli 
from without. Consequently nervous structures which are not 
used are liable to undergo regressive metamorphosis and atrophy ; 
thus amputation of a limb in early life causes atrophy of the 
nervous structures which presided over the sensation and 
movement of the part. This is seen both in the grey and white 
matter of the spinal cord; there is also an atrophy of the psycho- 
motor neurones of the brain presiding over the movements of 
the limb. 

A healthy physical, intellectual and moral environment of the 
individual is an essential factor in the prevention and cure of psy- 
choses and neuroses, because it tends to develop and strengthen body 
and mind, deliberation, judgment and the higher controlling functions 
of the brain. A function not used will gradually disappear, and 
become more and more difficult to evoke. This fact is of importance 
in functional neuroses and psychoses, e.g. hysterical paralysis, 
melancholia and delusional insanity, because the longer mental or 
bodily function is left in abeyance, the more likely is the defect to 
become permanently installed. The converse is also true; the 
longer a perverted function exists, the more unlikely it is to disappear. 
Thus auditory hallucinations, a very important and frequent 
symptom in the insane, commence with indistinct noises: these are 
followed by " voices," which eventually become so distinct and real 
that the greater part of the patient's psychical existence is con- 
centrated upon, and determined by, this abnormal stimulus from 
within, indicating progressive strengthening and fixation of the 
perverted functions of the mind, and progressive weakening and 
dissolution of the normal functions. 

Mental pain in the form of grief, worry, anxiety, fright, shock, 
violent emotions (pleasurable or painful), disappointed love, sexual 
excesses or perversions, and excessive brain work, frequently precede 
and determine, in persons with the insane or neuropathic taint, 
various forms (a) of psychoses, e.g. mania, melancholia, delusional 
insanity; (b) of neuroses, e.g. chorea, hysteria, epilepsy, hystero- 
epilepsy; (c) or organic brain disease, e.g. apoplexy, thrombosis, 
general paralysis. 

Visceral reflex irritation affords many examples of neuroses and 
psychoses, the symptoms of which are set up by irritation of the 
viscera, e.g. intestinal worms. Teething and indigestible food are 
often the exciting cause in infants and young children of convulsions, 
spasms of the glottis and tetany. Various functional and organic 



434 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



diseases of the female reproductive organs act as exciting causes in 
the production of hysteria, hystero-epilepsy, melancholia and 
mania; moreover, paroxysmal attacks in these diseases are more 
liable to occur at the menstrual period or menopause. The irritation 
of a carious tooth may produce spasmodic tic and trigeminal neuralgia. 
Wax in the car may occasion vertigo and tinnitus; and errors of 
refraction in the eyes may be the cause of attacks of migraine, and 
even tend to excite epileptic fits in a person suffering from epilepsy. 
Numerous other examples of peripheral disturbance could be 
mentioned as exciting causes of nervous affection in neurotic indi- 
viduals. Irritation of the terminals of the vagus in almost any part 
of its widespread visceral distribution may lead to vomiting. The 
characteristic pain of angina pectoris, which radiates down the inner 
side of the left arm, is explained by the fact that the cardiac branches 
of the sympathetic arise from the same segments of the spinal cord 
as the sensory branches of the ulnar nerve; consequently the pain is 
referred to the corresponding skin area supplied by this nerve. This 
is one example of a great number of referred pains. 

III. Injury or disease of enclosing or supporting structures 
may lead to paralytic or irritative lesions of the nervous system, 
or the two may be combined. Blows or wounds of the head and 
spine may damage or destroy the nervous structures by shock 
or direct injury. Concussion of the brain or spinal cord may 
occur, as a result of injury, without any recognizable serious 
damage of the enclosing structures or even the central nervous 
system. Shock, due to concussion, can only be explained by a 
molecular or bio-chemical change in the nervous structures. 

Direct injury or a fall fracturing the skull, driving the frag- 
ments into the brain, will cause direct destruction of the nervous 
tissue; but wounds and diseases of the enclosing and supporting 
structures, if producing simple non-infective inflammation, give 
rise only to such symptoms as accord with the nerve structure 
irritated or destroyed. Should, however, the wound or diseased 
structure become infected with micro-organisms, the disease 
spreads and becomes generalized likewise the symptoms. Of 
all the causes of infective inflammation, middle-ear disease, on 
account of its frequency and insidious onset, is the most im- 
portant. It is very liable, when neglected, to be followed by a 
septic meningitis, encephalitis and brain abscess, the most 
frequent seat of which is in the adjacent temporal lobe, but it 
may be in other parts of the brain, e.g. the cerebellum and frontal 
lobe (Plate I. fig. 3). The peripheral nerves may be destroyed 
or irritated by direct injury, disease or new growth in adjacent 
tissues, or they may be involved in the callus thrown out round 
the seat of a fracture. 

Diseases of the blood-vessels are among the most frequent 
causes of organic brain disease. Arteries or veins more fre- 
quently the former may become blocked or ruptured from 
various causes. The immediate effect is a disturbance or loss of 
consciousness, and the individual may be " struck down " (see 
APOPLEXY) and never regain consciousness (see COMA). Should 
the individual recover consciousness more or less permanent loss 
or disturbance of function will be the result. Paralysis of some 
form, especially hemiplegia, is the commonest result, but the 
loss or disturbance of function will depend upon the seat of the 
injury. 

The cerebral arteries may be occluded by embolism ; a portion of 
a clot or vegetation from a diseased valve of the left side of the heart 
may be detached, and escape into the circulation; and this is carried 
into one of the arteries of the brain, usually the middle cerebral, more 
often of the left side than the right. The area of brain tissue supplied 
by that artery is deprived of blood, and undergoes softening in 
consequence, resulting in paralysis of the opposite half of the body 
(hemiplegia) associated with aphasia when the paralysis affects the 
right side in a right-handed person (Plate I. figs. 5 and 9). When 
the embolus is infective, as it frequently is in ulcerative endocarditis, 
its lodgment in an artery of the brain, not only blocks the vessel but 
leads to an infective inflammation and softening of its coats, with 
the formation of an aneurism. The aneurism may suddenly rupture 
into the substance of the brain and produce apoplexy. In fact the 
majority of cases of apoplexy from cerebral haemorrhage recurring 
in young people are due to this cause. Softening may also arise from 
coagulation of the blood (thrombosis) in the arteries or veins. There 
are many causes which generally combine or conspire together to 
produce thrombosis, viz. a weak acting heart and altered conditions 
of the blood, and sometimes independently of vascular disease 
spontaneous coagulation in a vessel of the brain may occur. It is 
sometimes met with in the cachexia of certain grave diseases, viz. in 
phthisis and cancer, in typhus and pneumonia, after parturition and 



in marasmus at all periods of life, but especially in the very young 
and very old. But thickening, roughening and a degenerated con- 
dition of the cerebral arteries known as atheroma when associated 
with a weak acting heart is especially liable to give rise to thrombosis 
and softening, and this is a very common cause of apoplexy, paralysis 
and dementia in people who have passed middle life. General 
disease of the arteries of the body, associated especially with chronic 
Bright's disease and high arterial pressure, is frequently attended 
with the formation of minute miliary aneurisms upon the cerebral 
arteries, which may rupture and cause apoplexy. Haemorrhage into 
the brain from this cause is especially liable to occur in certain 
situations; one vessel in particular, supplying the basal ganglia, 
most frequently gives way, the effused blood tearing through the 
motor efferent fibres, which, proceeding from the cerebral cortex in 
the shape of a funnel, become aggregated together to form the neck 
between the two masses of grey matter the optic thalamus and the 
corpus striatum (Plate II. fig. 6). The result is hemiplegia of the 
opposite side of the body. Disease of the arteries of the central 
nervous system, occurring in a person under forty, is generally due to 
syphilis, the virus of which produces an inflammation of the coats of 
the vessel, especially the inner (see Plate II. figs. 4, 9, 10). The 
thickening and narrowing of the lumen with loss of elasticity of the 
arteries of the brain generally, may suddenly or gradually set up 
conditions of cerebral anaemia and give rise to semi-comatose and 
comatose or even apoplectic states. Occlusion by the inflammatory 
proliferation or by the sudden clotting of blood in the diseased vessel 
may occur, the immediate effect of which may be an epileptic or 
apoplectic fit; the result is softening; and seeing that any or all 
the arteries of the brain may be affected successively, simultaneously, 
or at random, the symptoms may be manifold. They may be general 
or local, and not uncommonly are associated with inflammation of 
the membranes. The disease, under treatment, may abate, and the 
paralytic or mental phenomena partially or completely disappear, 
indicating the restoration, or partial restoration, of the circulation in 
the diseased arteries; sometimes with the lapse of treatment and 
sometimes without, new symptoms, such as paralysis of a fresh 
group of muscles or of the opposite side of the body, may manifest 
themselves, showing that the disease has attacked a fresh set of 
arteries. Disseminated sclerosis (insular) is another random morbid 
process, affecting especially the white matter, with certain character- 
istic symptoms of a progressive character, the pathology of which is 
not understood fully, but is probably due to some toxic cause. 
Islands of nervous tissue undergo a morbid change, commencing in 



Fool & Toei 
Hip Knee 



Great Toe 



Tactile & Muscular sensation 



Written Speech 
Hand 
Index 



Thumb __ 

Upper Face . 

Lower Face 
Motor Speech - 

Tongue 
Larynx 




Hearing, 
Auditory word 
Memory 



I 
Half Vision centre 



Movements of 
Eye (probable) 

Smell'' 

FIG. 7. Diagram of left cerebral hemisphere, showing localization 
of function. The motor region is situated in front of the central 
sulcus, and is arranged in a series from " toe to larynx " downwards, 
corresponding in an inverse manner to the spinal series. Irritation 
of any part o? this area will cause localized convulsive spasms, which 
may spread in a definite march to the whole motor area, as in 
Jacksonian epilepsy. Destructive lesions will cause paralysis. The 
centre for " taste and smell " is represented at the tip of the uncinate 
convolution. The centre for " half-vision " is only in small part 
represented, for the larger part is on the mesial surface. " Hearing " 
is represented occupying the posterior half of the first temporal 
convolution, but only a small part of the centre is seen, for the greater 
part lies above within the fissure of Sylvius. Included in this area, 
but in the left hemisphere only, is the centre for " auditory word 
memory " ; destruction of this causes inability to understand the 
meaning of words uttered, although the patient is able to read aloud. 
Behind this, in the angular gyms, is the centre for " visual word 
memory " ; destruction of this causes loss of power of understanding 
of written or printed words therefore inability to read. In front of 
the motor area is Broca's convolution, the centre of " motor speech " ; 
destruction of this produces motor aphasia, or inability to articulate 
words. Above this is a centre which is connected with written speech. 
These four centres concerned with verbal and written language are 
connected by commissural fibres, and destruction of these connexions 
leads to various defects in verbal and written language. It will be 
understood from this diagram that diseases of the left hemisphere in 
right-handed persons are associated with results of more significance 
than similar affections of the right hemisphere. 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



435 



the myelin sheath and ending in an increase of the supporting 
neuroglia tissue at the expense of the true nervous tissue. 

Tumours and new growths in the central and peripheral nervous 
systems may be primary or secondary: the former arise in the 
supporting, enclosing or nutrient tissue elements; the latter are 
metastatic deposits from tumours originating elsewhere. Tumours 
may be single or multiple, the special symptoms occasioned depending 




FIG. 8. Diagram of section of the spinal cord in the upper cervical 
region, showing recent degeneration of the crossed pyramidal tract of 
the right side and direct pyramidal tract of the left side. The black 
dots indicate the degenerated fibres stained by the Marchi method. 
This degeneration is secondary to haemorrhage into the internal 
capsule of the left hemisphere, and it will be observed by the number 
of degenerated fibres that the greater bulk have crossed over to the 
right side of the spinal cord, thus agreeing with the fact that the 
paralysis is of the right half of the body. 

^y a Association Neurons 
0] Cerebral Cortex 



CLa.rhes 
wicfi /ifferenC 
CerebetCar cr* 




Neuron of 
Ant Horn. 



fiaCe 

FIG. 9. A diagram to indicate afferent, efferent and association 
systems of neurones. It will be observed that there are three nervous 
circles indicated by the arrows spinal, cerebellar and cerebral. 
In every perfect co-ordinate movement impulses properly adjusted 
are flowing along these three systems of neurones. In systemic 
degenerations one or more of these systems may be affected, and the 
symptoms will depend partly upon the function which is lost or dis- 
turbed, and partly upon the disturbance of equilibrium of the three 
co-ordinated systems. 



upon the seat of the tumour and whether it destroys or only irritates 
the adjacent nervous tissue. Tumours situated within the cranial 
cavity cause general symptoms, namely, optic neuritis, severe head- 
ache and vomiting; these symptoms, which are caused by increased 
intracranial pressure, are more severe in rapidly-growing vascular 
tumours, even though small, than in large slow-growing tumours. 




FIG. 10. Diagram of spinal cord, fifth lumbar segment, from a 
case of advanced tabes dorsalis. The posterior column is shrunken, 
and but faintly stained, except in the anterior part; the shrinkage 
and the loss of stainability are due to the absence of fibres of the 
posterior roots, which normally form the greater part of this region 
of the cord. The fibres which are seen in the anterior part of the 
posterior column are derived from cells within the spinal cord, and 
belong to spinal association neurones. 




FIG. ii. Diagram illustrating the relative number and wealth of 
cells and fibres in the cerebral cortex in the normal brain, in amentia 
and dementia. The horizontal systems of fibres are association 
systems, and it will be observed that these are especially diminished 
in amentia, and still more in dementia, whereas the radial fibres are 
less affected. In the normal, there are five layers of cells arranged in 
columns (Meynert's); in the pathological conditions it will be ob- 
served that the pyramidal-shaped cells no longer have their apical 
processes pointing vertically upwards. The processes are broken off, 
the cells are distorted in shape and diminished in numbers, and the 
degree of dementia in a wasted brain is proportional to the atrophy 
and destruction of the small and medium-sized pyramids of the whole 
cerebral cortex, and the disappearance of the superficial layers of 
fibres. This is specially manifested in paralytic dementia and the 
dementia of chronic insanity. 



436 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



Some tumours are highly vascular and a large thin-walled vessel may 
suddenly rupture and cause an apoplectic fit. If the growth is 
situated in a portion of the cortex having some special localizing 
function, e.g. the motor area (vide fig. 7), it may give rise to epilepti- 
form convulsions, starting in a limb or definite group of muscles; 
but the irritation usually spreads to the whole motor area of the same 
side, and even extends to the opposite hemisphere, by an overflow 
of the discharge through the corpus callosum. In such case there is 
loss of consciousness. If, however, the tumour destroys the cerebral 
cortex of a particular region, it may give rise to a paralytic lesion, 
e.g. paralysis of the arm (vide Plate I., fig. 4). 

Organic diseases of the blood-vessels, or of supporting and 
enclosing tissues, produce secondary degenerations of the nervous 
system. The symptoms, like the lesion, are obvious, coarse and 
obtrusive; frequently arising suddenly, they may in a 
short time terminate fatally, or tend towards partial 
or complete recovery. Various forms of motor and 
sensory loss and disturbance of function may arise, 
indicating destruction or disturbance of particular 
regions of the central nervous system; and degenera- 
tions in certain tracts and systems of fibres arise, cor- 
responding in histological character with those ob- 
served when a nerve fibre is separated from its cell of 
origin by section (secondary degeneration of Waller 
and Turck) (vide fig. 8, with explanation). This form 
of degeneration must be distinguished from primary 
degeneration, which is due to an inherent nutritional 
defect of the nerve cell and all its processes (the 
neurone), in which a regressive metamorphosis occurs; 
it starts in the structures of the neurones latest 
developed (namely, the myelin sheath and the fine 
terminal twigs of the axis cylinder and dendrons), 
and proceeds back to the main branches and trunk, 
eventually destroying the trophic and genetic centre 
itself, the nerve cell. These primary degeneration pro- 
cesses are insidious in origin, progressive in character, 
and nearly always fatal in termination; they affect 
definite systems, groups and communities of neurones 
in a progressive manner, and, therefore, are associated 
with a progressive evolution of symptoms, related to 
the structures affected (vide figs. 9 and 10). 

To cite some examples: (i) Locomotor ataxy, on the one 
hand, is a primary degeneration affecting the afferent 
system of neurones ; it is characterized by muscular inco- 
ordination without wasting, inability to stand with the 
eyes shut, lightning pains in the limbs, absent knee-jerks, 
Argyll-Robertson pupils, and other symptoms pointing to 
a morbid process affecting especially the afferent sensory 
system of neurones. (2) Progressive muscular atrophy, on 
the other hand, is a disease of the efferent motor system 
of neurones of the brain and spinal cord, characterized by 
progressive wasting of groups of muscles innervated by 
groups of neurones which are undergoing degeneration. A 
fatal termination to this disease frequently arises from 
affection of the medulla oblongata, causing what is known 
as bulbar paralysis. Infantile paralysis is an acute 
inflammation of the anterior horns of the spinal cord, 
causing destruction of the spinal motor neurones of the 
anterior horn. It differs from the above chronic disease 
its sudden onset and non-progressive character; it 



of structures connected with the higher functions of the mind, 
namely, the association neurones in the superficial layers of the 
cerebral cortex (fig. n). Conditions of dementia, primary or 
secondary, are associated with progressive decay and atrophy of 
the superficial layers of the grey matter of the cortex, and naked- 
eye evidence thereof is afforded by partial or general wasting 
of the cerebral hemispheres, accompanied with thickening of 
the pia-arachnoid membrane, atrophy of the convolutions, and 
with deepening and widening of the intervening sulci (Plate I., 
fig- 7)- 

The cerebro-spinal fluid fills up the space in the cranial cavity 
caused by the atrophy of the brain; consequently there is a great 




FIG. 13. 



FIG. 12. 




FIG. 14. 



FIG. 16. 



resembles it in producing paralysis of muscles without 
sensory disturbance. (3) General paralysis of the insane 
is a degeneration which begins in the association system 
of neurones of the cerebial cortex, but which may be, 
and frequently is, associated with degeneration of the 
afferent or efferent systems (fig. 9). 

Neuroses and psychoses have not hitherto been 
satisfactorily explained by definite morphological 
changes in the brain (Plate I., fig. i). We know little 
or nothing accurately about the morbid histology 
of insanity, except as regards the morphological 
changes met with in cases of amentia and dementia. The 
conditions of amentia, namely, idiocy and imbecility, are 
associated with arrest of development of the brain, as a whole 
or in part, the naked-eye evidence of which may be afforded 
by small size and simplicity of convolutions of the brain as a 
whole or in part (Plate I., figs. 2, 8 and 10) ; and the microscopical 
evidence by arrest of development, or imperfect development, 



Motor Cells, drawn from Microphotographs of Preparations stained by NissI 
method to show Microchemical Changes produced by various diseases. 

FIG. 12. Normal motor cell from cerebral cortex, showing a mosaic pattern 
of the cytoplasm due to a substance stainable by basic aniline dyes; this stain- 
able substance exists also on the dendrons. By comparing the appearances of 
this cell with the other figures a just idea can be obtained of the morbid 
changes which result in various pathological conditions. 

FIG. 13. Cell from a case of hyper-pyrexia disappearance of the mosaic 
pattern, substance uniformly stained; absence of the chromatic elements on 
the dendrons, due to a precipitation of cell-globulin by the heat. 

FIG. 14. Cell in an advanced stage of coagulation necrosis, complete absence 
of mosaic pattern; diffuse fine dust-like stain; breaking off of the processes; 
all caused by softening of the brain from vascular obstruction. 

FIG. 15. Another specimen from the same brain in a still more advanced 
stage of destruction, and showing a phagocyte attached to the cell and devouring 
the decayed structure. 

FIG. 16. A cell with enormously swollen nucleus, the result of hydration 
due to absorption of fluid after ligature of cerebral vessels. Such a cell will 
probably recover. 






excess of this fluid. Before general paralysis was recognized as a 
disease some of the cases which died suddenly in a fit were doubtless 
termed serous apoplexy. This wasting so characteristic of general 
paralysis is especially due to atrophy of the cells and fibres of the 
superficial grey matter of the cortex, sections of which, examined 
microscopically, after suitable methods of staining have been 
employed, show great poverty, or complete loss, of three sets of 
delicate myelinated fibres, namely, tangential, super-radial and the 
inter-radial corresponding to the line of Baillarger. This degeneration 



NEUROPATHOLOGY 



437 



of the superficial association fibres of the cerebral cortex affects 
especially the frontal and central convolutions, and is the earliest 
and most constant microscopical change in progressive paralytic 
dementia; it is accompanied usually by meningeal and vascular 
changes, atrophy of the nerve cells, and proliferation of the neuroglia 
(fig. n); especially characteristic is the perivascular infiltration 
with lymphocytes and plasma cells (see Plate II., fig. 7). It was 
indeed thought that this condition of the vessels was pathognomonic 
of general paralysis; it certainly is not, for it is found throughout 
the central nervous system in sleeping sickness and cerebro-spinal 
syphilis (Plate II., figs. 8 and 9). It sometimes occurs in the neigh- 
bourhood of cerebral tumours but it is not found in uraemia or lead 
encephalitis. Possibly new methods may enable us to show changes 
of structure in diseases such as epilepsy and delusional insanity, in 
which hitherto no naked eye or microscopical structural defects 
accounting for the symptoms have been certainly demonstrated. 

In conditions of acute mania there is usually considerable vascular 
engorgement. We should, however, probably be more correct in 
assuming that insanity (especially those forms in which there_ is 
neither amentia or dementia) is due to alterations in the quality 




FIG. 17. Diagram to illustrate various stages in degeneration and 
regeneration of medullated nerve fibres. 



1, Normal medullated nerve with 

node of Ranvier. 

2, Degenerated nerve, ten days 
after section, showing de- 
generated myelin stained 
black; disappearance of axis- 
cylinder. 

3, Central end of cut nerve, show- 

ing at the top an axis-cylinder 
budding out, proliferated 
neurilemmal cells, and still 
some degenerated myelin in 
sheath. 

4, Peripheral cut end of same, 
showing proliferated neuri- 
lemmal cells, still some de- 
generated myelin. 



5, Complete absorption of de- 

generated myelin, proto-plas- 
mic basis of new fibre formed 
out of neurilemmal cells. 

6, A new fibre, with axis-cylinder. 

7, Central end of cut nerve at 

junction, showing an axis- 
cylinder sprouting and form- 
ing a number of axis-cylinder 
processes, which grow into the 
peripheral end to form new 
channels of conduction. 

8, Is a new regenerated fibre re- 

sembling a sympathetic fibre 
in having as yet no myelin 
sheath; as the nerve becomes 
excitable and stimulus passes, 
a myelin sheath is formed. 



rather than the quantity of blood in the brain. The primary de- 
mentia of adolescence, which in 80% of the cases occurs before the 
age of 25, in which hereditary taint is most common, and which 
frequently is accompanied by, or terminates in, tuberculosis, can be 
explained by the effect of toxaemic conditions of the blood on 
cerebral neurones with an inborn low specific energy and metabolic 
activity. The histological changes found in the brain do not serve to 
explain the symptoms, and we must look to bio-chemical changes in 
the body acting upon an innately unstable brain to explain the 
problems of the disordered mind in this disease. 



Microscopical Changes in Degeneration of the Neurone. 
About 1850, Waller demonstrated that a nerve fibre underwent 
degeneration to its termination when separated from its cell 
of origin; hence the term "Wallerian degeneration." Embryo- 
logical researches by Professor His showed that the axis-cylinder 
process (the essential conducting portion of the nerve fibre) 
is an outgrowth of the nerve cell. The cell, therefore, is the 
trophic and genetic centre of the nerve fibre. Acute alterations 
and death of the nerve cells may occur from toxic conditions of 
the blood; from high fever (io7-no F.); arrest of the blood 
supply, as in thrombosis and embolism; or actual destruction 
by injury, haemorrhage or inflammation. These morbid pro- 
cesses produce, as a rule, bio-chemical as well as morphological 
changes in the nerve cell and its processes. Space will not allow 
of a full description, but some of these changes are indicated 
in figs. 18-22, with explanatory text. When a nerve cell dies, 
the nerve fibre undergoes secondary degeneration and death; 
that is to say, the whole neurone dies, and regeneration, at any 
rate in the higher vertebrates, does not take place. Restoration, 
or partial restoration, of function is due to other structures taking 
on the function, and the more specialized that function is, the less 
likely is restoration to 
take place. If, however, 
a peripheral nerve is 
divided, its component 
fibres are merely severed 
from their cells of origin. 
All that portion of the 
nerve which is in con- 
nexion with the nerve 
cells of origin practically 
undergoes no change. The 
peripheral portion un- 
dergoes degeneration, but 
from the central end of 
the nerve new axis cylin- 
ders again grow out and 
a new nerve is formed. 
With this regeneration 
comes restoration of FJG l8 ._ D ; drawn from 

function, which may be photomicrograph to show different 
hastened by suturing the forms of neuroglia cells in a patch of 
ends of the cut nerve, sclerosis secondary to degeneration and 
A similar regeneration, disappearance of the neurones. Ob- 

' oe*r\rt* f no lo*-rr Km nr-rnari e^t->\ Ic r\t I IAI t-Ai*o 




however, does not occur 



serve the large branched cells of Deiters. 



after section of fibres of the white matter of the central ner- 
vous system, and this may be due to the fact that the nerve 
fibres of the white matter of the cerebro-spinal axis possess 
no nucleated sheath of Schwann, which, by the light of recent 
investigations, is shown to play an important part in regenera- 
tion; in the writer's opinion, the neurilemmal sheath of the old 
fibre forms a new protoplasmic basis, into which the axis- 
cylinder from above grows, the passage of stimulus determining 
its function. Fig. 17, Nos. 1-8, with explanatory text, shows 
the changes which occur in degeneration and regeneration of a 
peripheral nerve after section, with loss of function; and sub- 
sequent union, with restoration of function. The writer, in 
conjunction with Professor Halliburton, has shown that the 
characteristic microscopical changes in the myelin sheath which 
occur in the process of degeneration are due to a splitting up 
of the complex phosphoretted substance " protagon " into 
glycero-phosphoric acid, choline and oleic acid by a process of 
hydration. The Marchi reaction, which has been found so useful 
for demonstrating degeneration of the central and peripheral 
nervous systems, is dependent upon the fact that the myelin 
sheath, after hardening in a solution of bichromate of potash, does 
not turn black when acted upon by osmic acid, whereas the simpler 
non-phosphoretted fatty product of degeneration is stained black. 
When the Marchi reaction of degeneration is fully developed, 
it has been ascertained that the nerve yields no phosphorus. 
The degeneration resulting from section of a nerve is termed 
secondary, to distinguish it from another, primary, due to slow 



438 



NEUROPTERA 



and progressive decay of the whole neurone, beginning usually 
at the terminal twigs and proceeding back towards the cell body 
with its contained nucleus. These primary degenerations 
involve systems of neurones, correlated by function rather than 
by anatomical situation. Examples are afforded by locomotor 
ataxy and progressive muscular atrophy, the former being a 
degeneration of the afferent sensory system of neurones, the 
latter of the motor efferent system. The cause of primary 
degenerations is probably a defect inherited or acquired in the 
" vita propria " of the neurones affected. They slowly atrophy 
and disappear, and their place is filled up by an overgrowth 
of the supporting neuroglia tissue (figs. 10 and 18). This over- 
growth of dense tissue is termed sclerosis, and was erroneously 
considered to be the cause, instead of the effect, of the atrophy 
of the nervous tissue. 

For further information the reader may consult the Croonian 
Lectures on the Degeneration of the Neurone, by F. W. Mott, 
published in the Lancet (1900); and the same writer's " Introduc- 
tion to Neuropathology," in Albutt's System of Medicine. Also 
Gower's Handbook of the Nervous System, von Monakow's Gehirn 
Pathologie, Ford- Robertson's Pathology of Mental Diseases and 
Mott's Archives of Neurology, vols. I, 2, 3 and 4. (F. W. Mo.) 

NEUROPTERA (Gr. vtvpov, a nerve, and irrtpbv, a wing), 
a term used in zoological classification for an order of the class 
Hexapoda (q.v.). No ordinal name used in the class has had so 
many varying meanings given to it by different authors. As 
first used by Linnaeus (1735) it included all insects with mandi- 
bulate jaws and two pairs of net-veined wings dragon-flies, 
May-flies, stone-flies, lacewing-flies and caddis-flies and it has 
been employed in the same wide sense by D. Sharp (Cambridge 
Nat. Hist. vol. v., 1895). But detailed study of these various 
groups of insects shows that beneath their common superficial 
resemblances lie important distinctions in structure, and essential 
differences in the course of the life-history. Some of the families 
the stone-flies, for example have the young insect much like 
the adult, growing its wings visibly outside the thoracic segments, 
and active at all stages of its life. The dragon-flies and May-flies 
are also active throughout their lives and possess external wing- 
rudiments, though the young insects differ rather strikingly 
from their parents. All such families falling into the group 
Exopterygota as defined in the classification of the Hexapoda 
were separated from the Neuroptera by W. E. Erichson (1839) 
and united with the Orthoptera, with which order some ento- 
mologists still associate them under the name of " Pseudo- 
neuroptera." The other groups of the old Linnean order (such 
as lacewing-flies and caddis-flies) which are hatched as larvae 
markedly unlike the parent, develop wing-rudiments hidden 
under the larval cuticle, and only show the wings externally 
in a resting pupal stage, passing thus through a " complete " 
metamorphosis and falling into the sub-class Endopterygota 
were retained in the order Neuroptera, which thus became much 
restricted in its extent. More recently the subdivision of the 
Linnean Neuroptera has been carried still further by the separa- 
tion of the caddis-flies and scorpion-flies as distinct orders 
(Trichopteraand Mecaptera respectively), and by the withdrawal 
of the " Pseudo-neuroptera " from the Orthoptera with whose 
typical families they have little in common and their division 
into a number of small orders. Altogether, eight orders are 
recognized in the classification adopted here, the first five of 
these belonging to the sub-class Exopterygota and the last three 
to the Endopterygota (see HEXAPODA). 

The multiplication of orders is attended with practical diffi- 
culties, and the distinctions between the various groups of the 
Linnean Neuroptera are without doubt less obvious than those 
between the Coleoptera (beetles) and the Diptera (two-winged 
flies) for example. But if classification is to express relationship, 
it is impossible to associate in the same order families whose 
kinship to insects of other orders is nearer than their kinship to 
each other. And no student can doubt that the stone-flies are 
akin to Orthoptera and the caddis-flies to the Lepidoptera, 
while dragon-flies and May-flies stand in an isolated position 
with regard to all other insects. In the present article, for 
the sake of convenience, all the insects which have been regarded 



by Linnaeus and others as " Neuroptera " are included, but they 
are distributed into the orders agreed upon by the majority 
of modern observers, and short characters of these orders and 
their principal families are given. For further details the reader 
should consult the special articles on these groups, to which 
cross-references will be found. 

Sub-class EXOPTERYGOTA 
Order Plecoptera. 

This order was founded (1869) by F. Brauer the name having 
been long previously suggested by H. Burmeister (1832) to include 
the single family of the Perlidae or stone-flies. They resemble the 
Orthoptera more nearly than do any other group of the Linnean 
Neuroptera, having the anal area of the hind-wings folding fanwise 
beneath the costal area and the whole hind-wing covered by the fore- 
wing when the insect is at rest, though the forewing is not firmer in 
texture than the hind-wing, as is the case in the Orthoptera. In the 
opinion of J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham the wing-neuration 
in this order is the most primitive to be found in the Hexapoda. 
The tenth abdominal segment carries a pair of jointed cerci which are 
often elongate, and the feelers are always long, while the jaws are 
usually feeble and membranous, though the typical parts of a 
mandibulate mouth are present mandibles, maxillae with inner and 
outer lobes and palps, and second maxillae (labium) whose lacinae 
are not fused to form a Hgula. Both head and trunk are somewhat 
flattened dorso-ventrally, giving the insects a very distinct and 
characteristic aspect. The stone-flies further resemble the Orthoptera 
in their numerous Malpighian excretory tubes, which vary in number 
from twenty to sixty. The reproductive organs, both ovaries and 
testes, become fused together in the middle of the body. A re- 
markable point in the Plecoptera is the presence in some forms 
(Pteronarcys) of small branching gills on the three thoracic and the 
front abdominal segments. These organs appear, however, from the 
observations of H. A. Hagen not to be functional in the adult insect 
they are merely survivals from ths aquatic nymphal stage. 

Life-history and Habits. The nymphs of the Perlidae are closely 
like their parents and breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills 
on the thoracic segments, for they all live in the water of streams. 
They feed upon weaker aquatic creatures, such as the larvae of May- 
flies. 

The perfect insects, whose flight is feeble, are never found far from 
the water. A curious feature among them is the frequent reduction 
of the wings in the males of certain species, contrary to the usual 
condition among the Hexapoda, where if the sexes differ in the de- 
velopment of their wings it is the female which has them reduced. 
The Plecoptera are world-wide in their range and fossils referable to 
them have been described from rocks of Eocene, Miocene and Jurassic 
age, while C. Brpngniart states that allied forms lived in the 
Carboniferous Period. 

Order Isoptera. 

The two families included in this order agree with the Plecoptera 
in the young insect resembling the parent, but they are all terrestrial 




After C. L. Mariatt, Ent. Bull. 4 (ff.S.), V.S. Dept. Agrlc. 

FIG. I. Termes flavipes, N. America. 

a, Male from above. Mag- b and c, Hind segments of male and 
nified 6 times. female abdomens, showing short 

d, Male from side. cerci ; magnified 24 times. 

e. Abdomen of female from /, End of shin and foot-segments magni- 

side. Magnified 4 times. fied 40 times. 

throughout life. The hind-wings have no folding anal area and the 
wings of both pairs, when present, are closely alike (see fig. i) whence 
the name Isoptera (=equal winged) lately applied to the group by 



NEUROPTERA 



439 



G. Enderlein. The eleventh abdominal segment which carries the 
short jointed cerci (fig. I, b, c) may remain in a reduced condition 
distinct from the tenth. There are only six or eight Malpighian 
tubes-^contrasting with the large number of these excretory organs 
found in the Orthoptera and Plecoptera. 

The Embiidae are feeble, somewhat soft-skinned insects with the 
prothorax small and the mesothorax and metathorax elongate. 
The feelers are long and simple, and the wings are very narrow, each 
with a sub-costal, a radial, a median and a cubital nervure; the 
branches of the median and the cubital, however, as well as the anal 
nervures, are vestigial, and there are a few short cross-bars between 




a 



After Mirlatt, Eni. Bull. 4 (-V-S.), U.S. Deft. Agric. 

FIG. 2. Head of termite, o, Front view. 6, Hind view, showing 
jaws (note the distinct inner and outer lobes of the second maxillae). 
Magnified. 

the radial and the median. Some Embiidae are entirety wingless in 
the adult state, and it has been suggested that this is always the 
condition in the female sex. According to the recent investigations 
of K. W. Verhoeff , the family contains only thirteen known species. 

The Embiidae live in warm countries, and are very retiring in 
their habits, hiding under stones where they spin webs formed of silk 
produced by glands in the basal segments of the fore-feet. 

The Termitidae (so-called " white ants ") are the other family of 
Isoptera. They are relatively shorter and broader insects than the 
Embiidae with large prothorax and long wings, which have a trans- 
verse line of weakness at the base and are usually shed after the 
nuptial flight. The Termitidae are numerous in species in warm 
countries. The vast majority of individuals in a community consist 
of wingless forms " workers " and " soldiers," which are unde- 
veloped members of either sex. Their economy is fully described in 
a special article on TERMITES. 

Order Corrodentia. 

The insects included in this order differ from those of the two 
preceding orders in their more condensed abdomens which bear no 
cerci, while the number of Malpighian tubes is reduced to four. 
In the absence of cerci the Corrodentia are more specialized than the 
Isoptera and Plecoptera, but some of them show a more primitive 
character in the retention of vestigial maxillulae the minute pair of 
jaws that are found behind the mandibles in the Aptera (qj>.). A 
large proportion of the Corrodentia are wingless. When wings are 
present the front pair are much larger than the hind pair, and the 
neuration is remarkable for the concresence of the median with the 




After Marlatt, Bull. 4 (X -S.). Da. Eat. VS. Dept. Agric. 

FIG. 3. Book-louse (Atropos divinatoria, Fab.), Europe. 



a. From below. 

b. From above, magnified 30 

times (eyes, feeler, feet and 
claws more highly magni- 
fied). 



c, Second maxillae. 

d, Mandible. 

e, Lacinia or " pick " of 

maxilla. 
/, Its palp. Highly magnified. 



first 



cubital trunk, and the zigzag course of many of the branches. All 
the insects of this order are of small size and the cuticle is im- 
perfectly chitinized, so that the body as a whole is soft. The name 
Corrodentia was first used by H. Burmeister (1832) and has reference 
to the biting habits of the insects. Originally, however, the Corro- 
dentia included the order which Enderlein has recently separated as 
Isoptera (see above). As at present restricted, the Corrodentia 
include two distinct sub-orders. 

Copeognatha. This sub-ordinal name has been applied by 
Enderlein to the " book-lice." These frail insects, the majority of 



which have wings of the type described above, are further character- 
ized by the presence of minute but distinct maxillulae, while the 
inner lobe (lacinia) of the first maxilla is an elongate, hard structure 
(the " pick," fig. 3, e) and the outer lobe is convex and soft. The 
labial (second maxillary) palps are reduced to small, rounded 
prominences external to the still smaller prominences that represent 
the lobes (fig. 3, c). The feelers of these insects are elongate and 
thread-like, consisting of from a dozen to nearly thirty segments. 
The prothorax is very small. 

The book-lice are familiar wingless insects, often found in houses 
running about among old papers and neglected biological collections. 
They belong to the family Psocidae which has a few score species 
most of them winged living out of doors on the bark of trees and 
among vegetable refuse. In some Psocidae the wings are in a 
vestigial state, and the fully winged species rarely if ever fly. H. A. 
Hagen observed that some genera possess wing-like outgrowths on 
the prothorax, comparable to those seen in certain insects of the 
Carboniferous Period. The Psocidae themselves have not been 
traced back beyond theOligocene, in the amber of which period their 
remains are fairly numerous. 

Mallophaga. This term was first applied by C. L. Nitzsch (1818) 
to the degraded wingless parasites (fig. 4) commonly known as bird- 
lice or biting-lice, differing from the true lice (see HEMIPTERA, 
LOUSE) by their jaws adapted for biting (not for piercing or sucking). 
By their structure they are evidently allied to the Copeognatha. 
They are abundantly distinct, however, through the short feelers 
with only three to five segments and the conspicuous prothorax. 
The head is relatively very large, but the 
eyes are degraded and often absent. A 
remarkable feature is the frequent con- 
crescence of mesothorax and metathorax 
and in some cases, even, their fusion with 
the anterior abdominal segments. The legs 
are stout and spiny, and well adapted for 
clinging to the hair or feathers of the host 
animal. It is usual to divide the Mal- 
lophaga into two families the Liotheidae, 
possessing labial palps and two foot-claws, 
being fairly active insects, which are 
capable, on the death of their host, of 
seeking another, and the Philopteridae, 
without labial palps and with a single foot- 
claw modified for clasping (fig. 4) which 
never leave the host and perish themselves 
soon after its death. 

Order Ephemeroptera. 
' This order includes the single family of After Osbora, Ent. Bull. ^ 
the Ephemeridae or May-flies. The name, <a >' "^ Dep !;. A ?" c - . 
although quite recently proposed by A. J 4. Biting-louse 
E. Shipley, should be used rather than (Tnchodectes scalaris) of 
A. S. Packard's older term Plectoptera on cattle. Magnified 30 
account of the great liability of confusion times, 
between the latter and Plecoptera. The May-flies are remarkably 
primitive in certain of their characters, notably the elongate cerci, 
the paired, entirely mesodermal genital ducts, and the occurrence 
of an ecdysis after the acquisition of functional wings. _ On the 
other hand, the reduced feelers, the numerous Malpighian tubes 
(40), the large complex eyes, the vestigial condition of the jaws, 
the excessive size of the fore-wings as compared with the hind-wings 
and their complex neuration with an enormous number of cross- 
nervules are all specializations. So in some respects is the life- 
history, with a true larval preparatory stage, unlike the parent 
form, and living an aquatic life, breathing dissolved air by means 
of a paired series of abdominal tracheal gills. Except for its 
aquatic adaptations, however, the ephemerid larva is wonderfully 
thysanuran in character, and possesses conspicuous and distinct 
maxillulae. See special article on MAY-FLIES. 

Order Odonala. 

The distinctness of the dragon-flies from other insects included in 
Linnaeus's Neuroptera was long ago recognized by J. C. Fabricius, 
who proposed for them the ordinal name of Odonata U775)- 
They resemble the May-flies in their " hemimetabolous " life- 
history; the young insects are markedly unlike their parents, in- 
habiting fresh water and breathing dissolved air, either through 
trachea! gills at the tip of the abdomen, or by a branching system of 
air-tubes on the walls of the rectum into which water is periodically 
admitted. The winged insects resemble the May-flies in their short 
feelers and in the large number (50 to 60) of their Malpighian tubes, 
but differ most strikingly from those insects in their strong well- 
armoured bodies, their powerful jaws adapted for a predaceous 
manner of life, and the close similarity of the hind-wings to the fore- 
wings. All the wings are of firm, glassy texture, and very complex in 
their neuration ; a remarkable and unique feature is that a branch 
of the radius (the radial sector) crosses the median nervure, while, 
by the development of multitudinous cross-nervules, the wing-area 
becomes divided into an immense number of small areplets. The 
tenth abdominal segment carries strong, unjointed cerci, while the 
presence of reproductive armature on the second abdominal segment 




440 



NEUSALZ NEUSTADT 



of the male is a character found in no other order of the Hexapoda. 
See special DRAGON-FLY. 

Sub-class ENDOPTERYGOTA 
Order Neuroplera. 

The insects retained in the order Neuroptera as restricted by 
modern systematists are distinguished from the preceding orders by 
the presence of a resting pupal stage in the life-history, so that a 
" complete metamorphosis " is undergone. Structurally the Neuro- 
ptera are distinguished by elongate feelers, a large, free prothorax, a 
labium with the inner lobes of the second maxillae fused together to 
form a median ligula, membranous, net-veined wings without hairy 
covering, those of the two pairs being usually alike, the absence of 
abdominal cerci, and the presence of six or eight Malpighian tubes. 
The larvae are active and well-armoured, upon the whole of the 
" camrjodeiform " type, but destitute of cerci; they are predaceous 
in habit, usually with slender, sickle-shaped mandibles, wherewith 
they pierce various insects so as to suck their juices. The order 
contains nine families, most of which are wide in their geographical 
distribution. Fossil Neuroptera occur in the Lias and even in the 
Trias if the relationships of certain larvae have been correctly 
surmised. 

The Sialidae or alder-flies (q.v.) differ from other Neuroptera in the 
jaws of the larva which is aquatic, breathing by paired, jointed 
abdominal gills resembling those of the imago, and being adapted 
for the mastication of solid food. Some American genera (Corydalis) 
which belong to this family are gigantic among insects and their 
males possess enormous mandibles. The Raphidiidae or snake-flies 
(q.v.) are remarkable for the long, narrow, tapering prothorax which 
gives the appearance of a constricted neck, while the female has a long 
ovipositor. Both these families are very sparingly represented in 
our fauna. 

The Myrmeleonidae are large insects with short clubbed feelers on 
their prominent heads, and two pairs of closely similar net-veined 
wings, with regular oblong areolets at the tips. Their predaceous, 
suctorial larvae are the well-known ant-lions (q.v.). No members of 
this family inhabit our islands, though a few species occur in neigh- 
bouring parts of the continent. The same is the case with the 
allied Ascalaphidae, which are distinguished from the Myrmeleonidae 
by their elongate feelers as long as the body and by the irregular 
apical areolets of the wings. The curious Nemopteridae have slender 
feelers and very long strap-shaped hind-wings. The Mantispidae 
are remarkable among the Neuroptera for their elongate prothorax, 
raptorial fore-legs and hypermetamorphic life-history, the young 
campodeiform larva becoming transformed into a fat eruciform grub 
parasitic on young spiders or wasp-larvae (see MANTIS-FLY). The 
last-named two families are confined to warm regions of the earth. 
The lacewing-flies (q.v.), however, of which there are two families, 
the Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, whose larvae feed on Aphids, 
sucking their juices, are represented in our fauna. So are the tiny 
Coniopterygidae, which are covered with a white powdery secretion, 
and have very small hind-wings. Their larvae resemble those of the 
lacewings, attacking scale-insects and sucking their juices. 

Order Mecaptera. 

This small order was founded (1869) by F. Brauer under the 
name of Panorpata for the small family of the Panorpidae or 
scorpion-flies (q.v.). The name Mecaptera is due to Packard. They 
may be distinguished from the Neuroptera by the elongation of the 
head into a beak, the small prothorax, the narrow, elongate wings 
with predominantly longitudinal neuration, the presence of abdominal 
cerci and the eruciform larva. They are generally but sparingly 
distributed over the earth's surface and can be traced back in time 
to the early Jurassic epoch. 

Order Trichoptera. 

The caddis-flies (q.v.) constitute this order, the name of which 
(suggested by H. Burmeister) indicates the hairy covering of the 
wings. They are abundantly distinct from the Neuroptera and 
Mecaptera, through the absence of mandibles in the imago, the 
maxillae both pairs of which possess the typical inner and outer 
lobes and jointed palps forming a suctorial apparatus. The feelers 
are long, slender and many-jointed. While the fore-wings are 
elongate and narrow, the hind-wing^ are broad, with a folding anal 
area. At the base of each wing projects a dorsal lobe the jugum 
and the neuration is predominantly longitudinal, resembling so 
closely that of the lower Lepidoptera (q.v.) that a nearer relationship 
of the Trichoptera to that order than to any group of the old Linnean 
Neuroptera is certain. Fossil Trichoptera occur in rocks of Liassic 
age. 

Frequently the whole of the Trichoptera are included in a single 
family, but most special students of the order recognize seven families. 
In all Trichojptera the maxillary palps of the female are five- 
segmented. The family Phryganeidae have males with four- 
segmented hairy palps ; the larvae inhabit stagnant water and make 
cases of vegetable fragments. In the Limnephilidae the maxillary 
palp is three-segmented in the male, the larvae are variable in habit, 
many forming cases of snail-shells. The males of the Sericoslomatidae 
have two or three segmented palps; their larvae inhabit running 
water and make cases of % grains of sand, or of small stones. In the 



Leptoceridae, Hydropsychidae, Rhyacophilidae and Hydroptilidae the 
palps of the males have five segments like those of the females. 
The stone-built cases of the carnivorous Hydropsychid larvae are 
familiar objects in the water of swift streams. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a general account of the various orders 
mentioned in the present article see D. Sharp, Cambridge Natural 
History, v. (London, 1895); L. C. Miall, Nat. Hist. Aquatic Insects 
(London, 1895) ; J. G. Needham, &c., Aquatic Insects in New 
York State (Albany, N.Y., 1903); F. Brauer, Die Neuropteren 
Europas (Wien, 1876); J. A. Palmen, Zur Morphologie des Tracheen- 
systems (Leipzig, 1877). Noteworthy writings on the special orders 
are: PLECOPTERA: F. J. Pictet, Histoire naturelle des insectes 
Neuropieres-Perlides (Geneve, 1871-1872); A. Imhof, Beitrage zur 
Anatomic von Perla maxima (Aarau, 1881); K. I. Morton, Trans. 
Ent. Soc. Land. (1894-1896). ISOPTERA: For Embiidae see H. A. 
Hagen, Canadian Entom. xvii. (1885); G. Enderlein, Zool. Anz. 
xxvi. (1903); K. W. Verhoeff, Abhandl. K. Leopold. Carolin. Akad. 
Ixxxii. (1904). For Termitidae see TERMITES. CORRODENTIA: For 
Copeognatha see G. Enderlein, Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Nat. Hungar, i. 
(1903), and Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xviii. (1903); R. McLachlan, " British 
Species " in Ent. Mo. Mag. iii. (1867). For Mallophaga see E. Piaget, 
Les Pediculines (Leiden, 1880-1885); F- Grosse, Zeits. vriss. Zoolog. 
xlii. (1885). ForEpHEMEROPTERAandOnONATA, see MAY-FLY and 
DRAGON-FLY. NEUROPTERA (sens, str.) : H. A. Hagen, Proc. 
Boston, Nat. Hist. Soc. xv. (1873); F. Brauer, Verh. Zool. hot. Gesells. 
Wien, xix. (1869); R. McLachlan, "British Neuroptera Planipennia" 
in Trans. Entom. Soc. (1868). MECAPTERA: F. Brauer (loc. cit.). 
TRICHOPTERA: R. McLachlan, Trichoptera of the European Fauna 
(London, 1874-1880), and " British Trichoptera " in Trans. Entom. 
Soc. (1865 and 1882); R. Lucas, Arch. f. Naturg. lix. (1893); G. 
Ulmer, Abhandl. naturhist. Verein Hamburg, xviii. (1903) ; A. 
Thienemann, Zoolog. Jahrb. System, xxii. (1905). (G. H. C.) 

NEUSALZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Silesia, on the Oder, 20 m. by rail N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905) 
13,002. It has three Evangelical churches, one of which belongs 
to the Herrnhut brotherhood, a Roman Catholic church and an 
orphanage. Its largest industry is, perhaps, the manufacture 
of thread; there are also in the town ironworks, breweries, 
shipbuilding yards and electrical works. Neusalz became a town 
in 1743. 

See Bronisch, Geschichte von Neusalz an der Oder (Neusalz, 1893). 

NEUSS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 
lies 4 m. to the W. of Diisseldorf and i m. from the W. bank 
of the Rhine, with which it is connected by the Erft canal. 
It lies at the junction of lines to Cologne, Viersen, Zevenaar 
(Holland), Dusseldorf, Dtiren and Rheydt. Pop. (1905) 30,494, 
of whom 95 % were Catholics. The chief building in the town 
is the church of St Quirinus, a remarkably fine example of the 
transition from the Round to the Pointed style; and there are 
six other Roman Catholic churches, two Protestant churches 
and a gymnasium, which contains a collection of Roman 
antiquities. The town hall was built in the I7th and altered 
in the 1 8th century. The old fortifications are now laid out as a 
promenade encircling the town. Neuss produces oil and meal, 
and also manufactures woollen stuffs, chemicals and paper, 
bricks and iron-ware. Its markets for cereals are among the 
most important in Prussia, and it is also the centre of a brisk 
trade in cattle, coals, building materials and the products of its 
various manufactories. 

Neuss, the Novaesium of the Romans, frequently mentioned 
by Tacitus, formerly lay close to the Rhine, and was the natural 
centre of the district of which Diisseldorf has become the chief 
town. Drusus, brother of the emperor Tiberius, threw a bridge 
across the Rhine here, and his name is preserved in the Drusustor, 
the lower half of which is of Roman masonry. In 1474-1475 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy besieged the town in vain for 
eleven months, during which he lost 10,000 men; but it was 
taken and sacked by Alexander Farnese in 1586. Since 1887 
extensive excavations have been made of the foundations of a 
huge Roman camp, and many valuable Roman treasures have 
been unearthed. 

See C. Tucking, Geschichte der Stadt Neuss (Dusseldorf, 1891); 
F. Schmitz, Der Neusser Krieg, 1474-1475 (Bonn, 1896); W. 
Effmann, Die St Quirinus Kirche zu Neuss (Dusseldorf, 1890); and 
Band xx. of the Chroniken der deutschen Stadte. 

NEUSTADT (Polish, Prudnik), a town of Germany, in the 
Prussian province of Silesia, on the river Prudnik, 60 m. by rail 
S.E. of Breslau. It has four Roman Catholic churches and one 
Evangelical. Pop. (1903) 20,187, the greater part of whom are 



NEUSTADT-AN-DER-HAARDT NEUTRALITY 



44 1 



Roman Catholics. The chief industries are tanning, dyeing 
and the manufacture of damask, linen, woollen stuffs, leather 
and beer. 

In 1745, 1760 and 1779 engagements between the Austrians 
and Prussians took place near Neustadt, which on the last 
occasion was bombarded and set on fire. 

See Weltzel, Geschichte der Stadt Neustadt (Neustadt, 1870). 

NEUSTADT-AN-DER-HAARDT, a town of Germany, in the 
Bavarian Palatinate, picturesquely situated under the eastern 
slope of the Haardt Mountains and at the mouth of the valley 
of the Speyerbach, 14 m. W. of Spires, and at the junction of 
railway lines to Worms, Weissenburg and Monsheim. Pop. 
(1905) 18,576. It has four churches, two Evangelical and two 
Roman Catholic. The Protestant abbey church, a fine Gothic 
edifice dating from the I4th century, contains the tombs of several 
of the counts palatine of the Rhine. The Roman Catholic 
Ludwigskirche is a modern Gothic structure. The chief indus- 
tries of the town are cloth, paper, furniture, soap, starch and 
hats. It has also breweries and distilleries. A brisk trade is 
carried on in wood, grain, fruit and wine, all of which are 
extensively produced in the vicinity. Neustadt, which became a 
town in 1275, is one of the centres of the Rhenish "grape-cure," 
and thus attracts numerous visitors. 

NEU-STETTIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Pomerania, on the small Streitzig lake, 90 m. by rail 
N.E. of Stettin, at the junction of railways to Belgard, Posen 
and Stolpmiinde. Pop. (1905) 10,785. Its industries are iron- 
founding, dyeing, brewing and the manufacture of machinery, 
soap and matches. There is a considerable trade in cattle, 
grain and other agricultural produce, and in timber and spirits. 
Neu-Stettin was founded in 1313 by Wratislaus, duke of 
Pomerania, on the model of Stettin. 

See Wilcke, Chronik der Stadt Neu-Stettin (Neu-Stettin, 1862); 
and F. W. Kasiski, Beschreibung der vaterldndischen Alterthumer in 
Neu-Stellin (Danzig, 1881). 

NEU-STRELITZ, a town of Germany, capital of the grand- 
duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, situated between two small lakes, 
the Zierker See and the Glambecker See, 60 m. N. of Berlin, on 
the railway to Stralsund, at the junction of lines to Warnemunde 
and Buschhof. Pop. (1005) 11,656. It is built in the form of a 
star, the eight rays converging on a market-place adorned with 
a statue of the grand-duke George (d. 1860). The ducal residence 
is a handsome edifice in a pseudo-classical style, with a library 
of 75,000 volumes, and collections of coins and antiquities. 
Other buildings are the churches (two Evangelical and one 
Roman Catholic), the Carolinum (a large hospital), the town hall, 
the barracks, the gymnasium and the theatre. Its manufactures 
are iron-ware, machinery, pottery, beer and mineral waters. 
Its trade, chiefly in corn, meal and timber, is facilitated by the 
Zierker See and by a canal connecting the town with the Havel 
and the Elde. 

About 1 5 m. to the south lies Alt-Strelitz, the former capital 
of the duchy, a small town the inhabitants of which are employed 
in the manufacture of tobacco, leather and wax candles. Neu- 
Strelitz was not founded till 1726. In the vicinity is the chateau 
of Hohen-Zieritz, where Queen Louise of Prussia died in 1810. 

NEUSTRIA, the old name given to the western kingdom of 
the Franks, as opposed to the eastern kingdom, Austrasia 
(#..). The most ancient form of the word is N luster, from niust, 
which would make the word signify the " most recent " con- 
quests of the Franks. The word Neustria does not appear as 
early as the Hisloria Francorum of Gregory of Tours, but is 
found for the first time in Fredegarius. The kingdom of Chilperic 
was retrospectively given this name, and in contemporary usage 
it was given to the kingdom of Clovis II., as opposed to that of 
Sigebert III., the two sons of Dagobert; and after that, the 
princes reigning in the West were called kings of Neustria, and 
those reigning in the East, kings of Austrasia. Under the new 
Carolingian dynasty, Pippin and Charlemagne restored the unity 
of the Frankish realm, and then the word Neustria was restricted 
to the district between the Loire and the Seine, together with 
part of the diocese of Rouen north of the Seine; while Austrasia 



comprised only the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine, 
perhaps with the addition of the three cities of Mainz, Worms 
and Spires on the left bank. The districts between Neustria 
and Austrasia were called Media Francia or simply Francia. 
In 843 Brittany took from Neustria the countships of Rennes 
and Nantes; and gradually the term Neustria came to be 
restricted to the district which was later called Normandy. 
Dudo of Saint Quentin, who flourished about the year 1000, 
gives the name Neustria to the lands ceded to Rollo and his 
followers during the loth century. In the year 1663, the Pere 
de Moustier gave to his work on the churches and abbeys of 
Normandy the title of Neustria pia. 

At the time of Charlemagne, Lombardy was divided into five 
provinces: Neustria, Austrasia, Aemilia, Littoraria maris and 
Tuscia. Austrasia was the name given to eastern Lombardy, 
and Neustria that given to western Lombardy, the part last 
occupied by the Lombards. 

See F. Bourquelet, " Sens des mots France et Neustrie sous le 
regime meVovingien," in the Bibliotheque de I'Scole des chartes, 
xxvi. 566-574; Longnon, Atlas historique de la France, both atlas 
and text. (C. PF.) 

NEUTITSCHEIN (Czech Novy Jitin), a town of Austria, in 
Moravia, 75 m. N.E. of Brilnn by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,891, 
chiefly German. It is situated on a spur of the Carpathians, and 
on the banks of the Titsch, an affluent of the Oder. It is the chief 
place in the Kuhlandchen, a fertile valley peopled by German 
settlers, who rear cattle and cultivate flax. At Neutitschein 
manufactures of woollen cloth, flannel, hats, carriages and 
tobacco are carried on; and it is also the centre of a brisk trade. 
The town was founded in 1311. Neutitschein was in 1790 the 
headquarters of the Austrian field-marshal Loudon, who died 
here in the same year and is buried in the parish church. 

NEUTRALITY, the state or condition of being neutral (Lat. 
neuter, neither of two) , of not being on or inclined to one side or 
another, particularly, in international law, the condition of a 
state which abstains from taking part in a dispute between other 
states. Neutrality is the most progressive branch of modern 
International Law. It is also that branch of International 
Law in which the practice of self-restraint takes the place 
of the direct sanctions of domestic law most effectively. The 
rapid changes it is undergoing are in fact bringing the state- 
system of the modern world nearer to the realization of the dream 
of many great writers and thinkers, of a community of nations 
just as much governed by legal methods as any community of 
civilized men. While the right of war was simply the right of 
the stronger, there was no room for neutral rights, for, without 
going back to the time of the ancients, the so-called rights of war 
and conquest are nothing but survivals of the right of brute 
strength. No nation or community down to comparatively recent 
times was treated as having a right to what it could not keep. 
It is the growth of a law of neutrality, through the modern 
possibility of concerted action among neutral states, which is 
bringing about improvement, and, though the signs of our times 
are not always reassuring, we have taken a long stride forward 
since Molloy, in his De Jure maritime et navali (1680), wrote: 
" As a neuter neither purchases friends nor frees himself from 
enemies, so commonly he proves a prey to the victor; hence it 
is held more advantage to hazard in a conquest with a companion 
than to remain in a state wherein he is in all probability of being 
ruined by the one or the other." 

It was the great commercial communities, the Hansa in the 
north and Venice and the Mediterranean maritime republics in 
the south, which were first able to insist on some sort of regulation 
of the usages of war for their own protection. With the growth of 
intercourse among nations a further advance was made, by treaty 
stipulations entered into in time of peace, to provide rules for 
their guidance in the event of war, but it is only in our own 
time that the idea of a substantive neutral right has obtained 
recognition. To our own time belongs the final acceptance of the 
principle that the neutral flag protects an enemy's goods except 
contraband, the conception of neutralization of territory, the 
abolition of fictitious blockades, the practice of declarations of 



442 



NEUTRALITY 



neutrality, the detachment from the high sea and neutralization 
of the zone called territorial waters, and the Areopagus of nations 
called the European Concert, in which the right of neutrals is 
asserted as a brake upon the operation of the still venerated 
right of conquest. The rights of neutrals have received their 
most recent affirmation in several of the decisions of the Hague 
Peace Conferences. 

International trade and intercourse have become so intricate 
that war can no longer be waged without causing the most serious 
loss to neutral nations, which, moreover, suffer from it without 
any of the possible contingent benefits it may procure for the 
immediate parties. So much is it so, that most great powers have 
found it necessary for their self-protection to enter hi to defensive 
alliances with others, the direct object of which is the preservation 
of European peace by the threat of making war so gigantic a 
venture that no state will again embark on it " with a light 
heart." The next step will probably be alliances between 
states which, by their nature or by their having reached the 
limit of their expansion, have nothing further to gain by war 
with each other, for the purpose of securing perpetual peace as 
between themselves. 

Different attempts have been made to define neutrality, 
but the word defines itself, so far as a succinct definition serves 
any purpose. The subject covers too wide and varied 
d "cope. an area * ma tter to be condensed into a short state- 
ment of any kind. Neutrality entails rights and duties 
on both the belligerent and the neutral sides. Theoretically, 
neutrality, to be complete, would require the neutral to abstain 
from everything which could even remotely be of assistance 
to either belligerent. To this obligation would theoretically 
correspond that the belligerent should carry on the war without 
doing anything which could even remotely disturb or interfere 
with the neutral state or the free activity of its citizens. Neither 
the one nor the other is found to be practicable. It is not even 
easy for the belligerent to observe absolutely the duty of doing 
no direct injury to neutral territory. A battle may be fought to 
the very edge of the neutral frontier, and shells may explode in 
any neutral town within the firing range of modern artillery. 
The present respect paid by belligerents to territorial waters 
is a palliative in the case of a seaboard frontier; but even the 
three-mile limit acknowledged by most countries would permit 
belligerent vessels with present range of artillery to fire land- 
wards far into neutral territory. Compensation it is true, would 
be due for any damage done, but this does not alter the fact that 
acts of war can produce direct consequences on neutral territory 
which have the character of carrying war into a neutral state. 
The neutral state, moreover, is obliged to incur heavy ex- 
penditure to protect its frontier from being traversed by either 
belligerent, and thus avoid itself being exposed to claims for 
compensation for an act which it would otherwise be powerless 
to prevent. In the case of a maritime war, the neutral state 
is also bound to exercise strict supervision to prevent its ports 
from being used by either belligerent for the purpose of increasing 
its military strength. - In short, war cannot be carried on without 
heavy expense and inconvenience to neighbouring neutral states. 
The inconvenience to the intercourse of neutral citizens is still 
greater. Their ships are liable to be taken out of their course, 
and their cargoes to be discharged to the bottom of the hold in 
search of articles which are contraband according to circum- 
stances over which they have no control, and they may be 
confiscated without recourse by judges appointed by one of the 
interested parties. Even their whole trade with specific ports 
of the one belligerent may be stopped by the ships of the other 
belligerent without indemnity. On the other hand, a great deal 
of vital assistance can be given by neutral citizens to the one 
or the other belligerent in money, or by supplies of arms, ammuni- 
tion, food and other commodities, which it is not at present the 
duty of neutral states to interfere with. 

The respective rightfe and duties of belligerent neutrals in 
current practice may be subdivided as follows: 

i. Belligerent duty to respect neutral territory and neutral 
territorial waters. 



2. Neutral right of official representation and mediation- 
of intercourse of neutral citizens with citizens of either belligerent 
of convoy, &c. 

3. Belligerent right of blockade, angary, visit and search, 
capture and confiscation of contraband of war. 

4. Neutral duties: (absolute) of abstention from any direct 
corporate assTslance to either belligerent, of enforcement of 
respect by both belligerents for neutral territory; (relative) 
of prevention of any recruiting for either belligerent, or arming 
or equipping of vessels for their service; and (contingent) of 
allowing commercial access to the one or other belligerent without 
distinction, and of granting impartially to one or the other 
belligerent any rights, advantages or privileges, which, according 
to the usages recognized among nations, are not considered as an 
intervention in the struggle. 

This subdivision, we believe, covers the whole ground of 
neutrality. We shall follow it in this article. 

Belligerent Duty. It is now universally recognized among 
European states that a belligerent army must make no use 
of its strength in the field to .carry its operations into Doty to 
neutral territory or into neutral waters. Belligerent respect 
forces entering neutral territory are by the practice 
of nations bound to surrender their arms to the neutral 
state, and remain hors de combat till the close of the war. (Com- 
pare arts, ii and 12 of the Hague Convention relating to the 
" Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and persons in case of 
war on land " i8th of October 1907.) 

Through territorial waters belligerent vessels are allowed to 
pass freely as in time of peace. Nor does the usage of nations 
forbid a belligerent vessel from entering a neutral port, ^cces* to 
Motives of humanity have sanctioned this distinction ta a duty 
between territorial and maritime warfare. The Ad- to respect 
miralty Instructions (1893) set out the rights of bel- ^^ 
ligerents as Great Britain views them as follows: 
" Subject to any limit which the neutral authorities 
may place upon the number of belligerent cruisers to be admitted 
into any one of their ports at the same time, the captain, by 
the comity of nations, may enter a neutral port with his ship for 
the purpose of taking shelter from the enemy or from the weather, 
or of obtaining provisions or repairs that may be pressingly 
necessary (I. section 592). He is bound to submit to any regula- 
tions which the local authorities may make respecting the place 
of anchorage, the limitation of the length of stay in the port, the 
interval to elapse after a hostile cruiser has left the port before 
his ship may leave in pursuit, &c. (I. section 593). He must 
abstain from any acts of hostility towards the subjects, cruisers, 
vessels or other property of the enemy which he may find in 
the neutral port (section 594). He must also abstain from 
increasing the number of his guns, from procuring military stores, 
and from augmenting his crew even by the enrolment of British 
subjects " (section 595). 

Nor may the commander of a British warship take a capture 
into a neutral port against the will of the locals-authorities 
(Holland, Manual of Naval Prize Law, 1888, section 299). This 
subject was one of those dealt with at the Hague Conference of 
1907. (See art. 18 of the " Convention relating to the rights and 
duties of neutral powers in naval war.") 

Neutral Rights. Neutral Bowers have the right to remain, 
as far as possible, unaffected by the war operations, and, therefore, 
continue their diplomatic relations with the belligerent 
states. The immunities and exterritoriality of their legation. 
diplomatic agents attach to them as in time of peace, 
subject only to necessity of war, which may entitle a belligerent to 
place restrictions on this intercourse. Thus, during the Franco- 
German War, on the surrounding of Paris, foreign diplomatists 
in the besieged city were refused by the German authorities all 
possibility of corresponding with their governments, except by 
letters left open for their inspection. Neutral legations may also 
undertake the representation of private interests of subjects of the 
one belligerent on the territory of the other. Thus in the Franco- 
German War of 1871 the Germans in France were placed under the 
protection of the United States legation, and the French in 



NEUTRALITY 



443 



Germany under that o the British legation; in the war of 1898 
between the United States and Spain, American interests in 
Spain were committed to the care of the British legation, and 
those of Spaniards in the United States to that of the Austro- 
Hungarian legation. By legations are understood both diplo- 
matic and consular authorities. The protection granted is in 
the nature of mere mediation. It confers no rights on the belli- 
gerent subjects in question, nor does it give the neutral legation 
any right to protect a belligerent subject or his property against 
any ordinary rights of war. 

Good offices, properly speaking, are a mild form of mediation 
or tentative mediation, i.e. mediation before it has been accepted 
Right at k v the parties. Article 3 of the Hague Convention 
ottering foj,' the pacific settlement of international disputes 
rood of October 18, 1907, however, provides that " powers, 
Stran 8 ers to the dispute, have the right to offer 
good offices or mediation, even during the course of 
hostilities," and that " the exercise of this right can never be 
regarded by one or other of the parties in conflict as an un- 
friendly act." The Hague Convention puts an end to the doubt 
whether a neutral power can mediate without involving itself 
in some way with the one or the other side in the dispute. Media- 
tion had already been provided for in several existing treaties, 
such as the Treaty of Paris (3oth March 1856), which provides 
that " if any dissension should arise between the Sublime Porte 
and one or more of the other signatory powers and threaten the 
maintenance of their good relations, the Sublime Porte and each 
of these powers before resorting to force shall give an opportunity 
to the other contracting parties in order to prevent such extreme 
measures " (article 8) ; the Treaty of Yedo between the United 
States and Japan (zgth July 1858) stipulating that in the case of 
difference between Japan or any other state, " the president of 
the United States, at the request of the Japanese government, 
will act as a friendly mediator in such matters of difference as 
may arise between the government of Japan and any other 
European power " (article 2) ; and the General Act of Berlin 
relating to West Africa (1885), which provides that "in the 
case of a serious dissension having arisen on the subject of, or 
within the territories" in question, between the signatory 
powers, they undertake, before taking up arms, to have 
recourse to the mediation of one or more of the friendly powers 
(article 12). 

In the Venezuela-Guiana boundary question, the mediation 
of the United States government was declined by Great Britain, 
but its good offices were accepted. In the difficulty which arose 
between Germany and Spain in connexion with the hoisting of 
the German flag on one of the Caroline Islands, Spain did not 
consider arbitration consistent with the sovereign power she 
claimed to exercise over the island in question, but she accepted 
the mediation of the pope, and the matter was settled by pro- 
tocols, signed at Rome (tyth December 1885). These incidents 
show the uses of variety and gradation in the methods of 
diplomacy. 

Neutral subjects have the right to carry on trade and inter- 
course with belligerent subjects in so far as they do not interfere 
Rights of w ' tn t ^ le operations or necessities of war, and it is no 
neutral violation of the neutral character that this trade or 
subject* on intercourse is of benefit to either side. This is subject 
eingerent a i wa y S to tne belligerent right to capture and confiscate 
contraband of war (see below) . On the other hand, the 
property of subjects and citizens of neutral states follows the 
fortune of the belligerent state within whose territorial juris- 
diction it is situated. It is liable to the same charges as that of 
native subjects and citizens, and in case of military contributions 
neutral subjects on belligerent soil can claim no protection or 
exemption (see below, Angary). They have also the same rights 
to all indemnities for loss as are granted to native subjects and 
citizens. 

The position of neutral public ships and the relative assimila- 
tion to them of mail steamers has been the subject of some 
controversy. A public ship is a ship having an official character. 
It includes not only warships, but also any ships affected to 



any specific and exclusive government purpose. Public ships in 
this sense are invested with an extra-territorial character, and 
the state to which they belong is directly responsible 
for their acts. They are therefore not liable to visit and 0/ 
search for contraband of war, and are exempt from tern- public 
torial jurisdiction even in belligerent waters. As regards S *<P* aaa 
vessels which are engaged partly in private traffic and 
partly on public service, such as mail steamers and 
government packets, the position is necessarily different. Under 
the Japanese Prize Law, adopted in view of the Chino-Japanese 
campaign, any vessel carrying contraband of war, whose destina- 
tion is hostile, may be detained, without exception being made 
for mail steamers. The United States proclamation of April 
1898 in connexion with the Spanish War stated that mail steamers 
would only be stopped in case of grave suspicion of their carrying 
contraband or of their violating a blockade. 

On the arrest of the German mail steamers " Bundesrath " and 
" General " during the South African War, the German govern- 
ment represented to the British government that " it was highly 
desirable " that steamers flying the German mail-flag should not 
be stopped, and the British government thereupon issued orders 
not to stop them on suspicion only (Parliamentary Papers, 
Africa, No. i, 1900). This was a precedent of the greatest 
importance. It would have practically assimilated mail steamers 
to public ships. Yet the mere circumstance of carrying the mails 
does not manifestly per se change the character of the ship. 
Both this subject and the position of packets under state owner- 
ship, which may carry on trade and may consequently transport 
contraband, require deliberate adjustment by treaty. The 
convention between Great Britain and France respecting postal 
communications (soth August 1890) provides that " in the case 
of war between the two nations the packets of the two adminis- 
trations shall continue their navigation, without impediment or 
molestation until a notification is made on the part of either 
of the two governments of the discontinuance of postal com- 
munications, in which case they shall be permitted to return 
freely to their respective ports " (article 9). The position of 
either as neutral is not dealt with. The tendency seems to be 
towards exemption, but in this case there should be official 
certification that the ships in question carry nothing in the 
nature of contraband. 

Meanwhile the Hague Conference of 1907 has adopted rules 
under which postal correspondence of neutrals or belligerents 
is inviolable, whether it be official or private, or the 
carrying vessel be neutral or an enemy vessel, but in 
so far as mail ships are concerned they are not otherwise exempt 
from the application of the rules of war affecting merchant ships 
generally (see Convention on restrictions on the exercise of the 
right of capture in maritime war, October, 1907). Connected 
with the position of public ships is the question of the right of 
convoy. Neutral merchant ships travelling under the escort of 
a warship or warships of their own flag are held by some 
authorities to be exempt from visit and search. The Japanese 
Prize Law, which is largely based on English practice, following 
on this point the recommendations of the Institute of Inter- 
national Law (see Reglement des prises maritime*, Annuaire 1888, 
p. 221), provides that "when the commander of a neutral convoy 
declares that there is no contraband of war on board the vessels 
under convoy, and that all the papers are in order in these vessels, 
the vessels shall not be visited " (article 23).' The United States, 

1 At the outset of the Chino-Japanese War, Vice-Admiral Sir E. R. 
Fremantle sent a note to the Japanese admiral requesting him to 
" give orders to the ships under his command not to board, visit or 
interfere in any way with British merchant vessels, observing that the 
British admiral had directed all British ships under his orders to 
afford protection to such merchant vessels, and not to allow them to 
be molested in any way." Professor Takahashi, in his International 
Law of the Chino-Japanese War, relates that the Japanese admiral 
replied that " as the matters demanded by the British admiral 
belonged to the sphere of international diplomacy, and consequently 
were outside his official responsibility, they should be communicated 
directly to the Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs." " The idea 
of the British admiral," observes Professor Takahashi, " seemed to be 
not only to claim a right of convoy, which has never been recognized 



444 



NEUTRALITY 



in treaties with Mexico (sth April 1831), Venezuela (2oth January 
1836), Peru (6th Sept. 1870), Salvador (6th December 1870) and 
Italy (26th February 1871), have agreed to accept the commander's 
declaration as provided in the Japanese Prize Law. Wharton 
quotes in his International Law Digest a passage from a despatch 
of Mr Secretary Forsyth (i8th May 1837) in which he states that 
" it is an ordinary duty of the naval force of a neutral during 
either civil or foreign wars to convoy merchant vessels of the 
nation to which it belongs to the ports of the belligerents. This, 
however, should not be done in contravention of belligerent 
rights as defined by the law of nations or by treaty." The 
Spanish Naval Instructions (24th April 1898) in the war with 
the United States granted unconditional exemption to convoyed 
neutral ships (article n). The subject has now been dealt with 
by the Declaration of London (1908-1909), which requires the 
commander of a convoy to give a statement in writing as to the 
character of the vessels and cargoes (see CONVOY). A neutral 
merchant ship, travelling under enemy's convoy, places itself, 
with the assistance of the belligerent force, beyond the application 
of the belligerent right of visit and search, and thus commits a 
breach of neutrality. 

Belligerent Rights. Since the declaration of Paris providing 
that blockades hi order to be binding must be effective, that is 
Blockade to sav> must ' 3e maintained by a force sufficient really 
to prevent access to the enemy's coast, the tendency 
has been to give a precise form to all the obligations of the 
blockading belligerent. Thus it is now generally agreed that 
notification to the neutral should be sufficiently detailed to 
enable neutral vessels to estimate, with practical accuracy, the 
extent of their risks. French writers consider a general notifica- 
tion, though desirable, as insufficient, and hold an individual 
notification to each neutral ship which presents itself at the line 
of blockade as requisite. This theory was applied by France in 
the Franco-German War, and earlier by the Northern States in 
the American Civil War. The new Japanese Prize Law (1894) 
does not attempt to prescribe any such notification to each ship, 
but sets out that notice of blockade to each ship is either actual 
or constructive. " Actual " it describes as being when the 
master is shown to have had knowledge of the blockade, in 
whatever way he may have acquired such knowledge, whether 
by direct warning from a Japanese warship or from any other 
source; " constructive," when a notification of its existence has 
been made to the proper authorities of the state to which the 
vessel belongs, and sufficient time has elapsed for such authorities 
to communicate the notification to the subjects of that nation, 
whether or not they have in fact communicated it. No blockade, 
however, was attempted by the Japanese government, and the 
application of the rules was not put to the test. 

In the war with Spain the United States proclamation of the 
investment of Cuba stated that an efficient force would be 
posted, so as to prevent the entrance and exit of vessels from 
the blockaded ports, and that any neutral vessel approaching 
or attempting to leave any of them, " without notice or know- 
ledge" of the establishment of the blockade, would be duly 
warned by the commander of the blockading forces, who would 
endorse on her register the fact and date of such warning, and 
where such endorsement was made. The words " without notice 
or knowledge " were explained fully in the instructions to 
blockading vessels (2oth June 1898). " Neutral vessels," said 
these instructions, " are entitled to notification of a blockade 
before they can be made prize for its attempted violation." 
" The character of this notification is not material. It may 
be actual, as by a vessel of the blockading force, or con- 
structive, as by a proclamation of the government maintaining 
the blockade, or by common notoriety. If a neutral vessel 
'can be shown to have notice of the blockade in any way, 

by British prize courts, but also to extend it over all waters of the 
Far East, where British warships were not actually engaging in 
convoy. Soon afterwards the matter was settled without any diffi- 
culty. On i ith August the under-Secretary of the Japanese Foreign 
Office received a letter from the British Minister in T6ky6 stating 
that there must be some misunderstanding, and that the British 
government would never try to interfere with belligerent right." 



she is good prize and should be sent in for adjudication; 
but should the formal notice not have been given, the rule 
of constructive knowledge arising from notoriety should be 
construed in a manner liberal to the neutral." Thus the United 
States government abandoned the system of individual notifica- 
tion inserted in the proclamation of igth April 1861, which was 
only found practicable in the case of vessels which had presumably 
sailed without knowledge. In such cases it was provided by 
the more recent instructions that they should be boarded by 
an officer, who should enter the notice in the ship's log, such 
entry to include the name of the blockading vessel giving notice, 
the extent of the blockade, and the date and place, verified 
by his official signature. The vessel was then to be set free, 
with a warning that, should she again attempt to enter the same 
or any other blockaded port, she would be good prize. The 
Declaration of London (1908-1909) exhaustively treats of this 
subject and has regulated it with a leaning towards continental 
views (see BLOCKADE). 

Angary, or Droit a" Angarie, is a contingent belligerent right, 
arising out of necessity of war, to dispose over, use and destroy, 
if need be, property belonging to neutral states. 1 Aa a 
During the Franco-German War imminent necessity 
was pleaded by the German government, as the justification 
of using force to seize and sink six British coal-ships in the Seine 
to prevent French gun-boats from running up the river and 
interfering with the tactics of the German army operating on 
its banks. The captains of the Vessels refused to enter into any 
agreement with the commanding German general, and the vessels 
were then sunk by being fired upon. The British government 
raised no objection to the exercise of the right, and confined itself 
to demanding compensation for the owners, which the German 
government declared itself ready to pay. Count Bismarck 
evidently felt the use which might be made against Germany, 
as a neutral power, of such an extreme measure, and took care 
in the correspondence with the British government to emphasize 
the pressing character of the danger, which could not be other- 
wise parried. 

A case given in the text-books as another one of angary 
during the same war was the temporary seizure and conversion 
to war purposes of Swiss and Austrian rolling-stock in Alsace, 
without any apparent military necessity. Ordinary private 
neutral property on belligerent soil, it must be remembered, 
follows the fate of private property generally. The only 
distinction between the right of angary and the right of 
assimilating private neutral property- to private property 
generally on belligerent soil which seems based on reason is 
that, whereas private property of neutrals generally which has 
remained on belligerent soil is sedentary, or, so to speak, domi- 
ciled there, neutral vessels are mere visitors with a distinct 
external domicile. The writer thinks the assimilation of neutral 
railway carriages to neutral vessels in this respect not unreason- 
able. 2 ' 

A neutral state in its corporate capacity, we have seen, must 
abstain from acts which can be of assistance to either belligerent, 
and it is bound to exercise reasonable diligence to 
prevent its territory being used as a base for belligerent 
operations. The duties of a neutral state as a state 
go no further. Commercial acts of its citizens, even the export 
of arms and munitions of war to a belligerent country, do not, 
in the present state of international usage, so long as both 
belligerents are free to profit by such acts alike, involve liability 
on the part of the neutral state. But relief from the obligation 
of repressing breaches of neutrality by contraband traffic of 
subjects has its counterpart in the right granted to belligerent 
warships of visit and search of neutral merchant vessels, and 
in the possible condemnation, according to circumstances, of 
the ship and confiscation of goods held to be contraband. 

1 Angaria (from Hyyapos, a messenger), a post station. The French 
word-/ja|ar or shed is probably of the same origin. 

1 Treaties between the Zollverein and Spain (3Oth March 1868) and 
between Germany and Portugal (2nd March 1872) contain special 
provisions for the fixing of indemnities in case of any forced utiliza- 
tion by either state of private property of the citizens of the other. 



NEUTRALITY 



445 



Coal. 



Contraband is of two kinds absolute contraband, such as 
arms of all kinds, machinery for manufacturing arms, ammuni- 
tion, and any materials which are of direct application in naval 
or military armaments; and conditional contraband, consisting 
of articles which are fit for, but not necessarily of direct, applica- 
tion to hostile uses. The British Admiralty Manual of Prize 
Law (1888), following this distinction, enumerates as absolutely 
contraband: arms of all kinds and machinery for manufacturing 
arms; ammunition and materials for ammunition, including 
lead, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, chlorate of potash 
and nitrate of soda; gunpowder and its materials, saltpetre 
and brimstone; also guncotton; military equipments and 
clothing; military stores, naval stores, such as masts, spars, 
rudders, and ship-timber, hemp and cordage, sailcloth, pitch 
and tar, copper fit for sheathing vessels, marine engines and 
the component parts thereof, including screw propellers, paddle 
wheels, cylinders, cranks, shafts, boilers, tubes for boilers, 
boiler plates and fire-bars, marine-cement and the material 
used in the manufacture thereof, blue lias and Portland cements; 
iron in any of the following forms anchors, rivet iron, angle 
iron, round bars of iron of from to f of an inch diameter, rivets, 
strips of iron, sheets, plate iron exceeding J of an inch, and 
Low Moor and Bowling plates; and as conditionally contraband: 
provisions and liquors fit for the consumption of army or 
navy, money, telegraphic materials, such as wire, porous cups, 
platina, sulphuric acid, materials for the construction of a 
railway, such as iron bars, sleepers and so forth, coal, hay, 
horses, rosin, tallow, timber. 1 

The classing of coal as conditional contraband has given 
rise to much controversy. Great Britain has consistently held 
it to be so. During the war of 1870 the French and 
German warships were only allowed to take at English 
ports enough to return to a French or German port respectively. 
In 1885, during the Franco-Chinese campaign, after protest 
by the Chinese government, Great Britain applied the same 
rule at Hong-Kong and Singapore. During the Spanish-American 
War neither belligerent seems to have treated coal as contraband. 
In the case of the coal-ships which were prevented from landing 
their cargoes at Cuba, the prevention seems to have been con- 
nected with the blockade only. At the West African conference 
of 1884 Russia declared that she would " categorically refuse 
her consent to any articles in any treaty, convention or instru- 
ment whatever which would imply " the recognition of coal 
as contraband of war (Parliamentary Papers, Africa, No. 4, 
1885). Coal, however, is so essential to the prosecution of war 
that it is impossible to avoid classing it as conditional contra- 
band, so long as such contraband is recognized. The alternative, 
of course, would be to allow both belligerents freely to supply 
themselves at neutral ports, and neutral vessels freely to supply 
belligerent coaling stations. 

During the Franco-Chinese campaign of 1885 and the South 
African War there was controversy as to the legality of treating 
food-stuffs as conditional contraband. During the 
former the subject-matter was rice, and the circum- 
stances were exceptional. The hostilities being at 
the outset reprisals, and not actual war, France at first exercised 
no right of search over British merchant ships. Great Britain, 
on her side, for the same reason did not object to French war 
vessels coaling, victualling and repairing at British ports. 
On China protesting against this indulgence to France, Great 

1 The Japanese Prize Law (aist August 1894) makes the following 
distinction: (l) Arms of all kinds, brimstone, dynamite, nitrate of 
potash, and all goods fit for the purpose of war exclusively: the 
above-mentioned goods are contraband when they are on board a 
vessel which either has a hostile destination or calls at any port of the 
enemy. (2) Provisions and liquors, money, telegraphic materials, 
such as wire, platinum, sulphuric acid and zinc, porous cups, materials 
for the construction of a railway, as iron bars, sleepers, &c., coal, 
timber and so forth: the above-mentioned goods are contraband 
goods when the destination of the vessel is either the enemy's fleet at 
sea or a hostile port, used exclusively or mainly for naval or military 
equipment. When it is clearly known that, though goods detailed in 
the above sections I and 2 are found on board a vessel, they are 
merely for her own use, they cannot be deemed contraband goods. 



Food- 
stuffs. 



Britain, as above stated, put in force her practice of treating 
coal as contraband, and thereupon France exercised her corre- 
sponding belligerent right of searching British vessels. The 
closing of British coaling stations to French warships was a 
serious inconvenience to France, and she proclaimed " that in 
the circumstances in which war was being carried on " the 
cargoes of rice which were being shipped to the northern Chinese 
ports were contraband. By depriving the Chinese government 
of part of the annual tribute sent from the southern provinces 
in the form of rice she hoped to bring pressure on the Peking 
government. This was a manifest stretching of the sense 
of conditional contraband. Besides, no distinction was made 
as to destination. The British government protested, but no 
cases were brought into the French prize courts, and the 
legality of the measure has never been judicially examined. 

The controversy during the South African War was confined 
to theory. In practice no stoppage of food-stuffs seems to have 
taken place, though the fact that the whole able-bodied popula- 
tion of the enemy states formed the fighting force opposed to 
Great Britain made it clear that the free import of food supplies 
from abroad helped the farmer-soldiers to carry on warfare 
without the immediate care of raising food crops. 

The two cases cited show the great difficulty of fixing the 
character of conditional contraband in a way to prevent arbitrary 
seizures. During the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) there was 
a warm controversy between the British and Russian govern- 
ments on the scope of the belligerent right to declare 
certain articles contraband. The Conference of London (1908-9), 
by enumerating the articles which are absolute contraband, 
limiting those which may be declared contraband, and fixing 
certain articles which can in no case be declared contraband, 
has endeavoured to meet the difficulties which arise in practice 
(see CONTRABAND). 

Trade between neutrals has a prima facie right to go on, in 
spite of war, without molestation. But if the ultimate destina- 
tion of goods, though shipped first to a. neutral port, 
is enemy's territory, then, according to the " doctrine 
of continuous voyages," the goods may be treated as if 
they had been shipped to the enemy's territory direct. 
This doctrine, though Anglo-Saxon in its origin and develop- 
ment, has been put in force by an Italian court in the case of the 
Doelwijk, a Dutch vessel which was adjudged good prize on the 
ground that, although bound for Jibouti, a French colonial port, 
it was laden with a provision of arms of a model which had 
gone out of use, and which could only be intended for use by 
the Abyssinians, with whom Italy was at war. The subject has 
been fully discussed by the Institute of International Law, by 
whom the following rule has been adopted: " Destination to 
the enemy is presumed where the shipment is to one of the 
enemy's ports, or to a neutral port, if it is unquestionably proved 
by the facts that the neutral port was only a stage (etape) towards 
the enemy as the final destination of a single commercial 
operation." 2 

The question of the legality of the doctrine was raised by 
Chancellor von Btilow during the South African War in connexion 
with the stopping of German ships bound for Delagoa Bay, a 
neutral port. He contended that such vessels were quite, 

2 The only person in that eminent assemblage who raised an 
objection to the principle of the doctrine was the distinguished French 
writer on maritime law, M. Desjardins, who declined to acknowledge 
that any theory of continuous voyages was, or could be, consistently 
with the existing law of neutrality, juridically known to International 
Law. He admitted, at the same time, that penalties of contraband 
would be incurred if the shipping to a neutral port were effected 
merely in order " to deceive tne belligerent as to the real destination 
of the cargo." This was the French ruling in the Fran Houwina case 
(26th May 1855). He proposed to restrict the operation of the 
doctrine to this condition, but was opposed by three Italian pro- 
fessors of international law, Professors Fusinato, Catellani and 
Buzzati, on the ground that it would exclude, as it obviously would 
do, the contingency of goods shipped to a neutral port, not for the 
purpose of defrauding the belligerent, but for that of being ultimately 
delivered to a belligerent not in possession of a seaport. The article 
as quoted in the text was also supported by the greatest German 
authority on International Maritime Law, Director Perels of th& 
German admiralty. 



voyages. 



NEUTRALITY 



at all times, outside belligerent jurisdiction, and that only the 
authorities of the neutral port were entitled to stop contraband 
on its way to a belligerent force. He did not, however, press the 
point, and only reserved the right of raising it at a future date. 1 
It was fully discussed at the London Conference of 1908-1909. 
In order to effect a compromise between conflicting theories 
and practice, a distinction was made in the declaration between 
absolute and conditional contraband, the doctrine of continuous 
voyages not being applicable to conditional contraband when 
documented to be discharged at a neutral port, except where the 
enemy country has no seaboard (Declaration of London, arts. 
301036). 

Unneulral Service. Under this heading the London Conference 
of 1908-1909, concerning the laws of naval war, dealt with 
analogues of contraband, and neutral vessels assisting or in the 
service of the enemy. The articles adopted are as follows : 

A neutral vessel will be condemned and will, in a general way, 
receive the same treatment as a neutral vessel liable to condemnation 
for carriage of contraband: (i) If she is on a voyage specially under- 
taken with a view to the transport of individual passengers who are 
embodied in the armed forces of the enemy, or with a view to the 
transmission of intelligence in the interest of the enemy. (2) If, to 
the knowledge of either the owner, the charterer, or the master, she 
is transporting a military detachment of the enemy, or one or more 
persons who, in the course of the voyage, directly assist the operations 
of the enemy. 

In the cases specified under the above heads, goods belonging to 
the owner of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation. 

The provisions of the present article do not apply if the vessel is 
encountered at sea while unaware of the outbreak of hostilities, or if 
the master, after becoming aware of the outbreak of hostilities, has 
had no opportunity of disembarking the passengers. The vessel is 
deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of war if she left an 
enemy port subsequently to the outbreak of hostilities, or a neutral 
port subsequently to the notification of the outbreak of hostilities 
to the power to which such port belongs, provided that such notifica- 
tion was made in sufficient time. (Art. 45.) 

A neutral vessel will be condemned and, in a general way, receive 
the same treatment as would be applicable to her if she were an enemy 
merchant vessel: (l) If she takes a direct part in the hostilities; 
(2) If she is under the orders or control of an agent placed on board 
by the enemy government ; (3) If she is in the exclusive employment 
of the enemy government; (4) If she is exclusively engaged at the 
time either in the transport of enemy troops or in the transmission of 
intelligence in the interest of the enemy. 

In the cases covered by the present article, goods belonging to the 
owner of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation. (Art. 46.) 

Any individual embodied in the armed forces of the enemy who is 
found on board a neutral merchant vessel may be made a prisoner 
of war, even though there be no ground for the capture of the 
vessel. (Art. 47.) 

The procedure employed to ascertain whether a neutral 

vessel carries contraband or not is called Visit and Search (see 

SEARCH), a belligerent right universally recognized 

f and justified by the considerations that merchant 

search. J J 

ships of the enemy might evade capture by hoisting 
a neutral flag, if the belligerent had not the right of ascertaining 
the real character of the ship, and that private neutral vessels 
might carry contraband goods and generally help the enemy, 
if the belligerent had not the right of examining their cargo. 
All neutral private vessels in time of war are liable to visit by 
belligerent warships on the high seas and in the territorial waters 
of the belligerents, but not in the territorial waters of neutral 
states. Neutral public ships are not liable to visit (see above as 
to neutral public ships, mail ships, and convoy). Visit and 
search must be effected at every stage with " as much considera- 
tion as possible " (Herr von Bulow, in Reichstag, igth January 
1900). The visiting officer first examines the ship's papers. 
If satisfied that the vessel is not liable to detention, he immedi- 
ately quits her. If not so satisfied, he proceeds to search her. 
If in the course of the search he is satisfied that the vessel is 
not liable to detention, the search is immediately discontinued. 
The visiting officer has the right to inspect any lockers, stores or 
boxes, and in case of refusal to open them he is justified in using 
such coercive measure as the case warrants. If after the visit 
and search the commander has reason to entertain suspicion 
he gives the master an opportunity of explanation, and if the 

1 Par/. Papers, Africa, No. I (1900), pp. 14, 25. 



explanation is unsatisfactory he detains the vessel. If the 
seizure turns out after all not to have been justified, the ship and 
cargo are immediately released and compensation is due for the 
loss through the detention. In the case of the stoppage and 
search of German vessels during the South African War, the 
German government proposed the appointment of arbitrators 
to decide upon the claims for compensation but this was an 
innovation to which the British government did not assent. 

Resistance to search entails consequences which Art. 63 
of the Declaration of London (1908-1909) has expressed as 
follows: 

Forcible resistance to the legitimate exercise of the right of 
stoppage, search and capture involves in all cases the condemnation 
of the vessel. The cargo is liable to the same treatment as the cargo 
of an enemy vessel. Goods belonging to the master or owner of the 
vessel are treated as enemy goods. 

The consequence of carrying contraband are capture, trial 
by a belligerent prize court, and possible confiscation of the 
ship and cargo, or of the cargo alone or of a part of 
the cargo, according to the facts of the case. All are . 

agreed as to articles which are absolute contraband tioa, prize. 
being liable to capture. As regards conditional con- 
traband, British law, 2 in so far, at least, as concerns "naval 
and victualling stores," is less severe, the Lords of the Admiralty 
being entitled to purchase such stores without condemnation 
in a prize court. In practice such purchases are made at the 
market value of the goods, with an additional 10% for loss 
of profit. This proceeding is known in International Law as 
the right of pre-emption. It is not, however, as yet officially 
recognized on the continent of Europe, though the need of 
some palliative for confiscation, in certain cases, is felt, and 
some continental jurists, moved by the same desire to distinguish 
unmistakable from so to speak constructive contraband, -and 
protect trade against the vexation of uncertainty, have tried 
to argue conditional contraband away altogether. 

The tendency, however, among the majority of continental 
authorities is seen in the rule drawn up in 1895, after several 
years of discussion, by the Institute of International Law, a 
body composed exclusively of international jurists of acknow- 
ledged standing. The majority which adopted it represents 
authoritative opinion in Germany, Denmark, Italy, Holland and 
France, showing that the old antagonism between the British 
and continental views on conditional contraband has ceased 
to exist. To prevent confusion the Institute declares con- 
ditional contraband abolished, and then adds that " neverthe- 
less, the belligerent has, at his option and on condition of paying 
an equitable indemnity, a right of sequestration or pre-emption 
as to articles (objets) which, on their way to a port of the enemy, 
may serve equally for use in war or in peace." The proposed 
rule goes beyond the directions of the British Prize Act, and it 
could only come into operation under a verbal alteration of the 
Declaration of Paris, under which " contraband " alone is 
excepted from the protection of the neutral flag, a fact which 
seems to have escaped the notice of the Institute. British 
prize law is at present governed by the Prize Act of 1864. 
This act must be overhauled to meet the requirements of 
the new international law of the subject; the creation of an 
International Court of Appeal and the new rules adopted by the 
conferences of the Hague and London will make many changes 
necessary. 

Absolute Duties of Neutrals. The very sense of neutrality 
obviously implies abstention from direct corporate assistance. 
The duty of neutral states to enforce respect for their i-ntonv- 
territory has become a very serious one. A belligerent meat of 
cannot be allowed to cross the neutral frontier or carry */>* iv 
on war operations in neutral waters, without the same 
right being granted to the other belligerent. Pursuit of 
one force by the other would amount to waging war on the 
neutral territory. It is agreed among nations that the 
avoidance of such a contingency is in the interest of them all. 
During the Franco-German War both France and Germany, 
1 The Naval Prize Act 1864, sect. 38. 



NEUTRALITY 



447 



as belligerents, and Belgium and England, as neutrals, rigorously 
observed their duties and enforced their rights, and no difficulty 
occurred. It is, nevertheless, conceivable that, under pressure 
of military necessity, or on account of an overwhelming interest, 
a powerful belligerent state would cross the territory of a weak 
neutral state and leave the consequences to diplomacy. The 
South African War was exceptional, in that the Portuguese 
government exposed itself to no international difficulty through 
allowing a belligerent, whose final victory was certain, and of 
necessity entailed total suppression of the conquered belligerent, 
to cross its colonial territory. At the same time it is an unfor- 
tunate precedent of taking advantage of the practical power- 
lessness of neighbouring neutral states to commit a violation 
of the law of nations, respect for which it is a primary duty of 
every self-respecting state to encourage. 1 

If, by inadvertence or otherwise, belligerent soldiers pass 
the frontier, they have to be turned back. If they claim the 
Refugees, ^roit d' asile, they are arrested, disarmed, and kept in 
such a manner as to render it impossible for them to 
take any further part in the hostilities. In the case of territorial 
waters, as has already been pointed out, the neutral state is not 
in the same position as on land, all ships without distinction 
having a right of innocent passage through them. Belligerent 
ships also have the right to enter neutral ports, but the neutral 
authority is bound to take precautions to prevent any favour 
being shown to the one party or the other. 2 

1 The right of way claimed and acceded to under the Anglo- 
Portuguese Treaty of nth June 1891 was a mere right of transit for 
merchandise, and could not in any way be construed as diminishing 
the neutral obligation to a belligerent who was no party to the treaty. 

2 The rules laid down on this subject by the British authorities 
during the Spanish-American War were as follows: 

Rule I. During the continuance of the present state of war all 
ships of war of either belligerent are prohibited from making use of 
any port or roadstead in the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man or the 
Channel Islands, or of any of Her Majesty's colonies or foreign 
possessions or dependencies, or of any waters subject to the territorial 
jurisdiction of the British crown, as a station or place of resort for 
any warlike purpose, or for the purpose of obtaining any facilities for 
warlike equipment; and no ship of war of either belligerent shall 
hereafter be permitted to leave such port, roadstead or waters from 
which any vessel of the other belligerent (whether the same shall be 
a ship of war or a merchant ship) shall have previously departed until 
after the expiration of at least twenty-four hours from the departure 
of such last-mentioned vessel beyond the territorial jurisdiction of 
Her Majesty. 

Rule 2. If there is now in any such port, roadstead or waters 
subject to the territorial jurisdiction of the British crown any ship 
of war of either belligerent, such ship shall leave such port, roadstead, 
or waters within such time, not less than twenty-four hours, as shall 
be reasonable, having regard to all the circumstances and the con- 
dition of such ship as to repairs, provisions or things necessary for the 
subsistence of her crew ; and if after the date hereof any ship of war 
of either belligerent shall enter any such port, roadstead or waters 
subject to the territorial jurisdiction of the British crown, such ship 
shall depart and put to sea within twenty-four hours after her entrance 
into any such port, roadstead or waters, except in case of stress of 
weather, or of her requiring provisions or things necessary for the 
subsistence of her crew, or repairs; in either of such cases the 
authorities of the port, or the nearest port (as the case may be), shall 
require her to put to sea as soon as possible after the expiration of 
such period of twenty-four hours, without permitting her to take in 
any supplies beyond what may be necessary for her immediate use; 
ana no such vessel which may have been allowed to remain within 
British waters for the purpose of repair shall continue in any such 
port, roadstead or waters for a longer period than twenty-four hours 
after her necessary repairs shall have been completed. Provided, 
nevertheless, that in all cases in which there shall be any vessels 
(whether ships of war or merchant ships) of both the said belligerent 
parties in the same port, roadstead or waters within the terntorial 
jurisdiction of Her Majesty, there shall be an interval of not less than 
twenty-four hours between the departure therefrom of any such 
vessel (whether a ship of war or merchant ship) of the one belligerent 
and the subsequent departure therefrom of any ship of war of the 
other belligerent ; and the time hereby limited for the departure of 
such ships of war respectively shall always, in case of necessity, be 
extended so far as may be requisite for giving effect to this proviso, 
but no further or otherwise. 

Rule 3. -No ship of war of either belligerent shall hereafter be per- 
mitted, while in any such port, roadstead or waters subject to the 
territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, to take in any supplies, except 
provisions and such other things as may be requisite for the sub- 



Relative Duties of Neutrals. Relative duties embrace those 
duties which citizens are bound to observe and for which states 
incur a relative responsibility. It was the non-observ- 
ance of these relative duties that led to difficulties 
between Great Britain and the United States at the meat, Ac. 
close of the American Civil War and which brought 
the two countries themselves to the verge of conflict. The 
Treaty of Washington (8th May 1871) referring these difficulties 
to arbitration defined the scope of the duties in question for 
all future purposes between the two peoples (see below, " Pro- 
clamations of Neutrality ") Under this treaty the parties bind 
themselves to use " due diligence," where they have " reasonable 
ground " to believe that any acts have a belligerent character, 
in " preventing " them. They are bound to prevent 

(1) Fitting out, arming, or equipping any vessel; 

(2) The departure from their jurisdiction of any vessel, having 
been specially adapted in whole or in part within such jurisdiction 
to warlike uses; 

(3) The making use by a belligerent of their ports or waters 
as a base of naval operations against the other; 

(4) The making use thereof for the purpose of the renewal 
or augmenting of military supplies or arms; 

(5) The making use thereof for the recruitment of men. 
The contracting states undertook to bring the rules they 

adopted on this subject to the knowledge of other maritime 
powers, and to invite them to adopt them also, but nothing 
was ever done to get them accepted among other states. Pro- 
vision had already been made to enable the government to 
carry them out in the Foreign Enlistment Act( 9th August 1870). 
This act, which repealed the previous one of 1819 on the 
same subject, is minute in its provisions to prevent enlisting 
or recruiting men, or the building or the equipping of vessels, 
for the military service " of a foreign state at war with a friendly 
state." Other states, except the United States (which 
adopted a similar act), have not followed the example of Great 
Britain, but leave it to their governments to deal with the cases, 
when they may arise, as matters of public safety. 3 

There was evident reluctance among foreign states to commit 
themselves to the obligation of exercising " due diligence." It is 
clear that the duty of a state to forbear from committing any act 
which may be of assistance to either belligerent can never be formu- 
lated as an absolute one in regard to the acts of private persons, 
merely within the neutral jurisdiction. In recent times it has 
certainly become possible for states to exercise a more effective 
control than formerly over these acts; but at the present moment, 
though a much greater latitude is left to neutral subjects and citizens 
than is consistent with the idea of strict neutrality, there is no move- 
ment to alter the usages to the disadvantage of neutral interests. 
That the Geneva Arbitral Tribunal found in favour of the United 
States in the " Alabama " case in no way implied that International 
Law had undergone any change. The tribunal was bound by the ante- 
cedent fixation of the Washington rules, and laid down no new prin- 
ciple. On the other hand, the magnitude of the Geneva award was not 
likely to promote change in the direction of increasing neutral duties, 
except as part of a genera! regulation of neutral and belligerent rights. 
The whole subject was laid before the Hague Conference of_ 1907, 
which adopted the main principles of the rules enunciated in the 
Treaty of Washington (see Art. 8 of the Convention relating to the 
rights and duties of neutral states in maritime war). 



sistence of her crew, and except so much coal only as may be sufficient 
to carry such vessel to the nearest port of her own country or to some 
nearer destination; and no coal shall again be supplied to any such 
ship of war in the same or any other port, roadstead or waters 
subject to the territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, without special 
permission, until after the expiration of three months from the time 
when such coal may have been last supplied to her within British 
waters as aforesaid. 

Rule 4. Armed ships of either belligerent are interdicted from 
carrying prizes made by them into the ports, harbours, roadsteads or 
waters of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, 
or any of Her Majesty's colonies or possessions abroad. 

* The French renal Code, howeyer, contains the following clauses 
covering the government's powers in this respect : 

ART. 84. Whoever shall by hostile acts, not approved by the 
Government, expose the State to a declaration of war, shall be 
punished by banishment, and should war follow, by deportation. 

ART. 85. Whoever shall, by acts not approved by the Government, 
expose Frenchmen to the risk of repnsals, shall be punished by 
banishment. 



NEUTRALITY 



To some extent the difficulty of determining the extent of 
relative neutral duty is overcome by the issue of proclamations 

of neutrality; but neutrality and its rights and duties 
Prociama- are ; n no respect dependent on their being proclaimed 
'aeutra'tty by the neutral power. Germany issues no proclama- 

tion; at least the German empire has issued none in 
connexion with the different wars which have taken place since 
1870. The Austro-Hungarian government during the same 
period only in the case of the war of 1870 itself, and in 1877, issued 
proclamations, and these probably had objects outside the 
ordinary purposes of proclamations of neutrality, and its usual 
practice is the same as that of Germany. France usually issues 
a short general proclamation, and Great Britain a more detailed 
one, which must be as old as the " ancient custom " of its being 
publicly read from the steps of the Royal Exchange by the 
sergeant-at-arms and common crier of the City of London. 1 
The British proclamation practically recites the Foreign Enlist- 
ment Act 1870 (an act to regulate the conduct of His Majesty's 
subjects during the existence of hostilities between foreign states 
with which His Majesty is at peace), admonishes all persons 
entitled to British protection to observe and respect the exercise 
of those belligerent rights which " We and Our Royal Predecessors 
have always claimed to exercise," and warns them that any such 
persons " breaking, or endeavouring to break, any blockade 
lawfully and actually established " by either belligerent, " or 
carrying officers, soldiers, despatches, arms, ammunition, military 
stores, or materials, or article or articles, considered and deemed 
to be contraband of war, according to the law or modern usages 
of nations, for the use or service " of either belligerent, " rightfully 
incur, and are justly liable to, hostile capture and to the penalties 
denounced by the law of nations in that behalf." During the 
South African War no proclamation of neutrality was issued by 
any country. 

Proclamations of neutrality may be made to serve the twofold 
purpose of warning the belligerent of the length to which the neutral 
government considers neutral duty to extend, and neutral subjects 
of the exceptional measures to which a foreign war exposes them. 
They may also be used to give effect to any modification of neutral 
right or duty which the neutral state may consider warranted by 
special or altered circumstances. 

No purely mercantile transactions are considered a violation 
of neutrality. Six years before the American Civil War, President 
Sale of Pierce, in his message to the Thirty-fourth Congress, 
arms and first session, made the following statement: " The 
laws of the United States do not forbid their citizens 



'neutrals 



to 



to e ' tner 



belligerent powers articles of 



contraband of war, or to take munitions of war or 
soldiers on board their private ships for transportation; and 
although in so doing the individual exposes his person or property 
to some of the hazards of war, his acts do not involve a breach 
of the national neutrality, nor of themselves implicate the 
government." This statement of international practice has been 
confirmed by art. 7 of the Hague Convention of October 18, 
1907, on the Rights and Duties of Neutral States and Persons 
on Land (see below). 

During the Franco-German War there was correspondence 
between the Prussian diplomatic representatives in London and 
at Washington and the British and United States foreign 
secretaries concerning shipments of arms and ammunition to the 
French armies, in which the Prussian government contended 
that it was incompatible with strict neutrality that French 
agents should be permitted to buy up in the neutral country, 
under the eyes and with the cognizance of the neutral govern- 
ment, " many thousands of breech-loaders, revolvers, and 
pistols, with the requisite ammunition, in order to arm there- 
with the French people, and make the formation of fresh 
army corps possible after the regular armies of France had 
been defeated and surrounded." Nothing, however, was done 
to prevent the departure of these supplies. Both the British 
and United States governments claimed entire liberty for 
the traffic in question. 

1 The Times, 28th April 1898. 



In the case of loans publicly issued or raised on neutral territory 
the position is a little different, inasmuch as the neutral state 
is necessarily cognizant of the fact. No restriction, /j a / s / _ / 
however, is imposed by international usage, and loans on 
provided the same rights are granted to both belli- neutral 
gerents, either or both can raise money ad libitum in terrltor y> 
neutral countries. Thus neutral states did not prevent the issue 
on their territory of the Russian war loan of 1876-1877. Nor in 
the war of 1894 between China and Japan was any opposition 
made by Japan to the raising of the Chinese loan in London. 
Art. 1 8 of the Hague Convention on the Rights and Duties of 
Neutral States and Persons on Land (see below) confirms the 
existing practice. 

Neutrality Reforms. At the Hague Peace Conference 1899 
a suggestion was agreed to, without discussion, that a further 
state conference should be held for the purpose 
of dealing specially with neutrality. At the Con- General 
ference of 1007 this was done, with the result that neutrality 
two fairly exhaustive conventions were adopted. 
The general provisions relating to neutrality are 
as follow: , 

ART. i. Neutral territory is inviolable. 

ART. 2. Belligerents are forbidden to send troops or convoys 
either of munitions of war or of provisions through the territory of a 
neutral state. 

ART. 3. Belligerents are also forbidden : 

(a) To instal, on the territory of a neutral state, a radio-telegraphic 
station or any apparatus intended to serve as a means of communica- 
tion with the belligerent forces on land or sea ; 

(6) To make use of any installation of like nature, erected by them 
before the war, on the territory of the neutral state, for an ex- 
clusively military purpose, and which has not been opened to the 
service of public correspondence. 

ART. 4. Bodies of combatants shall not be formed or recruiting 
offices opened on territory of a neutral power for the benefit of the 
belligerents. 

ART. 5. A neutral state shall not allow on its territory any of the 
acts mentioned in arts. 2 to 4. It is only bound to repress acts 
contrary to neutrality in case they have been committed on its own 
territory. 

ART. 6. A neutral state is not responsible where individuals 
separately pass the frontier to place themselves at the disposal of 
either belligerent. 

ART. 7. A neutral state is not bound to prevent exportation or 
transit for the account of either belligerent, of arms, munitions of 
war, and, in general, of anything which may be useful for an army 
or a fleet. 

ART. 8. A neutral state is not bound to prohibit or restrict the 
use, for belligerents, of telegraphic or telephonic cables, or of wireless 
telegraphy apparatus, which are its property or that of companies 
or private individuals. 

ART. 9. Any prohibitive or restrictive measures adopted by a 
neutral state relative to the matters mentioned in arts. 7 and 8 shall 
be applied uniformly by it to both belligerents. The neutral state 
shall see that this obligation is observed by companies or private 
individuals owning telegraphic or telephonic cables or wireless tele- 
graphic apparatus. 

ART. jo. The act by a neutral state of resisting any violation of 
its neutrality, even by force of arms, cannot be regarded as an act of 
hostility. 

ART. ii. A neutral state receiving, on its territory, troops 
belonging to the belligerent armies, shall, as far as possible, keep 
them distant from the area of hostilities. 

It may keep them in camps, and even shut them up in fortified 
places, or in places suitable for this purpose. It shall decide whether 
officers may be left at liberty or parole not to leave the neutral 
territory without authorization. 

ART. 12. When there is no special convention a neutral state 
shall supply internal prisoners with food, clothing, and the aid which 
humanity calls for. When peace is established, the cost of keeping 
the prisoners shall be reimbursed. 

ART. 13. A neutral state receiving escaped prisoners of war shall 
leave them at liberty. If it allows them to stay on its territory, it 
may appoint a place of residence for them. The same rule is appli- 
cable to prisoners of war brought by troops taking refuge on neutral 
territory. 

ART. 14. A neutral state may authorize the passage on its 
territory of wounded or sick belonging to the belligerent armies, on 
condition that the trains which carry them shall transport none of 
the fighting force and no materials of war. In such a case, the 
neutral state is bound to take the necessary steps to ensure safety 
and control. 

The wounded or sick brought in these circumstances into neutral 
territory by one of the belligerents, and belonging to the enemy, 
shall be detained by the neutral state in such a way that they cannot 



NEUTRALITY 



449 



again take part in the hostilities. This neutral state shall discharge 
the same duties if it be entrusted with the wounded or sick of the 
other army. 

ART. 15. The Geneva Convention applies to sick and wounded 
interned on neutral territory (see GENEVA CONVENTION). 

ART. 16. The natives of a state not taking part in the hostilities 
are considered as neutrals. 

ART. 17. A neutral person cannot take advantage of his neu- 
trality : 

(a) If he commits hostile acts against a belligerent; 

(6) If he commits acts in favour of a belligerent, for instance, if he 
voluntarily takes service in the ranks of the army of one of the 
parties. 

In such a case the neutral shall not be treated with more severity 
by the belligerent against whom he has acted in contravention of 
his neutrality than a native of the other belligerent state would be 
for the same act. 

ART. 1 8. The following shall not be considered as acts committed 
in favour of one of the belligerents, in the sense of Art. 17 (6): 

(a) Supplies or loans made to one of the belligerents provided the 
purveyor or the lender inhabits neither the territory of the other 
party nor territory occupied by it, and provided the supplies do not 
come from these territories; 

(&) Services rendered in matters of police or civil administration. 

ART. 19. Railway property coming from the territory of neutral 
states, whether it belongs to these states or to companies or to 
private persons, and recognizable as such, cannot be requisitioned or 
utilized by a belligerent, except in such cases and in such a manner 
as dictated by absolute necessity. Such property shall be returned 
to its country of origin as soon as possible. 

The neutral state can even, in case of necessity, keep and utilize to 
that extent property coming from the territory of a belligerent state. 

An indemnity shall be paid, proportionate to the amount of the 
property utilized and the duration of utilization. 

The clauses of the Convention relating exclusively to neutrality 

in naval war, which are still fuller, are: 

Conven- ART. I. Belligerents are bound to respect the sovereign 
tioa of rights of neutral powers and to abstain, either on the terri- 
1907 oa tory or in neutral waters, from all acts which might con- 
aeutrality stitute in the part of the powers permitting them a non- 
In naval observance of their neutrality. 

far. ART. 2. All acts of hostility, including capture and the 

exercise of the right of visit and search, by belligerent ships of war 
in the territorial waters of a neutral power, constitute a breach 
of neutrality and are strictly forbidden. 

ART. 3. When a vessel has been captured in the territorial waters 
of a neutral power, this power shall, if the prize is still within its 
jurisdiction, use all means in its power to effect the release of 
the prize and its officers and crew, and that the crew placed on 
board by the captor shall be interned. If the prize is out of the 
jurisdiction of the neutral power, the capturing government shall, on 
the request of the former, release the prize with its officers and crew. 

ART. 4. No prize court can be constituted by a belligerent on 
neutral territory or on a vessel in neutral waters. 

ART. 5. Belligerents are forbidden to make neutral ports and 
waters the base of naval operations against their adversaries, 
especially by installing radio-telegraphic stations or any apparatus 
which may serve as means of communication with belligerent forces 
on sea or on land. 

ART. 6. The supply, under any ground whatever, either directly 
or indirectly, by a neutral power to a belligerent power, of ships of 
war, or of munitions or of material of war of any kind, is forbidden. 

ART. 7. A neutral power is not bound to prevent the exportation 
or transit, for the account of either belligerent, of arms, munitions of 
war, or, in general, of anything which may be useful to an army or a 
fleet. 

ART. 8. A neutral government is bound to use the means at its 
disposal to prevent, within its jurisdiction, the equipping or arming 
of any vessel, which it has any reasonable suspicion of being destined 
to act as a cruiser or to join in hostile operations against a power with 
which it is at peace. 

It is also bound to exercise the same surveillance to prevent the 
departure out of its jurisdiction of any vessel intending to act as a 
cruiser or take part in hostile operations, and which, within the said 
jurisdiction, may have been adapted either wholly or in part for 
warlike purposes. 

ART. 9. A neutral power must apply equally to the two belligerents 
the restrictions, conditions and interdictions specified by it relating 
to admission to its ports, roadsteads, or territorial waters, with respect 
to ships of war or their prizes. 

A neutral power may, however, forbid access to its ports and road- 
steads, to any belligerent vessel which may have neglected to comply 
with the orders and directions issued by it or may have committed a 
breach of neutrality. 

ART. 10. The neutrality of a power is not compromised by the 
simple passage through its territorial waters of belligerent ships of 
war and of their prizes. 

ART. it. A neutral power may allow ships of war of belligerents 
to make use of its licensed pilots. 

xix. 15 



ART. 12. In default of other special provisions in the laws of a 
neutral power, ships of war of belligerents are forbidden to remain 
in the ports or roadsteads or in the territorial waters of the said 
power for more than twenty-four hours, except in the cases provided 
for by the present Convention. 

ART. 13. If a power which has received notice of the commence- 
ment of hostilities learns that a ship of war of a belligerent is in one 
of its ports and roadsteads or in its territorial waters, it shall notify 
the said ship that it must leave within twenty-four hours or within 
the time prescribed by the local law. 

ART. 14. A belligerent ship of war may not prolong its stay in a 
neutral port beyond the legal period, except for the purpose of re- 
pairing damage or by reason of the state of the sea. It must leave as 
soon as the cause of the delay has ceased. 

The rules relating to the limitation of stay in ports, roadsteads, and 
neutral waters do not apply to ships of war exclusively employed on 
religious, scientific or philanthropic missions. 

ART. 15. Indefaultpf other special provisions in the laws of the 
neutral power, the maximum number of ships of war of a belligerent 
which may be at the same time in one of its ports or roadsteads shall 
be three. 

ART. 16. When ships of war of two belligerents are at the same 
time in a neutral port or roadstead, twenty-four hours at least must 
elapse between the departure of the ship of either belligerent before 
that of the other. 

The order of departure shall be regulated by the order of arrival, 
unless the vessel arriving first is entitled to a prolongation of the 
legal period of its stay. 

A belligerent ship of war may not leave a neutral port or road- 
stead until at least twenty-four hours after the departure of a 
merchant vessel carrying the flag of its adversary. 

ART. 17. In neutral ports and roadsteads, belligerent ships of 
war may only repair damage to the extent indispensable for their 
seaworthiness, and may not, in any way, increase their military 
strength. The neutral authority will ascertain the nature of the 
repairs to be executed, which shall be carried out as rapidly as 
possible. 

ART. 18. Belligerent ships of war may not make use of neutral 
ports, roadsteads and territorial waters for the purpose of renewing 
or increasing their military equipment or armament or for com- 
pleting their crews. 

ART. 19. Belligerent ships may not revictual in neutral ports or 
roadsteads, except to complete their normal supplies as in time of 
peace. These ships may also only take on board the fuel necessary 
for the purpose of reaching the nearest port of their own country. 
They may also take in fuel sufficient to fill up their bunkers properly 
so called if they are in a neutral country which has adopted this 
method of fixing the amount of fuel to be supplied. 

If, according to the law of the neutral power, ships may only 
receive coal twenty-four hours after their arrival, the legal period of 
their stay is prolonged for twenty-four hours. 

ART. 20. Belligerent ships of war which have taken in fuel in the 
port of a neutral power cannot renew their supply in a port of the 
same power within three months. 

ART. 21. A prize may not be brought into a neutral port except 
by reason of its unseaworthiness, or of the stress of weather or of 
insufficiency of fuel or provisions. It must leave again as soon as the 
cause of its entry has ceased. If it does not do so, the neutral power 
shall give it notice to leave immediately, and in the event of its not 
complying therewith, the neutral power shall use the means at its 
disposal to release it with its officers and crew and intern the crew 
placed on board by the captor. 

ART. 22. The neutral power shall also release any prize which has 
been brought in not in accordance with the conditions laid down in 
Art. 21. 

ART. 23. A neutral power may allow access to its ports and road- 
steads to prizes, whether escorted or not, when they have been 
brought there to be left in sequestration pending the decision of a 
prize court. It may have the prize conducted to any other of its ports. 

If the prize is escorted by a ship of war, the officers and men 
placed on board by the captor are allowed to go on board the escorting 
ship. 

If the prize is navigating alone, the personnel placed on board is set 
at liberty. 

ART. 24. If, in spite of notice from the neutral authority, a 
belligerent ship of war does not leave a port in which it has no right 
to remain, the neutral power has the right to take_ such steps as it 
may think proper to render the ship incapable of going to sea during 
the continuance of the war, and the commander of the ship must 
facilitate the taking of such steps. When a belligerent ship is detained 
by a neutral power, the officers and crew are also detained. 

The officers and crew thus detained may be left on board the ship 
or lodged on board another vessel or on shore, and they may be 
subjected to such restrictive measures as may be considered necessary 
to be imposed on them. In any event, sufficient men must be left 
on board the ship to keep it in order. 

The officer? may be released on giving their parole not to leave the 
neutral territory without permission. 

ART. 25. A neutral power is bound to exercise the surveillance 
of which the means in its power admit, to prevent within its 



450 



NEUVILLE NEVADA 



ports or roadsteads and in its waters any violation of the preceding 
provisions. 

ART. 26. The exercise by a neutral power of the rights denned by 
the present Convention can never be considered as an unfriendly act 
by either belligerent who has accepted the articles relating thereto. 

ART. 27. The contracting powers will communicate to each other, 
as soon as feasible, all the laws, ordinances and other provisions 
which within their jurisdiction govern belligerent ships of war in 
their ports and waters, by means of a notification addressed to the 
government of the Netherlands and immediately transmitted by 
the latter to the other contracting powers. 

ART. 28. The provisions of the present Convention are only 
applicable as between contracting powers, and only if the belligerents 
are all parties thereto. 

Other reforms may be expected from the Conference of 1915. 
Germany in the course of the South African War and Great 
Britain in that of the Russo-Japanese War showed great irrita- 
tion at the stoppage of certain of their merchant vessels, and 
Great Britain in the one case had to consent to and in the other 
to demand a modification of belligerent right under International 
Law a modification which, be it said, is a perfectly justifiable 
one, viz. that the right of search for contraband of war be 
restricted to a specified area. It is probable that, in future 
wars, powerful neutral states will show, in similar cases, quite as 
much irritation as did Germany and Great Britain. (T. BA.) 

NEUVILLE, ALPHONSE MARIE DE (1836-1885), French 
painter, was born, the son of wealthy parents, at Saint-Omer, 
France, on the 3ist of May 1836. From school he went to 
college, where he took his degree of bachelier es lettres. In spite 
of the opposition of his family he entered the naval school at 
Lorient, and it was here, in 1856, that his artistic instincts first 
declared themselves. After being discouraged by several 
painters of repute, he was admitted to work in Picot's studio. 
He did not remain there long, and he was painting by himself 
when he produced his first picture, " The Fifth Battalion of 
Chasseurs at the Gervais Battery (Malakoff)." In 1860 de 
Neuville painted an " Episode of the taking of Naples by Gari- 
baldi " for the Artists' Club in the Rue de Provence, and sent to 
the Salon in 1861 " The Light Horse Guards in the Trenches 
of the Mamdon Vert." He also illustrated Le Tour du monde 
and Guizot's History of France. At the same time he painted 
a number of remarkable pictures: " The Attack in the Streets 
of Magenta by Zouaves and the Light Horse " (1864), " A 
Zouave Sentinel " (1865), " The Battle of San Lorenzo " (1867), 
and " Dismounted Cavalry crossing the Tchernaia " (1869). 
In these he showed peculiar insight into military life, but his full 
power was not reached till after the war of 1870. He then aimed 
at depicting in his works the episodes of that war, and began by 
representing the " Bivouac before Le Bourget " (1872). His 
fame spread rapidly, and was increased by " The Last Cartridges " 
(1873), in which it is easy to discern the vast difference between 
the conventional treatment of military subjects, as practised by 
Horace Vernet, and that of a man who had lived through the 
life he painted. In 1874 the " Fight on a Railroad " was not 
less successful, and was followed by the " Attack on a House at 
Villersexel " (1875) and the " Railway Bridge at Styring " 
(1877). In 1878 the painter exhibited (not at the Great Exhibi- 
tion) " Le Bourget," the " Surprise at Daybreak," " The Inter- 
cepted Despatch-bearer," and a considerable number of drawings. 
He also exhibited in London some episodes of the Zulu War. 
In 1881 he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour for 
" The Cemetery of Saint-Privat " and " The Despatch-bearer." 
During these years de Neuville was at work with Detaille on an 
important though less artistic work, " The Panorama of Rezon- 
ville." De Neuville died in Paris on the i8th of May 1885. 
At the sale of his works the state purchased for the Luxembourg 
the " Bourget " and the " Attack on a Barricaded House," with 
a water-colour " The Parley," and a drawing of a " Turco in 
Fighting Trim." 

See Montrosier, Les Peintres militaires (Paris, 1881), "De Neuville," 
in Gazette des beaux arts (Paris, 1885). 

NEUWEILER, a town of Germany, in the imperial province 
of Alsace-Lorraine, situated under the Vosges Mountains, 6 m. 
N. from Zabern by the railway to Rastatt. Pop. (1905) 1906. 



It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by walls. 
The Romanesque Evangelical church dates from the I2th 
century; there are also a Romanesque Roman Catholic church, 
which was restored in 1852, a synagogue, and an old town-hall. 
The town has a considerable trade in hops and wine. Above 
it rise the ruins of the fortress of Herrenstein, and of the castle 
of Hiineburg. 

See Fischer, GeschichtederAbteiundStadlNeuweiler (Zabern, 1876). 

NEUWIED, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine 
province, the capital of the mediatized countship of Wied, is 
situated on the right bank of the Rhine, 8 m. below Coblenz, on 
the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 
18,177. The principal edifice is the chateau of the princes of 
Wied. This is situated in a fine park, and contains a collection 
of Roman antiquities. The town has an Evangelical and a 
Roman Catholic church. Its chief products are starch, sugar, 
tobacco, cigars, chicory, buttons and enamelled goods. There 
are large rolling-mills, and in the vicinity are several large iron- 
foundries. The schools of Neuwied enjoy a high reputation. 

Neuwied was founded by Count Frederick of Wied in 1662, 
on the site of the village of Langendorf, which was destroyed 
during the Thirty Years' War, and it rapidly increased owing 
to the toleration accorded to all religious sects. Among those 
who sought refuge here was a colony of Moravian Brethren; 
they still occupy a separate quarter of the town, where they carry 
on manufactures of porcelain stoves and deerskin gloves. Near 
Neuwied one of the largest Roman castra on the Rhine has been 
excavated. In April 1797 the French, under General Hoche, 
defeated the Austrians near Neuwied, this being their first decisive 
success in the revolutionary wars. Legenhaus, in the neighbour- 
hood, is one of the residences of the princes of Weid. 

See Wirtgen and Blenke, Neuwied und seine Umgebung (Neuwied, 
1901). 

NEVA, a river of Russia, which carries off into the Gulf of 
Finland the waters of Lakes Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen and many 
smaller basins. It issues from the south-west corner of Lake 
Ladoga in two channels, which are obstructed by sandstone reefs, 
so that the better of the two has a depth of only 7 to 16 ft. A 
little farther down it becomes completely navigable, and attains 
a breadth of 4200 ft.; but between the village of Ostrovki and 
that of Ust-Tosna it passes over a limestone bed, which produces 
a series of rapids, and reduces the width of the river from 1050 
to 840 and that of the navigable passage from 350 to 175 ft. 
Nine or ten miles before reaching its outfall the river enters St 
Petersburg, and 5 or 6 m. lower down breaks up into the Great 
Neva (850 to 1700 ft. wide), the Little Neva (945 to 1365), and 
the Great Nevka (280 to 1205), this last, 2 m. farther on, sending 
off the Little Nevka (370 to 1130 ft.). Its total length is only 
40 m. In front of the delta are sandbanks and rocks which pre- 
vent the passage of vessels except by a canal, 18 m. long, 124 
to 226 ft. wide, and admitting vessels with a draught of i8| ft., 
from Kronstadt to St Petersburg. Most of its alluvial burden 
being deposited in the lakes, the Neva takes a long time to alter 
its channels or extend its delta. The ordinary rise and fall of 
the river is comparatively slight, but when the west wind blows 
steadily for a long time, or when Lake Ladoga sends down its 
vast accumulations of block-ice, inundations of a dangerous 
kind occur, as in 1777, 1824, 1879 and 1903. 

According to observations extending from 1706 to 1899, the mean 
day of the freezing of the Neva is November 25th, the earliest 
October 28th, the latest January 9th, and the next latest December 
26th. The mean day of opening is April 2ist, the earliest March 
i8th, and the latest May I2th. The mean number of days open is 
218, the least 172, the greatest 279. 

NEVADA (a Spanish word meaning " snow-clad " or " snowy 
land," originally applied to a snow-capped mountain range on 
the Pacific slope), one of the far western states of the American 
Union, lying between 35 and 42 N. and 114 i' 34* and 120 
i' 34* W. (37 and 43 W. of Washington). It is bounded N. 
by Oregon and Idaho, E. by Utah and Arizona, the Colorado 
River separating it in part from the latter state, and S. and W. 
by California. Nevada ranks sixth in size among the states of 
the Union. Of its total area of 110,690 sq. m., 869 sq. m. are 



NEVADA 



water surface. Its extreme length, N. and S., is 484 m., and its 
extreme width, E. and W., is 321 m. (For map, see CALIFORNIA.) 

Physiography. With the exception of its N.E. and S.E. 
corners, the state lies wholly within the Great Basin, the floor 
of which is really a vast table-land between 4000 and 5000 ft. 
above the sea. This plateau, however, is not a plain, but con- 
tains many buttes and mesas and isolated mountain ranges 
rising from 1000 to 8000 ft. above its surface. In the N.E. an 
unnamed range of highlands, with an E. and W. trend, forms 
the water-parting between the streams tributary to the Hum- 
boldt river in Nevada and those that flow into the Snake river 
through Idaho and Oregon and thence to the Pacific Ocean. 
This range is very broken and ill-defined, with peaks often reaching 
altitudes of from 9000 to 12,000 ft., and with numerous spurs 
diverging N. and S. from the main divide. Between this ridge 
and the valley of the Colorado river lies all that portion of the 
Great Basin included within the state. The surface of this 
table-land is very rugged, and frequently broken by mountain 
ranges running N. and S. and from 5 to 20 m. wide at their 
bases. Intersecting the mountains are numerous ravines and 
passes. Between the ranges lie valleys of about the same width 
as the bases of the mountains. These valleys are generally level- 
floored, but at their borders gradually slope upward, and are 
filled, often to a depth of several thousand feet, with the detritus 
of gravel, sand and silt from the neighbouring hills. This is a 
region of innumerable faulted crust blocks, the elevated ones 
creating the N. and S. mountain ranges, and the depressed ones 
the valleys that lie between. It is for this reason that the 
mountain slopes are generally more abrupt on one side than on 
the other. Several valleys often unite into a large elevated 
plain, broken only by scattered buttes and spurs. The combined 
areas of the valleys and the area occupied by the mountains are 
about equal. 

The mean elevation of the state is 5500 ft. There are 5400 
sq. m. between 2000 and 3000 ft. above the sea; 11,100 sq. m. 
between 3000 and 4000 ft.; 23,700 sq. m. between 4000 and 
5000 ft.; 29,800 sq. m. between 5000 and 6000 ft.; 30,100 sq. m. 
between 6000 and 7000 ft.; 7800 sq. m. between 7000 and 
8000 ft. ; and 2800 sq. m. between 8000 and 9000 ft. The highest 
point within the state is Wheeler Peak, near the centre of the 
eastern boundary, with an elevation of 13,058 ft.; the lowest 
points are along the Colorado river, where the altitudes range 
from 700 to 800 ft. With the exception of this dip in the S.E. 
corner, the entire state lies above the 2000 ft. line. 

The Sierra Nevada range, which forms the western rim of the 
Basin, sends into the state a single lofty spur, the Washoe Mountains. 
At the foot of this range there is, relatively speaking, a depression, 
with an altitude of about 3850 ft. above the sea, which receives the 
drainage of the eastern slopes of the Sierra and what little drainage 
there is in the northern half of Nevada. From this depression east- 
ward the general level of the plateau gradually rises to an elevation 
of 6000 ft. near the eastern borders of the state. The mountains also 
increase in height and importance as far as the East Humboldt 
range, a lofty mass about 60 m. W. of the Utah boundary. This 
range is the water-parting for nearly all the westward-flowing 
streams of the state, and is by far the steepest and most rugged 
within Nevada, a number of its peaks attaining a height of 11,000 
or 12,000 ft. On its eastern slope the waters soon disappear within 
the bed of narrow canyons, but break out again at the foot in ice- 
cold springs that form the source of the Ruby and Franklin lakes; 
on its western side the descent is more gentle, and the waters form 
the South Fork of the Humboldt river. Somewhat S. of the centre 
of the state lie the Toyabe Mountains, with several peaks from 
10,000 to 12,000 ft. in height. The waters on the eastern slopes 
flow into the Smoky Valley; those on the other side assist the 
neighbouring Shoshone Mountains in feeding the Reese river, 
which flows N. toward the Humboldt, but seldom has sufficient 
volume to enable it to reach that stream. About 100 m. E. of the 
California boundary lies a third important range, the Humboldt 
Mountains, whose highest point (Star Peak) is 9925 ft. above the 
sea. Owing to their great height these three ranges receive heavier 
rainfall than the surrounding country and are feeders to the northern 
valleys, which constitute the chief agricultural region of the state. 
Many of the block mountains of the Great Basin are of complicated 
internal structure, showing rocks of all ages slate, limestone, 
quartzites, granite, multi-coloured volcanic rocks, and large areas 
of lava overflow. 

From the valley of the Humboldt river southward the plateau 
gradually rises until the divide between this stream and the Colorado 



river, in the vicinity of the White Pine Mountains, is reached. 
From this point there is a fall, which is gradual as far S. as the 38th 
parallel, and then more abrupt. Thus at Pioche the altitude is 
6100 ft., at Hiko 3881 ft., at St Thomas 1600 ft., and at the Eldorado 
Canyon 828 ft. The region of the Colorado river is largely desert, 
with occasional buttes and spurs. 

Rivers and Lakes. There are three drainage systems within the 
state. North of the Humboldt Valley an area of about 5000 sq. m. 
is drained by the Owyhee, the Little Owyhee, the Salmon and 
Bruneau rivers, whose waters eventually reach the Pacific Ocean. 
Below this region flow the streams of the Great Basin, none of 
which reach the sea, but either terminate in lakes having no outlet 
or else vanish in sloughs or " sinks." Small streams often sink 
from sight in their beds of gravel, and after flowing some distance 
underground, reappear farther on. Of the basin streams the Hum- 
boldt is the most important. Rising in the N.E., it flows in a 
tortuous channel in a general S.W. direction for 300 m. and drains 
7000 or 8000 sq. m. This stream empties into the. Humboldt lake, 
the overflow from which goes into the so-called Carson Sink. At 
no part of its course is it a large river, and near its mouth its waters 
are sub-alkaline. The Truckee river flows with more vigour, having 
its source in Lake Tahoe, in California, at an altitude of 6225 ft., 
and entering the Carson river through an irrigation canal com- 
pleted in 1905; before this date it flowed into Pyramid Lake and 
Lake Winnemucca in the depression at the foot of the Sierra Nevada. 
A short distance to the S. two other streams, the Carson and the 
Walker rivers, receive their waters from the eastern slope of this 
range and empty into lakes bearing their names. Of this group 
of lakes in the western depression, Pyramid Lake is the largest, 
being 33 m. long and 14 m. wide. Fed by the same stream is its 
western neighbour, Lake Winnemucca, a much smaller body. The 
waters of these two lakes are only moderately saline and may be 
used for live-stock but not for human beings. Next Jn importance 
is Walker lake, 33 m. long and 6 or 7 m. wide, whose waters are 
strongly saline. On the western boundary, and partly included 
within the limits of Nevada, is Lake Tahoe, 20 m. long and 10 m. 
wide, which is 1645 ft. deep at its centre and whose waters have 
never been known to freeze, notwithstanding the lake's elevation. 
The topography and the climate of Nevada have led to the formation 
of two kinds of lakes, the ephemeral and the perennial. The perennial 
lakes, such as those just described, hold their waters for years and 
perhaps centuries; but the ephemeral lakes usually evaporate in 
the course of the summer. The latter class is formed by waters 
that fall on the barren mountain-sides and rush down in torrents, 
forming in the valleys shallow bodies of water yellow with the mud 
held in suspension. The largest of these occurs in the Black Rock 
Desert, in the N.W., and at times is from 450 to 500 m. in length 
and only a few inches deep. Such bodies often become nothing but 
vast sheets of liquid mud, and are called " mud lakes," a term most 
frequently applied to the sloughs fed by Quinn's river. When the 
waters evaporate in the summer they leave a clay bed of remarkable 
hardness, which is sometimes encrusted with saline matter of a 
snowy whiteness and dazzles the eyes of the traveller. When such 
is the case the beds are called " alkali flats." During the glacial 
period many of the Nevada lakes attained a great size, several of 
them uniting to form the ancient " Lake Lahontan," in north- 
western Nevada. As these lakes shrank after the return of an arid 
climate, they left elevated beaches and deposits of various minerals, 
which mark their former extent. Both hot and cold springs are 
numerous, with temperatures ranging from 50 to 204 F. 

In the S.E. corner of the state is the third drainage system. 
Here the Virgin river enters the state after crossing die N.W. corner 
of Arizona and flows S.W. for 60 m. until it joins the Colorado 
river. The latter stream flows for 150 m. along the S.E. boundary 
towards the Gulf of California. 

Fauna and Flora. -Of native animals the varieties are few and 
the numbers of individuals small. In the arid valleys coyotes 
(prairie wolves), rabbits and badgers are found. Large animals, 
such as the black and the grizzly bear, and deer are found on the 
slopes of the Sierra Mountains, and antelope, deer and elk visit the 
northernmost valleys in the winter. At rare intervals antelope appear 
in the southern deserts. Here also are found the sage thrasher, 
Le Conte's thrasher, the Texas nighthawk, Baird's woodpecker, and 
the mourning dove. Certain species of grouse are common high in 
the timbered mountains. Several varieties of water-fowl, especially 
curlews, pelicans, gulls, ducks, terns, geese and snipe, are found 
in the vicinity of the lakes. The Truckee river and the western 
lakes abound in trout and black bass. Of the reptiles the leopard 
lizard and gridiron-tailed lizard, the " chuck-walla " (Sauromalus 
ater), the rattle-snake, and the horned toad are the most numerous. 
The " black mouse " or Carson field mouse (Microtus montanus) 
is found throughout Nevada, as well as in Utah, north-eastern 
California, and eastern Oregon; it multiplies rapidly under favour- 
able conditions, and at times causes serious injury to crops. 

The flora of Nevada, although scanty, varies greatly according 
to its location. With the exception of the alkali flats, no portion 
of the desert is devoid of vegetation, even in the driest seasons. 
In the Washoe Mountains, as in the rest of the Sierra Nevada range, 
there is a heavy growth of conifers, extending down to the very 
valleys; but in many places these mountains have been almost 



452 



NEVADA 



deforested to provide timbers for the mines. In very limited spaces 
on other mountains there are scattered trees the pinon (nut 
pine) and the juniper at an altitude between 5000 and 7000 ft. 
on all but the lowest ranges, the trees rarely reaching a height of 
over 15 ft.; and the stunted mountain mahogany on the principal 
ranges at an altitude of 6800 ft. Several varieties of poplar are 



found in the upper canyons, and trees of the willow-leaved species in 
! Humboldt Mountains often attain a height of 60 ft. But except 



the 



for these infrequent wooded strips, the mountains are even more 
bare than the valleys, because their shrubs are dwarfed from ex- 
posure. The trees, except in the Washoe Mountains, are of very 
slow growth and therefore knotty and ill-adapted for timber. As a 
rule, the elevation of the timber line on the mountains increases as 
the latitude decreases. On the foothills are found phlox and lupine, 
and in the N. much bunch grass, which is valuable for grazing pur- 
poses. The valleys are covered with typical desert shrubs; grease- 
wood (sarcobatus vermiculatus) , creosote bushes (larrea tridentata) , and 
sage-brush (artemisia tridentata); the first-named plant is abundant, 
chiefly in the N. This vegetation, covering plains, mesas, and even 
extending up the sides of the mountains, gives the entire landscape 
the greyish or dull olive colour characteristic of the Great Basin. 
To the southward, as the valleys become increasingly sandy and 
saline, even the sage-brush disappears, and little vegetation besides 
the cactus and the yucca is to be seen. The valleys are treeless, 
except in the vicinity of the Truckee river, where considerable 
quantities of the cotton wood and a small amount of willow, birch, 
and wild cherry are found. The mesquite grows some distance 
from water, and is especially common near the Colorado river. In 
January 1910 there were seven national forests in the state, created 
since July 1908 and chiefly in 1909, containing 7983-76 sq. m. 

Climate. As the lofty range of mountains on the W. deprives the 
winds from the Pacific of nearly all their moisture before they reach 
the Great Basin, the climate of Nevada is characterized by an ex- 
cessive dryness. The skies are clear nearly every day in the year. 
The mean annual precipitation varies from 3 in. in the S.W. (Esmer- 
alda county) to 12 in. in the E. (White Pine county). In the 
central, north-eastern and north-western sections, embracing the 
counties of Nye. Elko and Humboldt, the average annual rainfall 
varies from 7 to 8 in. ; in the west-central section, at the foot of the 
Sierra, the average is about 10 in. A so-called " rainy season " 
lasts from October to April, but the precipitation is chiefly in the 
form of snow on the mountains. Except at great altitudes snow lies 
on the ground only a few days each year. The melting of the 
mountain snow-caps in the spring causes severe freshets, which in 
turn are followed by long seasons of drought at a time when water 
is most needed for agricultural purposes. Fogs and hail are rare, 
but, as in all treeless countries, the rain comes in unequal quantities, 
and cloudbursts are not unknown. The mean annual temperature 
for the state is 49 F., but varies from 54 in the S.W. to 46 in the 
N. The daily and annual variation is very great, and is intensified 
toward the E., where the altitudes are greater. At Elko, Elko 
county, in the N.E., the mean temperature for the year is 46 F. ; 
for the winter (December, January and February) it is 26 , with 
extremes reported of 73 and -42 , the mean temperature for the 
summer (June, July and August) is 69, with extremes of 108 and 
20. At Hawthorne, Esmeralda county, in the S.W., the mean 
temperature for the year is 54; for the winter it is 36, with ex- 
tremes of 69 and -6; the mean temperature for the summer is 
72, with extremes of 102 and 32. At the head of the Humboldt 
river frosts are of almost nightly occurrence, and in the Carson 
Valley damaging frosts often occur in June. In the extreme S. the 
isothermal lins run almost due E. and W. ; but farther northward 
they take a N.W. and S.E. direction. The annual range of tempera- 
ture is about 124; the highest temperature ever recorded being 
119, and the lowest -42. In spite of the high temperatures of 
summer, however, the low humidity prevents the heat from being 
oppressive, and cases of sunstroke are unknown. While the western 
mountains keep out the moisture, they do not ward off the winds 
which pour dowa the steep slopes in the winter and spring and 
raise clouds of dust. Early-sown grain is often injured by flying 
sand and gravel. In the summer and autumn the winds are light. 

Agriculture. Because of this extreme aridity, agriculture in 
Nevada is dependent on irrigation. The three principal areas in 
which irrigation is practicable are along the Humboldt river, in the 
plains watered by the Carson, Truckee and Walker rivers, and at 
the foot of the mountains along the western edge of the state. 
There are various places also near the mouths of desert canyons, 
where_ small amounts of water are obtainable for irrigation purposes 
from intermittent streams. The total number of acres irrigated in 
1899 was 504,168, an increase of 124-7% in the decade. In 1902 
the total irrigated acreage was 570,001, an increase of 13-1% in 
three years. In 1902 Congress provided for the beginning of ex- 
tensive irrigation works in the arid West, and Nevada (where pre- 
liminary reconnaissances had been made in 1889-1890) was the 
first state to profit from this undertaking. The survey for the 
Truckee-Carson system was begun in 1902, with the object of 
utilizing the waters flowing to waste in western Nevada for the 
irrigation and reclamation of the adjacent arid regions in Churchill, 
Lyon and Storey counties. A canal 31 m. long, diverting the waters 
of the Truckee river into the Carson river, was completed in 1905 



at a cost of $1,250,000. A system of reservoirs (the main reservoir 
is Lake Tahoe with an area of 193 sq. m.), distributing canals, and 
drain ditches was also projected, making it possible to reclaim 
231,300 acres of the desert. It was estimated that the works would 
require nine years for their completion, at a total cost of $9,000,000, 
although the first 200,000 acres could be reclaimed at a cost of 
$2,700,000. The works were to be operated by the government for 
ten years, and the cost assessed against the holders of the land. 1 
At the conclusion of this period the system was to pass into the control 
of the landholders, with no further charge by the government. 

The soil when reclaimed is well adapted for forage crops, cereals, 
vegetables and deciduous fruits. Nevada is a great ranching state, 
and stock-raising has shown a rapid extension. In 1900, 88-9% 
of its farm acreage was devoted to hay and forage crops, being 
more than doubled in the decade. Fifty-one per cent, of the im- 
proved lands in 1899 were devoted to the cultivation of these crops. 
With the growing of grasses as the chief agricultural product, 
farming in Nevada is necessarily extensive rather than intensive. 
In 1899 the average size of the farms was 1174 acres. 1 The value 
of the different kinds of agricultural products for 1899 was as follows : 
live stock, $4,373.973; hay and grain, $1,535,914; dairy produce, 
$385,220; vegetables, $216,600; fruits, $20,900. It thus appears 
that the live stock industry is one of the most important in the 
state; the value of its product in 1899 excee ded its output of gold 
and silver, which had then reached its lowest point, by over one 
million dollars.* About 64% of the value of the live stock was 
represented by neat cattle; 19% by sheep; 10% by horses, and 
the remainder by mules, swine, asses, burros and goats. 

In spite of the predominating interest in stock-raising, intensive 
cultivation of the soil is practicable where the water supply is 
sufficient. Nevada, for example, ranked third in 1909 in the amount 
of wheat produced to the acre (28-7 bushels), 4 but in the total amount 
produced (1,033,000 bushels) ranked only thirty-eighth, and fur- 
nished only 0-145% of the crop of the United States. In 1909 in 
the amount of barley per acre (38 bushels) Nevada ranked third, 
and in the average farm price per bushel ($0-75) ranked first among 
the barley-producing states of the country, but in the total amount 
produced (304,000 bushels) held only the twenty-second place ; and 
in the same year the average yield of potatoes per acre in Nevada 
was 1 80 bushels, exceeded in two states the average for the 
entire country was 106-8 bushels per acre but the total crop in 
Nevada (540,000 bushels) was smaller than in any state or Territory 
of the Union, except New Mexico. 

The prevailing soils are sand and gravel loams, but other varieties 
are numerous, ranging from rich alluvial beds of extinct lakes, as 
in parts of Lyon and Esmeralda counties, to the strongly alkaline 
plains of the southern deserts. The most productive part of the 
state is the Humboldt Valley and the region near Pyramid Lake, 
including the counties of Humboldt, Elko and Washoe. 

A singular menace to agriculture in Nevada was the plague in 
1907-1908 of Carson field mice. These first appeared in large 
numbers in the lower part of the Humboldt Valley in the summer of 
1906, and in October and November 1907 it was estimated that 
they numbered on certain ranches from 8000 to 12,000 on every 
acre. The alfalfa crop suffered particularly, the total loss being 
about $300,000. After unsuccessful attempts to rid themselves 
of the mice, the farmers appealed to the United States Biological 
Survey, and alfalfa hay poisoned with strychnia sulphate was used 
successfully in the Humboldt Valley in January 1908 and in the 
Carson Valley, where a similar plague threatened, in April 1908.' 

Minerals. To its mineral wealth Nevada owes its existence as a 
state; but for the richness of its veins of gold and silver ore it would 
be still little more than an arid waste. Extending from central 
California S.E. along the dividing line between that state and 



1 The public lands are open to entry free of charge, but the 
government withholds the title until all the payments for water 
have been made. The yearly payments amount to $2-60 per acre 
under the present system ; this amount covers the cost of mainten- 
ance and operation and also of a_ thorough drainage system, which 
is as important to the settler as irrigation. Lands already held in 
private ownership are supplied with water at the same price as 
public lands. 

1 Compare this figure with that for the neighbouring state of Cali- 
fornia, where the average size of the farms was 397-4 acres. 

8 That conditions are favourable to the animal industry is shown 
by the fact that in 1897 the valleys of northern Nevada were so 
overrun with wild horses, to the detriment of the grazing grounds 
for cattle, that the legislature authorized the killing of such animals. 
For a time this was a profitable pursuit, as the horse hides brought 
good prices. 

4 This is the yield reported by the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Between its reports and those of the Census Bureau 
in census years there are sometimes great discrepancies. According 
to the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture in 1909 a crop 
of 165,000 bushels of oats was grown in Nevada on 7000 acres; 
there was no crop reported of Indian corn or of rye. 

6 See Stanley E. Piper, The Nevada Mouse Plague of 1907-190% 
(Washington, 1909), Farmers' Bulletin 352, U.S. Department of 
Agriculture. 



NEVADA 



453 



Nevada, and thence past the Colorado river into Arizona, is one of 
the richest mineral belts in the world. Gold was found in Gold 
Canyon near Dayton, Nevada, as early as July 1849. In 1859 the 
discovery of the famous Comstock Lode in Western Nevada led 
to the building of Virginia City, a prosperous community on the 
side of a mountain where human beings under ordinary conditions 
would not have lived, and eventually brought a new state into 
existence. The mines of this one district had produced, up to 1902, 
$371,248,288, of which $148,145,385 was in gold, $204,653,040 in 
silver, and the remainder in unclassified tailings. For the years 
1862-1868 inclusive, the average annual production was over 
$11,000,000; in the second period of great productivity (1873-1878), 
after the opening (by John W. Mackay and his partners, Flood, 
Fair and O'Brien) in the Comstock Lode of the Great Bonanza 
mine, the average annual yield was over $26,000,000. In 1877 
the maximum annual output for the mines was attained, being 
$36,301,537. For the three years 1875-1877 the production of gold 
and silver in Nevada was more than the combined product of all 
the other American states and Territories. After this last year 
the output of the Comstock mines declined on account of the ex- 
haustion of the ore supply, the increased expense of mining at great 
depths, and the decrease in the price of silver. The yield reached its 
lowest point in 1899, but subsequently increased through the 
application of improved machinery, while the tailings of the old 
diggings were treated by the cyanide process with profitable results. 
In 1859 the mines were worked only for their gold; the ignorant 
miners threw away the " black stuff " which was really valuable 
silver ore with an assay value four times as great as that of their 
ores of gold; and when this was discovered there came a period of 
unprecedented silver production. But the fall in the price of silver 
led to a reaction, and from 1893 the gold output predominated. The 
gold production of 1907 was valued at $12,099,455; tne silver pro- 
duction at $4,675,178. 

In connexion with the operation of the Comstock mines was 
built (in 1869-1879) the Sutro Tunne), named in honour of its 
engineer, Adolph Sutro (1830-1898), piercing the mountain hori- 
zontally far below the mouth of the mines, and at a distance of 
nearly 4 m. striking the shafts of the Comstock Lode, securing ventila- 
tion and cool air for the miners, draining the mines above its level, 
and obviating much pumping and hoisting. 1 Two lateral tunnels 
were also constructed, making the total length 6J m. 

Another mining region that attained importance in the early 
period was the Eureka District, in Eureka county, about 90 m. S. 
of the Southern Pacific railway. Ore was first discovered here in 
1864, but it was five years before the mines became productive. 
By 1882 they had produced $60,000,000 of precious metals. 

With the working out of the deposits in the Comstock region, the 
mining industry declined, and between 1877 and 1900 there was a 
period of great depression, in which Nevada fell from first to sixth 
place among the silver-producing states and Territories. In May 
1900, however, very rich deposits of gold and silver were discovered 
in Nye county, near the summit of the San Antonio Mountains, 
and a new era began in Nevada's mining industry. The village of 
Tonopah sprang into existence as soon as the rush of newcomers 
to this region began, and in 1903 it contained 4000 inhabitants. 
In two years $7,000,000 worth of gold and silver had been taken 
from the Tonopah mines and it was asserted that they would prove 
as rich as the mines of the Comstock Lode. The Tonopah ores were 
richer in silver than in gold, the respective values in 1904 and 1905 
being approximately in the proportion of three to one. This dis- 
covery gave a new impetus to prospecting in south-western Nevada, 
and it was soon discovered that the district was not an isolated 
mining region but was in the heart of a great mineral belt. Tonopah 
is at the outcropping of a number of ledges which continue for 
several hundred feet below the surface for an unknown distance. 
In 1902, in Esmeralda county, 24 m. S. of Tonopah, rich ores were 
found in the Goldfield District, and within three years there were 
8000 people in this region. During 1905 the town of Goldfield had 
a period of mushroom growth, then quieted, and finally revived to 
a healthy development. The value of the production of the Goldfield 
District in 1904 amounted to $2,341,979. This discovery was 
followed in 1904 by that of the Bullfrog District, in Nye county, 
6p m. S.E. of Goldfield, and within ninety days after its birth the 
village of Bullfrog, although 100 m. from a railway, had an electric- 
lighting plant, an ice plant and a hotel. In 1905 gold was dis- 
covered in Nye county, 29 m. N.E. of Tonopah, in what became 
known as the Manhattan District, and by March 1906 the village 
of Manhattan was a mile in length and contained 3000 inhabitants. 

After 1902 the production of gold and silver steadily increased, 
being $4,980,786 in that year, $9,184,096 in 1905, and $16,774,633 
in 1907. By far the greater portion of these metals came from the 
southern part of the state. In production of gold in 1907 Esmeralda 
county ranked first with $8,533,617 (nearly 70% of the total); 
Nye county's output was $1,547,408, Lincoln county's $929,775, 

1 Apart from their commercial uses, the Sutro Tunnel and the 
shafts of the Comstock Lode have been employed for scientific 
investigations, with the object of classifying igneous rocks, deter- 
mining the_ variations of temperature, and the character of electrical 
manifestations beneath the earth's surface, and the relation between 
the structure of rocks and their rate of cooling. 



and Storey county's a little more than $250,000. In the production 
of silver Nye county ranked first in 1907 ($3,667,973, of which 
f3.544>788 was from Tonopah), Churchill county second ($432,617, 
from Fairview, Wonder and Stillwater), and Eureka county (with 
lead silver ores) and Storey county were third and fourth respectively. 
Copper, lead and zinc are produced in small quantities, being found 
in fissure veins with gold and silver. In 1907 the production of 
copper was 1,782,571 Ib, valued at $356,514. The output of lead 
in 1907 was 6,271,341 Ib (valued at $322,381). The output of zinc 
was 2,168,783 Ib (valued at $127,958). 

Other minerals exist in great variety. Salt deposits are extensive 
and commercially important in Washoe and Churchill counties. 
After 1900 the production of salt rapidly increased up to 1906, when 
it was 11,249 bbls.; in 1907 it was only 6457 bbls., all graded 
as_ " common coarse " and all obtained by solar evaporation from 
brine. Borax marshes are numerous in the west and south-west, 
but they are no longer commercially productive. Large beds of 
mica are found in the east. Gypsum occurs in a number of places, 
the best_ known being in the north-west. Veins of antimony are 
worked in the Battle Mountain District and in Bullion Canyon, 
15 m. south of Mill City. There are veins of bismuth near Sodaville. 
A little graphite is produced in Humboldt county. A sub-bituminous 
lignite is mined in Esmeralda county (800 tons in 1906; 330 tons in 
1907). Considerable quantities of the following minerals have been 
found: barytes (heavy spar), magnetite (magnetic iron ore), and 
pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) in Humboldt county; roofing slate 
in Esmeralda county; cinnabar (ore containing quicksilver) in 
Washoe county; haematite in Elko and Churchill counties; cerussite 
and galena (lead ores) in Eureka county; and wolframite (a source 
of tungsten) at Round Mountain, White Pine county. In 1903 and 
1907 Nevada ranked second among the American states in the 
production of sulphur, but its output is very small in comparison 
with that of Louisiana. 

Manufactures. The manufacturing interests of Nevada are un- 
important. Of the manufacturing establishments in the state in 
1900, 109, or 47-8%, were situated in Reno, Carson City and 
Virginia City, named in the order of their importance. These places 
employed 35-9% of the labour engaged in manufacturing, and the 
value of their products was 38-8 % of the total for the state. Manu- 
factures based on the products of mines and quarries (chemicals, 
glass, clay, stone and metal works) constituted about one-fifth of 
the whole product. Car construction and general shop work of 
steam railways was the leading manufacturing industry in 1905; 
next in importance were the flour and grist milling industry and the 
printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals. Such 
statistics of the special census of manufactures (under the factory 
system) of 1905 as are comparable with those of 1900 show 99 
factories in 1900 and 115 in 1905, an increase of 16-2%. Their 
capital in 1900 was $1,251,208 and in 1905 $2,891,997, an increase 
of 131-1%. The value of their products in 1900 was $1.261.005, 
and in 1905, $3,096,274, an increase of 145-5%. 

Transportation. In its industrial development Nevada has 
always been hampered by lack of transportation facilities. There 
are no navigable waterways, and the railway mileage is small. 
Until the completion of the trans-continental railway in 1869, 
wagon trains were the only means of transporting the products of 
the mines across the desert. An unsuccessful attempt was made, 
beginning in 1861, to domesticate the camel for this purpose. 2 The 
railway mileage in 1880 was 739 m. ; in 1890, 923 m. ; in the following 
decade railway building was at a standstill. Since 1900, however, 
there has been considerable development, and the total mileage on 
the 1st of January 1909, was 1,866-92 m. The state is crossed 
from east and west by three main lines of railway, parts of the 
great transcontinental systems, the Southern Pacific and the Western 
Pacific in the northern part of the state and the San Pedro, Los 
Angeles & Salt Lake in the southern. The oldest of these trunk 
lines, the Southern Pacific (formerly the Central Pacific), follows 
the course of the Humboldt and Truckee rivers. It is met at several 
points by lines which serve the rich mining districts to the south ; at 
Cobre by the Nevada Northern from Ely in White Pine county in 
the Robinson copper mining district; at Palisade by the Eureka & 
Palisade, a narrow-gauge railway, connecting with the lead and 
silver mines ot the Eureka District; at Battle Mountain by the 
Nevada Central, also of narrow gauge, from Austin; at Hazen by 
the Nevada & California (controlled by the Southern Pacific) which 
runs to the California line, connecting in that state with other parts 
of the Southern Pacific system, and at Mina, Nevada, with the 
Tonopah & Goldfield, which runs to Tonopah and thence to Goldfield, 
thus giving these mining regions access to the Southern Pacific's 
transcontinental service; and at Reno, close to the western boundary, 
by the Virginia & Truckee, connecting with Carson City, Minden, 
in the Carson Valley, and Virginia City, in the Comstock District, 
and by the Nevada-California-Oregpn, projected to run through 
north-eastern California into Oregon, in 1910, in operation to Alturas, 
California. The Western Pacific railway, completed in 1910, extend- 
ing from Salt Lake City to San Francisco, and running entirely 



It is interesting to note that in 1875 the Nevada legislature 
passed an act forbidding camels or dromedaries to run at large. 
This law remained on the statute books until 1898, when it was 
formally repealed. 



454 



NEVADA 



across the state of Nevada, is parallel with the Southern Pacific for 
some distance in the eastern part of the state, and crosses the 
mountains at Beckwith Pass 20 m. north of Reno. The San Pedro, 
Los Angeles & Salt Lake railway, also an important factor in east 
and west transcontinental traffic, opened in May 1905, has been of 
special value in the development of the southern part of the state. 
It crosses a section that is mostly desert, but is connected with the 
Bullfrog District by the Las Vegas & Tonopah, which runs from 
Goldfield through Beatty and Rhyolite, and meets the San Pedro, 
Los Angeles & Salt Lake at Las Vegas. The Goldfield and Bull- 
frog districts have a further outlet to the south through a second 
railway, the Nevada Short Line (Bullfrog-Goldfield and Tonopah 
& Tidewater railways) which connects with the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa F6 at Ludlow in California. 

Population. Nevada is the most sparsely settled state of 
the Union. Its population in 1860 was 6857; in 1870, 42,491; 
in 1880, 62,266; in 1890, 45,761; in 1900, 42,335; and in 1910, 
81,875 (0-7 per sq. m.). In 1900 10,093 were foreign-born (mostly 
English, Irish, Germans, Italians and Chinese in almost equal pro- 
portions) ; and there were 35,405 white persons, 5216 Indians, 1352 
Chinese, 228 Japanese and 134 negroes. There were then only 
three towns of importance: Reno, Virginia City and Carson 
City, the capital. 

The Indian population consists of Paiute, Shoshoni and the 
remnants of a few other tribes of Shoshonean stock. On the 
Duck Valley reservation (488 sq. m.), established in 1877, in Elko 
county, between the forks of the Owyhee river and lying partly 
in Nevada and partly in Idaho, and under the western Shoshoni 
(boarding) school (55 pupils in 1908), there were 252 Paiute, 
238 Shoshoni and i Hopi in 1908; on the Pyramid Lake reser- 
vation (503 sq. m.), established in 1874, in Washoe county, on 
the borders of the lake from which it is named, 486 Paiute; 
on the Walker river reservation (79-37 sq. m.), established in 
1874 (partly opened to settlement in 1006) along Walker river 
and Walker Lake, 466 Paiute; on the Moapa river reserve 
(15-6 sq. m.), in the south-eastern part of the state, 117 
Paiute. 

In 1906, of the 14,944 members of religious denominations 
9,970 were Roman Catholics, 1,210 Protestant Episcopalians, 
1,105 Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), 618 Methodists and 520 
Presbyterians. 

Administration. Nevada is governed under the original 
constitution of 1864, with the amendments adopted in 1880, 
1889, 1904 and 1906. The constitution as adopted limited the 
suffrage to adult white males, but this provision was annulled 
by the fifteenth amendment to the Federal constitution; and 
in 1880 amendments to the state constitution were adopted 
striking out the word " white " from the suffrage clause and 
adding a new article granting rights of suffrage and office holding 
without regard to race, colour or previous condition of servitude. 
A residence in the state of six months and in the district or county 
of thirty days preceding the election is required of all voters. 
Persons guilty of treason or felony in any state or Territory and 
not restored to civil rights, idiots and insane persons, are excluded 
from the suffrage. An unusual provision in the constitution, 
a result of its adoption in the midst of the Civil War, gives soldiers 
and sailors in the service of the United States the right to vote; 
their votes to be applied to the township and county in which 
they were bona fide residents at the time of enlistment. 1 The 
legislature has the right to make the payment of the poll 
tax a requirement for voting, but no such provision is in 
force. 2 A law passed in 1887, requiring all voters to take an oath 
against polygamy, with the object of disfranchising Mormons, 
was declared unconstitutional by the State Supreme Court. 

A governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, attorney- 
general, controller, treasurer, superintendent of public instruc- 

1 An interesting application of this provision was made in 1898, 
when Nevada soldiers on their way to Manila were allowed to vote 
at sea. It was discovered, however, that no statute had ever 
been passed to carry this provision into effect, and the votes were 
rejected. 

2 In 1897 a law was passed making the right of suffrage dependent 
on the payment of poll taxes for the preceding two years; but 
in the following year the State Supreme Court declared this act 
unconstitutional because the title was not descriptive of the 
matter. 



tion and surveyor-general are chosen by popular vote every four 
years. Their functions are similar to those of the administrative 
officials in other states, with the exception that the governor 
does not possess the usual pardoning power but is ex officio a 
member of the pardoning board. The governor and lieutenant- 
governor must each be at least twenty-five years old at the time 
of election to office. The legislative department consists of a 
Senate, with members chosen every four years, about half of 
whom retire every two years; and an Assembly, whose members 
are chosen biennially. The constitution requires that the number 
of senators shall be not less than one-third nor more than one- 
half the number of members of the Assembly, and that the total 
membership of both houses shall not exceed seventy-five. Bills 
of any character may originate in either house. The legislative 
sessions are biennial and are limited to fifty days; special 
sessions are limited to twenty days. The judicial department 
consists of a supreme court with a chief justice and two associate 
justices, chosen for six years, and district courts, with judges 
chosen for four years. 

The state is divided into fifteen counties, each of which is governed 
in local matters by a board of county commissioners, and is divided 
for administrative purposes into townships. The constitution re- 
quires that township and county governments shall be uniform 
throughout the state. For each township there is a justice of the 
peace, chosen biennially by its voters. The homestead exemption 
extends to a dwelling-house, with its land and appurtenances, with 
a value not exceeding $5000; but no exemption is granted against 
a process to enforce the payment of purchase-money, or for improve- 
ments, or for legal taxes, or of a mortgage to which both the husband 
and wife have consented. The exemption can be claimed by the 
husband, wife, or other head of the family, by a written declaration 
duly acknowledged and recorded in the manner prescribed for 
conveyances; and the homestead can then be mortgaged or alienated 
by a husband only with the wife's consent, if the wife is at the t'me 
a resident of the state. The exemption is not affected by the death 
of the husband or wife, but inures to the benefit of the surviving 
members of the family. For divorce a residence in the state of six 
months is necessary; the grounds for divorce are desertion or 
neglect to provide for one year, conviction of felony, habitual 
drunkenness, cruelty or physical incapacity. 

There are a number of unusual provisions in the constitution of 
Nevada. The assertion in the " Declaration of Rights " that 
" no power exists in the people of this or any other state of the 
Federal Union to dissolve their connexion therewith or perform 
any act tending to impair, subvert, or resist the supreme authority 
of the government of the United States," is a result of the drafting 
of the instrument during the Civil War. There is also a provision 
that only three-fourths of the jurors may be required to agree to a 
verdict in civil cases, although the legislature has the power to 
require by statute a unanimous agreement. Amendments to the 
constitution must be passed by a majority of each house of the 
legislature at two consecutive sessions and submitted to a vote of 
the people at the next regular election. Under this provision an 
amendment cannot be adopted until nearly four years after it is 
first proposed. At the election of 1904 an amendment was adopted 
which provides that whenever 10% of the voters of the state, as 
shown by the votes of the last preceding election, express a wish 
that any law or resolution of the legislature shall be submitted 
to the people, the Act or Resolve shall be voted on at the next 
election of the state or county officers, and if a majority of the 
voters approve the measure it shall stand ; otherwise, it shall become 
void. Nevada thus became the fourth American state to adopt the 
referendum. 

Institutions. The state maintains a penitentiary at Carson City 
and an insane asylum at Reno. The deaf, dumb and blind are cared 
for at its expense in the California institution for these defectives. 
The State University, established at Elko in 1874 and removed to 
Reno in 1887, is supported by the income from a Federal grant of 
two townships (72 sq. m.) of public land and an additional grant, 
under the Morrill Act of 1862, of 90,000 acres for the support of a 
college for agriculture and mechanic arts. An agricultural experi- 
ment station and a normal school are conducted in connexion with 
the university. The control of this institution is vested in a board 
of regents, chosen by popular vote. At Virginia City is a school of 
mines, established by the state in 1903. The Federal government 
maintains three boarding schools for Indians in the state. 

The public schools are supported by the income from a Federal 
grant of 2,000,000 acres of public land (given in lieu of the usual 
sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections) supplemented by state and 
local taxation. The constitution provides that a special state tax, 
at a rate of not over two mills on the dollar, may be levied for 
school purposes. All fines collected under the penal laws, all escheats 
and 2 % of the receipts of toll roads and bridges go into the school 
fund, which is invested in state and Federal securities and the 



NEVADA 



455 



interest apportioned among the counties according to their school 
population. The administration of the school system is in the 
hands of a superintendent of public instruction. 

Finance. The bonded debt of the state on the 3ist of December 
1908 amounted to $550,000, of which the state held an irredeem- 
able bond for $380,000; the actual redeemable bonded debt of 
$170,000 was due to the investment of the school and university 
funds in the bonds of the state. The actual borrowing capacity of 
the state is limited by its constitution to $300,000, except for the 
extraordinary purpose of repelling invasion or suppressing insur- 
rection. Practically all the revenue is derived from the taxation 
of real and personal property. Mines and mining claims are exempt 
from taxation, but a quarterly tax is levied on the net proceeds of 
mines, and is not to be paid a second time so long as the products 
remain in the hands of the original producer. The rate of taxation 
for state purposes is fixed by the legislature, and for county pur- 
poses by the board of county commissioners. A poll tax is required 
of all males between the ages of 2 1 and 60 years, one half of which 
goes to the county in which it is collected and the rest to the state. 
At the close of 1908 the state receipts for the year amounted to 
$1,004,041, and expenditures to $875,941. 

History. The first recorded person of European descent to 
enter the limits of Nevada was Francisco Garces (1738-1781), 
of the Order of St Francis, who set out from Sonora in 1775 and 
passed through what is now the extreme southern corner of the 
state on his way to California. Half a century later a party of 
trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company entered Nevada and plied 
their trade along the Humboldt river. American trappers came 
about the same time. Emigrants to California followed the 
trappers, and many crossed Nevada in the early 'forties of the 
igth century. During 1843-1845 John C. Fremont made a 
series of explorations in this region. By the treaty of Guadalupe 
Hidalgo, negotiated in 1848, at the close of the war with Mexico, 
Nevada became United States territory. It was then a part of 
California known as the Washoe Country, and remained so until 
the gth of September 1850, when most of the present state was 
included in the newly organized Territory of Utah. In the 
meantime the discovery of gold in California had swelled the. 
stream of westward migration across the Washoe Country, 
and had resulted in the settlement of traders, mostly Mormons, 
along the routes to the gold fields. The first settlement in what 
is now the state of Nevada was planted in the valley of the 
Carson river in 1849. The earliest recorded public meeting was 
held at Mormon Station (now Genoa) on the I2th of November 
1851. The object of this gathering was to frame a government 
for the settlers, as the seat of the Territorial government of Utah 
was too remote to afford protection for life and property. Con- 
gress was petitioned to organize a separate Territory. An inde- 
pendent local government was formed a week later, and this 
lasted for several months, until the Utah authorities intervened. 
In 1854 the Utah legislature created the county of Carson, 
which included all the settlements in western Utah; but the 
inhabitants sought to rid themselves of all connexion with the 
people of the Salt Lake region, and petitioned Congress to annex 
them to California. In 1858 Carson City was laid out, and in the 
following year the people of Carson county held a mass meeting 
and chose delegates to a constitutional convention, which met at 
Genoa on the i8th of July 1859, and in ten days drafted a con- 
stitution. The instrument was submitted to a vote of the people 
and was adopted, and a full set of state officers was chosen. 
This attempt to create a new state proved abortive, however, 
and it was not till the mineral wealth of the Washoe Country 
became generally known that Congress took any action. On 
the and of March 1861 the Territory of Utah was divided at 
39 W. (of Washington) and the western portion was called 
Nevada. As then constituted, the northern boundary of Nevada 
was the 42nd parallel, its southern the 37th, and its western 
boundary was made to conform to the eastern limits of the state 
of California. James W. Nye (1814-1876) of New York was 
appointed Territorial governor. In December 1 86 2 the Territorial 
legislature passed an act " to frame a constitution and state 
government for the state of Washoe." This was submitted to the 
people and adopted at the polls. Delegates to a constitutional 
convention accordingly drafted a frame of government, which 
on the igth of January 1864 was submitted to a popular vote 
and overwhelmingly defeated. The instrument contained a 



very unpopular clause taxing all mining property, unproduc- 
tive as well as productive. Moreover, as state officers were 
to be chosen at the same time that the constitution was 
voted on, disappointed candidates for party nominations 
fought against ratification. As a result, the constitution was 
rejected while officers to act under it were at the same time 
duly elected. 

Early in 1864, when it became evident that two more Republican 
votes might be needed in the United States Senate for reconstruc- 
tion purposes, party leaders at Washington urged the people of 
Nevada to adopt a constitution and enter the Union as a patriotic 
duty, and on the 2ist of March 1864 Congress passed an act to 
enable the people of the Territory to form a state government. 
The third constitutional convention in its history now met at 
Carson City and drew up a constitution which was duly ratified. 
On the 3ist of October President Lincoln issued a proclamation 
declaring Nevada a state. By the Enabling Act Congress had 
extended the eastern boundary to the 38th meridian (W. of 
Washington), and in 1866 still farther extended it to the 37th 
and fixed the southern boundary as it exists at present. The 
additions eastward were made from Utah and those to the south 
from Arizona. 

Being " battle-born," Nevada was loyal to the Union 
throughout the Civil War, and in spite of its scanty population 
furnished a company of troops in 1861, which were joined 
to a California regiment. In 1863 the Territory raised six com- 
panies of infantry and six of cavalry (about 1000 men), which 
saw no actual service against the Confederates but were 
useful in subduing hostile Indians. 

The history of the state since its organization has been largely 
a history of its mines. The period from 1860 to 1864 was one 
of rapid development accompanied by the wildest speculation. 
This was followed by a reaction and a general collapse of inflated 
values until 1873, when the discovery of the Great Bonanza 
mine brought about a revival of industry and of speculation. 
A second period of decline followed the working out of this 
mine and lasted until 1900, when the discovery of a new mineral 
belt in southern Nevada brought renewed prosperity. Until 
1870 the state was regularly Republican, but in this year the 
Democrats gained most of the offices, including the seat in the 
national House of Representatives. The Republicans, however, 
secured the electoral votes of Nevada in 1872 and in 1876, and 
in 1878 were again in full control, only to suffer defeat in 1880. 
Not until the silver currency question became a political issue 
did Nevada take a prominent part in national politics. In- 
1885. the Nevada Silver Association was formed for the purpose 
of advocating the free and unlimited coinage of silver. Both 
parties in the state in 1888 declared in favour of free coinage, 
and in 1892 instructed their delegates to the national conven- 
tions to oppose any candidate who did not favour this policy. 
As a means of asserting their views effectively, the citizens, 
irrespective of party, organized local silver clubs, and these 
eventually led to the formation of the Silver party of Nevada, 
which drafted a " platform " and nominated a state ticket 
and presidential electors who were instructed to support the 
Populist national ticket. The Republicans in the state divided, 
and the majority of them went over to the Silver party. At 
the national election in this year the Silver ticket received in 
Nevada 7264 votes; the Republican 2811; the Democrat 
714; and the Prohibitionist 86. In the state election of 1894 
the Silver party was again victorious, and not a Democrat 
was returned to the legislature. In the election of 1896 all the 
parties in the state declared in favour of the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to i. The Democratic and 
Silver parties united, with the result that the state's electoral 
vote went to Bryan and Sewall, the Democratic nominees, 
while the Silver party retained most of the state offices. In the 
presidential election of 1000 the Nevada Republicans pursued 
a non-committal policy with regard to the silver question, 
declaring in favour of " the largest use of silver as a money 
metal in all matters compatible with the best interests of our 
government.". The Democratic and the Silver parties again 



NEVADA NEVERS 



united, and subsequently dominated the politics of the 

state. 

Territorial Governor. -James W. Nye, 1861-1864. 
State Governors. 

H. G. Blasdel, Rep., 1865-1870. 

L. R. Bradley, Dem., 1871-1878. 

I. H. Kinkhead, Rep., 1879-1882. 

Jewett W. Adams, Dem., 1883-1886. 

Christopher C. Stephenson, Rep., i887-i88g. 1 

Frank Bell, Rep., 1890. 

R. K. Colcord, Rep., 1891-1894. 

John E. Jones, Silver, 1895." 

Reinhold Sadler, Silver, 1895-1902. 

John Sparks, Dem. (Silver), 1903-1906. 

D. S. Dickerson, Dem., 1907-1910. 

T. L. Oddie, Rep., 1911- 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Clarence King, Report of the Geological Explora- 
tion of the Fortieth Parallel (Professional Papers of the Engineer 
Department, U.S. Army); George M. Wheeler, Report upon United 
States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian 
(Engineer Department, U.S. Army) ; Israel C. Russell, Present and 
Extinct Lakes of Nevada, in National Geographic Monographs, 
vol. i. No. 4 (June 1895); idem., The Geological History of Lake 
Lahontan, a Quaternary Lake of North-western Nevada (Washington, 
1885), U.S. Geological Survey Monograph, No. n; idah M. Stro- 
briclge, In Miners Mirage Land (Los Angeles, 1904); H. Hoffman, 
Calif ornien, Nevada und Mexico (Basel, 1870); Nevada and her 
Resources, compiled under the direction of the State Bureau of 
Immigration (Carson City, 1894); U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
North America Fauna, No. 7, pt. 2 (1893); William Wright, History 
of the Big Bonanza (Hartford, Conn., 1876); C. H. Shinn, The Story 
of the Mine as Illustrated by the Great Comstock Lode of Nevada, in 
''The Story of the West *' series (New York, 1896); The Silver 
Mines of Nevada (New York, 1864); M. Angel (ed.), History of 
Nevada (Oakland, Cal., 1881); H. H. Bancroft, History of Nevada, 
Colorado and Wyoming, in vol. xxv. of his Works (San Francisco, 
1890); Elliot Coues, On the Trail of a Spanish Cavalier, Francisco 
Garces (New York, 1900). 

NEVADA, a city and the county-seat of Vernon county, 
Missouri, U.S.A., in the south-western part of the state, about 
90 m. S..by E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900) 7461, of whom 235 
were foreign-born and 168 negroes; (1910) 7176. It is 
served by the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas 
railway systems. The principal public buildings are the county 
court house, the federal building and the high school. Nevada 
is the seat of Cottey College for girls (Methodist-Episcopal, 
South, 1884) and of a state hospital for the insane, and there is 
a state camp ground for the National Guard of Missouri. There 
are three parks, one of which, Lake Park, is a pleasure and health 
resort, with a lake and chalybeate and sulphur springs. The 
smelting of lead and zinc and the manufacture of paper, lumber, 
sheet metal and bricks are among the city's industries. Nevada 
is a trading centre for the surrounding country, and a fine farming 
and stock-raising region, in which Indian corn, oats, wheat, 
clover, timothy and blue-grass are grown; coal is mined in 
the vicinity. The city's water-supply is drawn from artesian 
wells. Nevada (" Nevada City " until 1869) was platted in 
1855, was burned down in 1863 during the occupancy by the 
state militia in war time, was incorporated as a town in 1869, 
was entered by the first railway in 1870, and was chartered as 
a city in 1880. 

NEVADA CITY, a township and the county-seat of Nevada 
county, California, U.S.A., about 130 m. N.E. of San Francisco. 
Pop. (1890) 2524; (1900) 3250 (764 foreign- born) ; (1910) 2689. 
It is the terminus of the Nevada County Narrow Gauge railway, 
which connects with the Southern Pacific railway at Colfax, 
23 m. S. An electric line extends to Grass Valley (pop. in 1900, 
4719), 4 m. S.W. Situated in a hilly and picturesque region, 
2580 ft. above the sea, Nevada City is frequented as a health 
and summer resort (annual mean temperature, about 53-5 F.; 
mean summer temperature, about 66). Gold-mining and 
quartz-mining are its principal industries, and in 1907 Nevada 
county's output of gold (104,590-76 oz., worth $2,162,083) was 
second only to that of Butte county (134,813-39 oz., worth 
$2,786,840) in California; the county is the leading producer 

1 Died the 2ist of September, 1890, and Frank Bell became 
governor by virtue of his office as lieutenant-governor. 

1 Died the loth of April 1895, and R. Sadler became governor by 
virtue of his office as lieutenant-governor. 



from quartz mines. Among the manufactures of the township 
are carriages and products of planing mills, foundries and 
machine shops; and grapes and fruits are raised in the surround- 
ing country. Gold was first discovered within what is now 
Nevada City, on Deer Creek, in the summer of 1848, by James 
W. Marshall, who, in January of the same year, had found the 
metal near what is now Coloma, Eldorado county. The first 
settlement was made here in 1849; rich deposits of gold were 
soon afterwards found on or near the surface, and the settlement 
had the characteristic growth of a western mining town; its 
output of gold reached its maximum in 1850-1851. Nevada 
City was first incorporated in 1851 under a special act of the 
legislature (repealed in 1852); it was reincorporated in 1856 
and again in 1878. 

NV, or FIRN, the name given to the partly consolidated 
masses of snow and ice which form in the hollows on the sides 
of mountains below the belt of freshly fallen snow and just above 
the compact glacier-ice. The neVe, which generally consists 
of broad sheets of great beauty, is formed from the freshly 
fallen snow during a series of alternate thaws and frosts. These 
processes are accompanied by a gradual descent down the 
mountain side, during which the neve suffers consolidation, 
until it becomes compact glacier-ice. The neve is thus the 
feeding ground of the glacier (<?..). The word ntv (Lat. nix, 
nivis, snow) is adopted from the French dialect of the French 
A\ps;firn is German, meaning " last year's (snow)." 

NEVERS, a town of central France, capital of the department 
of Nievre, 159 m. S.S.E. of Paris by the Paris-Lyons-Mediter- 
ranee railway to Nlmes. Pop. (1906) 23,561. Nevers is situated 
on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the Loire at its con- 
fluence with the Nievre. Narrow winding streets lead from the 
quay through the town where there are numerous old houses 
of the i4th to the i7th centuries. Among the ecclesiastical 
buildings the most important is the cathedral of St Cyr, which 
is a combination of two buildings, and possesses two apses. 
The apse and transept at the west end are the remains of a 
Romanesque church, while the nave and eastern apse are in 
the Gothic style and belong to the I4th century. There is no 
transept at the eastern end. The lateral portal on the south 
side belongs to the late isth century; the massive and elaborately 
decorated tower which rises beside it to the early i6th century. 
The church of St Etienne is a specimen of the Romanesque 
style of Auvergne of which the disposition of the apse with its 
three radiating chapels is characteristic. It was consecrated 
at the close of the nth century, and belonged to a priory 
affiliated to Cluny. The ducal palace at Nevers (now occupied 
by the courts of justice and an important ceramic museum) was 
built in the isth and i6th centuries and is one of the principal 
feudal edifices in central France. The facade is flanked at each 
end by a turret and a round tower. A middle tower containing 
the great staircase has its windows adorned by sculptures 
relating to the history of the house of Cleves by the members 
of which the greater part of the palace was built. In front of 
the palace lies a wide open space with a fine view over the valley 
of the Loire. The Porte du Croux, a square tower, with corner 
turrets, dating from the end of the I4th century, is among 
the remnants of the old fortifications; it now contains a collection 
of sculptures and Roman antiquities. A triumphal arch of the 
1 8th century, commemorating the victory of Fontenoy and the 
h6tel de ville, a modern building which contains the library, 
are of some interest. The Loire is crossed by a modern stone 
bridge, and by an iron railway bridge. Nevers is the seat of a 
bishopric, of tribunals of first instance and of commerce and of a 
court of assizes and has a chamber of commerce and a branch 
of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions include 
a Iyc6e, a training college for female teachers, ecclesiastical 
seminaries and a school of art. The town manufactures porcelain, 
agricultural implements, chemical manures, glue, boilers and 
iron goods, boots and shoes and fur garments, and has distilleries, 
tanneries and dye-works. Its trade is in iron and steel, wood, 
wine, grain, live-stock, &c. Hydraulic lime, kaolin and clay 
for the manufacture of faience are worked in the vicinity. 



NEVILLE 



457 



Noviodunum, the early name of Nevers was in later times 
altered to Nebirnum. The quantities of medals and other 
Roman antiquities found on the site indicate the importance 
of the place at the time when Caesar chose it as a military dep6t 
for corn, money and hostages. In 52 B.C. it was the first place 
seized by the revolting Aedui. It became the seat of a bishopric 
at the end of the 5th century. The countship (see below) dates 
at least from the beginning of the loth century. The citizens 
of Nevers obtained charters in 1194 and in 1231. For a short 
time in the I4th century the town was the seat of a university, 
transferred from Orleans, to which it was restored. 

COUNTS AND DUKES OF NEVERS. Having formed part of 
the duchy of Burgundy, the county of Nevers (Nivernais) was 
given by Duke Henry I. in 987 to his stepson, Otto William, 
afterwards count of Macon, who five years later handed it over 
to his son-in-law Landri. The first house of the hereditary 
counts of Nevers originated in this Landri, and was brought to an 
end in 1192 by the death of Agnes, countess of Nevers, wife 
of Pierre de Courtenay (d. 1217). The county subsequently 
passed by successive marriages into the houses of Donzy, 
Chatillon and Bourbon. Mahaut de Bourbon brought the 
county of Nevers, together with those of Auxerre and Tonnerre, 
to her husband Odo (Eudes), son of Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, 
in 1248. Her eldest daughter, Yoland, received the county of 
Nevers as her dowry when in 1265 she married Jean Tristan, 
son of King Louis IX. She became a widow in 1270, and in 
1272 married Robert de Dampierre, who became count of 
Flanders. Her descendant by her second marriage, Marguerite, 
daughter and heiress of Louis II. de Male, count of Flanders, 
married successively two dukes of Burgundy, Philip I. de Rouvre 
and Philip II. the Bold. Philip (d. 1415), the third son of Philip 
the Bold, received the counties of Nevers and of Rethel and the 
barony of Donzy; his last male descendant, John, died in 1491. 
The house of Cleves then inherited the Nivernais, which was 
erected into a duchy by King Francis I. for Francis of Cleves in 
.1539. In 1565 Louis de Gonzaga (d. 1595), son of Frederick II., 
duke of Mantua, married Henrietta of Cleves, duchess of 
Nevers, and one of his descendants, Charles (d. 1665), sold the 
Nivernais to Cardinal Mazarin in 1659. The cardinal devised 
it to his nephew Philippe Jules Mancini, whose descendants 
possessed it until the French Revolution. The last duke of 
Nivernais, Louis Jules Barbon Mancini Mazarini, died in 1798. 

NEVILLE, or NEVILL, the family name of a famous English 
noble house, descended from Dolfin son of Uchtred, who had 
a grant from the prior of Durham in 1131 of " Staindropshire," 
co. Durham, a territory which remained in the hands of his 
descendants for over four centuries, and in which stood Raby 
castle, their chief seat. His grandson, Robert, son of Meldred, 
married the heiress of Geoffrey de Neville (d. 1192-1193), who 
inherited from her mother the Buhner lordship of Brancepeth 
near Durham. Henceforth Brancepeth castle became the 
other seat of the house, of which the bull's head crest com- 
memorates the Bulmers; but it adopted the Norman surname 
of Neville (Neuville). Robert's grandson, another Robert, 
(d. 1282) held high position in Northumbria, and sided with 
Henry III. in the Barons' War, as did his younger brother Geoffrey 
(d. 1285), ancestor of the Nevills of Hornby. This Robert's 
son Robert (d. 1271) extended the great possessions of the 
family into Yorkshire by his marriage with the heiress of Middle- 
ham, of which the powerful Norman castle still stands. The 
summons of their son Ranulf (d. 1331) to parliament as a baron 
(1294) did but recognize the position of the Nevills as mighty 
in the north country. Ralph (d. 1367) the second baron whose 
elder brother " the Peacock of the North " was slain by the 
Douglas in 1318 was employed by Edward III. as a commander 
against the Scots and had a leading part in the victory of Nevill's 
Cross (1346), where David Bruce was captured, and by which 
Durham was saved. His active career as head of his house 
(1331-1367) did much to advance its fortunes and to make the 
name of Nevill a power on the Scottish march. Of his younger 
sons, Alexander became archbishop of York (1374-1388) and 
was a prominent supporter of Richard II., attending him closely 



and encouraging his absolutist policy; in consequence of which 
he was one of those " appealed of treason " by the opposition in 
1388 and being found guilty was outlawed, and died abroad 
in 1392. His younger brother William, a naval commander, 
took the opposite side, was a leading Lollard and a friend of 
Wiclif, and in 1388-1389 acted with the lords appellant. 

John, the 3rd baron (d. 1388), a warden of the Scottish marches 
and lieutenant of Aquitaine, a follower of John of Gaunt 
and a famous soldier in the French wars of Edward III., con- 
tinued the policy of strengthening the family's position by 
marriage; his sisters and daughters became the wives of great 
northern lords; his first wife was a Percy, and his second 
Lord Latimer's heiress; and his younger son, Thomas, became 
Lord Furnival in right of his wife, while his son by his second 
wife became Lord Latimer. His eldest son Ralph (1364-1425), 
ist earl of Westmorland (see WESTMORLAND, EARLS or), carried 
the policy further, marrying for his second wife a daughter 
of John of Gaunt and securing heiresses for five of his sons, 
four of the younger ones becoming peers, while a fifth, Robert, 
was made bishop of Durham (1438-1457). Among his daughters 
were the duchesses of Norfolk, Buckingham and York (mother 
of Edward IV. and Richard III.) and an abbess of Barking. 
The Nevills were thus closely connected with the houses of 
Lancaster and York, and had themselves become the most im- 
portant family in the realm. Of the earl's sons by his second 
marriage, Richard, earl of Salisbury (and three of his sons) and 
William, earl of Kent, are the subjects of separate notices. 

The greatness of the Nevills centred in the " kingmaker " 
(Richard's son) and the heads of his house, after the ist earl, 
were of small account in history, till Charles, the 6th earl, at 
the instigation of his wife, Surrey's daughter, joined Northumber- 
land in the fatal northern rising of 1 569 to the ruin of his house. 
His estates, with the noble castles of Brancepeth and Raby, were 
forfeited; Middleham, with the Yorkshire lands, had been 
settled by the ist earl on the heirs of his second marriage. 

Although the senior line became extinct on the earl's death 
abroad (1601), there were male descendants of the ist earl 
remaining, sprung from George and Edward, sons of his second 
marriage. George, who was Lord Latimer, was father of Sir 
Henry, slain at Edgcote fight, and grandfather of Richard, 
2nd lord (1469-1530), a soldier who distinguished himself in the 
north, especially at Flodden Field. His grandson (d. 1577) 
was the last lord, but there were male descendants of his younger 
sons, one of whom, Edmund, claimed the barony, and after 
i6'oi the earldom of Westmorland, but vainly, owing to its 
attainder. In this line may still exist a male heir of this mighty 
house. 

The heirs male of Edward, Lord " Bergavenny " (now " Aber- 
gavenny " co. Monmouth), who died in 1476, have retained 
their place in the peerage under that style to the present day 
by a special and anomalous devolution. His wife, the only child 
of Richard (Beauchamp), earl of Worcester (d. 1422), brought 
him the great estates which had come to her line with Fitz Alan 
and Despencer heiresses, and in 1450 he was summoned as 
Lord Bergavenny, though not seized of that castle. Their 
grandson, George (c. 1471-1535) the 3rd lord, was in favour with 
Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and recovered from the latter in 
1512 the castle and lands of Abergavenny. He was prominent 
in the French campaigns of 1513-14 and 1523. On the death 
of his son, Henry, the 4th lord, in 1587, a long-famous contest 
ensued between his daughter, Lady Fane, and his heir-male, 
Edward Nevill, which was eventually ended by James I., in 
1604, assigning the barony of Abergavenny to Edward's son 
and that of Despencer to Lady Fane. The former subsequently 
descended (on uncertain grounds) to the heirs-male with the 
old Beauchamp estates under special entails. In 1784 the then 
Lord Abergavenny received an earldom, and the next lord 
erected at Bridge, Sussex, the present seat of the family, on 
which the marquisate of Abergavenny and earldom of Lewes were 
.conferred in 1876. Its Sussex estates are mainly derived through 
the Beauchamps, from the Fitz Alans, heirs of the Warennes. 

The Nevills of Billingbear, Berks, were a junior line, of whom 



NEVILLE, G. NEVIS 



was Sir Henry Nevill (d. 1615), courtier and diplomatist, who 
became a leading figure in parliament under James I. His 
grandson, another Sir Henry (d. 1694), was an author of some note 
and a Republican opponent of Cromwell, by whom he was 
banished from London in 1654. The family became extinct in 
1740, and in 1762 Richard Aldworth (1717-1793), on inheriting 
Billingbear, took the name of Nevill. From him descend the 
Lords Braybrooke. 

Neuville is a common French name, and it is not clear whether 
all the Nevills who occur in the I2th and I3th centuries were of 
the same stock as the lords of Raby. The baronial line of Nevill 
of " Essex " was founded by the marriage, temp. Richard I., of a 
Hugh de Nevill to the heiress of Henry de Cornhill, a wealthy 
Londoner. He went on crusade with Richard I. and was after- 
wards an active supporter of John, who names him in the Great 
Charter (1215). His descendant, Hugh de Nevill, was summoned 
as a baron in 1311, as was his son John, who served in the French 
and Flemish campaigns, and died, the last of his line, in 1358. 

See Rowland's Historical and Genealogical Account of the Family of 
Nevill (1830); Drummond's Noble British Families (1846); Swallow's 
De Nova Villa (1885); and Barren's sketch in The Ancestor, No. 6 
(1903). Also Dugdale's Baronage; G. E. C[okayne]'s Complete 
Peerage; J. H. Round's Feudal England; and for the Nevill castles 
Mackenzie's Castles of England. For the Kingmaker, see Oman's 
monograph (1891). (J. H. R.) 

NEVILLE, GEORGE (c. 1432-1476), archbishop of York and 
chancellor of England, was the youngest son of Richard Neville, 
earl of Salisbury, and brother of Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, 
known as the " Kingmaker." He was educated at Ballicl 
College, Oxford, and was from his childhood destined for the 
clerical profession, in which through the great influence of his 
family he obtained rapid advancement, becoming bishop of 
Exeter in 1458. From this time forward Neville took a prominent 
part in the troubled politics of the period. He was present with 
his brother Warwick at the battle of Northampton in July 1460, 
immediately after which the great seal was committed to his 
keeping. He took part in the proclamation of Edward of York 
as king, who confirmed his appointment as chancellor. In 1463 
he was employed on a diplomatic mission in France; and in 
1464, after taking part in negotiation with the Scots, Neville 
became archbishop of York. During the next few years he as 
well as his brothers fell into disfavour with Edward IV.; and in 
1469, after a successful rising in Yorkshire secretly fermented by 
Warwick, the king fell into the hands of the archbishop, by 
whom, after a short imprisonment, he was permitted to escape. 
When Warwick was in turn defeated by the king's forces at 
Stamford in 1470, Archbishop Neville took the oath of allegiance 
to Edward, but during the short Lancastrian restoration which 
compelled Edward to cross to Holland, Neville acted as chan- 
cellor to Henry VI. ; and when the tide once more turned he again 
trimmed his sails to the favouring breeze, making his peace with 
Edward, now again triumphant, by surrendering Henry into 
his hands. The archbishop for a short time shared Henry's 
captivity in the Tower. Having been pardoned in April 1471, he 
was re-arrested a year later on a charge of treason and secretly 
conveyed to France, where he remained a prisoner till 1475, 
when he returned to England; he died in the following year, 
on the 8th of June 1476. Archbishop Neville was a respectable 
scholar; and he was a considerable benefactor of the university 
of Oxford and especially of Balliol College. 

See Thomas Rymer, Foedera, &c. (London, 1704); John Wark- 
worth, Chronicle of the first Thirteen Years of the Reign of Edward I V., 
ed. I. O. Halliwell (Camden Soc., London, 1839); Paston Letters, 
ed. J. Gairdner (London, 1872-1875); The Historical Collections of 
a Citizen of London -inthe i$th century, ed. J. Gairdner (Camden Soc., 
London, 1876); Sir James H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York 1399- 
1485 (Oxford, 1892). 

NEVILLE, RALPH (d. 1244), bishop of Chichester and chan- 
cellor of England, was a member of the great Neville family, 
but of illegitimate birth. In 1214 he became dean of Lichfield, 
and obtained several rich livings; and in 1224 he was consecrated 
bishop of Chichester. In 1226 he was appointed chancellor 
by the council governing during the minority of Henry III.; and 
when the king in 1236 demanded the return of the great seal, 



Neville refused to surrender it, on the ground that only the 
authority that had appointed him to the office had power to 
deprive him of it. In 1231 he was chosen archbishop by the 
monks of Canterbury, but the election was not ratified by the 
pope. He died in 1244. 

Neville's residence in London was a palace in the street opposite 
the Temple, which from this association obtained the name of 
Chancery Lane, by which it is still known; while the palace itself, 
after passing into the hands of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, was 
called Lincoln's Inn after that nobleman when it became the abode 
of students of law. Neville bequeathed this property to the see of 
Chichester, and the memory of his connexion with the locality is 
further preserved in the name of a passage leading from Chancery 
Lane to Lincoln's Inn which still Dears the name of Chichester 
Rents. 

NEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON (1803-1886), American theo- 
logian and educationalist, was born on Herron's Branch, near 
Shippensburg, Franklin county, Pennsylvania, on the zoth of 
February 1803. He was a descendant of Hugh Williamson of 
North Carolina, and was of Scotch blood and Presbyterian 
training. He graduated at Union College in 1821; studied 
theology at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1823-1828, 
being in 1826-1828 in charge of the classes of Charles Hodge; 
was licensed to preach by the Carlisle Presbytery in 1828; and 
in 1830-1840 was professor of Biblical literature in the newly 
founded Western Theological Seminary of Allegheny, Penn- 
sylvania. But under the influence of Neander he was gradually 
breaking away from " Puritanic Presbyterianism,'-' and in 
1840, having resigned his chair in Allegheny, he was appointed 
professor of theology in the (German Reformed) Theological 
Seminary at Mercersburg, Pa., and thus passed from the 
Presbyterian Church into the German Reformed. He soon 
became prominent; first by his contributions to its organ the 
Messenger; then by The Anxious Bench A Tract for the Times 
(1843), attacking the vicious excesses of revivalistic methods; 
and by his defence of the inauguration address, The Principle 
of Protestantism, delivered by his colleague Philip Schaff, 
which aroused a storm of protest by its suggestion that Pauline. 
Protestantism was not the last word in the development of the 
church but that a Johannean Christianity was to be its out- 
growth, and by its recognition of Petrine Romanism as a stage 
in ecclesiastical development. To Dr Schaff 's 122 theses of 
The Principle of Protestantism Nevin added his own theory of 
the mystical union between Christ and believers, and both 
Schaff and Nevin were accused of a " Romanizing tendency." 
Nevin characterized his critics as pseudo-Protestants, urged 
(with Dr Charles Hodge, and against the Presbyterian General 
Assembly) the validity of Roman Catholic baptism, and defended 
the doctrine of the " spiritual real presence " of Christ in the 
Lord's Supper, notably in The Mystical Presence: a Vindication 
of the Reformed or Calvanistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist 
(1846); to this the reply from the point of view of rationalistic 
Puritanism was made by Charles Hodge in the Princeton Review 
of 1848. In 1849 the Mercersburg Review was founded as the 
organ of Nevin and the " Mercersburg Theology "; and to it 
he contributed from 1849 to 1883. In 1851 he resigned from the 
Mercersburg .Seminary in order that its running expenses might 
be lightened; and from 1841 to 1853 he was president of Marshall 
College at Mercersburg. With Dr Schaff and others he was on 
the committee which prepared the liturgy of the German Re- 
formed Church, which appeared in provisional form in 1857 and 
as An Order of Worship in 1866. In 1861-1866 he was instructor 
of history at Franklin and Marshall College (in which Marshall 
College had been merged), of which he was president in 1866-1876. 
He died at Lancaster, Penn., on the 6th of June 1886. 

See Theodore Appel, The Life and Work of John Williamson Nevin 
(Philadelphia, 1889), containing Nevin's more important articles. 

NEVIS, an island in the British West Indies, forming with St 
Kitts one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward 
Islands. Pop. (1901) 12,774. It lies in 17 14' N. and 62 33' W., 
and is separated from St Kitts by a shallow channel 2 m. wide 
at its narrowest point. In form it is almost round, and from the 
sea has the appearance of a perfect cone, rising gradually to 
the height of 3200 ft. Its total area is 50 sq. m. Although the 



NEVYANSK NEWARK, LORD 



459 



island is subject to severe storms, the climate is healthy, the 
average temperature being 82 F. Sugar, rum and molasses are 
exported, and corn, yams, coffee and fruit are grown. There are 
medicinal springs and large deposits of sulphur. The chief town, 
Charlestown, lies on a wide bay on the S.W. The legislative 
council of St Kitts-Nevis meets at Basseterre, the capital of St 
Kitts. Nevis was discovered by Columbus in 1498 and first 
colonized in 1 628 by the English from St Kitts. During the period 
of the slave trade it was a leading mart for slaves in the West 
Indies. 

NEVYANSK, NEVYANSKIY or NEYVINSKIY ZAVOD, a town of 
Russia, in the government of Perm, 57 m. by rail N.N.W. of 
Ekaterinburg, on the eastern slope of the Ural mountians, in the 
populous mountain valley of the Neyva, in a district very rich 
in iron and auriferous sands. Pop. (1881) 13,980; (1897) about 
16,000, all Great-Russians and mostly Nonconformists, who are 
employed, partlyj at the iron-works, partly in various small 
industries, such as the manufacture of boxes, widely sold in 
Siberia, iron wares and boots, and partly in agriculture. The 
iron-works at Nevyansk are the oldest in the Urals, having been 
founded in 1699. In 1702 Peter the Great presented them to 
Demidov, with 3,900,0x30 acres of land. Several other iron- 
works are situated within a short distance, the chief being 
Verkhne-Neyvinsk, 18 m. S.; Neyvo-Rudyansk, 8 m. S.; 
Petrokamensk, 32m. N.E.; Neyvo-Shaitansk, 20 m. lower down 
the Neyva; and Neyvo-Alapayevsk, 64 m. N.E. of Nevyansk. 

NEW ABBEY, a parish and village of Kirkcudbrightshire, 
Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) 957. The hill of Criffel and 
Loch Kinder are situated within the parish boundaries. The 
lake contains two islets, of which one was a crannog and the other 
the site of an ancient kirk. The village, which lies 6| m. S. of 
Maxwelltown, is famous for the ruin of Sweetheart Abbey, a 
Cistercian house built in 1275 by Devorguila in memory of her 
husband John de Baliol, who had died at Barnard Castle in 1269. 
His heart, embalmed and enshrined in a coffin of ebony and 
silver, which she always kept beside her, was, at her death in 
1290, buried with her in the precincts of the abbey, which thus 
acquired its name (Abbacia Dulcis Cordis, or Douxquer). The 
building afterwards became known as the New Abbey, to dis- 
tinguish it from the older foundation at Dundrennan, which had 
been erected in 1142 by Fergus of Galloway. The remains of the 
abbey chiefly consist of the shell of the beautiful Cruciform 
church, with a central saddleback tower rising from the transepts 
to a height of over 90 ft., and a graceful rose window at the 
west end of the nave. Most of the work is Early English with 
Decorated additions. The abbot's tower, a stately relic, stands 
about | m. N.E. of the abbey. 

NEW ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Floyd county, 
Indiana, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Ohio river, at the head of 
low water navigation, nearly opposite Louisville, Kentucky, 
with which it is connected by three railway bridges, and 156 m. 
below Cincinnati, Ohio. Pop. (1890) 21.059; (1900) 20,628, of 
whom 1363 were foreign-born and 1905 negroes; (1910) 20,629. 
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-western, the 
Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St Louis and the Southern railways, by electric 
railways to Louisville, Indianapolis, &c., and by steamboats 
on the Ohio; it is connected by a belt line with the Louisville & 
Nashville, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Illinois Central and other 
railways. The city is situated on an elevated plateau above the 
river, in an amphitheatre of wooded hills. It has a good public 
library, a well organized public school system and several private 
schools and academies. Within the city limits is a national 
cemetery. The manufactures include leather, iron, foundry 
and machine shop products, furniture and veneer, lumber, 
cotton goods and hosiery, distilled liquors and stoves. The value 
of the factory products in 1905 was $4,110,709, 13% more than 
in 1900. Originally settled about the beginning of the igth 
century, New Albany was platted in 1813 and was chartered 
as a city in 1839. The city owed much of its early industrial 
importance to the plate-glass works successfully established 
here by Washington Charles de Pauw (1822-1887), wno endowed 



the De Pauw College for Young Women (opened as the Indiana 
Asbury Female College in 1852). The glass works left the city 
because of the superior and cheaper fuel supplied by natural 
gas in central Indiana. The De Pauw College for Young Women 
was relatively unimportant after the endowment of Indiana 
Asbury University (now De Pauw University) by W. C. de 
Pauw in 1883, but it continued to give instruction until 1903. 

NEW AMSTERDAM, a town of British Guiana, situated in 
6 20' N. and 59 1 5' W. on the east bank of the Berbice river, 
about 4 m. from the mouth. Formerly the capital of the colony 
of Berbice, it is now the capital of the county of that name. 
It is a picturesque little town composed almost entirely of wooden 
houses, having a population estimated in 1904 at 7459. The 
Colony House, standing in handsome grounds beside the small 
but pretty botanical gardens, was formerly the residence of the 
governor and the seat of the legislature, and now contains the 
treasury and supreme courts. The town is lighted by municipally 
owned electric woiks, and contains various government in- 
stitutions, a town hall and market. The local government is 
vested in a mayor and town council, the revenue (a little over 
12,000 annually) being mainly raised by a direct rate on house 
property. The expenditure is principally on streets, street 
lighting, fire brigade, water supply and drainage. New Amster- 
dam is connected by ferry and rail with Georgetown, to which 
there is also a bi-weekly steamer service. 

NEWARK, DAVID LESLIE, LORD (1601-1682), Scottish 
general, was born in 1601, the fifth son of Sir Patrick Leslie of 
Pitcairly, Fifeshire, commendator of Lindores, and Lady Jean 
Stuart, daughter of the ist earl of Orkney. In his early life he 
served in the army of Gustavus Adolphus, where he rose to the 
rank of colonel of cavalry. In 1640 he returned to his native 
country to take part in the impending war for the Covenant. 
In 1643, when a Scottish army was formed to intervene in the 
English Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION) and placed under the 
command of Alexander Leslie, earl of Leven, the foremost living 
Scottish soldier, Leslie was selected as Leven's major-general. 
This army engaged the Royalists under Prince Rupert at Marston 
Moor, and Leslie bore a particularly distinguished part in the 
battle. He was then sent into the north-western counties, and 
besieged and took Carlisle. When, after the battle of Kilsyth, 
Scotland was at the mercy of Montrose and his army, Leslie 
was recalled from England in 1645, and made lieutenant-general 
of horse. In September he surprised and routed Montrose at 
Philiphaugh near Selkirk, and was rewarded by the committee 
of estates with a present of 50,000 merks and a gold chain; 
but his victory was marred by the butchery of the captured Irish 
men, women and children to whom quarter had been given. 
He was then declared lieutenant-general of the forces, and, in 
addition to his pay as colonel, had a pension settled on him. 
Leslie returned to England and was present at the siege of 
Newark. On his return to Scotland he reduced several of the 
Highland clans that supported the cause of the king. In 1648 
he refused to take part in the English expedition of the " en- 
gagers," the enterprise not having the sanction of the Kirk. 
In 1649 he purchased the lands of Abercrombie and St Monance, 
Fifeshire. In 1650 he was sent against Montrose, who was 
defeated and captured by Major Strachan, Leslie's advanced 
guard commander; and later in the year, all parties having for 
the moment combined to support Charles II., Leslie was appointed 
to the chief command of the new army levied for the purpose on 
behalf of Charles II. The result, though disastrous, abundantly 
demonstrated Leslie's capacity as a soldier, and it might be 
claimed for him that Cromwell and the English regulars proved 
no match for him until his movements were interfered with and 
his army reduced to indiscipline by the representatives of the 
Kirk party that accompanied his headquarters. After Dunbar 
Leslie fought a stubborn defensive campaign up to the crossing 
of the Forth by Cromwell, and then accompanied Charles to 
Worcester, where he was lieutenant-general under the king, 
who commanded in person. On the defeat of the royal army 
Leslie, intercepted in his retreat through Yorkshire, was com- 
mitted to the Tower, where he remained till the Restoration 



460 



NEWARK 



in 1660. He was fined 4000 by Cromwell's " Act of Grace " in 
1654. In 1661 he was created Lord Newark, and received a 
pension of 500 per annum. He died in 1682. The title became 
extinct in 1790. 

NEWARK (NEWARK-UPON-TRENT), a market town and 
municipal borough in the Newark parliamentary division of 
Nottinghamshire, England. Pop. (1901) 14,992. It lies in a 
flat, fertile lowland near the junction of the river Devon with 
the Trent, but actually on the Devon. By means of a canal 
ij m. in length it is connected with the Trent navigation. It is 
1 20 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Northern railway, 
and is on the Melton Mowbray joint branch of that company 
and the London & North- Western, and on the Nottingham & 
Lincoln branch of the Midland railway. The church of St Mary 
Magdalene, one of the largest and finest parish churches of 
England, is specially notable for the beauty of the tower and of 
the octagonal spire (223 ft. high) by which it is surmounted. 
The central piers of the old church, dating from the nth or I2th 
century, remain, and the lower part of the tower is a fine example 
of Early English when at its best. The upper parts of the tower 
and spire are Decorated, completed about 1350; the nave dates 
from between 1384 and 1393, and the chancel from 1489. The 
sanctuary is bounded on the south and north by two chantry 
chapels, the former of which has on one of its panels a remarkable 
painting from the " Dance of Death." There are a few old monu- 
ments, and an exceedingly fine brass of the i4th century. The 
castle, supposed to have been founded by Egbert, king of the 
West Saxons, was partly rebuilt and greatly extended by 
Alexander, consecrated bishop of Lincoln in 1123, who estab- 
lished at it a mint. It rises picturesquely from the river, and 
from its position and great strength was for a long time known as 
the " key of the North." Of the original Norman stronghold 
the most important remains are the gate-house, a crypt and the 
lofty rectangular tower at the south-west angle. The building 
seems to have been reconstructed in the early part of the i3th 
century. In the reign of Edward III. it was used as a state 
prison. During the Great Rebellion it was garrisoned for Charles 
I., and endured three sieges. Its dismantling was begun in 1646, 
immediately after the surrender of the king. There is a very 
beautiful and interesting cross (the " Beaumond " cross) of the 
latter part of the isth century in good preservation in the town. 
A grammar and song school was founded in the reign of Henry 
VIII., and endowed by Archdeacon Magnus, and there are other 
considerable charities. The other principal public buildings are 
the town-hall in the Grecian style (erected in 1774), the corn 
exchange (1848), the Stock library and Middleton newsroom 
(1828), the mechanics' institution (1836), a free library and a fine 
hospital (1881). There is a large trade in malt, coal, corn and 
cattle. There are iron and brass foundries, boiler-works, agri- 
cultural implement manufactories and breweries. Gypsum and 
limestone are obtained in the neighbourhood, and plaster of 
Paris is extensively manufactured. The town is governed by 
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 1931 acres. 

Newark (Newerca, Nouwerk) owed its origin, possibly in Roman 
times, to its position on the great road called the Fosse Way, 
in the valley of the Trent. In a document which purports to 
be a charter of 664 Newark is mentioned as having been granted 
to the abbey of Peterborough by Wulfhere. In the reign of 
Edward the Confessor it belonged to Godiva, who granted it to 
the monastery of Stow, and it remained in the hands of the 
bishops of Lincoln until the reign of Edward VI. The castle 
was erected by Bishop Alexander in 1123, and the bridge about 
the same time. Under Stephen a mint was established. There 
were burgesses in Newark at the time of the Domesday Survey, 
and in the reign of Edward III. there is evidence that it had long 
been a borough by prescription. It was incorporated under an 
alderman and twelve assistants in 1549, and the charter was 
confirmed and extended by Eh'zabeth. Charles I., owing to the 
increasing commercial prosperity of the town, reincorporated 
it under a mayor and aldermen, and this charter, except for a 
temporary surrender under James II., has continued the govern- 
ing charter of the corporation. Newark returned two repre- 



sentatives to parliament from 1673 unt il 1885. A weekly market 
on Wednesdays, and a fair on the eve, day and morrow of the 
Invention of the Holy Cross, granted to the bishop of Lincoln 
by John, are still held; another fair at St Mary Magdalene and 
the four preceding days was granted by Henry III., and is 
probably represented by the fair now held on the I4th of May. 
A market for corn and cattle is still held on Wednesdays, and 
another on Tuesdays for fat stock has been added. 

NEWARK, the largest city of New Jersey, U.S.A., a port of 
entry, and the county-seat of Essex county, on the Passaic 
river and Newark Bay, about 8 m. W. of New York City. Pop. 
(1890) 181,830; (1900) 246,070, of whom 71,363 were foreign- 
born, and 6694 were negroes; (1910 census), 347,469. Of 
the total foreign-born population in 1900 (48,329 of whom had 
been in the United States at least ten years), 25,139 were from 
Germany, 12,792 from Ireland, 8537 from Italy, 5874 from 
England, 5511 from Russia and 4074 from Austria. Of the 
total population, 143,306 were of foreign parentage on both sides, 
56,404 German, 30,261 Irish, 13,068 Italian, 8951 English and 
8531 Russian. Newark is served by the Pennsylvania, the 
Lehigh Valley, the Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
and the Central of New Jersey railways, and by steamboats 
engaged in coastwise and river commerce. By electric lines it 
is connected with most of the cities and towns within a radius 
of 20 m., including Jersey City, Paterson and the residential 
suburbs, among which are the Oranges, Montclair, Bloomfield, 
Glen Ridge, Belleville and Nutley. It has a frontage on the 
river and bay 1 of 10^ m., and a total area of 23-4 sq. m. 
The site is generally level, but the ground rises toward the 
western part. Broad Street, 120 ft., and Market Street, 90 ft. 
wide, the principal thoroughfares, intersect. The most prominent 
public buildings are the City Hall, completed in 1906; County 
Court-House, designed by Cass Gilbert (b. 1859), with sculpture 
by Andrew O'Connor and decorations by Howard Pyle, Will H. 
Low, Kenyon Cox, H. O. Walker, C. Y. Turner, F. D. Millet, 
George W. Maynard and Edwin H. B lash field; United States 
Government Building; Public Library, finished in 1901, and 
City Hospital. There is a Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the 
city is the see of a Roman Catholic and of a Protestant Episcopal 
bishop. The Prudential Life Insurance Company and the 
Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company have fine office buildings. 
Many of the older buildings are of a brown sandstone, quarried 
in or near the city. In Military Park is a monument to Major- 
General Philip Kearny (1815-1862), and in Washington Park 
is a monument to Seth Boyden (1785-1870), a Newark inventor 
of malleable iron, of machinery for making nails, and of improve- 
ments in the steam-locomotive. Newark has also a monument 
to Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen (1817-1885), secretary of 
state in the cabinet of President Chester A. Arthur, and to 
Abraham Coles (1813-1891), a poet and physician, both of whom 
lived here. On the banks of the Passaic is a house having as a 
part of its walls the old walls of Cockloft Hall, in which Washing- 
ton Irving frequently sojourned, and of which he gave a charming 
description in Salmagundi. In the vicinity are the remains of 
Peterborough, the home of Colonel Peter Schuyler (1710-1762), 
who served against the French in 1746-48 and in the French 
and Indian War. At the corner of Broad and William streets 
stood until 1835 the parsonage in which Aaron Burr was born. 

In 1910 Newark had 658 acres in public parks, of which 637 
acres were under the administration of the Essex County Park 
Commission. To Washington, Military and Lincoln parks, the 
older ones near the heart of the city, there have been added 
Branch Brook (277 -acres), Weequahic (265-8 acres), West Side 
(23 acres) , and East Side (12-5 acres) parks. The principal ceme- 
teries are Mount Pleasant, overlooking the Passaic in the northern 
part of the city, and Fairmount in the western part; about 1894 
the remains of the early settlers were removed from the Old 

1 The river channel before improvement had a navigable depth 
of 7 ft. at mean low water; the depth was increased to about loft, 
by the Federal government before 1902; in 1907 further improve- 
ment was authorized by Congress, the channel to be made 300 ft. 
wide and 16 ft. deep. 



NEWARK 



461 



Burying Ground to Fairmount Cemetery and placed in a large 
vault marked by a monument. 

As parts of its public school system the city maintains twelve 
summer or vacation schools, evening schools, a normal and 
training school for the education of teachers, a school of drawing, 
and a technical school, the last for evening classes. The Newark 
Academy, founded in 1792, is the leading private school; and 
there are various Roman Catholic academies. In the township 
of Verona (pop. in 1905, 2576), about 7 m. N. by W. of Newark, 
is the City Home for boys, in which farming, printing and other 
trades are taught. The Public Library (opened in 1889) con- 
tained about 160,000 volumes in 1910, and the library of the 
New Jersey Historical Society about 26,000 books, about 
27,000 pamphlets and many manuscripts; the Prudential 
Insurance Company has a law library of about 20,000 volumes; 
and the Essex County Lawyers' Club has one of 5000 volumes 
or more. Among the charitable institutions are the City Hospital, 
Saint Michael's Hospital, Saint Barnabas Hospital, Saint James 
Hospital, the German Hospital, a Babies' Hospital, an Eye and 
Ear Infirmary, a City Dispensary, the Newark Orphan Asylum, 
a Home for Crippled Children, a Home for Aged Women and 
three day nurseries. The municipality owns and operates the 
water-works, and the water is brought from reservoirs in the 
Pequanac Valley 20-30 m. N.W. of the city. 

The city charter (1857) provides for government by a mayor, 
elected biennially, and a unicameral council, elected by popular 
vote. By popular vote, also, the board of . street and water 
commissioners is chosen. The council chooses the city clerk, 
treasurer and tax receiver, and the mayor appoints the city 
attorney, police justices, the board of education, the trustees of 
the public library, and the excise and assessment commissioners, 
and, subject to the ratification of his choice by the council, the 
comptroller, auditor and the tax, police, health and fire com- 
missioners. 

Newark has long been one of the leading manufacturing cities 
of the country. The manufacture of shoes and other leather 
products, particularly patent leather, became an important in- 
dustry early in the igth century; in 1770 there was one tannery 
here; in 1792 there were three; a large one, still in operation, 
was built in 1827; in 1837 there were 155 curriers and patent 
leather makers in the city, which then had an annual product 
of leather valued at $899,200; in 1905 the value of the leather, 
tanned, curried and finished was $13,577,719. The manufacture 
of felt hats (product, 1905, $4,586,040, Newark ranking third 
in this industry among the cities of the United States), carriages, 
chairs and jewelry (an industry established about 1830; product, 
1905, $9,258,095), developed rapidly early in the igth century, 
and there are extensive manufactories of malt liquors (product, 
1905, $10,917,003), and of clothing (product, 1905, $3,937,138), 
foundries and machine shops (product, 1905, $6,254,153), 
and large establishments for smelting and refining lead and 
copper, the product of the lead smelters and refining establish- 
ments being in 1905 the most valuable in the city. Among the 
other important manufactures in 1905 were: chemicals, valued 
at $3,964,726; slaughtering and meat packing, $2,933,877; 
varnish, $2,893,305; stamped ware, $2,689,766; enamelled 
goods, $2,361,350; boots and shoes, $2,382,051; reduction of 
gold and silver, not from ore, $2,361,350; corsets, $2,081,761; 
paints, $1,812,463; silverware and silver-smithing, $1,780,906; 
tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, $1,742,862; hardware, 
$1,616,755; buttons, $1,281,528, and saddlery hardware, 
$1,151,789. In 1905 an art pottery was established for making 
"'crystal patina " and " robin's egg blue " wares, in imitation, 
to a certain extent, of old oriental pottery, and Clifton India 
ware, in imitation of pottery made by the American Indians. 
The total value of Newark's factory products increased from 
$112,728,045 in 1900 to $150,055,227 in 1905, or 33-1%. In 
1905 the value of the city's factory product was almost one- 
fifth of that for the whole state, and Newark ranked tenth among 
the manufacturing cities of the entire country. In the same year 
Newark manufactured more than one-half (by value) of all the 
jewelry, leather and malt liquors produced in the state. 



Insurance is another important business, for here are the 
headquarters of the Prudential, the Mutual Benefit Life and the 
American Fire, the Firemen's and the Newark Fire Insurance 
companies. The city's foreign trade is light (the value of its 
imports was $859,442 in 1907; of its exports $664,525), but its 
river traffic is heavy, amounting to about 3,000,000 tons annually, 
and being chiefly in general merchandise (including food-stuffs, 
machinery and manufactured products), ores and metals, 
chemicals and colours, stone and sand and brick. 

Newark was settled in 1666 by about thirty Puritans from 
Milford, Connecticut, who were followed in the next year by 
about the same number of their sect from Branford and Guilford. 
Because of the union of the towns of the New Haven Jurisdiction 
with Connecticut, in 1664, and the consequent admission of others 
than church members to civil rights, these Puritans resolved 
to remove and found a new town, in which, as originally in the 
New Haven towns, only church members should have a voice in 
the government. They bought practically all of what is now 
Essex county from the Indians for " fifty double hands of powder, 
one hundred bars of lead, twenty axes, twenty coats, ten guns, 
twenty pistols, ten kettles, ten swords, four blankets, four barrels 
of beer, ten pairs of breeches, fifty knives, twenty horses, eighteen 
hundred and fifty fathoms of wampum, six ankers of liquor (or 
something equivalent), and three troopers' coats." Their first 
church was in Broad Street, nearly opposite the present First 
Presbyterian Church, with cupola and flankers from which 
" watchers " and " wards " might discover the approach of 
hostile Indians, and as an honour to their pastor, Rev. Abraham 
Pierson (1608-1678), who came from Newark-on-Trent, they gave 
the town its present name, having called it Milford upon their 
first settlement. The town was governed largely after the 
Mosaic law and continued essentially Puritan for fifty years or 
more; about 1730 Presbyterianism superseded Congregational- 
ism, and in 1 734 Colonel Josiah Ogden, having caused a schism 
in the preceding year, by saving his wheat one dry Sunday in a 
wet season, founded with several followers the first Episcopal or 
Church of England Society in Newark Trinity Church. Partly 
because of its Puritanic genesis and partly because of its in- 
dependent manufacturing interests, Newark has kept, in spite 
of its nearness to New York City, a distinct character of its own. 
The College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, was 
situated here from 1747 to 1756, for all but the first few months 
under the presidency of the Rev. Aaron Burr, who published in 
1752 the well-known Newark Grammar, long used in Princeton 
and originally prepared for Burr's very successful boys' school 
in Newark. The city received large additions to its foreign-born 
population immediately after the revolution of 1848, when many 
Germans settled here a German daily newspaper was estab- 
lished in 1857. Newark was incorporated as a township in 1693, 
was chartered as a city in 1836 and received another charter 
in 1857; from it the township of Orange was formed in 1806 and 
the township of Bloomfield in 1812. 

See H. L. Thowless, Historical Sketch of the City of Newark, New 
Jersey (Newark, 1902); F. J. Urquhart, Newark, The Story of its 
Early Days (Newark, 1904"); and J. Atkinson, The History of 
Newark, New Jersey (Newark, 1878). 

NEWARK, a city and the county-seat of Licking county, Ohio, 
U.S.A., at the confluence of three forks of the Licking river, 
on the Ohio Canal, and 33 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. 
(1890) 14,270; (1900) 18,157, f whom 1342 were foreign-born 
and 300 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,404. Newark is 
served by the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St Louis railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. 
It lies on a level plain, but is surrounded by hills. Along two 
of the forks of the Licking are some of the most extensive 
earthworks of the " mound builders "; they occupy about 
3 sq. m., and have a great variety of forms: parallel walls, 
circles, semicircles, a parallelogram, an octagon, &c. About 
10 m. S.W. and connected with Newark by electric line is Buckeye 
Lake, an artificial body of water about 8 m. long and i m. wide, 
frequented as a summer resort. Among the city's attractive 
features are Idlewilde Park and a beautiful auditorium, built 



462 



NEW BEDFORD 



as a memorial to the soldiers and sailors of the Civil War. Newark 
is the trade centre of an agricultural region, which also abounds 
in natural gas and coal; natural gas is piped as far as Cincinnati. 
The city has electric car and steam car shops and various manu- 
factures, including stoves and furnaces (the most important), 
bottles, table glass-ware, cigars, rope halters, machine furniture 
and bent wood. The total factory product in 1905 was valued 
at $5,612,587, an increase of 94-9% over that in 1900. Newark 
was laid out about 1801 and was incorporated in 1813. 

For an account of the earthworks see Gerard Fowke, Archaeological 
History ef Ohio (Columbus, 1902). 

NEW BEDFORD, a city and port of entry, and one of the 
county-seats of Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 56 m. 
S. of Boston, at the mouth of the Acushnet river, and at the head 
of New Bedford Harbor, an arm of Buzzard's Bay. Pop. (1890) 
4i733; (190) 62,442, of whom 25,529 were foreign-born, 
including 8559 French Canadians, 5389 English, 4802 Portuguese 
and 3020 Irish; (1910 census) 96,652. New Bedford is the 
terminus of two divisions of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford railroad, and is connected with Taunton (the other 
county-seat), Fall River, Brockton and other cities by interurban 
electric railways. Passenger steamboat lines connect with 
Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket and Buzzard's Bay points; a 
freight line and, in summer, daily passenger service to New York 
are maintained; the Insular Navigation Co. (Empreza Insulana 
de Navegacao) runs passenger and freight steamers from New 
Bedford to Lisbon, and to the Azores; and there is a regular 
sailing packet service between New Bedford and the Cape Verde 
Islands. Two bridges connect New Bedford with the township 
of Fairhaven, on the E. side of the harbour; one, a steel bridge, 
is almost i m. in length and cost $1,500,000. New Bedford is 
attractively situated, and, commercially, occupies a particularly 
favourable position. It covers about 20 sq. m., and extends along 
the W. side of the river and harbour for several miles. Unusual 
dockage facilities are thus provided. The harbour was improved 
by the Federal government, between 1840 and 1906, the channel 
from Buzzard's Bay through the harbour being 18 ft. deep and 
200 ft. wide; under a project of 1907 it was contemplated to 
increase the depth of the channel to 25 ft. and the width to 
300 ft. There is a broad driveway along the shore of the harbour 
to Clark's Point at the entrance, where during the Civil War the 
United States government erected a stone fort, Fort Rodman, 
in which a garrison of artillery is still maintained; New Bedford 
was one of the 26 places reported by the U.S. Chief of Engineers 
in 1909 as having " permanent seacoast defences." Among the 
principal buildings and institutions are the post office and 
custom house, the city hall, the county court house, the 
registry of deeds building, the masonic building, the merchants' 
national bank, the institution for savings, St Joseph's and St 
Luke's hospitals, the Swain free school, St Mary's (Roman 
Catholic) school, the Friends' academy, a state textile school, 
a state armory and St Mary's home. The public library, 
established as a private society library in 1802, taken over by the 
city in 1853, and housed in the refitted old city hall building, was 
one of the first free public libraries in the United States; it 
contains about 100,000 volumes, and has notable collections 
relating to the whaling industry and to the Quakers. The 
Sailors' Bethel, built in 1831, and containing memorial tablets 
reminiscent of the whaling days, is of interest. The Old Dart- 
mouth Historical Society was organized in 1903. A fine park 
system, aggregating 255 acres, includes the Common, and Brook- 
lawn, Buttonwood, Hazelwood, Grove and Triangle Parks. 
The city owns and operates a fine water-supply system. 

When whale-oil was a widely used illuminant, New Bedford 
was long the principal port of the world's whaling industry; 
and in point of tonnage owned it is perhaps still so, as many New 
Bedford vessels now sail from San Francisco. As early as the 
middle of the i8th century, vessels sailed on whaling voyages 
from the mouth of the Acushnet river, but it was not until 1765, 
when Joseph Rotch, a Nantucket merchant, bought a tract of 
land on the W. side of the river and constructed wharves 
and warehouses, that the industry became established here. At 



first the whales were obtained principally off the Virginia and 
Carolina coasts, but by the outbreak of the War of Independence, 
the New Bedford whalers sought their prey as far as West Indian 
and even South American waters. The War of Independence 
temporarily ruined the industry, but it was soon re-established, 
and the field of operations was much extended, after 1791 many 
ships regularly rounding Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean. By 
1804 there were 59 whaling vessels registered from New Bedford. 
The unsettled commercial conditions of the early years of the I9th 
century and the Embargo combined to ruin the business once 
more, but the close of the War of 1812 ushered in the greatest era 
of prosperity for the industry. By 1845 only New York, Boston 
and New Orleans of American ports exceeded New Bedford in 
tonnage. The production was greatest in that year, New Bedford 
whalers importing 158,000 bbls. of sperm oil, 272,000 bbls. of 
whale oil and 3,000,000 ft of whalebone. The beginning of 
Arctic whaling in 1848 marked a new step in the industry, and 
the tonnage was much increased. The highest point in capital, 
tonnage and vessels was reached in 1857, when New Bedford 
possessed 329 registered whaling ships, representing an invest- 
ment of $12,000,000 and employing afloat and ashore 10,000 
hands. From a succession of causes, of which the introduction of 
petroleum into general use as an illuminant was the chief, the 
industry began to decline from this time. The Civil War was a 
great blow to the whalers; 25 vessels were sunk by Confederate 
cruisers, entailing a loss of $1,650,000, and many more were 
bought by the government to be sunk at the entrances of southern 
harbours, or to be used as colliers or store ships. 1 In 1871 and 
1876 many vessels were lost in the Arctic ice, involving losses 
of several millions. Still the industry survives on a compara- 
tively small scale; in January 1909 there were 13 steamers and 
barks, i brig and 4 schooners, with an aggregate tonnage of 4710, 
employed, chiefly in sperm whaling, and the oil and whalebone 
product of 1908 was valued at about $350,000. 

The prosperity that New Bedford lost with the decline of the 
whaling industry has been more than made up by the growth of 
the cotton spinning industry. In 1905 New Bedford ranked 
second among the cities of the United States in the manufacture 
of cotton goods (including cotton small wares), producing 5% 
of the total for the country; the speciality of the mills is the 
finer cotton goods. The first cotton mill, a five-storey stone 
structure, was built by Joseph Grinnell (1789-1885) and his 
associates in 1847, and began operations in the following year 
with 15,000 spindles and 200 looms. This was the beginning of 
the Wamsutta Mills, in 1907 comprising 8 buildings, 228,000 
spindles and 4300 looms. In 1909 the city had some 50 mills, 
with a total of over 2,137,000 spindles. The value of cotton 
goods manufactured in 1905 was $22,411,936, or 76-1% of 
all manufactured products of New Bedford (in 1890 the product 
was $8,185,286; in 1900 $16,748,783). Among the city's other 
manufactures are tools, cordage and twine, boots and shoes, 
glass, oils, lubricants (notably black-fish oil, a lubricant for 
watches and clocks, of which almost the entire supply is manu- 
factured here), mechanical toys, beer, ale, woollen and silk 
goods, and paints. The total value of all factory products was 
$ 2 3>397>49i in 1900 and $29,469,349 in 1905. There is an 
extensive commerce in coal, raw cotton, lumber and fish; the 
direct foreign trade is comparatively small in 1909 the imports 
were valued at $542,995, and the exports at $34,473. 

The site of New Bedford was visited in 1602 by the English 
navigator, Bartholomew Gosnold, who traded with the Indians 
at the mouth of the Acushnet or Acoosnet. It was originally part 
of the town of Dartmouth, which was occupied by settlers from 
Plymouth, who in 1652 purchased the land from Massasoit, 
Sachem of the Narragansets, and his son Wamsutta (called 
Alexander by the whites). About 1665 there was a considerable 
influx of Quakers, and members of this sect have always formed 

'From New Bedford in November and December 1861 sailed 
the " Stone Fleet," a flotilla of 45 whaling vessels collected by the 
Federal government and loaded with stone, . most of which were 
sunk off Charleston and other harbours on the South Atlantic coast 
for the purpose of stopping blockade running. 






NEWBERN NEW BRIGHTON 



463 



an important and influential element in the population. There 
were few settlers on the site of New Bedford until the middle of 
the 1 8th century, and there was no village, properly speaking, 
until 1760. The town was first called Bedford after Joseph 
Russell, one of the founders, whose family name was the same 
is that of the dukes of Bedford; and it was later called New 
Bedford to distinguish it from Bedford in Middlesex county. 
During the War of Independence the harbour became a rendez- 
vous for American privateers; this led to an attack, on the 5th 
of September 1778, by a fleet and armed force under Earl Grey, 
which burned seventy ships and almost destroyed the town. 
In 1787 New Bedford was set off from Dartmouth and separately 
incorporated as a township; in 1812 the township of Fairhaven 
was separated from it. New Bedford was chartered as a city 
in 1847. Its first newspaper, the Marine Journal, was established 
in 1792. The Mercury, founded in 1807, now one of the oldest 
newspapers in continuous publication in the country, was for 
some time edited by William Ellery Channing (1818-1901). 
There are Portuguese and French weekly newspapers. 

See Daniel Ricketson, History of New Bedford (New Bedford, 
1858); Z. W. Pease and G. W. Hough, New Bedford (New Bedford, 
1889); D. H. Kurd, History of Bristol County (Philadelphia, 1883); 
L. B. Ellis, History of New Bedford and its Vicinity 1602-1892 
(Syracuse, N.Y., 1892); W. S. Tower, A History of the American 
Whale Fishery (Philadelphia, 1907); and The Old Dartmouth 
Historical Sketches (1903 seq.), published by the Old Dartmouth 
Historical Society. 

NEWBERN, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of 
Craven county, North Carolina, U.S.A., near the head of the 
estuary of the Neuse river and at the mouth of the Trent river, 
about 90 m. N.E. of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 7843; (1900) 
9090, of whom 5878 were negroes; (1910 census) 9961. 
Newbern is served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk 
& Southern railways. The Federal government has improved 
both the Neuse and the Trent rivers for navigation; the Neuse 
has a channel of 8 ft. at low water to Newbern and one of 4 ft. 
from Newbern to Kinston, and the Trent a channel of 3 ft. 
from Newbern to Trenton. The Trent and the Neuse are both 
spanned here by railway and county bridges. The " Waterway 
between Newbern and Beaufort," projected in 1884, had in 
1908 a controlling depth at mean low water of only 2 to 2^ ft.; 
it was decided to abandon this waterway on the completion of 
an inland waterway about 18 m. long with a channel 10 ft. 
deep at low water and 90-250 ft. wide, projected in 1907, which 
would give Newbern an outlet to the ocean at Beaufort. The 
remains of Tryon Palace, the residence of the royal governor 
and the meeting-place of the legislature, which was built by 
William Tryon (q.v.) in 1765-1770, and was said to be the finest 
building of its time in the colonies, are of historic interest, and 
among the principal buildings are the United States govern- 
ment building, the county court house, the county jail and 
the county home. At Newbern is one of the national cemeteries 
of the Federal government, containing many fine monuments. 
The most important industries are the manufacture of lumber 
(especially pine) and trucking. The total value of factory 
products in 1905 was $1,343,384. In 1907 about 1000 men, 
mostly negroes, were employed in the saw-mills, whose annual 
product averages about 1 70,000,000 ft. Among the manufactures 
are fertilizers, cotton seed oil and carriages; repair shops of 
the Norfolk & Southern railway are here; the fisheries are of 
considerable importance; and the city ships quantities of fish, 
cotton and market-garden produce much of the last being 
forced under canvas with steam heat. It is the port of entry 
of the Pamlico customs district; in 1908 its imports were 
valued at $71,421. Newbern was settled hi 1710 by a company 
of Swiss and Germans under the leadership of Baron Emanuel 
de Graffenried (d. 1735) and was named for Bern, Switzerland. 
It was incorporated as a city in 1723, but its present charter 
dates from 1899 with amendments adopted in 1907. For several 
years it was the capital of the province and for a long time was 
the chief seaport of the state. Although strongly fortified 
early in the Civil War, Newbern was captured by a Union force 
under General A. E. Burnside on the I4th of March 1862 after 



an engagement near the city in which the loss to the Confederates, 
who were under the command of General Lawrence O'Brien 
Branch, was about 578 in killed, wounded, captured and missing, 
and the loss of the Union force was 90 killed and 380 wounded. 
Unsuccessful attempts to recapture the city were made by the 
Confederates on the I4th of March 1863, and on the ist of 
February and the 5th of May 1864. 

NEWBERRY, JOHN STRONG (1822-1892), American geologist, 
was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 22nd of December 
1822, and received a medical education at Cleveland, Ohio, 
taking the degree of M.D. in 1848. He completed his medical 
studies in Paris. His attention was early attracted to geology 
by collecting coal-measure plants from mines that had been 
opened by his father, and an acquaintance with Professor James 
Hall established his interest in the science. Hence while in 
Paris he studied botany under A. T. Brongniart. In 1851 he 
settled in practice at Cleveland, but in 1855 he was appointed 
surgeon and geologist to an exploring party in northern California 
and Oregon, and in 1857 his reports on the geology, botany 
and zoology were published. Between then and 1861 he was 
employed on similar work hi the region of the Colorado river 
under Lieutenant J. C. Ives, and his researches were extended over 
a large area of previously unknown country in Utah, Arizona 
and New Mexico, the further results being published in 1876. 
During the Civil War he did important work as a member of 
the U.S. Sanitary Commission, his organizing capacity being 
specially marked during the operations in the Mississippi Valley. 
In 1866 he was appointed professor of geology and palaeontology 
at the Columbia School of Mines, New York, where he commenced 
the formation of a magnificent collection of specimens; in 1869 
he was made state geologist of Ohio and director of the (second) 
Geological Survey there, and in 1884 palaeontologist to the U.S. 
Geological Survey. Four volumes on the geology of Ohio were 
published while he was director of the survey, his own reports 
being confined to the surface geology and to the coal-measures 
and their fossil plants. He devoted much labour to the study 
of Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary plants, and in particular to 
those of the Laramie stage. He also carried on researches among 
the Palaeozoic and Triassic fishes of North America. Among his 
other publications may be menticned The Origin and Classifica- 
tion of Ore Deposits (1880). His work throughout was char- 
acterized by great care and conscientious study, and it was 
recognized by his inclusion in most of the learned societies of 
America and the Old World. He received the Murchison 
medal of the Geological Society of London in 1888, and was 
president of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science (1867), of the New York Academy of Sciences (1867- 
1891), and of the International Congress of Geologists (1891). 
He died at New Haven. Conn., on the 7th of December 1892. 

Memoir (with portrait) by J. J. Stevenson, American Geologist 
(July 1893). 

NEWBOLT, HENRY JOHN (1862- ), English author, was 
born on the 6th of June 1862, the son of H. F. Newbolt, vicar 
of St Mary's, Bilston. He was educated at Clifton College, 
where he was head of the school in 1881 and edited the school 
magazine, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was 
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1887 and practised until 
1899. His first book was a story, Taken from the Enemy (1892), 
and in 1895 he published a tragedy, Mordred; but it was the 
publication of his ballads, Admirals All (1897), that created 
his literary reputation. These were followed by other volumes 
of stirring verse, The Island Race (1898), The Sailing of the 
Long-ships (1902), Songs of the Sea (1904). From 1900 to 1905 
he was the editor of the Monthly Review. Among his later 
books his novels The Old Country (1906) and The New June 
(1909) attracted considerable attention. 

NEW BRIGHTON, formerly a village (coextensive with the 
town of Castleton) of Richmond county, New York, U.S.A., 
but since the ist of January 1898 the first ward of the borough 
of Richmond, New York City. It is at the north-eastern end 
of Staten Island, about 6 m. S.W. of the borough of Manhattan, 
with which it is connected by ferry. Pop. (1890) 16,423; (1900) 



464 



NEW BRIGHTON NEW BRUNSWICK 



21,441, of whom 6575 were foreign-born and 259 negroes; (1905 
state census) 23,659. At New Brighton is the Sailors' Snug 
Harbor, founded under the will of Robert Richard Randall 
(c. 1740-1801), who in 1771 became a member of the Marine 
Society of New York (an organization for the relief of indigent 
masters of vessels and their families), and in 1790 bought from 
Baron Poelnitz the " Minto farm," about 21 acres of land in 
what is now the Fifteenth Ward of the Borough of Manhattan. 
This tract, with four lots in what is now the First Ward of 
Manhattan, and cash and stocks to the value of about $10,000 
Randall (who.himself seems to have followed the sea for a time, 
and was called " Captain ") bequeathed to a board of trustees, 
directing that the income should be used " for the purpose of 
maintaining and supporting aged, decrepit and worn-out sailors," 
who had served at least five years under the American flag, 
and that the institution established for this purpose should be 
called " the Sailors' Snug Harbor." The will was bitterly con- 
tested by relatives, but finally was fully upheld in 1830 by the 
United States Supreme Court. The Sailors' Snug Harbor was 
incorporated in 1806, and its charter was amended in 1828 
to permit the building of the institution on Staten Island rather 
than on the Randall estate, which had already greatly increased 
in value. In 1833 the institution, with lands covering 160 acres, 
was opened in New Brighton with about 50 inmates. Randall's 
body was removed to the grounds in 1834, and buried under a 
marble monument, and in 1884 a life-size bronze statue of him, 
by Augustus Saint Gaudens, was placed in front of the main 
building. In 1909 the institution comprised the main building, 
a hospital, a chapel, a parsonage, residences for the officials, 
and several other buildings. The inmates (about 1000 in 1909) 
employ themselves at simple trades, or at work about the grounds; 
the use of intoxicating liquors is strictly prohibited, but the men 
are furnished with plenty of tobacco, and are well cared for. 
The present immense value of the land bequeathed by Randall 
makes Snug Harbor one of the most liberally endowed charitable 
institutions in New York City. At New Brighton are also a 
Home for Destitute Children of Seamen, founded in 1846 at 
Stapleton, Staten Island, removed to a new building on the Snug 
Harbor property in 1852, and maintained by contributions and 
gifts; and the Samuel R. Smith Infirmary, founded in 1861 
by the Medical Society of Richmond county, aud named in 
honour of a Staten Island physician. At New Brighton there 
are dry docks, paper and plaster mills, and silk-dyeing and 
printing works. The village as incorporated in 1866 included 
the northern half of the township of Castleton, and as reincor- 
porated in 1872 included all of that township. 

NEW BRIGHTON, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A., on Beaver river, 2 m. from its confluence with the Ohio 
and 28 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 5616, (1900) 6820 
(487 foreign-born and 179 negroes); (1910)8329. It is served 
by the Pennsylvania railway, and is connected by bridge with 
Beaver Falls. The borough has a public art gallery, a public 
park and a general hospital. Coal and fireclay abound in the 
vicinity, the Beaver river furnishes good water power, and the 
borough has various manufactures. New Brighton was laid out 
as a town in 1815 and was incorporated as a borough in 1838. 

NEW BRITAIN, a city of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., 
near the centre of the state, about 9 m. S.W. of the city of 
Hartford; land area 13-09 sq. m. in 1906. Pop. (1890) of 
the township, including the city, 19,007; of the city, 16,519; 
(1900) of the township, including the city, 28,202; of the city, 
25,998, of whom 9293 were foreign-born, including 1869 Irish 
and 1811 Swedes, who have a weekly published here; (1910 
census) 43,016. It is served by the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford railway, and by several inter-urban electric railways. 
The city is the seat of a state normal school, and has a free 
public library, formerly the New Britain Institute, and a public 
park of about 100 acres. New Britain is an important manu- 
facturing centre; its principal products are hardware, cutlery 
and edge tools, hosiery, and foundry and machine shop products. 
In 1905 the capital invested in manufacturing was $19,979,712 
(an increase of 45-1% since 1900) and the value of the factory 



products was $14,959,543 (an increase of 34-8%). More than 
one-half of the product-value was in hardware ($7,537,625). 

New Britain, which was settled in 1687, was originally a part 
of the township of Farmington. On account of ecclesiastical 
difficulties the " New Britain Society " a parish was organized 
in 1754. New Britain became a part of Berlin when that town- 
ship was established in 1785. In 1850 the township of New 
Britain was incorporated, and in 1871 the city was chartered. 
By act of the state legislature in 1905 the township of New 
Britain and the city of New Britain were consolidated; the first 
election under the new charter was in April 1906. The city was 
one of the first in the country to build a municipal subway for 
electric light, telephone and telegraph wires. 

See D. N. Camp's History of New Britain (New Britain, 1889). 

NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of the Dominion of Canada, 
lying between 45 2' and 48 3' N. and 63 46' and 69 3' W. 
Its length from N. to S. is 230 m., its greatest breadth 190 m., 
and it has a seaboard of about 550 m. 

Physical Features. The surface is generally undulating, but 
in the north and north-west of the province are many ranges of 
hills from 1000 to 2000 ft. in height, rising in Bald Mountain to 
2400 ft. These elevations are an extension of the Appalachian 
Mountains and traverse the province from the state of Maine. 
This whole section of the province is densely wooded. The 
southern region embraces the district along the Bay of Fundy. 
Its coast is rocky and bold and interrupted by ravines. Inland 
the numerous rivers, flowing through the soft sandstone and 
conglomerate rocks, have cut broad valleys, the soil of which is 
extremely rich and fertile. Along the shores on the east coast, 
and for some miles inland, the country is flat and composed of 
mosses and marshes, but beyond that distance it rises into gently 
sloping hills, which extend as far as St John. 

New Brunswick is a network of rivers, bays and lakes, several 
of which are navigable for vessels of large tonnage. The principal 
rivers are the St John, Miramichi, Restigouche, Saint Croix, 
Petitcodiac, Richibucto and Nipisiguit. The St John, which is 
famous for its scenery, rises in the state of Maine and is over 
450 m. in length. It is navigable for vessels of moderate tonnage 
from St John on the Bay of Fundy to Fredericton, a distance of 
about 88 m., but steamers of light draught ply as far as Wood- 
stock, 65 m. farther, and during the rainy season boats go as 
far as Grand Falls, a cataract 70 or 80 ft. high, 225 m. from the 
sea. Among the many lakes which it drains is Grand Lake, 20 m. 
long, and varying from 3 to 9 m. in breadth. The Miramichi 
flows N.E. into a bay of the same name. It is 225 m. long, 7 m. 
wide at its mouth, and navigable as far as Nelson (46 m.). In 
the spring and autumn small steamers and barges go much 
farther up. With its branches it drains a fourth of the province. 
A large lumber trade is done in this district, and many saw-mills 
are driven by the river. The Restigouche forms the north-east 
boundary of the province, is 100 m. in length and flows into the 
Bay of Chaleur. It is composed of five main branches, its name 
signifying in Indian " the river which divides like the hand." 
Large vessels may safely navigate it 18 m. from the bay. With 
its tributaries it drains over 4000 sq. m. of fertile and well- 
wooded country. The St Croix separates New Brunswick from 
the state of Maine at its south-west angle. Its source is a chain 
of lakes called the Chiputneticook. The Petitcodiac is navigable 
for 25 m. for ships, and schooners of 80 tons burden may proceed 
to the head of the tide, 12 m. farther; it empties into Shepody 
Bay. The Richibucto discharges into the Gulf of St Lawrence. 
The Nipisiguit and Tobique (a tributary of the St John) in the N. 
are in much repute among anglers. 

The coast-line of New Brunswick is indented with numerous 
fine bays and harbours. The Bay of Fundy is an arm of the sea 
separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia and terminating 
in two smaller bays, Chignecto Bay and the Basin of Minas. 
Its length up to Chignecto Bay is 140 m. and its extreme breadth 
45 m. It is noted for its high tides, which rise about 30 ft. at 
St John and over 50 ft. at the head of Chignecto Bay. At Bay 
Verte, 14 m. distant, on the opposite side of the Isthmus of 
Chignecto, the tide rises little more than 4 or 5 ft. The Bay of 



NEW BRUNSWICK 



465 



| -haleur, which has several excellent harbours, is over 90 m. in 
length and from 20 to 25 m. in breadth. The other inlets of 
consequence on the east coast are Miramichi, Richibucto, 
Buctoucbe, Cocagne and Shediac Bays; on the south coast are 
Passamaquoddy Bay, St John Harbour and Chignecto Bay. 



NEW 
BRUNSWICK 



R Longitude West 66 of Greenwich 




At the mouths of the rivers are in nearly every case excellent 
harbours. To the province belong the islands of Campobello 
and Grand Manan, at the entrance of the Bay of Fundy, from 
both of which important fisheries are. carried on. 

Geology. Along the Bay of Fundy, for about 30 m. inland, is a 
band of hard Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks, with smaller 
areas of Devonian, Huronian and Laurentian. The city of St 
John is built upon very hard Cambrian slates, in which interesting 
fossils are found. North of this belt grey sandstones and con- 
glomerates of Carboniferous age occupy a triangular area, the apex 
of which is near Oromocto Lake, the south side extending to Nova 
Scotia and the north-west side to Bathurst. Along the western 
border this area is 400 to 600 ft. high, but near the coast it is low 
and flat. " The Carboniferous area of New Brunswick is continuous 
across the isthmus [of Chignecto] with that of Nova Scotia, so that 
from Miscou on the Bay of Chaleur to Sydney on the Atlantic coast 
of Cape Breton, the whole coast of the Gulf of St Lawrence is 
bordered by coal-bearing rocks " (S. E. Dawson, North America, 
London, 1897). North-west of the Carboniferous a belt of 40 to 
50 m. wide is occupied by Ordovician and pre-Cambrian formations, 
with large masses of intrusive granite. The Ordovician is composed 
of schistose, micaceous, and foliated slates and quartzites, in places 
highly altered and disturbed. The pre-Cambrian rocks consist of 
very hard crystalline reddish felsite, chloritic quartzites, and fels- 
pathic and micaceous schists. The whole of this region is rugged 
and broken into numerous ranges of hills. The remainder of the 
province to the north-western boundary is occupied by Silurian 
rocks, mostly calcareous slates and shales associated with beds of 
limestone. The whole province has been mantled with ice in the 
Pleistocene period, and boulder-clay and later modified deposits 
occupy the surface. Marine clay and sand containing fossil shells 
are found along the coast. 

Climate. The climate, though subject to extremes, is healthy. 
The average mean temperature in summer is 60 F., and in winter 
19 F. The average rainfall for thirty years (1875 to 1905 in- 
clusive) was 32-6 in., whereas in the neighbouring province of 
Nova Scotia, with its larger coast-line, it was 39-6. The winters are 



severe, and snow falls to a great depth, but the harbour of St John 
is open throughout the year. During the period 1875-1905 the 
average yearly snowfall was 97-5 in., 20 in. more than in Nova 
Scotia. The autumn is delightful, especially during the " Indian 
summer," after the first frost, but before the weather has broken. 
Area and Population. Not including the territorial sea, the area 

of the province is 27,985 sq. m., of which 74 are 

water. It thus occupies an area rather larger 
than that of the mainland of Scotland. The 
population in 1901 was 331,120, and is practically 
stationary, there being little or no immigration, 
and a steady exodus to the United States and 
to the western provinces of the Dominion. The 
number of males slightly exceeds that of females. 
The bulk of the people are of English descent, 
the remainder Irish and French. The Scots, 
so prominent in nearly all the other provinces 
of the Dominion, are here less conspicuous. Of 
the original Indian inhabitants of the province, 
who were of Algonquian stock and divided into 
two tribes, the Micmacs and the Malicites, about 
1700 remain, many of whom have a greater or 
less proportion of white blood. 

The capital is Fredericton, on the St John 
(pop. in IQOI, 7117). The chief shipping and 
commercial centre is St John (pop. in 1901. 
40,711). Moncton is a large railway centre (pop. 
in 1901, 9026). None of the other towns exceeds 
5000 inhabitants. Owing to the large Irish a_nd 
French element over one-third of the population 
belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. 
Campbellton (pop. 5000), a northern port on 
Chaleur Bay, with an important lumber trade, 
was destroyed by fire in July, 1910. 

Administration. The province sends ten 
senators and fourteen members of the House of 
Commons to the federal parliament. Since the 
abolition of the legislative council in 1892 the 
provincial legislature has consisted of a lieutenant- 
governor and a legislative assembly. Though in 
this the members are nominally divided on party 
lines, the smallness of the population renders the 
division rather one of persons than of principles. 
Both city and county districts have an elective 
municipal system. 

Education. There is a good system of primary 
and secondary schools under provincial control. 
When in _ 1 87 1 the system of free undenomina- 
tional primary schools supported by the pro- 
vince was introduced, feelinjj rose so high among 
the Roman Catholics that noting broke out and 
life was lost. In view of the provisions in the 
British North America Act for protecting the rights of religious 
minorities, the Roman Catholics sought to have the new system 
declared unconstitutional, but the case, after being carried to the 
judicial committee of the imperial privy council, was decided 
against them. In 1875 a compromise was arranged, by which 
practical though not theoretic satisfaction is given to that church. 
Renewed rioting broke out among the French Roman Catholics in 
1890, but after some years the compromise of 1875 was confirmed. 
At Fredericton an efficient normal school for the training- of teachers 
is maintained, and a school for the deaf and dumb. The lazaretto 
for lepers at Tracadie and the marine hospital at St John are sup- 
ported by the Dominion. At Fredericton is a small provincial 
university, founded in 1800 and re-established in 1859; at Sackville 
is the university of Mount Allison College under Methodist control, 
and at Memramcook one, working chiefly among the French, is 
owned by the Roman Catholics. In all these an adequate training 
is given in law, theology and the literary subjects, but for science, 
whether pure or applied, most of the provincial students go either 
to the United States or to the universities of Upper Canada. 

Either owing to the beauty of its scenery or to the excellence of 
its education New Brunswick has produced a school of poetry, 
headed by Charles Roberts, which is unique in the Dominion. 

Agriculture. The great predominance of the lumber industry 
has tended to keep agriculture in the background. There is also 
a steady flow of the most active young men to the greater oppor- 
tunities offered by the Canadian and American west. Thus the 
area under crop tends slowly to decrease. Rather more than 
6000 sq. m. is now occupied, of which about 1500 is under crop and 
about 700 used for pasture, the rest being for the most part still 
covered with forest. In all the river valleys, and especially on the 
fertile diked lands along the head of the Bay of Fundy, many rich 
and prosperous farms are found varying in size from 100 to 240 
acres, and good crops of wheat, oats, buckwheat and all the staple 
grains and roots are grown. The raising of sheep and cattle, and 
the production of cheese and butter, are becoming industries of 
importance. A dairy school is maintained by the provincial govern- 
ment at Sussex (King's county). Though no great development of 
agriculture is possible, a quiet, equable prosperity is attained by 



NEW BRUNSWICK NEWBURGH 



hundreds of farmers. Much crown land still remains unoccupied, 
and is sold by the provincial government on easy terms tobona fide 
settlers. 

Forests. Its great forests, through which flow numerous rivers 
with excellent harbours at or near their mouths, have long made 
New Brunswick a centre of lumbering. This industry has affected 
the whole development of the province, and the wilder and more 
unsettled life of its woodsmen contrasts with that of the farmer of 
Ontario or of the west. The most valuable and most widely-spread 
tree is the black spruce (Abies nigra), from which is made a yearly 
increasing quantity of wood-pulp for paper-making. The hemlock 
(Abies Canadensis), the cedar, birch, beech, oak, ash and many 
other valuable trees, are also widely spread. The chief ports for 
shipping are St John, at the mouth of the St John river, and Chatham, 
at the mouth of the Miramichi. 

Though much remains, much has been destroyed by forest fires. 
To this day traces may be seen of the fire which in 1825 utterly 
destroyed hundreds of square miles of timber along the river 
Miramichi. 

The same forests are also a paradjse for sportsmen. The game 
laws are being made increasingly strict, and the province draws a 
large revenue from the sale of licences, extra fees being imposed on 
sportsmen from other countries. Moose (Cervus alces), caribou and 
deer may only be shot during about two months in the autumn, 
and the number allowed to each gun is strictly limited. In 1902 
the provincial government set aside a large area of the highlands at 
the sources of the Tobique, Nipisiquit and Miramichi rivers for a 
national park and game preserve. 

Mines and Fisheries. The mineral wealth of the province is 
small, though gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc and plumbago have 
been worked on a small scale at various times. Coal seams are 
numerous, but are worked solely for local consumption. Albertite, 
a species of coal found in Albert county and giving a very hot 
flame, is now exhausted. Limestone and gypsum are extensively 
quarried near St John and in Albert county. 

The fisheries, on the other hand, are extensive, though less so 
than those of Nova Scotia. This industry centres in the counties 
of Charlotte and Gloucester, herring, salmon, lobsters, sardines and 
cod forming the chief catch. The Restigouche and other rivers near 
the northern border are much frequented by anglers in search of 
trout and salmon. 

Manufactures. The chief manufactures, apart from the shipping 
of St John, are connected with lumbering and with agriculture. 
The making of paper pulp and of furniture is growing steadily in 
importance. Co-operation in the manufacture of butter and cheese 
has produced excellent results, and numerous cheese and butter 
factories are scattered through the province. In no sense, however, 
does New Brunswick play an important part in the manufactures 
of the Dominion. 

Communications. The rivers are still the main arteries of the 
province. The roads, though improving, are as a rule bad. The 
main railway system has since 1876 been that of the Intercolonial, 
owned and operated by the federal government, by which the 
province is linked to Nova Scotia on the E. and to the rest of Canada 
on the W. The Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific also 
run through the province, and by the Canadian Pacific and the 
Maine Central it has communication with the United States. Various 
lines of steamers run, chiefly from St John, to American and 
other Canadian ports. 

History. Until 1784 New Brunswick formed part, first of the 
French province of Acadia, later of the British province of Nova 
Scotia. The first settlement within its borders was made in 
1604 by Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts, with whom was Samuel 
de Champlain. Their colony at the mouth of the St Croix river 
was soon abandoned, but throughout the French regime the 
district was frequented by bands of fur-traders. In 1762 the 
first English settlement was made at Maugerville on the St John 
river, and in 1764 a body of Scottish farmers and labourers 
took up land along the Miramichi. On the i8th of May 1783 
a band of American loyalists settled at the mouth of the St 
John. Thousands more followed, and in 1784 New Brunswick 
was declared a separate province. At first governed by a repre- 
sentative assembly and an irresponsible council, it obtained 
responsible government in 1847-1848, after a constitutional 
struggle in which no little ability was shown. In 1867 it entered 
without reluctance but without enthusiasm into the Canadian 
.Federation. Its economic and educational history, both more 
important than its political, have been indicated in earlier parts 
of this article. (For the boundary dispute, see MAINE.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology (edition of 
1891), is the most easily accessible work on the geology of the pro- 
vince. Numerous studies have been published, chiefly by the 
Geological Survey of Canada, by L. W. Bailey, R. W. Ells, A. P. 
Low, and G. F. Matthew. Valuable papers on various provincial 



subjects have been published in the Transactions of the Royal 
Society of Canada by W. F. Ganong. The provincial government 
issues a yearly volume of sessional papers; Acadiensis, a magazine 
published in St John, should also be consulted. The earliest account 
of New Brunswick is given by Nicholas Denys, Description geo- 
graphique (published Paris, 1672; republished by W. F. Ganong 
with notes and introduction, 1908); there is no good modern 
history; R. Montgomery Martin, History of New Brunswick (1837); 
G. E. Fenety, Political Notes (1867); James Hannay, History 
of Acadia (1879), and Lives of Wilmot and Tilley (1907) may be 
consulted. (W. L. G.) 

NEW BRUNSWICK, a city and the county-seat of Middlesex 
county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Raritan river, at the terminus 
of the Delaware & Raritan canal, about 23 m. S.W. of Newark. 
Pop. (1890) 18,603, (1900), 20,006, of whom 3526 were foreign- 
born and 755 were negroes; (1910 census) 23,388. It is 
served by the Pennsylvania and the Raritan River railways, 
and by daily steamboats to New York. There is a fine stone 
bridge across the Raritan. In the city are the Wells Memorial 
Hospital, St Peter's General Hospital, a Carnegie library, a 
Federal building and a Soldiers' Monument. New Brunswick 
is the seat of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church 
in America, the oldest theological school in the United States, 
founded in 1784 in New York City, situated at Flatbush, Long 
Island, in 1796-1810, and removed to New Brunswick in 1810, 
and of Rutgers College (originally Dutch Reformed, now non- 
sectarian), which was founded in 1766 as Queen's College, was 
rechartered in 1770 as a college for " the education of youth in 
the learned languages, liberal and useful arts and sciences and 
especially in divinity," was first opened for instruction in 1770, 
was closed during 1795-1807 and 1816-1825, an( l w &s renamed 
in 1825 in honour of Colonel Henry Rutgers (1745-1830), of 
New York City, a liberal benefactor. The college embraces two 
schools: the classical school and the scientific school, which in 
1864, in pursuance of the Morrill Act of 1862, was constituted 
by the state legislature as the state college for the benefit of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts; a preparatory school is also 
controlled by its trustees. An agricultural experiment station 
is maintained in connexion with the college. In 1908-1909 
there were 306 students. In 1908 the library of Rutgers College 
contained 57,000 volumes, and that of the Theological Seminary 
48,000 volumes. The city has a variety of manufactures, and 
the total value of factory products in 1905 was $8,916,983, 54% 
more than in 1900. 

A settlement was made here in 1681, and for a time the place 
was known as Prigmore's Swamp; later, after John Inian had 
established a ferry across the river, it was called Inian's Ferry; 
the present name was adopted in honour of the house of Bruns- 
wick. New Brunswick received a city charter from the royal 
governor in 1730, and was chartered as a city by the state legis- 
lature in 1784. During the War of Independence, General 
Washington and his army entered New Brunswick on the 28th 
of November 1776, but on the approach of the enemy evacuated 
it, and from the 3rd of December 1776 to the I3th of April 1777 
it was occupied by the British under Lord Howe. Cornelius 
Vanderbilt was for several years the proprietor of the Bellona 
Hotel of New Brunswick, now a tenement house. 

NEWBURGH, or NEWBURG, a city of Orange county, New 
York, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, about 57 m. 
N. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 23,087, (1900) 24,943, of 
whom 4346 were foreign-born and 558 negroes; (1910, census) 
27,805. It is served by the Erie, the West Shore, and by 
ferries across the Hudson the Central New England and 
the New York Central & Hudson River railways. Across New- 
burgh Bay, as the expansion of the Hudson at this point is 
called, is the village of Fishkill, and an electric line connects 
with the village of Walden (pop. in 1910, 4004), about 12 m. 
N.W., which has various manufactures, the most important being 
pocket-knives. The city occupies a commanding position on 
terraces rising abruptly from the river, and on the flat plateau 
above, whence a view may be obtained of the Catskill Mountains 
to the N.W., of the Highlands of the Hudson to the S. and of 
the Hudson river for many miles in both directions. Orange 
Lake, between Newburgh and Walden, is known for its ice 



NEWBURGH NEWBURY 



467 



yachting and skating races. Washington Park is in the central 
part of the city. Downing Park, named in honour of the horti- 
culturist and landscape gardener Andrew Jackson Downing, 
(1815-1852), a native of Newburgh, lies on a high plateau 
overlooking the city and the surrounding country. Among 
Newburgh 's institutions are a public library, St Luke's Hospital, 
a Children's Home, Mount St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic) 
and a business college. In Golden Square there is a statue of 
Governor George Clinton. Cotton, woollen and silk goods, 
laces, paper, plaster, plush, felt and felt hats, carpets, engines 
and boilers, and mill and farm machinery are manufactured, and 
there are ship and brick yards. In 1005 factory products were 
valued at $7,142,327, an increase of 33-3% over their value for 
1900. Newburgh was first settled in i jog by a colony of Germans 
from the Rhenish Palatinate under their minister, Joshua 
Kockethal (d. 1719), and was known as "the Palatine Parish of 
Quassaic." Toward the middle of the century many of the 
Germans removed to Pennsylvania, and Scottish and English 
settlers took up their abandoned lands. In 1752 the place was 
renamed Newburgh, after the town of that name in Scotland, 
whence many of the new settlers had come. From the spring of 
1782 until August 1783 Washington made his headquarters here, 
occupying the Hasbrouck House (built by Jonathan Hasbrouck 
between 1750 and 1770), which is still standing in Washington 
Park, and was bought by the state in 1849. It long contained 
a collection of historical relics, for which the state has erected a 
brick building in Washington Park. It was here on the 27th of 
May 1782 that he wrote his famous letter of rebuke to Colonel 
Lewis Nicola (1717-*:. 1807), who had written to him on behalf 
of a coterie of army officers, it is said, suggesting that he assume 
the title of king. Here, also, Washington made his reply to the 
so-called " Newburgh Addresses," written by John Armstrong, 
and calling for action on the part of the army to force Congress 
to redress its grievances. Here the arrangements were completed 
for the disbandment of the Continental Army, and the centenary 
of the disbandment was celebrated here on the i8th of October 
1883. In commemoration of the disbandment also a monu- 
ment, known as the " Tower of Victory " (53 ft. high, with 
a life-sized statue of Washington), was erected in Washing- 
ton Park by Federal and state authorities. Newburgh was 
incorporated as a village in 1800 and chartered as a city in 
1865. The U.S. Geographic Board spells the name Newburg, 
but the spelling Newburgh is adopted locally and by the 
U.S. Post Office. 

See E. M. Ruttenber, History of the Town of Newburgh (Newburgh, 
1859) and History of Orange County (Newburgh, 1872). 

NEWBURGH, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. 
Pop. (1901) 1904. It is situated on the Firth of Tay, 7 m. N.W. 
of Ladybank Junction by the North British Railway. Its 
industries chiefly consist of the making of linen and floorcloth, 
malting and quarrying, and there are fisheries, especially of 
salmon. The harbour is used for the transhipment of the cargoes 
of Perth-bound vessels of over 200 tons. On high ground, about 
i m. S.W., stand the remains (only the pedestal) of Macduff's 
Cross, which marks the spot where the clan Macduff in return 
for the chief's services against Macbeth was granted rights 
of sanctuary and composition for murder done in hot blood. 
Denmyln castle, about ij m. S.E. of Newburgh, was the home 
for more than 250 years of the Balfour family, of which the two 
brothers, Sir James (1600-1657), tne annalist and Lyon King, 
and Sir Andrew (1630-1694), founder of the Botanic Garden in 
Edinburgh, were the most distinguished members. Lindores 
abbey, the gem of the district, is situated on the Tay, close to 
Newburgh, and ij m. N. of the village of Lindores. Of the 
Benedictine abbey, founded in 1178 by David, earl of Hunting- 
don, brother of William the Lion, there only remain the groined 
arch of the principal entrance, a portion of the west tower and 
other Early English fragments, but the ground plan of the whole 
structure can still be traced. The monks were noted agriculturists 
and their orchards famous. At Blackearnside, a forest of alders, 
to the east of the village, Wallace defeated the earl of Pembroke 
in 1298. 



NEWBORN, an urban district in the Tyneside parliamentary 
division of Northumberland, England, on the Tyne, 55 m. 'W. 
of Newcastle by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. 
(1901) 12,500. It has collieries, and iron, steel, engineering, 
tool and fire-clay works, and there is a large industrial population. 
Newburn is of considerable antiquity. Roman remains have been 
discovered in proximity to Hadrian's Wall. A church here was 
destroyed by fire in 1072 in the course of a dispute between two 
claimants of the earldom of Northumberland. Here in 1640 the 
Scottish Covenanters planted guns to protect them while fording 
the river, after which they defeated the English on the Durham 
side at Stellaheugh, and subsequently occupied Newcastle. The 
name of Scotswood, one of the manufacturing villages between 
Newburn and the city, commemorates one of their positions. 
The district has many associations with the famous engineer 
George Stephenson, born at Wylam, 3 m. W. 

NEWBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Newbury parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 53 m. 
W. by S. of Reading by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 
1 1,06 1. It is beautifully situated in the narrow well-wooded 
valley of the Kennet, which is followed by the Kennet and Avon 
canal. The town has north and south communications by the 
Didcot, Newbury & Southampton railway (worked by the 
Great Western company), and is the terminus of the Lambourn 
Valley light railway. The church of St. Nicholas is a large 
Perpendicular building of the beginning of the i6th century. 
It is said to have been built mainly at the charge of John 
Winchcombe or Smalwoode (Jack of Newbury), an eminent 
clothier, who, according to the brass to his memory, died in 
February 1519. A few picturesque old buildings remain in the 
town, including part of Winchcombe's house and the Jacobean 
cloth hall, now a public museum. The almshouses called King 
John's Court are supported by a foundation known as St 
Bartholomew's Hospital, to which in 1215 King John granted 
by charter (renewed in 1596 to the corporation) the profits 
of a fair on St Bartholomew's day (24th of August). Shaw 
House, on the outskirts of the town to the north-east, is an 
Elizabethan mansion of brick, dating from 1581; to the north 
is Donnington castle, retaining a Perpendicular gateway and 
other fragments. The suburb of Speenhamland was formerly 
an important posting station on the Bath road. At Sandleford 
Priory, to the south of Newbury, the site and part of the buildings 
of an Augustinian priory (c. 1200) were utilized in the erection 
of a mansion, in 1781, for Mrs Elizabeth Montague. The house- 
holders of Newbury have the right to elect boys and girls to the 
educational foundation of Christ's Hospital. The cloth industry 
is long extinct in Newbury, but large wool fairs are held annually, 
there is considerable agricultural trade, and there are breweries 
and flour mills. A racecourse was opened in the vicinity of 
the town in 1905, and six meetings are held annually. The 
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. 
Area, 1828 acres. 

Newbury (Neubiri, Neubiry) possibly owes its origin to the 
village of Speen on the other side of the Kennet, which probably 
marks the site of the Roman station Spinae. The name Newbury 
(new town or borough) is first mentioned by Odericus Vitalis; 
it is probable, however, that the manor of Uluritone, entered in 
Domesday as held by Ernulph de Hesdain and containing fifty- 
one houses, covered a large part of the site of the town. The 
manor was subsequently held by the Marshalls, and later by 
the Mortimers, through whom it passed to the house of York 
and the crown. It formed part of the dowry of several queens- 
consort, and was held by Elizabeth before her accession. In 
1627 it was granted by Charles I. at a fee-farm to the corporation. 
Newbury was a borough by prescription; in 1187 its inhabitants 
are called " burgesses " and a document of the time of Edward I. 
speaks of it as " burgus." It was incorporated by a charter 
of Elizabeth (1596) which was confirmed by Charles I. and 
Charles II.; a doubtfully valid charter of James II. (1685). 
Newbury sent two representatives to the parliament of 1302 
and delegates to a council held in the reign of Edward III. 

Newbury early became a centre of the woollen industry, 



4 68 



NEWBURYPORT NEW CALEDONIA 



but at the beginning of the I7th century this was declining. 
John Kendrick (d. 1624) left a sum of money to benefit the 
clothing trade and to " set the poor on work," but the result 
was not what was expected. Elias Ashmole (d. 1629) says: 
" Newbury had lost most of its clothing trade, which the naviga- 
tion of the river Kennet hither, now begun, will probably 
recover"; the trade, however, was already irrevocably lost. 
The Weavers' Company, which still exists, was incorporated 
in 1601. In the i8th century a considerable trade was done 
in corn and malt. Newbury castle, of which traces remained 
until the i yth century, is said to have been besieged by Stephen 
in 1152. Newbury was the scene of two battles during the Civil 
War, in the first of which (1643) Lord Falkland was killed. An 
important woollen market, established in 1862, is held annually 
on the first Wednesday in July. 

See W. Money, History of Newbury (1887); Victoria County 
History, Berks. 

NEWBURYPORT, a city and port of entry and one of the 
county-seats of Essex counfy, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 
S. bank of the Merrimac river, about 3 m. above its mouth, and 
about 38 m. N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 13,947; (1900) 
14,478, of whom 2863 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 
14,949. Area, about 12-85 S Q- m - The city is served by two 
divisions of the Boston & Maine railroad, and by coast and 
river freight steamers. There are many houses dating back 
to the i7th century; of these the stone " garrison" house 
(in Newbury), with walls 4 ft. thick and built in the form of 
a cross, is an interesting example. Other private houses 
worthy of mention are the former homes of " Lord " Timothy 
Dexter and Caleb Gushing, the birthplace of William Lloyd 
Garrison, and (35 m. from Newburyport in the township of 
West Newbury) Indian Hill Farm, the birthplace of the 
journalist Ben Perley Poore (1820-1887), author of Perley's 
Reminiscences of Sixty Years in the National Metropolis (1886). 
Among the public buildings and institutions are the Marine 
Museum, the Public Library (founded in 1854 by Josiah Little 
and containing about 45,000 volumes), the old Tracy mansion 
(built in 1771 or 1772), which forms part of the Public Library 
building, the Anna Jacques and Homoeopathic hospitals, homes 
for aged women and men, a Home for Destitute Children, Old 
South Church, in which is the tomb of George Whitefield, and 
the Young Men's Christian Association building, which is a 
memorial to George Henry Corliss (1817-1888), the inventor, 
erected by his widow, a native of Newburyport. The General 
Charity Society is a benevolent association. The city has a 
good public school system. The Female High School was opened 
in 1843 and is said to be the first high school for girls to be 
established in the United States. The Putnam Free School, 
now part of the public school system, was endowed early in the 
1 9th century by Oliver Putnam of Newburyport and afterwards 
of Hampstead, New Hampshire. Three parks, Washington, 
Gushing and Atkinson, are maintained by the city; and there 
are a statue of George Washington (1879), by J. Q. A. Ward, one 
of William Lloyd Garrison by D. C. French, and a memorial to 
the soldiers and sailors of the Civil War a bronze statue, " The 
Volunteer " by Mrs Theo (Ruggles) Kitson. A curious chain 
suspension bridge across the Merrimac, connecting Newburyport 
with Amesbury, was built in 1827, replacing a similar bridge 
built in 1810, which was one of the first suspension bridges 
in America. 

Newburyport in the early part of the i8th century 
was one of the most prosperous commercial centres in New 
England. At that time fishing, whaling and shipbuilding were 
its .principal industries, the clipper ships built here being among 
the fastest and best known on the seas. After the Civil War 
manufacturing became Newburyport's chief interest. In 1905 
its factory product was valued at $6,809,979, an increase of 
32-5% since 1900; 57-6% was in boots and shoes, and the 
manufactures of combs and silverware, silversmithing products, 
cotton goods and electrical supplies are also important. 

Newbury, including the site of the present Newburyport, 
was settled in 1635 by a company under the leadership of the 



Rev. Thomas Parker (1595-1677), who had taught in Newbury, 
England, in his youth. In 1639 a portion of the territory was 
set off to form the town of Rowley, and in 1764 about 647 acres 
were set off and incorporated as the town of Newburyport. 
In 1819 the town of Parsons (now West Newbury) was formed 
from Newbury. Newburyport, with its area considerably en- 
larged, became a city in 1851. During the War of Independence 
and the War of 1812 it sent out many privateers. In 1811 a 
fire destroyed 250 buildings, including the greater part of the 
business portion of the town. 

See Caleb Gushing, History and Present Slate of the Town of New- 
buryport (Newburyport, 1826); Joshua Coffin, History of Newbury, 
Newburyport, and West Newbury, 1635-1845 (Boston, 1845); Mrs 
E. V. Smith, History of Newburyport (Boston, 1854); D. H. Hurd, 
History of Essex County (Philadelphia, 1888); J. J. Currier, History 
of Newbury from the First Settlement of the Town to the Beginning of 
the Twentieth Century (Boston, 1902), History of Newburyport, 1764- 
1905 (Newburyport, 1906), and Ould Newbury, Historical and 
Biographical Sketches (Boston, 1898). 

NEW CALEDONIA (Fr. Nouvelle-Caledonie), an island in the 
western Pacific Ocean, belonging to France. (For map, see 
PACIFIC OCEAN.) It is about 250 m. long, and has an extreme 
breadth of 35 m. and an area including adjacent islets of 6450 
sq. m.; is situated at the southern extremity of Melanesia, 
between 20 5' and 22 16' S., and between 164 and 167 30' E., 
and, h'ke all the chief islands of that chain and the chain itself, 
lies north-west and south-east. An almost unbroken barrier 
reef skirts the west shore at about 5 m. distance, enclosing a 
navigable channel; on the east, which is more abrupt and 
precipitous, it is much interrupted. To the north the reefs 
continue, marking the former extension of the land, for about 
i6om., ending with the Huon Islands. The Isle of Pines,- so 
called from its araucarias (its native name is Kunie), geologically 
a continuation of New Caledonia, lies 30 m. from its south- 
east extremity. It formerly abounded in sandalwood, and 
consists of a central plateau surrounded by a belt of cultivation. 
At the two extremities of New Caledonia, parallel longitudinal 
ranges of mountains enclose valleys; for the rest the island 
consists essentially of confused masses and ranges of mountains, 
rising to an extreme elevation of 5387 ft., the plains being 
chiefly the deltas of rivers. The landscape is rich and beautiful, 
varied with grand rock scenery, the coast-line being broken 
by numerous small bays, into which flow streams rarely navigable 
even for short distances, but often skilfully utilized by ihe 
natives for irrigation; and sometimes flowing in subterranean 
channels. The larger rivers in the wet season form impassable 
morasses, especially in the S.E., where the mountains rise in 
isolated masses from flat plains. 

Geology. 1 Speaking generally, New Caledonia may be described 
as a band of Palaeozoic and probably Lower Palaeozoic rocks, 
associated doubtless with some Archean beds; this band runs 
from north-west to south-east, through the whole length of the 
island. The second element in the composition of the island consists 
of Mesozoic beds, which occur in a broken band along most of the 
south-western coast. Most of the island is occupied by the band of 
the old rocks, which include mica, glaucophane and sericite-schists 
and slates; there are small intrusions of granite, and numerous 
dikes and masses of basic eruptive rocks. The slates are inter- 
bedded with limestones containing fossil brachiopods, which have 
led to their determination as Silurian or Devonian; but L. Peletan 
classes all these limestones as Triassic. Triassic beds of the Pacific 
coastal type occur in a band along the south-western coast. They 
are covered by marine Jurassic beds and they in turn by Cretaceous 
coal-bearing, terrestrial deposits, resembling those of New Zealand. 
According to E. Glasser, the basic igneous rocks which are associated 
with tl\e mineral deposits of New Caledonia were intrusive in Cainozoic 
times, at the severing of the connexion between New Caledonia and 
New Zealand. New Caledonia is part of the Australasian Festoon, 
and in its general characters resembles the geology of New Zealand. 
The main mineral deposits are the nickel ores, occurring as veins of 
garnierite, associated with peridotite dikes, in the ancient rocks 
of the eastern slope of the island. 

1 The basis of knowledge of the geology of New Caledonia was laid 
by Gamier, Ann. des Mines, ser. 6, vol. xii. (1867). Later accounts 
are by E. Glasser, " Les Richesses min6rales de la Nouvelle Caledonie,' 
Ann. des Mines, ser. 10, vol. iv. mem. pp. 299-392, pi. xi., and vol. v. 
mem. pp. 29-54, 53-7 ol > P'- " and x "- (f94); a "d by L. Peletan, 
Les Richesses minerales des colonies fran$aises (Paris, 1902). 



NEW CALEDONIA 



469 



Climate, Flora, Fauna. The hottest and wettest months are 
from December to March, but there is usually a fresh trade-wind 
blowing and the climate is healthy. There is much less moisture, 
and the flora is of a less tropical character than farther north ; it has 
some Polynesian and New Zealand affinities, and on the west coast 
a partially Australian character; on the higher hills it is stunted; 
on the lower, however, there are fine grass lands, and a scattered 
growth of niaulis (Melalcuca viridiflora), useful for its timber, bark 
and cajeput oil. There is a great variety of fine timber trees. The 
bread-fruit, sago, banana, vanilla, ginger, arrowroot and curcuma 
grow wild. The cocoa nut, maize, sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, rice 
and tobacco (which last does not suffer like other crops from the 
locusts) do well. The orange, indigo, lucerne and European vege- 
tables are grown. Mammals are very few; they include the rat and 
Pteropus and other bats. The commonest birds are pigeons (the 
large notou and other varieties), doves, parrots, kingfishers and ducks. 
The kagu (Rhinochetusjubatus), a peculiar " wingless " bird, is found 
here only. Turtle abound on the coast, and fish, of which some kinds, 
as the tetrodons (globe-fish), are poisonous, especially at certain 
seasons. Land and marine molluscs are numerous, and include 
various edible kinds. 

Population. At the census of 1901 the population of New 
Caledonia numbered 51,413, consisting of 12,253 f ree Europeans 
(colonists, soldiers, officials), 29,106 natives, 10,056 convicts. 
In 1898, however, the introduction of convicts into the island 
ceased. The centres of population are Noum6a (Numea), the 
capital, on a fine harbour of the west coast near the southern 
extremity of the island, with 7000 inhabitants; Bourail, an 
agricultural penitentiary (1800); La Foa, in the centre of the 
coffee plantations; Moindu, St Louis and St Vincent. 

The natives, whom the French call Kanakas (Canaques, a 
word meaning " man," applied indiscriminately to many Pacific 
peoples), live on reservations. They are Melanesians of mixed 
blood, of two fairly distinct types, one sub-Papuan and the 
other Polynesian. Of the first the physical characteristics 
are a small, thin-limbed body, hair black, short and woolly, 
projecting jaws, rounded, narrow, retreating forehead, long 
and narrow head, enormous eyebrow ridges, flat nose and dark 
skin. The second type is characterized by a lighter skin, some- 
tunes of a reddish-yellow, longer, less woolly hair, body taller 
with better-proportioned limbs, and head broader. This is 
the prevailing type in the east and south of the island. There 
is nowhere a real defining line between the two (many New 
Caledonians having black skins and woolly hair with Polynesian 
superiority of limb), but the Polynesian type is generally found 
among the chiefs and their kindred. 

Both sexes among the natives pierce the lobes of the ear for orna- 
ments. Tattooing is almost entirely confined to the women. Both 
sexes go naked, or with the scantiest loin-cloth. Their huts are 
usually beehive-shaped, with a single apartment, low narrow door, 
and no chimney. There are various degrees of hereditary chiefships, 
and a supreme chief recognized by all. As in some other Pacific 
islands, when a son is born the chiefship passes to him, but the father 
continues to govern as regent. All property descends to the eldest 
son by birth or adoption, though custom demands that the younger 
members of the family should have a share. The people have to 
work on the chief's plantations and fisheries, and also work in parties 
for each other, breaking up new land, &c. This often ends in 
feasting and in dances (pilu pilu), which include allegorical repre- 
sentations of events or ideas. The supreme chief's authority is 
limited by the advice of a council of elders, whom he is obliged to 
summon in certain emergencies. The standard of morality is low; 
women are practically slaves, and infanticide was formerly common. 

The Kanakas are excellent agriculturists, being accounted superior 
in this matter to every other race of the Pacific. About the middle 
of the igth century the indigenous population was 60,000. Returns 
for 1904 showed that this had fallen to rather less than half. 

The languages of the different tribes are mutually unintelligible. 
They express abstract ideas imperfectly. Thus there are several 
words for eating, each applied to a particular article of food. Their 
reckoning shows the same peculiarity. The numbers go up to five, 
and for living objects the word bird is added, for inanimate yam, 
for large objects ship. 1 There are other terms for bundles of sugar- 
canes, rows (planted) of yams, &c. ; and sometimes things are counted 
by threes. Ten is two fives, 15 three fives, 20 is a " man " (ten 
fingers and ten toes), 100 is " five men," and so on. 

Administration and Industries. The colony is administered 
by a governor, who exercises military power through a marine 
infantry colonel, and civil power with the assistance of a privy 

1 A similar usage exists in Malay; see paper by Yule in Jour. 
Anthrop. Inst. ix. 290. 



council, a director of the interior, a judicial head, and a director 
of the penitentiary administration. There is also an elective 
general council. Noumea is the seat of a superior tribunal, 
a tribunal of first instance, and a tribunal of commerce. The 
island and its dependencies are divided into five arrondissements. 
Noum6a alone has (since 1879) a municipality, other localities 
being administered by commissions. There are about 1600 
sq. m. of cultivable lands in the alluvial valleys, where coffee, 
maize, tobacco, sugar-cane, the vine, vegetables, potatoes, 
and some of the cereals are grown with success. Coffee was 
introduced about 1870, and has prospered well. Cheap agri- 
cultural labour is supplied by the convicts, by the liberated 
convicts, the Kanakas, and (to some extent) labourers from 
the New Hebrides. The soil is in three domains: that of the 
state, for the working of which concessions may be granted; 
that of the penitentiary administration; and that of the native 
reserve. Many horses, cattle and sheep have been imported, and 
the meat -preserving industry is prosecuted. Gold is found in 
the valley of the Diahot, as well as lead and copper at Balade. 
Iron is found everywhere. The yearly output of nickel and 
chrome is considerable, and these minerals, with cobalt, constitute 
the characteristic wealth of the island. Coal has been worked 
near Noumea, and kaolin is found in places. Gypsum and 
marble also deserve mention. The chief industrial establish- 
ments are smelting furnaces for cobalt, meat-preserving works 
at Ouaco, sugar-works and distilleries at Noumea and La Foa, 
tobacco, oil and soap factories at Noum6a. The commerce in 
1888 amounted to 480,000, of which 200,000 represented 
the trade with France. In 1900 the total had risen to 820,000, 
of which 480,000 was for imports and 340,000 for exports, 
the share of France in that year having been 45% of imports 
and 47 % of exports. The island imports wines, spirits, tissues, 
clothing and ironmongery; and exports ores, nickel, cobalt and 
chrome (which represent over three-quarters of the total exports 
in value), preserved meats and hides, coffee, copra and other 
colonial produce. There are about 150 m. of carriage roads, 
and in the mountainous regions there are many footpaths. 
A railway running north-westward from Noum6a to Dumbea, 
&c., is designed to connect the capital with Bourail. The 
islands annexed to the colony of New Caledonia are the Isle 
of Pines, used as a place of detention for habitual criminals: 
the Loyalty Islands (q.v.), E. of New Caledonia; the Huon 
Islands, a practically barren group; the Wallis Archipelago 
(q.v.) ; and Futuna and Alofa, S. of the Wallis group. 

History. New Caledonia was discovered by Captain Cook 
in 1774. He touched at the haven of Balade (the original name 
of the island) near the north-western extremity, as did d'Entre- 
casteaux in 1793, who closely explored the coast and surrounding 
seas. They subsequently became known to sealers and traders 
in sandalwood, who, however, established no friendly relations 
with the natives. In 1843 French missionaries arrived at the 
island, and it was claimed for France, but on British representa- 
tions the claim was renounced. In 1851 a landing party from 
a French vessel lying at Balade was attacked by the natives, 
and massacred with the exception of a single member. France 
was now determined on the annexation, and the flag was raised 
at the same spot in 1853, but simultaneously the commander 
of a British vessel was in negotiation with the native chief of 
the Isle of Pines, and the British flag was hoisted there. The 
chief, however, subsequently sided with the French, and the 
British claim was finally withdrawn. The capital, Noumea, 
was founded in 1854 (it was then called Port de France); in 
1860 New Caledonia became a colony distinct from the French 
possessions in the Pacific at large; in 1864 the first penal settle- 
ment was made on Nou Island, off Noumea. In 1878 there was 
a serious native insurrection, and another in 1881 was only put 
down after much bloodshed. 

See H. Riviere, Souvenirs de la Nouvelle-Caledonie: ^insurrection 
canaque (Paris, 1881); Gallet, La Nouvelle-Caledonie (Noumea, 
1884); Cordeil, Origines et progres de la Nouvelle-Caledonie (Noumea, 
1885); C. Lemire, La Colonisation . . . en Nouvelle-Caledonie 
(Paris, 1878); Ibid. (Noumea, 1893); Voyage d pied en Nouvelle- 
Caledonie (Paris, 1884); M. A. Legrand, An pays des Canagues 



470 



NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF 



(Paris, 1893); Moncelon, Le Bagne et la colonisation penale a la 
Nouvelle-Caledonie (Paris, 1886); A. Bernard, L'Archipel de la 
Nouvelle-Caledonie (Paris, 1895); Nouvelle-Caledonie, ses richesses, 
son avenir (Paris Exhibition, 1900); G. Griffith, In an unknown 
Prison Land (London, 1901); Carol, La Nouvelle-Caledonie miniere 
et aericole (Paris, 1900) ; Vallet, La Colonisation frangaise en Nouvelle- 
Caledonie (Paris, 1905). 

NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF. Within the space of a century 
there were no less than four successive creations of dukes of 
Newcastle in the British peerage. William Cavendish (see 
below), nephew of the ist earl of Devonshire, was raised to the 
dignity of duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1665. His son and 
successor Henry (1630-1691) died leaving daughters only, and 
one of these married John Holies (1662-1711), earl of Clare, who 
was created duke in 1694. This duke died also without male 
issue, leaving his estates to his sister's son, Thomas Pelham 
(see below), who, with other dignities, had the title of duke of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne conferred on him in 1715, and a second 
and similar ducal title (that of Newcastle-under-Lyme) in 1756. 
The first dukedom became extinct at his death, but the second 
title was granted him with remainder to Henry Fiennes Clinton, 
earl of Lincoln, at once his nephew and nephew-in-law. From 
his heir, who ranks as the 2nd duke, Henry Fiennes Clinton 
(1720-1794), the dukedom passed through father and son from 
Thomas Pelham Clinton (d. 1795), Henry Pelham Fiennes Pelham 
Clinton (1785-1851), Henry Pelham Fiennes Pelham Clinton 
(1811-1864), Henry Pelham Alexander (1834-1879), to the 
yth duke, Henry Pelham Archibald Douglas Pelham Clinton 
(b. 1864). The three principal dukes are more fully noticed 
below. 

i. WILLIAM CAVENDISH, duke of Newcastle (1592-1676), 
eldest surviving son of Sir Charles Cavendish and of Catherine, 
daughter of Cuthbert, Lord Ogle, and grandson of Sir William 
Cavendish and "Bess of Hardwick," was born in 1592 and 
educated at St John's College, Cambridge. On the occasion of 
the creation of Prince Henry as prince of Wales in 1610 he was 
made a knight of the Bath, subsequently travelled with Sir 
Henry Wotton, then ambassador to the duke of Savoy, and on 
his return married his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of William 
Basset of Blore, Staffordshire, and widow of Henry Howard, 
3rd son of the earl of Suffolk. His fortune was immense, and lie 
several times entertained James I. and Charles I. with great 
magnificence at Welbeck and Bolsover. On the 3rd of November 
1620 he was created Viscount Mansfield, on the 7th of March 
1628 earl of Newcastle, and in 1629 the barony of Ogle was 
restored to his mother, this title, together with an estate of 
3000 per annum, descending to him. In 1638 he was made 
governor of the prince of Wales, and in 1639 a privy councillor. 
When the Scottish war broke out he assisted the king with a 
loan of 10,000 and a troop of volunteer horse, consisting of 
120 knights and gentlemen. In 1641 he was implicated in the 
Army Plot, and in consequence withdrew for a time from the 
court. He was sent by Charles on the nth of January 1642 
to seize Hull, but was refused admittance. When the king 
declared open war, Newcastle was given the command of the 
four northern counties, and had the power conferred on him 
of making knights. He maintained troops at his own expense, 
and having occupied Newcastle kept open communications with 
the queen, and despatched to the king his foreign supplies. 
In November 1642 he advanced into Yorkshire, raised the siege 
of York, and compelled Fairfax to retire after attacking him at 
Tadcaster. Subsequently his plans were checked by the latter's 
recapture of Leeds in January 1643, and he retired to York. 
He escorted the queen, who returned from abroad in February, 
to York, and subsequently captured Wakefield, Rotherham and 
Sheffield, though failing at Leeds, but his successes were once 
more ravished from him by Fairfax. In June he advanced again, 
defeated the Fairfaxes to Adwalton Moor on the 3oth of June, 
and obtained possession of all Yorkshire except Hull and Wressel 
Castle. He might now have joined the king against Essex, but 
continued his campaign in the north, advancing into Lincolnshire 
to attack the eastern association, and taking Gainsborough and 
Lincoln. Thence he returned to besiege Hull, and in his absence 



the force which he had left in Lincolnshire was defeated at 
Winceby by Cromwell on the nth of October 1643, which caused 
the loss of the whole county. On the 27th of October 1643 
he was created a marquis. Next year his position was further 
threatened by the advance of the Scots. Against prevailing 
numbers he could do little but harass and cut off supplies. He 
retreated to York, where the three armies of the Scots, Fairfax 
and Manchester surrounded him. On the ist of July Rupert 
raised the siege, but on the next day threw away his success by 
engaging the three armies in battle, contrary to Newcastle's 
desire, at Marston Moor. After this disaster, notwithstanding 
the entreaties of the king and the remonstrances of Rupert, 
Newcastle immediately announced his intention of abandoning 
the cause and of quitting England. He sailed from Scarborough 
accompanied by a considerable following, including his two sons 
and his brother, resided at Hamburg from July 1644 to February 
1645, and removed in April to Paris, where he lived for three 
years. There he married as his second wife Margaret (see below) , 
daughter of Sir Thomas Lucas of St John's, Colchester. He left 
in 1648 for Rotterdam with the intention of joining the prince 
of Wales in command of the revolted navy, and finally took up 
his abode at Antwerp, where he remained till the Restoration. 
In April 1650 he was appointed a member of Charles II.'s privy 
council, and in opposition to Hyde advocated the agreement with 
the Scots. In Antwerp he established his famous riding-school, 
exercised " the art of manage," and published his first work on 
horsemanship, Methode et invention nouvelle de dresser les chevaux 
(1658, 2nd ed., 1747; translated as A General System of Horse- 
manship, 1743). 

At the Restoration Newcastle returned to England, and 
succeeded in regaining the greater part of his estates, though 
burdened with debts, his wife estimating his total losses in the 
war at the enormous sum of 941,303. He was reinstated in the 
offices he had filled under Charles I.; was invested in 1661 with 
the Garter which had been bestowed upon him in 1650, and was 
advanced to a dukedom on the i6th of March 1665. He retired, 
however, from public life and occupied himself with his estate and 
with his favourite pursuit of training horses. He established a 
racecourse near Welbeck, and published another work on horse- 
manship, A New Method and Extraordinary Invention to Dress 
Horses and Work them according to Nature . . . (1667). He 
wrote also several comedies, The Country Captain and TheVarietie 
(1649), The Humorous Lovers And The Triumphant Widow (1677). 
With Dryden's assistance he translated Moliere's L'Etourdi as 
Sir Martin Mar-All (1688). He contributed scenes to his wife's 
plays, and poems of his composition are to be found among her 
works; and he was the patron of Jonson, Shirley, Davenant, 
Dryden, Shadwell and Flecknoe, and of Hobbes, Gassendi and 
Descartes. He died on the 25th of December 1676, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey. By his first wife he had ten 
children, of whom one son, Henry, survived him and became 
2nd duke of Newcastle, dying in 1691 without male issue; the 
title then became extinct and the estates passed to his third 
daughter Margaret, wife of John Holies, earl of Clare, created 
duke of Newcastle in 1694. 

As a commander in the field Clarendon spoke contemptuously 
of Newcastle as " a very lamentable man, and as fit to be a 
general as a bishop." 1 It can hardly be denied, however, that 
his achievements in the north were of great military value to 
the king's cause. For politics he had no taste, and adhered to 
the king's cause merely from motives of personal loyalty, from 
hatred of " whatsoever was like to disturb the public peace," 
and because the monarchy " was the foundation and support of 
his own greatness." Even Clarendon concedes that he was 
" a very fine gentleman," which is perhaps the best summary 
of his character. 

His second wife, Margaret, duchess of Newcastle (c. 1625- 
1673), had been maid of honour to Henrietta Maria, and after 
she married the duke in 1645 they continued to cherish a mutual 
admiration of a very exaggerated character, each regarding the 
other as endowed with transcendent merits both of person 
1 Calendar of Clarendon Papers, ii. 63. 



NEWCASTLE 



and mind. The duchess cultivated literary composition with 
exuberant fervour, and kept a bevy of maids of honour obliged 
to be ready at all hours " to register her Grace's conceptions." 
Walpole speaks of her as a " fertile pedant " with an " unbounded 
passion for scribbling "; and, although giving evidence of 
learning, ingenuity and imagination, her writings are fatally 
marred by a deficiency in judgment and self-restraint. She is 
best known by the Life she wrote of her husband, originally 
printed by A. Maxwell at London in 1667. She also published 
Philosophical Fancies (1653); Poems and Fancies (1653); The 
World's Olio (1655) ; Nature's Picture drawn by Fancie's Pencil to 
the Life, which includes an autobiography (1656); Philosophical 
and Physical Opinions (1655); Orations (1662); Plays (1662); 
Sociable Letters (1664); Observations upon Experimental Philo- 
sophy (1666); Letters and Poems (1676). 

The Life of William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, by Margaret, 
duchess of Newcastle, has been edited by C. H. Firth (1886) ; it was 
criticized by Pepys as " the ridiculous history of my Lord Newcastle 
writ by his wife, which shows her to be a mad, conceited, ridiculous 
woman, and he an ass to suffer her to write what she writes to him 
and of him," but on the other hand eulogized by Charles Lamb 
as a work for which " no casket is rich enough, no case sufficiently 
durable to honour and keep soft such a jewel. See also La Duchesse 
et le Due de Newcastle, by Emile Montegut (1895). The duchess's 
Select Poems were edited by Brydges in 1813, and her Autobiography 
in 1814. The latter, edited by Lower, was published along with 
her Life of the Duke of Newcastle in 1872. 

2. THOMAS PELHAM HOLLES, duke of Newcastle (1693-1768), 
whose official life extended throughout the Whig supremacy 
of the 1 8th century, was the elder son of Thomas, first Lord 
Pelham, by his second wife Lady Grace Holies, younger sister 
of John Holies, duke of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who died in 1711, 
and left the whole of his vast estates to him. In 1712 he also 
succeeded his father in his peerage and estates, and in 1714, 
when he came of age, was one of the greatest landowners in the 
kingdom. He vigorously sustained the Whig party at Queen 
Anne's death, and had much influence in making the Londoners 
accept King George. His services were too great to be neglected, 
and in 1714 he was created earl of Clare, and in 1715 duke of 
Newcastle-on-Tyne. He also became lord-lieutenant of the 
counties of Middlesex and Nottingham and a knight of the Garter 
in 1718, in which year he increased his Whig connexion by marry- 
ing Lady Henrietta Godolphin, granddaughter of the great duke 
of Marlborough. In 1717 he first held political office as lord 
chamberlain of the household, and in 1724 was chosen by Sir 
Robert Walpole to be secretary of state in place of Lord Carteret. 
This office he held continuously for thirty years (1724-1754), 
and only changed it for the premiership on his brother's death. 
His long tenure of office has been attributed to his great Whig 
connexions and his wealth, but some praise must be given to 
his inexhaustible activity and great powers of debate. He was a 
peculiarly muddle-headed man, and unhappy if he had not more 
to do than he could possibly manage, but at the same time he 
was a consummate master of parliamentary tactics, and knew 
how to manage the Houses of Lords and Commons alike. Lord 
Hervey (Memoirs) compares him with Walpole in 1735, and 
says: " We have one minister that does everything with the 
same seeming ease and tranquillity as if he were doing nothing; 
we have another that does nothing in the same hurry and agita- 
tion as if he did everything." He continued in office on Walpole's 
fall in 1742, and became more powerful on his younger brother 
Henry becoming prime minister in 1743. On Henry Pelham's 
death in March 1754, Newcastle succeeded him as premier; but 
people who had been accustomed to him as secretary of state 
would not stand him as premier, and in November 1756 he gave 
place to the duke of Devonshire. For his long services he was 
created duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme, with remainder to 
Henry Fiennes Clinton, gth earl of Lincoln, who had married his 
niece Catherine Pelham. In July 1757 he again became prime 
minister for Pitt, though a great statesman, was a bad party 
leader on the understanding, according to Horace Walpole, 
that " Mr Pitt does everything, the duke gives everything." 
Under this ministry England became famous abroad, but it 
gradually fell before the young king's affection for Lord Bute, 



who, after supplanting Pitt, became prime minister in the 
room of Newcastle in May 1762. The duke went into strong 
opposition, and lost Lis two lord-lieutenancies for opposing the 
peace of 1763. In 1765 he became lord privy seal for a few 
months, but his health was fast giving way, and he died in 
November 1 768. The duke was certainly not a great man, but 
he was industrious and energetic, and to his credit be it said 
that the statesman who almost monopolized the patronage of 
office for half a century twice refused a pension, and finally left 
office 300,000 poorer than he entered it. 

See Memoirs of the Administration of the Right Hon. H. Pelham, 
by W. Coxe (1829). 

3. HENRY PELHAM FIENNES PELHAM CLINTON, sth duke of 
Newcastle (1811-1864), the eldest son of Henry, the 4th duke, 
was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he 
graduated in 1832. He was member of parliament for South 
Nottinghamshire from 1832 to 1846, when he became member 
for the Falkirk Burghs, retaining this seat until he became duke 
of Newcastle in January 1851. As earl of Lincoln he was first 
commissioner of woods and forests from 1841 to February 1846, 
when he was appointed chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, but the ministry fell in June of the same year. In 
1852 Newcastle became secretary for war and the colonies under 
the earl of Aberdeen, and when, after the outbreak of the Crimean 
War, a separate war department was constituted, he was placed 
in charge of it. As secretary for war he was regarded as being 
largely responsible for the terrible hardships which befell the 
British troops in the Crimea in the winter of 1854, and as the 
result of a vote of censure he left office with his colleagues in 
January 1855. He was secretary for the colonies from 1859 to 
1864, and died on the i8th of October 1864, being succeeded as 
6th duke by his eldest son, Henry Pelham Alexander. 

See J. Martineau, The Life of Henry Pelham, $th Duke of Newcastle 
(1908). 

NEWCASTLE, a seaport of Northumberland county, New 
South Wales, Australia, at the mouth of the Hunter river, 
102 m. by rail and 62 m. by sea N. by E. of Sydney, in 32 55' S., 
151 49' E. Newcastle is the second city in New South Wales, 
the fourth port of Australia, and the seat of an Anglican bishop. 
The city rises steeply from the sea, and possesses numerous 
fine buildings, among which may be mentioned the railway 
station, post office, custom-house, the cathedral of Christ Church, 
the school of art with its large library, and the Victoria Theatre. 
There are also two state-subsidized hospitals, a college, a school 
of mines, a technological museum, several large and handsome 
churches, and numerous subsidized charitable institutions. 
Communication between the different parts is maintained by 
tramways, and steam ferry-boats ply between the city and its 
suburbs on the shores of the harbour. The industries include 
brewing, shipbuilding, copper and iron-founding, carriage- 
building and fellmongery; there are boot factories, engineering 
works, biscuit factories and smelting works at Cockle Creek. 
There is also a large trade in frozen meat. There are numerous 
coal mines in the vicinity, yielding coal of the finest quality. 
Newcastle has a fine harbour, with an area of 540 acres, protected 
by two breakwaters; the breadth of the channel at its entrance 
isi2ooft.,andthedepthatthebaris25jft. Vessels of the largest 
tonnage can enter and lie alongside of the wharves, which are 
S m. in extent, equipped with travelling cranes, hydraulic and 
steam cranes, lighted by electric light and connected with the 
Great Northern railway by a branch line. There is a floating 
dock to lift 2c!bo tons, and at Stockton there is a patent slip to 
take large vessels for repair. The facilities for the shipment of 
coal are excellent, and Newcastle is the chief coaling port in the 
southern hemisphere. The harbour is protected by two forts, 
Fort Scratchley, the strongest in Australia, and Shepherd's Hill 
Fort. The city exports coal, wool, coke, horses, cattle, frozen 
meat, silver, lead, copper, tallow, hides and country produce. 
Newcastle returns three members to the legislative council and 
six members to the legislative assembly. Most of the suburbs 
are separate municipalities, namely, Stockton, Carrington, 
Wickham, Hamilton, Merewether, Adamstown, Waratah, New 



472 



NEW CASTLE NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE 



Lambton, Lambton, Wallsend and Plattsburg. The population 
of the municipality of Newcastle is 14,250; of the town and 
suburbs about 70,000. 

The mouth of the Hunter river (named after Governor John 
Hunter), now known as Newcastle Harbour, was discovered 
in 1797 by Lieutenant John Shortland, who accompanied Hunter 
to New South Wales. For many years after its discovery it was 
used as a convict station. It became a free settlement in 1821, 
and in 1859 was erected into a municipality. The centenary of 
the landing of Shortland was celebrated in 1897, when a monu- 
ment commemorating the event was erected. 

NEW CASTLE, a city of New Castle county, Delaware, U.S.A., 
in the northern part of the state, at the head of Delaware Bay, 
on a high point of land extending into the Delaware river, 6 m. 
south of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 4010; (1900) 3380 (315 foreign- 
born); (1910) 3351. It is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore 
& Washington (Pennsylvania System), and (vid Wilmington) the 
Baltimore & Ohio railways, and by steamship lines connecting with 
Baltimore, Philadelphia and river ports. The " old " county 
court house, possibly built by the Swedes, is in New Castle; and 
there are a public library, the Immanuel Protestant Episcopal 
Church (partly built in 1689), and several residences of Dutch 
and colonial types. The city has a good harbour and an excel- 
lent river front for manufacturing sites and for shipping; it is 
included in the customs district of Wilmington. Its industrial 
establishments include shipyards, rolling mills and steel works, 
flour-mills, and manufactories of cotton and woollen goods. 
The shad fisheries are of some importance. In 1651 Governor 
Peter Stuyvesant of New Netherland established near the place 
Fort Casimir, as the first determined move in his aggressive policy 
against the Swedes, who had settled in this vicinity about 1640. 
The Swedes captured the fort in 1654, but this precipitated 
the crisis in which New Sweden (Delaware) was lost to the 
Dutch in 1655. Fort Casimir (renamed Fort Amstel) was made 
the seat of government of the local Dutch possessions, and in 
1657 was placed under the jurisdiction of the City of Amsterdam, 
under which it remained, though prospering little disease, 
famine and fears of English attack causing most of the inhabit- 
ants to leave in 1658 and 1659 until just before the English 
seized the settlements in Delaware in 1664. Under the English 
the name was changed to New Castle, and trade and commerce 
prospered; and an arc with a radius of 12 m., having the New 
Castle court house as a centre, became the northern boundary 
of the " counties on the Delaware." New Castle was frequently 
the meeting place of the colonial legislature, and after the 
legislative separation of Delaware from Pennsylvania in 1704 
it was the seat of administration of the colony until 1777. It 
was chartered as a city in 1875. 

NEWCASTLE, a seaside resort of Co. Down, Ireland, finely 
situated on the western shore of Dundrum Bay, at the foot of 
Slieve Donard, the highest eminence of the Mourne Mountains. 
Pop. (1901) 1553- It is the terminus of the Belfast and County 
Down railway, being 36 m. S. of Belfast; and is also served by 
a branch of the Great Northern railway. A fort guarded the 
passage of the river Shimna here in early times, but the town is 
entirely modern. The sandy shore affords good bathing, there is 
a small spa, and the scenery of the Mournes is fine. The demesnes 
of Donard Lodge and Bryansford are of great beauty. The golf 
links of the County Down Club here are well known. 

NEWCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, 
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Shenango river, at the mouth of 
Neshannock Creek, about 50 m. N.N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. 
(1890) 11,600; (1900) 28,339, 5324 being foreign-born and 463 
negroes; (1910) 36,280. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, 
the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh, and 
the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie railways. Cascade Park, in the 
neighbourhood, is a pleasure resort. The surrounding country, 
with which the city has an extensive trade, is well adapted to 
agriculture, and abounds in bituminous coal, iron ore, limestone, 
sandstone and fire-clay. In 1905 the city ranked fifth among 
the cities of the state in the value of its factory product, and 
of its products (valued at $29,433,635, an increase of 47-1% 



since 1900) iron and steel, and tin and terne-plates were the most 
important. Newcastle was founded in 1802, became a borough 
in 1869, and was first chartered as a city in 1875, its charter being 
revised in 1887. 

NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME, a market town and municipal 
and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, 2 m. W. 
of Stoke-upon-Trent by the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. 
(1901) 19,914. The parish church of St Giles was rebuilt in 
1873-1876 by Sir Gilbert Scott, with the exception of the tower, 
which dates from the I2th century. The free grammar school, 
originally founded in 1602, possesses large endowments, increased 
by the amalgamation of various subsequent bequests for educa- 
tional purposes, and now consists of high and middle schools 
for boys and Orme's school for girls. There is also a school of 
art included with a free library in handsome municipal buildings. 
The manufacture of hats was once the staple trade, but it has 
declined. There are cotton and paper mills; and tanning, 
brewing, malting and the manufacture of army clothing are 
carried on. In the neighbourhood there are large collieries, as at 
Silverdale and elsewhere. Partly included in the parliamentary 
borough is the populous parish of Wolstanton, of which the 
fine church, well placed on high ground, has good details of the 
I3th century, with a massive tower and spire. The mining town 
of Audley lies 4. m. N.W., with a fine early Decorated church. 
Newcastle-under-Lyme is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 
18 councillors. Area, 671 acres. 

Newcastle-under-Lyme (Neofchastell-sur-Lyme, Newcastle- 
under-Lyme) is not mentioned in Domesday, but it must early 
have become a place of importance, for a charter, known only 
through a reference in a charter to Preston, was given to the 
town by Henry II. The town owes its name to a castle built 
here in the 1 2th century to supersede an older fortress at Chester- 
ton about 2 m. to the north, of which the ruins were to be seen 
in the i6th century, and to the fact that it was situated under the 
forest of Lyme. Henry III. (1235) constituted it a free borough, 
granting a gild merchant and other privileges "in 1251 he leased 
it at fee-farm to the burgesses; the governing charter in 1835 
was that of 1590 enlarged by that of 1664, under which the title 
of the corporation was the " mayor, bailiffs and burgesses of 
Newcastle-under-Lyme." Newcastle, which was originally held 
by the crown, was granted (1265) to Simon de Montfort, and 
subsequently to Edmund Crouchback, through whom it passed 
to Henry IV. In Leland's time the castle had disappeared 
"save one great Toure"; in the I7th and i8th centuries the 
town was flourishing and had a manufacture of hats. The 
market was originally held on Sunday; in the reign of John it 
was changed to Saturday; by the charter of Elizabeth it was 
fixed on Monday. Markets are now held on Monday, Wednes- 
day and Saturday. Grants of fairs were given by Edward I., 
Edward III. and Henry VI. Up to the time of the passing of the 
Municipal Reform Act the farce of electing a mock mayor was 
gone through annually after the election of the real mayor. 
Newcastle sent two members to parliament from 1355 to 1885, 
when it lost one representative. 

See Victoria County History, Stafford; T. Ingamells, Historical 
Records and Directory of Newcastle-under-Lyme. 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, a city and county of a city, 
municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and port of 
Northumberland, England, 272 m. N. by.W. of London, on 
the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 186,300; (1901) 
2 r 5,3 28. It stands on the N. bank of the Tyne, which is here 
high and steeply inclined above the river. The mouth of the 
river into the North Sea is 8 m. below Newcastle and its banks 
are lined with docks and industrial towns, while its narrow waters 
are crowded with traffic. 

Though Newcastle owes its origin to a Roman station at a 
bridge over the river, its modern growth has largely destroyed 
traces of antiquity. Of the old walls which, according to Leland, 
" for strength and magnificence far surpassed all the walls of the 
cities of England and of most of the towns of Europe," and the 
circuit of which was 2 m. 239 yds., there are slight remains, 
although the fortifications were allowed to go into disrepair 



NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE 



473 



after the union of Scotland and England. The castle, from 
which the town takes its name, stood on a slight elevation rising 
abruptly from the river, and was erected by Henry II. between 
1172 and 1177 on the site of an older structure built in 1080 by 
Robert, eldest son of the Conqueror. It was originally the 
strongest fortress in the north of England, and its keep is now 
one of the finest specimens of the Norman stronghold remaining 
in the country. While it was still incomplete, William the Lion 
was led within its walls after his capture at Alnwick; and 
within its great hall Baliol, on the 26th of December 1292, did 
homage for the crown of Scotland to Edward I. The area of the 
castle within its outer walls and fosse was 3 acres. Fragments of 
these walls, with the principal entrance or Black Gate (portions 
of which are, however, of later construction) and the Watergate 
or southern postern remain, but the inner wall surrounding the 
keep has been entirely removed. The massive keep, with walls 
14 ft. thick, is in a state of good preservation, as is also the 
chapel, a beautiful specimen of late Norman style. The castle 
was purchased by the corporation in 1809, and is under the 
charge of the Newcastle Society of Antiquaries, which uses a 
portion of it as an antiquarian museum. Near the castle is St 
Nicholas church, forming the cathedral of the diocese of New- 
castle, instituted in 1882. The diocese covers practically the 
whole of Northumberland, with a very small portion of Cumber- 
land. The church, which is principally Decorated, consists of 
nave, aisles, chancel and transepts, the total length of the interior 
from east to west being 245 ft., and the width at the transepts 
128 ft. The principal feature of the church is the lantern tower, 
a later addition and a very fine specimen of early Perpendicular. 
Among other interesting old churches is St Andrew's church, 
erected in the nth century, and retaining Norman characteristics, 
with a low square tower and a peal of six bells. During the 
siege by the Parliamentary army in 1644 it was greatly damaged. 
St John's church is a building of the I4th century with an ancient 
front. Of the nine conventual buildings at one time existing 
in Newcastle or its immediate neighbourhood, a few fragments 
of the monastery of the Black Friars remain, and the chapel of 
the hospital of St Mary at Jesmond forms a picturesque ruin. 
There are a number of quaint Elizabethan houses in the 
steep street called the Side, and in the Sandhill at its foot. 

Some of the modern streets of Newcastle are spacious and 
handsome. The most noteworthy are Grey Street, in which 
a complete scheme of Grecian architecture is followed, and 
Grainger Street. This thoroughfare is named after Richard 
Grainger (1798-1861), a wealthy local architect who devoted 
himself to the beautifying of his city with remarkable energy. 
Of numerous modern churches may be noted that of St George, 
Jesmond, a landmark fot a great distance and finely decorated 
within, and the Roman Catholic cathedral of the diocese of Hex- 
ham and Newcastle. The most important public buildings are 
the corporation buildings, including a large public hall, and a corn 
exchange; the guildhall, originally a hospital called the Maison 
de Dieu, and afterwards used as " the stately court of merchant 
adventurers," re-erected in 1658; the moot-hall (1810) for the 
meetings of assizes and sessions and the transaction of county 
business; the exchange (1860); the central newsroom and art 
gallery (1838); the Wood memorial hall (1870), used for the 
meetings of the North of England Institute of Engineers; and 
the custom-house. The Grey monument in Grey Street, an Ionic 
column surmounted by a statue of Earl Grey, was erected in 1836 
to commemorate the passing of the Reform Bill; the Stephenson 
monument near the railway station was erected in 1862; a 
marble statue of Queen Victoria in front of the Royal Victoria 
Infirmary was unveiled in 1906, and a bronze statue of the queen 
in 1903 in the cathedral square. 

Among educational establishments the chief are the colleges 
of medicine and of physical science of the university of Durham ; 
the first granting degrees in medicine and surgery; the second, 
with which the school of art is incorporated, degrees in science 
and literature. The college of science, or Armstrong College 
as it is called in commemoration of the first Lord Armstrong, 
was founded in 1871; the north-east wing was opened in 1888; 



further parts of the building in 1894, and the west wing by King 
Edward in 1906. The royal free grammar school, founded in 
1525, occupies modern buildings in Jesmond. There should be 
mentioned also Allan's endowed schools, founded in 1705, and 
reorganized by the charity commissioners in 1877; and Ruther- 
ford College and the Commercial Institute, providing technical 
and commercial education. The Laing Art Gallery was erected 
and presented to the city by Alexander Laing, and opened in 
1904. Among clubs and similar institutions are the Literary 
and Philosophical Society, founded in 1793, the Society of Anti- 
quaries, founded in 1813, with a museum in the castle; the 
Natural History Society and museum ; the Tyneside Geographical 
Society; the Tyneside Naturalists' Club, established in 1846; 
the Mechanics' Institution, 1824; the North of England Institute 
of Mining Engineers, 1852; the Fine Arts Society; the Farmers' 
Club; the Northern Counties' Club; the Union Club; and the 
University Club. Several clubs for working men form a note- 
worthy social feature. There is a public library and newsroom. 
The Royal Victoria Infirmary on the Castle Leazes is a memorial 
of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and was opened in 
1906. The benevolent institutions also include the dispensary 
( 1 7T7), fever house (1803), lying-in hospital (1760), eye infirmary 
(1822), children's hospital, Trinity almshouses (1492), hospital 
of the Holy Jesus (1682), hospital (1701) for keelmen, i.e. 
coal-bargemen; and institutions for the blind, dumb and 
orphans. 

Newcastle is well supplied with public parks and recreation 
grounds. To the N. of the city is the Castle Leazes ornamental 
park of 35 acres, and beyond this the Town Moor and racecourse, 
an extensive common, the survival of the pasture land of the 
township. Eastward from Town Moor is Brandling Park, and 
westward Nun's Moor. The picturesque grounds of Armstrong 
Park N.E. of the city extend to about 50 acres, the larger half 
of which was presented by Sir W. G. Armstrong, who also 
presented the beautifully wooded grounds of Jesmond Dene. 
Elswick Park in the south-west of the city, extending to 8J 
acres, includes Elswick Hall. There are several others. Jesmond, 
N.E. of the city, is the chief residential suburb. It takes name 
from " Jesus Mount," and was formerly a place of pilgrimage, 
possessing a hospital dedicated to St Mary the Virgin. 

Both the Northumberland and Durham banks of the river 
are lined with manufacturing towns or suburbs. Of these the 
most important is Gateshead (q.v.) immediately opposite New- 
castle; while those adjacent to Newcastle on the same bank 
are Benwell and Fenham (pop. in 1901, 18,316) on the west, 
and Walker (13,336) on the east. The last-named two (formerly 
urban districts), together with part of Kenton, were incorporated 
with Newcastle in 1004. Newcastle is connected with the south 
bank of the Tyne by four bridges two high-level bridges, an 
hydraulic swing bridge and a suspension bridge. The old high- 
level bridge carries the North-Eastern railway, with a road and 
footway beneath it. It was opened by Queen Victoria in 1849. 
The new high-level bridge, carrying the railway only, was opened 
by King Edward VII. in 1906; it consists of four steel spans 
on granite piers. The hydraulic swing bridge, on the low level, 
was built to replace a stone structure erected in 1781 on the 
site of a bridge dating from 1250, and destroyed by a flood in 
1771. The Roman bridge, the Pons Aelii, is said to have spanned 
the river at the same point. The hydraulic bridge (1876) 
consists of one large centre pier, two midstream piers and two 
abutments; and its foundations are iron cylinders resting on 
the solid rock, 60 ft. below the bed of the river. Two spans, 
which open simultaneously by machines impelled by steam, 
allow 103 ft. of waterway for vessels going up and down the river. 
About half a mile farther up the stream is the Redheugh bridge 
(1871). The central station of the North-Eastern railway is 
an extensive and handsome structure built on a sharp curve. 
An underground line connects it with the Blyth and Tyne 
station. The suburban line of the North-Eastern company 
from the central station to Jesmond, Gosforth and Benton 
was the first standard line to carry passengers by electric traction 
(1904). 



474 



NEWCOMB 



Newcastle owes its prosperity to its convenient situation on 
a tidal river, and to the immense stores of coal in the neighbour- 
hood, which, besides being largely exported, stimulate a great 
variety of industries which are dependent on their use. It began 
to export coal about the end of the i3th century, but the trade 
received a severe check by the act of Edward I. which made 
the burning of coal in London a capital offence. In the reign of 
Edward III. licence was granted to the inhabitants " to dig coals 
and stones in the common soil of the town without the walls 
thereof in the place called the Castle Field and the Forth." The 
quay in front of the town, extending from the hydraulic bridge to 
the Ouseburn, forms a fine thoroughfare of about a mile in length ; 
and by means of dredging a depth of water has been obtained 
at the shore permitting vessels of large tonnage to approach, 
although the berths of the ocean steamers are a little farther 
down the river. The quay is supplied with the most improved 
mechanical appliances, and has direct communication with the 
North-Eastern railway. There is a large grain warehouse at 
the E. end of the quay. Exports include coal, chemicals, pig- 
iron, iron-work, steel, iron bars, plates and castings, machinery, 
fire-clay goods and copper. The chief imports are fruits, wheat, 
maize, oats, barley, iron and steel, petroleum, sulphur ore, 
timber and wood hoops, iron ore and potatoes. Steamers 
carrying passengers serve the principal English ports, Cardiff, 
Leith, &c.; also Baltic ports and New York; while Newcastle 
is one of the chief ports for the extensive Norwegian tourist 
traffic, the ships of the combined Bergenske and Nordenfjeldske 
companies regularly serving Stavanger, Bergen, Trondhjem 
and intermediate ports. To the industries of Newcastle indicated 
by the exports may be added glass, lead and shot, brick and tile, 
earthenware, tool, rope and ships'-fitting manufactures, and most 
important of all, shipbuilding. The celebrated Elswick works, 
founded by Messrs Armstrong in 1847, and amalgamated with 
those of Mitchell & Co., are among the most important in 
the world. The construction of ships of all sorts, including 
the largest ironclads with all their armour and guns, is carried 
on. Ekwick is the name of the western part of the borough 
of Newcastle. The borough returns two members to parliament. 
It is the largest undivided parliamentary constituency in the 
United Kingdom. The city is governed by a lord mayor (the 
title was conferred in 1006), 19 aldermen and 57 councillors. 
Area, 8453 acres. 

History. Newcastle owes its origin to its position on the great 
Roman wall and on the estuary of the river Tyne. Its Roman 
occupation is proved by existing remains, most important 
among which are the foundations of a bridge, attributed to the 
emperor Hadrian. Before the Conquest little is known of the 
town except that it was called Monkchester, and that it was 
destroyed in the 9th century by the Danes. After the defeat 
of Edgar ^Etheling and Earl Waltheof on Gateshead Fell, it 
was again destroyed by William the Conqueror, but Robert of 
Normandy is said to have raised a castle there in 1080 on his 
return from an expedition against Malcolm, king of Scotland, 
and from that time the town was called Newcastle. Shortly 
afterwards it was fortified by Robert de Mowbray in his rebellion 
against William Rufus, but it was taken by the king in 1095. 
In the reign of Stephen it was seized by David, king of Scotland, 
and after its restoration to the English in 1157 Henry II. rebuilt 
the castle and established a mint. The walls surrounding the 
town are attributed to Edward I. During the I4th century 
Newcastle was three times defended successfully against the 
Scots, but in 1640 it was occupied for a year by the Scottish 
Covenanters under Leslie. It was then garrisoned by royalists , 
but again surrendered to the Scots in 1644 after a siege of about 
six weeks, and Charles I. was taken there in 1646 when he had 
yielded himself to the Scottish army. The burgesses are said 
to have held the borough at a fee-farm rent under a grant from 
William Rufus. The title of mayor was conferred by Henry III., 
while Henry IV. in 1400 made the town a county of itself with 
a sheriff, and granted the burgesses power to elect 6 aldermen. 
Queen Elizabeth incorporated the town in 1589 under the title 
of mayor and burgesses, and Philip and Mary in 1556 granted 4 



additional aldermen, while the charter of James I. in 1604 
appointed 24 common councilmen. Newcastle has been repre- 
sented in parliament by two members since 1295. The coal 
trade, to which the town owes its prosperity, began in the i3th 
century, but, partly owing to the act of parliament passed in 
the reign of Edward I. forbidding the use of coal in London, 
did not become important until the i7th century. Glassmaking 
was a considerable trade in the I7th century, and in 1823 George 
Stephenson established iron works at Newcastle, where the first 
engines used on the Stockton and Darlington, and Manchester 
and Liverpool lines were made. 

See Victoria County History, Northumberland; John Brand, The 
History and Antiquities of the Town and County of the Town af ffew- 
castle-upon-Tyne (1789); Chirographia, or a Survey of Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne (1818). 

NEWCOMB, SIMON (1835-1909), American astronomer, was 
born in Wallace, Nova Scotia, on the I2th of March 1835. He 
became a resident of the United States in 1853, and graduated 
at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University in 1858, 
having paid special attention to mathematics and astronomy. 
He assisted in the preparation of the American Nautical Almanac 
for 1857. In 1861 he became professor of mathematics in the 
United States navy, and was put in charge of the great 26-in. 
equatorial erected at Washington Observatory in 1873. In 1877 
he was appointed director of the American Nautical Almanac 
office, a post which he held until March 1897. In 1884 he 
became professor of mathematics and astronomy at the Johns 
Hopkins University, continuing, however, to reside at Washing- 
tion. He was also editor of the A merican Journal of Mathematics 
for many years. In view of the wide extent and importance 
of his labours, the variety of subjects of which he treats, and 
the unity of purpose which guided him throughout, Simon 
Newcomb must be considered as one of the most distinguished 
astronomers of his time. A study of his works reveals an unusual 
combination of skill and originality in the mathematical treat- 
ment of many of the most difficult problems of astronomy, 
an unfailing patience and sagacity in dealing with immense 
masses of numerical results, and a talent for observation of the 
highest order. On assuming the directorship of the Nautical 
Almanac he became very strongly impressed with the diversity 
existing in the values of the elements and constants of astronomy 
adopted by different astronomers, and the injurious effect which 
it exercised on the precision and symmetry of much astronomical 
work. Accordingly he resolved to " devote all the force which 
he could spare to the work of deriving improved values of the 
fundamental elements and embodying them in new tables of 
the celestial motions." The formation of the tables of a planet 
has been described by Cayley as " the culminating achievement 
of astronomy." but the gigantic task which Newcomb laid out 
for himself, and which he carried on for more than twenty years, 
was the building up, on an absolutely homogeneous basis, of the 
theory and tables of the whole planetary system. The results 
of these investigations have, for the most part, appeared in the 
Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, and have been 
more or less completely adopted for use in the nautical almanacs 
of all countries. A valuable summary of a considerable part of 
this work, containing an account of the methods adopted, the 
materials employed, and the resulting values of the various 
quantities involved, was published in 1895, as a supplement 
to the Amerkan Ephemeris for 1897, entitled The Elements 
of the Four Inner Planets and the Fundamental Constants of 
Astronomy. In 1866 Newcorob had published 1 an important 
memoir on the orbit of Neptune, which was followed in 1873 by 
a similar investigation of the orbit of Uranus. 2 About twenty- 
five years later the tables of these planets were revised by him 
in view of all the observations which had accumulated in the 
meanwhile at Washington, Greenwich, Paris and Cambridge. 
In the meantime the theory of Jupiter and Saturn had been 
thoroughly worked out by G. W. Hill, Newcomb's distinguished 
collaborator in the Nautical Almanac office, and thus was 

1 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xv. 

2 Ibid. vol. xix. 



NEWCOMEN NEWDIGATE 



475 



completed one important section of the work projected by 
Newcomb in 1877. 

Among Newcomb's most notable achievements are his re- 
searches in connexion with the theory of the moon's motion. 
His first work on this abstruse subject, entitled Thtorie des 
perturbations de la lune, qui sont dues A Faction des planetes, 1 
is remarkable for the boldness of its conception, and constitutes 
an important addition to celestial dynamics. For some years 
after the publication of Hansen's tables of the moon in 1857 it 
was generally believed that the theory of that body was at last 
complete, and that its motion could be predicted as accurately 
as that of the other heavenly bodies. Newcomb showed that 
this belief was unfounded, and that as a matter of fact the moon 
was falling rapidly behind the tabular positions. With the view 
of examining this question, he undertook the reduction of every 
observation made before 1750 which appeared to be worthy 
of confidence. In an elaborate memoir 2 he showed that the 
ancient solar eclipses described by Herodotus, Thucydides, 
and others, which seemed to require an increased value of the 
secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion to bring them 
into line with modern results, might safely be neglected, the 
ambiguity of the accounts in each case rendering uncertain 
either the totality of the eclipse or the place from which it was 
visible. In his investigation he employed the eclipses of the 
moon recorded in the Almagest, the Arabian eclipses between 
A.D. 800 and 1004, extracted from Caussin's translation of Ibn 
Junis, the eclipses and occultations of Bullialdus, Gassendi, 
and Hevelius, of the French astronomers at Paris and St Peters- 
burg, and of Flamsteed at Greenwich, and deduced a secular 
acceleration of &&", agreeing well with the theoretical value. 

On taking charge of the 26-in. equatorial at the United States 
Naval Observatory, Newcomb devoted it almost exclusively 
for the first two years to observations of the satellites of Uranus 
and Neptune,- being of opinion that it was better to do one thing 
well than many things indifferently. The results of these skil- 
fully conducted observations were published in a memoir on 
The Uranian and Neptunian Systems. 3 From this research it 
appears that the orbits of all four satellites of Uranus are sensibly 
circular, and although no special search was made, he concludes 
that none of Sir William Herschel's supposed outer satellites 
can have any real existence. From the motion of the satellites 
he finds that the mass of Uranus is smooth of that of the sun, 
while for the planet Neptune he finds a mass equal to rffisTjth 
of the sun, agreeing with the value previously found by him 
from the perturbations of Uranus within isVth of its amount. 
As early as 1860 Newcomb communicated an important memoir 
to the American Academy, 4 On the Secular Variations and 
Mutual Relation of the Orbits of the Asteroids, hi which he dis- 
cussed the two principal hypotheses to account for the origin 
of these bodies one, that they are the shattered fragments of 
a single planet (Gibers' hypothesis), the other, that they have 
been formed by the breaking up of a revolving ring of nebulous 
matter. 

In the Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris will 
be found a large number of contributions from Newcomb's 
pen on some fundamental and most important questions of 
astronomy. Among these are papers on The Recurrence of 
Solar Eclipses, A Transformation of Hansen's Lunar Theory, 
Development of the Perturbatiiie Function and its Derivatives. 
His memoir On the Motion of Hyperion, a New Case in Celestial 
Mechanics, is in some respects one of his most original researches. 
He discussed the transits of Venus of 1761 and 1769, and those 
of Mercury from 1677 to 1 88 1. At the international conference, 
which met at Paris in 1896 for the purpose of elaborating a 
common system of constants and fundamental stars to be 
employed in the various national ephemerides, Newcomb took 
a leading part, and at its suggestion undertook the task of deter- 
mining a definite value of the constant of precession, and of 

1 Liowille, t. xvi. (1871), pp. 1-45. 

s Washington Observations, 1875, Appendix II. 

3 Ibid., 1873, Appendix I. 

1 Memoirs Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, v. 124-152. 



compiling a new catalogue of standard stars. The results of 
these investigations were published in 1899,* and have been 
in use since the beginning of 1001. In the intervals of these 
immense labours, on which his reputation as an astronomer 
rests, he found leisure for works of a lighter character, e.g. his 
Popular Astronomy (1878) which has been translated into German, 
Russian, Norwegian, Czech,. Dutch and Japanese, his Astronomy 
for Schools and Colleges (1880), written in conjunction with 
Professor E. S. Holden, and Astronomy for Everybody (1903). 
After his retirement from official life he published an excellent 
popular treatise on The Stars (1901). A more recondite work 
is his Compendium of Spherical Astronomy (1906). He also 
wrote on questions of finance and economics. 

He received the honorary degrees of D.C.L. Oxford, and Sc. D. 
Cambridge and Dublin. In 1872 he was elected an associate 
of the Royal Astronomical Society, receiving its gold medal 
in 1874. In 1877 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal 
Society, which in 1890 awarded him the Copley medal. He 
also received the first Bruce medal of the Astronomical Society 
of the Pacific, awarded by the directors of the Berlin, Greenwich, 
Harvard, Lick, Paris and Yerkes observatories. Except 
Benjamin Franklin he was the only American to become an 
Associate of the French Institute. He died at Washington 
on the nth of July 1909, and was given a military funeral, 
having been made a rear-admiral by Act of Congress in 1906. 

An autobiography, Reminiscences of an Astronomer, appeared in 
1903; and a bibliography of his writings is given by Mr Archibald 
in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, XI. iii. 79. See also the obituary 
notice by H. H. Turner in the Man. Not. R.A.S. (Feb. 1910), p. 305. 

NEWCOMEN, MATTHEW (c. 1610-1669), English non- 
conformist divine, was born about 1610 and educated at St 
John's College, Cambridge (M.A. 1633). In 1636 he became 
lecturer at Dedham in Essex, and was the leader of the church 
reform party in that county. He assisted the elder Cakmy in 
writing Smectymnuus (1641), and preached before parliament in 
1643. He was a man of many gifts, excelling alike in preaching, 
in debate and in friendship, and declined many offers of more 
remunerative service. He protested against the extreme demo- 
cratic proposals called " The Agreement of the People " (1647), 
and was one of the commissioners at the Savoy Synod of 1658. 
On the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662, Newcomen lost 
his living, but was soon invited to the pastorate at Leiden, 
where he was held in high esteem not only by his own people 
but by the university professors. He died of the plague in 1669. 

NEWCOMEN, THOMAS (1663-1729), English engineer, one of 
the inventors of the steam-engine, was born at Dartmouth in 
1663. While employed as an ironmonger in his native town, he 
corresponded with Robert Hooke about the previous investiga- 
tions of Denis Papin and the marquis of Worcester as to the 
applicability of steam-power for the purpose of driving machinery, 
and in conjunction with John Galley (or Cawley), said to have 
been a grazier or glazier hi Dartmouth, and Captain Thomas 
Savery (1650 ?-i7is), a military engineer, he constructed in 1705 
a " fire-engine," now known as the " atmospheric steam-engine." 
He died in 1729, probably in London. (See STEAM-ENGINE.) 

NEWDIGATE, SIR ROGER (1710-1806), English antiquary, 
was born on the 3oth of May 1719. He was the sth baronet 
of Harefield (in Middlesex) and Arbury (in Warwickshire), and 
grandson of Sir Richard Newdigate, an English chief justice 
during the time of Richard Cromwell's protectorate. He was 
educated at University College, Oxford. From 1741 to 1747 
he was M.P. for Middlesex, and from 1750 to 1780 M.P. for the 
university of Oxford. In 1753 he spoke in parliament on behalf 
of the repeal of the Plantation Act, and during the debates on 
the land tax in 1767 he opposed the duke of Grafton's administra- 
tion and the proposed grant to the royal princes. Being the 
owner of extensive colh'eries near Bedworth in Warwickshire, 
he actively promoted the Coventry, Oxford and Grand Junction 
canal, cutting also a canal from his colh'eries to Coventry, and 
interesting himself in the construction of the turnpike road from 

1 Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, vol. viii. 
pts. i. and ii. 



476 



NEWEL NEW ENGLAND 



Coventry to Leicester. But it is as an antiquary and the founder 
of a prize at the Oxford university that he is chiefly remembered. 
His interest in old architecture dated from a tour in France and 
Italy which was undertaken while he was a young man. He 
filled two folio volumes with sketches of ancient buildings. His 
collection of antiquities included marbles, casts of statues and 
vases. Two marble candelabra foun,d in Hadrian's villa at Rome 
he purchased for 1800 and presented them to the Radcliffe 
Library at Oxford. Among his other generosities to the university 
were a chimney piece, for the hall of University College, and the 
sum of 2000 for the removal by Flaxman of the Arundel collec- 
tion of marbles to the Radcliffe Library. The " Newdigate " 
prize of twenty-one guineas for English verse, which is open for 
competition each year to the undergraduates of Oxford Uni- 
versity, was founded by him and was first awarded in the year 
of his death. He died at Arbury on the 2$rd of November 1806. 
His portrait was painted by Kirkby for University College, 
Oxford, and at the age of sixty-three he also sat to Romney. 

NEWEL (O. Fr. nouel or nod, modern noyau, properly a 
kernel, from Lat. nux, nut; other foreign equivalents are Ital. 
albero, Ger. Spindel), the term given in architecture to the central 
shaft of a semicircular or winding staircase, which is built up or 
consists of the narrow ends of the steps standing one over the 
other. When in stone, both newel and steps are cut out of the 
same block; when in wood, the newel becomes a vertical post 
into which the steps are housed. The term is also given to the 
vertical post at the foot or the angles of a square staircase, into 
which the carriage or beam carrying the steps is tenoned. 

NEW ENGLAND, a general name for the north-east section of 
the United States of America, embracing the states of Maine, 
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and 
Connecticut. It has an area of 66,424 sq. m. (4448 sq. m. being 
water) ; and in 1910 its population was 6,552,681, more than one- 
half of which was in Massachusetts, although that state contains 
less than one-eighth of the total area. The region is traversed 
by the broken mountain ranges which form the N.E. continuation 
of the Appalachian system; the soil is rather sterile, except in 
the river valleys; and the climate of the long winters is often 
severe. But the picturesque scenery and delightful summer 
climate have made New England a favourite resort. When the 
commerce of New England was interrupted as a consequence 
of the Napoleonic wars, the abundance of water power afforded 
by the rivers encouraged manufacturing, and the region rapidly 
acquired prominence in this industry, especially in the manu- 
facture of textiles, of boots and shoes, and of paper and wood 
pulp; in 1905 the value of the textile products of New England 
(excluding flax, hemp and jute) alone was $522,821,440 (more 
than 45% of that of the entire country), the value of boots and 
shoes was $181,023,946 (more than 55% of the total for the 
entire country) , the value of paper and wood pulp was $49,813,133 
(more than one-quarter of that of the entire country), and the 
value of all factory products amounted to $2,025,998,437 (nearly 
one-seventh of the total for the entire country). 

Northmen very probably visited this region at the beginning 
of the nth century. (See VINLAND). To Europeans who visited 
it in the i6th century it was included in " Norumbega," and some 
of the early explorers searched here for the mythical city of that 
name. Title to the territory was claimed by the English on the 
basis of its alleged exploration by the Cabots in 1498, and by the 
French on the basis of its exploration by Giovanni da Verrazano 
in 1524. It was made favourably known to the English by the 
explorations of Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, of Martin Pring in 
1603 and of George Weymouth in 1605, and was at this time 
called North Virginia. In 1606 King James I. granted it to the 
Plymouth Company with a view to encouraging settlement, 
and in the next year a colony was planted at the mouth of the 
Sagadahoc (now Kennebec) river, but this was abandoned in 
1608; the efforts of the French to establish settlements along 
the Maine coast were likewise unsuccessful. In 1614-1616 
Captain John Smith traversed the coast as far east as the mouth 
of the Penobscot river and as far south as Cape Cod, gathered 
much information from the Indians, wrote an attractive descrip- 



tion of the country, prepared a map of it, suggested its present 
name, New England, and made another unsuccessful attempt to 
found a settlement. A new charter of 1620 conveyed to the New 
England Council, the successor of the Plymouth Company, all 
the territory in North America between latitudes 40 and 48 N. 
under the name of New England, and in the same year a 
permanent settlement was established at Plymouth by a band 
of Separatists, who, although they had expected to settle in 
Virginia, were prevailed upon by the captain of their vessel to 
land in New England. During its existence of fifteen years the 
New England Council made numerous grants of territory, and 
from three of these grew three of the present states : Massa- 
chusetts, from a grant to the Massachusetts Bay Company in 
1628; Maine, from the grant to Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John 
Mason (the two most influential members of the council) in 1622; 
and New Hampshire, from the grant to John Mason in 1629. 
The Council attempted to establish a general government over 
its entire domain, but the scheme of some of its members for 
supporting such a government with contributions from each 
member in return for an allotment of land was a failure, and 
although Robert Gorges, the second son of Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges, was sent over as governor-general in 1623, he accom- 
plished nothing and returned in the next year in disgust. In 
1635, when the Dutch were hemming in its domain on the west 
and the French on the north, the Council made a final allotment 
of its remaining territory among its members and surrendered 
its charter. Connecticut was founded in the same year by emi- 
grants from Massachusetts without any other authority than 
that given by the mother colony. A separate colony was founded 
at New Haven in 1638 by emigrants from England who had 
stayed for a time in Boston and other Massachusetts towns, 
but this was annexed to Connecticut in 1664 under the Con- 
necticut charter of 1662. Rhode Island was founded in 1636 by 
exiles from Massachusetts who had no authority whatever 
from a superior government. Plymouth was a separate colony 
until its union with Massachusetts under the charter of 1691. 
New Hampshire was a part of Massachusetts from 1641-1643 to 
1679. Maine, having passed under the jurisdiction of Massa- 
chusetts in 1652, did not regain its independence until 1820. 
Vermont was settled largely by emigrants from New Hampshire, 
but New York claimed the territory and the dispute was not 
settled until the new state was erected in 1791. 

Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven 
constituted in their early years a group of neighbouring colonies, 
substantially independent of the mother country, and possessing 
a unity of purpose and similar institutions but in need of mutual 
protection from the Indians, the Dutch and the French, and 
also needing an arbiter to whom they might refer their own 
disputes, especially those relating to boundaries and trade. 
To meet these needs they organized, under Articles of Confedera- 
tion signed in 1643, the first form of colonial union in America; 
they called it The United Colonies of New England, but it is 
more commonly known as the New England Confederacy. The 
confederate authority was vested in a board of eight com- 
missioners, two from each colony chosen annually by its General 
Court. 

This board was to meet annually in September, two years of every 
five at Boston, one year of every five at Hartford, one at New 
Haven, and one at Plymouth ; special meetings also might be called 
by three magistrates of any of the four colonies. The commissioners 
chose their president at each meeting, but this officer had only the 
powers of a moderator. An agreement of six commissioners was 
necessary to pass any measure, but if there was an agreement of 
less than six the measure might be referred to the General Courts 
and become a law of the Confederacy if all of those courts approved. 
The most important powers of the Confederacy were those relating 
to defence, and in case of an invasion its entire force, consisting of 
100 men from Massachusetts and 45 men from each of the other 
colonies (or some other proportion which the commissioners might 
name), was to march out if so requested by three magistrates of any 
of the contracting colonies. The expenses of every defensive war 
which the commissioners declared to be just were to be defrayed by 
the several colonies in proportion to their number of men and boys 
between the ages of sixteen and sixty. Other matters within the 
jurisdiction of the commissioners were such as related to disputes 



NEW FOREST 



477 



between two or more colonies and the return of escaped servants, 
prisoners and fugitives from justice. As the commissioners had no 
means of enforcing their orders, their function was chiefly advisory, 
but it was nevertheless of considerable importance on several 
occasions. Although the number of commissioners from each of 
the colonies was the same, those from Massachusetts exerted the 
dominant influence. 

The commissioners met regularly until 1684 annually until 
New Haven submitted to Connecticut in 1664, and triennially 
from 1664 to 1684, when Massachusetts lost its first charter. 
Upon the downfall of the Puritan Commonwealth in the mother 
country (1660) numerous grievances were presented to King 
Charles II. against the Puritan governments of New England, 
among them Massachusetts' extension of its jurisdiction over 
the towns of Maine and New Hampshire, the persecution of the 
Quakers, and the denial of the right of appeal to the crown, 
and in 1664 a royal commission, consisting of Richard Nicolls, 
Samuel Maverick, Robert Carr and George Cartwright, was 
sent over to settle disputes and secure some measure of imperial 
control, but Massachusetts, the chief offender, successfully 
baffled all attempts at interference, and the mission was almost 
a complete failure. The grievances of English merchants arising 
from the violation of the navigation laws by the colonies continued, 
however, to receive the attention of the home government. 

In 1676 the Lords of Trade and Plantations sent over Edward 
Randolph to investigate and gather information which would 
show the justice and expediency of imposing imperial control, 
and two years later Randolph was appointed Collector and 
Surveyor of Customs in New England. Randolph sent back 
many charges, especially against Massachusetts, with the effect 
that, in 1684, the charter of that colony was annulled by a 
decree in Chancery on a writ of quo ivarranto. This done, the 
home government set to work to organize the royal domain which 
should be known as New England, or the Dominion of New 
England, and its plan for this provided for the annulment of 
the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut, and the inclusion 
in the Dominion of these colonies, and New Hampshire, Maine, 
New York and the Jerseys, thereby restoring to New England 
all the territory, with the exception of Pennsylvania, that was 
included in the grant to the New England Council in 1620. A 
temporary government was established at Boston in May 1686, 
with Joseph Dudley as president, and in December of the same 
year Edmund Andros arrived with a commission and instructions 
which were a copy of those to the governor of New York and 
made him governor of all New England except Rhode Island and 
Connecticut. Rhode Island offered no resistance to the writ 
against its charter and Andros extended his authority over it 
immediately after his arrival. Connecticut successfully baffled 
the royal servants for a time, but when threatened with a division 
of its territory agreed not to resist the royal purpose, and on 
the last day of October 1687 it passed under the general govern- 
ment of New England. Finally, a new commission to Andros, 
issued in April 1688, extended his jurisdiction over New York 
and the Jerseys, and the whole region over which he was made 
governor by this instrument was named " Our Territory and 
Dominion of New England in America." But the English 
Revolution of 1688 inspired a revolt in New England by which 
Andros was deposed in April 1689. Under William and Mary 
no attempt was made to preserve the Dominion of New England, 
but Rhode Island and Connecticut were permitted to resume 
government under their old charters, Massachusetts received 
a new one, and New Hampshire again became a separate royal 
province. 

New England is prominent in American colonial history as 
the " Land of the Puritans " and the home of the corporate 
colony. The chief motive of its founders in coming to the 
New World was the establishment of a new Christian common- 
wealth, but subordinate to this there was from the first an 
economic motive. So long as the religious motive remained 
dominant, " blue laws " were a prominent feature of the adminis- 
tration, but by a slow transition the economic motive became 
the dominant one, and, as a consequence of this transition and 
of the corporate form of government, European institutions 



were transformed into American institutions and new political 
ideas were generated more rapidly in New England than in either 
the Middle or the Southern colonies. Owing to its geographical 
position, nearer to Canada than any other group of colonies, 
New England had to stand the brunt of the fighting during the 
wars between the English and the French (aided by their Indian 
allies) in America, terminating with the conquest of Canada 
by the English in 1750-1760, and a sense of common danger 
helped to create a certain solidarity, which made easier the union 
of the colonies for common action against the mother country 
at the time of the War of American Independence. After that 
war, New England was long the most essentially commercial 
and industrial group of states, and was a stronghold of 
Federalism; and in the period immediately before and during 
the War of 1812, when its commercial interests suffered terribly, 
first from the restrictive measures of the general government 
and then from warfare, New England was a centre of that 
opposition to the policy of the National Administration (then 
Democratic), which culminated in the famous Hartford Conven- 
tion of 1814-1815 (see HARTFORD). 

See the articles on the separate New England states and the 
authorities there given ; among good general works are J. G. Palfrey, 
History of New England (5 vols., Boston, 1858-1800); J. A. Doyle, 
The Puritan Colonies (2 vols., New York, 1889); B. B. James, The 
Colonization of New England (Philadelphia, 1904) ; H. L. Osgood, 
The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (3 vols., New York, 
1904-1907); John Fiske, The Beginnings of New England, or the 
Puritan Theocracy in its Relation to Civil and Religious Liberty 
(Boston, 1896); S. A. Drake, The Making of New England (New 
York, 1896); W. B. Weeden, Economic and Social History of New 
England (2 vols., Boston, 1890) ; and Edward Channing, History of 
the United States, vols. i. and ii. (New York, 1905, 1908). 

NEW FOREST, one of the few woodland regions left in England 
covering about 93,000 acres in the south-west of Hampshire, 
between the Solent, Southampton Water and the river Avon. 
About two-thirds of it is crown property, and is preserved more 
or less in its natural condition as open woodland interspersed 
with bogs and heaths. The trees principally represented are 
oak and beech, with some newer plantations of Scotch fir. The 
trees were formerly felled for building the ships of the navy and 
for feeding the iron furnaces of Sussex and Hampshire. Pigs 
and a hardy breed of ponies find a good living in the forest; 
and in spite of an act in 1851 providing for their extermination 
or removal, a few red deer still survive. Foxes, squirrels, otters, 
snakes (smooth snake, grass snake and adder), butterflies (some 
of them peculiar to the district), and an occasional badger range 
the forest freely. The tract derives its name from the extensive 
afforestation carried through in this region by William the 
Conqueror in 1079; and the deaths of two of his sons within 
its confines Richard killed by a stag, and William Rufus by an 
arrow were regarded in their generation as a judgment of Heaven 
for the cruelty and injustice perpetrated by their father when 
appropriating the forest. Rufus's stone, near Lyndhurst, 
marks the supposed spot where that monarch fell. About one- 
fourth of the area is under cultivation by private owners and 
tenants. The principal village within the forest is Lyndhurst 
(pop. 2167 in 1901); its church contains a fresco by Lord 
Leighton, and here is held the verderers' court, which since 
1887 has had charge of the crown portion of the forest. On the 
western outskirts lies the town of Ringwood (q.v.). Brockenhurst 
and Beaulieu are the villages next in importance. Beaulieu, 
at the head of the picturesque estuary of the Beaulieu river, 
which debouches into the Solent, is famous for the ruins of 
Beaulieu Abbey, founded by King John for Cistercians. The 
gatehouse is restored as a residence, and the Early English 
refectory as a church. There are considerable remains of the 
cloisters, chapter house and domestic buildings. The New 
Forest gives name to a parliamentary division of the county. 

The New Forest is one of the five forests mentioned in 
Domesday. It was a hunting-ground of the West Saxon kings, 
but, as already stated, was afforested by the Conqueror, whose 
cruelty in the matter is probably exaggerated by the traditional 
account. One of the chief sources of the wealth of the forest 
in early times was the herds of pigs fed there. The New Forest, 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



being under the forest laws, was affected by the forest clauses 
of Magna Carta and by the Forest Charter (1217), which mitigatec 
their severity. The chief officer of this, as of other forests, was 
the justice in eyre who held the justice seat, the highest forest 
court and the only court of record capable of entering and 
executing judgments on offenders; the lower courts were the 
Swainmote and Wodemote, the former of which is still held, 
in a modified form, in the Verderers' Hall of the King's House 
at Lyndhurst. The circuit of the justices in eyre, or their 
deputies, continued down to 1635; they were virtually ended by 
the Act for the Limitation of Forests (1640), though Charles II. 
attempted to revive them, and they were not legally abolished 
until 1817. The lower officers of the forest, who held merely 
local appointments, were the verderers, the regarders (one of 
whose duties was that of seeing to the expeditation of " great 
dogs"), the foresters, the woodwards and the agisters. There 
was also a lord warden, who was usually a nobleman and performed 
no judicial functions. The Deer Removal Act (1851) resulted 
in the almost total extinction of the forest deer. Under the act 
of 1877 the forest is administered rather as a national park 
than for the growing of timber on commercial principles. 

See J. R. Wise, The New Forest Uth ed., 1883), with over sixty 
engravings by W. J. Linton and a dozen etchings by H. Sumner; 
and R. D. Blackmore, Cradock Nowell (1866). 

NEWFOUNDLAND, a large island, forming a British colony, 
and occupying an important and commanding position off the 
eastern coast of the North American continent, not dissimilar 
to that occupied by Great Britain towards Europe. It stretches 
directly across the entrance of the Gulf of St Lawrence, to which 
access is afforded at both the northern and the southern 
extremities of the island. In the south-west its distance from 
Cape Breton is less than 60 m., while only 1640 m. separate its 
most easterly point from the coast of Ireland. It is situated 
between 46 36' 50* and 51 39' N., and between 52 37' and 
59 24' 50" W. The total area of the island is about 40,200 sq. m. 
or one-sixth larger than Ireland: its maximum length from Cape 
Ray to Cape Norman is 317 m., its maximum breadth from 
Cape Spear to Cape Anguille, 316 m. In shape it is roughly 
triangular, three extensive peninsulas, which project from the 
north (Petit Nord) and south-east. (Avalon), assisting the con- 
formation, although the latter, the most populous region of the 
island, is joined by a very slender isthmus, at one place only 
3 m. wide. A further division of the Avalon peninsula is wrought 
by the two bays of St Mary's and Conception. St John's, the 
capital, is situated on the eastern side of Avalon. 

Physical Features. Viewed from the ocean the coasts of 
Newfoundland appear bleak, rocky and barren. The brown wall 
of rock, 200 to 300 ft. in height, is, however, broken at frequent 
intervals by deep fjords and large bays running in some instances 
80 to 90 m. inland, and throwing out smaller arms in all directions. 
For this reason the circumference of the island, which, measured 
from headland to headland, is about 1000 m., is actually doubled. 
The fjords resemble those of Norway; islands are numerous, 
some of them clad with vegetation; and picturesque scenery is 
not uncommon. 

Near the coasts the surface of the country is of a hilly, rugged 
character. In the interior the elevated undulating plateau is 
diversified by ranges of low hills, valleys, woods, lakes, ponds and 
marshes. Much of this is a savanna country, giving sustenance to 
large herds of caribou. All the principal hill ranges have a N.N.E. 
and S.S.W. trend, as have also all the other great physical features 
of the island, such as the bays, larger lakes, rivers and valleys, a 
conformation doubtless shaped by glacial action during the Ice 
period. The most important range of mountains is the Long Range, 
beginning at Cape Ray and extending along the western side of the 
island for some 200 m., and having peaks more than 2000 ft. high. 
Parallel to this but nearer the west coast is the Anguille Range, 
running from Cape Anguille to the highlands of Bay St George. 
Some of the summits of the Blomidon Range, extending along the 
south shore of the Humber and Bay of Islands, attain a height of 
2084 ft., being the highest on the island. Avalon peninsula is 
also very hilly, but the greatest altitude is only 1200 ft. North-East 
Mountain, from which sixty-seven lakes are visible on a clear day. 
Over the interior are spread a number of detached sharply-pointed 
summits, springing abruptly from the great central plateau, bearing 
the local name of Tl tolts," and serviceable as landmarks. 

In comparison with the island's size large rivers are few, owing 



to the broken, uneven character of most of the country, and the 
fact that the ponds and lakes find a convenient vent in the numerous 
lengthy inlets and arms of the sea. There are, however, three 
considerable streams, the Exploits, the Humber and the Gander. 
The first-named rises in the extreme S.W. angle of the island, close 
to the southern extremity of the Long Range, and after a course 
of 200 m. falls into the Bay of Exploits, Notre Dame Bay. It is a 
mile wide at its mouth; its channel is studded with islands, the 
largest being Thwart Island, 9 m. in length. Fourteen miles from 
the mouth is a succession of cascades known as Bishop's Falls, and 
farther inland are the picturesque Grand Falls. The Exploits 
drains an area of between 3000 and 4000 m., much of it fertile land, 
and densely wooded with pine, spruce, birch and poplar. The 
width of this fertile belt varies at different parts of the river, but it 
is estimated that some 200,000 acres might be available for agri- 
culture. The Humber rises 20 m. inland from Bonne Bay, and, 
after emptying itself by a circuitous course into Deer Lake, falls 
into the Bay of Islands. It drains an area of 2000 sq. m. Rising 
near the southern coast, the Gander flows through Gander Lake 
into Hamilton Sound, draining an area of nearly 4000 sq. m. Be- 
sides these three there is the Codroy, rising in the Long Range and 
emptying into the Gulf of St Lawrence. 

The immense number of lakes and ponds constitutes perhaps the 
most striking physical feature of the island. More than a third of 
the whole area is occupied by water. These bodies of water, large 
and small, are found in the most various positions: in the mountain 
gorges; in the depressions between the low hills; in the valleys 
and even in the hollows on the tops of the highest eminences. The 
largest is Grand Lake, 56 m. lone, 5 in breadth, with an area of 
192 sq. m. Its surface is but 50 ft. above sea-level, the bottom at 
its deepest portion being 300 ft. below sea-level. It contains an 
island 22 m. long. The next, Red Indian Lake, is 37 m. long, with 
an area of 64 sq. m. Gander Lake is 33 m. in length, and Deer 
Lake, through which the Humber flows, is 15 m. After these 
Michel Sandy Lake, Victoria, Hind's, Terra Nova and George IV. 
lakes rank next in size. Save where the railway and lumbering 
camps have invaded them the shores of these lakes are still primitive 
wilderness. 

The coasts of the island, intersected by many great bays, have 
been familiar to fishermen from an early period, but the interior 
remained almost completely unknown until the geological survey, 
still in process, was begun in 1864. Chief amongst the inlets are 
Placentia Bay, 55 m. in width at its mouth and 90 m. long; Notre 
Dame Bay, 50 m. wide and 70 m. long; Fortune Bay, 25 m. wide 
and 70 long; and St Mary's Bay, 25 m. wide by 35 m. in length. 
Opposite Fortune Bay, which has several important arms, are the 
two islands of St Pierre and Miquelon, ceded by treaty in 1713 to 
France, as shelter for her fishermen, and now all that remains of 
French sovereignty in North America. In the neighbourhood of 
Bay St George, on the west coast (40 m. wide at the mouth and 
boasting a good harbour) are situated some of the most fertile lands 
in the island, well-timbered and containing large deposits of coal 
and other minerals. Three extensive arms run 20 m. inland from 
Bay of Islands, the seat of a profitable herring fishery. Conception 
Bay is one of the largest and most important in the island, having 
in 1901 a population scattered through the settlements on its shores 
of over 40,000 inhabitants. Another principal inlet is Bonavista 
Bay, which contains numerous groups of islands. 

Geology. All the great ancient rock systems, between the Lower 
Laurentian and the Coal-measures, are more or less represented at 
one part or another of Newfoundland. 

The Laurentian system has an immense spread in the island. It 
constitutes the principal mountain ranges, coming to the surface 
through the more recent deposits, on the axes of anticlinal lines, or 
brought up by great dislocations, most of which trend nearly parallel 
with each other in a general bearing of about north-north-east and 
south-south-west. The Laurentian gneiss of the Long Range, on 
the western side, extends in a nearly straight course from Cape 
Ray to the headwaters of the Castor in the great northern peninsula. 
On the south-western extremity of the island these rocks occupy the 
coast from Cape Ray to La Poile. They are largely exhibited on 
Grand Lake, running in a spur from the Long Range between it 
and Red Indian Lake, and bearing for the south-eastern shores of 
Hall's Bay. The central portion of the northern peninsula is 
Laurentian, which also spreads over a wide expanse of country 
Between Grand Lake and the Humber and Exploits rivers, and 
shows itself on the coast between Canada Ba_y and White Bay. 
Another range of Laurentian comes up in the district of Ferryland, 
and shows itself occasionally on the coast of Conception Bay. 
Thus more than half the island is Laurentian. 

Three-fourths of the peninsula of Avalon are Huronian, a forma- 
:ion which does not extend west of Fortune Bay. The town of St 
[ohn's and, in fact, nearly all the settlements between Fortune Bay 
ind Bonavista Bay are built upon it. Signal Hill, overlooking _the 
larbour of St John's, is capped with the sandstone of this formation. 
The whole Huronian system is not less than 10,000 ft. thick, and 
las been cut through by denudation to the Laurentian floor. The 
rocks of the Primordial Silurian age are spread unconformably over 
the area thus ground down. These evidences of denudation and 
reconstruction are very clear in Conception Bay, where the rocks 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



479 



^SPj&F^ NEWFOUNDLAND 



rf - . 




Longitude West 56 of Creemvich Q 



V.S-" IJ* 

%jr./y^: 



of the intermediary system have been ground down to the Laurenti?n 
gneiss, and, subsequently, the submarine valley thus formed has 
been filled up with a new set of sediments, the remains of which 
are still to be found skirting the shores of the bay and forming the 
islands in it. 

Rocks of the Silurian age are most extensive on the peninsula 
of Cape St Mary, and around the head of Trinity Bay. These belong 
to the Primordial Silurian group. The Lower Silurian rocks have a 
large development, and in them the metallic ores occur which seem 
destined to render the island a great mining centre. The Lauzon 
division of the Quebec group, which is the true metalliferous zone of 
North America, has an immense spread in the island. It consists 
of serpentine rocks associated with dolomites, diorites, &c., and is 
well known throughout North America to be usually more or less 
metalliferous. _ The Newfoundland rocks are no exception, but give 
evidence of being rich in metallic ores. The Middle Silurian division 
of rocks is also widely spread; and the most fertile belts of land 
and the most valuable forests are nearly all situated on the country 
occupied by this formation. The great valley of the Exploits and 
Victoria rivers, the valley of the Gander and several smaller tracts 
belong to it. 

_ The Carboniferous series occupies a large area on the western 
side of the island, in the neighbourhood of Bay St George and Grand 



Lake. There is also a wider spread of the same series along the 
valley of the Humber and round the shores of Deer Lake and the 
eastern half of Grand Lake, and as far as Sandy Lake. " Coal," 
says Mr J. P. Howley, F.R.G.S., head of the survey, " is known to 
exist at several places in this series; and seams, apparently of 
workable thickness, judging from their out-crops, occur on the 
Middle Barachois and Robinson's Brook, in St George's Bay." 

It will thus be seen that the Carboniferous series is confined to 
the western side, while the middle, eastern and southern portions 
are occupied by Silurian, Huronian and Laurentian formations. 
From the extent to which the Lauzon division of the Quebec group, 
the true metalliferous zone of North America, prevails in the island, 
its yet undeveloped mineral wealth must be very great. 

Climate. The climate is more temperate than that of most portions 
of the neighbouring continent. It is but rarely, and then only for 
a few hours, that the thermometer sinks below zero in winter, 
while the summer range rarely exceeds 80 F., and for the most part 
does not rise above 70 . The Arctic current exerts a chilling influence 
along the eastern coast, but as a compensation it brings with it the 
enormous wealth of commercial fishes and seals which has rendered 
the fisheries the most productive in the world. The Gulf Stream, 
while it creates fogs, modifies the cold. The salubrity of the climate 
is evidenced by the robust healthy appearance of the inhabitants. 



480 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



Open fireplaces are sufficient to warm the houses, and free exercise 
in the open air is attainable at all seasons. The average mean 
temperature at St John's is 41-2 F., the maximum being 83 and 
the minimum 7; the average height of the barometer is 29-37 > n - 
The average rainfall is 58-30 in. Winter sets in, as a rule, in the 
beginning of December and lasts until the middle of April. Generally 
the snow lies during this period, and the frost rarely penetrates the 
ground to a greater depth than a few inches. Spring is sometimes 
late in arriving, but once vegetation sets in it advances with mar- 
vellous rapidity. The autumn is usually very fine, and is often pro- 
longed till November. There is nothing in the climate to interfere 
with agriculture. Tornadoes are unknown, and thunderstorms are 
very rare. Fogs, of which so much is said in connexion with the 
country, are confined to the shores and bays of the south-eastern 
and southern coasts. 

Fauna. Among the well-known wild animals indigenous to the 
country the caribou or reindeer hold a conspicuous place. They 
migrate regularly between the south-eastern and north-western 
portions of the island. The winter months are passed in the south, 
where " browse " is plentiful, and the snow is not too deep to prevent 
them from reaching the lichens on the lower grounds. In March 
they begin their spring migration to the barrens and mountains of 
the north-west. In May or June they bring forth their young. 
As soon as the frosts of October begin to nip the vegetation they 
turn south. September and October are the best months for stalk- 
ing. In addition to the caribou, the wolf and black bear are found 
in the interior; the fox (black, silver, grey and red), beaver, otter, 
arctic hare, North-American hare, weasel, bat, rat, mouse and 
musquash or musk-rat are numerous. The famous Newfoundland 
dog is still to be met with, but good specimens are rare, and he 
appears to thrive better elsewhere. The common dogs are a degene- 
rate mongrel race. It is estimated that there are three hundred 
species of birds in the island, most of them being migratory. Among 
them may be enumerated the eagle, hawk, owl, woodpecker, swallow, 
kingfisher, six species of fly-catchers and the same number of thrushes, 
warblers and swallows in great variety, finches, ravens, jays. The 
ptarmigan or willow grouse is very abundant, and is the finest game- 
bird in the island. The rock ptarmigan is found in the highest and 
barest mountain ridges. The American golden plover, various 
species of sandpipers and curlews, the brent goose, ducks, petrels, 
gulls and the great northern diver are met with everywhere. The 
great auk, now extinct, was once found in myriads around the 
island. The little auk, guillemot and the razor-billed auk are 
abundant. No venomous reptiles occur. Frogs have been intro- 
duced and thrive well. Of molluscous animals the common squid, 
a cephalopod about 6 or 7 in. in length, visits the coasts in immense 
shoals in August and September, and supplies a valuable bait. A 
gigantic species of cephalopod was discovered in 1873, which excited 
much interest among naturalists: the body varies from 7 to 15 ft. 
in length, with a circumference of 5 or 6 ft. ; from the head ten 
arms radiate, the two longest (tentacles) being from 24 to 40 ft. 
in length, and covered with suckers at their extremities; the other 
eight arms vary from 6 to II ft., and on one side are entirely covered 
with suckers. Professor Verrill, of Yale College, distinguished two 
species one he named Architeuthis Harveyi, after the discoverer, 
and the other Architeuthis monachus. 

Flora. The pine, spruce, birch, juniper and larch of the forests 
of the interior furnish ample materials for a large timber trade as 
well as for shipbuilding purposes. The white pine grows to the 
height of 70 or 80 ft. in some places, and is 3 or 4 ft. in diameter. 
There is an abundance of wood suitable for making pulp for paper; 
and in 1906-1907 a London company, with Lord Northcliffe (of the 
Daily Mail) at its head, acquired large tracts for this purpose, and 
operations were begun in 1910. The mountain ash, balsam poplar 
and aspen thrive well. Evergreens are in great variety. The berry- 
bearing plants cover large areas of the island. The maidenhair or 
capillaire yields a saccharine matter which is lusciously sweet. 
Flowering plants and ferns are in vast varieties, and wild grasses and 
clover grow luxuriantly. Garden vegetables of all kinds, and straw- 
berries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants, &c., thrive well. 

Population. By the earliest computation made in 1654 the 
number of permanent inhabitants in the island was 1750. 
Twenty-six years later the resident population was stated to 
be 2280; in 1763, 7000; in 1804, 20,000. In 1832 the population 
had risen to 60,000; in 1836 to 75,094; in 1857, 124,288; and 
in 1874, 161,374. By the census of 1901 the total population of 
Newfoundland was 217,037, that of Labrador being 3947. The 
capital, St John's, which contained a population of 15,000 in 1835, 
had in 1901 29,594 souls. The rate of increase for the island 
for the ten years ending in 1901 was 9-37% as compared with 
the rate of increase 1874-1884, which was 22-30%. Certain 
districts such as Carbonear, Harbour Grace and Ferryland, as 
well as Labrador, showed a steady decline, the largest increase 
being in St George's district and on the west coast, where it is 
not less than 40%. 



Of the various religious denominations the strength in 1901 
was as follows: Roman Catholics, 75,989; Chuch of England, 
73,008; Methodists, 61,388; Presbyterians, 1168; Congrega- 
tionalists, 954; Salvationists, 6594; Moravians, Baptists and 
others, 1554. The system of public education is denominational, 
each religious body receiving grants from the revenue according 
to numerical strength. The total sum allotted to education in 
1904-1905 was $196,192. The aggregate number of pupils 
under fifteen attending the 783 elementary schools and academies 
in the island was 35,204. It is estimated that 25 % of the popula- 
tion, chiefly the older folk, are illiterate. 

Fisheries. These constitute the great staple industry of the 
island. On the export of its products the trade of the colony 
still mainly depends. The most important fish in these waters, 
commercially, is the cod, which is here more abundant than 
anywhere else in the world. Although subject to considerable 
fluctuation the average annual export of dried cod-fish over a 
term of years is about 1,200,000 quintals. The value of the 
export varies between five and six million dollars, according to 
the market price of the dried fish. The cod are taken on the 
shores of the island, along the Labrador coast and on " the 
Banks." These Banks, which have played such an important 
part in the history of the colony, and are the chief source of 
its wealth, stretch for about 300 m. in a south-east direction 
towards the centre of the North Atlantic, and probably at one 
time foemed a part of the North American continent. The depths 
range from 15 to 80 or 90 fathoms. The deposits consist of sand 
and gravel composed of ancient rocks, and fragments of quartz, 
mica, hornblende, felspars and magnetite; along with these are 
many calcareous fragments of echinoderms, polyzoa and many 
foraminifera. In the deeper parts there is sometimes a fine 
mud containing the above-mentioned minerals and calcareous 
fragments, and in addition numerous frustules of diatoms. The 
Banks are swept by the cold Labrador current, and icebergs are 
frequently stranded upon them. The Gulf Stream passes over 
their southern portions. These two currents bear along many 
species of pelagic algae and animals, which supply abundant food 
to the myriads of echinoderms, molluscs, annelids, coelenterates 
and other invertebrates which live at all depths on the Banks. 
These invertebrates in turn supply food to the cod and other 
fishes which are sought for by the fishermen. Sea birds frequent 
the Banks in great numbers; and, as diving birds are not met 
with at any great distance from them, the presence of these in 
the sea gives seamen an indication of the shallower water. 

The total annual catch of cod in Newfoundland waters has been 
estimated at about 2,500,000 quintals (a quintal being one-twentieth 
of a ton), with a value of about f, 1,400,000 sterling. The cod fishery 
forms four-fifths of the entire industry, in spite of the increase in 
the herring and lobster catch. No increase in the quantities taken 
is to be noted, but the market value of dried cod fish is generally 
enhanced. In 1885 an export of 1,284,710 quintals was only worth 
$4,061,600. In 1905 1,196,814 quintals were valued at $6,108,614. 
To this may be added the value of the fish consumed by the people 
of the colony, estimated at $450,000. According to the census of 
1901 there were 41,231 males and 21,443 females engaged in the 
catching and curing of fish. 

The figures have greatly varied in past years: as for instance in 
'857. 3 1 % of the total population were engaged in catching and 
curing fish: in 1869, 25-|%, in 1884, 30-6%, and in 1901, 28-4%. 
Small voyages and low prices have tended to limit fishery operations; 
and the opening up of other industries has diverted labour from the 
fisheries. The total number of vessels engaged is about 1550, with 
a tonnage of 54,500; over 11,000 fishing rooms are in actual use. 
The use of traps has followed the decrease in number of nets and 
seines, but the continued increase of fishing rooms shows that there 
is no falling off in the Newfoundland cod fishery, which has now 
been prosecuted for fully four centuries. Notwithstanding the 
enormous drafts every year, to all appearance the cod are as abundant 
as ever. They begin to appear on the coasts of the island about the 
first of June, at which time they move from the deep waters of the 
coast to the shallower and warmer waters near the shore, for spawn- 
ing purposes. Their approach is heralded by the caplin, a beautiful 
little fish about 7 in. in length, vast shoals of which arrive, filling 
every bay and harbour. The cod follow in their wake, feasting 
greedily _upon the caplin, which supply the best bait. In six weeks 
the caplin disappear, and their place is taken by the squid about 
the 1st of August. These also supply a valuable bait, and are 
followed by the herring, which continue till the middle or end of 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



481 



October, when the cod fishery closes. The cod are taken by the 
hook-and-line, the seine, the cod-net or gill-net, the cod-trap and 
the bultow. Newfoundland exports cod to Brazil, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Great Britain, Greece, the West Indies and the United States. 
Brazil and Spain are the largest consumers. 

After the cod the seal fishery is of next importance. The industry 
was begun about 1740, when the value of the seal oil exports was 
1000. In 1904-1905 sealskins and seal oil to the value of $370,261 
and $374,974 were exported, the price of a skin varying between 
$90 to $i -25. This shows a considerable falling off. The number of 
men employed is about 4000. Steamers were first used in 1863. 
They are from 350 to 500 tons burden, most of them carrying from 
2OO to 300 men. The larger class can bring in from 30,000 to 40,000 
seals. In one instance 41,900 seals were brought in by a single 
steamer, the " Neptune," the weight being 874 tons and the value 
$103,750. In bad years the catch may not exceed 200,000 in 
1893 it fell to 129,061. By law no steamer may leave port on a 
sealing voyage until the I2th of March, and no seal may be killed 
before the I4th of March. The young seals are born on the ice 
between the isth and 25th of February, and mature so rapidly that 
they are in excellent condition in four weeks. 

Of more recent origin is the lobster fishery, their packing for 
export having begun in 1873. By 1888 the value of the lobster 
export had risen to $385,077. In 1904-1905, while the catch had 
somewhat diminished as compared with 1895, the value had in- 
creased to $512,662. 

A vigorous effort has been made to establish the herring fishery 
on a scale commensurate with the abundance of the fish in these 
waters. In 1855 the total quantity exported was 32,042 barrels, 
with a value of $91,357. In 1905 there were 176,633 barrels, valued 
at $379,938. The principal seats of the herring fishery are Fortune 
Bay, Placentia, Bay St George and Bay of Islands, and the whole 
coast of Labrador, which furnishes the finest kind of herring. Besides 
the herring exported, at least $150,000 worth is sold to the French 
and Americans as bait. 

The export of preserved salmon, of which the island has an 
abundant supply, does not form a large or important item, seldom 
reaching in value $100,000. Salmon is taken for the most part in 
nets in the coves and bays and at the mouths of rivers. The season 
for taking it is brief, six or seven weeks, beginning at the end of May. 
The proper preservation of the salmon waters has been for generations 
neglected, and reckless practices bade fair wholly to exterminate the 
fish. In 1888, however, a fisheries commission was appointed, and 
river warders were charged with the stringent enforcement of the 
new laws. The best salmon fisheries are in Bonavista Bay, Gander 
and Exploits bays, and on the west coast. 

Mackerel formerly frequented the Newfoundland coasts, but 
disappeared about the middle of the 1 9th century; and few halibut 
or haddock are caught. Sea trout and brook trout, however, abound, 
and latterly Loch Leven and Californian rainbow trout have been 
introduced with success. 

The most extraordinary increase concerns the whaling industry. 
Before 1850 a very successful whale fishery was carried on, but it 
then suddenly ceased and has only recently been revived. The 
revival is due to the invention of a harpoon-gun which kills the 
whale effectually and with despatch. There are now fourteen whale 
factories in operation for the production of bone and oil. While in 
1895 the value of the oil reached only $7300 and the bone $1000, a 
decade later the values were $384,062 and $34,833 respectively; 
no fewer than 1275 whales being caught. A patent process manu- 
factures the carcases into a fine guano, and utilizes the by-products, 
thus adding $100,000 to the industry. J 

On the whole the aggregate value of the Newfoundland fisheries 
for 1906-1907 was nearly 2,000,000 sterling, including the fish 
consumed in the colony. 

Agriculture. Until recent years little attention has been paid 
to agriculture, the belief being current that the interior of the island 
was a desert. The reports of the geological survey dispelled this 
fiction, it being conclusively shown that out of the 28,000 sq. m. 
of dry land over one-sixth or 7000 sq. m. is available under suitable 
conditions for arable and for grazing purposes. The best land is 
situated in the Codroy valley, which is rich in alluvial soil. That 
in the Bay St George district is very fertile, and in the Humber 
valley, Exploits valley and elsewhere many thousands of farmers 
could work to advantage. In 1874 only 36,339 acres were under 
cultivation. In 1901, 215,579 acres were occupied, of which 85,533 
acres were actually under cultivation, producing chiefly hay, oats, 
potatoes, turnips and cabbages. In the numbers of live stock there 
has been a notable increase, especially in sheep. Newfoundland 
seems especially adapted for a sheep-grazing country. 

Mining. Not until a comparatively recent date was Newfound- 
land known to contain mineral deposits of great value. The first 
discovery of copper ore took place at a small fishing hamlet called 
Tilt Cove in 1857. Seven years later the mine was opened, and 
during the following fifteen years Tilt Cove mine yielded about 
50,000 tons of copper ore valued at $1,572,154, besides nickel worth 
$32,740. In 1875 another mine at Bett's Cove was opened. There 
are three principal mines, all in Notre Dame Bay, the copper exports 
m 1905 being 8r,49i tons, with a value of $448,400. The copper- 
bearing deposits are widely distributed. According to the geological 

xrx. 16 



survey reports, copper-bearing rocks have a development of over 
5000 sq. m. throughout the island. Iron-mining, however, has far 
surpassed copper-mining, the chief centre being at Bell Island in 
Conception Bay. Hematite iron has been found at Exploits river. 
Fortune Harbour, New Bay and other parts in Notre Dame Bay. 
The iron exported in 1905 amounted to 635,350 tons with a value 
of $635,350. In 1895 the value of iron exports was nil. Of iron 
pyrites 68,970 tons were exported in 1905 valued at $410,514. 
Similarly in 1895 no slate was exported. It has since been worked 
at Trinity Bay, Bonavista Bay and Bay of Islands, the latter deposit 
being declared equal to the best Carnarvon slate. In 1905 14,750 
tons were shipped. The existence of coal in the island has been 
known since Captain Cook first reported its discovery in 1763, but 
until lately little has been done to exploit it. The most important 
carboniferous region is at Grand Lake, St George's and the Codroy 
region directly opposite the Cape Breton coal-fields. 

Zinc has been found in many localities, as also antimony, silver 
and gold. Asbestos is frequently found, and mica of good size has 
been discovered in the Laurentian rocks in the Long Range Moun- 
tains and in Labrador. At the mouth of the Humber are large 
deposits of marble. The valuable non-metallic materials include 



talc, gypsum, graphite, lithographic stone and manganese. 

Shipping. The total number of vessels sailing under Newfound- 
land registry on the 3ist of December 1905 was 3049, with a net 
tonnage of 129,617 tons. Of these 66 were steamers. The statistics 
of foreign-going tonnage show a remarkable growth in trade. The 
bounty grantea by the legislature has given a considerable impetus 
to local shipbuilding. Between 1900 and 1905 the average of 
vessels annually built in the colony was 105, with a total tonnage 
for the five years of 17,698. In 1904-1905 the total value of exports 
was $10,669,342, of imports $10,279,293. For the period of seven 
years preceding the exports exceeded the imports by $7,174,676 or 
a balance of trade in favour of the colony of over one million 
dollars annually. 

Manufactures. In 1874 there were only five saw-mills in the 
colony, producing 2111 ft. of timber. The census returns of 1901 
showed 195 saw-mills valued at $292,790, employing 2408 persons 
and producing 43,648 ft. of timber, 16,197 of shingle and 2020 of 
laths, of a total value of $480,555. Paper-making from wood-pulp 
has been mentioned in connexion with Flora, above. Six tanneries 
in 1901 produced goods to the value of $98,200. There are boot and 
shoe, tobacco, nail, soap, furniture and carriage manufactories. 
The rope-walk in St John s produces rope and line valued at $300,000 
annually. 

Government. Newfoundland is a British colony, directly 
dependent on the crown. Representative government and a 
constitution were granted to it in 1832, and " responsible govern- 
ment " in 1855. Two legislative chambers were appointed the 
house of assembly, to be elected, and the legislative council, to be 
nominated by the governor in council. This form of government 
has worked satisfactorily. It consists of a governor who is 
appointed by the crown, and whose term of office is usually about 
six years; an executive council chosen by the party commanding 
a majority in the house of assembly, and consisting of seven 
members; a legislative council or upper house, of fifteen members 
nominated by the governor in council and holding office for life; 
and a house of assembly elected every four years by the votes 
of the people on a household suffrage basis. There are seventeen 
electoral districts sending thirty-six members to the house of 
assembly, all of whom are paid. The sessional allowances range 
from $194 to $291. The supreme court, instituted in 1826, is 
composed of a chief justice and two assistant judges. They 
are appointed by the crown, and hold their office for life. The 
jurisdiction of Newfoundland extends over the whole of the 
Atlantic coast of Labrador. 

Finance. Duties levied on imports form the basis of the revenue. 
The tariff being intended for the cost of government and not for 
industrial protection, the duties are not as a rule differential, being 
partly ad valorem, partly specific. 

There is no direct taxation, and there are no city or town corpora- 
tions. The customs revenue grew from $840,936 in 1885 to 
$2,295,959 in I 95- The public debt increased from $2,149,597 
in 1885 to $22,043,338 in 1905, against which there was a sinking 
fund of $300,244. The debt of St John's municipal council, 
$1,187,221, on which full interest is paid to the government, must 
be credited to the gross public debt. In December 1905 a new loan 
of $636,903 was floated in England. Based on the value of the 
exports the earning capacity of the population increased from 
$29 per head in 1885 to $47 per head in 1905. The postal and 
telegraph revenue amounted in 1905 to $125,000, having more than 
doubled in a decade. The crown lands revenue, which in 1895 
was $5500, stood in 1905 at $41,357. With the United Kingdom, 
trade, which in 1888 was 38 % of the whole, steadily diminished in 
volume, until it was in 1905 only 22 % of the whole. Trade with 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



Reid 
contract. 



America in this period showed an increase of 128-5% and that with 
Canada 76- 1 %. 

Roods and Railways. Railways play a unique part in the 
modern history of the island. Not until 1825 was the first 
road made; it was 9 m. in length, from St John's 
Tl>f to Portugal Cove. When representative government 

was established in 1832 an annual grant was voted 
for roads and bridges, and of late years not less than 
$100,000 per annum has been expended on this head. There are 
now over 1000 m. of postal roads, and over 2000 of district 
roads. In 1880 after much agitation the legislature finally 
agreed to raise a loan of 1,000,000 for the construction of a 
railway from St John's to Hall's Bay, with branches to Brigus 
and Harbour Grace, the distance being estimated at 340 m. 
In November 1884 the line was completed for traffic as far as 
Harbour Grace. In the following year the construction of a 
line, 27 m. in length, from Whitbourne to Placentia, the old 
French capital, was begun and finished in 1888. Shortly after- 
wards it was decided to resume the line northwards from St 
John's to Hall's Bay (which, owing to the failure of the con- 
tractors, had been discontinued) with a view ultimately to a 
transinsular railway. The tender of a well-known contractor, 
Mr R.G. Reid of Montreal, was accepted, and the work was begun 
in October 1890. But before the contractor had proceeded far 
with the Hall's Bay line a new survey was made and another 
route determined for the proposed transinsular railway, west- 
wards from the valley of the Exploits, which was regarded 
as much more favourable than the one originally contemplated. 
It traversed the Exploits and Humber valleys, passing through 
the most fertile territory in the island, to the Bay of Islands 
on the west coast; hence it skirted Bay St George and the 
Codroy valley and terminated at Port-aux-Basques, acommodious 
harbour 93 m. distant from Sydney, Cape Breton. The new 
route was chosen, and a contract signed on the i6th of May 
1893, whereby the contractor was to be paid $15,600 per mile 
in Newfoundland bonds, the whole line to be completed in three 
years. At the same time, in order to provide for the working 
of the line, it was agreed between the colonial government and 
Mr Reid that the latter should maintain and work it, as well as 
construct a system of telegraphs, for a period of ten years from 
the ist of September 1893 at his own expense, in consideration 
of a " grant in fee simple to the contractor of 5000 acres of land 
for each one mile of mail line or branch railway to be operated." 
Should the line, therefore, be 500 m. in length the land grant 
would be 2,500,000 acres, to be situated on each side of the 
railway in alternate sections of i or 2 m. in length with 
the railway, and 8 m. in depth, the colony also retaining an 
equal amount of land with the contractor along the route. Much 
hostile criticism was subsequently directed towards this arrange- 
ment. In 1898 a new proposal was made by Mr Reid, under 
the terms of which he undertook to work all the railways in the 
island for a period of fifty years, free of cost to the government, 
provided that, at the termination of the said period, the railways 
should become his own property. He was also to receive a further 
concession of land to the extent of 2,500,000 acres on terms 
similar to those contained in the former contract. Mr Reid 
agreed to build and run seven steamers, one in each of the 
large bays, and one to ply in Labrador in summer, to provide 
an electric street railway for St John's, and also to pave a certain 
portion of the capital. The colony was to part with the telegraph 
system to the contractor, who was to acquire at a fixed price 
the government dry-dock at St John's. On the other hand, to 
complete the bargain, $1,000,000 in cash was to be paid by the 
contractor to the government within a year after the signing 
of the contract. This remarkable covenant, which was afterwards 
characterized by Mr Chamberlain, secretary of state for the 
colonies, as a transaction " without parallel in the history of 
any country," was nevertheless ratified by the legislature, and 
submitted to the governor, Sir Herbert Murray, for his approval. 
The governor declined to append his signature to the instrument, 
but upon its being referred to the imperial secretary of state, 
it was decided that the arrangement was one relating exclusively 



Discovery. 



to the colony, and this being the case, that it would be " an 
unwarrantable interference with the rights of a self-governing 
colony " to disallow the measure. The Reid contract was 
therefore signed by Sir Herbert Murray before relinquishing 
his post early in 1898. Meanwhile considerable feeling had 
been manifested in the colony; numerous public meetings in 
support of the governor's action were held; and several 
petitions were despatched to England; but it was not until 
the spring of 1900 that Sir James Winter and his colleagues 
were forced to resign on account of the opposition which had 
been engendered. The general election brought a Liberal, Mr 
(afterwards Sir) Robert Bond, into power; and he had hardly 
assumed office when the contractor approached the ministry 
with further proposals to convert his property into a limited 
liability company with a capital of 5,000,000 sterling, for which 
proceeding the consent of the legislature was necessary, under 
the terms of 1898. Mr Bond refused unless a modification of 
the contract was agreed to. The modifications demanded 
were that the telegraphs should revert at once to the govern- 
ment; that the land grants, which included a large amount 
of private property, should be readjusted so as to conserve 
the rights of those whose holdings had been confiscated; also, 
that it should be optional for the colony to take over the railways 
at the end of fifty years by paying back the sum of $1,000,000 
with interest, the amount paid by Mr Reid to the colony; and 
a sum to be arrived at by arbitration for all improvements 
that may have been made on the property within the fifty 
years. After considerable dispute these terms were substantially 
agreed to, and the conversion into a company took place. 

History. Newfoundland, commonly termed the " senior 
colony " of Great Britain, antedates in discovery (though not 
in continuous settlement) any other British over-sea 
dominion. John Cabot, sailing from Bristol in 1497, 
appears to have made landfall at Bonavista and claimed 
the whole country for Henry VII. Three years later Caspar 
Corte-Real, ranging the North American coasts, discovered 
and named Conception Bay and Portugal Cove, and was appointed 
Portuguese governor of Terra Nova. The long series of annual 
trans-Atlantic expeditions followed upon the voyages of Cabot 
and Corte-Real, and their reports in England, Portugal and 
France concerning the multitude of fish in Newfoundland. For 
a long time it was supposed that the English fishermen did not 
avail themselves to any extent of these advantages until the 
middle of the i6th century, but this is now shown to be erroneous. 
Mr Prowse states that the trade during the first half of the century 
was both " extensive and lucrative." In 1527 the little Devon- 
shire fishing ships were unable to carry home their large catch, 
so " sack ships " (large merchant vessels) were employed 
to carry the salt cod to Spain and Portugal. An act of 1541 
classes the Newfoundland trade with the Irish, Shetland and 
Iceland fisheries. Hakluyt, writing in 1578, mentions that the 
number of vessels employed in the fishery was 400, of which 
only one-quarter were English, the rest being French and Spanish 
Basque. But in the same year, according to Anthony Parkhurst, 
" the English are commonly lords of the harbours where they 
fish and use all help in fishing if need require." Shortly there- 
after England awoke to the importance of Cabot's great discovery, 
and an attempt was made to plant a colony on the shores of 
the island. Sir Humphry Gilbert, provided with 
letters patent from Queen Elizabeth, landed in St 
John's in August 1583, and formally took possession 
of the country in the queen's name. The first attempt 
at colonizing was frustrated by the loss of Gilbert soon after- 
wards at sea. In 1610 James I. granted a patent to John Guy, 
an enterprising Bristol merchant, for a " plantation " in New- 
foundland; but no marked success attended his efforts to found 
settlements. In 1615 Captain Richard Whit bourne of Exmouth 
in Devonshire was despatched to Newfoundland by the British 
admiralty to establish order and correct abuses which had 
grown up among the fishermen. On his return in 1622 he wrote 
a " Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland Trade " which 
King James, by an order in council, caused to be distributed 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



483 



among the parishes of the kingdom " for the encouragement of 
adventures unto plantation there." A year after the departure 
of Whitbourne, Sir George Calvert, afterwards the first Lord 
Baltimore, obtained a patent conveying to him the lordship 
of the whole southern peninsula of Newfoundland, and the 
right of fishing in the surrounding waters. He planted a colony 
at Ferryland, 40 m. north of Cape Race, where he built a hand- 
some mansion and resided with his family for many years. 
The French so harassed his settlement by incessant attacks 
that he at length abandoned it. 

In 1650, or about a century and a half after its discovery, 
Newfoundland contained only 350 families, or less than 2000 

individuals, distributed in fifteen small settlements, 

chiefly along the eastern shore. These constituted 

the resident population; but in addition there was a 
floating population of several thousands who frequented the 
shores during the summer for the sake of the fisheries, which 
had now attained very large dimensions. So early as 1626, 150 
vessels were annually despatched from Devonshire alone; and 
the shipowners and traders residing in the west of England 
sent out their ships and fishing crews early in summer to prose- 
cute these lucrative fisheries. The fish caught were salted and 
dried on the shore; and on the approach of winter the fishermen 
re-embarked for England, carrying with them the products of 
their labour. Hence it became the interest of these traders and 
shipowners to discourage the settlement of the country, in order 
to retain the exclusive use of the harbours and fishing coves for 
their servants, and also a monopoly of the fisheries. They were 
able to enlist the British government of the day in their project, 
and stringent laws were passed prohibiting settlement within 
6 m. of the shore, forbidding fishermen to remain behind at the 
close of the fishing season, and rendering it illegal to build or 
repair a house without a special licence. The object of this 
short-sighted policy, which was persisted in for more than a 
century, was to preserve the island as a fishing station and the 
fisheries as nurseries for British seamen. 

There was, however, another element which retarded the 
prosperity of the country. The French had early realized the 

immense value of the fisheries, and strove long and 
utrech desperately to obtain possession of the island. Their 

constant attacks and encroachments harassed the few 
settlers, and rendered life and property insecure during the long 
wars between England and France. When at length, in 1713, 
the treaty of Utrecht ended hostilities, it did not deliver New- 
foundland from the grasp of France, as it yielded to her the 
right of catching and drying fish on the western and northern 
sides of the island. Though no territorial rights were conferred 
on the French, and the sovereignty was secured to England, the 
practical effect was to exclude the inhabitants from the fairest 
half of the island. 

In spite of the restrictive regulations, the number of the 
resident population continued to increase. The sturdy settlers 

clung to the soil, and combated the " adventurers " 
governor. as t ' le merchants were called, and after a lengthened 

conflict obtained freedom of settlement and relief from 
oppression. But the contest was severe and prolonged. The 
merchant-adventurers strenuously opposed the appointment of 
a governor; but at length, in 1728, the British government 
appointed Captain Henry Osborne first governor of Newfound- 
land, with a commission to establish a form of civil government. 
This constituted a new era in the Tiistory of the colony. In 
1763 the fixed inhabitants had increased to 8000, while 5000 
more were summer residents who returned home each winter. 
In 1763 the coast of Labrador, from Hudson's Strait to the river 
St John opposite the west end of the island of Anticosti, was 
attached to the governorship of Newfoundland. The population 
in 1785 had increased to 10,000. During the wars between 
England and France which followed the French Revolution, 
Newfoundland attained great prosperity, as all competitors in 
the fisheries were swept from the seas, and the markets of 
Europe were exclusively in the hands of the merchants of the 
country. The value of fish trebled, wages rose to a high figure. 



and in 1814 no less than 7000 emigrants arrived. The population 
now numbered 80,000. In 1832 representative government was 
granted to the colony, and provision was made for education. 
In 1846 a terrible fire destroyed three-fourths of St John's and 
with it an enormous amount of property; but the city rose from 
its ashes improved and beautified. In 1855 the system of 
responsible government was inaugurated. In 1858 the first 
Atlantic cable was landed at Bull Arm, Trinity Bay. 

Unproductive fisheries, causing a widespread destitution 
among the working classes, marked the first eight years of the 
decade between 1860 and 1870. A system of able- 
bodied pauper relief was initiated to meet the neces- 
sities of the case but was attended with the usual 
demoralizing results. The necessity of extending the cultivation 
of the soil in order to meet the wants of the growing population 
was felt more and more as the pressure arising from the failure 
of the fisheries showed their precarious nature more sensibly. 
In 1864 copper ore was discovered in the north, and mining 
operations were successfully initiated. In 1869 a series of 
successful fisheries began which enabled the government to 
terminate the injurious system of able-bodied pauper relief. 
In 1871 the revenue rose to $831,160. In 1873 direct steam 
communication with England and America was established. 

By the treaty of Utrecht of 1713 a right was reserved to 
French subjects to catch fish and to dry them on that part of 
Newfoundland which stretches from Cape Bonavista 
to the northern part of the island and from thence claim*. 
coming down by the western side reaches as far as 
Pt. Riche. By the treaty of Versailles of 1783 France renounced 
the fishery from Bonavista to Cape St John on the east coast, 
receiving in return' extended rights upon the west coast as far as 
Cape Ray. Neither treaty purported to grant exclusive right, 
but there was annexed to the treaty of Versailles a declaration 
to the effect that " His Britannic Majesty will take the most 
positive measures for preventing his subjects from interrupting 
in any manner by their competition the fishery of the French 
during the temporary exercise of it which is granted to them 
upon the coasts of the island of Newfoundland, and he will 
for this purpose cause the fixed settlements which shall be 
formed there to be removed." Upon this declaration the French 
founded a claim to exclusive fishing rights within the limits 
named. A convention was entered into with a view to defining 
these rights in 1854, but it remained inoperative, the consent of 
the Newfoundland legislature, to which it was made subject, 
having been refused. Meanwhile the French government granted 
a bounty to the French fishermen which enabled them to under- 
sell the colonists. 

In 1884 a convention which had been arranged between the 
British and French governments was submitted to the colonial 
administration by its promoters Sir Clare Ford and 
Mr E. B. Pennell, C.M.G., but without commanding 
the support of the Newfoundland government. In the 
year following, on a change of ministry in the colony, the Ford- 
Pennell convention was again offered to the Newfoundland 
legislature in a slightly amended form, but the joint committee 
of the colonial house of assembly and the council absolutely 
refused to ratify the arrangement unless the French government 
would consent either to annul or to amend the system of bounties 
paid upon French-caught fish in Newfoundland waters. At the 
same time, to counteract the effect of these bounties, which 
pressed very hardly upon the British competition, a Bait Act 
was framed and carried in 1886, empowering the executive to 
prohibit the capture in Newfoundland waters for exportation or 
sale of bait fishes, except under special licence to be issued by 
the colonial government. The consequence of this measure, 
were its provisions properly enforced, would be to place an 
embargo upon the local supply of bait requisite to the French 
fishermen the so-called " metropolitan fleet " on the Grand 
Banks. Upon being apprised of this enactment, the French 
government immediately demanded that Great Britain should 
deny its sanction to this Newfoundland Bait Act, and pressed 
their objections with such persistence as to induce Lord Salisbury 



Bait 

Act. 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



to disallow the measure. Nevertheless, the despatch of the 
governor, Sir William des Voeux, to the colonial secretary, 
Sir H. Holland, was so entirely in favour of the principle of the 
bill that the Newfoundland authorities became imbued with a 
fixed determination to urge forward the measure for imperial 
acceptance. In 1887, therefore, a delegation, consisting of Sir 
Robert Thorburn, the premier, and Sir Ambrose Shea, visited 
England at a moment most propitious for obtaining the sym- 
pathy and support of the imperial government and the press 
and people of the mother country, it being the jubilee year of 
Queen Victoria's accession to the throne. A conference of 
colonial premiers was one of the notable events distinguishing 
that happy period, and the subject was argued before the 
conference at considerable length. The claim set up by the 
senior colony " to control and legislate for her own fisheries " 
met with general approval, the single dissentient being the 
representative of Canada, who feared that Canadian fishermen 
would suffer under the bill. When an assurance was tendered 
that Canada's fishermen would be placed upon the same footing 
with those of Newfoundland, the British government somewhat 
reluctantly sanctioned the Bait Act. The stipulation was made, 
however, that it should not be enforced until the spring following 
(1888). In the meantime the chagrin of the French Foreign Office 
at the failure of the Ford-Pennell negotiations, and the hostile 
attitude taken up by the Newfoundlanders in what they deemed 
to be the conservation of their interests, induced M. de Freycinet 
to devise retaliatory measures. Instructions were issued " to 
seize and confiscate all instruments of fishing belonging to 
foreigners resident or otherwise, who shall fish on that part of 
the coast which is reserved to our use." Lord Rosebery, then 
foreign secretary, protested to the French ambassador against 
the spirit of these instructions, which he insisted were in direct 
contravention of the treaty, inasmuch as they ignored the 
concurrent as well as those sovereign rights of Great Britain 
which France solemnly undertook by the treaties never to 
question or dispute. Nor were other opportunities soon wanting 
to the French to retort severely upon the Newfoundland 
authorities for their passage of the Bait Act, as well as to repair 
in large measure the injury which that act promised to inflict 
upon the French industry. About 1874 a Nova Scotian named 
Rumkey had established the first factory for the canning of 
lobsters on the west coast. This concern proved profitable, and 
others sprang up, until, at the close of the season of 1887, Captain 
Campbell, R.N., reported that twenty-six factories were at work, 
employing about noo hands. It was at that time understood 
that this was an industry which, by the very nature of the 
process and the permanent shore structure it involved, the 
French were disqualified from pursuing. . So clearly was this 
recognized that in 1886, when Commander Browne of H.M.S. 
" Mallard " reported the existence of a French lobster factory at 
Port-aux-Choix, a substantially-built structure, roofed with 
corrugated iron, the French authorities conceded that the 
establishment was in violation of the treaties, and issued orders 
for its removal. But this conciliatory policy was of brief dura- 
tion. The year of the Bait Act's first successful application was 
marked by the stoppage, by order of the French government, 
of Messrs Murphy and Andrew's lobster factory, and by their 
contention that the lobster-canning industry formed a part 
of the privileges conceded under the treaties to the French, 
whose participation by the British fishermen would be forcibly 
resisted. 

An exchange of notes took place between Lord Salisbury 
and M. Waddington, the French ambassador, in which the latter 
expressed an opinion which evoked a spirited protest on the 
part of the British Foreign Office. " France," it was then 
declared, " preserved the exclusive right of fishing she always 
possessed. This right of France to the coast of Newfoundland 
reserved to her fishermen is only a part of her ancient sovereignty 
over the island which she retained in ceding the soil to England, 
and which she has never weakened or alienated." This claim 
of the French to an exclusive fishery was held to be wholly 
untenable, and their classification of the lobster catching and 







canning industry as amongst the " fishing " privileges granted 
them by the treaty was denounced as contrary to both letter 
and spirit of that instrument. Notwithstanding this, the French 
agents on the treaty shore clamoured for the removal of several 
of the British factories, which (it was declared) interfered with 
the exclusive fishing rights of the French. The French govern- 
ment also voted (1888) a special bounty for the establishment 
of lobster factories by their subjects on the treaty coast. Pending 
a settlement, the British foreign office deemed it expedient, 
in order not to give offence to France, to invest the French 
claims with a semblance of right by issuing instructions to British 
naval officers on the North American station to continue to 
interpret and enforce the treaties with regard to the Newfound- 
land lobster-canning industry on the same terms as they had 
done hitherto with regard to the cod-fishery. Acting under a 
statute passed in the reign of George III., empowering British 
naval officers to interpret and enforce the treaties, Sir Baldwin 
Walker and others proceeded to destroy or remove a number 
of British factories at the request of the French agents. In 
1890 the unexpected discovery was made that the act empower- 
ing British naval officers to enforce the provisions of the treaties 
with France had expired in 1832 and had never been renewed. 
Consequently all the proceedings of which the colonists had 
been the victims were illegal. One of them, Mr James Baird, 
immediately took proceedings against Sir Baldwin Walker 
in the supreme court, which decided in his favour, mulcting 
the admiral in 1000. 

On an appeal to the privy council the decision was upheld. 
But before this incident had taken place, the controversy 
between London and Paris culminated in the modus 
vivendi of 1890, by which the lobster factories, both 
British and French, which were in existence on the 
ist of July 1889, were to continue for the present. 
Instantly the colony took alarm, and a deputation consisting 
of the island's leading men was sent to England to protest against 
both the principle and practice of such an arrangement. On 
their return they learnt that it was the intention of the imperial 
government to re-enact verbatim et literatim the act for the 
enforcement of the treaties which had expired fifty-nine years 
previously. To prevent such an occurrence, delegates from 
both parties in Newfoundland visited London in April 1891, 
and, appearing at the bar of the House of Lords, promised that 
if the measure which was then on the eve of being introduced 
into that body were withdrawn, a temporary measure would 
be passed by the Newfoundland legislature which would answer 
the same purpose of enabling Great Britain to carry out her 
treaty obligations with France. The hope then generally 
entertained was that the whole question of French rights in the 
colony would soon be the subject of definite negotiations looking 
to their total extinguishment. That hope was, however, not 
speedily realized. For a number of years the Modus Vivendi 
Act was annually passed by the legislature, each year under 
protest, the conviction gaining strength in the colony that the 
imperial government was averse from renewing negotiations 
with France. 

In 1898 the secretary of state, Mr Chamberlain, yielding to 
the urgent request of the senior colony, despatched a commission 
consisting of Sir J. Bramston and Sir James Erskine, with Lord 
Westmeath as secretary, on a tour of investigation along the 
treaty shore; and the report which the royal commissioners 
made (though not published) touched all points of the unhappy 
dispute. Again, in 1901, on a suggestion put forward by the 
colony, Mr Chamberlain summoned Sir Robert Bond, the 
Newfoundland premier, and a colleague, Sir E. P. Morris, to 
London, for a new conference on the French shore question, 
in which Lord Lansdowne, the foreign secretary, participated. 
Nothing coming of this, the Modus Vivendi Act continued to 
be passed annually. In 1001 a fresh attempt was made to effect 
a settlement, but the negotiations were again unsuccessful, as 
the colony declined to make concessions in regard to the sale 
of bait unless the French system of bounties on the sale of fish 
by their citizens were abandoned or at least modified in important 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



485 



particulars. Later in the same year negotiations were begun 
between the British and French governments for a general 
treaty, in which all outstanding matters of dispute between 
the two countries should be for ever settled. As regards New- 
foundland, the discussion of the French fishery question on the 
basis of arrangement in the matter of bait and bounties having 
proved unavailing, it was proposed not to persist further in it, 
but to put before the French government an arrangement which 
would terminate the rights of French fishermen to land and dry 
their fish on the shores of the island, but leave a concurrent 
right of fishery, the regulation and policing of which would be 
in the manner provided in the North Sea Fishery Convention 
of 1881 and the convention of 1887. 

On the 8th of April 1904 the Lansdowne-Cambon Convention 
was signed, which effected a final settlement of the French shore 
question. For the total abandonment of the French 
"S^ts compensation was clearly not only due to the 
190 4. individuals actually engaged in the fishing industry, 
. but to the French nation at large. Territorial conces- 
sions were therefore made consisting of a modification of the 
Anglo-French boundary line in the Niger and Lake Chad district, 
and a re-arrangement of the Gambia-Senegambia frontier, giving 
Yarbatenda to Senegambia. The Los Islands opposite Konakry 
Island were likewise ceded to France. Provision was made for 
the reciprocal recognition, on the convention coming into force, 
of a British consul at St Pierre and a French consul at St John's. 
Claims for indemnity were duly submitted to an arbitral tribunal, 
composed of an officer of each nation; and at length what is 
known as the Lyttelton Award, was made as follows: 

General award for French rights . . . $255,750 

Loss of occupation 226,813 

Effects left by the French on treaty coast . . 28,936 

So far as concerned the French, an end was thus put to a 
situation on the treaty shore, which for nearly two hundred 
years had given rise to difficulties and anxieties. 

Scarcely, however, had a year elapsed from the signing of the 

convention, when another international disagreement connected 

with the fisheries assumed grave importance. There 

American jj a d long been intense dissatisfaction in the colony 

fishing i ,- , 

rights. over the attitude of the American government and 
American fishermen towards the colony. The action 
of the American Senate in rejecting the Bond-Hay treaty negoti- 
ated in 1902 stirred the colonial government to retaliatory 
measures. By virtue of the treaty of 1818 American fishermen 
enjoyed the following rights: (i) to take fish of every kind 
on that part of the southern coast of Newfoundland which 
extends from Cape Ray to Ramea Islands; (2) to take fish of 
every kind on the western and northern coasts of Newfoundland 
from the said Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands; and (3) to take 
fish of every kind on the coasts, bays, harbours and creeks 
from Mount Joly to the southern coast of Labrador, to and through 
the straits of Belle Isle, and thence northward indefinitely along 
the coast. Subject to these limitations American fishermen 
have a right in common with British fishermen to prosecute 
their industry within those areas. 

The foregoing embraces the whole of their fishing privileges. 
Every other right that they ever possessed they renounced under 
the treaty in the following language: " The United States hereby 
renounce for ever any liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed 
by the inhabitants thereof, to take, dry or cure fish on or 
within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks 
or harbours of His Britannic Majesty's dominions in America 
not included in the above limits." This renunciation 
contained but one qualification:- " that American fishermen 
shall be permitted to enter such bays or harbours for the 
purpose of shelter and of repairing damages therein, of purchas- 
ing wood, and of obtaining water and for no other purpose 
whatever." 

Under the Newfoundland Foreign Fishing Vessels Act of 1893 
the governor in council was authorized to issue licences to 
foreign fishing vessels, enabling them to enter any port on the 



coasts of the island to purchase bait, ice, supplies and outfits 
for the fishery, and to ship crews. In 1905 this act 
was repealed and another passed by the colonial legisla- 
ture imposing certain restrictions on American vessels, t906. 
and a further more stringent act in 1906, preventing 
Newfoundlanders from joining American vessels. These acts 
were resented by the American government, which, through 
Mr Secretary Root, called upon the British government to 
disallow such interferences on the part of the Newfoundland 
legislature. Lord Elgin's reply was to suggest a modus vivendi 
pending further discussion of the questions at issue. In spite of 
the colony's energetic protest, a modus vivendi was agreed to in 
October 1906, whereby the Foreign Fishing Vessels Act of 1906 
was held in abeyance, and the act of 1905 was held not to apply 
to American fishing vessels, and light dues were waived, while 
on the other hand American vessels were to report at the custom 
house on entry for clearance, and their fishermen were to comply 
with colonial fishery regulations. As regards Sunday fishing by 
the Americans, which was an important colonial grievance, the 
American government consented to waive it, if the use of purse 
seines by American fishermen were allowed. Lord Elgin's action 
was considered to be an interference with the internal affairs of 
the colony and great public indignation was aroused. Retaliatory 
measures were resolved upon, Newfoundland fishermen being 
declared liable to fine and imprisonment for selling bait to the 
Americans or for joining American vessels. The legislature voted 
an address to the imperial government, protesting against the 
modus vivendi, and this was carried to England in 1907 by 
Sir Robert Bond, the premier of the colony, but without avail. 
The matter was referred to the Hague tribunal for arbitration, 
and pending this the modus vivendi (agreed to in 1908) continued 
in force. The tribunal gave its award in September 1910, the 
two main points at issue being decided as follows: (a) Great 
Britain had the right to make regulations as to the fisheries 
without the consent of the United States, subject to the pro- 
visions of the treaty of 1818. (6) The " three-mile limit " in 
bays (subject to special judgment in individual cases) was to 
be taken from a line across the bay at the point, nearest the 
entrance, where a width of ten miles is not exceeded. Among 
other provisions it was decided that American vessels might 
employ foreign hands (but these received no benefit under the 
treaty); also that they might be required to report to customs 
houses if facilities to do so existed. 

Commerce received a shock, but derived a salutary lesson from 
bank failures which occurred in December 1894. The Union and 
Commercial banks suspended payment, followed by the suspension 
of the sayings bank, a government institution. This at once lowered 
the credit of the colony abroad, and caused the utmost misfortune 
amongst all classes. There is little doubt but that a principal cause 
of the disaster was the vicious and dangerous system of credit which 
had been followed by the merchants in their dealings with the 
" planters " and commission merchants. The insolvent institutions 
were speedily replaced by branches of three prominent Canadian 
banks, and a loan of $1,000,000 procured in London by Mr Bond 
soon after the debacle served to tide the senior colony over its 
financial difficulties. A new era of prosperity has since set in. 

In politics, apart from the matters already alluded to, there 
occurred in 1893 the filing of petitions under the Corrupt Practices 
Act to unseat Sir William Whiteway and his colleagues, who had 
been successful at the general election of that year. The charges 
created no little interest in England, and the new government 
was subjected to much unfair criticism, arising largely from a mis- 
apprehension of the political and administrative conditions in 
the colony. They were examined in detail by the supreme court, 
which finally pronounced them unsustained, and the Whiteway 
government resumed office after a brief period of abdication. On 
the whole, it may be said that Newfoundland has passed the critical 
stage in her history. Between 1863 and 1900 it has been estimated 
that $12,000,000 worth of copper ore has been exported, and since 
1898, when a discovery of iron ore made at Bell Island, Conception 
Bay, led to important results, the belief in the island's mineral resour- 
ces, long entertained by geologists, received practical corroboration. 

In 1900 the British admiralty, acting upon the repeated suggestions 
of Sir Charles Dilke_ and others interested in the manning .of the 
navy, decided to initiate a branch of the imperial naval reserve in 
the colony. In 1901 a difficulty arose as to paying the men, 
owing to the lack of any provision for that purpose in the Imperial 
Reserves Act under which they were enlisted. The colony was asked 
to bear the cost; its refusal was followed (1902) by the enactment of 



4 86 



NEW GLARUS NEW GUINEA 



special legislation rendering the enrolment and maintenance of the 
reserves in Newfoundland a special imperial undertaking. 
Protects Several efforts had been and continued to be made to 
tor ualoa j nc j uce Newfoundland to confederate with the Dominion 
"'"* of Canada, but the project never met with any degree of 

Canada. f avour w ith the electorate. Much of the disfavour 
with which confederation was regarded in the colony was said to 
be due to Sir John Macdonald's opposition on behalf of Canada 
to the Bond-Blaine commercial treaty, which was negotiated 
between an emissary from the government of Newfoundland and 
Mr Elaine, then secretary of state of the United States of America, 
in 1890, but was subsequently disallowed at his request by the 
imperial government. It is, however, probable that the treaty 
would never have received the sanction of the American Senate. 
After the insolvency of the colony in 1894-1895, a delegation was 
sent to Ottawa to ascertain if it were possible to arrange terms of 
confederation; but Sir Mackenzie Bowell's government objected 
to the assumption by the Dominion of the entire amount of New- 
foundland's debt ($ 1 6,000,000) , and the negotiations were abandoned. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. Pedley, History of Newfoundland (London, 
1863); J. Hatton and M. Harvey, Newfoundland: its History and 
Present Condition (London, 1883); M. Harvey, Newfoundland, 
England's Oldest Colony (London, 1897); Newfoundland in 1897 
(London, 1897); Newfoundland in 1900 (London, 1900); D. W. 
Prowse, History of Newfoundland (2nd ed., London, 1897); New- 
foundland Guide-book (London, 1905); F. E. Smith, The Story of 
Newfoundland (London, 1901); B. Willson, The Truth about New- 
foundland; the Tenth Island (2nd ed., London, 1901); A. Bellet, 
La Grande Peche de la morue d la Terre-Neuve (Paris, 1902); J. G. 
Millais, Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (London, 1908); 
Colonial and Foreign Office Reports. (B. W.*) 

NEW GLARUS, a town and a village of Green county, Wis- 
consin, U.S.A., about 22 m. S.W. of Madison, on the Little Sugar 
river, a branch of the Rock river. Pop. of the town (1890) 
1180; (1900) 1245; (1005) 685; (1910) 627; of the village, 
which was separated from the town in 1901 (1905) 665; (1910) 
708. New Glarus is served by a branch of the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee & St Paul railway. It has agricultural and dairying 
industries, but little or no manufacturing interests. It had its 
origin in a colonizing experiment made by the canton of Glarus, 
Switzerland in 1845. Agents sent by the canton chose the site 
of New Glarus largely because the rocky slopes of the valley 
suggested their Alpine home. The advance party then set about 
constructing houses and sent for the colonists; and some two 
hundred men, women and children started from Glarus in April 
1845 under two leaders chosen by popular vote; misreading 
their directions the party got by mistake to St Louis, whence 
they proceeded up the Mississippi to Galena and thence overland 
to their new home. To all intents and purposes they were an 
independent people. They expected to be and were self- 
sustaining, and for a generation or more retained their exclusive- 
ness to a remarkable degree. They brought with them a " form 
of government " drawn up by the Cantonal Council of Glarus and 
providing in great detail for a system of schools, for what was 
practically a state church (Reformed Lutheran) supported by 
tithes, for a system of poor relief, for a system of courts, and for 
a set of town officers elected on a limited property franchise. 
This " form " was to be amended and new laws were to be added, 
as circumstances should require, in a town-meeting in which 
the essential features of the referendum were observed. The 
original plan provided also for an equitable distribution of land 
so as to give to each head of a family pasture, timber and farm 
lands. With such adjustments as were found necessary for co- 
ordination with the town and county governments of Wisconsin, 
it remains practically the same to this day. The village and 
town still have an Old .World aspect, and the architecture, 
customs, style of dress and language of the pioneers still persist 
to a great degree. A famous organization is the New Glarus 
William Tell Club of sharpshooters. The village owns its water- 
works and its electric lighting plant. 

NEW GLASGOW, a manufacturing and mining town of Pictou 
county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the East river, near its entrance 
into Pictou Harbour, and the Intercolonial railway, 104 m. N.E. 
of Halifax. Pop. (1901) 4447. Extensive coal mines are in 
the vicinity, and there are manufactures of iron and steel, mill 
machinery, door and sash factories, &c., as well as several ship- 
building yards. 



NEW GRANADA (Span. Nueoa Granada), the title under 
Spanish colonial administration of that part of South America 
now known as the republic of Colombia, which at one time was 
extended to include Venezuela and Ecuador. It also was for 
a time the title of the united territories of Panama and Colombia 
under republican auspices. The Bogota plateau, then inhabited 
by a partly civilized Indian nation known to the Spaniards as 
Chibchas, or Muyscas (the second name seems to have been 
applied to them through a misunderstanding, the word meaning 
" men "), was invaded from the Caribbean coast and conquered 
in 1537 by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, who, in honour of his 
native province, called it the " Nuevo Reino de Granada." 
The title at first applied only to the plateau regions of Colombia, 
as the coast provinces had been previously occupied and named. 
In 1550 an audiencia real under the viceroyalty of Peru was 
established at Santa Fe (Bogota), but in 1564 this isolated group 
of Spanish settlements was transformed into a presidency. In 
1718, owing to the unmanageable size of the viceroyalty of 
Peru, it was divided and a new viceroyalty was created from 
the various provinces lying in the north-western angle of the 
continent, extending from Tumbez northward to the northern 
limits of Panama, and eastward to the Orinoco, to which 
the name of Nueva Granada was given. The first viceroy was 
Pedroza y Guerrero, but his successor, Jorge Villalonga, resumed 
the title of president, and it was not until 1739 that the title 
of viceroy was definitely established. The new viceroyalty 
included the provinces of Tierra Firma (now the republic of 
Panama); Maracaibo, Caracas, Cumana and Guyana (now 
included in Venezuela); Cartagena, Santa Marta, Rio Hacha, 
Antioquia, Pamplona, Socorro, Tunja, Santa Fe, Neiva, Mari- 
quita, Popayan and Pasto (now included in Colombia); and 
Quito, Cuenca and Guayaquil (now included in Ecuador). In 
1777 the provinces of Maracaibo, Caracas, Cumana and Guyana 
were detached from the viceroyalty to form the captaincy- 
general of Caracas; otherwise it remained as above until the 
termination of Spanish rule in South America. 

For the republic of Colombia (1819-1830), the republic of New 
Granada (1831-1861), the United States of Colombia (1861-1886), 
and the republic of Colombia (1886 to date), see COLOMBIA. 

NEW GUINEA, the largest island (excluding Australia) in the 
world, lying between the equator and 12 S. and 130 50' and 
151 30' E., separated from Australia by Torres Strait and 
having the Arafura Sea on the south-west. It is divided politic- 
ally between Britain (south-east), Germany (north-east) and 
Holland (west), the Dutch territory occupying about 48-6% of 
the whole area, the German 28-3% and the British Territory 
of Papua 23-1%. The total area is estimated to be 312,329 
sq. m. 

New Guinea was probably in Miocene times, if not later, united 
to the northern part of Queensland. The deeply indented shore 
of the Gulf of Papua forms the boundary of the subsided area 
between the two countries, and from it the land stretches out 
for 200 to 300 m. north and west on both sides of the Fly river 
in vast plains, little elevated above sea-level. From Cape Buru 
westwards precipitous limestone cliffs, several hundred feet high, 
face the sea and rise into forest-clad mountains behind. The 
northern extremity of New Guinea is all but severed from the 
mainland by the deep MacCluer Inlet, running eastwards towards 
Geelvink Bay which deeply indents the northern coast. South- 
wards from Geelvink Bay the north-east coast is more regular 
than the south-western. Off its coast-line, on the parallel of 
6 S., lies the vast Bismarck Archipelago, of which New Pomerania 
(Neu Pommern) is the most important member; and, on the 
parallel of 10, the d'Entrecasteaux Islands, with the Marshall 
Bennett group to their north-east; while stretching out from the 
south-east promontory of the mainland is the Louisiade Archi- 
pelago. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia can be traced more 
or less continuously round the Gulf of Papua and along the 
south-east coast to the extremity of the Louisiades. In a general 
way it may be said that on the west coast of New Guinea, from 
Cape Buru to the Louisiades, the sea is shallow, while on its 
steeper eastern side the water close in-shore is often too deep 



NEW GUINEA 



487 



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Admiralty Islands 

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NEW GUINEA 



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for safe anchorage. The islands on the southern margin of the 
Louisiade Archipelago are raised coral reefs, but the majority are 
mountainous, rarely, however, exceeding 3000 ft.; all of them 
are richly forested, but of little agricultural value. The volcanic 
d'Entrecasteaux Islands are mostly larger, more elevated (the 
highest being 8000 ft.), and stand in deeper water than the 
Louisiade group. To the east of Kiriwina (Trobriand) lies a 
small group of uniquely formed islets, each of which is com- 
pletely surrounded by a steep forest-clad marginal rampart of 
coral 300 to 400 ft. high, concealing a depressed inhabited 
central plateau. 

Starting in the southern extremity of New Guinea from an 
abrupt face some 3000 ft. high, and traversing its centre nearly 
parallel to both coasts, run high ranges of mountains, which, if 
not continuous, merge into each other in the same general direc- 
tion. The Owen Stanley range-its highest summit, named 
by Huxley in 1850 Mount Owen Stanley, 13,120 ft. the Albert 
Victor Mountains, the Sir Arthur Gordon range, and the Bis- 
marck Mountains form a backbone united probably with the 
Sneeuw (Snowy) Mts., where perpetual snow was found by Dr. 
Lorentz in 1909 at 14,635 ft., and the height of Mt. Wilhelmina 
was fixed at 15,580 ft. This height may be exceeded by Mt. 
Carstensz. Other ranges, mostly of lower altitude, run parallel 
mainly to the east and west coasts. The most important and 
best-known rivers are the Amberno, in the north, discharging by 
a wide delta at Point d'Urville; the Kaiserin Augusta, which, 
rising in the Charles Louis range, and entering the Pacific near 
Cape della Torre, is navigable by ocean steamers for 180 m.; 
the Ottilien, a river of great length, which discharges into the 
sea a short distance south of the last named; and the Mambare, 
navigable by steam-launch for 50 m. which drains the eastern 
aspect of Wasigororo Mountains and enters the sea near the 
Anglo-German boundary. Below 8 S. the narrowness of the 
country precludes the existence of any very important rivers on 
either coast. The Purari, however, whose delta is 20 m. long 
by 20 broad, is navigable for 120 m. by steam-launch, while the 
Fly has been traversed by the same means for 500 and by a 
whale-boat for over 600 m. The latter drains an enormous tract 
of country, which is so little elevated above the sea-level that it 
can never be of any agricultural or commercial value. West of 
141 E. the geographical features of the coast, except in the 
region of MacCluer Inlet and Geelvink Bay, are very little 
known, and those of the interior even less. 



Geology. The geology of British New Guinea is best known from 
the report of A. Gibb Maitland (Ann. Rep., British New Guinea, 
1891-1892; Par/. Papers, Queensland, 1893, C.A. 1. 53-85, 
with 3 maps and 3 plates; bibliography, p. 85), which shows that 
the axis of the territory is a high range, composed of slates and 
schists of undetermined age, with intrusive plutonic rocks. In the 
district around Port Glasgow, on the south coast of the eastern 
peninsula, are the Boioro limestones, also of unknown age ; they are 
lead-coloured, brecciated limestones with interbedded dolerites. 
Some Cretaceous or Upper Jurassic rocks occur in the basin of the 
Fly river. The Port Moresby beds are Cainozoic. They are highly 
inclined, and occupy a large range of country along the south coast, 
and include the Macgillivray Range, to the north-east of Beagle Bay. 
They are marine and probably Miocene; and range up to the height 
of 800 ft. above the sea, approximately the same limit as in Victoria. 
The Kevori grits, and the raised coral reefs are upper Cainozoic, 
and perhaps Pleistocene; but the reefs occur inland up to a height 
of 2000 ft. and their range back in time has not been fixed. The 
volcanic series include the rhyolite of Nell Island, some obsidian, 
and the sheets of basalts which form the Cloudy Mountains, Mount 
Dayman and Mount Trafalgar (an active volcano), and also cover 
wide areas to the south and west of the Owen Stanley Range. 
Most of western British New Guinea consists of recent superficial 
deposits, in the basin of the Fly river. The Louisiade and the 
d'Entrecasteaux Islands consist of the same slates and schists as 
form the main axis of the eastern peninsula, and they are auriferous. 
The geology of the rest of New Guinea is imperfectly known. It 
appears to consist in the main of a continuation of an axis of old 
schists and slates, with granite intrusions, and flanked by coastal 
plains with Cretaceous or Jurassic, and Miocene beds, with Pleisto- 
cene sands and reefs and volcanic rocks. In the north-west coal 
deposits occur. Fergusson Island clearly shows remains of extinct 
craters, and possesses numerous hot springs, saline lakes and 
solfataras depositing sulphur and alum. In Murua (Woodlark I.) 
are quarries of the banded quartzite from which the best stone adzes 
found throughout south-east New Guinea are made. In Rossel 
Island (Roua or Arova) occur crystalline schistose and volcanic 
rocks, and in Misima (St Aignan) limestones and lavas in addition. 
Nearly all the rivers in New Guinea yield " colours " of gold, but 
only in the Louisiade Archipelago has enough been discovered to 
constitute the district a goldfield. No auriferous reefs have been 
found. Black magnetic iron sand covers the shore in Milne Bay. 
Coal has been observed in the Purari sandstones. In the Gira river 
the valuable alloy osmiridium has been discovered. Earthquakes 
are rare on the mainland, but not infrequent in Bismarck and 
d'Entrecasteaux archipelagos. 

Climate. Since the mountains as a rule traverse the island parallel 
to its coasts, the eastern shores have far less rain than the western. 
The amount which falls, chiefly at night, varies from 30 in. on some 
parts of the coast to 130 at others, and to a far greater but unknown 
amount in the mountains. Throughout the dry or cool season the 
wind blows steadily and almost uninterruptedly (except for an hour 
or so forenoon and afternoon) from the south-east. The temperature 



NEW GUINEA 



has an extreme range of from 72 to 95 F., with a mean of about 
80. At an elevation of 3000 ft. the climate is pleasantly cool ; at 
13,000 ft. ice forms in the night, but disappears with the heat of the 
sun. No snow is known certainly to fall, though it is alleged to have 
been seen from the sea lying on the summits of the Charles Louis 
range. Fever is very prevalent on the coasts, and even in the 
interior at 2000 ft. above the sea. Though generally of a mild 
character, it is persistently recurrent, and slowly saps and wears out 
the constitution ; too often it is virulent and rapidly fatal. 

Fauna. New Guinea shares in the poverty in mammals of the 
Australian sub-region. Monotremes (2 species) and marsupials 
(4 families and 44 species) predominate, but are not abundant. 
Among the tatter two genera, Distaechurus and Dorcopsis, are 
peculiar. A pig (Sus papuensis), a dingo, several species of mice 
(of which Chiruromys is a peculiar genus), a few squirrels, and a 
considerable number of Chiroptera (bats) inhabit the country. 
The island is specially remarkable for the number and beauty 
of its birds. The most recent lists record over 500 species as found 
in the Papuan area, and of these between 50 and 60 genera are 
peculiar to it. The birds of paradise, which are confined to the 
sub-region, give special celebrity to its fauna. Between 70 and 
80 species have already been described, many of them the most 
gorgeously adorned, and others, such as the Pteridophora albertisi, the 
most wonderful of feathered creatures. They are absent from the 
Louisiades, but species occur in the d'Entrecasteaux Islands which 
have not Jjeen seen on the mainland opposite. The zoology of the 
Bismarck Archipelago is little known. The species of birds so far 
described from it number 178 (referable to 38 families), of which 
74 are peculiar to it, though closely allied to Papuan forms. It 
contains, however, no Paradiseidae. The Amphibia, to which the 
sea is a barrier, are almost exclusively of Australian affinities. 
Turtles and tortoises are plentiful on the coast. Ceratochelys insculpta 
of the Fly river, a chelonian peculiar to New Guinea, is remarkable 
in having its nearest affinities (as have the Papuan tortoises) with 
South American species. Of the lizards, 3 of the 6 species of Varani- 
dae, 16 of the 30 Scincidae, 8 Geckonidae, and 8 out of the 1 1 Agamidae 
are peculiar. Salamanders, toads and frogs are numerous, and 
crocodiles abound. Only 4 genera and 5 species of snakes are 
peculiar to New Guinea, many of them poisonous. Butterflies, 
moths and bees are very abundant, the former being remarkable 
for their size and splendid coloration; but these groups have not 
been investigated exhaustively enough to afford a correct idea of 
their number or their true affinities. Although the list of Coleoptera 
already known is long, it represents only a fraction of the species 
remaining to be discovered. The land molluscs show relationship 
with the Indian and the Malayan sub-regions; but many forms 
have here their centre, and have spread hence into Australia and the 
Pacific islands. 

Flora. Most of the foreshores of New Guinea are eucalyptus- 
dotted grass lands; in the interior dense forests prevail to a height 
of many thousand feet. Vast tracts of the country have been, how- 
ever, deforested by fire, and these are covered by the tall ineradicable 
grass, Imperata arundinacea. So far the highest altitudes yet 
Eotanically investigated are those of the Owen Stanley range and 
the mountains in Kaiser Wilhelms Land, but of the flora of the 
highest range of all the Charles Louis mountains nothing is known. 
The vascular plants already described number about 1500 species. 
In the low and sub-mountainous lands the flora is a mixture of 
Malayan, Australian and Polynesian forms. There are, according 
to Muller, twice as many palms known from New Guinea as from 
Australia. The alpine flora, beginning at 6000 ft., is specially 
characterized by its rhododendrons, pines (Araucaria and Libocedrus), 
and palms, by numerous superb species of Agapetes (Ericaceae), and 
on the summits by an extraordinary association of species charac- 
teristically European (Rubus, Ranunculus, Leontodon, Aspidium), 
Himalayan, New Zealandian (Veronica), Antarctic and South 
American (Drymus, Libocedrus). Good pasture grasses are numerous, 
but pasture lands are limited. The usual tropical food-plants are 
cultivated. Tobacco has been found growing in the interior, and 
may be indigenous, as is in some districts the Kaya pepper (Piper 
methysticum). At Dorey a cotton plant (G. vitifolium) grows wild, 
and is also cultivated. 

Natives. So large an area of New Guinea remains unexplored 
that it is impossible, except approximately, to state the number of 
its inhabitants, but probably 600,000 is under rather than over the 
mark. The people are broken up into numerous isolated tribes 
differing greatly in feature, colour and language. Ethnically they 
belong as a whole to the Melanesian division of the Indo-Pacific 
races. The_ predominant tribe are the Papuans (q.v.), who are 
found here in their greatest racial purity and occupy practically 
the whole island except its eastern extremity. The New Guinea 
native is usually of a negroid type with fine physique, but in the 
Arfak mountains in the north-west, and at points on the west and 
north coasts and adjacent islands, the very degraded and stunted 
Karons are found, with hardly the elements of social organization 
(possibly the aboriginal race unmixed with foreign elements), and 
resembling the Aetas or Negritos of the Philippines, and other 
kindred tribes in the Malay Archipelago. On the banks of the Fly 
river d'Albertis observed at least two widely differing types, those 
on its upper course bearing some resemblance to the tribes of the 



eastern coast. Here, wedged in among the ruder Papuans, who 
reappear at the extremity of the peninsula, a very different-looking 
people are found, whom competent observers, arguing from appear- 
ance, language and customs, assert to be a branch of the fair Poly- 
nesian race. But they are obviously of mixed blood. On the west 
coasts there is a semi-civilization, due to intercourse with Malays 
and Bugis, who have settled at various points, and carry on the 
trade with the neighbouring islands, in some of which, while the 
coast population is Malay or mixed, that of the interior is identical 
with the people of the mainland of New Guinea. On the west coasts 
Mahommedan teaching has also some civilizing effect. Many of 
the tribes at the west end of New Guinea are, at all events in war 
time, head-hunters, and in the mountains cannibals. Cannibalism, 
in fact, is practised here and there throughout New Guinea. The 
frequent hostility and mistrust of strangers are partly due to slave- 
hunting raids and ill-treatment by traders, but the different tribes 
vary much in character. Thus in the mountains of the north-west 
the Karons live by plunder, or by disposal of slaves or bird skins; 
while their neighbours the Kebars are a peaceful agricultural people. 
The mountain tribes are usually despised by their coast neighbours, 
but in the south of west New Guinea the coast people live in per- 
petual terror of their inland neighbours. 

At Humboldt Bay the people are ready to trade, as are the tribes 
at Astrolabe Bay; here the Russian Miklucho Maclay lived for 
some time, and was favourably impressed by the natives. Still 
farther east, the plateaus of the Finisterre ranges are highly culti- 
vated and artificially irrigated by a comparatively fair people. 
Many tribes in the south-west seem to be migratory. At Princess 
Marianne Straits tribes much wilder than those farther west, naked 
and painted, swarm like monkeys in the trees, the stems of which are 
submerged at high tide. But the Torres Straits islanders are em- 
ployed by Europeans in the pearl shell fishery, and are good labourers ; 
and in some of the Kei and An; Islands the Papuan inhabitants 
form orderly Christian communities. The people of the south-east 
peninsula are generally far from ferocious. Englishmen, wandering 
inland and losing their way, have been found and brought back by 
them. Their ^manners are more courteous, their women better 
treated, than is usual with Papuans, but they show perhaps less 
ingenuity and artistic taste. Their children, in the mission schools, 
show much intelligence. 

Exploration and Annexation. Though probably sighted by 
Antonio d'Abreu, 1511, New Guinea was apparently first visited 
either by the Portuguese Don Jorge de Meneses, driven on his 
way from Goa to Ternate in 1526 to take shelter at " Isla Versija " 
(which has been identified with Warsia, a place on the N.W. 
coast, but may possibly be the island of Waigeu), or by the 
Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra two years later. The name of 
" New Guinea " was probably given by Ortiz de Retez, or Roda, 
who in 1546 first laid down several points along the north coast. 
In the same and the two following centuries, though the coasts 
were visited by many illustrious navigators, as Willem Schouten 
and Jacob Lemaire, Abel Tasman, William Dampier, L. V. de 
Torres, L. A. de Bougainville and James Cook, little additional 
knowledge was gained. This was due first to the difficulties of 
the navigation, next to the exclusiveness of the Dutch, who, 
holding the Spice Islands, prevented all access to places east of 
them, and lastly to the stream of enterprise being latterly 
diverted to the more temperate regions farther south. The 
Dutch barrier was broken down by the arrival of Dampier and 
other " interlopers " from the east, and of emissaries from the 
(English) East India Company hi search of spice-bearing lands. 
The voyage of Thomas Forrest (1774) in the " Tartar galley " of 
10 tons, and his account of New Guinea ( Voyage to New Guinea 
and the Moluccas, London, 1780), are still full of interest. New 
Guinea was actually annexed in 1793 by two commanders in the 
East India Company's service, and the island of Manasvari in 
Geelvink Bay was held for some months by their troops. After 
the peace of 1815 Dutch surveying expeditions to the west coasts 
became numerous, and in later times scientific explorers penetrated 
many of the unknown parts of Dutch New Guinea, such as 
A. R. Wallace (1856-1863), Odoardo Beccari (1871, 1875 and 
1876), and Maria d'Albertis (1871-1878). Important expeditions 
were those of P. van der Crab, J. E. Teysmann, J. G. Coorengel, 
A. J. Langeveldt van Hemert and P. Swaan, undertaken for the 
Netherlands Indian government 1871-1872, 1875-1876 (reports 
published at The Hague in 1879); and f C. B. H. von Rosenberg 
in the Geelvink Bay districts in 1869-1870 (report published at 
The Hague in 1875). Subsequently to the visits of J. A. 
d'Entrecasteaux (1793) and Dumont d'Urville (1827-1840), the 
eastern coasts were surveyed by Captains F.P. Blackwood (1835)^ 



NEW GUINEA 



489 



Owen Stanley (1848), Charles B. Yule (1864), and other British 
officers, including J. Moresby (1874). Among other explorers 
in this period the following may be mentioned: Nicholas von 
Miklucho Maclay in 1870, 1877 and 1870-1881, in the Astrolabe 
Bay district, &c.; the missionary, Rev. S. Macfarlane (1875, 
Fly river, &c.); about 1876-1880 the north-east coasts and 
adjacent islands were explored by the Rev. G. Brown and by 
Wilfred Powell, and in 1882 Dr Otto Finsch, whose name is.well 
known in connexion with scientific work in New Guinea, made 
valuable explorations in the neighbourhood of Port Moresby and 
the Loluki river. 

The surveys and reports of Captain Moresby in 1874 brought 
home to Queensland (and Australia generally) the dangers 
possible to her commerce were the coasts opposite to Torres 
Strait and the entrance to the splendid waterway inside the 
Barrier Reef to fall into the possession of a foreign power. By 
authority, therefore, of Queensland, the mainland of New Guinea, 
opposite her shores east of the 14151 meridian, was annexed to 
that colony- in 1883. But this action was disallowed by the 
British government as Yule's and Moresby's had been. Finally, 
however, in 1884 a British protectorate was authoritatively 
proclaimed by Commodore Erskine over the region " lying 
between the 14131 meridian eastward as far as East Cape, with 
the adjacent islands as far as Kosman Island." German New 
Guinea was annexed on the i6th of November 1884, when the 
German flag was raised in Friedrich Wilhelmshafen and a 
trading company was established on the north-east coast, and in 
1885 the two countries agreed to fix their boundaries through 
the then neutral areas of the country. The result of this was the 
assignation to Great Britain of the portion now known as the 
Territory of Papua (British New Guinea), lying between the 
extreme limits of 5 and 1 2 S. and 141 and 1 55 E. To Germany 
were assigned all the territory and islands to the north of the 
British boundary under the name of Kaiser Wilhelms Land, 
while all to the west of the 141 st meridian remained under its 
old flag as Dutch New Guinea. 

Since this period explorers and investigators have been almost 
constantly at work. There may be mentioned the work of the Rev. 
J. Chalmers on the coast of the Gulf of Papua (1893), and of officers 
of the German New Guinea Company in the ship Ysabel " on the 
coasts and among the islands of the German territory; the ex- 
pedition which crossed the south-eastern peninsula from Huon Gulf 
of which both the leaders, O. Ehlers and M. Piering, lost their lives 
(1895), the important German expedition under C. Lauterbach 
(1896), and the various explorations carried out by or at the instiga- 
tion of Sir William MacGregor, including a crossing of the island 
from the mouth of the Mambare river to that of the Vanapa, and a 
second crossing in the reverse direction (1897). Ethnographical 
researches have been prosecuted by Messrs C. G. Seligmann and W. 
Mersh Strong, and others. The reports of travellers and of various 
missionary societies have thrown a great deal of light on the natural 
history of the island, on its resources, and the islanders. 

BRITISH NEW GUINEA 

The British Territory of Papua has an area of about 90,540 
sq. m. and a population estimated at 400,000, of whom about 600 
are Europeans. The Protectorate, as declared in 1884, with its 
seat of government at Port Moresby, was subsidized by the three 
Australian colonies of Queensland, New South Wales and 
Victoria, and lasted, under the administration of two successive 
special commissioners (Major-General Sir Peter Scratchley and 
the Hon. John Douglas), till the 4th of September 1888, when it 
was proclaimed by the first Administrator afterwards Lieu- 
tenant-Governor Sir William MacGregor, a possession of Queen 
Victoria. Its constitution was that of a crown colony in associa- 
tion with Queensland; but in 1901 the federal government took 
control of the territory and in 1906 a proclamation by the 
governor-general of the commonwealth gave it the name of the 
Territory of Papua. The lieutenant-governor is aided by an 
executive and a legislative council, and advised by a native 
regulation board. Justice is administered by petty sessions in the 
six magisterial districts into which the possession is divided, with a 
central court at Port Moresby (which, however, sits elsewhere as 
necessary) having the jurisdiction of a supreme court, from which 
in certain cases an appeal lies to the supreme court of Queensland. 



Order is maintained by an armed constabulary force, under a 
European officer, of about 180, almost all natives from different 
districts, whose members are found to be very efficient and 
trustworthy. The expenditure is about 38,000 annually, and 
the revenue, mainly derived from customs duties, is rapidly 
increasing. Only 5110 in 1895, it was 11,683 in 1899 and 
19,197 in 1905. 

Commerce and Trade. The making of mats, fishing-nets, shell 
ornaments, decorated gourds, and stone implements, and the 
manufacture of pottery, canoes and sago, constitute the chief 
native industries, which are the subject of barter between different 
regions. European industries include gold mining, in which 500 
miners, besides natives, are engaged (chiefly in the Louisiade Archi- 
pelago), and the be'che de mer and pearl-shell fisheries, which were 
formerly more productive than at present. Copra is naturally 
largely prepared, as coco-nut palms are very numerous, and are 
extensively planted every year. A small amount of tortoise-shell 
is collected. The rubber industry is, according to Sir W. MacGregor, 
" important and promising." Species of Palaquium, the genus from 
which, in the Indian Archipelago, the best gutta-percha is obtained, 
occur on the hills, and from their cultivation there might in time be 
obtained a large revenue independently of European labour. Timber 
of economic value is scarce. Red cedar (CedrHia) abounds in the 
riverine flats, but the quality is poor and commercially valueless; 
and oaks are plentiful, but the wood is coarse. Small quantities 
of ebony and sandal- wood are exported. " There can be no reason- 
able doubt that the sugar-cane, which is native and present in a 
great many varieties, sago, cotton, probably also indigenous and of 
exceptionally fine quality, will eventually be valuable " (MacGregor). 
The trade of British New Guinea is exclusively with the Australian 
colonies. Imports were valued at 72,286 in 1890^-1900 (an increase 
of over 20,110 in the year), and exports (including the gold mines) 
at 56,167, while in 1905 the figures were 67,188 for imports and 
73,669 for exports, and in 1906 79,671 and 80,290 respectively. 

GERMAN NEW GUINEA 

The German protectorate of New Guinea, so called after the 
island which contributes the greatest area, comprehends, besides 
Kaiser Wilhelms Land, the islands which are now commonly 
called the Bismarck Archipelago viz. New Pomerania, New 
Mecklenburg, with New Hanover and the Admiralty Islands 
and the Solomon Islands (Bougainville and Buka). There are 
besides nearly 200 smaller islands and islets scattered among 
their greater neighbours. In 1884 New Guinea was absolutely 
wild, not a single white man living on what is now the German 
part. On the islands New Pomerania and Mioko only two 
trading firms had their establishments; and on New Lauenburg 
the Wesleyans had a mission station. After the annexation 
commercial enterprise set in at once, hand in hand with political 
administration. Now on the mainland and in the islands 
plantations have been established and tobacco and cotton have 
been successfully grown. Three German mission societies formed 
settlements on New Guinea, with a branch one on the Gazelle 
peninsula. The protectorate is included in the Universal Postal 
Union; each harbour has its post office, also a leading official 
with a number of assistants to control the natives and the 
revenue. It is divided into two districts with separate adminis- 
trations, New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago; over both 
presides an imperial governor, the seat of government being 
Herbertshohe in New Pomerania. A small police force of natives 
has been formed. In each district there is a registry of deeds and 
a court of law, and in New Guinea a court of appeal, of which the 
governor is president. A line of steamers plies between New 
Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Singapore. A special 
silver coin of rupee value has been introduced. The area of 
Kaiser Wilhelms Land is approximately 70,000 sq. m. It is 
impossible to speak with any precision of the number of the 
native population, but the white population in 1906 was 
149. 

The revenue of German New Guinea is derived from taxes, dues 
and licences, and amounted on the 31 st of March 1892 to about 
3000; on the same rate, 1901, to 3750. The annual revenue is 
averaged at 5000, and the expenditure at 4200. The New Guinea 
Company was to receive 20,000 for transferring proprietorship to 
government, which took over the administration in 1899. In 1905 
imports into Kaiser Wilhelms Land were valued at 33, 316, and 
exports at 7702, and the estimated expenditure for 1907-1908 
of 76,000 included an imperial subvention of 57,696. The chief 
harbours are Friedrich Wilhelmshafen and Konstantinhafen. 



490 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



DUTCH NEW GUINEA 



Dutch New Guinea comprises all the western portion of the 
island. The boundary on the east, separating it from British 
New Guinea and German New Guinea, was finally settled in 1893. 
Starting from the south coast, it follows 141 i' 48* E. up to the 
Fly river, which is mounts until 141 i' is reached, when it 
once more follows the meridian up to the north coast. The 
area of the territory is 151,789 sq. m., and the inhabitants have 
been conjectured to number some 200,000. A few missionaries 
have established themselves, but otherwise the Dutch have 
scarcely occupied their possession, which at present merely 
forms part of the residency of Ternate in the Moluccas. Dutch 
New Guinea, however, has better natural advantages than either 
the British or German possessions in the island, and should 
eventually prove of real value to the Netherlands. The claims 
to superiority over New Guinea on the part of the rulers of some 
of the small neighbouring islands date at least from the spread 
of Islam to the Moluccas at the beginning of the isth century, 
and were maintained by the Malay rulers both of Bachian and 
of Gebeh and afterwards by the sultan of Tidore. When -the 
Dutch first came to these seas it was their policy to ally themselves 
with certain chiefs, and support their claims over various islands, 
so as to extend their own commercial monopoly; and they 
therefore supported the claims (admitted by Great Britain in 
1814) of the sultan of Tidore over both the Raja Ampat (i.e. 
the four Papuan kingships, Waigeu, Salawatti, Misol and 
Waigamma on Misol Island) and certain islands or points on the 
north-west coast of New Guinea. Nominally the sultan of 
Tidore is still the suzerain of western New Guinea, but his 
authority is scarcely recognized, except on some few shores and 
adjacent islands, and practically Dutch New Guinea used to be 
administered partly from Ternate and partly from Timor, upon 
more peaceful lines than was the case when the rule of the Dutch 
in New Guinea largely consisted of the sending of a warship now 
and again to some distant island or bay to burn a kampong, to 
punish rebellious villagers, and thus assert or reassert Dutch 
authority, or that of the sultan, who is their vassal. In 1901, 
however, a more serious effort was made to establish some kind 
of government in the southern province of Dutch New Guinea, 
at Merawkay, where a small Dutch-Indian garrison was stationed 
with the professed object of preventing raids by bands of savages 
into the British territory near by. Such raids had been rather 
frequent, the invaders attacking the natives who live under 
British protection, burning their huts, murdering the men, 
carrying off the women and children as slaves, and returning 
to their own haunts laden with booty. There is an assistant 
Resident at Merawkay, whose immediate chief is the Dutch 
Resident at Ternate, and who is the civil administrator of the 
province of southern Dutch New Guinea. Assistant Residencies 
have also been established at Manokvary in northern Dutch 
New Guinea, which has been formed into a province, under 
Ternate, and at Fakfak, in western Dutch New Guinea, likewise 
erected into a province, also under Ternate. By 1902, therefore, 
Dutch New Guinea formed a government, with its headquarters 
at Ternate, divided into the three provinces named. At regular 
intervals the steamersof the Dutch Royal Steam Packet Company 
call at Dorey and other points, while administrative posts have 
been established elsewhere in lieu of others previously attempted 
but abandoned. 

A curious discussion arose in the Dutch states-general when 
the government was seeking legislative sanction for the above 
measures, with a provisional credit to cover the first establish- 
ment expenses. It was seriously contended in one part of the 
house that, as eminent men of geographical and ethnographical 
science had settled the question whether New Guinea belongs to 
Asia or Polynesia in favour of the latter, a New Guinea coloniza- 
tion scheme could not properly be proposed and decided upon 
in a section of the Dutch-Indian budget. This budget concerned 
only the Asiatic possessions of Holland, not the Polynesian 
ones, and Dutch New Guinea must, consequently, have its own 
budget. Finally, the majority of the states-general, backed by 



government, decided that New Guinea must still be reckoned to 
belong to Asia. 

AUTHORITIES. Narratives of the various explorers mentioned: 

E. C. Rye, " Bibliography of New Guinea " (complete in 1883), in 
Supplementary Papers, R.G.S. (1884); H. Haga, Nederlandsch 
Nieuw Guinea en de Papoesche Ettanden. Historische Bijdrage, 1500- 
1883 (Batavia, 1884); H. H. Romilly, The Western Pacific and New 
Guinea (London, 1886); R. Parkinson, Im Bismarck Archipel 
(Leipzig, 1887); C. Kinloch Cooke, Australian Defences and New 
Guinea (London, 1887); J. Strachan, Explorations and Adventures 
in New Guinea (London, 1888); H. O. Forbes, " British New 
Guinea as a Colony," in Blackwood's Magazine (July 1892); J. P. 
Thompson, British New Guinea (London, 1892); L. Karnbach, 
Die bisherige Erforschungvon Kaiser Wilhelmsland (Berlin, 1893); 

F. S. A. de Clercq and J. D. E. Schmeltz, Ethnographische beschrijving 
van de West- en Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea (Leiden, 
1893); A. C. Haddon, Decorative Art of British New Guinea, Royal 
Irish Academy (Dublin, 1894); " Studies in Anthropogeography of 
Br. New Guinea," in Geograph. Journ. vols. xvi., xvii. ; Gep- 
graphische Untersuchungen in der Westhalfte von New Guinea," in 
Report of Sixth International Geographical Congress (London, 1895) : 
J. Chalmers, Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea (London, 1895) ; 
Sir W. MacGregor, British New Guinea (London, 1897) ; H. Cayley- 
Webster, Through New Guinea (London, 1898); R. Semon, Im 
Australischen Busch und an den Kiisten des Korallen Meeres (Leipzig, 
1899); Nachrichten uber Kaiser Wilhelmsland (Berlin, 1887-1899); 
Joachim Graf von Pfeil, Studien und Beobachtungen aus der Stidsee 
(Brunswick, 1899) ; M. Krieger, New Guinea (Berlin, 1899) ; K. Blum, 
New Guinea und der Bismarck Archipel (Berlin); Stanford's Com- 
pendium of Geography and Travel; Malaysia and Pacific Archipela- 
goes (new issue, edited by Dr F. H. H. Guillemard, London) ; The 
Cruise of the " Marchesa " (1894), by the same (second volume); 
British Empire Series : " Australasia " (London, 1900) ;*E. Tappenbeck, 
Deutsch Neuguinea (Berlin, 1901); J. Schmeltz, Beitrage zur 
Ethnographie von Neuguinea (Leiden, 1905), sqq.; A. E. Pratt, 
Two Years among New Guinea Cannibals (London, 1906); Annual 
Reports on British New Guinea. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, a North Atlantic state of the United 
States, one of the New England group, and one of the Original 
Thirteen, lying between latitudes 42 40' and 45 18' 23* N., and 
between longitudes 70 37' and 72 37' W. It is bounded N. 
by the Canadian province of Quebec; E. by Maine, by the 
Salmon Falls river, which separates it in part from Maine, and 
by the Atlantic Ocean; S.E. and S. by Massachusetts; W. and 
N.W. by Vermont (from which it is separated by the Connecticut 
river low water mark on the W. bank of the Connecticut is 
New Hampshire's W. boundary), and by Halls Stream which 
separates it from Quebec. The state has an area of 9341 sq. m., 
of which 310 sq. m. are water surface. 

Physical Features. The delightful scenery of mountains, 
lakes, streams and woodlands gives to the greater part of New 
Hampshire, which is in the New England physiographic province, 
the appearance of a vast and beautiful park; and the state is a 
favourite summer resort. In the N. central portion, the White 
Mountains, a continuation of the Appalachian system, rise very 
abruptly in several short ranges and in outlying mountain masses 
from a base level of 700-1500 ft. to generally rounded summits, 
the heights of several of which are nowhere exceeded in the eastern 
part of the United States except in the Black and the Unaka 
mountains of North Carolina; seventy-four rise more than 
3000 ft. above the sea, twelve more than 5000 ft., and the 
highest, Mount Washington, attains an elevation of 6293 ft. 

The principal ranges, the Presidential, the Franconia and the 
Carter-Moriah, have a north-eastern and south-western trend. 
The Presidential, in the north-eastern part of the region, is separated 
from the Franconia on the south-west by the Crawford, or White 
Mountain Notch, about 2000 ft. in depth, in which the Ammonoosuc 
and Saco rivers find a passage, and from the Carter-Moriah, parallel to 
it on the east, by the Glen-Ellis and Peabody rivers, the former 
noted for its beautiful falls. On the Presidential range, which is 
about 20 m. in length, are Mount Washington and nine other peaks 
exceeding 5000 ft. in height: Mount Adams, 5805 ft.; Mount 
Jefferson, 5725 ft.; Mount Sam Adams, 5585 ft.; Mount Clay, 
5554 ft.; Boot Spur, 5520 ft.; Mount Monroe, 5390 ft.; T. Q. 
Adams Peak, 5384 ft.; Mount Madison, 5380 ft.; and Mount 
Franklin, 5028 ft. On the Franconia, a much shorter range, are 
Mount Lafayette, 5269 ft.; Mount Lincoln, 5098 ft.; and four others 
exceeding 4000 ft. The highest peak on the Carter-Moriah range 
is Carter Dome, 4860 ft., but seven others exceed 4000 ft. Loftiest 
of the isolated mountains is Moosilanke noted for its magnificent 
view-point 4810 ft. above the sea. Separating Franconia and 
Pemigewasset ranges is the romantic Franconia Notch, overlooking 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



491 



which from the upper cliffs of Profile Mountain is a remarkable 
human profile, The Great Stone Face, immortalized by Nathaniel 
Hawthorne; here, too, is the Franconia Flume, a narrow upright 
fissure, 60 ft. in height, with beautiful waterfalls. 

The whole White Mountain region abounds in deep narrow 
valleys, romantic glens, ravines, flumes, waterfalls, brooks and lakes. 
The part of the state which lies N. of the White Mountains is 
occupied by ridges and wide rolling valleys, the ridges rising occa- 
sionally to heights of 2000 ft. or more. South of the mountains a 
plateau-like surface-^-a part of the New Englancj Uplands broken 
by residual mountains, or " monadnocks " (a term derived from 
Mount Monadnock, 3186 ft. high, near the S.W. corner of the state) 
and lenticular hills, or drumlins, but having a general S.E. slope 
toward the sea, extends from the intervales of the Connecticut 
river to the E. border of the Merrimac Valley. Between the Mem- 
mac Valley and the sea is the only low surface in the state;. a 
considerable portion of this region is less than 500 ft. above the sea, 
but even here are numerous ridges 1000 ft. in height or more, and 
small drumlins. The seashore, about 1 8 m. in length, is for the 
most part a low sandy beach; here and there, however, especially 
to the northward, it is somewhat rocky, and to the southward are 
two bluffs. The only harbour is at Portsmouth near the mouth of 
the Piscataqua. About 9 m. from the shore are the bleak and 
nearly barren Isles of Shoals, nine in number, a part of which belong 
to New Hampshire and a part to Maine. 

Extending from Mount Monadnock in Cheshire, the S.W. corner 
county, to the headwaters of the Connecticut river in the N.E. 
corner is a water-parting, W. of which the state is drained southward 
into Long Island Sound by the Connecticut and its tributaries and 
E. of which it is drained south-eastward into the Atlantic Ocean 
principally by the Merrimac in the S., the Saco and the headwaters 
of the Merrimac in the White Mountain region, and the Andro- 
scoggin in the N. The Piscataqua is a tidal estuary fed chiefly by 
the Salmon Falls, Lamprey and Exeter rivers. The headwaters of 
the rivers are for the most part mountain streams or elevated lakes; 
farther on their swift and winding currents flowing sometimes 
between wide intervales, sometimes between rocky banks are 
marked by numerous falls and fed by lakes. 

The lakes and ponds, numbering several hundred, were formed 
by glacial action and the scenery of many of them is scarcely less 
attractive than that of the mountains. The largest and most 
widely known is Lake Winnepesaukee on the S. border of the White 
Mountain region; this is about 20 m. long and from I to 8 m. wide, 
is dotted by 274 islands, mostly verdant, and has clear water and a 
rather level shore, back of which hills or mountains rise on all sides. 
Among the more prominent of many others that are admired for 
their beauty are Squam, New Found, Sunapee and Ossipee, all 
within a radius of a few miles from Winnepesaukee; Massabesic 
farther S. ; and Diamond Ponds, Umbagog and Connecticut lakes, 
N. of the White Mountains. The rivers with their numerous falls 
and the lakes with their high altitudes furnish a vast amount of 
water power for manufacturing, the Merrimac, in particular, into 
which many of the larger lakes, including Winnepesaukee, find an 
outlet, is one of the greatest power-yielding streams of the world. 

Flora. Except on the summits of the higher mountains New 
Hampshire was origjnally an unbroken forest of which the principal 
trees were the white pine, hemlock, sugar maple, yellow birch, 
beech, red oak, and white oak in the S., red spruce, balsam, and 
white birch on the upper mountain slopes, and red spruce, white 
pine, sugar maple, white spruce and white cedar in the other parts 
of the N. The primeval forests have nearly disappeared, but 
much of the N. third of the state and many abandoned farms in the 
S. have become reforested with much the same trees, except that 
on the lower levels in the N. yellow birch, sugar maple and beech 
have to a considerable extent supplanted spruce, white pine and 
hemlock, and that wherever forest fires have occurred there is much 
bird cherry, yellow birch and aspen. The butternut, hickory and 
chestnut are common nut-bearing trees in the S. Among indigenous 
fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and vines the state has the bird cherry, 
black cherry, blueberry, cranberry, raspberry, blackberry, goose- 
berry, strawberry, grape and black currant; and conspicuous 
among a very great variety of shrubs and flowering plants are 
the rose, dogwood, laurel, sumac, holly, winterberry, trilliums, 
anemones, arbutuses, violets, azaleas, eglantine, clematis, blue 
gentians, orange lilies, orchids, asters and golden rod. The sum- 
mits of some of the mountains are too high for trees and above belts 
of dwarf spruce, balsam and birch they are clothed chiefly with 
sandworts, diapensia, cassiope, rushes, sedges and lichens. 

Fauna. The N. section of the state was originally a favourite 
hunting-ground of the Indians, for here in abundance were the 
moose, caribou, deer, wolf, bear, lynx, otter, beaver, fox, sable, 
mink, musk-rat, porcupine, wood-chuck, ruffed grouse and pigeon. 
These were rapidly reduced in number by the white man, the wild 
pigeons are extinct, and the moose, caribou, bear, wolf, lynx and 
beaver have become rare, but, under the protection of laws enacted 
during the latter part of the igth century, deer and ruffed grouse 
are again quite plentiful. Rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, woodcock 
and quail are also common game. Many of the lakes and rivers 
have been stocked with trout and salmon or bass; some, with 
smelt; the fresh waters of the state also contain pickerel, perch, 



pouts, eels, suckers, dace, sunfish and shiners. In the S. half of 
New Hampshire are many song birds belonging to the Allegheny 
faunal area; in the N. part many others belonging to the Canadian 
faunal area. The hermit thrush, veery, song sparrow, red-eyed 
vireo, bunting, warbler and wren are among the song birds of the 
forests. 

Climate. The winters are usually long and severe, and the summers 
cool and salubrious, but the diversity of surface together with un- 
equal distances from the sea cause marked variations for the different 
regions. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 42 F. 
at only moderate elevations in the White Mountain region and 
farther N. to 47 F. at low altitudes in the S.E. The greatest 
extremes of temperature occur in the deep mountain valleys where 
it sometimes rises to 102 F. or above, in summer, and falls to 38F. 
or below in winter; higher up on the mountains it is never so 
warm and along the sea-coast both extremes are considerably less. 
The highest recorded winter mean is 25 F., at Nashua in the lower 
valley of the Merrimac, and at Durham near the sea-coast ; the 
lowest recorded winter mean is 18 F., at Bethlehem 1470 ft. above 
the sea in the White Mountain region; the highest recorded summer 
mean is 69 F. at Nashua, and the lowest recorded summer mean is 
64 F. at Bethlehem. The mean annual precipitation for the entire 
state is about 40 in.; it is 43 in. at Nashua, 45-3 in. at Durham, 
and perhaps still more on the E. slopes of the mountain ranges, but 
it is only 37 7 in. at Bethlehem in the N.W. part of the mountain 
region and only 35-5 in. at Stratford in the upper valley of the 
Connecticut. The distribution is quite even throughout the year, 
but summer and autumn are slightly more wet than winter and 
spring. Among the mountains and in the N. part of the state the 
annual fall of snow is from 7 to 8 ft., but in the S.E. corner it is 
little more than one-half that amount. The prevailing winds are 
generally N.W., but in the vicinity of the sea they are S.E. during 
summer. 

Agriculture. Fertile soil in New Hampshire is confined 
largely to the bottom-lands of the Merrimac and Connecticut 
rivers, where on deposits of glacial drift, which are generally 
quite deep in the southern half of the state, there is considerable 
alluvium. In the south-eastern section is also a moderately 
productive soil derived largely from the disintegration of slate. 
Elsewhere south of the mountains the surface soil is mostly 
hard pan or till, this being deepest on the drumlins. In the 
mountain region the soil is mostly a sandy loam composed of 
disintegrated granitic gneiss and organic matter; on the lower 
and more gentle slopes as well as in the valleys this is generally 
deep enough for a luxuriant vegetable growth but on the upper 
and more precipitous slopes it is thin, or the rocks are entirely bare. 

Farms in the more sterile parts of New Hampshire were 
abandoned when the depleted soil and the old methods of 
agriculture made it impossible for owners or tenants to compete 
with western farmers. This abandonment led in 1889 to the 
adoption by the state Board of Agriculture of measures which 
promoted the development of the state, especially the central 
and northern parts, as a summer resort. Abandoned farms 
were advertised as suitable for country homes, and within 
fifteen years about two thousand were bought; and the carriage 
roads were improved, game preserved and the interests of visitors 
studied. Agriculture on the farms still operated was now 
greatly modified, and the production of vegetables, fruits, dairy 
products, poultry and eggs was largely substituted for the 
production of cereals. The total acreage of all land included in 
farms increased from 3,459,018 acres in 1890 to 3,609,784 acres 
in 1900, or from 60% to 62-6% of the total land area of the 
state, but the improved portion of this decreased during the 
decade from 1,727,387 acres to 1,076,879 acres, or from 49-9% 
to 29-8%; in no other state east of the Mississippi river was 
so small a proportion of the farm land improved at the close of 
the decade, although in Florida it was only a trifle larger. The 
total number of farms increased from 29,151 in 1800 to 29,324 
in 1900, and the average size increased from 119 acres to 123-1 
acres, but as a result of the more intensive form of agriculture, 
farms containing less than 50 acres increased from 8188 in 1890 
to 8764 in 1900, and those containing 50 acres or more decreased 
during this decade from 20,963 to 20,560. Of the total number 
of farms in 1900, 26,344, or 89-8%, were operated by owners or 
part owners, 1639 by cash tenants and 546 by share tenants. 

Hay is the principal crop; in 1909 the acreage was 640,000 
acres and the yield was 621,000 tons. The total acreage of cereals 
decreased from 88,559 acres in 1879 to 61,498 acres in 1889, and to 
42,335 acres in 1899; during the latter decade that of Indian corn 



492 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



increased from 23,746 acres to 25,694 acres (30,000 acres in 1909), 
but that of oats decreased from 26,618 acres to 12,589 acres (14,000 
acres in 1909), that of wheat decreased from 2027 acres to 271 
acres (none reported in 1909), that of barley decreased from 4934 
acres to 1596 acres (2oooacres in 1909), that of buckwheat decreased 
from 3117 acres to 1835 acres (2000 acres in 1909), and that of rye 
decreased from 1056 acres to 350 acres (none reported in 1909). 
With the exception of dairy cows and horses there was likewise a 
corresponding decrease in the number of livestock during these 
years: the number of hogs decreased from 58,585 in 1890 to 56,970 
in 1900 (51,000 in 1910); of sheep, from 211, 825 in 1880 to 105,702 
in 1900 (74,000 in 1910) ; and of neat cattle other than dairy cows, 
from 141,841 in 1880 to 116,835 n I 9 (93' in !9 10 ); put the 
number of horses increased from 52,458 in 1890 to 77,233 in 1900 
(59,000 in 1910), and the number of dairy cows from 90,564 in 1890 
to 115,036 in 1900 (122,000 in 1910). The value of the poultry and 
egg product of 1899 was $1,824,399, which was more than twice 
that of the cereals and nearly one-third of that of the hay and 
forage. The potato crop of the same year was grown on 19,422 
acres and amounted to 2,420,668 bushels valued at $1,090,495; in 
1909 the acreage was 21,000, and the crop was 2,730,000 bushels, 
valued at $1,747,000. The acreage of other vegetables in 1899 was 
26,780 and the value of the market garden produce, including small 
fruits, which was sold, increased from $187,049 in 1889 to $394,283 
in 1899 or no-8%. Although the crop of orchard fruits was no 
greater in 1899 than in 1889 the number of apple trees increased 
during the decade from 1,744,779 to 2,034,398, the number of peach 
trees from 19,057 to 48,819 and the number of plum trees from 
10,151 to 18,137; in the number of pear trees and of cherry trees 
there was a slight decrease. The fruit crop of 1899 included 
1,978,797 bushels of apples, 19,341 bushels of pears, 6054 bushels 
of peaches, 4942 bushels of plums, 1 183 bushels of cherries, 487,500 Ib 
of grapes, 568,640 qts. of strawberries, 124,760 qts. of raspberries 
and 105,290 qts. of blackberries and dewberries. The valley of the 
Merrimac is the leading section for the production of hay, small 
fruits and dairy products. In the bottom lands of the Merrimac 
and of the Connecticut, south of the White Mountain's, a large part 
of the Indian corn and vegetables is grown. Potatoes, however, 
are grown in large quantities north and west of the White Mountains; 
and this district leads in the number of cattle and sheep, and in the 
production of all the cereals except Indian corn. Apples, pears and 
grapes are successfully grown throughout the central and southern 
sections, but peaches and cherries chiefly south of Lake Winne : 
pesaukee. Hillsboro and Rockingham counties, in the south-east, 
lead in the production of poultry and eggs. 

Forests. The White Mountain region and Coos county to the 
north of it, embracing in all nearly one-third of the total area of the 
state, is essentially a forest country. In 1903, however, only about 
12 % of this was still occupied by a virgin merchantable forest and 
69-8% was cut-over or culled land. In the southern part of the 
state there is in the aggregate nearly as large an area of young 
forests on lands, most of which were until about 1850 used for 
agricultural purposes. The principal merchantable timber of the 
state is red spruce, and this is found chiefly in the virgin forests 
which remain in the north, especially in those on the steep mountain 
slopes between elevations of 1800 ft. and 3500 ft. All except a few 
scattered trees of the white pine, which was once abundant in all 
parts of the state below 1500 ft. in elevation, has been cut; but 
some of the second growth in the south is already merchantable. 
The most common hardwood trees are sugar maple, yellow birch, 
white birch and beech; these are widely distributed throughout 
the state, but are for the most part too young to be cut for lumber. 
White cedar is almost wholly confined to the swamps of the north, 
and white oak is found chiefly on the more fertile lands of the 
south. Most of the virgin forests of the northern section were cut 
in the latter half of the igth century, while abandoned farms in 
the south were becoming reforested, and the value of the state's 
lumber and timber products increased from $1,099,492 in 1850 to 
$4,286,142 in 1870, and to $9,218,310 in 1900 and then decreased 
to $7,519,431 in 1905; since 1890 large quantities of wood, 
chiefly spruce, have also been used in the manufacture of paper and 
wood pulp. In 1909 a forestry commission was established. 

Fisheries. Although the trout and salmon of the fresh waters in 
the interior are a great attraction to sportsmen, the commercial 
fisheries, which are confined to Rockingham county, on the coast, 
are of small and declining importance. The take of 1898 consisted 
chiefly of cod, haddock, lobsters, mackerel, alewives, pollock and 
hake, but was valued at only $48,987, which was a decrease of 67 % 
from that of 1889; in 1905 the total take was valued at $51,944, 
of which $32,575 was the value of lobsters and $8166 was the value 
of fresh cod the only other items valued at more than $1000 were 
soft clams ($2770), Irish moss ($2400), alewives, fresh and salted 
($1220), and haddock ($1048). 

'Minerals. The most important of the mineral products of New 
Hampshire, which has long been known as " the Granite State," 
is granite, which is quarried in the southern part of the state in the 
area of " Lake Winnepesaukee gneiss," near Concord, Merrimack 
county, near Milford, Hillsboro county, and E. of Manchester in 
Rockingham county; in Sullivan county, near Sunapee; and in 
the east central part of the state in Carroll county, near Conway 



and Madison. In 1908 there were 8 quarries at Concord, all on 
Rattlesnake Hill, and all within 2 m. of the state house in Concord. 
The Concord granite is a medium bluish-grey coloured muscovite- 
biotite granite, with mica plates so abundant as to effect the dura- 
bility of the polish of the stone; it is used for building the outer 
walls of the Library of Congress at Washington, D.C., are made of 
this stone to a less degree for monuments, for which the output 
of one quarry is used exclusively, and for paying blocks. The out- 
put of the Milford quarries, which numbered in 1908 fifteen twelve 
south and south-west and three north-west of Milford consists of 
fine and mostly even-grained, quartz monzonites (i.e. granites with 
an unusually large proportion of soda-lime feldspar), of various grey 
shades, sometimes tinged with blue, pink or buff, and always 
marked with black mica; the finer varieties take a high polish and 
are used for monuments, and the coarser grades are used for con- 
struction, especially of railway bridges, and for paving and curbing. 
The output of the Auburn quarry, 7 m. E. of Manchester, is a deep 
pink quartz monzonite, marked with fine black dots, which has a 
fine texture, takes a good polish and is used for monuments. The 
Conway quarries, four in number in 1908, are on either side of the 
Saco river, south-east and south-west of North Conway; their 
output is coarse constructional stones, all biotite or biotite-horn- 
blende, but varying in colour, pinkish (" red ") and dark-yellow 
greenish-grey (" green ") varieties being found remarkably near 
each other at Redstone, on the east side of the Saco valley. About 
2| m. E. of Sunapee are quarried two kinds of monumental stone: 
the " light Sunapee," a light bluish-grey biotite-muscovite, finer 
than the Concord granite, and capable of a good polish and of fine 
carving; and the " black pearl " or " dark Sunapee," a dark 
bluish-grey quartz-diorite, which seems black mottled with white 
when polished, and which is coarser than the " light Sunapee." 
New Hampshire granites were used for building as early as 1623. 
The value of granite quarried in the state increased from $195,000 
in 1887 to $1,147,097 in 1902, when building stone was valued at 
$619,916, monumental stone at $346,735 and paving stone at 
$101,548. In that year New Hampshire ranked fourth among the 
states in output of granite, with 6-3 % of the total value of granite 
quarried in the entire country; in 1908 the value of granite 
($867,028) was exceeded by that of each of seven other states but 
was more than one-half of the total value of all mineral products 
of the state. Of this total the only other large items were clay and 
clay products (valued at $371,640), and mineral waters ($259,520; 
of which $150,512 was the value of table waters) from nine springs, 
four in Rockingham, three in Hillsboro county and one each in 
Coos and Carrol counties and other mineral waters were used in 
the manufacture of soft drinks. Mica, first mined at Grafton, 
Grafton county, in 1803, found also in the northern part of Merri- 
mack county and in the north-western corner of Cheshire county in 
such quantities that for sixty years New Hampshire was the largest 
producer of mica in the United States, is no longer an important 
product: in 1907 its value ($7227) was less than that of the mica 
produced in South Dakota, Alabama, North Carolina or Colorado. 
A quartz schist, suitable for making whetstones and oilstones, was 
discovered in 1823 by Isaac Pike at Pike Station, Grafton county, 
and the Pike Manufacturing Company now owns and operates 
quarries outside this state also; in 1907 New Hampshire was the 
principal producer of scythe-stones in the United States, and the 
total value of whetstones made in 1907 (including the value of 
precious stones 1 ) was $59,870. 

Manufactures. The heavy precipitation on the elevated 
central and northern parts, and the hundreds of lakes and ponds 
which serve as reservoirs, give to the lower southern part of the 
state on the Merrimac and other rivers such an abundant and 
constant water-power that southern New Hampshire has become 
an important manufacturing district, and manufacturing has 
become the leading industry of the state. During the last two 
decades of the ipth century the number of inhabitants engaged 
in agricultural pursuits decreased from 45,122 to 38,782; and 
the number engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits 
increased from 57,283 to 75,945. Manyfarmers abandoned their 
sterile farms and made new homes in the West, where soil 
yielded larger returns for labour, and a foreign-born popula- 
tion, consisting largely of French Canadians, came to the 
cities in response to the demand for labour in the mills and 
factories. 

From 1850 to 1860 the value of the manufactured products 
increased 62-3%; in the decade of the Civil War they further 
increased in value 89%; from 1890 to 1900 the increase was from 
$85,770,549 to $118,709,308, or 38-4%; and from 1900 to 1905 
the value of the factory products increased from $107,590,803 to 
$123,610,904, or 14-9%. Textiles, and boots and shoes represented 

1 Gems are not sought for systematically in New Hampshire. 
Topaz occurs on Baldface Mountain, near North Chatham. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



493 



in 1905 more than one-half the total value. Cotton goods, the 
manufacture of which was introduced in 1804, increased in value 
only slightly during the last decade of the igth century, from 
$21,958,002 to $22,998,249, but from 1900 to 1905 their value 
increased 28-4%, or to $29,540,770; except in 1900 the manufacture 
of cotton goods had long ranked first, measured by the value of the 
product, among the state's manufacturing industries. Factory- 
made boots and shoes increased in value from $11,986,003 in 1890 
to $23,405,558 in 1900, or 95-3%, the industry ranking first in 
iqoo; but in 1905 there was a decrease to $22,425,700, the industry 
then ranking second ; in IQOO the value of boots and shoes was 2 1 -8% 
and in 1905 it was 18-1 % of the total value of all factory products, 
and in no other state was the degree of specialization in this in- 
dustry so great as in New Hampshire. Woollen goods, third in rank, 
decreased in value from $10,963,250 in 1890 to $10,381,056 in 1900, 
but the factory product increased in value from $7,624,062 in 1900 
to $11,013,982, in 1905, or 44-5%. Paper and wood pulp, for the 
manufacture of which the spruce forests of the state are so largely 
used, increased in value from $1,282,022 in 1890 to $7,244,733 in 
1900, or 465-1 %, and to $8,930,291 in 1905; and this industry rose 
from ninth in rank in 1890 to fifth in 1900 and to fourth in 1905. 
The manufacture of lumber and timber products, one of the oldest 
industries of the state, ranked fifth in 1905; these products had 
increased in value from $5,641,445 in 1890 to $9,218,310 in 1900, 
or 63-4%, but decreased to $7,519,431 in 1905, the decrease being 
in large measure due to the great demand for spruce at the paper 
and pulp mills. Foundry and machine shop products, hosiery and 
knit goods, wooden boxes, flour and grist mill products, and malt 
liquors are other important manufactures; the value of wooden 
boxes increased from $979,758 in 1900 to $2,565,612 in 1905, or 
161-9%, an d the value- of hosiery and knit goods increased during 
the same period from $2,592,829 to $3,974,290, or 53-3%. As 
compared with other states of the Union, New Hampshire in 1905 
ranked fifth in the manufacture of factory-made boots and shoes, 
and in woollen goods, sixth in cotton goods, and seventh in paper 
and wood pulp, in hosiery and knit goods, and in the dyeing and 
finishing of textiles. In 1905 the value of the products in the eight 
cities of Manchester, Nashua, Concord, Dover, Rochester, Laconia, 
Keene, and Portsmouth, all of which are south of Lake Winne- 
pesaukee, was 59-5% of that for the entire state. Nearly one-half 
the cotton goods were manufactured in Manchester. Boots and 
shoes were manufactured chiefly in cities near the southern border. 
Dover led in the manufacture of woollens; Laconia in the manu- 
facture of hosiery and knit goods; and Berlin, the chief manu- 
facturing centre north of the White Mountains, in the manufacture 
of paper and wood pulp. 

Transportation. With the exception of a Grand Trunk line in the 
northern part of the state the several steam railways are owned 
or leased by the Boston & Maine. Up the steep slope of Mount 
Washington runs a cog railway. The first steps in railway build- 
ing were taken in 1835, when the Boston & Maine, the Concord, 
and the Nashua & Lowell railways were incorporated. The Boston 
& Maine was opened from Boston, Mass., to Dover, N.H., in 1842. 
In 1850 there were in operation 467 m. ; this mileage had increased 
to 1015 in 1880 and to 1167-14 on the 1st of January 1909. 
Portsmouth, the only port of entry, has a very small foreign trade, 
but there is a considerable traffic in coal and building materials 
here and on the Cocheco, which is navigable to Dover. 

Population. The population of the state was 141,885 in 
1790; 183,858 in 1800; 214,460 in 1810; 244,161 in 1820; 
269,328 in 1830; 284,574 in 1840; 317,976 in 1850; 326,073 in 
1860; 318,300 in 1870; 346,991 in 1880; 376,530 in 1890; 
411,588 in 1900; and 430,572 in 1910; the per cent of increase 
was 9-3 from 1890 to 1900 and 4-6 from 1900 to 1910. Of the 
total in 1900, 88,107 were foreign-born; 58,967, or 66-9%, were 
natives of Canada (44,420 French and 14,547 English), 13,547 
of Ireland, 5100 of England, 2019 of Scotland, 2006 of Germany, 
and 2032 of Sweden. Of the 323,481 native-born, 80,435, or 
24-8%, were natives of other states than New Hampshire; 
56,210 of these were natives of other New England states, 
however, and 7502 were natives of New York. At the same 
time there were 124,561 natives of New Hampshire numbered 
among the inhabitants of other states, principally Massachusetts, 
Vermont, Maine, New York, Illinois, California, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio, New Jersey, Kansas and Nebraska, and to induce 
these to return for a holiday season to their native state the 
" Old Home Week " festival, now held throughout New England, 
was planned in 1899 by Frank West Rollins (b. 1860), who was 
then governor of New Hampshire. The Roman Catholic Church 
in 1906 had more members than any other religious denomination 
(119,863 out of 190,298 communicants of all denominations); 
in the same year there were 19,070 Congregationalists, 15,974 



Baptists, 12,529 Methodist Episcopalians (North) and 4892 
Protestant Episcopalians. Of the total population in 1890 the 
rural constituted 67-4% and the urban 37-6%, but in 1900 the 
rural constituted only 53-3% of the total and the urban 46-7%. 
The eleven cities having a population in 1900 of 5000 or 
more were: Manchester (56,987); Nashua (23,898); Concord 
(19,632); Dover (13,207); Portsmouth (10,637); Keene 
(9165); Berlin (8886); Rochester (8466); Laconia (8042); 
Somersworth (7023), and Franklin (5846). 

Administration. New Hampshire was the first of the original 
thirteen states to establish a government wholly independent 
of Great Britain. This was designed to be only temporary, 1 
but was in operation from the 5th of January 1776 to the 2nd 
of June 1784. The constitution which then went into effect 
provided for a General Court consisting of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives and made the Council a body advisory to the 
state president; the 1784 instrument was much amended in 
1792, when the title of president was changed to governor, but 
with the amendments adopted in that year it is in large measure 
the constitution of to-day. For sixty years there was no change 
whatever, and only three amendments, those of 1852 (removing 
the property qualifications of representatives, senators and the 
governor), were adopted until 1877, when twelve amendments 
were adopted, the most important being those providing for 
biennial (instead of annual) state elections in November (instead 
of March), and those doing away with the previous requirement 
that representatives, senators and the governor " be of the 
Protestant religion." Five amendments were ratified in 1889 
and four in 1902. New Hampshire is the only state in the 
Union in which amendments to the constitution may be proposed 
only by a constitutional convention, and once in seven years at 
the general election a popular vote is taken on the necessity of 
a revision of the constitution. A radical revision of the con- 
stitution is rendered especially difficult by a provision that no 
amendment proposed by a convention shall be adopted without 
the approval of two-thirds of the electors who vote on the 
subject when it is referred to them. Prior to 1902 every male 
inhabitant of a town who was twenty-one years of age or over, 
a citizen of the United States, and not a pauper or excused from 
paying taxes at his own request, had a right to vote, but an 
amendment adopted in this year made ability to read English 
and to write additional qualifications, except in the case of those 
physically unable to read or to write, of those then having the 
franchise, and of persons 60 years of age or more on the ist of 
January 1904. Various other amendments have been proposed 
from time to time, but have been defeated at the polls. 
By an act approved on the gth of April 1909 provision was made 
for direct nominations of candidates at primaries conducted by 
regular election officers. 

There is a governor's council of five members, one from each 
councillor district, which has advisory duties and shares with the 
governor most of his powers. There is no lieutenant-governor. 
The governor and the councillors are elected for a term of two years, 
and a majority of the votes cast is necessary to a choice. Where 
no candidate receives such a majority the Senate and the House of 
Representatives by joint ballot choose one of the two having the 
greatest number. No person is eligible for either office who shall 
not at the time of his election be at least thirty years of age and 
have been an inhabitant of the state for the seven years next pre- 
ceding; a councillor must be an inhabitant of the district from 
which he is chosen. The governor and council appoint all judicial 



1 The constitution of 1776 provided that the Congress which 
framed it " assume the name, power and authority of a House of 
Representatives"; that said house choose twelve persons to be 
" a distinct and separate branch of the legislature by the name of 
a Council"; that the Council appoint a president; that civil 
officers for the colony and for each county (except clerks of court, 
county treasurers and recorders) should be appointed by the two 
houses; and that " if the present unhappy dispute with Great 
Britain should continue longer than this present year, and the 
Continental Congress give no instruction or direction to the con- 
trary, the Council be chosen by the people of each respective county 
in such manner as the Council and House of Representatives shall 
order." A constitution framed by a Convention which met in 
Concord on the loth of June 1778 was rejected by the people in 
1779. 



494 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



officers, the attorney-general, auditor, important administrative 
boards, coroners and certain naval and military officers ; they have 
power to pardon offences; and they may exercise some control over 
expenditure through the constitutional requirement of the governor's 
warrant for drawing money from the treasury. The governor may 
veto within five days, besides Sunday, after it has been presented to 
him, any bill or resolution of which he disapproves, and a two-thirds 
vote of the members of both houses is required to pass over his veto. 

A Senateand a House of Representatives, which together constitute 
the General Court, meet at Concord on the first Wednesday in 
January of every odd-numbered year, and at such other times as 
the governor may appoint for a special session, principally for the 
making of laws and for the election of the secretary of state, the 
state treasurer, and the commissary-general. The Senate is com- 
posed of 24 members, one from each senatorial district, and these 
districts are formed so as to be approximately equal with respect 
to the amount of direct taxes paid in each; representation in this 
body is therefore apportioned on the basis of property. In the 
House of Representatives, which has the large membership of 390, 
representation is on the basis of population, but is so arranged as 
to favour the rural districts; thus every town or ward of a city 
having 600 inhabitants is allowed one representative, but, although 
for every additional representative 1200 additional inhabitants are 
required, any town having less than 600 inhabitants is allowed a 
representative for such proportionate part of the time the legislature 
is in session as the number of its inhabitants bears to 600. Senators 
and representatives are elected for a term of two years. A repre- 
sentative must have been an inhabitant of the state for at least 
two years next preceding his election, and must be an inhabitant of 
the town, parish or ward he is chosen to represent; a senator must 
be at least thirty years of age, must have been an inhabitant of the 
state for at least seven years next preceding his election, and must 
be an inhabitant of the district by which he is chosen. The con- 
stitution of New Hampshire places scarcely any restrictions on the 
powers of the legislature. By an amendment of 1877, however, it 
is forbidden to authorize any town to lend money or give credit 
for the benefit of any corporation whose object is profit. Although 
money bills may originate only in the House of Representatives the 
Senate may propose amendments. In 1909 the office of state 
auditor was created. 

For the administration of justice the state has a supreme court 
and a superior court, each county has a probate court, and some 
towns as well as the cities have a police court. The supreme court 
and the superior court consist each of one justice and four associate 
justices. The supreme court holds one general term each year at 
Concord and on the first Tuesday of every month except July and 
August sits to hear arguments, make orders and render decisions; 
the superior court holds one or two sessions a year in every county. 
Both of these courts have extensive jurisdiction. Each probate 
court, consisting of a single judge, has jurisdiction within its county 
of the probate of wills, of the granting of administration, in insol- 
vency proceedings, and in relation to the adoption of children; it 
may appoint and remove guardians of minors, insane persons and 
spendthrifts, and, upon application, may change a person's name. 
The court of a justice of the peace has jurisdiction in criminal cases 
only where the punishment is by fine not exceeding twenty dollars, 
or by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or by both, and in 
civil cases only where the title to real estate is not involved- and the 
damage demanded does not exceed thirteen dollars and thirty-three 
cents. A police court has the same jurisdiction as that of a justice of 
the peace, and, in addition, concurrent jurisdiction with the superior 
court in certain cases where the title to real estate is not involved 
and the damage demanded does not exceed one hundred dollars. 
Judges and justices are appointed by the governor and council, 
and with the exception of justices of the peace they hold office during 
good behaviour or until they have attained the age of seventy 
years; justices of the peace are appointed for a term of five years 
only, but they may be reappointed. 

Local affairs are administered by counties, towns (townships), vil- 
lage districts and cities. In each county a convention, composed of 
representatives from the towns, meets every two years to levy taxes 
and to authorize expenditures for grounds and buildings whenever 
more than one thousand dollars are required. For the discharge of 
other county functions the qualified electors of each county elect 
every two years three commissioners, a sheriff, a solicitor, a treasurer, 
a register of deeds and a register of probate; two auditors also are 
appointed annually by the supreme court. The county commissioners 
have the care of county buildings, consisting chiefly of a court 
house, gaol and house of correction, but are not allowed to expend 
more than one thousand dollars for repairs, new buildings or grounds, 
without authority from the county convention; the commissioners 
have the care also of all other county property, as well as of county 
paupers; and once every four years they are required to visit each 
town of their county, inspect the taxable property therein, determine 
whether it is incorrectly assessed and report to the state board of 
equalization. In each town a regular annual meeting of the qualified 
electors is called on the second Tuesday in March for the transaction 
of miscellaneous business and the election of town officers. These 
officers always include three selectmen, a clerk, a treasurer and one 
or more auditors, and they may include any or all of the following: 



assessors, who together with the selectmen constitute a board for 
the assessment of taxes, one or more collectors of taxes, overseers 
of the poor, constables, surveyors of highways, fence-viewers, 
sealers of weights and measures, measurers of wood and bark, sur- 
veyors of lumber, cullers of staves, a chief fireward or engineer and 
one or more assistants, a clerk of the market and a pound keeper. 
The moderator of the town meeting is elected at the general election 
in November for a term of two years, and a board of health, consisting 
of three members, is appointed by the selectmen, one member each 
year. The general business of the town, other than that which comes 
before the town meeting, is managed by the selectmen, and they 
are specially intrusted with the regulation of the highways, side- 
walks and commons. A village district is a portion of a town, 
including a village, which is set apart and organized for protection 
from fire, for lighting or sprinkling the streets, for providing a 
water-supply, for the construction and maintenance of sewers, and 
for police protection; to serve these interests three commissioners, 
a moderator, a clerk, a treasurer and such other officers as the 
voters of the district may deem necessary are chosen, each for a 
term of one year. The government of cities is in part determined by 
general laws and in part by individual charters. In accordance with 
the general laws each city elects a mayor, a board of aldermen, and 
a common council in whom is vested the administration of its 
"fiscal, prudential and municipal affairs"; the mayor presides 
at the meetings of the board of aldermen, and has a veto on any 
measure of this body, and no measure can be passed over his veto 
except by an affirmative vote of at least two- thirds of all the alder- 
men; each ward elects three selectmen, a moderator and a clerk 
in whom is vested the charge of elections; the city marshal and 
assistant marshals are appointed by the mayor and aldermen, but 
the city clerk and city treasurer are elected by the aldermen and 
common council in joint session. 

Under the laws of New Hampshire the property rights of husband 
and wife are nearly equal. The wife may hold, acquire and manage 
property the same as if she were single; she is also subject to the 
same liabilities in relation to her property as a single woman except 
that no contract or conveyance by her as surety or guarantor for 
her husband is binding. Rights of dower and courtesy both obtain. 
Where there is no will or its provisions are waived, the right of a 
widow, in addition to her dower and homestead rights, in the personal 
estate of a deceased husband is the same as that of a widower, in 
addition to his estate by courtesy and homestead right, in the 
personal estate of a deceased wife, i.e. one-half if there is no sur- 
viving issue and one-third if there is such issue. By releasing his or 
her right of dower or courtesy together with the homestead right, 
if any, the surviving widower or widow is also entitled, in fee, to 
one-half the real estate, if said deceased leaves no issue surviving; 
if the husband leaves issue by the widow surviving, she is entitled 
in fee to one-third of his real estate; if the wife leaves issue by him 
surviving, the husband also is entitled in fee to one-third of her 
estate; but if the wife leaves issue not by him, he is entitled 
only to a life interest in one-third of her real estate. Among 
the grounds for a divorce are adultery, impotency, extreme 
cruelty, conviction of a crime punishable in the state with 
imprisonment for more than a year and actual imprisonment under 
such conviction, treatment seriously injuring the health or en- 
dangering the reason, wilful desertion for three years, or joining a 
religious sect or society which professes to believe the relation of 
husband and wife unlawful, and conduct in accordance therewith 
for six months. 

The homestead law of New Hampshire exempts from seizure for 
debt five hundred dollars' worth of any person's homestead except 
for the enforcement of a mortgage upon it, for the collection of 
debts incurred in making repairs or improvements, or for the col- 
lection of taxes. The law also provides that except where a mortgage 
is given to secure payment of the purchase money, the homestead 
right of a married person shall not be encumbered without the 
consent of both husband and wife. The surviving wife or husband 
and the minor children, if any, may occupy the homestead right 
during the minority of the children, and the surviving wife or 
husband is entitled to the right during the remainder of her or his 
lifetime. 

From 1855 to 1903 the liquor law was essentially prohibitory, 
but in the latter year an act licensing the traffic was passed. 
However, some option still remains with each town and city. 
Once every four years in cities and once in two years in towns 
the question of licence or no-licence must be submitted to a vote 
of the electorate, and in a no-licence town or city no bar-room 
or saloon is to be permitted; in such a town or city, however, 
malt liquor, cider and light wines may be sold at a railway 
restaurant and an inn-keeper may serve liquors to his bona-fide 
registered guests. 

Capital punishment for murder in the first degree is inflicted only 
upon the request of a jury. 

The general supervision of railways is vested in a board of three 
commissioners appointed by the governor and council for a term 
of three years, one each year. The board is specially directed to 
prescribe the manner in which the railway corporations shall keep 
their accounts, to examine these accounts from time to time, to 
examine the railways at least once a year, to investigate the cause of 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



495 



all accidents and upon the petition of an interested party to fix rates 
for the transportation of persons and freight. In 1909 an anti-pass 
law was enacted. 

Education. New Hampshire formed a part of Massachusetts 
when, in 1647, the General Court of that province passed the 
famous act requiring every town in which there were fifty 
householders to maintain a school for teaching reading and 
writing, and every town in which there were one hundred house- 
holders to maintain a grammar school with an instructor capable 
of preparing young men for college. Although not much en- 
forced, this, with some slight changes, continued to be the school 
law until the close of the colonial era. The beginning of the new 
era was marked by the founding of Phillips Exeter Academy 
(1781), and later several other similar schools were opened. 
Their excellence aroused a much greater interest in the common 
school system, and throughout the igth century various ex- 
periments for improving it were tried; among them were the 
division of towns into districts, the appointment of county 
school commissioners, and the establishment of a state board 
of education. These, however, have been abandoned, and the 
system is now administered chiefly by towns and a few special 
districts under the general supervision of a state superintendent. 

Each town is constituted a school district, and some special 
districts are organized under special acts of the legislature. Some 
of the business relating to the schools is transacted at the annual 
district school meeting in which women as well as men have a vote, 
but the schools of each district are managed very largely by a school 
board elected at this meeting, one-third each year; in districts 
without a high school the board has only three members, but in 
districts having a high school the board may have three, six or 
nine members. The superintendent of public instruction is ap- 
pointed by the governor and council for a term of two years, and 
it is his duty to prescribe the form of register to be kept in the 
schools, to investigate the condition of the schools, to make sug- 
gestions and recommendations for improving them, to lecture upon 
educational subjects in the towns and cities, to hold at least one 
teachers' institute each year in each of the counties, and to designate 
the times and places for holding examinations of those who wish 
to teach. The free school system now provides free high schools for 
all children within the state; for an act of 1903 requires any town 
not maintaining a high school, or school of corresponding grade, 
or not uniting with adjoining towns in maintaining one, to pay the 
tuition of any of its children who attend a high school or academy 
within the state. Evening schools for the instruction of persons 
over fourteen years of age must be established in any city or 
town of more than 5000 inhabitants if 5% of its legal voters 
petition for them. Any town upon application, and by contract- 
ing to appropriate annually a certain fixed sum for its mainten- 
ance, may receive state aid for establishing a library, and in 1904 
libraries had been established by this means in 146 towns. Every 
district is required to keep its schools open at least twenty weeks 
each year. 

All children between the ages of eight and fourteen and those 
between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who cannot read and write 
English are required to attend either a public or an approved private 
school for the full term unless excused by the school board on 
account of physical or mental infirmity. The schools are maintained 
chiefly out of the proceeds of a district school tax, which must not 
be less in any district than seven hundred and fifty dollars for every 
dollar of public taxes apportioned to the town or district, a pro- 
portion which has gradually increased from five to one in 1789 and 
from ninety to one in 1817. To this is added a " Literary Fund " 
(designed originally for founding a college) which is derived from 
the proceeds of a state tax on the deposits, stock, &c. of savings 
banks, trust companies, loan and trust companies, building and loan 
associations and other similar corporations not residing in the state, 
and a portion of the proceeds of a dog tax, both of which are dis- 
tributed among the several districts in proportion to the number 
of pupils not less than five years of age who have attended school at 
least two weeks. The state also makes appropriations for the pay- 
ment of a portion of the tuition in high schools and academies 
distributing it among the districts in proportion to the rate of school 
tax in each, appropriations for paying a portion of the salary of 
school superintendents where two or more districts unite to form a 
supervising district, and appropriations for general school pur- 
poses to be distributed among the districts according to the 
number of teachers trained in normal schools and to average school 
attendance. 

The plan of 1821 to use the Literary Fund for founding and main- 
taining a state college for instruction in the higher branches of 
science and literature was abandoned in 1828 and the only state 
institutions of learning are the Plymouth Normal School (1870) at 
Plymouth, the Keene Normal School (1909) at Keene, and the New 
Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, organized as a 
department of Dartmouth College in 1866, but removed to Durham, 



Strafford county, as a separate institution in 1891. The normal 
schools are managed by a board of trustees consisting of the governor, 
the superintendent of public instruction and five other members 
appointed by the governor and council for a term of five years, one 
each year, and they are maintained out of annual state appropria- 
tions. The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts is managed by 
a board of trustees consisting of the governor, the president of the 
college, one member chosen by the alumni, and ten members ap- 
pointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the council 
for a term of four years, and it is maintained out of the proceeds 
of grants by the United States government, annual state appropria- 
tions and a private endowment. The principal institutions of higher 
learning in the state are Dartmouth College (non-sectarian, opened 
in 1769), at Hanover, and Saint Anselm's College (Roman Catholic, 
opened in 1893), at Manchester. Dartmouth College receives some 
aid from the state. 

The state charitable and correctional institutions consist of the 
New Hampshire .School for Feeble-minded Children, at Laconia; 
the New Hampshire Soldiers' Home, at Tilton ; the New Hampshire 
Industrial School, at Manchester; the New Hampshire Hospital 
for the Insane, and the State Prison, at Concord; and the New 
Hampshire Sanatorium for consumptives (1909) near Warren 
Summit, about 75 m. north of Concord. The state also makes 
annual appropriations for the care and education of blind and deaf 
and dumb persons in institutions outside of the state. Each county 
has an almshouse and house of correction. Here, too, many of the 
insane of the state were formerly confined; but by an act of 1903 
the counties were entirely relieved of this care, and the insane were 
removed to the state hospital. Within the state are also sixteen 
orphan asylums, and though these are private institutions, in all 
but one of them children are boarded at county or city expense. 
Each of the state institutions is under the management of an officer 
or board of trustees appointed by the governor and council. In 
1895 the legislature established a State Board of Charities and 
Correction. This consists of five members appointed by the governor 
and council for a term of five years, one each year, and its duties 
are chiefly advisory and supervisory. It is required to inspect both 
state and county charitable and correctional institutions, except the 
state prison and the state hospital, to recommend such changes to 
the state government as may seem desirable, and to have a special 
care for dependent children whether in institutions or placed in 
permanent homes. 

Finance. The income of the state, counties and towns is derived 
mainly from taxes levied on real estate, on male polls between the 
ages of twenty-one and seventy, on stock in public funds, on stock 
in corporations that pay a dividend and are not subject to some 
special form of tax, on surplus capital in banks, on stock in trade, 
on live-stock, on railways, on telegraph and telephone lines, on 
savings banks and on the stock of fire insurance companies. Except 
in the case of railways, telegraph and telephone lines, savings banks, 
building and loan associations and fire insurance companies, the 
taxes are assessed and collected by town officers, but every fourth 
year the county commissioners are required to inspect the taxable 
property in the towns and report any misappraisal to the state 
board of equalization whose duty it is to equalize the valuation of 
property in the several towns. This board, which is composed of 
five members appointed by the supreme court for a term of two 
years, also assesses the taxes on the railways, and on telegraph and 
telephone lines ; for railways the average rate of taxation is assessed 
on the estimated actual value of the road beds, rolling stock and 
equipment, and for the telegraph and telephone lines this rate is 
assessed on the estimated actual value of the poles, wires, instru- , 
ments, apparatus, office furniture and fixtures. Savings banks 
pay to the state treasurer a tax of three-fourths of I % upon the 
amount of deposits on which they pay interest; building and loan 
associations pay to him a tax of three-fourths of I % upon the t 
whole amount of their capital stock paid in or shares in force, less* 
the value of their real estate and loans secured by mortgages on 
real estate situated within the state and bearing interest not ex- 
ceeding 5%; and fire insurance companies pay to the same officer 
a tax of i % upon the amount of their paid-up capital. The railway 
tax is distributed as follows : one-fourth is paid to the towns through 
which the railways pass; such a portion of the remainder is paid 
to any town as is equal to the portion of stock owned in that town ; 
and what is left is reserved as a part of the state tax. Such a portion 
of 75 % of the tax on fire insurance companies is distributed among 
the several towns, in proportion to the amount of stock owned in 
each, as the amount of stock owned within the state bears to the 
whole amount of stock, and the remainder is reserved as a part of 
the state tax. All taxes on savings banks are distributed to the 
towns in which the depositors reside, the tax on non-resident 
depositors constituting a Literary Fund which is distributed to the 
towns on the basis of the number of pupils in each. The whole tax 
received by the state treasurer from each building and loan associa- 
tion is paid by him to the treasurer of the town in which it is located. 
The state also derives an income from fees charged for chartering 
banks, railways, insurance companies and other corporations. The 
financial condition at the close of the War of Independence was 
alarming, and in September 1785 a mob at Exeter demanded relief 
through the issue of more paper currency. This was refused them 



49 6 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



however, and by the beginning of the Civil War the state was almost 
free of debt. During that war the state incurred an indebtedness 
of about $4,236,000; this it reduced to $2,205,695 in 1872, and 
then assumed the war debt of the towns and cities, making its total 
indebtedness again $4,138,124. On the 1st of September 1908 the 
funded debt of the state was $706,700. 

History. Martin Pring was at the mouth of the Piscataqua 
in 1603 and, returning to England in the same year, gave an 
account of the New England coast from Casco Bay to Cape Cod 
Bay. Samuel de Champlain discovered the Isles of Shoals and 
sailed along the New Hampshire coast in 1605, and much more 
information concerning this part of the New World was gathered 
in 1614 by Captain John Smith, who in his Description of New 
England refers to the convenient harbour at the mouth o'f the 
Piscataqua and praises the country back from the rocky shore. 
Under the leadership of Sir Ferdinando Gorges there was formed 
in 1620 the Council for New England, which procured from 
King James I. a grant of all the country from sea to sea between 
40 and 48\N. latitude, and which made the following grants 
bearing upon the history of New Hampshire by their inducement 
to settlement, by determining the boundaries or by causing 
strife through their conflicts with one another: to John Mason, 
who has been called " the founder of New Hampshire," on the 
9th of March 1622, a grant of the region between the Salem 
and Merrimac rivers, under the name of Mariana; to John 
Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges jointly, on the zoth of August 
1622, a grant of the region between the Merrimac and Kennebec 
rivers for 60 m. inland, under the name of the Province of Maine; 
to David Thomson and associates, in 1622, a grant of six thousand 
acres near the mouth of the Piscataqua; to Sir Henry Roswell 
and associates, on the igth of March 1628, a grant of the region 
from 3 m. south of the Charles river, " or to the southward 
of any and every part thereof " to 3 m. N. of the Merrimac 
river, " or to the northward of any and every part thereof," 
and extending west to the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, under the 
name of Massachusetts; to John Mason alone, on the 7th of 
November 1629, a grant of that portion of the " Province of 
Maine " which lay between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, 
under the name of New Hampshire; to the Laconia Company, 
consisting of Gorges, Mason and associates, on the I7th of 
November 1629, a grant of an extensive territory (which was 
called Laconia) around the Lake of the Iroquois (Lake Champlain) 
together with one thousand acres at some place to be selected 
along the sea coast; to Edward Hilton, on the I2th of March 
1630, the grant of a tract on and about the lower part of Dover 
Neck; to the Laconia Company, in November 1631, a grant 
of a tract on both sides of the Piscataqua river near its mouth, 
known as the Pescataway grant; and finally to John Mason, 
on the 22nd of April 1635, a short time before the Council 
surrendered its charter, a grant of the region between the 
Salem river on the south and the Piscataqua and Salmon Falls 
rivers on the north-east and extending 60 m. inland, under the 
name of New Hampshire. Mason died in December of this 
.year, and New Hampshire, unlike the other colonies from which 
the United States originated, New Jersey and Delaware excepted, 
never received a royal charter. 

The first settlement of which there is indisputable evidence 
was established in 1623 by David Thomson at Little Harbor, 
now in the town of Rye. Thomson was the head of a company 
which was organized for fishing and trading and whose entire 
stock was to be held jointly for five years. He built a house 
on Odiorne's Point overlooking Little Harbor, and, although 
he removed to an island in Boston Harbor in 1626, he may have 
continued to superintend the business of the company until the 
expiration of the five-year term. At least there was a settlement 
here which was assessed in 1628, and it may not have been 
completely abandoned when colonists sent over by the Laconia 
Company arrived in 1630. The Laconia Company received 
its first grant under the erroneous impression that the Piscataqua 
river had its source in or near Lake Champlain, and its principal 
object was to establish an extensive fur trade with the Iroquois 
Indians. Although Lake Champlain could not be reached by 
boat up the Piscataqua, and although the enterprise was ulti- 



mately a failure, the company sent over colonists who occupied 
the house left standing by Thomson, and, not far away, built 
" Mason Hall " or the " Great House " in what is now Ports- 
mouth, a name (for the entire settlement) that replaced " Straw- 
berry Banke " in 1653. Edward Hilton with a few associates 
appears to have established a settlement on Dover Point about 
the time of Thomson's arrival at Little Harbor, and in the Hilton 
grant of 1630 it is stated that he had already built houses and 
planted there; as early as 1639 this settlement was named 
Dover. In 1638 the Rev. John Wheelwright, an Antinomian 
leader who had been banishedj from Massachusetts, founded 
Exeter on land claimed to have been bought by him from the 
Indians. In the same year Massachusetts encouraged friendly 
Puritans to settle Hampton on the same purchase, and about 
a year later this colony organized Hampton as a town with the 
right to send a deputy to the General Court. Serious dissensions 
had already arisen between Puritan and Anglican factions in 
Dover, and Captain John Underbill, another Antinomian, 
became for a time a leader of the Puritan faction. Puritan 
Massachusetts was naturally hostile to the Antinomians at 
Exeter as well as to the Anglicans at Strawberry Banke. 
Although Exeter, in 1639, Dover, in 1640, and Strawberry 
Banke, not later than 1640, adopted a plantation covenant, 
these settlements were especially weak from lack of a superior 
tribunal, and appeals had been made to Massachusetts as early 
as 1633. Moreover, the grants of Massachusetts and Mariana 
were clearly in conflict. Under these conditions Massachusetts 
discovered a new claim for its northern boundary. The charter 
of that colony was drafted under the impression that the 
Merrimac flowed east for its entire course, but now an investiga- 
tion was in progress which was to show that its source in Lake 
Winnepesaukee was several miles north of any of the four 
settlements in New Hampshire. Accordingly, Massachusetts 
resolved to make the most of the clause in the charter which 
described the northern boundary as three English miles north 
of the Merrimac river, " or to the northward of any and every 
part thereof," to ignore the conflicting grants to Mason and to 
extend its jurisdiction over the offending settlements. Dover 
submitted in 1641, Strawberry Banke (Portsmouth) soon after- 
wards and Exeter in 1643. 

The heirs of Mason protested, but little was done about the 
matter during the period of Puritan ascendancy in the mother 
country. Immediately after the resignation of Richard Cromwell, 
however, Robert Tufton Mason (a grandson of the original 
proprietor), who had become sole heir in 1655, began petitioning 
first parliament and later the king, for relief. The attorney- 
general, to whom the petition to the king was referred, reported 
that the petitioner had a " good and legal right and title to the 
lands." The commission appointed by the king in 1664 to 
hear and determine complaints in New England decided that 
Mason's lands were not within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, 
and made an attempt to set up a government under which his 
claims could be tried, but this was a failure. In 1674 Mason 
offered to surrender his rights to the Crown in return for one-third 
of the customs, rents, fines, and other profits derived therefrom, 
but although the offer was at first favourably considered it was 
finally declined. Mason then petitioned again, and this time 
Massachusetts was requested to send agents to England to 
answer his complaints. They arrived in December 1676, and 
the case was tried before the Lords Chief Justices of the King's 
Bench and Common Pleas in April 1677. Mason presented no 
claim to the right of government, and as to the title to the lands 
claimed by him the court decided that this was a question 
between him and the several tenants to be determined by the 
local court having jurisdiction in such matters. Thereupon 
Mason, in January 1679, petitioned the king to appoint a 
governor who should have jurisdiction over all the lands which 
he claimed, and on the i8th of September of this year New 
Hampshire was constituted a separate province with a govern- 
ment vested in a president and council appointed by the king 
and an assembly chosen by the people. This was the principal 
outcome of Mason's persistent efforts to establish his rights to 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



497 



the land; for although he succeeded in procuring the appoint- 
ment of officers who supported his claims, and although decrees 
were issued in his favour, the tenants, who contended that they 
had profited nothing from what his grandfather had done or 
that they were on lands which Wheelwright had bought from 
the Indians, resisted the enforcement of those decrees. The 
contest, however, especially for the waste lands, was continued 
by Mason, his heirs and assigns until near the close of the i8th 
century. 

From 1686 to 1689 New Hampshire formed a part of the 
Dominion of New England, which, after the first few months, 
was under Sir Edmund Andros as governor-general. There 
being no provincial authority in New Hampshire at the close 
of this period, a convention of the leading citizens of its four 
towns attempted to establish one. Upon the failure of this 
attempt, a temporary nominal union with Massachusetts was 
formed, but in 1692 Samuel Allen, the assign of Mason, caused 
a royal government to be established with his son-in-law, John 
Usher, as lieutenant-governor, and during the remainder of the 
colonial era New Hampshire was separate from Massachusetts 
except that from 1699 to 1741 the two had the same governor. 
The boundary between the two provinces was yet to be deter- 
mined. Massachusetts proposed to confine New Hampshire to 
less than one-fourth its present area; that is, on the west to a 
line drawn 3 m. east of the south course of the Merrimac and on 
the north-east to a line drawn north-west from the source of the 
Salmon Falls river. New Hampshire claimed for its southern 
boundary a line drawn west from a point 3 m. north of the 
mouth of the Merrimac and for its upper eastern boundary a 
line running north by slightly west from the source of the 
Salmon Falls river. Both provinces granted townships within 
the disputed territory; Massachusetts arrested men there who 
refused to pay taxes to its officers, and sought to defer the settle- 
ment of the dispute. New Hampshire, being on the more 
friendly terms with the home government, finally petitioned the 
king to decide the matter, and in 1737 a royal order referred it 
to a commission to be composed of councillors from New York, 
Nova Scotia and Rhode Island. This body agreed upon the 
present eastern boundary but evaded deciding the southern one. 
Both parties then appealed to the king, and in 1741 the king in 
council confirmed the decision of the commission in regard to the 
eastern boundary and decided that the southern boundary 
should be a line corresponding to the course of the Merrimac 
from 3 m. north of its mouth to 3 m. north of Pawtucket Falls, 
at its most southerly bend, and thence due west to the next 
English province. This gave New Hampshire much more 
territory on the south than it had claimed. But the western 
boundary was not yet defined, and as early as 1749 a controversy 
over that arose with New York. New Hampshire asked for the 
territory west to within 20 m. of the Hudson river, or as far as 
the western boundaries of Massachusetts and Connecticut, while 
New York claimed east to the Connecticut river. Within a few 
years the governor of New Hampshire granted in the disputed 
territory 138 townships which were rapidly settled by those 
whom it was the duty of the province to protect. But there was 
a reluctance to incur the expense of a contest with so powerful 
a neighbour as New York, and in 1764 that province procured 
from the king in council a royal order declaring the western 
boundary of New Hampshire to be the western bank of the 
Connecticut river. The controversy, however, continued for 
some years thereafter (see VERMONT). 

From 1676 to 1759 New Hampshire suffered greatly from 
the Indians, and the fear of them, together with the boundary 
disputes and Mason's claims, retarded settlement. But where 
these troubles were removed the population increased rapidly, 
and at the outbreak of the War of Independence the province 
had about 80,000 inhabitants, the great majority of whom 
were with the patriot or Whig party during that struggle. By 
June 1775 the once popular governor, Sir John Wentworth, was 
a refugee; on the 5th of January 1776 the fifth Provincial 
Congress established a provisional government; on the i$th 
of the following June the first Assembly elected under that 



government declared for independence; and on the i6th of 
August 1777 the important victory at Bennington was won by 
New Hampshire and Vermont troops under the command of 
General John Stark, who had a commission from New Hampshire. 
Six states had ratified the Federal constitution when the New 
Hampshire convention met at Exeter on the I3th of February 
1788, to accept or reject that instrument, and so great was the 
opposition to it among the delegates from the central part of 
the state that after a discussion of ten days the leaders in favour 
of ratification dared not risk a decisive vote, but procured an 
adjournment in order that certain delegates who had been 
instructed to vote against it might consult their constituents. 
Eight states had ratified when the convention reassembled at 
Concord on the I7th of June, and four days later, when a motion 
to ratify was carried by a vote of 57 to 47, adoption by the 
necessary nine states was assured. The War of Independence 
left the state heavily burdened with debt and many of its 
citizens threatened with a debtor's prison. As a means of 
relief a number of citizens demanded of the legislature the issue 
of paper money equal in amount to the state's debt, and as this 
was refused, an armed mob numbering about 200 surrounded the 
meeting-house in Exeter in which the legislature was in session, 
towards evening on the 2oth of September 1786. But General 
John Sullivan (1740-1795) was at that time president of the 
state, and on the next day he, with 2000 or more militia and 
volunteers, captured 39 of the leaders and suppressed the revolt 
without bloodshed. 

National elections in New Hampshire were carried by the 
Federalists until 1816, except in 1804 when President Thomas 
Jefferson won by a small majority; but within this period of 
Federalist supremacy in national politics the Democrat-Repub- 
licans elected the governor from 1805 to 1812 inclusive except 
in 1809. In 1816 the Democrats won both state and national 
elections; and out of the transition from Federalist to Demo- 
cratic control, which was effected under the leadership of William 
Plumer (1759-1850), a prominent politician in New Hampshire 
for half a century, a United States senator from 1802 to 1807 
and governor of the state in 1812-1813 an d 1816-1819, arose the 
famous Dartmouth College Case. As the trustees of this institu- 
tion were Federalists with the right to fill vacancies in their 
number, the Democrats attempted to gain control by converting 
it into a state university and increasing the number of trustees, 
but when the case reached the Supreme Court of the United 
States that body pronounced (1819) the charter a contract 
which the Federal constitution forbade the state to violate. 
Heretofore the Federalist regime had taxed the people to support 
the Congregational Church, but now the Baptists, Methodists 
and Universalists joined the Democrats, and in 1819 this state 
support was abolished by the " Toleration Act." Because of 
Daniel Webster's arguments in the Dartmouth College Case, 
and because his party had favoured the support of the Con- 
gregational Church by public taxation, he became very unpopular 
in this his native state. Accordingly, his denunciation of 
President Andrew Jackson's bank policy added strength to the 
Jacksonian Democracy, and, later, his Whig connexions were the 
greatest source of the Whig party's weakness in New Hampshire. 
John Quincy Adams was an intimate friend of William Plumer, 
the Democratic leader, and carried the state both in 1824 and 
1828, but a Jackson man was elected governor in 1827, 1829, 
1830 and 1831. The Whigs never won a national or state 
election, and often their vote was only about one-half that of 
the Democrats. But the Democrats broke into two factions in 
1846 over the question of slavery (see HALE, JOHN PARKER); 
the American or " Know-Nothing " party elected a governor 
in 1855 and 1856; and then control of the state passed to the 
Republican party which has held it to the present. After 
1890 the railway corporations were charged with a corrupt 
domination of the legislature and the courts, and in 1906 a 
" Lincoln Republican " movement was organized under 
the leadership of the well-known novelist Winston Churchill 
(b. 1871), with the object of freeing the state from this 
influence. 



NEW HARMONY 



The governors or presidents of the province and state have been: 
Province. 

John Cutt, president 1679-1681 

Richard Waldron, president .... 1681-1682 

Edward Cranfield, lieutenant-governor . . 1682-1685 

Walter Barefoot, deputy-governor . . 1685-1686 

Joseph Dudley, president of Council for New 

England 1686-1687 

Edmund Andros, governor-general of New 

England ........ 1687-1689 

Without a government .... 1689-1690 

Nominally united with Massachusetts . 1690-1692 

Samuel Allen, governor 1692-1698 

Richard Coote, earl of Bellamont, governor . 1699-1701 

Joseph Dudley, governor 1702-1715 

Samuel Shute, governor 1716-1723 

John Wentworth, lieutenant-governor . . 1723-1728 

William Burnett, governor .... 1729-1730 

Jonathan Belcher, governor .... 1730-1741 

Benning Wentworth, governor .... 1741-1767 

John Wentworth, governor .... 1767-1775 

Transition from Province to Slate. 
Matthew Thornton, president of the Pro- 
vincial Convention ^775 

State Presidents. 

Mesheck Weare . . .... 1776-1785 

ohn Langdon . . .... 1785-1786 

ohn Sullivan . . .... 1786-1787 

ohn Langdon . . .... 1788-1789 

ohn Sullivan . . .... 1780-1790 

osiah Bartlett . . .... 1790-1792 

State Governors. 

1792-1794 Federalist 

1794-1805 

1805-1809 Dem.-R.epub. 

1809-1810 Federalist 

1810-1812 Dem.-Repub. 

1812-1813 

1813-1816 Federalist 



osiah Bartlett 
ohn Taylor Oilman . 
ohn Langdon 
.eremiah Smith . 
John Langdon 
William Plumer . 
John Taylor Gilman . 
William Plumer . 
Samuel Bell 
Levi Woodbury . 
David Lawrence Morril 
Benjamin Pierce 
John Bell ... 
Benjamin Pierce 
Matthew Harvey 
Joseph Merrill Harper (act ng) 
Samuel Dinsmoor 
William Badger . 
Isaac Hill . 
John Page 
Henry Hubbard . 
John Hardy Steele 
Anthony Colby 
Jared Warner Williams 
Samuel Dinsmoor 
Noah Martin 
Nathaniel Bradley Baker 
Ralph Metcalf 
William Haile 
Ichabod Goodwin 
Nathaniel Springer Berry 
Joseph Albree Gilmore 
Frederick Smyth 
Walter Harriman 
Onslow Stearns 
James Adams Weston 
Ezekiel Albert Straw . 
James Adams Weston 
Person Colby Cheney 
Benjamin Franklin Presort 
Natt Head . 
Charles Henry Bell . 
Samuel Whitney Hale 
Moody Currier 
Charles Henry Sawyer 
David Harvey Goodell 
Hiram Americus Tuttle 
John Butler Smith 
Charles Albert Busiel 
George Allen Ramsdell 
Frank West Rollins . 
Chester Bradley Jordan 
Nahum Josiah Bachelder 
John McLane 
Charles M. Floyd 
Henry B. Quinby 
Robert P. Bass 



1816-1819 Dem.-Repub. 

1819-1823 ,, 

1823-1824 

' Adams Man " 
' Jackson Man 
1 Adams Man " 
1 Jackson Man 



1824-1827 

1827-1828 

1828-1829 

1829-1830 

1830-1831 

1831 

1831-1834 

1834-1836 Democrat 

1836-1839 

1839-1842 

1842-1844 

1844-1846 

1846-1847 

1847-1849 

1849-1852 

1852-1854 

1854-1855 

1855-1857 Know-Nothing 

1857-1859 Republican 

1859-1861 

1861-1863 

1863-1865 

1865-1867 

1867-1869 

1869-1871 

1871-1872 Democrat 

1872-1874 Republican 

1874-1875 Democrat 

1875-1877 Republican 

1877-1879 

1879-1881 

1881-1883 

1883-1885 

1885-1887 

1887-1889 

1889-1891 

1891-1893 

1893-1895 

1895-1897 

1897-1899 

1899-1901 

1901-1903 

1903-1905 

1905-1907 

1907-1909 

1909-1911 

1911- 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. H. Hitchcock, Geology of New Hampshire 
(Concord, 1874-1878); New Hampshire Annual Reports (1871). 
especially those of the Forestry Commission, Fish and Game Com- 
mission, Board of Agriculture and Board of Charities and Correc- 
tion; J. F. Colby, Manual of the Constitution of the State of New 
Hampshire (Concord, 1902), containing an historical sketch of the 
constitutions of the state; F. A. Ward, "The New Hampshire 
Constitution," in The New England Magazine, N.S., vol. 29 
(September 1903) ; Laws of New Hampshire, including Public and 
Private Acts and Resolves and the Royal Commissions and Instructions, 
with Historical and Descriptive Notes, edited by A. S. Batchellor 
(Manchester, 1904); Captain John Mason, the Founder of New 
Hampshire, including his tract on Newfoundland, the American 
charters in which he was a grantee, with letters and other historical 
documents, together with a memoir by C. W. Tuttle (Boston, 1887), 
edited by J. W. Deane; New Hampshire Provincial Papers; 
documents and records relating to the province from the earliest period 
of its settlement (Concord, 1867-1873); J. Belknap, The History of 
New Hampshire (Philadelphia, 1784); Life of William Plumer 
(Boston, 1857), by his son William Plumer, Jr.; G. Barstow, The 
History of New Hampshire from its discovery, in 1614, to the passage 
of the toleration act, in 1819 (New York, 1853); E. A. Charlton, New 
Hampshire as it is (Claremont, 1857); J. N. McClintock, History of 
New Hampshire (Boston, 1889); F. B. Sanborn, New Hampshire, 
an Epitome of Popular Government (Boston, 1904) in the " American 
Commonwealths Series"; and W. H. Fry, New Hampshire as a 
Royal Province (New York, 1908). 

/TEW HARMONY, a village in Posey county, Indiana, U.S.A., 
on the Wabash river, about 22 m. N.W. of Evansville. Pop. 
(1900) 1341; (1910) 1229. It is served by the Illinois Central 
railway, and has regular steamboat connexion with the river 
cities. New Harmony had its beginning in 1814-1815, when 
it became the home of a communistic religious sect known 
variously as the Harmonists, Harmonites and Rappites, 
founded in Germany towards the end of the i8th century by 
George Rapp (1757-1847), a native of Iptingen in Wiirttemberg. 
Rapp and his followers, who sought to form a community after 
the manner of the primitive Christian Church, were persecuted 
in Germany, and in 1803-1804 emigrated to Butler county, 
Pennsylvania. There they established in 1805 a community 
known as Harmony, consisting of some 600 persons, who held 
their property in common and in 1807 adopted celibacy. In 1814 
Rapp sold most of his Pennsylvania land and bought about 
24,735 acres (in the next ten years more than 14,000 acres in 
addition) on the Wabash river in Indiana Territory. In 1814- 
1815 Rapp and a thousand of his followers settled on the Indiana 
tract, their headquarters being established at New Harmony, 
or Harmonic as they called it. The settlers, mostly Germans, 
devoted themselves to agriculture, weaving and leather-working 
so industriously that they prospered from the start. Rapp, 
however, , in 1825 disposed of his lands and property to Robert 
Owen, having returned with part of his followers to Pennsyl- 
vania and founded a new community known as Economy (<?..), 
in Beaver county, where he died in 1847. Intent on founding a 
socialistic community, Owen went to the United States in 1824, 
and purchased Rapp's lands and live stock for $182,000. He 
interested several well-known scientists in his settlement, and 
with them came to New Harmony in the spring of 1826. Within 
six months the community numbered over 1000. Among its 
most notable members were Robert Owen's sons, Robert Dale 
Owen (1801-1877), a political leader and diplomat; David Dale 
Owen (1807-1860) and Richard Owen (1810-1890), both geo- 
logists of note; William MaClure (1763-1840), the founder of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia; Thomas Say 
(1787-1834), " the father of American Zoology "; Charles Lesueur, 
a scientist and antiquarian; and Gerard Troost (1776-1850), 
a well-known geologist. The greater part of the settlers, how- 
ever, were impractical theorists or adventurers. Constitution 
after constitution was adopted, and with the adoption of each 
new constitution and with each new religious discussion a group 
would secede and form a separate community in 1828 there 
were ten the best known and most successful being Macluria 
(like the others, occupying a part of Owen's land), named after 
William MaClure, who became its directing power. The whole 
organization broke up in 1827, and Owen left New Harmony 
in 1828. New Harmony has a Working Men's Institute 
Public Library, founded in 1838 by William MaClure, 



NEW HAVEN 



499 



and having in 1907 18,000 volumes; the collection is rich in 
works dealing with socialism. 

See " The Harmony Society " in German- American Annals 
(Philadelphia), vol. 2 (new series), for January 1904; G. B. Lock- 
wood and C. A. Prosser, The New Harmony Movement (New York, 
1907); Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (New York, IQOI); Morris 
Hitlquit, History of Socialism in the United States (New York, 1903) ; 
and Frank Podmore, Robert Owen (London, 1906). 

NEW HAVEN, the largest city of Connecticut, U.S.A., the 
county-seat of New Haven and the seat of Yale University. 
It is co-extensive with the township of New Haven (though there 
is both a township and a city government), and lies in the 
south-western part of the state, about 4 m. from Long Island 
Sound, at the head of New Haven Bay, into which empty three 
small streams, the Quinnipiac, the Mill and the West rivers. 
Pop. (1890) 81,298; (1900) 108,027, of whom 30,802 were 
foreign-born, including 10,491 Irish, 5262 Italians, 4743 Germans, 
3193 Russians and 1376 Swedes; (1910 census) 133,605. 
Land area (1906) 17-91 sq. m., of which more than one-half was 
annexed since 1900. New Haven is served by the main line and 
five branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, 
by three inter-urban electric lines and by two steamship lines 
connecting with New York. The city is built on a level, sandy 
plain, in the rear of which is a line of hills terminating in two 
spurs, East Rock and West Rock, respectively 360 and 400 ft. 
high and 2 m. and 2^ m. distant from the Green. On East 
Rock is a monument to the Connecticut soldiers who fell in the 
War of Independence, the War of 1812, the Mexican War and 
the Civil War; on the West Rock is a cave, " Judges' Cave," 
in which the regicides William Goffe and Edward Whalley are 
said to have concealed themselves when sought for by royal 
officers in 1661. The central and older portion of the city is 
laid out in squares surrounding a public Green of 16 acres, which 
was in former days the centre of religious and social life. New 
Haven is popularly known as the " City of Elms," because of 
the number of these trees. Besides the Green there are 12 other 
parks, ranging from 6 to 300 acres in area, four of them being on 
the water front, along the harbour. On the west side of the 
city is Edgewood Park (120 acres); on the north is Beaver 
Pond Park (100 acres); and East and West Rocks, mentioned 
above, have been made into suburban parks. 

Among the public buildings and places of interest are the three 
churches on the Green, built in 1814; Center Church (Con- 
gregational), in the rear of which is the grave of John Dixwell 
(1608-1689), one of the regicides; United (formerly known as 
North) Church (Congregational), and Trinity Church, which 
belongs to one of the oldest Protestant Episcopal congregations 
in Connecticut. On the north-western side of the Green are 
the buildings of Yale University (q.v.); the "college" campus 
is the square enclosed by College, Chapel, High and Elm streets, 
with Battell Chapel at its eastern corner, Farnam, Lawrence, 
Phelps, Welch and Osborn halls on its south-eastern side, 
Vanderbilt Hall, Connecticut (or South Middle) Hall, the oldest 
of the Yale buildings (1750), and the Art School on the southern 
side, the Library, Dwight Hall and Alumni Hall on the north- 
western and Durfee Hall on the northern side; farther north of 
the Green are the Divinity School, the University Campus, on 
which are the Bicentennial Buildings and Memorial Hall, and, 
lying between Grove Street and Trumbull Street and Prospect 
Street and Hillhouse Avenue, the buildings of the Sheffield 
Scientific School. In the vicinity is the Grove Street Cemetery, 
in which are the graves of many famous Americans. Besides the 
University Library, there are a Public Library (1887), containing 
about 80,000 vols., the library of the Young Men's Institute 
(1826) and the collection of the New Haven Colony Historical 
Society. The city contains a State Normal School and a number 
of hospitals and charitable institutions. 

Among the newspapers of New Haven are the Morning 
Journal and Courier (1832, Republican), whose weekly edition, 
the Connecticut Herald and Weekly Journal, was established as 
the New Haven Journal in 1766; the Palladium (Republican; 
daily, 1840; weekly, 1828); the Evening Register (Independent; 
daily, 1840; weekly, 1812); and the Union (1873), a Democratic 



evening paper. At New Haven also are published several 
weekly English, German and Italian papers, and a number of 
periodicals, including the American Journal of Science (1818), 
the Yale Law Journal (1890) and the Yale Review (1892), a 
quarterly. 

In 1900 New Haven was the most important manufacturing 
centre in Connecticut, and in 1905 it was second only to 
Bridgeport in the value of its factory product. In 1905 its estab- 
lishments numbered 490. The principal manufactures are 
hardware, foundry and machine shop products, ammunition and 
fire-arms (the Winchester Company), carriages' and wagons, 
malt liquors, paper boxes and corsets. Meat packing is also 
an important industry. In 1905 the total capital invested in 
manufacturing was $31,412,715 and the total product $39,666,118 
(a gain of 13-7% since 1900). Commercially, New Haven is 
primarily a distributing point for the Atlantic seaboard, but 
the city is a port of entry, and foreign commerce (almost ex- 
clusively importing) is carried on to some extent, the imports in 
1909 being valued at $404,805. In 1908 the assessed valua- 
tion of real and personal property was $119,592,508, the net 
debt was $3,854,498 and the rate of taxation was 14-75 m iU s 
on the dollar. 

Under a charter of 1899, as amended afterwards, the city 
government, which has almost entirely superseded the town 
government, is in the hands of a mayor, who holds office for two 
years and appoints most of the administrative officers, except a 
board of aldermen (of whom each has a two-year term, six are 
chosen from the city at large and the others one each from each 
ward, the even-numbered wards electing their representatives 
one year and the odd-numbered the next), a city clerk, con- 
troller, sheriff, treasurer and tax collector, all chosen by 
popular vote, and an assistant clerk, appointed by the board of 
aldermen. 

The first settlement in New Haven (called Quinnipiac, its 
Indian name, until 1640) was made in the autumn of 1637 by a 
party of explorers in search of a site for colonization for a band 
of Puritans, led by Theophilus Eaton and the Rev. John Daven- 
port, who had arrived at Boston, Massachusetts, from England 
in July 1637. In the following spring a permanent settlement 
was made. It was governed under a " plantation covenant " 
until the 4th of June '1639, when, at a general meeting, the 
" free planters " adopted the fundamental principles of a new 
government. They agreed that the Scriptures should be their 
guide in civil affairs, and that only approved church members 
should be admitted to the body politic; twelve men were ap- 
pointed to choose seven men ("seven pillars") who should found 
the church and admit to its original membership such planters 
as they thought properly qualified. This having been done, the 
first General Court of which there is record met on the 25th of 
October. At this court the members of the new church, together 
with six members of other approved churches, were admitted 
to citizenship; a magistrate, four assistants, a secretary and a 
constable were chosen as the civil officers; annual elections and 
an annual session of the General Court in the last week of October 
were agreed upon; English statute and common law were 
expressly excluded; and the " worde of God was adopted as the 
onely rule to be attended unto in ordering the affayres of govern- 
ment in this plantation." As thus founded, New Haven was 
town and colony combined. In 1643-1644 the colony was ex- 
panded into the New Haven Jurisdiction, embracing the towns 
of New Haven, Guilford, Milford, Stamford and Branford in 
Connecticut, and, on Long Island, Southold; but this " Juris- 
diction " was dissolved in 1664, and all these towns (except 
Southold) passed under the jurisdiction of Connecticut, according 
to the Connecticut charter of 1662. The government of the 
Jurisdiction was of the strictest Puritan type, and although the 
forty-five " blue laws " which the Rev. Samuel Peters, in his 
General History of Connecticut, ascribed to New Haven were 
much confused with the laws of the other New England colonies 
and some were mere inventions, yet many of them, and others 
equally " blue," were actually in operation as enactments or 
as court decisions in New Haven. 



500 



NEWHAVEN NEW HEBRIDES 



Among those in the Peters's list which are wholly or substantially 
true are the following: " The judges shall determine controversies 
without a jury"; "Married persons must live together or be 
imprisoned ; "A wife shall be good evidence against her hus- 
band"; "No minister shall keep school"; "The selectmen, on 
finding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents 
and put them into better hands, at the expense of their parents." 
Among those in the same list which are wholly or in part spurious 
are: " No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day," 
and " No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep house, cut 
hair or shave on the Sabbath day." 

One of the most important events in the history of New Haven 
was the removal hither in October 1716 from Saybrook of the 
Collegiate School of Connecticut, which developed into Yale 
University. The period of greatest material prosperity of New 
Haven in the colonial period began about 1750, when a thriving 
commerce with other American ports and the West Indies 
developed. As a port it was notorious for its smuggling and 
illicit trade. New Haven also had extensive shipbuilding 
interests. All attempts to enforce the British commercial regula- 
tions were ineffectual. On the 22nd of February 1763 a town 
meeting resolved to encourage colonial manufactures and to 
refrain from importing from England hats, clothing, leather, 
gold and silver lace, buttons, cheese, liquors, &c. Two years 
later Jared Ingersoll (1722-1781), who had been sent to England 
to protest against the Stamp Act, but had accepted'the office of 
Stamp Distributor on the advice of Benjamin Franklin, was 
forced to resign his office. In 1770 most of the merchants agreed 
not to import goods from England and transferred their 
trade with New York City, where Loyalist influence was strong, 
to Boston and Philadelphia. When news of the embargo of 
the port at Boston arrived at New Haven, a Committee of 
Correspondence was at once formed; and in the War of Inde- 
pendence the people enthusiastically supported the American 
cause. On the sth of July 1779 the place was invaded by a 
British force under General William Tryon, who intended to burn 
the town, but met so strong a resistance that he withdrew before 
the next day. New Haven's commerce suffered severely during 
the war, but by the close of the first decade of the igth century 
it had regained its former importance. When the War of 1812 
opened there were fully 600 seamen in the city, practically all 
of whom were engaged in privateering or in the regular naval 
service of the United States. Among them was Captain Isaac 
Hull. In 1815 the Fulton, the first steamboat on Long Island 
Sound, made its first trip from New York to New Haven. The 
second quarter of the ipth century was the period of develop- 
ment of railways and manufactures. The period since the Civil 
War has been marked by a diversification of industries. To that 
conflict New Haven contributed approximately $30,000,000, 
and 3000 men, 500 of whom were killed. From 1701 until 1873 
New Haven was the joint capital (with Hartford) of Connecticut. 
New Haven was incorporated as a city in 1784; new charters 
were secured from the General Assembly of the state in 1869, 
1881 and 1899. Fair Haven was annexed to New Haven in 1897. 

See Leonard Bacon, Thirteen Historical Discourses (New Haven, 
'839) ; J. W. Barber, History and Antiquities of New Haven (3rd ed.. 
New Haven, 1870); C. H. Levermore, Town and City Government of 
New Haven, and The Republic of New Haven (Baltimore, 1886); 
E. S. Bartlett, Historical Sketches of New Haven (New Haven, 1897) ; 
Edward E. At water, History of the Colony ef New Haven to its Ab- 
sorption into Connecticut (New Haven, 1881) ; H. T. Blake, Chronicles 
of New Haven Green (New Haven, 1898) ; Records of the Colony of 
New Haven 1638-1665 (2 vols., Hartford, 1857-1858), edited by 
C. H. Hoadly; and the Papers and other publications (1865 sqq.) 
of New Haven Colony Historical Society. 

NEWHAVEN, a seaport in the Eastbourne parliamentary 
division of Sussex, England, 56 m. S. from London by the London, 
Brighton & South Coast railway, on the English Channel at the 
mouth of the Ouse. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6772. The 
church of St Michael has a Norman square embattled tower 
surmounted by a spire, and an apsidal chancel. The port is 
protected by fortifications. A harbour was first granted to 
Newhaven hi 1713, and during the early part of the i8th century 
it possessed a large shipping trade. This afterwards declined, 
but it is now one of the principal points of communication 
between England and France, the railway company maintaining 



a daily service of fast steamers to Dieppe in connexion with the 
Chemin de fer de 1'Ouest. The tidal harbour, which is owned 
by a company, is enclosed by two piers and a breakwater, the 
area being about 30 acres, and the quayage 1400 yds. The- 
roadstead is one of the finest on the coast of England. With 
France there is a large traffic in wines, spirits, silk, fruit, veget- 
ables and general provisions. The coasting trade consists 
chiefly of imports of coal and provisions, the exports being 
principally timber for shipbuilding and flint for the Staffordshire 
potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on. 

NEW HEBRIDES, a chain of islands in the western Pacific 
Ocean, between 166 and 171 E., and 13 and 21 S., included 
in Melanesia, and under the joint influence of Great Britain and 
France. (For map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.) From New Caledonia 
to the S.W. they are separated by a deep channel; but a com- 
paratively shallow sea indicates their physical connexion with 
the Santa Cruz group (q.v.) to the N. The chain lies S.E. and 
N.W., but the main islands are arranged somewhat in the form 
of the letter Y. The south-easternmost island is Aneiteum; 
N.W. from this the main islands are Tanna or Aipere, Eromanga, 
Efate, 1 the Shepherd Islands and Api or Epi. At this point the 
arms of the Y divide, the western comprising the large islands of 
Malekula or Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo, 2 the eastern consisting 
of Ambrym, Arag and Maiwo or Aurora, with Aoba or Leper 
Island between the two arms. Espiritu Santo, the largest 
island, has an area of 875 sq. m. Irregularly disposed to the N. 
of the Y are the lesser islands composing the Banks group 
Gaua, Vanua Lava, Mota, Valua, &c., and the Torres Islands. 

With their rugged outline and rich vegetation, the islands as 
seen from the sea are very beautiful. Excepting the small Torres 
group, which are low-lying and perched on reefs, but without 
lagoons, all the islands are of volcanic, not coral, formation, the 
larger ones lying on both sides of the line of volcanic activity. 
The coasts are almost free from reefs and the shores rise abruptly 
from deep water. Old coral is sometimes found elevated to a 
considerable height. The islands are formed chiefly of basalt 
and recent eruptive material; earthquakes and submarine 
eruptions are not infrequent; and some oi the islands themselves 
have active craters. All have considerable elevations, the 
loftiest being the isolated cone of Lopevi, near the junction of the 
arms of the Y; its height is 4714 ft. The volcanic soil is very 
rich. Numerous clear streams water the islands, but some 
debouch upon flat ground towards the sea, and form unhealthy 
marshes there. Copper, iron and nickel are the most important 
minerals known in the group, and sulphur is of some commercial 
importance. 

The climate is generally hot and damp, but there is a season 
(November to April) which is specially distinguished, as such, 
and is somewhat unhealthy. The trees Casuarina, candle nut 
(Aleurites triloba), kauri pine (or Tanna), various species of 
Ficus, Myrtaceae and many others are magnificent; the 
coco-nut is not confined to the coast, but grows high up the 
valleys on the hill-sides. Sandal-wood is also found. Besides 
the breadfruit, sago-palm, banana, sugar, yam, taro, arrowroot 
and several forest fruits, the orange, pine-apple and other 
imported species flourish; and European vegetables are exported 
to Sydney. Land mammals are scarce; they include bats, rats 
and pigs which have run wild. There are some lizards and 
turtles; birds include pigeons, parrots, ducks and swallows; 
locusts, grasshoppers, butterflies and hornets are numerous, 
and the sea abounds in fish, which, however, are generally inferior 
as food, and in some cases poisonous. 

The native population is estimated at 50,00x3; in 1904 the 
British population was 212, the French 401. The island of 
Efat6 contains the seat of the joint government, Vila or Port 
Vila (formerly Franceville), and the majority of the French 
population. There are several British and French trading 
companies, and a considerable area is cleared and worked by 
settlers. The chief exports are copra, coffee, maize, bananas, 
timber, &c. 

1 Efate\ VatS, Fate, Efat or Sandwich island. 
1 Abbreviated to Santo ; native Marina. 



'NEW IBERIA NEW JERSEY 



The natives of the New Hebrides are Melanesians of mixed blood, 
and vary much in different islands. On Efat6 and some others 
Polynesian immigration has produced a taller, fairer and less 
savage people. In some parts, as on Aoba, isolated Polynesian 
communities exist. But the general type is Melanesian: black 
skin, woolly hair, low, receding forehead, broad face, flat nose and 
thick lips. The natives decorate themselves with nose-rings and 
ear-rings and bracelets of shells. The men are constantly fighting; 
their weapons are bows and poisoned arrows, often beautifully 
designed, clubs of elaborate patterns and spears. Their houses are 
either round huts, or rectangular with pitched roofs resting on 
three parallel rows of posts. The villages are scrupulously clean 
and neat, ornamented with flowering shrubs, crotons and dracaenas, 
and are often fortified with stone walls. In character the New 
Hebrideans are ferocious and treacherous, though most of their 
unhospitality and savagery is to- be traced to the misconduct and 
cruelty of traders and labour agents. The women occupy a de- 
graded position, and in some islands widows are buried alive with 
the bodies of their husbands. There is a great belief in sorceries 
and omens; but prayer and offerings (usually of shell money) are 
addressed mainly to the spirits of the (recently) dead, and there is 
another class of spirits, called Vui, who are appealed to when incor- 
porate in certain stones or animals; of one of two such the divinity 
is recognized generally. By the villages a space shadowed by a 
great banyan tree is often set apart for dances and public meetings. 
A certain sanctity attaches also sometimes to the Casuarina and the 
Cycas. An important institution is the club-house, in which there 
are various grades, whereon a man's rank and influence mainly 
depend, his grade being recognized even if he goes to another island 
where his language is unintelligible. In like manner a division into 
two great exogamous groups prevails, at all events throughput the 
northern islands. It would therefore seem that the present diversity 
of languages in the group must be of relatively recent origin. These 
languages or dialects are numerous, and mutually unintelligible, 
but alike as to grammatical construction, and belonging to the 
Melanesian class. 

History. The Portuguese Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, sighting 
Espiritu Santo in 1606, thought he had discovered the great 
southern continent then believed to exist, and named it Australia 
del Espiritu Santo. Louis de Bougainville visited the islands 
in 1768, and Captain Cook, who gave them the name they bear, 
in 1774. The subsequent visits of several explorers, the ex- 
ploitation of the sandal-wood and other products by traders 
and the arrival of missionaries helped to open up the islands and 
to give them a certain commercial importance by the middle of 
the ipth century. Trade was mainly with New Caledonia, and 
France was thus indicated as the dominant power in the New 
Hebrides; even British planters pressed France to annex the 
islands in 1876, but in the following year some of the missionaries 
urged the same course on England. In 1878 the islands were 
declared neutral by Great Britain and France. The presence of 
British and French settlers under independent authority led to 
unsatisfactory administration, especially in regard to the settle- 
ment of civil actions and jurisdiction over the native population. 
As to the establishment of commercial supremacy, French 
interests clashed with Australian, and in 1882 M. John Higginson 
of New Caledonia (d. 1904) consolidated the former by founding 
the trading society which afterwards became the Soctite franqaise 
des Nouvelles-Hibrides. In 1886 one of the most serious of 
many native outbreaks occurred, necessitating a French de- 
monstration of force from New Caledonia. An Anglo-French 
convention of the i6th of November 1887 provided for the 
surveillance of the islands (protection of life and property) by a 
mixed commission of naval officers. The Anglo-French agreement 
of 1904 had a clause providing for an arrangement as to proper 
jurisdiction over the natives and for the appointment of a com- 
mission to settle disputes between British and French landed 
proprietors. In this and the following year there was much 
unrest among the natives, and a joint punitive expedition was 
necessary. 

Strong feeling was aroused meanwhile in Australia owing to 
the disabilities suffered by British settlers in the islands. British 
annexation, or at least a division of the group into British and 
French spheres, was urged. But on the aoth of October 1906 
a convention was signed in London, confirming a protocol of 
the preceding 27th of February, and providing that " the group 
of the New Hebrides, including the Banks and Torres Islands," 
should form " a region of joint influence," in which British and 
French subjects should have equal rights in all respects, and 



each power should retain jurisdiction over its own subjects or 
citizens. The claim of other powers to share the joint influence 
was excluded by the provision that their subjects resident on the 
islands must be under either British or French jurisdiction. A 
British and a French high commissioner were appointed, each 
assisted by a resident commissioner; provision was made for 
two police forces of equal strength, and the joint naval com- 
mission of 1887 was retained for the purpose of keeping order. 
The high commissioners were given authority over the native 
chiefs. A joint court was established, consisting of two judges, 
appointed respectively by Great Britain and France, and a 
third, to be president, and not a British subject or French 
citizen, appointed by the king of Spain. Its jurisdiction covers 
civil cases (including commercial suits and those respecting 
landed property), native offences or crimes against non-natives, 
and all offences against the provisions of the convention. The 
sale of arms and intoxicants to natives is forbidden; and the 
convention regulates the recruitment of native labour. Pro- 
vision was made for community of interests in regard to public 
works, finance and the official use of the English and French 
languages. The creation of municipalities on the application 
of groups of not less than thirty non-native residents was pro- 
vided for, municipal votes being given to both sexes. The con- 
vention provided against the establishment of a penal settlement 
and the erection of fortifications. 

This convention was bitterly criticized in Australia on the 
ground that many of the provisions which nominally established 
equality between British and French would operate in practice 
to the advantage of the French; and there was no little dis- 
satisfaction on the ground that the Australian government was 
neither represented at the preliminary conference, nor fully 
consulted during the negotiations. 

See Parliamentary Papers, France, No. I (1888 and 1906); and 
" Correspondence relating to the.Convention . . ." (Cd. 3288), (1907). 

NEW IBERIA, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Iberia 
parish, on the Bayou Teche, in the southern part of the state, 
about 125 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 3447; (1900) 
6815 (3309 negroes); (1910) 7499. It is served by the Southern 
Pacific, the Franklin and Abbeville, and the New Iberia & 
Northern railways. Lumber, sugar, cotton and rice are pro- 
duced in the neighbourhood. At the village of Avery Island, 
about 10 m. S.E., there are deposits of rock salt. The 
municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the 
electric lighting plant. New Iberia was laid out in 1835 and 
was chartered as a city in 1839. 

NEW JERSEY, one of the Middle Atlantic states of the 
American Union, lying between 41- 21' 22-6' and 38 55' 40* 
N. lat., and 75 35' and 73 53' 39* W. long. It is bounded, N., 
by the state of New York; E., by the Hudson river, which 
separates the state from New York, and by the Atlantic Ocean; 
and S. and W. by the Delaware Bay and river, which separate 
New Jersey from Delaware and Pennsylvania. All the boundaries 
except the northern are natural. New Jersey has an extreme 
length, N. and S., of 166 m., an extreme width, E. and W., of 
57 m., and a total area of 8224 sq. m., of which 710 sq. m. are 
water-surface. 

Physiography. There are within the state four distinct topo- 
graphic belts the Appalachian, the Highlands, the Triassic Low- 
land and the Coastal Plain. The folded Appalachian belt crosses 
the N.W. corner of the state, and includes the Kittatinny Mountain 
and Valley. The mountain has a north-east-south-west trend, 
crossing the Delaware river at the Delaware Water Gap and con- 
tinuing S.W. into Pennsylvania. In width the range varies from 
4 or 5 m. in the N. to about 2 m. in the S. Its western foot lies 
along the Delaware river, which for some distance flows parallel 
with the range, and has an altitude of about 400 ft. above the sea 
at Port Jervis, where it enters the state, and of about 300 ft. at the 
Water Gap, where it leaves it. Where the crest of the ridge enters 
the state its elevation is 1539 ft.; at High Point, ij m. S.W. the 
ridge attains a height of 1803 ft., the highest point within the state. 
A short distance S.W. of this point, in a depression in the mountain 
crest, is Lake Marcia, at an elevation of 1570 ft. Beyond Culver's 
Gap the mountain again narrows to a ridge, and for a portion of its 
length it is double-crested. On the eastern side the slope is so 
abrupt as to make ascent difficult and at places impossible, but the 
western slope, on account of a dip of the rock to the N.W., is more 



502 

gradual. The eastern foot has a very uniform altitude of from 
900 to 1000 ft. above the sea. The crest of the ridge is from 600 
to 1200 ft. W. of the foot, and from 450 to 600 ft. above it. At 
the Water Gap the ridge is cut through to its base, and the Delaware 
river flows through the opening. This gap, 900 ft. wide at the 
base and 4500 ft. wide at the top, with sides rising very abruptly 
to a height of 1200 ft. and more, is an impressive sight. The 
Kittatinny Valley, S.E. of and parallel to the Kittatinny Range, is 
about 40 m. long and 12 m. wide and has an average elevation of 
700 ft. Its western margin is from 900 to 1000 ft. above the sea, 
and its eastern border is from 400 to 500 ft. lower. The floor of the 
valley is very undulating, and contains numerous small streams, 
whose divides are from 700 to 900 ft. above the sea. South-east of 
the Kittatinny Valley, and parallel with it, lies the second topo- 
graphic belt, the Highlands. This region embraces an area of 
900 sq. m., having a length, N.E. and S.W., of 60 m., and a width 
varying from 9 to 1 8 m. It consists of an upland plateau now 
dissected by streams into a series of hills and ridges, and corresponds 
to the Piedmont Belt farther to the S.W. and to the upland region 
of southern New England. The average elevation of the Highlands 
is about 1000 ft.; the highest point, between Canisteer and Vernon, 
in Sussex county, being 1496 ft. The third belt, called the Triassic 
Lowland, occupies about one-fifth of the surface of the state. Its 
N.W. border is marked by a line drawn S.W. across the state through 
Pompton, Morristown, Lebanon and Highbridge to the Delaware; 
its S.E. border by a line drawn from Woodbridge to Trenton. The 
surface is irregular, with altitudes ranging from about sea-level to 
900 ft. A noteworthy feature of this area is the series of trap rock 
ridges, between which the Passaic river makes its irregular way 
through a region of flat bottom lands. On the N. E. border of the 
Lowland, one of these trap ridges lines the western bank of the 
Hudson river for about 25 m., and is known as the Palisade Ridge, 
or simply the Palisades, because of the scenic effect produced by 
the columnar jointing and steep eastern wall of the trap sheet. 
To the W. the slope of the ridge is very gentle. The Palisades extend 
from a point N. of the New York boundary as far S. as Weehawken, 
their height gradually decreasing southward. A slope of debris 
occurs at the E. base of the Palisade Ridge, but the summit is 
covered with trees. The trap formation extends to the Kill van Kull 
Channel, and includes, among other ridges, the so-called First and 
Second Watchung (or Orange) Mountains W. of the group of suburbs 
known as the " Oranges," but S. of Weehawken it has no scenic 
attractiveness. With the exception of the ridges, the Triassic Low- 
land N. of the Raritan river is usually below 200 ft. in altitude; 
S. of the Raritan the topography of this belt is similar to the northern 
portion, but much of the area is over 200 ft. above the sea. South- 
east of the Triassic Lowland lies the fourth topographic belt, the 
Coastal Plain, containing an area of 4400 sq. m., or slightly more 
than one-half the entire surface of the state. This belt, bordered 
on the E., S. and W. by water, is highest near its centre and lowest 
along its margins. It is free from mountainous ridges, but there 
are a number of isolated hills, such as the Navesink Highlands 
(259 ft.) in Monmouth county. One-third of the Coastal Plain is 
below 50 ft. in altitude; two-fifths are between 50 and 100 ft.; 
and somewhat more than a fourth of the area is over 100 ft. above 
sea-level. The total area of the belt as high as 200 ft. above the sea 
does not exceed 15 sq. m. About one-eighth of the area consists 
of tidal marsh, lying chiefly between the long sandy ridges or barrier 
beaches of the Atlantic coast and the mainland. The width of the 
marsh varies from I to 6 m., being least in the extreme N. and S. 
and greatest near the mouths of streams. There is also a marsh 
along Delaware Bay, unprotected by a beach. The waters between 
these beaches and the mainland are gradually filling with sediment 
and changing into tidal marsh. In addition to the stretches of marsh 
along the coast, the eastward-flowing rivers of the Coastal Plain are 
fringed with large areas of swamp land, some of which is well 
forested. 

For the entire state the average elevation is 250 ft., with 4100 
sq. m. below 100 ft.; 2100 sq. m. between 100 and 500 ft. ; 1400 
sq. m. between 500 and 1000 ft.; and 215 sq. m. between 1000 and 
1500 ft. The'four topographic belts of the state correspond very 
closely to the outcrops of its geological formations; the rocks of the 
Appalachian belt being of Palaeozoic age; the formation of the 
Highlands, Archaean; that of the Triassic Lowland, Triassic ; that 
of the irregular hills of the Coastal Plain , Cretaceous and Tertiary. 

The great terminal moraine of the glacial epoch crosses the N.E.- 
S.W. topographic belts of the state, in an irregular line running W. 
and N.W., from Staten Island, N.Y. North of the morainic belt 
the effect of the glaciation is seen in the irregular courses of the 
streams, the numerous lakes and freshwater marshes and the falls 
and rapids along those streams displaced by the glaciers from their 
former courses. The effect of glaciation on the soil is noted in a 
later paragraph. 

The Delaware river, from its junction with the Neversink Creek 
to the capes, flows along the western and southern borders of the 
state for a distance of 245 m., and has a total drainage area in 
New Jersey of 2345 sq. m. Of equal importance is the Hudson, 
whose lower waters, forming the north-eastern boundary of New 
Jersey for a distance of 22 m., drain a very small part of the state, 
but have contributed materially to the state's commercial develop- 



NEW JERSEY 



ment. The streams lying wholly within the state are relatively 
unimportant. Of the tributaries to the Delaware river the northern- 
most is Flat Brook, 25 m. long, draining an area of 65 sq. m. W. of 
the Kittatinny Mountain. The Kittatinny Valley is drained by 
Paulins Kill and the Pequest river in the E. and S.E., and by the 
Walkill river in the N.E. Of the streams of the Highlands and the 
Triassic Lowland, the Passaic river is the most important. Rising 
in the N.E.- in the southern part of Morris county it pursues a 
winding north-easterly course, passing through a gap in the trap 
rock at Little Falls, and by means of a cascade and a mile of rapids 
descends 40 ft. At Paterson, 3 m. farther, the stream passes through 
a crevasse in the trap rock and has a sheer fall of 70 ft. (the Great 
Falls of the Passaic). 1 The stream then makes a sharp bend south- 
ward and empties into Newark Bay. 2 The Passaic and its small 
tributaries the Whippany, Rockaway, Pequanac, Wanaque, 
Saddle and Ramapo drain an araa of about 950 sq. m. On account 
of the rapid fall of its tributaries, the union of so many of them with 
the main stream near its middle course and the obstructions to the 
flow of the water in the lower course, the Passaic is subject to 
disastrous floods. In 1903 a heavy rainfall caused a flood which 
continued from the 8th to the igth of October and destroyed not 
less than $7,000,000 worth of property. Another, which continued 
from the 25th of February to the 9th of March 1902, destroyed 
property valued at $1,000,000 or more, and there were less dis- 
astrous floods in 1882 and 1896.' The Hackensack river enters the 
state about 5 m. W. of the Hudson river, flows almost parallel 
with that stream, and empties into Newark Bay, having a length 
of 34. m. and a drainage area of 201 sq. m. The Raritan river, 
flowing eastwardly through the centre of the state, is the largest 
stream lying wholly within New Jersey, and drains 1105 sq. m. 
Commercially, however, this stream is less important than the 
Passaic. In the southern half of the state the drainage is simple, 
and the streams are unimportant, flowing straight to the Delaware 
or the Atlantic. The westward streams are only small creeks; 
the eastward and southward streams, however, on account of the 
wider slope, have greater length. Among the latter are the Maurice 
river, 33 m. long, emptying into Delaware Bay ; and the Great Egg 
Harbor river, 38 m. long, and the Mullica, 32 m. long, emptying into 
the Atlantic. In the northern part of the state, and especially 
among the Highlands, are numerous lakes, which are popular places 
of resort during the summer months. Of these the largest and the 
most frequented are Lake Hopatcong, an irregular body of water in 
Morris and Sussex counties, and Greenwood Lake, lying partly in 
New York and partly in New Jersey. 

Fauna and Flora. The fauna of New Jersey does not differ 
materially from that of the other Middle Atlantic states. Large 
game has almost disappeared. The red, or Virginia, deer and the 
grey fox are still found in circumscribed localities; and of the 
smaller mammals, the squirrel, chipmunk, rabbit, raccoon and 
opossum are still numerous. Among game birds are various species 
of ducks, the quail, or " Bob White," and the woodcock. The 
waters of the coast and bays abound in shad, menhaden, bluefish. 
weak-fish (squeteague) , clams and oysters. The interior streams are 
stocked with trout, black bass and perch. 

The conditions of plant growth are varied. In the northern and 
north central parts of the state, where the soil consists partly of 
glacial drift, the species have a wider range than is the case farther 
S., where the soil is more uniform. New Jersey is a meeting ground 
for many species which have their principal habitat farther N. or 
farther S., and its flora therefore may be divided into a northern 
and a southern. Still another class, and the most clearly marked of 
all, is the flora of the beaches, salt marshes and meadows. The 
total woodland area of the state is about 3234 sq. m. Two distinct 
types of forest are recognized, with the usual transition zone between 
them. South and east of a line drawn approximately from Seabright 
to Glassboro, and thence southward to Delaware Bay, is a nearly 
level, sandy region known as " The Pines." This is the great forest 
area of the state; it contains about 1,200,000 acres of woodland, 
practically continuous, and portions of it still but sparsely inhabited. 
The original forest has been entirely removed, but a young growth 
of the same tree species, chiefly pitch pine with a variety of oaks, 
replaces it. Within " The Pines, immediately north of the Mullica 
river, lies an area of about 20,000 acres called " The Plains." These 
are sparsely clothed with prostrate pitch pine, scrub oak and laurel. 
Tree forms are entirely absent. The cause of this condition is still 
undetermined. Along the streams in this section are many swamps, 
valuable for the white cedar that they produce, or when cleared, for 
cranberry bogs. The northern part of the state is much more rugged, 



1 As the waters of the stream have been diverted into mill races, 
the river very seldom makes this leap in its natural channel. The 
power thus generated has been largely instrumental in creating the 
city of Paterson (g.r.). 

2 _The total length of the Passaic is about 100 m., but its course is 
so irregular that the distance in a straight line from its source to 
its mouth is only about 15 m. 

3 See G. B. Hollister and M. O. Leighton, The Passaic Flood of 
1002 (Washington, 1903), and M. O. Leighton, The Passaic Flood of 
IQOJ (Washington, 1904), being numbers 88 and 92 of the Water 
Supply and Irrigation Papers of the U.S. Geological Survey. 



North Eastern 

NEW JERSEY 



Scale. 1:600,000 

English Miles 
9 ! ? 3 ) 



NEW JERSEY 

Scale, 1:1,000,000 



County Seats.... o County Boundaries ... 
Railways .......... , . . .. Canals ........... 



. 

A Lo n8 i.ud.Wc.s, 75 V of Greenwich B 




NEW JERSEY 



and the forests are chiefly of chestnut and various species of oak. 
Though much broken by farms and other elements of culture they 
aggregate about 740,000 acres. New Jersey's forests have suffered 
much from fire, but with the exception of " The Plains " the soil 
everywhere is well adapted to tree growth. A comparatively mild 
climate and good market facilities increase the potential value of 
the whole woodland area. The state maintains a Forest Com- 
mission whose chief concern is to control the fires and thereby give 
value to private holdings. In this effort it is meeting with consider- 
able success. The state is also acquiring, and maintaining as de- 
monstration acres and public parks, forest reserves in various parts 
of the state. The five reserves now held are in Atlantic, Burlington 
and Sussex counties and aggregate 9899 acres. 1 

Climate. Between the extreme northern and southern sections 
of the state there is a greater variation in climate than would natur- 
ally result from their difference in latitude. This is due to the prox- 
imity of the ocean in the S. and to the relatively high altitude^ in 
the N. Near Cape May fruit trees bloom two or three weeks earlier 
than in the Highlands. The mean annual temperature ranges 
from 49-2 F. at Dover, in the N., to 55-4 at Bridgeton, in the S. 
The average date of the first killing frost at Dover is the 4th of 
October, and of the last, the loth of May; at Atlantic City, on the 
sea-coast, these dates are respectively the 4th of November and the 
nth of April. At Dover the mean annual temperature is 49; 
the mean for the winter is 28, with an extreme minimum recorded 
of 13; and the mean for the summer is 70, with an extreme 
maximum recorded of 102. At Atlantic City the mean annual 
temperature is 52; for the winter it is 34, with an extreme of -7; 
and for the summer, 70, with an extreme of 99. At Vineland, a 
southern interior town, the mean annual temperature is 53; for 
the winter it is 33, with an extreme of 13; and for the summer, 
74, with an extreme of 105. These records of temperature afford 
a striking illustration of the moderating influence of the ocean upon 
the extremes of summer and winter. On account of the proximity 
to the sea, New Jersey has a more equable climate than have some 
of the states in the same latitude farther west. During the summer 
months the general course of the wind along the sea-coast is in- 
terrupted about midday by an incoming current of air, the " sea 
breeze," which gradually increases until about three o'clock in the 
afternoon, and then gradually lessens until the offshore wind takes 
its place. As the heat is thus made less oppressive along the coast, 
the beaches of New Jersey have rapidly built up with towns and 
cities that have become popular summer resorts among the best 
known of these are Long Branch, Asbury Park, Ocean Grove, 
Atlantic City (also a winter resort) and Cape May. Among the 
interior resorts are Lakewood, a fashionable winter resort, and Lake 
Hopatcong, and Greenwood Lake and surrounding regions, much 
frequented in the summer. In the summer the prevailing winds 
throughout the state are from the S.W. ; in the winter, from the 
N.W. The normal annual precipitation is 47-7 in., varying from 
46-6 in. on the sea-coast to 49-1 in. in the Highlands and the Kitta- 
tinny Valley. Precipitation is from I to 3 in. greater in the 
summer than in the other seasons, which differ among themselves 
very little in the average amount of rainfall. From December to 
March, inclusively, part of the precipitation is in the form of snow. 
In the extreme S. there is more rain than snow in the winter; but 
no part of the state is free from snow storms. In the summer 
thunder storms are frequent, but are generally local in extent, and 
are much more common in the afternoon and early evening than in 
the morning. 

Soils. The soils of the state exhibit great variety. Those of the 
northern and central sections are made up in part of glacial drift; 
those of the S. are sandy or loamy, and are locally enriched by 
deposits of marl. The most fertile soils of the state lie in the clay 
and marl region, a belt from 10 to 20 m. wide extending across the 
state in a general south-westerly direction from Long Branch to 
Salem. South of this belt the soils are generally sandy and are not 
very fertile except at altitudes of less than 50 ft., where they are 
loamy and of alluvial origin. 

Agriculture. In 1900 very little more land was under cultivation 
than in 1850, the total acreage for these years being respectively 
2,840,966 and 2,752,946. The number of farms, however, increased 
from 23,905 to 34,294, and the average size of the farms decreased 
from 115-2 acres to 82 acres, an indication that agriculture gradually 
became more intensive. In 1900, 22% of the farms contained 
from 20 to 50 acres, 48-3%, 50-175 acres and only 7-8% con- 
tained over 175 acres. Farms were smallest in Hudson county, 
where the average size was 7-9 acres, and largest in Sussex county, 
where the average size was 143-4 acres. The counties with the 
largest total acreage were Burlington (343,096), Sussex (256,896) 
and Hunterdon (248,733). Between 1880 and 1900 the percentage 
of farms operated by owners decreased from 75-4 to 70-1 ; the per- 

1 The amount of timber cut within the state is very small. Before 
the introduction of coal and coke as fuel in the forges and furnaces 
the cutting of young trees for the manufacture of charcoal was a 
profitable industry, and the process of deforestation reached its 
maximum. Since 1860 the forest area has only slightly diminished, 
and the condition of the timber has improved, but large trees are 
still scarce. 



503 

centage of cash tenants increased from 10-5 to 15-3; and that of 
share tenants remained about stationary, being 14-1 in 1880 and 
14-6 in loxw. In this last year 27-5 % of the farms derived their 
principal income from live stock, 20-3 % from vegetables, 17-2 % 
from dairy produce, 7-8 % from fruits and 7-8 % from hay and 
grain. 

In 1907, according to the Year Book of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, the principal crops were: hay, 634,000 
tons ($10,778,000); potatoes, 8,400,000 bushels ($6 ,21 6,000) ; 
Indian corn, 8,757,000 bushels ($5,517,000); wheat, 1,998,000 
bushels ($1,958,000); rye, 1,372,000 bushels ($1,043,000); oats, 
1,770,000 bushels ($991,000). The number and value of each of 
the various classes of live stock in the state on the 1st of January 
1908 were as follows: horses, 102,000 ($11,526,000); mules, 5000 
($675,000); milch cows, 190,000 ($8,170,000); other neat cattle, 
82,000 ($1,722,000); sheep, 44,000 ($220,000); swine, 155,000 
($1,555,000). In 1899, 5959 farms were classified as dairy farms, 
i.e. they derived at least 40 % of their income from dairy products ; 
and the total value of dairy products was $8,436,869, the larger 
items being $6,318,568 for milk sold and $818,624 for butter sold. 
Poultry raising also is an important agricultural industry: poultry 
in the state was valued at $1,300,853 on the 1st of June 1900; and 
for the year 1899 the value of all poultry raised was $2,265,816, 
and the value of eggs was $1,938,304. In the production of cereals 
the state has not taken high rank since the development of the wheat 
fields of the western states; but in 1899 the acreage in cereals was 
45-4 % of the acreage in all crops, and the value of the yield was 
2 5'3% of that of all crops. Of the total acreage in cereals in 1907, 
278,000 acres were in Indian corn; 108,000 in wheat; 78,000 in 
rye; and 60,000 in oats. The chief cereal-producing counties in 
1899 were Burlington, Hunterdon, Monmouth and Salem. The most 
valuable field crop in 1907 was hay and forage, consisting mostly of 
clover and cultivated grasses; in 1899 the value of this crop was 
20-2 % of that of all crops. 

Since 1830 market gardening in New Jersey has become in- 
creasingly important, especially in the vicinity of large cities, and 
has proved more profitable than the growing of cereals. In the total 
acreage devoted to the raising of vegetables in marketable quantities 
New Jersey in 1900 was surpassed by only two other states. The 
value of the marketable vegetables in 1899 was $4,630,658, and the 
value of the total vegetable crop, $8,425,596, or 30-7 % of that of all 
crops. Among the vegetables grown the potato is the most im- 
portant; in 1907 there were 70,000 acres in potatoes, yielding 
8,400,000 bushels, valued at $6,216,000. Between 1899 and 1907 
the value of the potato crop more than doubled. In 1899 the state 
also produced 5,304,503 bushels of tomatoes; 2,418,641 bushels of 
sweet potatoes; 2,052,200 bunches of asparagus; 17,890,980 heads 
of cabbage; 21,495,940 musk melons; 3,300,330 water melons; 
and 1,015,111 bushels of sweet corn. Fruit-growing has also attained 
considerable importance. In 1899 the total value of the crop was 
$4,082,788; the value of the orchard fruit was $2,594,981 ; of small 
fruits, $1,406,049; and of grapes, $81,758. Peaches grow in all 
parts of the state, but most of the crop comes from Hunterdon, 
Sussex and Somerset counties. Apples are grown there and also 
in the western part of Burlington county. In the decade 1889 
1899 the apple crop increased from 603,890 to 4,640,896 bushels. 
In Monmouth, Camden and parts of Burlington and Gloucester 
counties great quantities of pears are grown. Atlantic, Burlington, 
Camden and Salem counties are the great centres for strawberries; 
Atlantic, Cumberland and Salem counties lead in grape-growing; 
and a large huckleberry crop is yearly gathered in "the Pines." 
In 1899 New Jersey produced nearly a fourth of the cranberry crop 
of the United States, the chief centre of production being the bogs of 
Burlington and Ocean counties. Other fruits grown in considerable 
quantities are cherries, plums, blackberries and raspberries. 

Minerals and Mining. In 1907 the total value of the state's 
mineral products was $32,800,299. Clays of different degrees of 
value are found in nearly every section, but the principal clay 
mining areas are: the Middlesex county area, where the best clays 
are found along the Raritan river and the coast ; the Trenton area, 
in which clay is mined chiefly at Dogtown, E. of Trenton ; the 
Delaware river area, in the vicinity of Palmyra; and the Wood- 
mansie area, in Ocean county. As the clay pits contain only small 
amounts of any one kind of clay, it has proved more profitable for 
manufacturers to buy their raw materials from a number of miners 
than for them to operate the mines themselves, and consequently 
clay mining and the manufacture of clay products are largely 
distinct industries. In New Jersey the mining of clays is more 
important than in any other state, the amount mined and sold in 
1902 being a third of the entire output of the United States, and the 
amount in 1907 (440,138 tons) being more than one-fifth of all clay 
mined and sold in the United States; and in 1907 in the value of 
clay products ($16,005,460; brick and tile, $9,019, 834, and pottery, 
$6,985,626) New Jersey was outranked only by Ohio and Pennsyl- 
vania. In Warren and Sussex counties are abundant materials for 
the manufacture of Portland cement, an industry that has attained 
importance since 1892; in the value of its product in 1907 
($4,738,516) New Jersey was surpassed only by Pennsylvania. 
Granite is found in Morris and Sussex counties, but is not extensively 
quarried ; there are extensive quarries of sandstone in the Piedmont 



504 

section; and limestone and trap rock are important mineral 
resources. In 1907 the total value of stone quarried in the state 
was $1,523,312, of which $995,436 was the value of trap rock, 
$274,452 of limestone, $177,667 of sandstone and $75,757 of 
granite. Some roofing slate is produced in Sussex county; in 1907 
the output was valued at $8000. The mining of natural fertilizers 
white and greensand marls is a long established industry; the 
output in 1907 was 14,091 tons, valued at $8429. 

Of mineral ores the most important are iron, zinc and copper. 
The manufacture of iron in New Jersey dates from 1674, when the 
metal was reduced from its ores near Shrewsbury, Monmouth 
county. Magnetic ores, found chiefly in Morris, Passaic and Warren 
counties, form the basis of the present industry. Bog ores were 
mined until about 1840; since that date they have had no market. 
The product of the iron mines has fluctuated greatly in quantity, 
being nearly 1,000,000 tons of ore in 1892, 257,235 tons in 1897, 
and 549,760 tons in 1907, when the output was valued at $1,815,586, 
and was about nine-tenths magnetite and one-tenth brown ore. 
The chief places of production are Hibernia ((Morris county) and 
Mt Pleasant (Hunterdon county); in 1907 four mines in the state 
produced 316,236 tons. In the production of zinc New Jersey once 
took a prominent part; in 1907 the only producer was The New 
Jersey Zinc Company's mine at Franklin Furnace, Sussex county, 
with an output of 13,573 short tons, valued at $1,601,614. The 
chief deposits consist of red oxide, silicate and franklinite, and the 
average zinc content is 23 %. The copper deposits of the state were 
worked to a small extent in colonial days. One of the brass cannon 
used at Yorktown was made of copper taken from the Watchung 
Mountains during the War for Independence. These mountains are 
still the chief source of copper, but the ores, chiefly cuprite, mala- 
chite and chrysocolla, are also found in various parts of the Pied- 
mont region. In the years following 1900 there was renewed interest 
in copper mining. There are many valuable mineral springs in the 
state: for 1907 eleven springs (three in Bergen and two each in 
Morris, Camden and Somerset counties) reported to the U.S. 
Geological Survey the sale of 982,445 gallons (mostly table water), 
valued at $103,082. Other minerals, which are not found in com- 
mercial quantities, are lead in the form of galena, in Sussex county; 
graphite, in the crystalline schistose rocks of the Highlands ; molyb- 
denum, in tne form of a sulphide, in Sussex county; and barytes in 
Mercer and Sussex counties. In Bergen, Warren, Sussex and 
Morris counties are numerous bogs containing peat of a good quality. 

Manufactures. After 1850 New Jersey made rapid progress in 
manufacturing, which soon became its leading industry. In 1850 
7-7 % of the population were employed as wage-earners in manu- 
facturing establishments; in 1900, 12-8 %. The value of the pro- 
ducts in 1850 was $39,851,256; in 1890, $354,573.571 1 in 1900, 
$611,748,933. Such figures of the census of 1900 as are comparable 
with those of the special census of! 1905, when only the establishments 
under the factory system were enumerated, show that between 1900 
and 1905 the number of factories increased 9-3 %; the capital, 
49-8 %; and the value of the products, 1 40 % (from $353,005,684 
to $774,369,025). This rapid development is due to the excellent 
transportation facilities, and to the proximity of large markets and 
of great natural resources, such as the clays of New Jersey and the 
coal and iron of Pennsylvania. The chief manufacturing centres in 
1905, as judged by the value of their products, were Newark 
($I5,55,277), Jersey City ($75,740,934)- Bayonne ($60,633,761), 
Paterson ($54,673,083), Perth Amboy ($34,800,402), Camden 
($33,5.87,273), and Trenton ($32,719,945). In 1905, 67-1 % of the 
factories were in municipalities having a population of at least 
8000 in 1900, and their product was 74- 1 % (in value) of the total. 
There are indications, however, that industries are slowly shifting 
to the smaller towns. 

The textile industries taken together are the most important of 
the manufacturing industries, having a greater output (in 1900, 
$81,910,850; in 1905, $96,060,407), employing more labourers and 
capital, and paying more wages than any other group. Among the 
various textiles silk takes the first place, the value of the factory 
product in 1900 being $39,966,662, and in 1905, $42,862,907. In 
1900 the value of the silk output was 48-8 % of the total value of 
the textiles, and silk manufacturing was more important than any 
other industry (textile or not) ; in 1905, however, owing to the great 
progress in other industries, silk had dropped to fourth place, but 
still contributed 44-6 % of the value of the textiles. In 1900 New 
Jersey furnished 37-3 %, and in 1905, 32-2 % , of the silk products 
of the United States, and was surpassed by no other state. The silk 
industry is centred at Paterson, the chief silk manufacturing city of 
the United States. West Hoboken and Jersey City are also im- 
portant producers. A second textile industry in which New Jersey 
in 1900 and in 1905 took first rank was the manufacture of felt hats; 
the total value of the product in 1905 was $9,540,433, a gain of 
32-3 % since 1900, and constituting 26 % of the value of the product 
of the entire United States. Most of the product comes from the 
cities of Newark and Orange. From 1900 to 1905 the value of the 
worsted goods increased from $6,823,721 to $11,925,126, or 74-8 %, 

1 The following statistics of the products for 1900 and for 1905 
are for factory products, those for 1900 differing, therefore, from the 
statistics which appear in the reports of the census of 1900. 



NEW JERSEY 



the greatest gain made by any of the textiles. In this industry New 
Jersey was surpassed only by Massachusetts, Rhode Island and 
Pennsylvania. During this five-year period there was an increase of 
31-2 % (from $6,540,289 to $8,518,527) in the value of the cotton 
goods manufactured in New Jersey; of 12-6 % (from $2,168,570 
to $2,441,516) in that of linen goods; of 45-3 % (from $1,748,14* 
to $2,539,178) in that of hosiery and knit goods, and of 14-8 %. 
(from $1,522,827 to $1,748,831) m that of carpets and rugs. In 
dyeing and finishing textiles New Jersey was first among the states 
of the Union in 1900 (value, $10,488,963, being 23-3% of the total 
for the country) and in 1905 (value, $11,979,947, being 23-6 % of 
the total for the country); Paterson is the centre of this industry 
in New Jersey. 

In the manufacture of clay products, including brick, tiling, terra 
cotta and pottery, the state takes high rank: the total value of 
pottery, terra cotta and fire-clay products increased from $8,940,723. 
in 900 to $11,717,103 in 1905; in 1905 the most valuable pottery 
product was sanitary ware, valued at $3,006,406; and in that year 
New Jersey furnished 18-2 % of the total pottery product of the 
United States, and was surpassed in this industry only by Ohio. 
The city of Trenton is one of the two great centres of the American 
pottery industry, and in 1905 it manufactured more than one-half 
of the state's output of pottery, terra cotta and fire-clay products. 
The pottery products include china, c.c. ware, white granite ware, 
sanitary ware, belleek and porcelain. Much of the raw material for 
this industry, such as ball, flint, and spar clays and kaolin, is im- 
ported from other states. In 1905 the value of brick and tile manu- 
factured in the state was $1,830,080. Glass is also an important 
product of New Jersey; the output being valued at $5,093,822 in 
1900 and at $6,450,195 in 1905. Since 1880, however, the state had 
fallen from second to fourth place (in 1905) in this industry. 

The leading single industry in the state in 1905, as determined by 
the value of its products, was the smelting and refining of copper. 
In 1900 the output was valued at $38,365,131; in 1905, at 
$62,795,713, an increase of 63-7 %; and in 1905 21-6 % of the 
product of the United States came from New Jersey. The raw 
materials for this industry, however, are imported into New Jersey 
from other states. In the smelting and refining of platinum, nickel, 
gold and silver (not from the ore) there was a striking development 
between 1900 and 1905, the value of the product increasing from 
$469,224 to $7,034,139. The value in 1905 of gold and silver 
reduced and refined (not from the ore) was $5,281,805. The values 
of the other leading manufactures in 1905 were as follows: products 
of foundry and machine shops, $49,425,385 ; iron and steel * (in- 
cluding products of blast furnaces and rolling mills), $23,667,483; 
wire (exclusive of copper wire), $11,103,959; petroleum refining, 
$46,608,984; tanned, curried and finished leather, $21,495,329, 
(5th in the United States in 1900 and 1905); malt liquors, 
$17,446,447; slaughter-house products and packed meats, 
$17,238,076; electrical machinery, supplies and apparatus, 
$13,803,476 (sth in the United States in 1900 and in 1905) ; chemicals, 
$13,023,629; rubber belting and hose, $9,915,742; jewelry, 
$9,303,646 (^th in the United States in 1900 and in 1905) ; tobacco, 
cigars and cigarettes, $8,331,611. Other manufactures valued in 
1905 at more than $5,000,000 were: boots and shoes, cars and 
general railway shop work, illuminating and heating gas, lumber 
and planing mill products, phonographs, fertilizers, flour and grist 
mill products, iron and steel ships, refined lard and paper and 
wood pulp. 

Fisheries. The fisheries of the state are of great commercial 
value. In 1904 the fisheries and the wholesale fish trade gave 
employment to 9094 persons. Until 1901 New Jersey's fisheries 
were more important than those of any other state in the Middle 
or South Atlantic groups; but after that date, owing to a decrease 
in the catch of bluefish, shad, clams and oysters, the annual catch 
of New York and Virginia became more valuable. The great 
length of river and sea front, and the easy communication from all 
parts of the state with the leading urban markets, have brought about 
the development of this industry. The total catch in 1904 was 
90,108,068 Ib, valued at $3,385,415, a decline of 28 % in value since 
1901. The chief varieties of the product in 1904, with their value, 
were as follows: oysters, $1,691,953; clams, $430,766; shad, 
$238,517; squeteague (weak-fish), $253,200; bluefish, $120,085; 
menhaden, $109,090; sea bass, $97,903; cod, $53,789. Fishing, 
as a commercial pursuit, is carried on in seventeen counties, and 
attains its greatest importance in Cumberland county, where the 
catch in 1904 was valued at $1,090,157, and the oyster catch alone 
at $1,046,147. In the other counties along the Delaware shad is 
the chief product, and these counties furnish nearly nine-tenths of 
the catch. A small amount of shad is taken also in the Hudson 
river. The value of the shad fisheries has greatly declined since 
1901. Along the coast squeteague is the most abundant edible 
variety taken. Bluefish are very plentiful from 4 to 10 m. off 
Seabnght. The shell fisheries (oysters particularly) are centred in 
Delaware Bay and at Maurice River Cove, in Cumberland county, 
but are important also in Cape May, Atlantic, Ocean and Monmouth 



* This is one of the oldest of the important industries in New 
Jersey: at Old Boonton, about 1770, was established a rolling and 
slitting mill, probably the first in the country. 



NEW JERSEY 



counties on the Atlantic seaboard. This industry declined for a 
time, partly on account of the pollution of the streams by sewage 
and the refuse of manufacturing establishments, but laws have been 
enacted for its protection and development. Clams are gathered 
from Perth Amboy to the upper Delaware Bay ; the most important 
fisheries being at Keyport, Port Monmputh and Belford. In 1909 
the State Bureau of Shell Fisheries estimated the annual value of 
shell fisheries. in the state at nearly $6,000,000, of which $500,000 
was the value of clams. Monmouth, Ocean and Cape May counties 
furnish large quantities of menhaden, which are utilized for oil and 
fertilizer. This industry in 1904 yielded fertilizer valued at 
$154,360 and oil valued at $33,110. 

Transportation. In 1905, with a total railway mileage of 
2274-40, New Jersey possessed an average of 30-22 m. of railway 
for each 100 sq. m. of territory, an average higher than that of any 
other American state; in 1909, according to the State Railroad 
Commissioners, the mileage was 2354-63 (including additional 
tracks, sidings, &c., 5471-38 m.). Owing to its geographical position 
the state is crossed by all roads reaching New York City from 
the S. and W., and all those reaching Philadelphia from the N. and 
E. The eastern terminals of the southern and western lines running 
from New York City are situated on the western shore of the Hudson 
river, in Weehawken, Hoboken or Jersey City; whence passengers 
and freight are carried by ferry to New York. Jersey City and 
Hoboken are also connected with New York by tunnels under the 
Hudson river. Among these lines are the Erie system, extending 
W. from Jersey City via Buffalo; the New York, Susquehanna & 
Western (subsidiary to the Erie), from Jersey City to Wilkes-Barre, 
Pennsylvania; the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, from Hoboken 
to Buffalo; the Lehigh Valley, from Jersey City to Buffalo; the 
Pennsylvania, from Jersey City to the S. and W. 1 ; the New York, 
Ontario & Western (controlled by the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford), from Weehawken to Oswego; the West Shore (leased 
by the New York Central), from Weehawken to Buffalo; and 
the Central railway of New Jersey (controlled by the Philadelphia 
& Reading), with numerous short lines from Jersey City to the S. 
and W. These roads also operate numerous branch lines and control 
other short lines built independently. Among the latter class are 
the Atlantic City railway (controlled by the Philadelphia & Reading) 
from Philadelphia to various coast resorts in southern New Jersey; 
and the West Jersey & Seashore (controlled by the Pennsylvania), 
from Philadelphia to Atlantic City and Cape May. The railways 
operating independently of the great " trunk " systems are few and 
unimportant. The excellence of the waggon roads of the state is 
largely due to the plentiful supply of trap rock in New Jersey. 

Of New Jersey's 487 m. of boundary, 319 m. are touched by 
waters navigable for boats of varying draft. There is tidal water 
on the E. and S., and also on the W. as far N. as Trenton. The 
lower Hudson is navigable for the largest ocean-going steamers. 
From Bergen Point to Perth Amboy, W. of Staten Island, lie the 
narrow channels of the Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill, with a minimum- 
depth of 9 or 10 ft. at low water. Raritan Bay, to the S., is navigable 
only for small vessels. There are no good harbours on the Atlantic 
coast. The lower Delaware is navigable for ocean steamships as 
far N. as Camden (opposite Philadelphia), and for small vessels as 
far as Trenton, which is the head of navigation. The only deep 
water terminals of the state are Jersey City and Hoboken. Among 
the rivers the Raritan is navigable to New Brunswick, the Hacken- 
sack for small boats for 20 m. above its mouth, the Rahway as far 
as Rahway, the Great Egg Harbor river as far as May's Landing, 
the Mullica for 20 m. above its mouth, and the Elizabeth river as 
far as Elizabeth, In 1907 an inland waterway from Cape May to 
Bay Head was .planned : the length of this channel, through and 
between coastal sounds from the southernmost part of the state to 
the northern end of Barnegat Bay in the N.E. part of Ocean county, 
was to be about 116-6 m., and the channel was to be 6 ft. deep and 
100 ft. wide. The Delaware and Raritan canal 2 was long a very 



J The Pennsylvania railway has constructed tunnels under the 
Hudson river, and has erected a large terminal station on Manhattan 
Island. 

1 In William Winterbotham's An Historical, Geographical, Com- 
mercial and Philosophical View of the American United States, &c. 
(London, 1795) there was a discussion of the feasibility of a canal 
between the Delaware and the Raritan. In 1804 a company was 
chartered to build such a canal; in 1816 a route was surveyed; 
in 1823 a commission was appointed which recommended a route 
and suggested that the state take part in building the canal; in 
December 1826 a canal company was incorporated with a monopoly 
of canal and railway privileges within IO m. of any part of the canal 
authorized, but Pennsylvania refused permission to use the waters 
of the Delaware, and the charter lapsed; in 1830 the Delaware and 
Raritan Canal Company was incorporated by an act which forbade 
the construction of any other canal within 5 m. of the proposed 
route of the Delaware and Raritan, and which reserved to the 
state the right to buy the waterway 30 years (changed in 1831 to 
50 years) after its completion. Lieutenant (afterwards Commodore) 
Robert F. Stockton (1795-1866), president of the Company, con- 
tributed greatly to its financial success. In 1831 it was combined 
with the Camden & Amboy railway. 



505 

important artificial waterway. Its .main channel (opened for 
traffic in 1838) extends from Bordentown, Burlington county, on 
the Delaware to New Brunswick, on the Raritan, 44 m. by the canal 
route, and thus carries the waters of the Delaware river entirely 
across the state, discharging them into the Raritan at New Bruns- 
wick. It is 40 ft. wide at the bottom, 80 ft. at the top and 9 ft. 
deep; it has a navigable feeder (30 ft. wide at the bottom and 60 ft. 
wide at the top, with a depth of 9 ft.), which is 22 m. long, extending 
from the Delaware at Bull's Head to Trenton. The canal passes 
.through Trenton (the highest point 56-3 ft. above mean tide), 
Kingston, Griggston, Weston and Bound Brook, and has one lock 
(or more) at each of these places. It is used chiefly for the trans- 
portation of Pennsylvania coal to New York, and is controlled by 
the Pennsylvania railway. The total cost up to 1906 was $5,1 13,749. 
The Morris Canal, 3 opened in 1836, is 50 ft. wide at the surface, 
30 ft. wide at the bottom and 5 ft. deep, and (excluding 4-1 m. of 
feeders) 102-38 m. long, beginning at Jersey City and passing 
through Newark, Bloomfield, Paterson, Little Falls, Boonton, 
Rockaway, Dover, Port Oram, Lake Hopatcong, Hackettstpwn and 
Washington to Phillipsburg on the Delaware; it is practically in 
two sections, one east and the other west of Lake Hopatcong (Sussex 
and Morris counties; about 928 ft. above sea-level; 9 m. long from 
N.E. to S.W. ; maximum width, I m.), which is a reservoir and 
feeder for the canal's eastern and western branches, and which was 
enlarged considerably when the canal was built. There is another 
feeder, the Pompton, 3-6 m. long, in Passaic county. The canal 
crosses the Passaic and Pompton rivers on aqueducts. The Canal 
(the Morris Canal Banking Company) was leased in April 1871 
to the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company for 999 years. It is no 
longer of commercial importance as a waterway. At Phillipsburg it 
connects with an important coal carrying canal (lying almost 
entirely in Pennsylvania), the property of the Lehigh Coal and 
Navigation Co. (leased to the Central Railroad of New Jersey), 
which follows the Lehigh river to Coalport (Carbon county, Pennsyl- 
vania), penetrating the coal regions of Pennsylvania. 

Population. The population of the state in 1880 was 1,131,116; 
in 1890, 1,444,933; in 1900, 1,883,669 (431,884 foreign-born, 
and 69,844 negroes) ; in 1905 (state census) 2,144,134; in 1910, 
2 >S37) I 67- Of the native-born white population in 1900, 556,294 
were of foreign parentage, and 825,973 were of native parentage. 
Among the various elements comprising the foreign-born popula- 
tion were 119,598 Germans; 94,844 Irish; 45,428 English; 
41,865 Italians; 19,745 Russians; 14,913 Hungarians; 14,728 
Austrians; 14,357 Poles; 14,211 Scotch; and 10,261 Dutch. 
In 1800 barely 2% of the population was urban; in 1900 80% 
of the inhabitants either lived in cities or were in daily com- 
munication with Philadelphia or New York. The rural popula- 
tion is practically stationary. The chief cities in 1910 were 
Newark (pop. 347,469), Jersey City (267,779), Paterson(i25,6oo), 
Trenton (96,815), Camden (94,538) and Hoboken (70,324). 
Owing to its milder climate and its larger number of cities New 
Jersey has a negro population somewhat larger than that of the 
states of the same latitude farther west. The rate of increase 
of this element, which is greatest in the cities, is about the same 
as that for the white inhabitants. Since 1881 colonies of Hebrews 
have been established in the southern part of the state, among 
them being Alliance (1881), Rosenhayn (1882), Carmel (1883), 
and, most noted of all, Woodbine, which owes its origin to the 
liberality of Baron de Hirsch, and contains the Baron de Hirsch _ 
Agricultural and Industrial School. As regards church affilia- 
tion, in 1906 Roman Catholics were the most numerous, with 
441,432 members out of a total of 857,548 communicants of all 
denominations; there were 122,511 Methodists, 79,912 Presby- 
terians, 65,248 Baptists, 53,921 Protestant Episcopalians, 
32,290 members of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America, 
and 24,147 Lutherans. 

3 The Morris Canal & Banking Company was chartered in 1824 
to build the Morris Canal, which never proved a financial success, 
partly because of the competition of the Delaware Raritan. 
which soon commanded the coal trade, and partly because of physical 
and mechanical defects. It was exempted from all taxation by the 
state, which reserved the right to buy it, at a fair price, in 1923 or, 
without making any payment, to succeed to the actual ownership 
in 1973 upon the expiration of the charter. The idea of utilizing 
the waters of Lake Hopatcong was that of George P. MacCulIoch 
of Morristown. A peculiar feature of the canal was a system of 
inclined planes or railways on which there were cradles, carrying the 
canal boat up (or down) the incline; these were devised by Pro- 
fessor James Kenwick (1818-1895) f Columbia College; 12 of them 
in the eastern division raised boats altogether about 720 ft., and 1 1 
of them in the western division lowered the boats about 690 ft. the 
remainder of the grade was overcome by locks. 



NEW JERSEY 



Administration. The state is governed under the constitution 
of 1844, with subsequent amendments of 1875 and of 1897. 
The only other constitution under which the state has been 
governed was that of 1776 (see History below). The right of 
suffrage is conferred upon all males, twenty-one years of age and 
over, who have resided in the state for one year and in the county 
for five months preceding the election. 1 Paupers, idiots, insane 
persons and persons who are convicted of crimes which exclude, 
them from being witnesses and who have not been pardoned 
and restored to civil rights are disfranchised. The executive 
power is vested in a governor, who is elected for a term of three 
years and may not serve two successive terms, though he may 
be re-elected after he has been out of office for a full term. He 
must be at least thirty years of age, and must have been a citizen 
of the United States for a least twenty years, and a resident of 
the state seven years next preceding his election. He may not 
be elected by the legislature, during the term for which he is 
elected as governor, to any office under the state or the United 
States governments. He receives a salary of $10,000 a year. 
If the governor die, resign or be removed from office, or if his 
office be otherwise vacant, he is succeeded by the president of the 
Senate, who serves until another governor is elected and qualified. 
The governor's powers under the constitution of 1776 were 
greatly limited by the constitution of 1844. His appointive 
power is unusually large. With the advice and consent of the 
state Senate he selects the secretary of state, attorney-general, 
superintendent of public instruction, chancellor, chief justice, 
judges of the supreme, circuit, inferior and district courts, and 
the so-called " lay " judges of the court of errors and appeals, 
in addition to the minor administrative officers who are usually 
appointive in all American states. The governor may make no 
appointments in the last week of his term. The state treasurer, 
comptroller and the commissioners of deeds are appointed 
by the two houses of the legislature in joint session. The 
governor is ex officio a member of the court of pardons, and his 
affirmative vote is necessary in all cases of pardon or commuta- 
tion of sentence (see below). 

The legislative department consists of a Senate and a General 
Assembly. In the Senate each of the 21 counties has one repre- 
sentative, chosen for a term of three years, and about one-third 
of the membership is chosen each year. The members of the 
General Assembly are elected annually, are limited to sixty (the 
actual number in 1909), and are apportioned among the counties 
according to population, with the important proviso, however, 
that every county shall have at least one member. 

The arrangement of senatorial representation is very unequal; 
and the densely populated counties are under-represented. A 
senator must at the time of his election be at least thirty years old, 
and must have been a citizen and inhabitant of the state for four 
years and of his county for one year immediately preceding his 
election; and an assemblyman must at the time of his election be 
at least twenty-one years old, and must have been a citizen and 
inhabitant of the state for two years, and of his county for one year, 
immediately preceding his election. The annual salary of each 
senator and of each member of the General Assembly is $500. 
Money bills originate in the lower house, but the Senate may propose 
amendments. The legislature may not create any debt or liability 
" which shall, single or in the aggregate with any previous debts or 
liabilities, at any time exceed $100,000," except for purposes of 
war, to repel invasion or to suppress insurrection, without specifying 
distinctly the purpose or object, providing for the payment of 
interest, and limiting the liability to thirty-five years; and the 
measure as thus passed must be ratified by popular vote. The 
constitution as amended in 1875 forbids the legislature to pass any 
private or special laws regulating the affairs of towns or counties, 
or to vote state grants to any municipal or industrial corporations or 
societies, and prescribes that in imposing taxes the assessment of 
taxable property shall be according to general laws and by uniform 
rules; and anti-race-track agitation in 1891-1897 led to a further 
amendment prohibiting the legalizing of lotteries, of pool-selling 

'The constitution of 1844 limited the suffrage to white males, 
and although this limitation was annulled by the fifteenth amend- 
ment to the Federal Constitution, it was not until 1875 that the 
state by an amendment (adopted on the 7th of September) struck 
the word " white " from its suffrage clause. At the same time 
another amendment was adopted providing that sailors and soldiers 
in the service of the United States in time of war might vote although 
absent from their election districts. 



or of other forms of gambling. The governor may (since 1875) veto 
any item in any appropriation bill, but any bill (or item) may be 
passed over his veto by bare majorities (of all members elected) in 
both houses. Bills not returned to the legislature in five days 
become law, unless the legislature adjourns in the meantime. 
Amendments to the constitution must first be passed by the legis- 
lature at two consecutive sessions (receiving a majority vote of all 
members elected to each house), and then be ratified. by the voters 
at a special election, and no amendment or amendments may be 
submitted by the legislature to the people oftener than once in 
five years. 

The judicial system is complex and is an interesting develop- 
ment from the English system of the i8th century. At its head 
is a court of errors and appeals composed of the chancellor, the 
justices of the supreme court and six additional " lay " judges. 
The supreme court consists of a chief justice and eight associate 
justices, but it may be held by the chief justice alone or by any 
one of the associate justices. The state is divided into nine 
judicial districts, and each supreme court justice hblds circuit 
courts within each county of a judicial district, besides being 
associated with the " president " judge of the court of common 
pleas of each county in holding the court of common pleas, the 
court of quarter sessions, the court of oyer and terminer and the 
orphans' court. One of five additional judges may hold a circuit 
court in the absence of a justice of the supreme court, or the 
" president " judge of a court of common pleas may do so if the 
supreme court justice requests it. In each township there are 
from two to five justices of the peace, any one of whom may 
preside over the " small cause court," which has jurisdiction 
of cases in which the matter in dispute does not exceed $200 
and is not an action of replevin, one in which the charge, is slander, 
trespass or assault, battery or imprisonment, or in which the 
title to real estate is in question. 

The court of common pleas, which may be held either by the 
" president " judge or by a justice of the supreme court, may hear 
appeals from the " small cause court," and has original jurisdiction 
in all civil matters except those in which the title to real estate is in 
question. The court of quarter sessions, which may likewise be held 
by either the judge of the court of common pleas or by a justice of 
the supreme court, has jurisdiction over all criminal cases except 
those of treason or murder. The court of oyer and terminer is a 
higher criminal court, and has cognizance of all crimes and offences 
whatever. Except in counties having a population of 300,000 or 
more, a justice of the supreme court must preside over it, and the 
judge of the court of common pleas may or may not sit with him; 
in a county having a population of 300,000 or more the judge of 
the court of common pleas may sit alone. Writs of error in cases 
punishable with death are returnable only to the court of errors 
and appeals. No appeals are permitted in criminal cases. The 
orphans' court may be held either by the judge of the court of 
common pleas or by a justice of the supreme court; and it has 
jurisdiction over controversies respecting the existence of wills, the 
fairness of inventories, the right of administration and guardianship, 
the allowance of accounts to executors, administrators, guardians or 
trustees, and over suits for the recovery of legacies and distributive 
shares, but it may refer any matter corning before it to a master in 
chancery. The prerogative court, which is presided over by the 
chancellor as ordinary and surrogate-general, or by a vice-ordinary 
and vice-surrogate-general, may hear appeals from the orphans' 
court, and has the authority to grant probate of wills and letters of 
administration and guardianship, and to hear and determine disputes 
arising therein. The court of chancery is administered by a chan- 
cellor, seven vice-chancellors and numerous masters in chancery. 
Besides the ordinary chancery jurisdiction it hears all applications 
for divorce or nullity of marriage. Appeals from the court of 
chancery as well as writs of error from the supreme court are heard 
by the court of errors and appeals. New Jersey has a court of 
pardons composed of the governor, chancellor and the six " lay " 
judges of the court of errors and appeals, and the concurrence of a 
majority of its members, of whom the governor shall be one, is 
necessary to grant a pardon, commute a sentence or remit a fine. 
This court has, also, the authority to grant to a convict a licence 
to be at large upon such security, terms, conditions and limitations 
as it may require. The judges of the several New Jersey courts 
are appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate for a 
term of years, usually five to seven. 

For the purposes of local government the state is divided into 
counties, cities, townships, towns and boroughs. The govern- 
ment of the towns is administered through a council, clerk, 
collector, assessor, treasurer, &c., chosen by popular vote; that 
of the townships is vested in the annual town meeting, at which 
administrative officers are elected. Any township with more 



NEW JERSEY 



507 



than 5000 inhabitants may be incorporated as a town, with its 
government vested in a mayor and council. Any township or 
part thereof with less than 4 sq. m. of territory, and less than 
5000 inhabitants, may be incorporated as a borough, with its 
government vested in a mayor and council. 

In 1903 a law (revised in 1908) was passed providing for the 
conduct at public cost of primary elections for the nomination of 
nearly all elective officers, and for the nomination of delegates to 
party nominating conventions; nominations for primary elections 
are made by petitions signed by at least ten voters (except in very 
small election districts) who make affidavit as to their party affilia- 
tions; the nominee thus indorsed must file a letter of acceptance. 
Under this act a "political party" is one which polled at least 
one-twentieth of the total number of votes cast in the next preceding 
election in the area for which the nomination is made; and in party 
conventions there must be one delegate from each election district, 
and one delegate for each 200 votes cast by the party in the next 
preceding gubernatorial election. 

An act approved on the loth of April 1908 authorized a Civil 
Service Commission of four members appointed by the governor, 
who choose a chief examiner and a secretary of the commission. 
Civil service rules adopted by this commission went into effect in 
the same year for certain state employes. In 1910 that part of the 
law permitting municipalities to adopt these rules through their 
governing bodies was declared unconstitutional; but municipalities 
may adopt them by popular vote. 

A state Board of Railroad Commissioners (three appointed by 
the governor), created in 1907, became in 1910 a Board of Public 
Utility Commissioners with jurisdiction over all public utilities 
(including telephones and telegraphs); its approval is necessary 
for the issue of stock or bonds, but it has no power to fix rates. 

The state acts concurrently with New York in preserving the 
natural beauties of the Palisades of the Hudson river; and in 
1909 the Palisades Interstate Park, with a front of 13 m. on the 
Hudson, from Fort Lee to Piermont, was dedicated. 

The homestead exempt from sale under seizure is limited to the 
house and lot, not exceeding $1000 in value, of a debtor having a 
family. To entitle the property to exemption, it must be registered 
as a homestead in the office of the county clerk, and it may be 
sold, then, only with the consent of the husband and wife, and the 
proceeds of the sale, to the amount of $1000, must be applied to 
the purchase of another homestead. The exemption does not extend 
to a sale for unpaid taxes, for labour done on the homestead, materials 
furnished to it, or for a debt contracted in the purchase thereof, or 
prior to the recording of the notice. The exemption inures to the 
benefit of the widow and family of the householder until the youngest 
child becomes twenty-one years of age. 

Capital punishment is by electrocution. A law of 1902 provides the 
death penalty for any murderous assault on the president of the United 
States, the chief executive of any state, or the heir to any foreign throne. 

The grounds for an absolute divorce are only two: adultery and 
" wilful, continued and obstinate " desertion for two years; but a 
decree of limited or permanent separation may be obtained in case 
of extreme cruelty. Unless the cause of action is adultery or at 
least one of the parties was a resident of the state at the time the 
cause of action arose and has continued to reside there, no suit for 
a divorce can be begun until one of the parties shall have resided in 
the state for the two years next preceding. Furthermore, the cause 
of action must have been recognized in the jurisdiction in which the 
petitioner resided at the time it arose. 

No child less than fourteen years old is permitted to work in any 
factory, workshop or mill; and the penalty for each offence is $50. 
The employment of children under sixteen years of age in any 
mercantile establishment for more than 10 hours a day, or 55 hours 
a week, or between 6 o'clock in the evening and 6 o'clock in the 
morning is prohibited, except one evening each week when they may 
be permitted to work until 9 o'clock, and except in the evenings from 
the 1 5th to the 25th of December when they may be permitted to 
work until IO o'clock. There are strict provisions for the protection 
and for the sanitary housing of factory employees, and prohibiting 
sweat-shops. A state law (1899) requires the payment of wages in 
lawful money at least every two weelcs to its employees on the part 
of every firm, association or partnership doing business in the state. 

Education. During the colonial period there were schools 
maintained by churches, a few town schools of the New England 
type, and, in the latter part of the era, a number of private 
schools. But the schools of colonial New jersey, especially the 
private schools, were usually taught by incompetent masters, 
and many children were permitted to grow up without any 
schooling whatever. Public interest in education, however, 
began to awaken soon after the close of the War of Independence. 
Under the encouragement of an act of the legislature passed in 
1794 several academies were established. A public school fund 
was established in 1817. Three years later townships were 
authorized to levy taxes for maintaining schools for poor children. 



The division of townships into school districts and the election 
of three trustees were provided for in 1829. In 1846 each town- 
ship was required to raise as much money for school purposes 
as the state contributed. In 1855 a normal school for training 
teachers was established at Trenton. And in 1867 a school law 
was passed which established the main features of the present 
school system, although it was four years later before a state 
school tax was imposed and schools were made free to all 
children in the state. The public school system is administered 
under the direction of a superintendent of public instruction 
and a state board of education. The former decides all con- 
troversies arising under the school law, and exercises a general 
supervision over the public schools; the latter has the control of 
a number of special state educational institutions, appoints 
the county superintendents and supervises the execution of the 
school laws of the state. In general each city, town and township 
in the state constitutes a separate school district, although two 
or more of these may unite to form a single district. Each district 
is required to furnish free textbooks. All children between the 
ages of 7 and 1 5 are required to attend school for the full school 
year, and those who at 15 years of age have not completed 
the grammar school course must continue to attend until they 
either complete it or arrive at the age of 17. Furthermore, 
children past 15 years of age who have completed the grammar 
school course but are not regularly and lawfully employed at 
some useful occupation must attend a high school or a manual 
training school until 17 years of age. 

Funds for the support of the public schools are derived from 
various sources: (i) the interest on the "surplus revenue" 
($760,670), deposited with New Jersey by the Federal government 
in 1836; (2) the income from the state school fund, consisting 
largely of receipts from the sale and rental of riparian lands '; (3) a 
state school tax; (4) a direct appropriation by the legislature to 
supplement the school tax, so that the two combined will form a 
sum equal to a tax of two and three-fourths mills on each dollar of 
taxable property; and (5) local taxes. At the close of the fiscal 
year 1908 the school fund of the state was $4,850,602-41 ; the 
income for the year was $224,233-56 and the disbursements were 
$373,095-76. The income from the state school fund is divided 
among the counties on the basis of the total number of days of 
attendance of the public school pupils; the legislative appropriation, 
however, is apportioned among the counties according to their 
assessed property values. Each county also received 90% of the 
state school tax it has paid, the remainder forming a reserve fund 
to be distributed among the counties at the discretion of the state 
board. The state will duplicate any yearly sum between $250 and 
$5000 which a school district may raise to maintain a school or 
courses of manual training. Jn like manner, any school that raises 
$20 for a library will receive the same amount from the state, 
which will also contribute $10 each year thereafter for maintenance, 
if the school raises a similar sum. The total number of teachers 
in the public schools in 1908 was 10,279; the total school enrollment 
was 402,866, with an average daily attendance of 289,167; and the 
average length of the school term was nine months and two days. 
For the benefit of veteran and invalid public school teachers there 
is a " retirement fund," which owes its origin to voluntary con- 
tributions by teachers in active service. The state has taken 
official recognition of this fund and administers it on behalf of the 
contributors through a board of trustees appointed by the governor. 

In addition to the regular public schools, the state maintains a 
normal and a model school at Trenton, a normal school at Montclair 
(opened 1908), the Farnum Preparatory School at Beverly, a Manual 
Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown, 
and an agricultural college and experiment station, maintained in 
connexion with Rutgers College, at New Brunswick. There are 
industrial schools in Ne\vark, Hoboken and Trenton, for which the 
state made an appropriation of $20,000 in 1908. Among the 
prominent institutions not receiving state aid are Princeton Uni- 
versity, at Princeton; Rutgers College (excluding its agricultural 
school), at New Brunswick; and the Stevens Institute of Techno- 
logy, at Hoboken. Among the denominational institutions are the 
Theological Seminary (Presbyterian) at Princeton; the Drew 
Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal) at Madison; Seton 
Hall College (Roman Qatholic), at South Orange; St Peter's College 
(Roman Catholic) at Jersey City; St Benedict's College (Roman 
Catholic) at Newark; the German Theological School of Newark 

1 The state's title to its riparian lands was established, after a 
long controversy, in 1870 in the case of Stevens v. the Paterson &f 
Newark R.R. Co. (5 Vroom's Reports 532). Since that date, with 
the exception of the period of Governor Abbett's second administra- 
tion (1890-1893), the proceeds from the sale and rental of these 
lands have been regularly applied to the school fund. 



5 o8 



NEW JERSEY 



(Presbyterian) at Bloomfield ; and the Theological Seminary of the 
(Dutch) Reformed Church in America, at New Brunswick.^ There 
are many private academies and secondary schools, sectarian and 
non-sectarian. 

The state supports the following charitable and correctional 
institutions all under the inspection of a State Department of 
Charities and Correction (1905) ; hospitals for the insane at Trenton 
and Morris Plains; a training-school for feeble-minded children 
(partly supported by the state) and a home for feeble-minded women 
at Vineland; a sanatorium for tuberculous diseases at Glen Gardner; 
a village for epileptics, with a farm of 700 acres, near Skillman, 
Somerset county; a state home (reform school) for boys near 
Jamesburg, Middlesex county, and for girls in Ewing township, near 
Trenton; a state reformatory for criminals sixteen to thirty years of 
age, near Rah way; a state prison at Trenton; a home for disabled 
soldiers at Kearney, 1 Hudson county; a home for disabled soldiers, 
sailors and their wives at Vineland 2 ; and a school for the deaf at 
Trenton. There is no institution for the blind, but the state pays the 
expenses of blind children who are sent from New Jersey to the New 
York State School for the Blind. A State Board of Children's 
Guardians, with an office in Jersey City, cares for destitute children. 
A convict parole law went into operation in 1891. 

Finance. The revenues for state and for local purposes are 
derived from separate sources. The expenses of the state 
government are met chiefly by special taxes on railway and 
canal corporations, a franchise tax on the capital stock of other 
corporations, a collateral inheritance tax and leases of riparian 
lands. The counties and municipalities derive their revenues 
chiefly from taxes on real and personal property. Real and 
personal property is free from a state tax, except for school 
purposes. The school tax is apportioned among the counties 
in proportion to their taxable property. 

A large part of the state's revenue comes from the tax on railways 
and canals, which is levied on the property actually employed in 
their operation. Any property of railways other than the " main 
stem " (i.e. the road-bed with the rails and sleepers not over 100 ft. 
in width), 8 that is employed in operating the road or canal is taxed 
by the state for local purposes. Counties and municipalities may 
tax property within their jurisdiction belonging to railways but not 
actually used for railway purposes. Domestic telegraph, telephone, 
express, cable, parlour- and sleeping-car, gas- and electric-lighting, 
oil and pipe line companies, and several classes of insurance com- 
panies, are taxed on the amount of their gross receipts. Other 
domestic corporations are taxed on the amount of their capital 
stock. The rate of this tax decreases as the amount of capital 
stock increases, thus favouring large corporations. On all capital 
stock up to $3,000,000, the rate is one-tenth of I %; on all amounts 
between three and five million dollars, the rate is one-twentieth of 
i %; and on all above five million dollars, thirty dollars per million, 
or 3/1000 of i %. An inheritance tax is levied on all bequests in excess 
of $500 to persons other than specially excepted classes; and in 
1907 the receipts from the " collateral inheritance tax " were 
$241,480. County and municipal revenue are derived from the tax 
on general property. The poll tax is restricted almost entirely to 
municipalities, which devote the proceeds to roads and schools. 
The fees received for issuing charters to corporations are another 
source of revenue to the state. Toward corporations the policy of 
New Jersey has always been liberal; there is no limit fixed either 
to capitalization or to bonded indebtedness ; the tax rate, as already 
indicated, is lower for large than for small corporations; and so 
many large combinations of capital have been incorporated under 
the laws of the state that it is sometimes called " the home of the 
trusts." For the fiscal year 1907 the fees collected from corpora- 
tions by the secretary of state amounted to $204,454, the receipts 
from the tax on corporations other than railways amounted to 
$2,584,363-60, and the receipts from the tax on railway corporations 
were $807,780.* It is the revenue from these sources that has 
enabled New Jersey to dispense almost entirely with the general 
property tax for state purposes. The legal requirement that every 
corporation chartered by the state must maintain its principal office 
there has given rise to the peculiar institution called the " corporation 
agency," a single office which serves as the " principal office " of 
numbers of corporations. At the close of the fiscal year 1907 the 
state was free from bonded indebtedness, 6 and had a balance on hand 
of $1,320,038 (much less than in 1906, because of the non-payment 
of railway taxes, pending litigation). In the state fund, the total 



1 Also receives Federal aid. * Idem. 

1 Passenger stations and depot buildings were included as part of 
the " main stem " until 1906, when their exclusion gave considerable 
added revenue to the municipalities. 

4 The tax on railway corpora cions collected by the state for local 
purposes and paid over to the local governments in 1907 amounted 
to $581, 794. 

' The only state debt is state certificates for $i 16,000 issued to 
the commissioners of the Agricultural College. 



receipts for the year were $4,602,100, and the total disbursements,. 
$5,366,813. 

History. Bones and implements have been found in the 
Quaternary gravels at Trenton, which have been held by some 
authorities to prove the presence of Palaeolithic man; but the 
earliest inhabitants of New Jersey of whom there is any certain 
record were the Lenni-Lennape or Delaware Indians, a branch 
of the Algonquian family. They were most numerous in the 
southern and central portions of the state, preferring the river 
valleys; but their total number, perhaps, never exceeded a 
thousand. Between them and the European settlers there were 
seldom any manifestations of acute hostility, though each race 
feared and distrusted the other. Many Indians were enslaved, 
and intermarriage between them and negro slaves became 
common. During the i8th century the Indian title to the soil 
was rapidly extinguished, and at the same time the vices and 
diseases of the stronger race were gradually reducing their 
numbers. In 1758 an Indian reservation, said to have been the 
first established within the present limits of the United States, 
was established at Edgepelick, or Brotherton (now called Indian 
Mills) in Burlington county. The surviving aborigines remained 
there until 1802, when they joined the Mohegans in New York 
and migrated to Wisconsin and later to Indian Territory, now part 
of the state of Oklahoma. For the extinction of all Indian titles 
the legislature of New Jersey in 1832 appropriated $2000, and 
since that date almost every vestige of Indian occupation has 
disappeared. 

The first authenticated visit of a European to what is now 
New Jersey was made under French authority by Giovanni da 
Verrazano, a Florentine navigator, who in the spring of 1524 
sailed within Sandy Hook and dropped anchor in the waters of 
upper New York Bay. In the following year Estevan Gomez, a 
Portuguese sailor in the service of the emperor Charles V., in his 
reputed voyage southward from Labrador, is said to have made 
note of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. It is very probable, 
also, that French traders soon afterward penetrated the region 
along the lower Hudson. Voyages to this region for exploration, 
trade and settlement, however, may be said to have really begun 
with the year 1609, when Henry Hudson explored the region 
between Sandy Hook and Raritan Bay and sailed up the river 
which now bears his name. After this voyage came Dutch 
traders, who established themselves on Manhattan Island and 
soon spread across the Hudson river into what are now Hudson 
and Bergen counties. In 1614 Cornelis Jacobsen Mey explored 
the lower Delaware, and two years later Cornelis Hendricksen 
more thoroughly explored this stream. In 1623 the first party 
of permanent homeseekers arrived at New Amsterdam, and a 
portion of these formed a settlement on the eastern bank of 
the Delaware and built Fort Nassau near the site of the present 
Gloucester City. In 1631 Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert 
secured a patent from Peter Minuit, the director of New Nether- 
land, authorizing them to plant a settlement near Cape May, 
but the effort was soon abandoned. A trading hut built at 
Paulus Hook in 1633 was the beginning of the present Jersey 
City. On the western tank of the Hudson the trading post of 
Hobocanhackingh, on the site of the present city of Hoboken, 
was established at an early date. From these places and from 
New Amsterdam the Dutch spread into the Raritan Valley. 
During the rule of Governor William Kief t, the Indians, disturbed 
by the encroachments of the settlers, assumed a hostile attitude. 
The actual occasion of the Indian outbreak was the massacre 
of a number of Tappan Indians in 1643 by soldiers acting under 
Kief t's orders. From the Connecticut to the Raritan the savages 
rose in arms, laid waste the farms, massacred the settlers and 
compelled those who escaped to take refuge on Manhattan 
Island. The Dutch engaged the services of about fifty English- 
men under Captain John Underbill, a hero of the Pequot War, 
and in 1644 the Indians were defeated in several engagements, 
but a general peace with them was not established until the 
3oth of August 1645. 

In the meantime colonists of another nationality had set 
foot on the shores of the lower Delaware. To found a colony in 



NEW JERSEY 



509 



the new world was long the desire of Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden, but incessant European wars prevented the establish- 
ment of any settlement until after his death. In 1638 fifty 
colonists landed on the western bank of the Delaware and built 
Fort Christina on the site of the modern Wilmington. Five 
years later, on the eastern bank a triangular fort, called Elfsborg, 
was constructed near the present Salem. But the Swedish rule 
was short-lived, as in 1655 the settlements surrendered to Peter 
Stuyvesant and passed under the control of the Dutch. Upon the 
subsequent history of New Jersey the attempts of Holland and 
Sweden at colonization had very little influence. The Dutch and 
Swedes between the Delaware and the Hudson were mostly 
traders, and therefore did not make many permanent settle- 
ments or establish forms of government. 

By the English of New England and Virginia the Dutch 
and Swedes were regarded as intruders, and were repeatedly 
warned against trespassing on English soil. 1 As early as 1634 a 
patent had been issued to Sir Edmund Plowden, appointing 
him governor over New Albion, a tract of land including the 
present states of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania. In spite of great efforts, however, Sir Edmund failed 
to plant a colony. 2 In 1634 a party of English from Virginia, 
having ascended the Delaware and occupied Fort Nassau, 
which the Dutch had abandoned, were promptly captured by 
the Dutch, taken to New Amsterdam, and thence sent home, 
arriving just in time to prevent the departure of a second English 
expedition up the Delaware. In 1641 English colonists from New 
Haven migrated southward and planted a settlement on the 
eastern bank of the Delaware river, declaring it to be a part of 
the New Haven jurisdiction. In the following year Governor 
Kieft, with the assistance of the Swedes, arrested the English 
and sent them back to New Haven. 

Many years elapsed before an English sovereign made any 
effort to oust the Dutch from the dominions he claimed by 
virtue of the discovery of the Cabots. On the I2th of March 
1664 Charles II. bestowed upon his brother James, duke of York, 
all the lands between the Connecticut river and the eastern side 
of Delaware Bay, as well as all the islands between Cape Cod 
and the Hudson river. An expedition was sent from England in 
May, under the command of Richard Nicolls, and in the following 
August the English flag floated over New Amsterdam. In 
October Sir Robert Carr took possession of the settlements 
on the Delaware, and terminated the rule of the Dutch. The 
few inhabitants of what is now New Jersey acquiesced in the new 
order. While the expedition commanded by Nicolls was still at 
sea, the duke of York, by deeds of lease and release, transferred 
to Lord John Berkeley, baron of Stratton, and Sir George 
Carteret (?..), all that part of his new possessions extending 
eastward from the Delaware Bay and river to the Atlantic 
Ocean and the Hudson river, and northward from Cape May to a 
line drawn from the northernmost branch of the Delaware, 
" which is 41 40' lat.," to the Hudson river in 41 N. lat. To 
this tract the name of Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey, was given, 
as the same name had been given in a patent to Carteret issued 
in 1650, to " a certain island and adjacent islets" near Virginia, 
in America, which were never settled in honour of Carteret, 
who governed the isle of Jersey in 1643-1651 and there enter- 
tained Prince Charles during his exile from England. The 

1 As early as 1613, Captain Samuel Argall, on his way to Virginia, 
after breaking up some Jesuit settlements at Port Royal, and Mount 
Desert, passed through the Narrows near the mouth of the Hudson, 
and finding a group of Dutch traders, made them haul down their 
flag and replace it with that of England. In the spring of 1620 
Thomas Dermer, an English ship captain, on his way from Monhegan 
to Virginia, visited Manhattan Island and told the Dutch traders 
that they would not be allowed to remain. In 1627 Governor 
William Bradford of Plymouth protested by letter to the Dutch 
against their occupancy, and this warning from the Pilgrims was 
repeated at least twice. 

*As late as 1784, Charles Varlo, an Englishman who had 
purchased one-third of the grant from the heirs of Sir Edmund 
Plowden, came to New Jersey and sought to substantiate his 
claim. Failing in a suit in chancery to obtain redress, he returned 
to England, and nothing further was heard of the claimants to 
New Albion. 



grant conferred upon Berkeley and Carteret all the territorial 
rights which the royal charter had conferred upon the duke of 
York; but whether or not the rights of government went with 
these soon became a vexed question. In order to attract immi- 
grants, the proprietors in February 1665 published their " Con- 
cession and Agreement," by which they made provision for a 
governor, a governor's council, and an assembly chosen by the 
freemen and having the power to levy taxes. Special inducements 
in the way of land grants were offered to persons embarking 
with the first governor. In the meantime Governor Nicolls 
of New York, ignorant of the grant to Berkeley and Carteret, 
had approved certain Indian sales of land to settlers within New 
Jersey, and had confirmed their titles to tracts in what later 
became Elizabethtown, Middletown and Shrewsbury. In this 
way he unconsciously opened the way for future trouble. 
Moreover, when he had learned that the duke had parted with 
New Jersey he convinced him that it was a great loss, and in the 
effort to save what was possible, Staten Island was taken from 
the proprietors on the plea that one arm of the Hudson flowed 
along its western border. 

In August 1665 Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George, arrived 
in the province as its first governor. In May 1668 he convoked 
the first assembly at Elizabethtown. At the next session, in 
the following November, the towns of Shrewsbury and Middle- 
town declared that they held their grants from Governor Nicolls, 
and that they were consequently exempt from any quit-rents 
the proprietors might claim. They refused to pay their share of 
the public expenses; and their deputies, on refusing to take the 
oath of allegiance and fidelity, were expelled from the assembly. 
The disaffection soon spread and led to the so-called " disorgan- 
izing" assembly in 1672, which went so far as to choose James 
Carteret, a landgrave of Carolina and presumably a natural 
son of Sir George, as " President." Philip Carteret returned 
to England and laid the case before the proprietors; they 
ordered President Carteret to continue on his way to Carolina 
and confirmed as governor John Berry, whom Governor Carteret 
had left behind as deputy. The duke of York declared that the 
grants made by Nicolls were null and void; the king enjoined 
obedience to the proprietors, and quiet was restored. Another 
change was impending, however, and in August 1673, when a 
Dutch fleet appeared off Staten Island, New Jersey for a second 
time became a part of New Netherland. The settled region was 
called "Achter Koll," or "Back Bay," after Newark Bay, 
whose waters, lying behind the bay of New York, had to be 
crossed in order to reach Elizabethtown. The period of Dutch 
rule was short, and by the treaty of Westminster, of the 9th 
of February 1674, the territory was restored to England. The 
crown lawyers decided that the rights of the proprietors of New 
York and New Jersey had been extinguished by the conquest, 
and that by treaty the lands had been reconveyed, not to the 
proprietors, but to the king. On the I3th of June 1674 Charles 
II. accordingly wrote a letter confirming the title and power of 
Carteret in the eastern half of New Jersey. No similar grant 
was made to Berkeley, as on the i8th of March he had sold his 
interest in the province to John Fenwicke, sometime major in 
the Parliamentary army and later a member of the Society of 
Friends, and Edward Byllynge (d. 1687), a Quaker merchant. 1 
On the 29th of June the duke of York received a new patent 
similar to that of 1664, and he at once (on the 28th and 29th of 
July) confirmed Carteret in all his rights in that portion of New 
Jersey N. of a line drawn from Barnegat Creek to " Rankokus 
Kill " a stream a little S. of the site of Burlington which was 
considerably more than one-half of the province. The duke of 
York commissioned Sir Edmund Andros as governor of his 
dominions, including " all ye land from ye West side of Connecti- 
cut River to ye East side of Delaware Bay." Sir George Carteret 
again sent over his kinsman Philip Carteret to be governor of 
the eastern part of New Jersey, and the two governors arrived 
in October 1674 in the same ship. A disagreement arose as to 

* It has been supposed that Fenwicke and Byllynge intended to 
establish in America a retreat for those who desired religious and 
political freedom. 



NEW JERSEY 



the respective interests of Fenwicke and Byllynge in the western 
portion of the province, and they chose William Penn, a new 
member of the Society of Friends, as arbitrator. To Byllynge 
Penn awarded nine-tenths of the territory and to Fenwicke 
one-tenth. Financial embarrassments a short time afterward 
caused Byllynge to assign his shares in trust for his creditors 
to three Quakers, William Penn, Gawen Lawrie and Nicholas 
Lucas. Later they acquired control of Fenwicke's share also. 
In 1675 Fenwicke with his family and a company of settlers 
reached the Delaware in the ship " Griffith " from London, and 
on the eastern shore they formed a settlement to which they gave 
the name of Salem. This was the first permanent English 
settlement in this part of New Jersey. Refusing to recognize 
Fenwicke's jurisdiction, Governor Andros of New York attempted 
to secure his peaceful recognition of the duke's authority, and, 
failing in this, he sent a military force into this district in 
December 1676 and made Fenwicke a prisoner. In January, 
however, he was released on his promise not to act in a public 
capacity until he should receive further authority. Meanwhile 
the trustees of Byllynge were seeking a division of the province 
more to their advantage and, Sir George Carteret having been 
persuaded by the duke of York to surrender his grant of July 
1674, the so-called " quintipartite deed " was executed on the 
ist of July 1676. This instrument defined the' interests of 
Carteret, Penn, Lawrie, Lucas and Byllynge, by fixing a line of 
partition -from Little Egg Harbor to a point on the Delaware 
river, in 41 40' N. lat., and by assigning the province east of 
this line (East Jersey) to Carteret and the province west of this 
line (West Jersey), about five-eighths of the whole, to the Quaker 
associates. The Quakers' title to West Jersey, however, still bore 
the cloud resulting from the Dutch conquest, and the duke of 
York had desired to recover all of his original grant to Berkeley 
and Carteret ever since Governor Nicolls had protested against it. 
But at this time his own right 'to the crown of England was 
threatened with the Exclusion Bill, and under these conditions 
instead of pressing his case against the Quakers he not only 
permitted it to be decided against him but in August 1680 
confirmed their title by a new deed. 

A very liberal frame of government for West Jersey, drafted 
presumably by William Penn, and entitled " the Concessions and 
Agreements of the Proprietors, Freeholders and Inhabitants of 
West Jersey in America," was adopted in March 1677. This 
vested the principal powers of government in an assembly of one 
hundred members, who were to be chosen annually and to be 
subject to instructions from their constituents. In the intervals 
between sessions of the assembly, affairs were to be managed by 
ten commissioners chosen by that body. Religious toleration 
was assured. In August 1677 the ship " Kent " arrived in the 
Delaware, with 230 Quakers from London and Yorkshire. These 
founded a settlement, which became the modern Burlington, 
and in the next few months several hundred more colonists 
arrived. But the new colony was never actually governed 
under "the Concessions and Agreements"; for from the 
beginning until the first assembly was called in November 1681 
its affairs were managed by commissioners named by the pro- 
prietors and when in 1680 the duke of York confirmed the title 
to the land to Byllynge and his associates he conveyed the right 
to govern to Byllynge alone. Although he was one of the signers 
of " the Concessions and Agreements " Byllynge now com- 
missioned Samuel Jennings as governor of the province, and the 
other proprietors acquiesced, appointing Byllynge 'governor and 
permitting Jennings to serve as his deputy. Jennings immediately 
called the first assembly, and this body passed a number of 
fundamental laws which provided for a governor and council, 
but were in other respects much like the clauses relating to 
government in " the Concessions and Agreements." When, as 
if, to test his authority, Byllynge, in 1682-1683, removed Jennings 
who had been a popular governor, the assembly, by the advice 
of William Penn, passed a series of resolutions in the form of a 
protest, and in 1684 two agents were sent to England to negotiate 
with Byllynge. There the dispute was finally submitted for 
arbitration to George Fox and other Quakers, and they decided 



that, as the government of the province was legally vested in 
Byllynge by the duke's conveyance to him, he had the right 
to name the deputy governor. Fenwicke, after his release by 
Andros, endeavoured to re-establish a government at Salem with 
himself as " Lord and Chief Proprietor " of West Jersey, but the 
duke's officers further contested his claims and in 1682 Penn 
effected a peaceful settlement with him. 

In East Jersey, after the return of Governor Carteret, there 
was a period of quiet, until the death of Sir George Carteret in 
1680 gave the zealous Andros another chance to further the 
supposed interests of his ducal master. Claiming jurisdiction 
over New Jersey by the terms of his commission, he issued a 
proclamation in March 1680 ordering Philip Carteret and his 
" pretended " officers to cease exercising jurisdiction within 
the duke's dominions unless he could show warrant. To this 
Carteret made a spirited reply, and on the 3Oth of April a detach- 
ment of soldiers dragged the governor of East Jersey from his 
bed and carried him prisoner to New York. Here he was confined 
for four weeks, and was released only on his promise not to 
exercise any authority until the matter could be referred to 
England for adjudication. When the assembly of East Jersey 
met in June, Andros appeared before it as governor and recom- 
mended such measures as he deemed advisable, but the deputies 
refused to pass them. In England, too, his conduct was dis- 
avowed, and he was called home to answer charges that had been 
preferred against him. Philip Carteret reassumed the duties 
of his officei but his administration, now that Andros was no 
longer feared, was again marked by much friction with the 
assembly. Sir George Carteret had bequeathed his province 
to eight trustees, who were to administer it for the benefit of 
his creditors, and for the next two years the government was 
conducted in the name of his widow and executrix, Lady 
Elizabeth. Early in 1682, after several unsuccessful attempts 
to effect a sale by other means, the province was offered for sale 
at public auction, and was purchased by William Penn and 
eleven associates for 3400. Later each of these twelve sold one- 
half of his share to another associate, thus making twenty-four 
proprietors; and on the I4th of March the duke of York con- 
firmed the sale, and gave them all the powers necessary for 
governing the province. Robert Barclay, one of the proprietors, 
was chosen governor for life, with the privilege of performing 
his duties by deputy, and as his deputy he sent over Thomas 
Rudyard. In 1683 Rudyard was succeeded by Gawen Lawrie, 
who brought over with him a curious frame of government 
entitled " the Fundamental Constitutions." This instrument, 
which was designed to replace the Concessions, provided for the 
government of the province by a governor chosen by the pro- 
prietors, a common council consisting of the proprietors or their 
proxies together with 12 freemen, and a great council consisting 
of the proprietors or their proxies together with 144 freemen 
chosen by a mixed system of elections and the casting of lots. 
But the new system was to apply only to those who, in return 
for the greater privileges which it was alleged to ensure, would 
agree to a resurvey of their lands, arrange to pay quit-rents and 
provide for the permanent support of the government, and as 
Governor Lawrie found the colonists generally unwilling to make 
the exchange on the proposed terms, he discreetly refrained from 
any attempt to put the Fundamental Constitutions in operation 
and thereby avoided the confusion which must have resulted 
from two sets of laws. The government of the twenty-four 
proprietors, however, was liberal. Recognizing the necessity 
of some one in the province with full power " to do all things 
that may contribute to the good and advancement of the same," 
they directed the appointment of the American Board of Pro- 
prietors a body of men identified with the province, who with 
the deputy-governor were to look after the proprietary interests 
in such matters as the approval of legislation and the granting 
of lands, and thereby prevent the delay caused by the transmis- 
sion of such matters to England for approval. In 1686 another 
effort was made to put the Fundamental Constitutions in force, 
but when the deputies and the council rejected the instrument, 
the proprietors did not force the matter. In 1686 Perth Amboy, 



NEW JERSEY 



the newly created port of East Jersey, became its seat of govern- 
ment. 

After his accession to the throne in 1685, James II. showed an 
unyielding determination to annul the privileges of the colonies, 
and to unite New York, New Jersey and the New England 
colonies under a single government. In order, therefore, to 
save their rights in the soil, the proprietors of East and West 
Jersey offered to surrender their claims to jurisdiction, and 
to this arrangement the king consented. Andres, previously 
appointed viceroy of New England, thereupon received a new 
commission extending his authority over New York and the 
Jerseys, and in August 1688 he formally annexed these provinces 
to the Dominion of New England. The seizure of Andros by the 
people of Boston in April 1689, following the news of the revolt 
in England against James II., gave the Jersey proprietors an 
opportunity to resume their rights, but the proprietary govern- 
ments regained their former footing very slowly. The pro- 
prietors were widely separated some being in America, some 
in England and others in Scotland and unity of action was 
impracticable. For three years there was little or no government 
in the Jerseys, beyond the measures taken by local officers for 
preserving the peace. 

In 1692 an important change occurred in the administrative 
system through the appointment of Andrew Hamilton (d. 1703) 
as governor of both East and West Jersey. In 1697 a faction 
opposed to Hamilton secured his removal and the appointment 
of their partisan, Jeremiah Basse. The opposition in the two 
colonies to Basse became so formidable that he was removed 
in 1699 and Hamilton was reappointed. Certain disaffected 
elements thereupon refused to recognize his authority, on the 
ground that his appointment had not received the required 
approval of the crown, and for a time the condition of the 
provinces bordered on anarchy. These disorders, and especially 
complaints against the Jerseys as centres of illegal trade, were 
brought to the attention of King William and his lawyers 
contended that as only the king could convey powers of govern- 
ment those exercised by the Jersey proprietors, derived as they 
were from the duke of York, were without sufficient warrant. 
Moreover, the inhabitants sent petitions to England, praying 
that they might be placed under the direct control of the crown. 
The proprietors of East Jersey had already offered to surrender 
their jurisdiction, in return for certain concessions by the royal 
government, but no action had been taken. In 1701 the pro- 
prietors of both provinces made another proposal, which was 
accepted, and in April 1702 all rights of jurisdiction were trans- 
ferred to the crown, while the rights to the soil remained in the 
proprietors. The provinces of East and West Jersey were then 
united under a government similar to that of the other royal 
provinces. Until 1738 the governor of New York was also 
governor of New Jersey; after that date each colony had its 
own governor. The legislature met alternately at Burlington 
and Perth Amboy, until 1790, when Trenton was selected as the 
capital of the state. 

The next four decades were years of development disturbed, 
however, by friction between the assembly and the royal 
governors, and by bitter disputes, accompanied by much rioting, 
with the proprietors concerning land-titles (1744-1749). Inde- 
pendence of the absentee landlords was again claimed by virtue 
of the grants made by Nicolls nearly a century before. Agri- 
culture at this time was the main pursuit. The climate was 
more temperate and the soil more fertile than that of New 
England; but there were similar small farms and no marked 
tendencies towards the plantation system of the southern colonies. 
Slavery had been introduced by the Dutch and Swedes, and 
from the time of the earliest English occupation had been legally 
recognized. East Jersey had a fugitive slave law as early as 1675. 
With the exception of laying an import duty no legislative 
effort was made nor is it likely that any would have been 
allowed by the crown to restrict the importation of slaves during 
the colonial period. In addition to African and Indian slaves 
there was the class known as " redemptioners," or term slaves, 
consisting of indented servants, who bound themselves to their 



masters before leaving the mother country, and " free willers," 
who allowed themselves to be sold after reaching America, in 
order to reimburse the ship captain for the cost of their passage. 
Between East and West Jersey certain political and religious 
differences developed. The former, settled largely by people 
from New England and Long Island, was dominated by Puritans; 
the latter by Quakers. In East Jersey, as in New England, 
the township became a vigorous element of local government; 
in West Jersey the county became the unit. Important events 
in the period of royal government were the preaching of George 
Whitefield in 1739 and the following years, and the chartering 
of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1 746, 
and of Queen's (now Rutgers) College in 1766. The colony 
gave many proofs of its loyalty to the mother country: it 
furnished three companies of troops for Admiral Vernon's 
unfortunate expedition against Cartagena in 1741; in King 
George's War it raised 2000 for supplies, furnished troops for 
the capture of Louisburg and sent over six hundred men to 
Albany; and in the French and Indian (or Seven Years') War 
its militia participated in the capture of both Quebec and 
Havana. Against England the colony had fewer grievances 
than did some of its more commercial neighbours, but the Stamp 
Act and the subsequent efforts to tax tea aroused great opposi- 
tion. In 1774 occurred the "Greenwich Tea Party." 1 

The last colonial assembly of New Jersey met in November 
1775. From the 26th of May to the 2nd of July 1776 the second 
provincial congress met at Burlington, Trenton and New Bruns- 
wick and for a time became the supreme governing power. By 
its orders the royal governor, William Franklin (the natural son 
of Benjamin Franklin) was arrested and deported to Connecticut, 
where he remained a prisoner for two years, until exchanged and 
taken to New York under British protection. Following the 
recommendation of the Continental Congress, that the colonies 
should create independent governments, the provincial congress 
also drafted a provincial constitution, which, without being 
submitted to the people, was published on the 3rd of July 1776; 
it contained the stipulation that "if a reconciliation between 
Great Britain-and these colonies should take place, and the latter 
be taken again under the protection of the crown of Britain, this 
charter shall be null and void otherwise to remain firm and 
inviolable." On the 2oth of September 1777 it was amended by 
the New Jersey legislature, the words "state" and "states" 
being substituted for \he words " colony" (or " province" ) 
and " colonies." The state furnished a full quota for the 
Continental army, but the divided sentiment of the people is 
shown by the fact that six battalions of loyalists were also 
organized. Tories were active in New Jersey throughout the 
struggle; among them were bands known as " Pine Robbers," 
who hid in the pines or along the dunes by day and made their 
raids at night. In the state were fought some of the most 
important engagements of the war. When Washington, in the 
autumn of 1776, was no longer able to hold the lower Hudson 
he retreated across New Jersey to the Delaware near Trenton and 
seizing every boat for miles up the river he placed his dispirited 
troops on the opposite side and left the pursuing army no means 
of crossing. With about 2500 men he recrossed the Delaware 
on the night of the 25th of December, surprised three regiments 
of Hessians at Trenton the next morning, and took 1000 prisoners 
and looo stands of arms. In a series of movements following 
up this success he outgeneraled the British commander, Lord 
Cornwallis, and on the 3rd of January 1776, defeated a detach- 
ment of his army at Princeton (?..). The American army then 
went into winter quarters at Morristown, while a part of the 
British army wintered at New Brunswick. To protect the 

1 Greenwich then had some importance as a port on Cohansey 
Creek on the lower Delaware. In the summer of 1774 the captain of 
the ship " Greyhound," bound for Philadelphia with a cargo of tea, 
on account of the state of opinion in that city, put in at Greenwich 
and stored his tea there in a cellar It remained undisturbed till 
the night of the 22nd of November, when a band of about 40 men 
dressed as Indians, in imitation of the Boston party, broke into the 
cellar and made a bonfire of the tea. All attempts to punish the 
offenders were futile. 



512 

inhabitants of the Raritan Valley from British foraging parties 
General Benjamin Lincoln with 500 men was by Washington's 
orders stationed at Bound Brook, but on the i3th of April 1777 
Lincoln was surprised by a force of about 4000 men under 
Cornwallis, and although he escaped with small loss it was only by 
remarkably rapid movements. When the British had gained 
possession of Philadelphia, in September 1777, their communica- 
tion between that city and the ocean through the Lower Delaware 
was obstructed on the New Jersey side by Fort Mercer, com- 
manded by Colonel Christopher Greene, at Red Bank; three 
battalions of Hessians under Colonel Karl Emil Kurt von Donop 
attacked the fort on the 22nd of October, but they were repulsed 
with heavy loss. The fort was abandoned later, however. As 
the British army under General Clinton was retreating, in June 
1778, from Philadelphia to New York, the American . army 
engaged it in the battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778); the 
result was indecisive, but that the British were not badly defeated 
was ascribed to the conduct of General Charles Lee. Before 
daylight on the igth of August 1779 was approaching, Major 
Henry Lee with a force of about 400 men surprised the British 
garrison at Paulus Hook, where Jersey City now stands, and, 
although sustaining a loss of 20 men, killed 50 of the garrison and 
took about 160 prisoners. In 1770-1780 Morristown was again 
Washington's headquarters. The Congress of the Confederation 
met in Princeton, in Nassau Hall, which still stands, from June 
to November 1783. 

After the war New Jersey found its commercial existence 
threatened by New York and Philadelphia, and it was a feeling of 
weakness from this cause rather than any lack of state pride 
that caused the state to join in the movements for a closer 
Federal Union. In 1786 New Jersey sent delegates to the 
Annapolis Convention, which was the forerunner of the Federal 
Convention at Philadelphia in the following year. In the latter 
body, on the isth of June, one of the New Jersey delegates, 
William Paterson (1745-1806), presented what was called the 
" New Jersey plan " of union, representing the wishes of the 
smaller states, which objected to representation in a national 
Congress being based on wealth or on population. . This merely 
federal plan, reported from a Conference attended by the delegates 
from Connecticut, New York and Delaware, as well as those 
from New Jersey (and by Luther Martin of Maryland) , consisted 
of nine resolutions; the first was that " the Articles of Confedera- 
tion ought to be so revised, corrected an(f enlarged as to render 
the federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of govern- 
ment and the preservation of the Union"; and the actual 
" plan " was for a single legislative body, in which each state 
should be represented by one member, and which should elect 
the supreme court and have power to remove the executive 
(a Council), to lay taxes and import duties, to control commerce, 
and even, if necessary, to make requisitions for funds from the 
states. Madison opposed the plan, on the ground that it would 
not prevent violations by the states of treaties and of laws 
of nations. On the first resolution only there was a definite 
vote; on the ipth of June it was voted to postpone the considera- 
tion of this resolution and to report the resolutions (the Virginia 
plan) formerly agreed upon by the committee of the whole. 
The New Jersey plan left its impress in the provision of the 
Constitution (approved in the Convention on the 7th of July) 
for equal representation in the national Senate. The Federal 
Constitution was ratified by a unanimous vote in the state 
convention which met at Trenton on the i8th of December 
1787. 

The state's own constitution, which had been adopted in 
1776 and amended in 1777, retained, like other state constitu- 
tions framed during the War of Independence, many features 
of colonial government ill-adapted to a state increasingly demo- 
cratic. The basis of representation, each county electing three 
members to the assembly and one member to the legislative 
council, soon became antiquated. The property qualifications 
were, for members of the council, " one thousand pounds pro- 
clamation money, of real and personal estate, in the same 
county," and, for members of the assembly, " five hundred 



NEW JERSEY 



pounds proclamation money, in real and personal estate, in the 
same county." These and the property qualifications for suffrage, 
which was granted to " all inhabitants of this state, of full age, 
who are worth fifty pounds proclamation money, clear estate in 
the same," &c., were soon considered undemocratic; and the 
democratic tendency of certain election officers may be seen from 
their construing the words " all inhabitants of full age " to in- 
clude women, and from their permitting women to vote. The 
governor was chosen by the joint vote of the council and assembly; 
he was president of the council, with a casting vote; he was 
chancellor, captain-general and commander-in-chief of the 
militia; he had three members of the legislature to act as a 
privy-council; and he, with the council (of which seven formed 
a quorum), constituted " the Court of Appeals in the last resort 
in all causes of law, as heretofore," which, in addition, had " the 
power of granting pardons to criminals, after condemnation, in 
all cases of treason, felony or other offences." 

In 1838 the opposition to the governor's extensive powers under 
the constitution was greatly increased in the " Broad Seal " or 
" Great Seal " War. After a closely contested election in which six 
members of Congress were chosen on a general ticket, although there 
was an apparent Democratic majority of about one hundred votes 
(in a total of 57,000), two county clerks rejected as irregular sufficient 
returns from townships to elect five Whig candidates to whom the 
state board of canvassers (mostly Whigs and headed by the Whig 
governor, William Pennington) gave commissions under the broad 
seal of the state. Excluding these five members from New Jersey 
the House of Representatives contained 119 Democrats and 118 
Whigs, so that the choice of a Whig speaker could be secured only 
by the seating of the five Whigs from New Jersey rather than their 
Democratic rivals. It was decided that only members whose 
seats were not contested should vote for speaker, and Robert M. T. 
Hunter, of Virginia, a Democrat and a compromise candidate, was 
elected to the position; and on the 28th of February 1839 the 
Democratic candidates were admitted to their seats, to which a 
congressional committee, reporting afterwards, declared them 
entitled. 1 

Agitation for constitutional reform resulted in a constitutional 
convention, which met at Trenton from the I4th of May to the 
29th of June 1844 and drafted a new frame of government, 
introducing a number of radical changes. This instrument was 
ratified at the polls on the i3th of August. The election of the 
governor was taken from the legislature and given to the people ; 
the powers of government were distributed among legislative, 
executive and judicial departments; representation in the 
assembly was based on population; and the property qualifica- 
tion for membership in the legislature and for the suffrage was 
abolished. 

The constitution of 1844 declared that " All men are by nature 
free and independent, and have certain unalienable rights, among 
which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty . . . and 
of pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness." A similar clause 
in the constitution of Massachusetts had been interpreted by the 
courts as an abolition ofslavery, and an effort was made to have 
the same ruling applied in New Jersey, where the institution of 
slavery still existed. The courts, however, declared that the clause 
in the constitution of New Jersey was a " general proposition," not 
applying " to man in his private, industrial or domestic capacity." 
An attempt at abolition had previously been made in 1804 by an 
act declaring that every child born of a slave should be free, but 
should remain the servant of its mother's owner until twenty-five 
years of age if a male or twenty-one years of age if a female. The 
owner of the mother, however, might abandon the child after a 
year, and it then became a public charge. This last provision pro- 
duced such a heavy drain on the treasury for the support of abandoned 
negro children that in 1811 the statute was repealed. In 1846 an 
act was passed designating slaves as apprentices bound to service 
until discharged by their owners, and providing that children of 

1 The election to the U.S. Senate in 1865 of John Potter Stockton 
(1826-1900), a great-grandson of Richard Stockton, a signer of the 
Declaration of Independence, created hardly less excitement than 
the Broad Seal War. The state legislature which elected him 
senator did so by a plurality vote, having previously passed a 
resolution changing the vote requisite to choose a senator from a 
majority, to a plurality vote. He took his seat in the Senate and 
his election was upheld by the Senate committee on the judiciary, 
whose report was adopted (26 March 1866) by a vote of 22 to 21, 
his own vote carrying the motion; but, because of the objection of 
Charles Sumner, he withdrew his vote on the 27th of March, and 
was thereupon unseated by a vote of 23 to 21. 



NEW JERSEY 



such apprentices should be free at birth, but were to be supported 
by the masters of their parents for six years. There were conse- 
quently a few vestiges of the slavery system in New Jersey until 
the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal Con- 
stitution. 

Toward the political questions that disturbed the American 
people immediately before the Civil War the attitude of the state 
was conservative. In 1852 the Free-soil candidate for the pre- 
sidency received only 350 votes in New Jersey; and in 1856 the 
Democratic candidate received a plurality of 18,605 votes, even 
though William L. Dayton, a citizen of the state, was the Repub- 
lican nominee for the vice-presidency. In 1860 three of the 
state's electoral votes were given to Douglas and four .to Lincoln. 
During the Civil War New Jersey furnished 89,305 men for the 
Union cause and incurred extraordinary expenditures to the 
amount of $2,894,385. The state readily consented to the 
Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Federal Con- 
stitution, but in 1868 withdrew its consent to the latter. The 
Fifteenth Amendment was rejected by one legislature, but was 
accepted by its successor, in which the Republican party had 
obtained a majority. 

Industrially the early part of the igth century was marked 
in New Jersey by the construction of bridges and turnpikes, 
the utilization of water power for manufactures, and the intro- 
duction of steam motive power upon the navigable waters. The 
second war with England interrupted this material progress, 
and at its beginning was so unpopular, especially with the 
Quakers, that the Federalists carried the elections in the autumn 
of 1812. But the attempt of this party to retain control by a 
" gerrymandering " process was unsuccessful. The Democrats 
were triumphant in 1813, and the Federalist as well as the 
Democratic administration responded with aid for the defence of 
New York and Philadelphia. The state also contributed several 
hundred men to the service of the United States. Material 
progress in New Jersey after the war is indicated by the con- 
struction of the Morris (1824-1836") and the Delaware & Raritan 
(1826-1838) canals, and the completion of its first railway, 
the Camden & Amboy, in 1834. 

The years following the Civil War were marked by great in- 
dustrial development. The numerous projects, good and bad, 
that were inaugurated in 1866-1875, an d tne various kinds of 
laws and charters conferring special privileges that were secured, 
led to the constitutional prohibition of special legislation already 
mentioned. In this same period there was a bitter railway war. 
The Delaware & Raritan Canal Company and the Camden & 
Amboy Railroad Company, both chartered in 1830 and both 
monopolies, 1 had been practically consolidated in 1831; in 1836 
these joint companies gained control of the Philadelphia & 
Trenton railway; in 1867 these " United New Jersey Railroad 
& Canal Companies " consolidated with the New Jersey 
Railroad & Transportation Company (which was opened in 
1836 and controlled the important railway link between New 
Brunswick and Jersey City), and profits were to be divided 
equally between the four companies; and in 1871 these entire 
properties were leased for 999 years to the Pennsylvania Railroad 
Company. This combination threatened to monopolize traffic, 
and it was opposed by the Central Railroad of New Jersey, 
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and a branch of the 
North Pennsylvania (from Jenkintown to Yardley; sometimes 
called the " national " or " air-line "), and by the general public; 
and in 1873 the state passed a general railway law giving other 
railways than the United New Jersey holdings of the Penn- 

1 In 1864 a bill was introduced in [the Federal House of Repre- 
sentatives making the Camden & Atlantic (now the Atlantic City) 
railway and the Raritan & Delaware Bay (now a part of the Central 
of New Jersey) a post route between New York and Philadelphia 
and authorizing these railways to carry passengers and freight 
between New York and Philadelphia. Thereupon the governor and 
legislature of New Jersey protested that such a measure was an 
infringement of the reserved rights of the state, since the state had 
contracted with the Camden & Amboy not to construct nor to 
authorize others to construct within a specified time any other 
railway across the state to be used for carrying passengers or freight 
between New York and Philadelphia. 
XIX. 17 



sylvania the right to connect New York and Philadelphia. In 
1876 the " national " line was extended to Bound Brook (as 
the Delaware & Bound Brook) and this road, the North Penn- 
sylvania & Central Railroad of New Jersey, were operated under 
a tripartite agreement as a through line between New York 
and Philadelphia; but in 1879 these three lines were leased for 
990 years to the Philadelphia & Reading railway. The state 
itself then became engaged in a struggle with the railways in 
order to secure from them their full portion of taxes, as the 
property of individuals was then taxed many times as heavily 
as that of railways. In 1884 the state gained the victory by 
securing the passage of a law taxing the franchises of railway 
corporations. 

A reform movement in politics, caHed the " New Idea," 
and led by Everett Colby (b. 1874), then a Republican member 
of the Assembly and in 1006-1908 a state senator, began in 1904; 
it did much to secure the passage of acts limiting public service 
franchises to 20 years (unless extended to 40 years by the voters 
of the municipality concerned), the increase of taxes on railways, 
the increase of franchise tax rates by ij% each year up to 5%, 
the adoption of direct primary elections, and the modification of 
the existing promoters' liability law. 

Before 1800 the state was dominated by the Federalist party; 
from that date until 1896 it was generally controlled by the Demo- 
crats, and from 1896 to 1911 by the Republicans. 

The governors of New Jersey have been as follows : 

GOVERNORS: UNDER THE PROPRIETORS 

Philip Carteret 1665-1672 

John Berry 1672-1673 

Anthony Colve 2 1673-1674 

Governors of East Jersey and their Deputies. 

Philip Carteret 1674-1682 

Robert Barclay 1682-1688 

Thomas Rudyard . Deputy . . 1682-1683 

Gawen Lawrie . . Deputy . . 1683-1686 
Lord Neill Campbell . Deputy . . 1686 

Andrew Hamilton . Deputy . . 1686-1688 

Edmund Andros 1688-1689 

Andrew Hamilton 1692-1697 

Jeremiah Basse 1697-1699 

Andrew Hamilton 1699-1702 



Governors of West Jersey and their Deputies. 



Edward Byllynge 
Samuel Jennings 
Thomas Olive 
John Skene . 
Daniel Coxe . 
Edward Hunloke 
Edmund Andros 
Andrew Hamilton 
Jeremiah Basse 
Andrew Hamilton 



Deputy 
Deputy 
Deputy 

Deputy 



1680-1687 
1681-1684 
1684-1685 
1685-1687 
1687-1688 

1687 

1688-1689 
1692-1697 
1697-1699 
1699-1702 



UNDER THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT 
Governors of New York and New Jersey. 

Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury . . . 1703-1708 

John, Lord Lovelace .... . 1708-1709 

Richard Ingoldsby, Lieut. -Governor . 1709-1710 

Robert Hunter . . ... . 1710-1719 

William Burnet ..... . 1720-1728 

John Montgomerie .... . 1728-1731 

Lewis Morris, 3 Pres. Council . . . 1731-1732 

William Cosby ..... . 1732-1736 

John Anderson, 5 Pres. Council . . 1736 

ohn Hamilton,' Pres. Council . . . 1736-1738 

Governors of New Jersey only. 

Lewis Morris . 1738-1746 

John Hamilton, Pres. Council . . . 1746-1747 

John Reading, Pres. Council . . . 1747 

Jonathan Belcher .... . I747-I757 

Thomas Pownall, Lieut.-Governor . . * 1757 

John Reading, Pres. Council . . . 1757-1758 

Francis Bernard . 1758-1760 

Thomas Boone ...... . 1760-1761 

Josiah Hardy . 1761-1762 

William Franklin . 1762-1776 

1 Governor-general of New Netherland. 
* Jurisdiction only over New Jersey. 



NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH 



GOVERNORS OF THE STATE 

William Livingston . . . 1776-1790 Federalist 
William Paterson 
Richard Howell . 

oseph Bloomfield 

ohn Lambert (Acting) 
,oseph Bloomfield 
Aaron Ogden 

William Sandford Pennington 
Mahlon Dickerson 
Isaac Halsted Williamson . 
Garret Dorset Wall (Declined) 
Peter Dumont Vroom 
Samuel Lewis Southard 
Elias P. Seeley . 
Peter Dumont Vroom 
Philemon Dickinson . 
William Pennington . 
Daniel Haines 
Charles C. Stratton . 
Daniel Haines 
George Franklin Fort 
Rodman McCauley Price . 
William Augustus Newell . 
Charles Smith Olden . 



1790-1793 
1793-1801 

1801-1802 Dem.-Repub. 
1802-1803 
1803-1812 

1812-1813 Federalist 

1813-1815 Dem.-Repub. 
1815-1817 
1817-1829 

1839 

1829-1832 Democrat 

1832-1833 Whig 



Joel Parker 

Marcus Lawrence Ward 



1833-1836 Democrat 
1836-1837 

1837-1843 Whig 

1843-1844 Democrat 

1845-1848 Whig 

1848-1851 Democrat 
1851-1854 
1854-1857 

1857-1860 Republican 
1860-1863 .. 

1863-1866 Democrat 

1866-1869 Republican 



Theodore Frelinghuysen Randolph 1869-1872 Democrat 



Joel Parker 
Joseph Dorsett Bedle 
George Brinton McClellan 
George Craig Ludlow 
Leon Abbett 
Robert Stockton Green 
Leon Abbett 
George Theodore Werts 
John William Griggs . 
Foster MacGowan Voorhees 
(Acting) .... 
David O. Watkins 
Foster MacGowan Voorhees 
Franklin Murphy 
Edward Casper Stokes 
John Franklin Fort 
Woodrow Wilson 



1872-1875 
1875-1878 
1878-1881 
1881-1884 
1884-1887 
1887-1890 
1890-1893 
1893-1896 
1896-1898 Republican 



1898 

1898-1899 
1899-1902 
1902-1905 
1905-1908 
1908-1911 
wooarow Wilson . . .1911- Democrat 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For descriptive material see bibliographies in 
Bulletins No. 177 and 301 of the United States Geological Survey; 
the Annual Reports and especially the Final Report of the New 
Jersey Geological Survey; and the Annual Reports of the New Jersey 
State Museum, the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, 
and the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture. 

History. The most important sources are: Documents Relating 
to the Colonial History of the State of New Jersey (Archives of the 
State of New Jersey, 1st series), edited by W. A. Whitehead, F. W. 
Ricardo and W. Nelson (26 vols., Newark, 1880-1903); Documents 
Relating to the Revolutionary History of the State of New Jersey 
(Archives of the State of New Jersey, 2nd series; 2 vols., Trenton, 
1901-1903) ; and Acts Oj the General Assembly of New Jersey from 
1703-1761, reprinted by A. Learning and J. Spicer (Somerville, 
New Jersey, 1881). 

For the period of the Dutch rule, see E. B. O'Callaghan's History 
of New Netherland (New York, 1846) ; and John Romeyn Brodhead's 
History of the State of New York (2nd vol., New York, 1853, 1871); 
E. P. Tanner, The Province of New Jersey (New York, 1908), the 
most thorough study of the period from 1664 to 1738; Samuel 
Smith's History of the Colony of Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey 
(Burlington, 1765; 2nd ed., Trenton, 1877), still one of the best 
accounts of the colonial period, and particularly valuable on account 
of its copious extracts from the sources, many of which are no longer 
accessible; see, also, William A. Whitehead's "The English in 
East and West Jersey, 1664-1689 " (in vol. iii. of Justin Winsor's 
Narrative and Critical History of America). Among the monographic 
contributions are Austin Scott's Influence of the Proprietors in 
Founding the State of New Jersey (Baltimore, 1885) and H. S. Cooley's 
Study of Slavery in New Jersey (Baltimore, 1896). Other useful 
contributions are A. D. Mellick, Story of an Old Farm; or, Life in 
New Jersey in the i8th Century (Somerville, New Jersey, 1889), full 
of interesting details; F. B. Lee and others, New Jersey as a Colony 
and as a State (4 vols., with an additional biographical volume, New 
York, 1902, rather unevenly proportioned, and inaccurate as to 
details; W. J. Mills, Historic Houses of New Jersey (Philadelphia, 
1902); William Nelson, The New Jersey Coast in Three Centuries 
(2 vols., New York, 1902); Isaac S. Mulford, Civil and Political 
History of New Jersey (Philadelphia, 1851); W. A. Whitehead, 
East Jersey under the Proprietary Governments (New Jersey Historical 
Society Collections, vol. i., Newark, 1875); W. S. Stryker, Official 
Register of the Officers and Men of New Jersey in the Revolutionary 
War (Trenton, 1872); W. E. Sackett, Modern Battles of Trenton 
(Trenton, 1895), a political history of New Jersey from 1868 to 



1894, dealing especially with the railway controversies; John E. 
Stillwell, Historical and Genealogical Miscellany (2 vols., New York, 
1903-1906), containing data relating to the settlement and settlers 
of New York and New Jersey ; R. S. Field, The Provincial Courts 
of New Jersey; L. Q. C. Elmer, The Constitution and Government of 
New Jersey (vols. iii. and vii. of New Jersey Historical Society 
Collections, Newark, 1849, 1872); and David Murray, History of 
Education in New Jersey (No. 23 of Circulars of Information issued 
by the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, 1899). 

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH, or NEW CHURCH, the com- 
munity founded by the followers of Emmanuel Swedenborg 
(<?.!).). Swedenborg himself took no steps to found a church, but 
having given a new interpretation of Scripture, it was inevitable 
that those who accepted his doctrine should separate themselves 
and organize a society in accordance therewith. Those who 
received them fully during Swedenborg's lifetime were few 
and scattered, but courageously undertook the task of dissemina- 
tion, and gave' themselves to translating and distributing their 
master's writings. Two Anglican clergymen were conspicuous 
in this work: Thomas Hartley (d. 1784), rector of Win wick, and 
John Clowes (1743-1831), vicar of St John's, Manchester. 
Hartley translated Heaven and Hell (1778) and Trite Christian 
Religion (1781); Clowes, who taught New Church doctrine 
in the existing churches and was opposed to the forming of new 
organizations, translated 17 volumes, including the Arcana 
Coelestia, and published over 50 volumes of exposition and 
defence. Through his influence Lancashire became the strong- 
hold of the Swedenborgians, and to-day includes a third of the 
congregations and more than half the members of the New 
Church in the United Kingdom. 

In 1782 a society for publishing Swedenborg's writings was 
formed in Manchester, and in December 1783 a h'ttle company 
of sympathizers with similar aims met in London and founded 
" The Theosophical Society," among the members of which 
were John Flaxman the sculptor, William Sharpe the engraver, 
and F. H. Barthelemon the composer. In the early days most of 
them worshipped at the Female Orphan Asylum, St George's, 
whose chaplain, Rev. Jacob Duche, like Clowes at Manchester, 
preached the doctrines from his own pulpit. In 1785 and 1787 
J. W. Salmon and R. Mather conducted an open-air missionary 
tour in the Midlands and the North with some success. Five 
prominent Wesleyan preachers adopted the new teaching and 
were cut off from their connexion, a step which led, in spite of 
remonstrance from Clowes and others, to the formal organization 
of the New Jerusalem Church on the 7th of May 1787. For some 
months the members met in private nouses, but in January 1788 
began worship in a church in Great Eastcheap with a liturgy 
specially prepared by the Rev. James Hindmarsh and Isaac 
Hawkins. " The Theosophical Society " was now dissolved. 
In April 1789 a General Conference of British Swedenborgians 
was held in Great Eastcheap Church, followed by another and 
by the publication of a journal, the New Jerusalem Magazine, 
in 1700. Since 1815 conferences have been held every year. 
A weekly paper, the Morning Light, is published, as well as 
monthly magazines for adults (the New Church Magazine) and 
young folk. The liturgy (containing five services for Morning 
and Evening, together with the order of Baptism, Holy 
Supper, Marriage, &c.) was prepared in 1828, revised and ex- 
tended in 1875; the hymn book of 1823 was revised and 
enlarged in 1880. 

In the provinces the first church was at Birmingham (1791), 
followed by one at Manchester and another at Liverpool (1793). 
The Accrington church, the largest in Great Britain, was founded 
in 1802. Many of the early converts to the New Church were 
among the most fervent advocates of the abolition of slavery, 
one was the medical officer of the first batch of convicts sent to 
Botany Bay; from the house of another, William Cookworthy 
of Plymouth, Captain Cook sailed on his last voyage. Others 
were pioneers of elementary education, establishing free day 
schools long before they were thought of by the state. 

In 1815 the conference took up the question of home missionary 
work, and its agents were able to found many branches of the 
church. In 1813 the Manchester and Salford (now the North of 



NEW KENSINGTON NEW LONDON 



England) Missionary Society was founded, chiefly to provide 
preachers for the smaller churches in its area; in 1857 a National 
Missionary Institution was founded and endowed, to which 
most of the local ones have been affiliated. Other denominational 
agencies have been concerned with the printing and circulation 
of Swedenborgian literature, a training college for the ministry 
(founded in 1852), and a Ministers' Aid Fund (1854), and an 
Orphanage (1881). The centenary of the New Church as a 
spiritual system was celebrated in 1857, as an external organiza- 
tion in 1883. A few Swedenborgians still hold to the non- 
separating policy, but more from force of circumstances than from 
deliberate principle. The constitution of the New Church is of 
the Independent , Congregational type; the conference may 
advise and counsel, but cannot compel the obedience of the 
societies. The returns for 1909 showed 45 ministers, 8 recog- 
nized leaders, 10 recognized missionaries, 70 societies, 6665 
registered members, 7907 Sunday scholars. There are also five 
or six small societies not connected with the conference. 

The New Church in Europe. In Sweden the Philanthropic 
Exegetic Society was formed by C. F. Nordenskiold in 1786 to 
collect documents about Swedenborg and to publish his writings. 
The introduction of alchemy and mesmerism led to its dissolution 
in 1789, but its work was continued by the society " Pro fide et 
charitate," which existed from 1796 to 1820. For many years the 
works of Swedenborg and his followers were proscribed, and receivers 
of his writings fined or deprived of office, but in 1866, when religious 
liberty had made progress, the cause was again taken up; in 1875 
the society of " Confessors of the New Church " was formed in 
| Stockholm, and since 1877 services kave been regularly held. There 
is also a church in Gothenburg, and lectures are given from time to 
time in most of the towns of Sweden. In Norway there is no New 
Church organization ; in Denmark a church was founded in Copen- 
hagen in 1871. In Germany Prelate Oetinger of Wiirttemberg 
translated many of Swedenborg's writings between 1765 and 1786, 
but the great name is that of Immanuel Tafel (d. 1863), librarian of 
Tubingen, who not only edited, translated and published, but in 
1848 founded a " Union of the New Church in Germany and Switzer- 
land " which held quarterly meetings. There is a church in Berlin, 
but otherwise activity in Germany has taken shape in the German 
Swedenborg Society with headquarters at Stuttgart. In Switzerland, 
on the contrary, there is an organized body of the New Church; 
divine service being held in the Society at Zurich and by circles at 
Berne, Herisau and Nesslau. The Zurich pastor is a member of the 
American Convention, and has oversight also of the Austrian 
societies at Vienna and Trieste. In Hungary there are societies at 
Buda Pesth and Gyorkony. In France there were early Sweden- 
borgians of rank and learning, and much translation was accomplished 
before 1800. About 1838 I. F. E. Le Boys de Guays began his 
masterly translation of all Swedenborg's theological works and 
instituted public New Church worship, which was carried on at his 
house for thirty years. Sunday worship is now held in the New 
Church Temple on the Rue Thouin. In Italy (Rome), Holland 
(The Hague), Belgium (Antwerp and Bruges), there are small 
societies, and nearly every European country has some known 
adherents. 

In America. About 1784 James Glen, a London Scot, delivered 
lectures " For the Sentimentalists " on the new doctrine in Phila- 
delphia and Boston and circulated some of Swedenborg's works. 
Francis Bailey, state printer of Pennsylvania, was attracted by them 
and became active in their promulgation. During the next ten years 
a number of prominent men gave their support to the teaching, 
which gradually spread inland and southward. The first society for 
worship was formed in Baltimore in 1792 (reorganized 1798), though 
a short-lived one had preceded it at Halifax, N.S., in 1791. Other 
churches grew up in Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Boston and New 
York, and the General Convention, which meets annually, was 
formed at Philadelphia in 1817. In 1907 there were 102 ministers 
and 103 societies with a membership of 6560. Of these, 4 societies 
and 140 members are in Canada, while the German Synod counts for 
1 1 societies and 325 members. 

In Australia, &c. The formation of societies in Australia began 
at Adelaide in 1844. Melbourne and Sydney followed in 1854, 
Brisbane in 1865, Rodborough, Viet., in 1878. There is a circle at 
Perth. New Zealand has a church at Auckland (1883) and scattered 
members in the south island. An Australasian conference met at 
Melbourne in 1881 and has continued to meet in alternate years. 
There is a society at Mauritius, and correspondents in various parts 
of South and West Africa, India, Japan, the West Indies and South 
America. 

See L. P. Mercer, The New Jerusatem in the World's Religious 
Congresses of 1893; Minutes of the General Conference of the New 
Church (annual); Journal of the Annual Session of tlte General 
Convention of the New Jerusalem in the United States of A merica. 

(A. J. G.) 



NEW KENSINGTON, a borough of Westmoreland county, 
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Allegheny river, 18 m. N.E. of 
Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 4665 (1042 foreign-born and 86 ne- 
groes); (1910) 7707. It is served by the Pennsylvania railroad 
and by electric railways to neighbouring towns. There are a 
variety of manufactures. The borough was founded in 1891 
and was incorporated in the following year. 

NEWLANDS, JOHN ALEXANDER REINA (1838-1898), 
English chemist, was born in 1838. He was one of the first, if 
not quite the first, to propound the conception of periodicity 
among the chemical elements. His earliest contribution to the 
question took the form of a letter published in the Chemical News 
in February 1863. In the succeeding year he showed, in the 
same journal, that if the elements be arranged in the order of their 
atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently 
either belong to the same group or occupy similar positions in 
different groups, and he pointed out that each eighth element 
starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of re- 
petition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music. 
The Law of Octaves thus enunciated was at first ignored or 
treated with ridicule as a fantastic notion unworthy of serious 
consideration, but the idea, subsequently elaborated by D. I. 
Mendeleeff and other workers into the Periodic Law, has taken 
its place as one of the most important generalizations in modern 
chemical theory. Newlands, who was of Italian extraction on 
his mother's side, and fought as a volunteer in the cause of 
Italian freedom under Garibaldi in 1860, died in London on the 
29th of July 1898. He collected his various papers on the 
atomicity of the elements in a little volume on the Discovery of 
the Periodic Law published in London in 1884. 

NEW LONDON, a city, port of entry, and one of the county- 
seats of New London county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive 
with the township of New London, in the S.E. part of the state, 
on the Thames river, about 3 m. from its entrance into Long 
Island Sound. Pop. (1890) 13,7.57; (19) 17,548, of whom 
3743 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 19,659. It is served 
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the New London 
Northern (leased by the Central Vermont) railways, by electric 
railway to Norwich, Westerly, Groton, Stonington and East 
Lyme, by a daily line of passenger steamboats to New York City, 
and by two lines of freight steamers, and in the summer months 
by daily steamboats to Sag Harbor and Greenport, Long Island, 
and Watch Hill and Block Island, Rhode Island. New London's 
harbour is the best on the Sound. The city is the headquarters of 
a United States artillery district, embracing Fort H. G. Wright 
on Fisher's Island, New York, Fort Michie on Gull Island, New 
York, Fort Terry on Plum Island, New York, and Fort Mansfield 
on Napatree Point, Rhode Island fortifications which command 
tho eastern entrance to Long Island Sound; and it is the head- 
quarters of the Third District of the U.S. Engineers and of the 
Third District of the Lighthouse Department. The harbour was 
formerly defended by two forts, both now obsolete Fort 
Trumbull on the right bank of the Thames, and Fort Griswold 
on the left bank, in the township of Groton (pop. 1900, 5962). 
The city is built on a declivity facing the south-east; from the 
higher points there are excellent views of Long Island Sound 
and the surrounding country. New London is a summer resort, 
and is a station of the New York Yacht Club; the boat races 
between Harvard and Yale universities are annually rowed on 
the river near the city. Among the places of interest are the 
Town Mill, built in 1650 by John Winthrop, Jr., in co-operation 
with the town; the Hempstead Mansion, built by John Hemp- 
stead about 1678; the old cemetery, north-east of the city, laid 
out in 1653; a school house in which Nathan Hale taught; and 
a court house built in 1785. There is a public library (about 
30,000 volumes), and the New London County Historical Society 
(incorporated 1870) has an historical library. There are two 
endowed high schools, the Bulkeley School for boys and the 
Williams Memorial Institute (1891) for girls, and an endowed 
Manual Training and Industrial School (1872), all offering free 
instruction. In the i8th century New London had a large trade 
in lumber, flour and food supplies with the West Indies, Gibraltar 



NEWLYN NEWMAN 



and the Barbary States; but this trade declined after the War of 
1812, and the whaling and sealing industries, once very lucrative, 
have also declined in value. The imports in 1906 were valued 
at $54,873 and the exports at $60,522; in 1909 their respective 
values were $10,870 and $10,295. Manufacturing is the principal 
industry; among the products are silk goods, cotton gins, 
printing presses and foundry and machine shop products. The 
total value of factory products was $4,709,628 in 1905, an increase 
of n-6% since 1900. 

New London was founded in 1646 by John Winthrop, the 
younger. It was known by its Indian name " Nameaug " until 
1658, when the General Court of Connecticut approved the 
wish of the settlers to adopt its present name from London, 
England, the river Monhegin at the same time becoming the 
Thames. During the War of Independence it was a rendezvous 
for American privateers. In 1776 the first naval expedition 
authorized by Congress was organized in its harbour, and there 
in the next three years twenty privateers were fitted out. On 
the 6th of September 1781, 800 British troops and Loyalists under 
General Benedict Arnold (who was born in New London county) 
raided New London, destroyed much private property, and at 
Fort Griswold killed 84 American soldiers, many of them after 
their surrender. The massacre is commemorated by an obelisk, 
134 ft. high, on Groton Heights. The city was incorporated in 
1784. In 1798 there was an epidemic of yellow fever. From 
the 7th of November 1812 until the close of the second war 
with Great Britain the harbour was blockaded by a British 
fleet. 

SeeF. M. Caulkins's History of New London (newed., New London, 
1900) ; and the publications of the New London County Historical 
Society (New London). 

NEWLYN, a village in the St Ives parliamentary division of 
Cornwall, England, on the shore of Mount's Bay, i m. S.W. of 
Penzance. It is a small fishing port, with narrow paved lanes 
and old-fashioned cottages. Near the parish church of St Peter 
stands an ancient cross of granite, discovered in a field close by. 
The harbour, one of the safest for small craft in the west country, 
is sheltered by two long and massive stone piers. A more 
ancient pier, originally constructed in the reign of Henry VI., 
was renewed in that of James I. Tin mining and smelting have 
been largely carried on in the neighbourhood, and several galleries 
were worked far under the sea. The principal modern industry, 
however, is fishing, especially for pilchard. The picturesque 
appearance of the village, with its quays and little harbour, and 
the grandeur of the cliffs and moorland scenery towards Land's 
End, make Newlyn an attractive spot. Between 1880 and 1890 
an artistic coterie grew up here, the leaders of which were Edwin 
Harris, Walter Langley, Fred Hall, Frank Bramley, T. C. Gotch, 
Mr and Mrs Stanhope Forbes, Chevalier Taylor and H. S. Tuke. 
The earlier artists at Newlyn were said to have selected it as their 
centre, because a greyness in the atmosphere helped their 
depiction of subtleties in tone, part of their creed being subordina- 
tion of colour to tone-gradation. In later times, the element 
of a common ideal tended to disappear, but the interest of the 
" Newlyn school " attracted a regular art-colony, who in various 
ways assimilated and expressed the picturesque influences of 
the place (see PAINTING: Recent British). There is a permanent 
Art Gallery, containing examples of the work of the Newlyn 
artists. Newlyn ward in the urban district of PAUL (pop. 6332) 
had in 1901 a population of 3749. 

NEW MADRID, a city and the county-seat of New Madrid 
county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the right bank of the Mississippi 
river, about 35 m. S. by W. of Cairo, 111. Pop. (1900) 1489; 
(1910) 1882. It is served by the St Louis South-western railway 
and by river packets. The city is a shipping point for a rich 
grain, cotton, livestock and lumber region. Among its manu- 
factures are lumber, staves, and hoops. The municipality owns 
its water-works. Owing to the encroachments of the Mississippi 
river, the site of the first permanent settlement of New Madrid is 
said to lie now about i| m. from the E. bank of the river, in 
Kentucky. This settlement was made in 1788, on an elaborately 
laid out town site, and was named New Madrid by its founder, 



Colonel George Morgan (1742-iSio), 1 who, late in 1787, had 
received a grant of a large tract of land on the right bank of the 
Mississippi river, below the mouth of the Ohio, from Don Diego 
de Gardoqui, Spanish minister to the United States. The tract 
lay within the province of " Louisiana," and the grant to Morgan 
was a part of Gardoqui's plan to annex to that province the 
western American settlements, Morgan being required to estab- 
lish thereon a large number of emigrants, whom he secured from 
New Jersey, Canada and elsewhere. Governoi Estevan Miro 
of Louisiana, however, disapproved of the grant, on the ground 
that it would cause the province to be overrun by Americans; 
the settlers became restive under the restraints imposed upon 
them; Morgan himself left; and in December 1811 and January 
1812 a series of severe earthquake shocks caused a general 
emigration. New Madrid was occupied by Confederate troops 
under General Gideon J. Pillow, on the 28th of July 1861, and 
after the surrender of Fort Donelson (February 16, 1862) the 
troops previously at Columbus, forming the Confederate left flank, 
were withdrawn to New Madrid and Island No. 10 (in the 
Mississippi about 10 m. S.). There were Confederate batteries on 
the left bank of the Mississippi opposite Island No. 10, and along 
the same bank from a point opposite New Madrid to Tiptonville, 
Tennessee. Behind these batteries were Reelfoot Lake and over- 
flowed lands. Retreat bv land was thus virtually impossible. 
Early in March, Major-General John Pope and Commodore A.H. 
Foote proceeded against these positions; New Madrid, then in 
command of General John P. McGown, was evacuated on the 
i4th; (Admiral) Henry Walke (1808-1896), commanding the 
" Carondelet," ran past the batteries of Island No. 10 and the 
shore batteries on the 4th of April, and Lieut.-Commander 
Egbert Thompson, commanding the " Pittsburgh," on the 7th; 
meanwhile the Federals under the direction of Colonel Josiah W. 
Bissell (b. 1818), of the engineer corps, had, with great difficulty, 
constructed an artificial channel to New Madrid across the 
peninsula (swamp land) formed by a great loop of the Mississippi ; 
troops were conveyed by transports through this channel below 
the island, Federal batteries having been established on the right 
bank of the river; the retreat of the Confederates down stream 
was effectually blocked; they evacuated the island on April 
7th, and on the 8th the garrison and the forces stationed in the 
shore batteries, a total of about 7000, under General W. W. 
Mackall (who had succeeded General McGown on the 3ist of 
March) was surrendered at Tiptonville. The island was sub- 
sequently washed away, a new one being formed in the vicinity. 
NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1805-1897), English scholar 
and miscellaneous writer, younger brother of Cardinal Newman, 
was born in London on the 27th of June 1805. Like his brother, 
he was educated at Ealing, and subsequently at Oxford, where 
he had a brilliant career, obtaining a double first class in 1826. 
He was elected fellow of Balliol in the same year. Conscientious 
scruples respecting the ceremony of infant baptism led him to 
resign his fellowship in 1830, and he went to Baghdad as assistant 
in the mission of the Rev. A. N. Groves. In 1833 he returned to 
England to procure additional support for the mission, but 
rumours of unsoundness in his views on the doctrine of eternal 
punishment had preceded him, and finding himself generally 
looked upon with suspicion, he gave up the vocation of missionary 
to become classical tutor in an unsectarian college at Bristol. 
His letters written home during the period of his mission were 
collected and published in 1856, and form an interesting little 
volume. Newman's views matured rapidly, and in 1840 he 
became professor of Latin in Manchester New College, the 
celebrated Unitarian seminary long established at York, and 
the parent of Manchester College, Oxford. In 1846 he quitted 
this appointment to become professor in University College, 
London, where he remained until 1869. During all this period 

1 Morgan had been made Indian agent at Fort Pitt (Pittsburg) 
in 1776, and was commissioned a colonel in the Continental Army 
in 1777. In 1806 he was visited at his home, near Pittsburg, by^ 
Aaron Burr, who told him something about his famous " conspiracy 
scheme in the West, which Morgan reported to Jefferson " the very 
first intimation I had of the plot," Jefferson afterward wrote to 
Morgan. 



NEWMAN, CARDINAL 



he was assiduously carrying on his studies in mathematics and 
oriental languages, but wrote little until 1847, when he published 
anonymously a History of the Hebrew Monarchy, intended to 
introduce the results of German investigation in this department 
of Biblical criticism. In 1849 appeared The Soul, her Sorrows 
and Aspirations, and in 1850, Phases of Faith, or Passages from 
the History of my Creed the former a tender but searching 
analysis of the relations of the spirit of man with the Creator; 
the latter a religious autobiography detailing the author's passage 
from Calvinism to pure theism. It is on these two books that 
Professor Newman's celebrity will principally rest; having in 
both to describe his personal experience, his intense earnestness 
has kept him free from the eccentricity which marred most of his 
other writings, excepting his contributions to mathematical 
research and oriental philology. There was, indeed, scarcely 
a crotchet, except " spiritualism," of which he was not at one 
time or another the advocate. His versatility was amazing: he 
wrote on logic, political economy, English reforms, Austrian 
politics, Roman history, diet, grammar, the most abstruse 
departments of mathematics, Arabic, the emendation of Greek 
texts, and languages as out of the way as the Berber and as 
obsolete as the dialect of the Iguvine inscriptions. In treating all 
these subjects he showed signal ability, but, wherever the theme 
allowed, an incurable crotchetiness; and in his numerous metrical 
translations from the classics, especially his version of the Iliad, 
he betrayed an insensibility to the ridiculous which would almost 
have justified the irreverent criticism of Matthew Arnold, had 
this been conveyed in more seemly fashion. His miscellaneous 
essays, some of much value, were collected in several volumes 
before his death: his last publication, Contributions chiefly to 
the Early History of Cardinal Newman (1891), was generally 
condemned as deficient in fraternal feeling. He was far from 
possessing his brother's subtlety of reasoning, but he impresses 
by a transparent sincerity and singleness of mind not always dis- 
played by the more celebrated writer; his style is too individual 
to be taken as a model, but is admirable for its simplicity and 
clearness. His character is vividly drawn by Carlyle in his life 
of Sterling, of whose son Newman was guardian: "a man of 
fine attainments, of the sharpest-cutting and most restlessly 
advancing intellect and of the mildest pious enthusiasm." 
It was his great misfortune that this enthusiasm should have been 
correlated, as is not unfrequently the case, with an entire in- 
sensibility to the humorous side of things. After his retirement 
from University College, Professor Newman continued to live 
for some years in London, subsequently removing to Clifton, and 
eventually to Weston-super-Mare, where he died on the 7th of 
October 1897. He had been blind for five years before his death, 
but retained his faculties to the last. He was twice married. 

See T. G. Sieveking, Memoir and Letters of Francis W. Newman 
(1909). (R. G.) 

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY (1801-1890), English Cardinal, 
was born in London on the 2ist of February 1801, the eldest 
son of John Newman, banker, of the firm of Ramsbottom, 
Newman and Co. The family was understood to be of Dutch 
extraction, and the name itself, spelt " Newmann " in an earlier 
generation, further suggests Hebrew origin. His mother, 
Jemima Fourdrinier, was of a Huguenot family, long established 
in London as engravers and paper manufacturers. John Henry 
was the eldest of six children. The second son, Charles Robert, 
a man of ability but of impracticable temper, a professed atheist 
and a recluse, died in 1884. The youngest son, Francis William 
(q.v.). was for many years professor of Latin in University College, 
London. Two of the three daughters, Harriett Elizabeth and 
Jemima Charlotte, married brothers, Thomas and John Mozley; 
and Anne Mozley, a daughter of the latter, edited in 1892 New- 
man's Anglican Life and Correspondence, having been entrusted 
by him in 1885 with an autobiography written in the third 
person to form the basis of a narrative of the first thirty years 
of his life. The third daughter, Mary Sophia, died unmarried in 
1828. 

At the age of seven Newman was sent to a private school 
conducted by Dr Nicholas at Baling, where he was distinguished 



by diligence and good conduct, as also by a certain shyness and 
aloofness, taking no part in the school games. He speaks of 
himself as having been " very superstitious " in these early years. 
He took great delight in reading the Bible, and also the novels 
of Scott, then in course of publication. At the age of fifteen, 
during his last year at school, he was " converted," an incident 
that throughout life remained to him " more certain than that 
he had hands or feet." It was in the autumn of 1816 that he 
thus fell under the influence of a definite creed, and received 
into his intellect impressions of dogma never afterwards effaced. 
The tone of his mind was at this date evangelical and Calvinistic, 
and he held that the pope was anti-Christ. Matriculating at 
Trinity College, Oxford, i4th December 1816, he went into 
residence there in June the following year, and in 1818 he gained 
a scholarship of 60, tenable for nine years. But for this he 
would have been unable to remain at the university, as in 1819 
his father's bank suspended payment. In that year his name 
was entered at Lincoln's Inn. Anxiety to do well in the final 
schools produced the opposite result; he broke down in the 
examination, and so graduated with third-class honours in 1821. 
Desiring to remain in Oxford, he took private pupils and read for 
a fellowship at Oriel, then " the acknowledged centre of Oxford 
intellectualism." To his intense relief and delight he was 
elected on the I2th of April 1822. E. B. Pusey was elected a 
fellow of the same society in 1823. 

On Trinity Sunday, I3th June 1824, Newman was ordained, 
and became, at Pusey's suggestion, curate of St Clement's, 
Oxford. Here for two years he was busily engaged in parochial 
work, but he found time to write articles on " Apollonius of 
Tyana," on " Cicero " and on " Miracles " for the Encyclopaedia 
Metropolitan. In 1825, at Whately's request, he became 
vice-principal of St Alban's Hall, but this post he held for one 
year only. To his association with Whately at this time he 
attributed much of his " mental improvement " and a partial 
conquest of his shyness. He assisted Whately in his popular 
work on logic, and from him he gained his first definite idea of 
the Christian Church. He broke with him in 1827 on the occasion 
of the re-election of Peel for the University, Newman opposing 
this on personal grounds. In 1826 he became tutor of Oriel, 
and the same year R. H. Froude, described by Newman as " one 
of the acutest, cleverest and deepest men " he ever met, was 
elected fellow. The two formed a high ideal of the tutorial office 
as clerical and pastoral rather than secular. In 1827 he was a 
preacher at Whitehall. The year following Newman supported 
and secured the election of Hawkins as provost of Oriel in pre- 
ference to Keble, a choice which he later defended or apologized 
for as having in effect produced the Oxford Movement with all 
its consequences. In the same year he was appointed vicar of 
St Mary's, to which the chapelry of Littlemore was attached, and 
Pusey was made regius professor of Hebrew. At this date, 
though still nominally associated with the Evangelicals, 
Newman's views were gradually assuming a higher ecclesiastical 
tone, and while local secretary of the Church Missionary Society 
he circulated an anonymous letter suggesting a method by which 
Churchmen might practically oust Nonconformists from all 
control of the society. This resulted in his being dismissed from 
the post, 8th March 1830; and three months later he withdrew 
from the Bible Society, thus completing his severance from the 
Low Church party. In 1831-1832 he was select preacher before 
the University. In 1832, his difference with Hawkins as to the 
" substantially religious nature " of a college tutorship becoming 
acute, he resigned that post, and in December went with R. H. 
Froude, on account of the latter's health, for a tour in South 
Europe. On board the mail steamship " Hermes " they visited 
Gibraltar, Malta and the Ionian Islands, and subsequently 
Sicily, Naples and Rome, where Newman made the acquaintance 
of Dr Wiseman. In a letter home he described Rome as " the 
most wonderful place on earth," but the Roman Catholic religion 
as " polytheistic, degrading and idolatrous." It was during the 
course of this tour that he wrote most of the short poems which 
a year later were printed in the Lyra Apostolica. From Rome 
Newman returned to Sicily alone, and was dangerously ill with 



5 i8 



NEWMAN, CARDINAL 



fever at Leonforte, recovering from it with the conviction that he 
had a work to do in England. 

In June 1833 he left Palermo for Marseilles in an orange boat, 
which was becalmed in the Strait of Bonifacio, and here he wrote 
the verses, " Lead, kindly Light," which later became popular as 
a hymn. He was at home again in Oxford on the gth of July, 
and on the I4th Keble preached at St Mary's an assize 
sermon on " National Apostasy," which Newman afterwards 
regarded as the inauguration of the Oxford Movement. In the 
words of Dean Church, it was " Keble who inspired, Froude 
who gave the impetus and Newman who took up the work "; 
but the first organization of it was due to H. J. Rose, editor of the 
British Magazine, who has been styled " the Cambridge originator 
of the Oxford Movement." It was in his rectory house at Had- 
leigh, Suffolk, that a meeting of High Church clergymen was held, 
25th to 29th of July (Newman was not present), at which it was 
resolved to fight for " the apostolical succession and the integrity 
of the Prayer-Book." A few weeks later Newman started, 
apparently on his own initiative, the Tracts for the Times, from 
which the movement was subsequently named " Tractarian." 
Its aim was to secure for the Church of England a definite basis 
of doctrine and discipline, in case either of disestablishment or 
of a determination of High Churchmen to quit the establishment, 
an eventuality that was thought not impossible in view of the 
States' recent high-handed dealings with the sister established 
Church of Ireland. The teaching of the tracts was supplemented 
by Newman's Sunday afternoon sermons at St Mary's, the 
influence of which, especially over the junior members of the 
university, was increasingly marked during a period of eight 
years. In 1835 Pusey joined the movement, which, so far as 
concerned ritual observances, was later called " Puseyite "; 
and in 1836 its supporters secured further coherence by their 
united opposition to the appointment of Hampden as regius 
professor of divinity. His Bampton Lectures (in the preparation 
of which Blanco White had assisted him) were suspected of heresy, 
and this suspicion was accentuated by a pamphlet put forth by 
Newman, Elucidations of Dr Hampden' s Theological Statements. 
At this date Newman became editor of the British Critic, and 
he also gave courses of lectures in a side-chapel of St Mary's 
in defence of the via media of the Anglican Church as between 
Romanism and popular Protestantism. His influence in Oxford 
was supreme about the year 1839, when, however, his study of 
the monophysite heresy first raised in his mind a doubt as to 
whether the Anglican position was really tenable on those prin- 
ciples of ecclesiastical authority which he had accepted; and 
this doubt returned when he read, in Wiseman's article in the 
Dublin Review on " The Anglican Claim," the words of St 
Augustine against the Donatists, " securus judicat orbis ter- 
rarunt," words which suggested a simpler authoritative rule than 
that of the teaching of antiquity. He continued his work, 
however, as a High Anglican controversialist until he had 
published, in 1841, Tract go, the last of the series, in which he 
put forth, as a kind of proof charge, to test the tenability of all 
Catholic doctrine within the Church of England, a detailed 
examination of the XXXIX. Articles, suggesting that their 
negations were not directed against the authorized creed of 
Roman Catholics, but only against popular errors and exaggera- 
tions. This theory, though not altogether new, aroused much 
indignation in Oxford, and A. C. Tail, afterwards archbishop of 
Canterbury), with three other senior tutors, denounced it as 
" suggesting and opening a way by which men might violate 
their solemn engagements to the university." The alarm was 
shared by the heads of houses and by others in authority; and, 
at the request of the bishop of Oxford, the publication of the 
Tracts came to an end. At this date Newman also resigned the 
editorship of the British Critic, and was thenceforth, as he himself 
later described it, " on his deathbed as regards membership 
with the Anglican Church." He now recognized that the 
position of Anglicans was similar to that of the semi-Arians in 
the Arian controversy; and the arrangement made at this time 
that an Anglican bishopric should be established in Jerusalem, 
the appointment to lie alternately with the British and Prussian 



governments, was to him further evidence of the non-apostolical 
character of the Church of England. In 1842 he withdrew to 
Littlemore, and lived there under monastic conditions with a 
small band of followers, their life being one of great physical 
austerity as well as of anxiety and suspense. To his disciples 
there he assigned the task of writing lives of the English saints, 
while his own time was largely devoted to the completion of an 
essay on the development of Christian doctrine, by which principle 
he sought to reconcile himself to the elaborated creed and the 
practical system of the Roman Church. In February 1843 h e 
published, as an advertisement in the Oxford Conservative Journal, 
an anonymous but otherwise formal retractation of all the hard 
things he had said against Rome; and in September, after the 
secession of one of the inmates of the house, he preached his last 
Anglican sermon at Littlemore and resigned the living of St 
Mary's. But still an interval of two years elapsed before he was 
formally received into the Roman Catholic Church (gth October 
1845) by Father Dominic, an Italian Passionist. In February 
1846 he left Oxford for Oscott, where Bishop Wiseman, then 
vicar-apostolic of the Midland district, resided; and in October 
he proceeded to Rome, where he was ordained priest and was 
given the degree of D.D. by the pope. At the close of 1847 he 
returned to England as an Oratorian, and resided first at Mary- 
vale (near Oscott); then at St Wilfrid's College, Cheadle; then 
at St Ann's, Alcester Street, Birmingham; and finally at Edg- 
baston, where spacious premises were built for the community, 
and where (except for four years in Ireland) he lived a secluded 
life for nearly forty years. Before the house at Edgbaston was 
occupied he had established the London Oratory, with Father 
Faber as its superior, and there (in King William Street, Strand) 
he delivered a course of lectures on " The Present Position of 
Catholics in England," in the fifth of which he protested against 
the anti-Catholic utterances of Dr Achilli, an ex-Dominican friar, 
whom he accused in detail of numerous acts of immorality. 
Popular Protestant feeling ran very high at the time, partly in 
consequence of the recent establishment of a Roman Catholic 
diocesan hierarchy by Pius IX., and criminal proceedings 
against Newman for libel resulted in an acknowledged gross 
miscarriage of justice. He was found guilty, and was sentenced 
to pay a fine of 100, while his expenses as defendant amounted 
to about 14,000, a sum that was at once raised by public 
subscription, a surplus being spent on the purchase of Rednall, 
a small property picturesquely situated on the Lickey Hills, 
with a chapel and cemetery, where Newman now lies buried. 
In 1854, at the request of the Irish bishops, Newman went to 
Dublin as rector of the newly-established Catholic university 
there. But practical organization was not among his gifts, and 
the bishops became jealous of his influence, so that after four 
years he retired, the best outcome of his stay there being a volume 
of lectures entitled Idea of a University, containing some of his 
most effective writing. In 1858 he projected a branch house 
of the Oratory at Oxford; but this was opposed by Manning and 
others, as likely to induce Catholics to send their sons to that 
university, and the scheme was abandoned. In 1859 he estab- 
lished, in connexion with the Birmingham Oratory, a school for 
the education of the sons of gentlemen on lines similar to those of 
the English public schools, an important work in which he never 
ceased to take the greatest interest. But all this time (since 
1841) Newman had been under a cloud, so far as concerned the 
great mass of cultivated Englishmen, and he was now awaiting 
an opportunity to vindicate his career; and in 1862 he began 
to prepare autobiographical and other memoranda for the 
purpose. The occasion came when, in January 1864, Charles 
Kingsley, reviewing Froude's History of England in Macmillan's 
Magazine, incidentally asserted that " Father Newman informs 
us that truth for its own sake need not be, and on the whole 
ought not to be, a virtue of the Roman clergy." After some 
preliminary sparring between the two Newman's pamphlet, 
" Mr Kingsley and Dr Newman: a Correspondence on the Ques- 
tion whether Dr Newman teaches that Truth is no Virtue," 
published in 1864 and not reprinted, is unsurpassed in the English 
language for the vigour of its satire: the anger displayed was 



NEWMAN, CARDINAL 



later, in a letter to Sir William Cope, admitted to have been 
largely feigned Newman published in bi-monthly parts his 
Apologia pro vita sua, a religious autobiography of unsurpassed 
interest, the simple confidential tone of which " revolutionized 
the popular estimate of its author," establishing the strength and 
sincerity of the convictions which had led him into the Roman 
Catholic Church. Kingslay's accusation indeed, in so far as it 
concerned the Roman clergy generally, was not precisely dealt 
with; only a passing sentence, in an appendix on lying and 
equivocation, maintained that English Catholic priests are as 
truthful as English Catholic laymen; but of the author's own 
personal rectitude no room for doubt was left. 

In 1870 he put forth his Grammar of Assent, the most closely 
reasoned of his works, in which the case for religious belief is 
maintained by arguments differing somewhat from those com- 
monly used by Roman Catholic theologians; and in 1877, in 
the republication of his Anglican works, he added to the two 
volumes containing his defence of the via media a long preface 
and numerous notes in which he criticized and replied to sundry 
anti-Catholic arguments of his own in the original issues. At 
the time of the Vatican Council (1860-1870) he was known 
to be opposed to the definition of Papal infallibility, and in a 
private letter to his bishop (Ullathorne), surreptitiously published, 
he denounced the " insolent and aggressive faction " that had 
pushed the matter forward. But he made no sign of disapproval 
when the doctrine was defined, and subsequently, in a letter 
nominally addressed to the duke of Norfolk on the occasion of 
Mr Gladstone's accusing the Roman Church of having " equally 
repudiated modern thought and ancient history," Newman 
affirmed that he had always believed the doctrine, and had only 
feared the deterrent effect of its definition on conversions on 
account of acknowledged historical difficulties. In this letter, 
and especially in the postscript to the second edition of it, 
Newman finally silenced all cavillers as to his not being really 
at ease within the Roman Church. In 1878 his old college 
(Trinity), to his great delight, elected him an honorary fellow, 
and he revisited Oxford after an interval of thirty-two years. 
At the same date died Pope Pius IX., who had long mistrusted 
him; and Leo XIII. was encouraged by the duke of Norfolk 
and other distinguished Roman Catholic laymen to make 
Newman a cardinal, the distinction being a marked one, because 
he was a simple priest and not resident in Rome. The offer 
was made in February 1879, and the announcement of it was 
received with universal applause throughout the English-speaking 
world. The " creation " took place on izth May, with the 
title of St George in Velabro, Newman taking occasion while in 
Rome to insist on the lifelong consistency of his opposition to 
" liberalism in religion." After an illness that excited appre- 
hension he returned to England, and thenceforward resided at 
the Oratory until his death, i ith August 1890, making occasional 
visits to London, and chiefly to his old friend, R. W. Church, 
dean of St Paul's, who as proctor had vetoed the condemnation 
of Tract go in 1841. As cardinal Newman published nothing 
beyond a preface to a work by A. W. Hutton on the Anglican 
Ministry (1879) and an article on Biblical criticism in the Nine- 
teenth Century (February 1884). 

Newman's influence as controversialist and preacher (i.e. as 
reader of his written sermons, for he was never a speaker) was 
very great. For the Roman Church his conversion secured 
great prestige and the dissipation of many prejudices. Within it 
his influence was mainly in the direction of a broader spirit and 
of a recognition of the important part played by development 
both in doctrine and in Church government. And although he 
never called himself a mystic, he showed that in his judgment 
spiritual truth is apprehended by direct intuition, as an ante- 
cedent necessity to the professedly purely rational basis of the 
Roman Catholic creed. Within the Anglican Church, and even 
within the more strictly Protestant Churches, his influence was 
greater, but in a different direction, viz. in showing the necessity 
of dogma and the indispensableness of the austere, ascetic, 
chastened and graver side of the Christian religion. If his 
teaching as to the Church was less widely followed, it was because 



of doubts as to the thoroughness of his knowledge of history 
and as to his freedom from bias as a critic. Some hundreds of 
clergymen, influenced by the movement of which for ten or 
twelve years he was the acknowledged leader, made their sub- 
mission to the Church of Rome; but a very much larger number, 
who also came under its influence, failed to learn from him that 
belief in the Church involves belief in the pope. The natural 
tendency of his mind is often (and correctly) spoken of as sceptical. 
He held that, apart from an interior and unreasoned conviction, 
there is no cogent proof of the existence of God ; and in Tract 85 
he dealt with the difficulties of the Creed and of the canon of 
Scripture, with the apparent implication that they are insur- 
mountable unless overridden by the authority of an infallible 
Church. In his own case these views did not lead to scepticism, 
because he had always possessed the necessary interior con- 
viction; and in writing Tract 85 his only doubt would have been 
where the true Church is to be found. But, so far as the rest of 
the world is concerned, his teaching amounts to this: that the 
man who has not this interior conviction has no choice but to 
remain an agnostic, while the man who has it is bound sooner 
or later to become a Roman Catholic. 

He was a man of magnetic personality, with an intense belief 
in the significance of his own career; and his character may be 
described as feminine, both in its strength and in its weakness. 
As a poet he had inspiration and genuine power. Some of his 
short and earlier poems, in spite of a characteristic element 
of fierceness and intolerance in one or two cases, are described 
by R. H. Hutton as " unequalled for grandeur of outline, purity 
of taste and radiance of total effect "; while his latest and 
longest, " The Dream of Gerontius," is generally recognized as 
the happiest effort to represent the unseen world that has been 
made since the time of Dante. His prose style, especially in his 
Catholic days, is fresh and vigorous, and is attractive to many 
who do not sympathize with his conclusions, from the apparent 
candour with which difficulties are admitted and grappled with, 
while in his private correspondence there is a charm that places it 
at the head of that branch of English literature. He was too 
sensitive and self-conscious to be altogether successful as a 
leader of men, and too impetuous to take part in public affairs; 
but he had many of the gifts that go to make a first-rate journalist, 
for, " with all his love for and his profound study of antiquity, 
there was something about him that was conspicuously modern." 
Nevertheless, with the scientific and critical literature of the 
years 1850-1890 he was barely acquainted, and he knew no 
German. There are a few passages in his writings in which he 
seems to show some sympathy with a broader theology. Thus he 
admitted that there was " something true and divinely revealed 
in every religion." He held that " freedom from symbols and 
articles is abstractedly the highest state of Christian communion," 
but was " the peculiar privilege of the primitive Church." And 
even in 1877 he allowed that " in a religion that embraces large 
and separate classes of adherents there always is of necessity 
to a certain extent an exoteric and an esoteric doctrine." These 
admissions, together with his elucidation of the idea of doctrinal 
development and his eloquent assertion of the supremacy of 
conscience, have led some critics to hold that, in spite of all his 
protests to the contrary, he was himself somewhat of a Liberal. 
But it is certain that he explained to his own satisfaction and 
accepted every item of the Roman Catholic creed, even going 
beyond it, as in holding the pope to be infallible in canonization; 
and while expressing his preference for English as compared with 
Italian devotional forms, he was himself one of the first to 
introduce such into England, together with the ritual peculiarities 
of the local Roman Church. The motto that he adopted for 
use with the arms emblazoned for him as cardinal Cor ad cor 
loquitur, and that which he directed to be engraved on his 
memorial tablet at Edgbaston Ex umbris et imaginibus in 
veritalem together seem to disclose as much as can be disclosed 
of the secret of a life which, both to contemporaries and to 
later students, has been one of almost fascinating interest, 
at once devout and inquiring, affectionate and yet sternly 
self-restrained. 



520 



NEWMARCH NEW MEXICO 



There is at Oxford a bust of Newman by Woolner. His 
portrait by Ouless is at the Birmingham Oratory, and his portrait 
by Millais is in the possession of the duke of Norfolk, a replica 
being at the London Oratory. Outside the latter building, and 
facing the Brompton Road, there is a marble statue of Newman 
as cardinal. (A. W. Hu.) 

The chief authorities for Newman's life are his Apologia and the 
Letters and Correspondence, edited by Miss Mozley, above referred 
to. The letters and memoranda dealing with the years 1845-1890 
were entrusted by Newman to the Rev. W. Neville as literary 
executor. Works by R. W. Church, J. B. Mozley, T. Mozley and 
Wilfrid Ward should also be consulted, as well as an appreciation 
by R. H. Hutton. Adverse criticism will be found in the writings 
of Dr E. A. Abbott (e.g. The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman, 
2 vols. London, 1892), while some minor traits and foibles were 
noted by A. W. Hutton in the Expositor (September, October and 
November 1890). See also P. Thureau-Dangin, La Renaissance 
catholique: Newman el le mouvement d'Oxford (Paris, 1899); Lucie 
Felix-Faure, Newman, sa vie et ses ceuvres (ib. 1901); MacRae, Die 
religiose Gewissheit bei John Henry Newman (Jena, 1898); Grappe, 
John Henry Newman. Essai de psychologic religieuse (Paris, 1902) ; 
William Barry, Newman (London, 1903) ; Lady Blennerhassett, 
J. H. Kardinal Newman (Berlin, 1904) ; Bremond, Newman. Le 
developpement du dogme Chretien (Paris, 1905; 4th ed., 1906), Psy- 
chologic de la foi (ib. 1906), and Essai de biographic psychologique 
(ib. 1906). 

NEWMARCH, WILLIAM (1820-1882), English economist and 
statistician, was born at Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 28th of January 
1820. He settled in London in 1846 as an official of the Agra 
Bank, but resigned in 1851 on his appointment as secretary of 
the Globe Insurance Company. This post he held till 1862, when 
he became chief officer in the banking-house of Glyn, Mills & Co., 
in whose employ he remained until 1881. Notwithstanding the 
continuous pressure of an active business life he found time to 
contribute largely many valuable articles to the magazines and 
newspapers, and took an active part in the proceedings of the 
Royal Statistical Society (of which he was one of the honorary 
secretaries, editor of its journal, and in 1860-1871 president) 
and the Political Economy Club. He was also elected a fellow of 
the Royal Society. His extensive knowledge of banking was 
displayed in the evidence which he gave before the select com- 
mittee on the Bank Acts in 1857. He collaborated with Thomas 
Tooke in the two final volumes of his History of Prices and was 
responsible for the greater part of the work in those volumes. 
For nineteen years he wrote an admirable survey of the com- 
mercial history of the year in the Economist. He died at Torquay 
on the 23rd of March 1882. After his death his friends founded, 
in perpetuation of his memory, a Newmarch Lectureship in 
economic science and statistics at University College, London. 

NEWMARKET, a market town in the Newmarket parlia- 
mentary division of Cambridgeshire, England, 135 m. E. by N. 
of Cambridge on the Bury branch of the Great Eastern railway. 
Pop. (1901) 10,688. A part of the town is in Suffolk, and the 
urban district is in the administrative county of West Suffolk. 
Newmarket has been celebrated for its horse-races from the time 
of James I., though at that time there was more of coursing and 
hawking than horse-racing. Charles I. instituted the first cup- 
race here. For the use of Charles II., during his visits to the 
races, a palace, no longer extant, was built on the site of the lodge 
of James I. There are numerous residences belonging to patrons 
of the turf, together with stables, and racing and training 
establishments. The racecourse, which lies south-west of the 
town, has a full extent of 4 m., but is divided into various lengths 
to suit the different races. The course intersects the so-called 
Devil's Ditch or Dyke (sometimes also known as St Edmund's 
Dyke) , an earthwork consisting of a ditch and mound stretching 
almost straight for 5 m. from Reach to Wood Ditton. It is 12 ft. 
wide at the top, 18 ft. above the level of the country, and 30 ft. 
above the bottom of the ditch, with a slope of 50 ft. on the 
south-west side and 26 ft. on the north-east. It formed part of 
the boundary between the kingdoms of East Anglia and Mercia, 
but is doubtless of much earlier origin. Roman remains have 
been found in the neighbourhood. 

NEW MECKLENBURG (Ger. Neu-Mecklenburg, formerly New 
Ireland, native Tombara), an island of the Bismarck Archipelago, 



N.E. of New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean, about 3 S., 152 E., 
in the administration of German New Guinea. It is about 
240 m. long but seldom over 15 wide. From St George 's Channel 
at the south, separating it from New Pomerania, it sweeps north 
and then north-west, being divided from New Hanover at the 
other extremity by Byron Strait. It is mountainous throughout, 
having an extreme elevation of about 6500 ft. in the north, 
where the prevalent formations are sandstone and limestone, 
whereas in the south they are granite, porphyry and basalt. 
There is a white population of about forty; the natives are 
Papuans of a less fine type than the natives of New Pomerania, 
and rather resemble the Solomon islanders. Jacob Lemaire and 
Willem Cornelis Schouten sighted New Mecklenburg in 1616, 
but it was only recognized as part of an island separate from New 
Guinea by William Dampier in 1700, and as separate from New 
Pomerania in 1767 by Philip Carteret. 

NEW MEXICO, a south-western state of the United States, 
lying between 31 20' and 37 N. lat., and 103* and 109 2' 
W. long. It is bounded N. by Colorado; E. by Oklahoma and 
Texas; S. by Texas and Mexico; and W. by Arizona. It has 
an extreme length N. and S. of 400 m., an extreme width E. and 
W. of 358 m., and a total area of 122,634 sq. m., of which 131 
sq. m. are water-surface. 

Physiography. New Mexico is a region of mountains and 
high plateaus. Broadly speaking, its surface is a vast tableland 
tilted toward the S. and E., and broken by parallel ranges of 
mountains whose trend is most frequently N. and S. About 
midway between the western boundary and the Rio Grande 
passes the Continental Divide, which separates the waters 
entering the Gulf of Mexico from those that flow into the Gulf 
of California. In the region E. of the Continental Divide, which 
embraces about three-fourths of the surface of the state, 
the general south-eastern slope is very marked. Thus, at Santa 
Fe, in the north central part of the state, the elevation is 
7013 ft.; at Raton, in the N.E., 6400 ft.; at Las Cruces, in the 
extreme S., 3570 ft.; and at Red Bluff, in the extreme S.E., 
2876 ft. 

The Rocky Mountain system enters New Mexico near the centre 
of the northern boundary; its main ridge, lying E. of the Rio 
Grande, extends as far S. as the city of Santa Fe. It forms the 
water-parting between the upper waters of the Canadian river and 
the Rio Grande, and contains many of the loftiest peaks in New 
Mexico, among them being Truchas (13,275 ft.), Costilla (12,634 ft.) 
and Baldy (12,623 ft.). On the E. this ridge is bounded by the region 
of the Great Plains, the dissected topography of which is character- 
ized by many broad valleys intervening. W. of the Rio Grande lies 
a series of lower ranges, also a part of the Rocky Mountain system, 
whose western slopes merge almost imperceptibly with the Plateau 
Region. The San Juan, Gallinas and Nacimiento ranges are among 
the most notable in this group. South of the Rocky Mountains lies 
the so-called Basin Region, in which isolated, but sometimes lofty 
and massive, mountains, the result in many instances of a series of 
numerous parallel faults, rise from level plains like islands from the 
sea and enclose the valleys with bare walls of grey and brown rock. 
These valley plains, from 10 m. to 20 m. wide and sometimes too m. 
long, sloping gradually toward their centres, are usually covered 
with detritus from the neighbouring mountains, and seldom have 
a distinct drainage outlet. The Spaniards called them " bolsons " 
(purses), a term that geologists have retained. In many of these 
bolsons are ephemeral lakes, in which the waters collect during the 
rainy season and stand for several months. These waters are fre- 
quently impregnated with alkali or salt, and on evaporating leave 
upon the bed of the lake a thin encrustation of snowy whiteness. 
Such beds, locally known as " alkali flats," are especially numerous 
in Valencia, Socorro, Dona Ana and Otero counties, and a number 
of them furnish all the salt needed by the cattle ranges in their 
vicinity. East of the San Andreas Range, in the south central part 
of New Mexico, lies the basin of the extinct Lake Otero, in which 
are found the remarkable " white sands," consisting of dunes of 
almost pure granular gypsum and covering the area of 300 sq. m. 
In this region many species of reptiles and insects are almost perfectly 
white an interesting example of protective coloration. Both E. 
and W. of the central portion of the Basin Region the bolson plains 
soon lose their distinctive character, the valleys become wider and 
broader and the mountains less lofty and more isolated. East of the 
Pecos and S. of the Canadian rivers lies the great arid tableland known 
as the Staked Plains (Llano Estacado), a vast stretch of barren wastes, 
with almost nothing to break the monotony of its landscape. This 
is a part of the Great Plains and a continuation of the high plains 
region of Texas. The Plateau Region includes most of the area N. 



,;<-' 



InternAtional Boundary 

C 

INEW MEXICO 

Scale, 1:3,350,000 

English Miles 



40 60 So 



County Seats 

County Boundaries 

Indian Reservations 

Railways 




108 



I0 7 D Longitude West 106 of Greenwich P 105 



G 



Emery Walker sr 



NEW MEXICO 



of the Gila river and W. of the Rio Grande. Here volcanic activity 
and powerful erosion have combined to produce a series of remarkable 
scenic effects. The eastern border of this area is formed by the 
valley of the Rio Grande and the western foot-hills of the Rocky 
Mountains; the southern boundary overlooks the Gila river; and on 
the N. and W. the plateau continues into Colorado, Utah and Arizona. 
Near its southern and eastern borders are many lava flows and 
extinct volcanic mountains, one of the most imposing of those in 
New Mexico being the Mt. Taylor volcano (11,389 ft.), which is 
surrounded by lava tables and some of the most wonderful volcanic 
buttes in the world. In other portions of New Mexico there is 
also much evidence of former volcanic activity. A conspicuous 
feature of the New Mexican landscape is the mesa, a flat-topped hill 
created by differential erosion and projecting above the surrounding 
country like a table. A notable example is the mesa of Acoma, in 
Valencia county, capped with volcanic rocks; upon its summit, 
about 350 ft. above the plain, is the Indian pueblo of Acoma. 

The average elevation of New Mexico is 5700 ft., with 40,200 
sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft. ; 56,680 sq. m. between 5000 and 
7000 ft. ; 22,500 sq. m. between 7000 and 9000 ft.; and 2000 sq. m. 
above 9000 ft. 

For a region with such a small amount of rainfall the rivers are 
numerous, but none of the streams is navigable, and in many of them 
during the dry season (and in some of them because of broken 
stratification) the water in places disappears entirely beneath the 
sandy bed, and after flowing underground for some distance, breaks 
out afresh farther on as a river, rivulet or spring. The most im- 
portant stream is the Rio Grande, which, rising in southern Colorado, 
enters New Mexico through deep canyons near the centre of the 
northern boundary and continues southward across the entire state. 
During its course it changes from a mountain stream in the N. 
to a sluggish river turgid with sand in the S. In the lowlands it 
loses much of its volume through evaporation and absorption by 
the sands, and through irrigation, and in its lower course in New 
Mexico its bed is frequently dry. In the flood season it usually 
leaves its banks and inundates the lowlands, spreading over the 
sands a rich deposit of silt; and on account of this characteristic 
it is sometimes called " the Nile of New Mexico." The stream next 
in importance is the Pecos river, which rises in Mora county and 
flows southward into Texas, where ; t joins the Rio Grande. It has 
the same general characteristics as the latter river, being a mountain 
stream near its source, and after leaving the highlands becoming 
sluggish and losing much of its water. Along the lower course many 
underground streams from the mountains break out as springs and 
empty into the Pecos. The Canadian river drains the eastern slope 
of the Rocky Mountains and flows in a general south-easterly 
direction through Texas into Oklahoma, where it empties into the 
Arkansas. Most of its course in New Mexico lies through a canyon. 
The westward-flowing streams the San Juan, Rio Puercp of the 
West, Zuni, Rio San Francisco and Gila are of only slight im- 
portance, though their flow is perennial. In the valleys there are 
many small streams whose waters never reach the ocean, but 
disappear by seepage or evaporation. 

Fauna and Flora. Of native animals the species are numerous, 
but their numbers are small. Bison no longer roam the plains, and 
the elk has been driven out; but among the larger mammals still 
to be found in certain districts are the deer, prong-horn (in small 
numbers), puma, coyote, timber wolf, lynx (Lynx rufus and Lynx 
Canadensis) and the black and grizzly bear. Badgers, hares and 
rabbits are found everywhere, and prairie-dogs are so numerous in 
some places as to be considered a nuisance. There are numerous 
species of aquatic birds. From time to time upon the Rio Grande 
may be seen ducks, wild geese, swans, cranes, herons and gulls. 
Eagles are often seen, and in the arid and elevated regions crows and 
ravens are numerous. Gamble's quail, bob-white, grouse, English 
pheasants and wild turkeys are the most important game birds, and 
the mocking-bird is common throughout south-western New Mexico. 
Among the venomous reptiles and insects are the rattlesnake, the 
Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum), a poisonous lizard, and the 
tarantula (Mygale Heinlzii), which, however, are common only in 
certain places and at certain seasons. 

New Mexico has such a great range of elevations that all four of 
the zones of vegetation into which the South-West has been divided 
according to altitude are found within its limits; namely, the zone 
of cactus, yucca and agave (3000-3500 ft.), where grass is scanty; 
the zone of greasewood and sage-brush (3500-4900 ft.), where there 
is little grass, and the cactus species are less numerous; the zone of 
the cedar (4900-6800 ft.); and the zone of the pine and fir (6800- 
10,800 ft.), in which grass is more abundant. The total woodland 
area has been estimated at 23,700 sq. m., or a little more than 19 % 
of the land area. Only the higher ranges and plateaus are timbered, 
and even there the forests are not dense'. The lower slopes are 
usually covered with the scrub oak, juniper and pifion; but some 
mountains, especially those along the eastern border of the Rio 
Grande Valley, are absolutely treeless. The principal forest areas 
are upon the southern end of the San Juan Range, upon the Sangre 
de Cristo Range and in Socorro county, W. of the Rio Grande. 
The chief_ varieties of timber are the red fir, Engelmann's spruce and 
yellow pine. Up to^ 1910 the Federal government had created 
eleven forest reservations in New Mexico, embracing an area of 



10,971, 71 1 acres. In the valleys the only trees native to the soil 
are the willow and cpttonwood, found along the water courses, and 
beyond the range of irrigation vegetation is limited to scanty grass, 
with sage-brush and greasewood in the N. and cactus and yucca 
in the S. 

Climate. As the winds that reach New Mexico have been desic- 
cated while crossing the plains of Texas or the mountains of the 
N.W., the climate is characterized by a lack of humidity. The sandy 
soil quickly absorbs the sun's heat and also quickly radiates it, so 
that there is great daily variation in the temperature. The low 
humidity, high altitudes and southern latitude all combine to make 
the climate salubrious and especially beneficial to persons suffering 
with pulmonary disorders. The highest temperature ever recorded 
was no" F. at Roswell; the lowest, -23 at Aztec. At Santa F, 
where mountain and plain meet, the mean annual temperature is 
49; the mean for the winter is 31 and for the summer 67; and 
the highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded were respectively 
97 and -13. At Fort Bayard, in the S.W., the mean temperature 
for the year is 55; the mean for the winter is 39, with an extreme 
recorded of -i; the mean for the summer is 72, with a maximum 
recorded of 103. At Mesilla Park, in the lower Rio Grande Valley, 
the mean annual temperature is 60; for the winter it is 43, with a 
minimum of 1, and for the summer 77, with a maximum of 106. 
In all parts of New Mexico except the N.W. there is a so-called wet 
season, which begins early in July and lasts for a month or six weeks, 
the rain coming in the form of short afternoon thunderstorms. 
About a third of the precipitation occurs during July and August, 
but after August the monthly precipitation is steadily less until 
March, in which month only about 3 % of the annual rainfall occurs. 
For all of New Mexico the mean precipitation is about 13 in., 
ranging from 9 in. in the lower Rio Grande Valley to 25 in. on the 
mountain ranges at elevations of 10,000 ft. and over. In the valleys 
there are usually about two snows a year and these quickly disappear ; 
but on the mountain peaks and in the canyons the snow accumulates 
to great depths and forms a steady source of water-supply for the 
rivers. It is the melting of the snows on the Rocky Mountains, and 
not the rainy season, that produces the floods of the Rio Grande. 

Soils. The prevailing type of soil on the higher lands is a sandy 
loam, underlaid with clay or clay loam, which stores water and is 
the typical soil of the basins. Along the river valleys there are 
limited areas of fine sediment, and here with irrigation good crops 
can be grown without the use of fertilizers. In the plains where 
drainage is poor, especially in the S., the soils contain too much 
alkali; but in the highlands most of this has been dissolved and 
carried away by the rains, and the soils are well adapted for grazing 
grounds. 

Agriculture. Because of the small amount of rainfall, agriculture 
is confined chiefly to the river valleys. In 1900 only 4-2 % of the 
land surface was included in farms, and less than -27 of I % was 
classed as improved farm land. The total acreage, however, rose 
from 787,882 in 1890 to 5,130,878 in 1900, an increase of 551-2%. 
Between 1850 and 1880 there was very little increase in farm area. 
The amount of improved land, though showing an absolute increase 
between 1880 and 1900, declined relatively to the total area in farms 
from 37 -6% in 1 880106-4% in 1900. At the same time the average 
size of farms (not including farms with an area of less than 3 acres, 
which reported an annual income of less than $500) increased from 
124-9 acres in 1880 to 433-6 acres in 1900. This decrease in the pro- 
portion of improved acreage and increase in the average size of the 
farms is due to the increased use of lands for grazing purposes. 
As regards tenure, 90-6 % of the farms in 1900 were operated by 
owners, 2-2 % by cash tenants, and 7-2 % by share tenants. In 
this year 39-6% of the farms derived their principal income from 
hay and grain, 33-2% from live stock, 5'5% from dairy produce, 
3'5% from vegetables, 2-8% from fruits. The most important 
crop, as a result of irrigation, is alfalfa, which is grown for forage, 
requires little attention, and improves the soil. Wheat, Indian corn 
and oats are the leading cereal crops; and S. of the latitude of 
Santa F6 vegetables and deciduous fruits flourish where the water- 
supply is ample. A little cotton has been grown near Carlsbad in 
the Pecos Valley, and in 1909 sugar beets were introduced south of 
Albuquerque and cantaloupes in the southern Rio Grande Valley. 
Fruit, especially the Bartlett pear, is very successful. The total 
value of farm property in 1900 was $53,767,824, and the value of 
the live stock, $31,727,400. The value of the farm products in 1879 
was $1,897,974, in 1889 $1,784,824, and in 1899 $10,155,215. 
In 1909 the values of the principal farm products (according to the 
Year Book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture) were as follows: 
hay, $5,339,000; wheat, $1,175,000; Indian corn, $1,915,000; 
oats, $634,000; and potatoes, $86,000. The values of the various 
classes of live stock on the 1st of January 1910 were as follows: 
sheep, $13,714,000; milch cows, $1,125,000; other neat cattle, 
$15,677,000; horses, $6,251,000; mules, $632,000; swine, 
$272,000. Stock-raising is the most important industry, and the 
growing of sheep for wool takes a leading place. The hills and mesas 
covered with the nutritious grama grass form excellent grazing 
grounds, which are most extensive in Bernalillp, Guadalupe, Rio 
Arriba, San Miguel, Union and Valencia counties. In April 1907 
(according to an estimate of the National Association of Wool 
Manufacturers) New Mexico contained 2,600,000 sheep, the largest 



522 



NEW MEXICO 



number in any state or Territory except Montana and Wyoming; 
and in April 1909 there were 3,200,000 sheep of shearing age in 
New Mexico, but this number was less than that in Montana or 
Wyoming at that time. 

Except in a few mountain valleys in the N., agriculture was long 
entirely dependent upon irrigation, which has been practised in 
New Mexico by the Pueblo Indians since prehistoric times. In 1899 
the total irrigated area outside of Indian reservations amounted to 
203,893 acres (67-2% of all improved land) an increase of 122-2 % 
in the preceding decade. Of the total land in crops in that year 
89-2 % was irrigated. After the passage of the Federal Reclamation 
Act in 1902, a number of extensive irrigation works in New Mexico 
were undertaken by the Federal government. The Carlsbad reservoir 
and diverting dam in Eddy county and the Rio Hondo canals and 
reservoir in Chaves county were completed in 1907 and are capable 
of supplying water to tracts of 20,000 and 10,000 acres respectively. 
In 1908 an irrigation reservoir in McKinley county for the use of the 
Zufii Indians and the Leasburg project (Dona Ana county; 20,000 
acres) were completed. The Rio Grande project was planned in 1907 
for the storage of the flood waters of the Rio Grande near Engle, New 
Mexico, in order to reclaim about 155,000 acres of land in New Mexico 
and Texas, and to deliver to Mexico above the city of Juarez 60,000 
acre-feet of water per year, as provided by a treaty (proclaimed on the 
l6th of January 1907) between that republic and the United States. 
Other systems contemplated by the government were the Las Vegas 
project for reclaiming 10,000 acres near Las Vegas, the Urton Lake 
project for reclaiming 60,000 acres in the Pecos Valley, and the La 
Plata Valley project for irrigating about 40,000 acres in the north- 
western part of New Mexico, 35 m. S.W. of Durango, Colorado. A 
special irrigation commission was appointed in 1897, and in 1905 the 
legislature created the office of Territorial irrigation engineer. Irriga- 
tion by private companies is of some importance, especially in the San 
Juan Valley, the Rio Grande Valley and the Peeps Valley. In 1909 it 
was estimated that about 500,000 acres were irrigated. Dry farming 
has proved a great success in New Mexico, as elsewhere in the South- 
West, especially since 1900; and in 1907 it was estimated that 
2,000,000 acres were cultivated without irrigation. 

Manufactures. As New Mexico is primarily a mining and stock- 
raising region, its manufacturing industries are of comparatively 
small importance. The value of the manufactured products in 
1880 was $1,284,846; in 1890 $1,516,195; and in 1900 $5,605,795, 
an increase in the latter decade of 269-7 % In 1 95 there were 199 
establishments under the factory system (an increase of 14-4% 
over the number in 1900); the amount of capital invested was 
$4,638,248, and the value of " factory " products was $5,705,880 
(an increase of 40-5% over the value of the " factory " products in 
1900). The leading industries in 1905 were the construction of cars 
and general railway shop and repair work by steam railway companies 
(value of product, $2,509,845), the manufacture of lumber and timber 
products (value $1,315,364) and of flour and grist mill products 
(value $388,124), and the printing and publishing of newspapers and 
periodicals (value $279,858). In 1900 the manufactures of Albu- 
querque, Santa Fe and Socorro were valued at 39-4% of the total 
value of New Mexico's products. 

Minerals. The existence of valuable mineral deposits was early 
known to the Spaniards. There was some production of gold by the 
Mexicans, but the silver mining was unimportant until 1881, when 
the Lake Valley silver mines in Sierra county began to yield. Be- 
tween that year and 1884 the coining value of the silver product 
increased from $275,000 to $3,000,000. After 1885 there was a 
gradual decline in the output, whose bullion value in 1908 was 
$250,986. The production of gold has shown a somewhat similar 
movement; the output in 1881 was valued at $185,000; in 1889, 
at $1,000,000, and in 1908 at $298,757. The leading gold- and 
silver-producing counties are Socorro, Grant, Sierra and Dona Ana. 
Only silver is mined in the last-named county. Copper has been mined 
for many years, and in 1906 and 1908 constituted New Mexico's most 
valuable metallic product, the value of the yield in these years being 
$1,356,533 and $658,858 respectively. Nearly all the product comes 
from Grant county, and in 1908 nearly 98 % of the output was from 
Grant and Otero counties. In 1905-1908 the decrease in output was 
large. In the same years there was an increase in the output of 
zinc, which in 1906 was valued at $67,710 and in 1908 at $168,096. 
Most of the zinc comes from Socorro county, where the mines of the 
Magdalena District in 1908 yielded 93% of the entire product. 
A small amount of lead is produced incidentally to the mining of 
zinc, being derived from mixed lead and zinc ores. Far the most 
important mineral product, however, is coal, which is found in all 
forms lignite to anthracite and in widely distributed areas. 
The chief centres of production are the Raton field, in Cplfax county; 
the Durango-Gallup field, in McKinley and Rio Arriba counties; 
the Whiteoaks field, in Lincoln county; and the Los Cerillos and 
Tejon areas, in Santa F6 county. Much of the coal is suitable for 
coke, of which a considerable amount is manufactured. The value 
of the coal product in 1902 was $1,500,230; in 1904, $1,904,499; 
and in 1908, $3,368,753. Iron ores are widely distributed, but have 
not been developed; graphite is mined in Colfax county; mica in 
Taos county, and to a small extent in Rio Arriba county ; marble is 
quarried in Otero county and sandstone in Bernalillo, Colfax and 
San Miguel counties. Gypsum beds are widely distributed, and the 



supply is inexhaustible, but their great distance from centres of con- 
sumption has prevented their profitable working. In New Mexico 
are found turquoises and a few garnets; it seems probable that 
turquoises were mined by the Aztecs. The largest of the old Spanish 
turquoise mines in the Cerillos District, 18 m. S. of Santa Fe, furnished 
a turquoise product between 1890 and 1900 valued at more than 
$2,000,000. Other mines are in Grant and Otero counties. The 
New Mexican garnets are found in McKinley county. The output 
of precious stones in 1902 was valued at $51,100, in 1908 at $72,100. 
Transportation. The total railway mileage on the 3 1st of December 
1908 was 2,918-02, more than twice as much as that of 1890. 
The length of railway per inhabitant in New Mexico in 1907 was 
about five times as great as that for the whole country, but the 
amount of line per square mile of territory was only about one-third 
as great as the average for the United States. New Mexico is 
traversed by two transcontinental lines, the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe, from Chicago to San Francisco and the Southern Pacific, 
from New Orleans to San Francisco. The main line of the former 
enters New Mexico near Raton, extends S.W. to Albuquerque and 
thence westward into Arizona. A southward extension taps the 
Southern Pacific at El Paso, Texas, and Deming, New Mexico, and 
there are numerous shorter branches. This system also controls the 
Pecos Valley & North-Eastern railway, which serves the south- 
western part of New Mexico. The Southern Pacific crosses New 
Mexico westward from El Paso, Texas. The western division of 
the El Paso & South-Western system, connecting El Paso and 
Benson, Arizona, crosses New Mexico just N. of the Mexican 
boundary. Its eastern division (including the El Paso & North- 
Eastern, the El Paso & Rock Island, the Alamogordo & Sacramento 
Mountain and the Dawson railways) connects with the Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific at Tucumcari; thus forming a connecting 
link between that system and the Southern Pacific. The Santa Fe 
Central, extending southward from Santa Fe to Torrance, is a con- 
necting link between the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the El 
Paso & South-Western systems. Branches of the Denver & Rio 
Grande serve the northern parts of New Mexico. 

Population. The population of New Mexico consists of 
three distinct classes Indians; Spanish- Americans, locally 
known as " Mexicans "; and the English-speaking class called, 
in distinction from the others, " Americans." Of the Indians 
there are two types, both of the Athapascan family; in one are 
the Pueblos, and in the other the Navahos, in the N.W. part of 
the state, and their near kinsmen, the Apaches, to the south. 
The Pueblo Indians live in adobe nouses, are quiet and usually 
self-sustaining, and have been converted to the forms of Christi- 
anity. They had irrigated farms and dwelt in six-storey com- 
munal houses long before the advent of the white man. By the 
treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in 1848, the United States govern- 
ment recognized them as citizens. They lived in 19 villages of 
pueblos, the largest of which, Zufii, is more properly called a 
reservation, as it has been enlarged from time to time by grants 
from the Federal government. The 18 pueblos and the Zufii 
reservation contained in 1900 a population of 8127, and a total 
area of 1417 sq. m. The pueblos are held under Spanish grants 
which were confirmed by the United States. The terraced 
architecture of the villages is very remarkable. Originally the 
Pueblo Indians lived in many-storeyed communal houses, built 
sometimes of stone, sometimes of adobe, and occasionally 
chiselled into the sides of a stone cliff, as best suited the con- 
venience of the builders. At present there is a tendency among 
them to copy the one-storey huts of the Mexicans. Taos (pop. 
in 1900, 419) is one of the most imposing of the pueblos, consisting 
of two six-storeyed pyramidal tenements, separated by a brook. 
Zufii (pop. 1525) has a five-storeyed dwelling surrounded 
by detached huts; Acoma (pop. 492 in 1900; 566 in 1902), 
standing on a cliff 357 ft. high (Acoma means " people of the 
white rock " and Aco, the Indian name for the pueblo, means 
" white rock "), contains three blocks of three-storeyed terraced 
buildings, 1 and Laguna also contains some three-storeyed 

1 About 3 m. N.E. of Acoma stands the Enchanted Mesa (Mesa 
Encantada; Katzimo in Keresan), rising 430 ft. above the plain, 
and being 2050 ft. long and 100 to 350 ft. wide. Upon its summit, 
according to Indian tradition, once stood the village of Acoma, 
but while the inhabitants were tending their crops in the plains a 
powerful earth movement threw down the rocky ladder by which 
alone the summit could be reached. According to the story, three 
women had been left in the village and these perished. The Mesa 
was first climbed by white men in 1896 by Prof. William Libbey 
(b. 1855), of Princeton University; it was climbed again in 1897 
by a party led by F. W. Hodge ; and pottery and stone implements 
were found here. 



NEW MEXICO 



523 



dwellings, but the Laguna tribe, numbering, 1077 in 1900 and 
1384 in 1905, now live mostly in their former summer villages 
on the plain. The other Indians live on reservations, of which 
there are three: the Mescalero Apache reservation, in Otero 
county, containing 554 Indians in 1000; the Jicarilla Apache 
reservation, in Rio Arriba county, with a population of 829; 
and the Navaho reservation, in Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, 
which contains in that part of it situated in New Mexico a 
population of 2480. 

The inhabitants of Spanish descent have been only slightly 
assimilated and cling tenaciously to their racial peculiarities. 
As a rule, they live in low adobe houses built around a court, 
and are poor and ignorant, but hospitable. They are more 
Americanized in the Rio Grande Valley than among the moun- 
tains, where English is rarely spoken. Many of them have 
intermarried with the Indians, creating the class of half-breeds 
known as " Mestizos." Although the proportion of Spanish- 
American and Indian inhabitants is steadily decreasing with the 
arrival of immigrants from other parts of the United States, it 
was nevertheless computed by the New Mexican authorities to be 
about 63% in 1904. About one-tenth of the Spanish- American 
and Indian population habitually use the English language. 

The total population of New Mexico in 1870 was 91,^74; 
in 1880, 119,565; in 1890, 153,593; in 1900, 195,310, and 
in 1910, according to the U.S. census, the figure was 327,301. 
Of the native white population in 1900, 17,917 were of foreign 
parentage. Of the foreign-born element 6649, or about one-half, 
were Mexicans, 1360 were Germans and the rest chiefly English, 
Irish, Canadians, Italians, Scotch and Austrians. The chief 
cities were Albuquerque (6238), Santa Fe (5603), Las Vegas 
(3552) and Raton (3540). Far the greater portion of the popula- 
tion (in 1906, 56-2% of the estimated population) are communi- 
cants of the Roman Catholic Church, which had in 1906 121,558 
members, the total communicants of all denominations in that 
year numbering 137,009. Among Protestants there were 6560 
Methodists, 2935 Presbyterians and 2331 Baptists. 

Administration. The executive officers until 1911 were a 
governor and a Territorial secretary appointed by the President 
of the United States, and a treasurer, auditor, superintendent of 
public instruction, adjutant-general, commissioner of public 
lands and other administrative officials appointed by the 
governor. The legislative department included a council of 
12 members and a House of Representatives of 24 members, 
chosen by popular vote. The sessions were biennial and limited 
to 60 days. All laws passed by the Assembly and approved by the 
governor had to be submitted to the Federal Congress for its ap- 
proval. The Territory was represented in Congress by a delegate, 
chosen by popular vote, with the right to speak in the national 
legislature but not to vote. The judicial department included 
a supreme court, district courts, probate courts and local justices 
of the peace. The supreme court consisted of a chief justice and 
six associate justices appointed by the President. There were 
seven judicial districts, each with a court presided over by a 
justice of the supreme court. Each county had a probate court, 
and each precinct a justice of the peace. 

For .the purposes of local government New Mexico is divided 
into 26 counties, each being governed by a board of county 
commissioners, chosen by the people. Each county is divided by 
the commissioners into precincts. Municipal corporations with 
a population of 3000 and over are cities, and are governed through 
a mayor and board of aldermen; those with a population of 
between 1500 and 3000 are towns, and are governed through a 
mayor and trustees. 

A rather unusual institution within New Mexico is the mounted 
police, who numbered II in 1907, whose work was almost entirely 
in the cattle country, and who had authority to patrol the entire 
Territory and to make arrests or to preserve order wherever their 
presence was needed, unhampered by the restrictions limiting the 
jurisdiction of local police. 

A homestead not exceeding $1000 in value, and held by a husband 
and wife or by a widow or widower with an unmarried daughter or 
an unmarried minor son, may be held exempt from seizure and sale 
by legal process. The exemption may be claimed by either the 
husband or the wife, but may not be granted if each owns a home- 



stead; and it does not extend to judgments rendered against the 
debtor on account of a mortgage, non-payment of the purchase 
money or supplies and labour for building and repairs. 

In 1907 the legislature passed a radical measure, making the pen- 
alty for operating games of chance six months' imprisonment in the 
county-jail, and, at the discretion of the court, a fine of not less 
than $100 and not more than $500; this law went into effect on 
the 1st of January 1908. Gambling had formerly been licensed 
the gambling-house keeper paying $200 per annum for each gaming 
table or apparatus, this sum going to the district and county school 
funds. 

Revenues for the support of the government are derived chiefly 
from the general property tax. There are also special corporation 
taxes on car companies, express companies and foreign corporations 
producing, refining or selling petroleum or coal oil : and a system of 
licence-charges or business taxes. A poll tax is levied by the state 
for school purposes and may also be levied by municipalities. The 
county and the municipal tax rates are limited respectively to 5 and 
10 mills on the dollar. A special tax not exceeding 3 mills on the 
dollar may be levied on all taxable property for school purposes, 
and the proceeds apportioned among the school districts according 
to the number of school children. The proceeds of the poll tax are 
distributed in the counties in which the tax is collected. Each 
school district may supplement the aid from the state by laying special 
taxes, and the Federal government has granted to each township 
4 sq. m. of public land to aid in the support of the schools. Land- 
grants amounting in 1907 to 1,343,080 acies had also been made for 
the benefit of various educational, charitable and correctional 
institutions, and for irrigation purposes. At the close of the fiscal 
year ending on the 3ist of May 1908, New Mexico showed ex- 
penditures of 8721,272-81, receipts of $754,080-94 and a balance in 
the treasury of $378,653-63. The bonded debt, amounting on the 
3ist of May 1908 to $788,000, was incurred partly in meeting 
temporary deficits in the treasury and partly in the construction of 
public buildings. 

Education. At the head of the public school system is a Board of 
Education of seven members, including the governor and the super- 
intendent of public instruction; this Board apportions the school 
fund among the counties, selects the text-books and prepares the 
examinations for teachers. The superintendent of public instruction 
exercises a general supervision over the schools of New Mexico. 
There is also a superintendent of schools for each county, and the 
counties are divided into school districts, each having three directors, 
who disburse the school funds and have the care of the school 
property. In incorporated cities and towns these functions are dis- 
charged by local boards of education. The school age is from five to 
twenty-one years, and for children between the ages of seven and 
fourteen school attendance for three months in each year is com- 
pulsory. The total enrollment for the year ending the 1st of August 
1906 was 39,377, with an average daily attendance of 25,174; the 
average length of the school year was 5 months and 19 days. The 
use of English in the schoolroom is required bylaw; New Mexico has 
adopted a uniform system of text-books. 

The state supports the University of New Mexico at Albu- 
querque; a College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 1 (established 
1889, opened 1890) at Mesilla Park, 40 m. from El Paso: a Normal 
School at Silver City (pop. 1900, 2735; county-seat of Grant 
county); a Normal University at Las Vegas; a School of Mines (at 
Socorro; pop. 1900, 1512; county-seat of Socorro county), which 
was founded in 1889, was organized and opened in 1895 when it 
received from Congress 50,000 acres of land, has in its library the 
private library of John W. Powell, formerly director of the U.S. 
Geological Survey, and owns the Torrance Mine at the foot of 
Socorro Mountain, 2 m. from the college campus; and a Military 
Institute at Roswell (pop. 1900, 2006; county-seat of Chaves 
county). Indian day schools are maintained by the Federal 
government at Albuquerque, Jicarilla, Santa F6 and Xuni. 

The state maintains an insane asylum at Las Vegas, a deaf 
and dumb asylum and penitentiary at Santa Fe', an institute for 
the blind at Almagordo, a reform school at El Rito and a miners' 
hospital at Raton. For many years the legislature has also contri- 
buted to the support of a number of private hospitals and charitable 
institutions. 

History. To the existence of an Old- World myth New Mexico 
owes its early exploration by the Spaniards. Early in the 
i6th century it was believed that in the New World would be 
found the fabled cities and creatures of which Europeans had 
heard for centuries. There was a story that in the 8th century 
a bishop of Lisbon, to escape from the Arabs, had fled to islands 
in the West, where he and his followers had founded seven cities; 
and when the Indians in Mexico related to the Spanish explorers 
a bit of their folk-lore, to the effect that they had issued from 
seven caves, the imaginative white men soon identified these 
caves with the famous Seven Cities. In 1536 came Cabeza 

1 This college also receives Federal aid : 100,000 acres of public 
land were voted to it in 1898. 



524 



NEW MEXICO 



de Vaca into Mexico after eight years of wandering across the 
continent and related to his countrymen the stories he had 
heard of wonderful cities of stone in the north. He had not 
seen the cities himself, nor had he, as is frequently asserted, 
gone as far north as the present New Mexico, but his reports 
tended to confirm previous rumours and led the viceroy, Don 
Antonio de Mendoza, to send Fray Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan 
friar, on a small and inexpensive expedition of discovery. 

Fray Marcos (q.v.) was the first European to enter the limits of 
what is now New Mexico. A glimpse of the terraced houses of an 
Indian village now identified as Zuni convinced him that he 
had seen one of the Seven Cities, and he hastened back with the 
good news. The stories that he told grew in their passage from 
mouth to mouth until the Spaniards believed that in the north 
were cities " very rich, having silversmiths, and that the women 
wore strings of gold beads and the men girdles of gold." Full of 
missionary zeal, and desirous that settlements should be planted 
in the new region in order that the heathen might be converted, 
Fray Marcos did little to refute these exaggerations. The con- 
quest of the Seven Cities was determined upon, and a band of 
ad venturers, led by Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (q.v.), set out 
in 1539- Following the route of Fray Marcos de Niza, Coronado 
reached the first of the alleged cities, and to his great disappoint- 
ment found only an Indian pueblo. An exploring party sent 
eastward reached Acoma, and then proceeded to Tiguex on the 
Rio Grande, and finally to the Pecos river. The main body of 
Coronado's expedition remained in New Mexico on the Rio 
Grande while he pushed on to the fabled land of Quivira, 1 only 
to meet with another disappointment. 

Forty years elapsed before the Spaniards again entered New 
Mexico. In 1581 Fray Augustin Rodriguez, another Franciscan, 
explored the valley of the Rio Grande, and in 1582-1583 Antonio 
Espejo made extended explorations to the E. and W. of this 
stream. It was about this time, apparently, that the Spaniards 
in Mexico adopted the term New Mexico to designate the land 
to the north; Rodriguez had called the country San Felipe, 
and Espejo had named it Nueva Andalucia. Between 1583 and 
1595 several attempts at the conquest and occupation of New 
Mexico were made, but for various reasons they were unsuccessful. 
In the spring of 1598 Don Juan de Onate entered New Mexico 
with about 400 colonists, and choosing the pueblo of San Juan 
(30 m. N.W. of the modern Santa Fe) as a temporary dwelling- 
place, made preparations for building a town at the junction of 
the Rio Chama and the Rio Grande, to be known as San Francisco. 
In the following year the new settlement was renamed San 
Gabriel. Some years later a second settlement was made at 
Santa F6, which has ever since been the seat of government of 
New Mexico. Although the Franciscan missionaries by 1617 had 
built seven churches and had baptized 14,000 Indians, there were 
in this year only 48 soldiers and settlers in the province. The 
zeal of the friars in stamping out the religious rites of the natives, 
the severe penalties inflicted for non-observance of the rules of 
the Church, and the heavy tribute in kind demanded by the 
Spanish authorities, aroused feelings of resentment in the Pueblo 
Indians and led in 1680 to a general revolt, headed by a native 
named Pope. Over 400 Spaniards were massacred, and the 
remnant, after enduring a siege in Santa Fe, fled southward 
to a mission near the present El Paso. For a decade the natives 
enjoyed their independence, destroying nearly all vestiges of 
Spanish occupation, and venting their wrath particularly upon the 
ehurches. After several attempts at reconquest had failed, Don 
Diego de Vargas marched up the Rio Grande in 1692, and 
largely by moral Suasion secured the surrender of Santa Fe, 
then held by the Indians. During the next four years the sub- 
mission of all the pueblos was secured, and the permanency of 

1 Although the Quivira story was fabricated by an Indian captive 
and its fraudulent character was fully exposed by Coronado in 1541, 
ignorant American treasure-seekers still search for this mythical 
region. By a strange perversion of names the deserted stone pueblo 
of Tabir4, S. of Albuquerque in the vicinity of the Manzano Moun- 
tains, has received the appellation of " Gran Quivira," thereby 
causing many deluded persons to make a vain search among its 
ruins for treasure. 



European occupation was assured. The history of New Mexico 
in the i8th century was uneventful, being chiefly a story of petty 
disagreements among the pueblos, and occasional forays of the 
more warlike tribes, the Navahos, Apaches and Comanches. 
During the Mexican War of Independence (1811-21) New 
Mexico was tranquil and little disturbed by events farther south; 
but when, near the close of the year 1821, the news of independ- 
ence arrived it was received with enthusiasm. Under the Mexican 
republic New Mexico was called a province till 1824, when it was 
united with Chihuahua and Durango to form the Estado Interno 
del Norte. Several months later, however, it was separated from 
these two provinces and became a Territory; in 1836 it was 
officially designated as a department, and remained as such until 
ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 
in 1848. Its government during this period was only slightly 
changed from what it had been under Spain. 

Of great importance to New Mexico during the first half of the 
1 9th century was the development of its trade with the United 
States. American traders had occasionally ventured as far as 
Santa Fe before the independence of Mexico, but they were 
frequently expelled and their goods confiscated by the Spanish 
authorities. After 1822 trading expeditions became larger and 
more numerous. From Missouri caravans of pack animals, and 
later wagon trains, set out in May of each year on the 800 m. 
journey to Santa Fe, along the route later followed in its general 
lines by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway. The value 
of the products carried by these trains increased from $15,000 
in 1822 to $450,000 in 1843. On their return trip the wagons 
often brought loads of wool, fur and blankets. 

In 1841 the republic of Texas, claiming that its western 
boundary was the Rio Grande, sent a force of 300 men to New 
Mexico to enforce these claims. The Texans reached the frontier 
in a starved and exhausted condition, were made prisoners by the 
New Mexican militia, and were sent to Mexico, where after a short 
term of confinement they were released. 

In 1846 the Congress of the United States declared that war 
existed with Mexico, and on the 3rd of June Brigadier-General 
Stephen W. Kearny was ordered to undertake the conquest of 
New Mexico and California and to " establish temporary civil 
governments therein." Kearny reached Las Vegas on the ijth 
of August, assured the people of protection if they remained 
peaceable, and three days later entered Santa Fe without opposi- 
tion. Here he organized a civil government and compiled a code 
of laws, some of which are still in force, thus exceeding his 
instructions and ignoring the territorial claims of Texas, out 
of which had grown the war. After Kearny's departure for 
California and Col. Alexander William Doniphan's (1808-1887) 
setting out (Dec. 1846) on his heroic expedition to join Gen. 
Wool at Chihuahua, some of the inhabitants revolted, and in 
January 1847 assassinated the governor, Charles Bent, and a 
number of Americans and Mexicans who had taken office under 
the new regime. The insurrection was quickly suppressed, but 
the citizens soon grew tired of a military government, and in 
1848 and again in 1849 petitioned Congress for a government 
" purely civil in character." In 1850 a convention met in Santa 
Fe and drafted a state constitution prohibiting slavery; this 
constitution was ratified, and state officials were chosen to act 
under it. The governor by military appointment, Colonel John 
Munroe (1796-1861), refused to surrender his jurisdiction in 
favour of the state officials until authorized to do so by 
Congress, and for a time there was much writing of pronuncia- 
mentos by the military and the quasi-state officials. But finally a 
regular Territorial form of government, provided by Congress by 
an act of the i3th of December 1850 (a part of the Compromise 
of 1850), was formally inaugurated on the 3rd of March 1851. 

As originally constituted, the Territory included, besides most 
of its present area, nearly all of what is now Arizona, and a small 
portion of the present Colorado. By the terms of the Compromise 
Measures of 1850 Texas surrendered all claims to the portion of 
New Mexico E. of the Rio Grande, and was reimbursed for this 
loss of territory by the Federal Government. The Gadsden 
Purchase (see GADSDEN, JAMES), Concluded on the 3oth of 



NEW MEXICO 



525 



December 1853, and proclaimed by President Pierce on the 3Oth 
of June 1854, added to the Territory an area of 45,535 sq. m., 
and changed the southern boundary W. of the Rio Grande so 
that from the Rio Grande the new boundary ran due W. on the 
parallel of 31 47' N. lat. for 100 m., then due S. to the parallel 
of 31 20' N. lat., then due W. on that parallel to its intersection 
with the mth meridian of longitude west of Greenwich, from 
that point of intersection in a straight line to the Colorado 
river, 20 m. below its junction with the Gila, and thence up the 
middle of the Colorado river to the boundary line between 
Mexico and California. In 1861 a portion of north-eastern New 
Mexico was taken to form part of Colorado; and in 1863 all 
of the area W. of the zopth meridian was organized as the 
separate Territory of Arizona. 

By the Compromise of 1850 the question whether New Mexico 
should have slavery was left to the decision of the inhabitants. 
Only a few African slaves were ever brought into the Territory, 
and these were usually the property of civil and military officers. 
There were two classes of the population, however, whose status 
was practically that of slaves; namely, Indian captives and peons. 
Before slavery was prohibited in the Territory by Act of Congress 
in 1862, Indian captives were regularly bought and sold, a traffic 
sanctioned by custom and not prohibited by law. Peons were 
persons held in servitude on account of debt, and the peonage 
system was sanctioned both by the custom of the Mexican provinces 
and by the laws of the Territory. An act of 1851 forbade servants 
from leaving masters to whom they were indebted, and in 1853 
sheriffs were authorized in some instances to dispose of the debtor's 
labour to the highest bidder. Peonage remained a legalized in- 
stitution until 1867, when it was prohibited by an act of Congress. 

At the outbreak of the Civil War the inhabitants were generally 
apathetic; but when the Confederates invaded New Mexico 
they proved loyal to the Union. 1 In February 1862 General 
H. H. Sibley, commanding a force of about 3800 Texans, marched 
into New Mexico, fought a successful engagement at Valverde, 
on the Rio Grande, against Union forces under Colonel, later 
General, Edward R. S. Canby, and occupied Albuquerque and 
Santa Fe. The Union troops were reinforced from Colorado, 
however, and after a series of skirmishes the Confederates were 
compelled to retreat to Texas, leaving behind about half their 
original number in killed, wounded and missing. New Mexico 
furnished to the Union army between 5000 and 6000 men. 

The period following the American occupation of New Mexico 
was marked by constant depredations of the Indians, chiefly the 
Navahos, Apaches and a few Utes, their main object being 
plunder. While the troops were occupied with the Confederate 
invaders the Indians had a free hand, but in 1863 an energetic 
campaign was begun by General James H. Carleton against the 
Navahos, who were subdued and placed on a reservation on the 
Pecos river, and later removed to the north-western part of the 
Territory. There they grew peaceful and prosperous, acquiring 
large flocks of sheep and gaining a reputation as makers of 
blankets. The Apache Indians, the most savage of all, were 
placed on reservations somewhat later, but for many years bands 
of their warriors would escape and make raids into New Mexico, 
Arizona and Mexico. The most notable of the later outbreaks 
were those in 1870-1880 and in 1885-1886 respectively of the 
Apache chiefs Victorio and Geronimo (c. 1834-1909}. 

When the United States acquired possession of New Mexico, the 
best portions of the Territory were held in private ownership under 
Spanish and Mexican grants, which were confirmed by the treaty of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo. T"o determine the validity of these claims, 
which had been complicated by transfers and subdivisions, and to 
fix their boundaries, which were often very vaguely described, 
proved a very formidable undertaking; and the slow process of 
confirmation greatly retarded the development of the Territory. 
There was but little material progress before the advent of the rail- 
way. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway reached Albu- 
querque in 1880, and the Southern Pacific railway effected a junction 
with it at Deming in 1881, thus connecting the Territory with the 
eastern and western coasts of the United States. With the railway 
came capital and the development of mines, great cattle ranges and 
modern towns. Immigrants from the states, however, rarely 

1 According to the historian H. H. Bancroft, the loyalty to the 
Union cause resulted " largely from the fact that the Confederate 
invasion came from Texas, the old hatred of the Texans being the 
strongest popular feeling of the natives, far outweighing their de- 
votion to either the North or the South." 



settled beyond the zone of the railway, and in the remote rural 
regions the process of Americanization was slow. 

After the Civil War numerous attempts were made to secure 
the admission of New Mexico into the Union as a state. In 1872 
a state constitution was drafted, and it was proposed for a time 
to call the new state Lincoln, but the movement came to nothing. 
In 1889 another constitution was drafted, but it was rejected 
when submitted to a popular vote. On the 6th of November 
1906 the question of the joint admission of New Mexico and 
Arizona as a single state bearing the name of the latter Territory 
was submitted to a vote of their citizens. The vote of New Mexico 
was favourable (26,195 to I 4>735), but the measure was defeated 
in Arizona. In June 1910 the President approved an enabling 
act providing for the admission of Arizona and New Mexico as 
separate states. 

The governors of New Mexico since its independence from Spain 
have been as follows : 

UNDER THE MEXICAN REPUBLIC * 

Francisco Javier Chavez 1822 

Antonio Vizcarra 1822-1823 

Francisco Javier Chavez (acting) . . . 1823 

Bartolpme Vaca 1823-1825 

Antonio Narbona 18251827 

Manuel Armijo 1827-1828 

Antonio Vizcarra (acting) 1828 

Jos6 Antonio Chavez 1828-1831 

Santiago Abreu _ 1831-1833 

Francisco Sarracino '8331835 

Juan Rafael Ortiz (acting) 1834 

Mariano Chavez (acting) 1835 

Albino Perez 1835-1837 

Jose Gonzalez, revolutionary governor or pre- 

tendant 1837-1838 

Manuel Armijo 1838-1846 

Antonio Sandoval (acting) . . . . 1841 

Mariano Martinez de Lejanza (acting) . . 1844-1845 

{ose Chavez (acting) 1845 
uan Bautista Vigil y Alarid (acting) . . 1846 

UNDER THE UNITED STATES 

Governors by Military Appointment. 

Charles Bent 

Donaciano Vigil 

{ohn Marshall Washington .... 
ohn Munroe 

Governors by Presidential Appointment. 

James S. Calhoun 1851-1852 

E. V. Sumner (Military Commander, acting) 1852 

John Greiner (Secretary, acting) . . . 1852 

William Carr Lane 1852-1853 

David Merriwether 1853-1857 

Abraham Rencher 1857-1861 

Henry Connelly 1861-1865 

W. E. M. Arny (Secretary, acting) . . . 1865-1866 

Robert B. Mitchell 1866-1869 

William A. Pile 1869-1871 

Marsh Gidding 1871-1875 

William G. Ritch (Secretary, acting) . . 1875 

Samuel B. Axtell 1875-1878 

Lewis Wallace 1878-1881 

Lionel A. Sheldon 1881-1885 

Edmund G. Ross 1885-1889 

L. Bradford Prince 1889-1893 

William T. Thornton 1893-1897 

Miguel A. Otero 1897-1906 

Herbert J. Hagerman ' . 1906-1907 

J. W. Raynolds (Secretary, acting as governor) 1907 

George Curry 19071909 

William J. Mills 1909- 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general descriptive material see biblio- 
graphies in U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletins 177 and 301, and the 
official reports of the U.S. government departments; also Charles 
F. Lummis, The Land of Poco Tiempo (New York, 1897); Samuel 
W. Cozzens, The Ancient Cibola ... or, Three Years in Arizona 
and New Mexico (Boston, 1891) ; W. H. H. Davis, El Gringo, or, New 
Mexico and her People (New York, 1857) ; M. Frost and A. F. Walker 
The Land of Sunshine (Santa Fe, 1904); V. L. Sullivan, " Irrigation 
in New Mexico " (Washington, 1909), Experiment Stations Bulletin 
215; and F. A. Jones, New Mexico Mines and Minerals (Santa Fe, 
1904). History: H. H. Bancroft, Arizona and New Mexico (San 



1846-1847* 

1847-1848 

1848-1849* 



2 Under the republic until 1837 the governor was officially desig- 
nated as jefe politico ; after that date as gobernador. 

* Assassinated during the Mexican revolt on the igth of January 
1847. 

4 Governor as Commander of the Department. 



526 



NEW MILLS NEW ORLEANS 



Francisco, 1889); A. F. Bandelier, Contributions to the History of 
the South-western Portion of the United States, being vol. v., American 
series, of the Papers of the Archaeological Institute of America 
(Cambridge, 1890) ; George P. Winship, " The Coronado Expedi- 
tion," in the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology 
(Washington, 1896); W. H. H. Davis, The Spanish Conquest of New 
Mexico (Doylestown, Pa., 1869); P. St G. Cooke, The Conquest of 
New Mexico and California (New York, 1878) ; William E. Connelly, 
Doniphan's Expedition and the Conquest of New Mexico and Cali- 
fornia (Topeka, Kan., 1907); L. Bradford Prince, Historical Sketches 
of New Mexico (New York, 1883) ; H. O. Ladd, The Story of New 
Mexico (Boston, 1891); Helen Haines, History of New Mexico 
(New York, 1891); Henry Inman, The Old Santa Fe Trail (New 
York, 1897); Publications of the Historical Society of New Mexico, 
and Gaspar de Villagra, Historia de la Nueva Mexico; reimpresa 
par el Museo Nacional, con un apendice de documentos y opuscules 
(2 vols., Mexico, 1900), vol. i. being a reprint of the epic poem 
published in 1610 by Villagra, a companion of Onate in his expedition 
to New Mexico. 

NEW MILLS, an urban district in the High Peak parlia- 
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, at the confluence of the 
rivers Goyt and Kinder, on the border of Cheshire, 13 m. 
S.E. of Manchester, on the Midland and the London & North- 
Western railways. Pop. (1901) 7773. Its ancient name was 
Bowden Middle Cale. The name of New Mills was given to it 
from a corn-mill erected on the Kinder in the hamlet of Ollersett, 
and is specially applied to the group of factories which have 
grown up round it. Formerly paper and cloth were the staple 
industries of the district, but the inhabitants of the various 
hamlets are now occupied chiefly in iron and brass foundries, 
cotton mills and print-works. A short branch of the Midland 
railway leads to the town of Hayfield (pop. 2614). 

NEWMILNS, a manufacturing town and police burgh of 
Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4467. It is situated 75 m. 
E. of Kilmarnock by the Glasgow and South- Western railway. 
It was made a burgh of barony in 1490 by James IV., the charter 
being confirmed in 1566 by Sir Matthew Campbell, the laird of 
Loudoun, in which parish the town is situated. Muslin- and 
lace-curtain making and the manufacture of mosquito-nets are 
the chief industries. Nearly 2 m. E. lies Darvel (pop. 3070), a 
police burgh and manufacturing town, with a station on the 
Glasgow and South- Western railway; its chief manufactures 
are those of lace curtains, muslins and carpets. Two miles E. 
rises Loudoun Hill (1036 ft.) where Robert Bruce defeated the 
English in 1307, and about a mile farther E. is the cairn raised 
to commemorate one of Wallace's victories. 

NEW ORLEANS, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., situated almost 
wholly on the left bank of the Mississippi, 107 m. from its mouth, 
in that portion of the state which constitutes the river's larger 
delta, and lying between Lake Pontchartrain (to the north and 
west) and Lake Borgne (to the east and south); its latitude 
is about 30, nearly the same as that of Cairo, Egypt. Pop. 
(1910) 339,075. The city lay originally at the angle of a deep 
three-sided bend in the river. Into this hollow it gradually 
spread, the curving river front, some 9 m. long, serving as its 
harbour; and hence its old appellation, the Crescent City. 
Long ago, however, the city filled the pocket of the bend, and 
spreading farther along the river, now has the form of an " S." 
Directly north, and still about 3 m. distant from the parts of the 
city proper that have advanced farthest toward it, lies Lake 
Pontchartrain (about 40 m. long and 20 m. wide). Lake and 
river are parallel to one another for many miles; the city lies 
on the narrow alluvial strip between. The total area included 
within the municipal limits is 196-25 sq. m., but the city proper 
covers about 40 sq. m. The larger limits are coextensive with 
those of the parish of Orleans, and include the district of Algiers, 
on the right bank of the Mississippi. 

The river at New Orleans varies from 1500 to 3000 ft. in width, 
and its broad channel often stretches almost from shore to shore, 
with a depth varying frequently at short intervals from 40 ft. 
to 'more than 200 ft. Around the margins a line of wharves 
and shipping extends for miles on each shore. Including the 
suburbs of Westwego, Gretna, &c., on the right bank of the 
stream, there is a river frontage of more than 20 m. Gretna, 
the seat of Jefferson parish, McDonoghville, in Jefferson parish, 



and Algiers, or West New Orleans, a part of the city, are in- 
dustrial suburbs on the west bank of the Mississippi, connected 
with the east bank by a steam ferry and with one another by 
electric railway. At Algiers are railway terminals and repair 
shops of the Southern Pacific and the Texas & Pacific; and the 
United States Naval Station here, which was built in 1894 
(though land was bought for it in 1849), and has a large steel 
floating dry dock, is the only fresh-water station south of Ports- 
mouth, Virginia, and is equipped to make all repairs. 

The city site is almost perfectly level; there is an exceedingly 
slight slope from the river toward the tidal morasses that border 
Lake Pontchartrain. . The elevation of the city plain is only 
10 ft. above the sea, and its lower parts are as much as 10-12 ft. 
below the Mississippi at high flood water. About 6 m. of heavy 
" levees " or dykes in some parts rising clear above the city 
plain, but backed by filled-in areas graded down from the shores 
where the traffic of the water-front is concentrated protect 
it from the waters. The speed of the current reaches, in times 
of high water, a rate of 5 m. an hour. Along the immediate 
front of the principal commercial quarter, this current, losing 
some of its force by change of direction, deposits its alluvium in 
such quantities as to produce a constant encroachment of the 
shore upon the harbour. At its widest part this new land or 
batture, with wharves, streets and warehouses following eagerly 
after it, has advanced some 1500 ft. beyond the water-line of the 
middle of the i8th century. 

The climate is not marked by extremes of absolute heat or 
cold. Only once in thirty-seven years (1871-1907) did the 
thermometer register as high as 102 F., and on only a few days 
did it register above 96; in February 1899 the temperature 
was 7, but it rarely falls below 22. The average annual 
rainfall is about 58 in. 

Canal Street, the centre of retail trade and street life, bounds 
on the south-west near the river the Vieux Carre the old rect- 
angle within the walls of the original city, bounded by the river, 
Canal, Rampart and Esplanade streets and separates the 
picturesque, peaceful French (or Latin) Quarter of the north- 
east from the bustling business and dignified residence districts- 
of the American Quarter, or New City, on the south-west. In 
the latter St Charles Avenue and Prytania Street have the finest 
residences, and in the former Esplanade Avenue. Just below 
Canal Street, in the oldest part of the American Quarter, are 
many of the most important or imposing buildings of the city, 
and some of the places most intimately associated with its history. 
Here are the St Charles Hotel (1894), the third of that name on 
the present site, all famous hostelries, and the first (1838-1851) 
one of the earliest of the great hotels of the country ; and Lafayette 
Square, surrounded by the City Hall (built in 1850 in the style 
of an Ionic temple) , the new Post Office, two handsome churches, 
St Patrick's and the First Presbyterian, Odd Fellows' Hall 
and other buildings. In the square are statues of Henry Clay 
(by Joel T. Hart) and Franklin (by Hiram Powers), and a 
monument to John McDonogh (1898); and in the vicinity are 
the Howard Memorial Library (1887; a memorial to Charles T. 
Howard), which was the last work of H. H. Richardson, a native 
of Louisiana, and the Confederate Memorial Hall (presented to 
the city by F. T. Howard) with Confederate relics. Two blocks 
a way in Marguerite Place is a statue erected (1884) by the women 
of the city to Margaret Haughery (d. 1882) , the " Orphan's Friend," 
a noble woman of humble birth and circumstances, who devoted 
a toilful but successful life to charities. In Lee Circle is a monu- 
ment to Robert E. Lee, and facing it is the New Orleans Public 
Library building (1908). Just off Canal Street, at Carondelet 
and Gravier Street, is the Cotton Exchange (1882-1883), and in 
Magazine Street the Produce Exchange. The large office buildings 
are on Canal, Carondelet, Common and Gravier streets; among 
them may be mentioned the Maison Blanche, the Hennen 
Building, the Tulane Newcomb Building and the Canal Louisiana 
Bank and Trust Company Building. On Camp Street, between 
Gravier and Poydras, are the office buildings of the Picayune and 
the Times- Democrat; on Carondelet and Gravier are the wholesale 
cotton houses; on Poydras and Tchoupitoulas are the wholesale 



NEW ORLEANS 



527 



grocery houses; and on North Peters and Custom House streets 
the sugar and rice industries are concentrated. Little of history 
or tradition is associated with the American Quarter, with the 
exception of the former site (before 1900) of the Clay statue in 
Canal Street where Royal Street and St Charles Avenue begin, 
which was the scene of popular meetings in the Italian troubles 
of 1891; here, in Liberty Place, a triangle at the intersection 
of Canal, North Peters and Tchoupitoulas streets, on the scene 
of the fight of the i4th of September 1874 between conservative 
citizens and the radical authorities of the state, is a granite 
memorial called the Liberty Monument. The Customs House, 
long renowned for its " marble room," is in the old city, just off 
Canal Street. The corner-stone was laid by Henry Clay in 1847. 
The Boston (1845) arj d Pickwick (1857) are the best known of the 
general social clubs, and the Harmony (1862) of the Jewish clubs. 
It is the French Quarter in which the history, poetry and 
romance of New Orleans are indissolubly united. The memory 
of French dominion is retained in the titles, and in the foreign 
aspect as well, of Toulouse, Orleans, Du Maine, Conti, Bourbon, 
Dauphine and Chartres streets; while even more distinctly 
the Spaniard has superimposed his impress on stuccoed wall 
and iron lattice, huge locks and hinges, arches and gratings, 
balconies, jalousies, inner courts with parterres, urns and basins 
with fountains, and statues half hid in roses and vines. There 
are streets named from its Spanish governors: Unzaga, Galvez, 
Miro, Salcedo, Casa Calvo, Carondelet and the baron Caron- 
delet's Baronne. The moated and palisaded boundaries of early 
days are indicated by the wide, tree-planted and grassy avenues 
named respectively from the Canal, the Rampart and the 
"Esplanade that once lay along their course; the original 
" commons " outside the walls are commemorated in Common 
Street; and the old parade ground in the midst of the early 
town's river front, now laid off in flower-beds, white-shelled 
walks and shaven shrubbery, and known as Jackson Square, 
still retains its older name of the Place d'Armes. With this 
quaint, sunny and dusty old square is associated nearly every 
important event in Louisiana's colonial history. This was the 
place publique, associated with traffic, gossip, military muster and 
official acts of state. On one side is the cathedral of St Louis, 
first built in 1718, burned in 1788, rebuilt in 1792-1794, and 
largely rebuilt again in 1850. Flanking the cathedral on one 
side stands the calaboose (Calaboza, 1810), and on the other the 
Cabildo so named from the municipal council that sat here 
under Spanish rule, when it was the government house and palace 
of justice. Both buildings are to-day used as law courts. The 
Cabildo is a dignified two-storey structure of adobe and shell- 
lime, built in 1795; an incongruous mansard roof was added in 
1850. On the 3oth of November 1803, in the council hall, the 
city keys were handed back to the representatives of the French 
government and the people of Louisiana were absolved from 
their allegiance to the Spanish king; and here, only twenty days 
afterward, with similar ceremonies, the keys of the city passed 
from the hands of the French colonial prefect to those of the 
commissioners for the United States. In the old Place d'Armes 
a bronze equestrian statue (1846) cf Andrew Jackson by Clark 
Mills is a remembrance of the ceremonies attending Jackson's 
triumphal entry into the city after the battle of New Orleans in 
1815. In 1825 Lafayette was lodged in the Cabildo as the city's 
guest. 

The appearance of the square was greatly changed in 1849, 
when the Baroness de Pontalba, in whose estate it was then 
comprised, cut down the ancient elms that shaded it and laid 
it out in its present style of a French garden. She also is re- 
sponsible for the low brick " Pontalba Mansions " on the north 
and south sides of the square. The Babel of Tongues in the 
French Market (1813), on the site of an older market, immediately 
below Jackson Square, and at the" Picayune Tier "just adjacent, 
is an interesting feature of the city. Near the Cathedral, in 
Orleans Street, is the convent of the Holy Family, a brick building 
housing a negro sisterhood founded in 1835, and formerly the 
scene of New Orleans's famous " quadroon balls." The archi- 
episcopal palace (1730), said to be the oldest building of the 



Mississippi Valley, is part of the unchanged original Ursuline 
convent; it was used as the State Capitol in 1831, and then it 
was the residence, and since 1899 has been the administrative 
office of the archbishop, and houses a colonial museum with the 
ecclesiastical records. The French Opera House (1860) was the 
successor of various French theatres built after 1808. The 
carnival balls are given here. New Orleans was by far the earliest 
of American cities to have an annual opera season. 

The 18th-century fortifications about the old city were 
destroyed about 1804. The United States Branch Mint (1838) 
occupies the site of Fort St Charles (destroyed 1826), where 
Jackson reviewed his troops as they marched to Chalmette. 
Just outside the Vieux Carri is Beauregard Square, formerly 
known as Congo Square, because in early days the slaves were 
wont to gather here for their barbaric dances. The Hotel St 
Louis (1836), rebuilt in 1884 as the Hotel Royal, was the seat 
of the Republican reconstruction governments of governors 
Kellogg and Packard, and the prison fortress of both, respectively 
in 1874 and 1877, when the whites rose against Republican rule; 
its rotunda was also once a famous slave mart. Many other 
spots in the Latin Quarter are of scarcely less interest than those 
mentioned, not excluding those which were made famous by 
the romances of G. W. Cable, and whose only title to historic 
consideration is that which his imagination has given them. 

City Park (216-6 acres, partly water), lying between the city 
and the lake, is notable in the local duelling annals of earlier days. 
Audubon Park (249 acres) was once the sugar plantation of 
Etienne de Bore, who first successfully made granulated sugar 
in 1795-1796; earlier experiments had been made in 1791 by 
Antonio Mendes, from whom de Bore, who established the sugar 
industry, bought a plantation in St Bernard Parish. The park 
was bought by the city for $180,000 in 1871, but was little 
improved until 1884, when the Cotton Centennial Exposition was 
held here. It contains to-day a state Sugar Experiment Station, 
in which a part of their work in course is done by the students in 
the Audubon Sugar School of the State University at Baton 
Rouge, and Horticultural Hall, the only one of the Exposition 
buildings now standing, with a display of tropical trees and 
plants; opposite Audubon Park is the campus of Tulane 
University. West End is a suburban resort and residential 
district on Lake Pontchartrain. 

A noted feature of New Orleans is its cemeteries. Owing to 
the undrained condition of the subsoil, burials are made entirely 
above ground, in tombs of stuccoed brick and of granite and 
marble. Some of these are very elegant and costly, and many of 
the burial-grounds, with their long alleys of these tombs of diverse 
designs, deeply shaded by avenues of cedars and magnolias, 
possess a severe but emphatic beauty. Jews and the poor bury 
their dead underground in shallow graves. The oldest cemetery, 
St Louis No. i, contains the graves of many persons notable 
in history. St Roch's Campo Santo has a wonder-working shrine, 
and is the most picturesque of the old burying-grounds. Metairie, 
on the site of an old race track, is the finest of the new. It con- 
tains a monument 1 to the Army of the Tennessee and its com- 
mander, Albert Sidney Johnston, with an equestrian statue of 
Johnston by Alexander Doyle, and a monument to the Army of 
Northern Virginia surmov.nted by a statue of General T. J. 
Jackson. In Greenwood Cemetery is the first monument erected 
to Confederate dead, given by the women of New Orleans. 
At Chalmette (on the Mississippi, about 5 m. E. of Canal Street), 
where the battle of New Orleans was fought in 1815, there is a 
National Cemetery, in which some 12,000 Union soldiers in the 
Civil War are buried. 

Population. The population in 1900* was 287,104, New 

1 In the burial vault of this tomb, with the bodies of many other 
soldiers, are the remains of General P. G. T. Beauregard, who was 
born near New Orleans. 

* At the earlier censuses the population of the city was as follows: 
17,242 in 1810 (when it was the sixth city in population in the 
United States); 27,176 in 1820 (when, as in 1830 and 1850, it was 
the fifth city); 46,082 in 1830; not reported separately in 1840; 
116,375 in '850; 168,675 in 1860; 191,418 in 1870; 216,090 in 
1880; and 242,039 in 1890. 



NEW ORLEANS 



Orleans ranking twelfth among the cities of the United States; 
in 1910 it was 339,075. Of the 1900 total, 256,779 were native- 
born, and 30,325 were foreign-born, including 8733 Germans, 
5866 Italians, 5398 Irish, 4428 French and 1262 English; and 
there were 77,714 negroes. In 1900 the population of foreign 
parentage was 108,010, of whom 78,269 had foreign fathers and 
foreign mothers, 27, 259 being of German, is,465of Irish, 10,694 of 
Italian, 9317 of French and 1882 of English parentage. The Latin 
element that came in colonial times included Frenchmen, French- 
Canadians, colonists from the French and Spanish West Indies, 
Canary Islanders (whose descendants are still known as Islenos), 
and French refugees from Acadia in 1765 and the years following, 
and from Santo Domingo at the end of the i8th century. The 
earliest French immigrants were largely Bretons and Normans, 
and various Creole words in common use (such as banquette for 
" side-walk ") still recall these racial beginnings. The Creoles 
of New Orleans and the surrounding delta are a handsome, 
graceful, intelligent race, of a decidedly Gallic type, though 
softened in features, speech and carriage. Their dialect has been 
formed from the French entirely by sound, has no established 
orthography, and is of*much philological interest. Until very 
recent years the Latin races, though fusing somewhat among 
themselves, mixed little in blood with the Anglo-American. The 
Spaniards when in power at the end of the i8th century were 
notably different from the French in their liberalism in this 
respect. In social life and standards the French Creoles were 
very conservative; the old styles of dress, e.g. of the late i8th 
century wigs, silk stockings and knee-breeches lingered later 
among them, probably, than in any other part of the country. 
But before the pressure of Anglo-American immigration, capital, 
enterprise and education, this Creole civilization has slowly 
yielded ground, at last fairly beginning to amalgamate with the 
social system of the American nation. But the Creole has 
stamped his influence upon wellnigh every aspect in the life 
of the city that has broadened out so widely on every side of his 
antique town. Its cuisine, its speech, its " continental " Latin 
Sundays, its opera, its carnival, its general fashions and manners, 
its intolerance of all sorts of rigour, its whole outward tone and 
bearing, testify to this patent Latin impress. A comparatively 
recent addition to the Latin element in the city has been through 
Italian immigration. 

The coloured population, notwithstanding the presence among 
it of that noted quadroon class which enjoyed a certain legal 
freedom for generations before the Civil War, has not greatly 
improved since the date of emancipation. Catholicism is naturally 
extremely strong in New Orleans. So also are the Baptist and 
Methodist churches. 

Carnivals. The famous carnival displays of New Orleans 
are participated in very largely by the " Americain," i.e. the 
Anglo-American; but they mark one of the victories of the 
Latin- American over North- American tastes, and probably owe 
mainly to the " Americain " their pretentious dignity and to 
the Creole their more legitimate harlequin frivolity. Out of the 
simple idea of masked revelry in the open streets, as borrowed 
from Italian cities, the American bent for organization appears 
to have developed, by a natural growth, the costly fashion of 
gorgeous torch-lighted processions of elaborately equipped 
masques in tableaux drawn on immense cars by teams of 
caparisoned mules, and combining to illustrate in a symmetrical 
whole some theme chosen from the great faiths or literatures or 
from history. Legends, fairy-tales, mythologies and theologies, 
literature from Homer to Shakespeare, science and pure fantasy 
are drawn upon for these ornate representations, which are 
accompanied by all the picturesque licence of street life char- 
acteristic of carnival times in other cities. They have no rival 
in America, and for glitter, colour and elaborateness are by many 
esteemed the most splendid carnival celebrations of the world. 
The first carnival parade (as distinguished from the Mardi Gras 
celebration) was held in 1827 by masked students recently 
returned from Paris. In 1837 and 1839 the first processions 
with " floats " were held in New Orleans. The regular annual 
pageants, almost uninterrupted save during the Civil War, date 



from 1857, when the " Mystic Krewe of Comus," the oldest of 
the carnival organizations, was formed; similar organizations, 
secret societies or clubs are the " Twelfth Knight Revelers " 
(1870), " Rex " and " Knights of Momus " (both 1872, when 
the carnival was reviewed by the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia), 
the " Krewe of Proteus " (1882), and the " Krewe of Nereus " 
(1895). Balls, processions and other festivities are now spread 
over a considerable period, culminating in those of Shrove 
Tuesday (Mardi Gras). During this time the festivities quite 
engross public attention, and many thousands of visitors from all 
parts of America are yearly attracted to the city. 

Charitable Institutions. The large Charity Hospital (1786) and the 
Richard Milliken Memorial Hospital for Children are supported by 
the state. The Touro Infirmary (1854; controlled by the Hebrew 
Benevolent Association; founded by judah Touro (1775-1854; a 
Jew of Dutch descent, son of Isaac Touro of Newport, Rhode Island), 
includes a free clinic open to the needy of all faiths. Other hospitals 
are: the U.S. Marine Hospital (1885); the Hotel Dieu (1859) and 
the St Joseph's Maternity Hospital (1863), both under the Sisters 
of Charity; the Sarah Goodrich Hospital (1896; Methodist Epis- 
copal) ; and the Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital (1889; private). 
The Poydras Asylum, on Magazine Street, was founded in 1817 by 
Julien Poydras (1746-1824), a successful trader and delegate from 
Orleans Territory to the Federal Congress in 1809-181 1 ; the present 
building was erected in 1836; the asylum, which is for orphans, 
is controlled by Presbyterian trustees, although it was, during 
Poydras's life, under the charge of Sisters of Charity. St Vincent's 
Infant Asylum (1858), or " Margaret's Baby House," is in charge of 
Sisters of Charity. Other orphanages and children's homes are: 
the New Orleans Female Orphan Asylum (1849) and St Elizabeth's 
Industrial School (1845), under the Sisters of Charity; an Ursuline 
Orphanage (1729) ; the Immaculate Conception Girls' Asylum (1851) 
and St Mary's Catholic Orphan Boys' Asylum (1835, under the 
Sisters Marianites of the Holy Cross) ; the St Alphonsus Orphan 
Asylum (1878) and St Vincent's Home for Newsboys (1878), under 
the Sisters of Mercy; the Mount Carmel Orphan Asylum (1869), 
under the Sisters of Mount Carmel; the Sacred Heart Orphan Asylum 
(1894) for girls, under the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart; 
St Joseph's Orphan Asylum (1863), under the Sisters of Notre Dame; 
a Protestant Orphans' Home (1853) ; a Jewish Orphans' Home 
(1855) ; the Children's Home of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
(1859) ; the Evangelical Lutheran Bethlehem Orphan Asylum (1881) ; 
the German Protestant Orphan Asylum (1866); the Freedmen's 
Orphan Asylum (Baptist) ; and, under private and non-sectarian 
control, the Asylum for Destitute Orphan Boys (1824) and the 
Colored Industrial Home and School (1902). The J. D. Fink 
Fund and the Fink Home (1874) or Asylum (for Protestant 
widows and their children) are the gift of an eccentric, whose offer 
of marriage had been refused by one preferring not to marry at all, 
and who forbade that any old maid should enter the asylum. Other 
homes for adults are: the Soldiers' Home of Louisiana for Con- 
federate Veterans; two Homes for the Aged (1869 and 1882), both 
under the Little Sisters of the Poor; the Faith Home (1888; Baptist) 
for old coloured women; the German Protestant Bethany Home 
(1889) and the German Protestant Home for the Aged and Infirm 
(1887) ; the Julius Weis Home for Aged and Infirm (1899), under the 
Hebrew Benevolent Association; and, all under private corpora- 
tions, the Maison Hospitaliere (1893) for aged women, the New 
Orleans Home for Incurables (1893) and St Anna's Asylum (1850) 
for destitute women and their children. Temporary homes are: 
the Convent of the Good Shepherd (1859), under the Sisters of the 
Good Shepherd, and a Memorial Home (1886; both for wayward 
women) ; a Home for Homeless Women (1888), and the New Orleans 
Convalescent Home (1885). Kingsley House is modelled after Hull 
House in Chicago. The Louisiana Retreat, a private asylum for the 
insane, is in New Orleans, and there also is a state House of Detention. 

Education. The public schools give equal opportunities to whites 
and blacks, but the whites take decidedly greater advantage of 
them; a large number even of the whites still make practically 
no use of either public or parochial schools. The races are kept 
separate: the attempt was made to mix attendance in 1870, but the 
whites compelled its abandonment. To a bequest of John McDonogh 
(1778-1850), whose life is one of the romances and the lessons of 
New Orleans, 1 the city owes already some thirty school buildings. 
The Home Institute (1883) provides free night schooling for hundreds 
of students, and similar work is done on a larger scale by public 
night schools. Of the adult male population in 1900 13-4 % were 
illiterate (could not write), seven-tenths of the illiterates being 
negroes, of whom the illiterates constituted 36 %. 

There are various higher institutions of learning in the city. 
Tulane University of Louisiana was named after its benefactor Paut 
Tulane (1801-1887), a merchant of New Orleans, who gave $1,050,000 
in 1882-1887 to a Board of Trustees for the education of " the white 
young persons in the city." The university was established, under 



1 See William Allan's Life and Work of John McDonogh (Baltimore, 
1886). 



NEW ORLEANS 



529 



its present name, in 1884, the former university of Louisiana (1834) 
being merged in it; it gives free tuition in the academic department 
to one student from each senatorial and each representative district 
or parish in the state, and its income-producing property, up to 
$5,000,000, is exempted from taxation by the state. In 1908-1909 
Tulane University had 192 instructors and 2236 students; and it 
included a Graduate Department, a College of Arts and Sciences 
(1884), a College of Technology with 157 students, Extension Courses 
with 148 students, the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for 
Girls (1886; endowed in memory of her only daughter by Josephine 
Louise, wife of Warren Newcomb, a sugar merchant of the city), 
with 288 students in the college and 102 in Newcomb High School, 
a Teachers' College, a Law Department (1847), a Medical Depart- 
ment (1834) with 648 students, a Department of Pharmacy and a 
Summer School with 860 students. The College of the Immaculate 
Conception (Jesuit, 1847) is an important school. Higher schools for 
the negroes include Leland University (1870; Baptist), with college 
courses, preparatory courses (there are several Baptist secondary 
schools affiliated with the university), normal and manual training 
departments, a school of music, a theological school, a woman's 
Christian Workers' Class and a night school; Straight University 
(1870; Congregational), with kindergarten, primary, high school and 
industrial departments; New Orleans University (1873; Methodist) 
and Southern University (1883). The last is supported by the state. 

Libraries. The public, society and school libraries in the city in 
1909, many being very small, aggregated 301,000 voliiis r-> 227,000 
being in five collections. A central library building and three branch 
buildings, costing $275,000, were presented to the city by Andrew 
Carnegie. The Howard Memorial Library (1887) is an important 
reference library, peculiarly rich in books on the history of Louisiana. 
The Louisiana Historical Society (1836) and the Athenee Louisian- 
naise (1876) may also be mentioned; the latter has for its purpose 
the conservation and cultivation of the French language. The Union 
Franchaise (1872) supplements with educational and charitable 
activities the general bond of fraternity offered by it to the French 
population. In New Orleans there is a State Museum, devoted to 
the history, institutions and resources of the state. 

Newspapers. Among the older newspapers are L'Abeitte (1827) 
and the Picayune (1837), which is one of the most famous and in- 
fluential papers of the South, and was founded by George Wilkins 
Kendall (1809-1867), a native of New Hampshire, who organized 
a special military correspondence for his paper during the Mexican 
War, probably the earliest instance of such service in the United 
States. The Times-Democrat (1863) is counted among the ablest 
and most energetic papers of the South. De Bow's Commercial 
Review (published in New Orleans 1846-1864), founded and edited 
by James D. B. De Bow (1820-1867), was in its day one of the most 
important periodicals of the country, and remains a valuable re- 
pository of information on conditions in the South before the war. 

Commerce. It was its potential commercial value, as indicated 
by its geographical position, that in 1803, when New Orleans was 
only a small, poor and remote Franco-Spanish-American port, 
led to its purchase by the United States. But various causes 
operated to impede the city's growth: the invention of railway 
transit, the development of the carrying trade on the Great 
Lakes, the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi, over which few 
large ships could pass, the scourge of yellow fever, the pro- 
vincialism and the lethargy of an isolated and indolent civiliza- 
tion. Slavery kept away free labour, and the plantation 
system fostered that " improvidence and that feudal self-com- 
placency which looked with indolent contempt upon public 
co-operative measures" (G. W. Cable). However, in 1860 the 
exports, imports and domestic receipts of New Orleans aggre- 
gated $324,000,000. As a result of the Civil War the commerce 
of New Orleans experienced an early paralysis; the port was 
soon blockaded by the United States navy; the city fell into 
the hands of the Federal forces (ist May 1862); its commerce 
with the interior was practically annihilated until after 1865, 
and from the depression of the years following the war the city 
did not fully recover for a quarter of a century. Only after 
1880 did its total commerce again equal that of 1860. It was 
almost solely as the dispenser of the products of the greatest 
agricultural valley in the world that New Orleans grew from a 
little frontier town to the dimensions of a great city. This trade 
is still dominant in the city's commerce. In the season that 
follows the harvest of the South and West, the levee, the wharves 
and the contiguous streets are gorged with the raw staples of 
the regions that lie about the Mississippi and its greater and 
lesser tributaries sugar, molasses, rice, tobacco, Indian corn, 
pork, staves, wheat, oats, flour and, above all else, from one- 
fourth to one-third the country's entire supply of cotton. All 
other movement is subsidiary or insignificant. 



By 1000 the drawbacks which have been enumerated had been 
practically eliminated, and uncertainty as to the investment of 
capital had been removed. The southward tendency in railway 
traffic favours the city. Deep water to the ocean was secured by 
a system of jetties at the South Pass mouth of the Mississippi, 
built by James B. Eads in 1875-1879; but in time this ceased 
to maintain an adequate depth of water, and (after the report 
in 1000 of a board of engineers) in 1002 Congress began appro- 
priations for an improvement of the South-west Pass 1 by 
opening a channel 1000 ft. wide and at least 35 ft. deep. Many 
lines of steamers give direct connexion with the West Indies, 
Central America, Europe, New York and also with Japan (for 
the shipment of raw cotton via Suez). Ocean steamers, loaded 
in large part by elevators, now bear away the exports for which 
a swarm of sailing-ships of much lighter draft and average 
freight-room once made long stays at the city's wharves. Pas- 
senger traffic on the rivers has practically vanished, and the 
shrunken fleet of river steamers (only 15 in 1907) are devoted to 
the carrying of slow freights and the towing of barges on the 
rivers and bayous of the lower Mississippi Valley. 2 

The total value of all merchandise exported in the six customs 
years 1902-1903 to 1907-1908 averaged $154,757,1 10 yearly, and the 
imports $37,319,254. For the ten years 1890-1899 the correspond- 
ing averages were $95,956,618 and $15,924,594. Bank clearings 
increased in the ten customs years preceding 1906-1907 from 
$447,673,946 to $1,027,798,476 (bank clearings were $956,154,504 
and $786,067,353 respectively for the calendar years 1907 and 1908). 
There has been an extraordinary increase of exports since 1900, and 
imports from Central America have similarly increased. Cotton 
represents roughly two-thirds of the value of all exports. As a 
cotton port New Orleans in 1908 was second only to Galveston, 
which had only recently surpassed it ; and more than half of the raw 
cotton exports of the country passed through these two ports. 
The Board of Trade has maintained a cotton-inspection department 
since 1884, and its statistics are standard on the cotton crop. Cotton 
exports in the four seasons 1903-1904 to 1906-1907 averaged 
1,001,199,468 R>, valued at $104,108,824. Wheat and flour, Indian 
corn, lumber and tobacco are especially noteworthy articles of the 
export, and bananas and coffee of the import, trade. Importations 
of coffee have more than quintupled since 1900; the coffee comes 
for the most part from Brazil and grain wholly from American fields. 
The imports of bananas, for which New Orleans is the leading port 
of the country, more than doubled in the same period, and increased 
more than eight-fold in the twenty-five years following 1882 
(1,200,000 to 10,200,000 bunches). 

Railway traffic has grown immensely, and port facilities have 
been vastly improved in recent years. A belt railway owned by the 
city (built 1905-1907) connects all railway terminals, public wharves 
and many manufactories and warehouses. Public ownership pro- 
tects the city's interest in the harbour front, while at the same time 
all railways are equally and cheaply served; and new railways, 
which could not enter the city or have access to the water front 
because of the impossibility of securing individual trackage, can now 
enter on the municipal belt. Of privately owned railway terminals 
in 1908 those of the Illinois Central system had nearly 200 m. of 
track; the Stuyvesant Docks of the railway have 15 m. of track, a 
wharf almost I m. long, immense warehouses and grain elevators. 
The New Orleans Terminal Company constructed at Chalmette 



1 The South-west Pass, originally the usual entrance, could not 
be entered by vessels drawing more than 16 ft.; the Eads jetties, 
aided by dredging, provided through the South Pass (500 ft. broad) 
a channel 180 ft. wide and 25 to 28 ft. deep. South-west Pass has 
always been the primary outlet of the river, venting half or more 
of its volume. Active work on its improvement was begun in 1903 
and practically completed in 1909. Including the jetties, this Pass 
is nearly 20 m. long and has an average width of about 2150 ft.; 
the deep channel through it is more than 1000 ft. wide. The jetties, 
4 m. long on one side and 3 m. on the other, are 6000 ft. apart at 
their head and 3600 ft. at the sea line. They are built on willow 
mats (foundation mats 200X150X2 ft.) in wooden frames, sunk 
with stone and surmounted above the water by a concrete wall. 

2 The value of the river commerce was about $8,000,000 in 1816 
and $82,000,000 in 1849. The first steamboat descended the Missis- 
sippi to New Orleans (from Pittsburg) in 1811, and the first steam- 
boat trip up the river was made in 1 8 1 7. The halcyon period of river 
steamer traffic was from 1840 to 1860. The luxury of the passenger 
boats then on the Mississippi and the immense volume of the freight- 
ing traffic are things of the past since the advent of the railway era. 
The best time ever made (1870) from New Orleans to St Louis 
(1278 m.) was 3 days, 21 hours and 25 minutes. The races of these 
river boats were prominent news items in the papers of America 
and even in those of Europe, and they have been recorded in more 
than one page of literature. Steam packets replaced sailing vessels 
in the ocean trade about 1845. 



530 



NEW ORLEANS 



(1908) splendid terminals, including an immense slip in the river 
(1500X300 ft., excavated to give 30 ft. of water below zero gauge) 
capable of accommodating nine vessels at dock simultaneously, 
and arranged with remarkable conveniences for the loading of grain. 
Steel-concrete warehouses and elevators surround the slip. The 
greater industrial establishments of the city cluster about the 
terminals. New Orleans is served by eleven railways, including the 
Illinois Central, Southern Pacific, Texas & Pacific and Louisville & 
Nashville systems. The New Orleans & North-eastern crosses Lake 
Pontchartrain over a trestle bridge 7 m. long (originally 25 m. 
before end filling). 

Within the city are two canals, now of little importance, because 
too shallow except for local trade: the Carondelet or Old Basin 
canal, built in 1798, is 2-5 m. long, 55-65 ft- wide and 7 ft. deep, 
and goes via Bayou St John to Lake Pontchartrain; and the New 
Basin Canal, built in 1837 by the New Orleans Canal & Banking 
Company, and state property since 1866, is 6-7 m. long, 100 ft. wide 
and 8 ft. deep, and also connects with Lake Pontchartrain. Neither 
of these canals connects with the Mississippi river as do the following 
privately owned canals: the Lake Borgne Canal, from a point 10 m. 
below the city to Lake Borgne, 7 m. long, 80 ft. wide, 7 ft. deep, 
shortening the water distance between Mobile and New Orleans by 
60 m. ; and the Barataria & Lafourche Company Canal (7 m. long, 
45 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep) and Harvey's Canal (5-35 m long, 70 ft. 
wide and 6 ft. deep), both connecting with the Bayou Teche region. 

Manufactures. Manufacturing has greatly developed since 1890. 
The value of products increased 146-7% from 1880 to 1890, and in 
the following decade the increase of wages paid, cost of materials 
used and value of product were respectively 7-6, 53-3 and 31-5%. 
In 1905 the value of the factory product was $84,604,006, 45-4% 
of the value of the total factory product of the state, and an increase 
of 47-3% since 1900; during this same period capital increased 
36-6%, the average number of wage-earners 8-9%, the amount of 
wages 20-5% and the cost of materials used 53-3%. The sugar 
and molasses industry is the most important, with a product value 
of $34,908,614 in 1905; New Orleans ranked second to Philadelphia 
among the cities of the country in the value of this product, that of 
New Orleans being 12-6 % of the total value of the country's product. 
At New Orleans is a sugar refinery said to be the largest in the world. 
Of the manufactures from products of the state the most noteworthy 
are rice (value of product cleaned and polished in 1905, $4,881,954), 
bags other than paper ($4,076,226), cotton-seed oil and cake 
($3,698,509), malt liquors ($2,170,714), tobacco ($1,408,883), lumber 
and timber products ($1,644,329) and planing mill products 
($1,105,497) and cotton goods ($1,081,951). Other important 
manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products ($2,085,327), 
men's clothing ($1,979,308), coffee and spice roasted and ground 
($1,638,263) and steam railway cars constructed and repaired 
($1,627,435). New Orleans is the chief centre of the country for the 
manufacture of cotton-seed products and for rice milling. Oyster 
canning is a recent and rapidly growing industry. There are also 
furniture establishments, paper mills and cotton cloth mills. 

Government. Municipal government is organized under a 
charter framed by the state legislature in 1896, and amended 
by acts of 1898 and 1900. The seven municipal districts corre- 
spond to seven independent faubourgs successively annexed. 
A mayor and various other executive officers and a legislative 
unicameral council are elected for four years. The mayor and 
the heads of departments consult as a " cabinet." Various 
boards of civil service, public debt, education, health, police, 
fire, drainage, water and sewerage and state commissioners of 
the port control many of the most important interests of the 
city. The mayor, through his office and his appointive powers, 
exercises great influence in a number of these. In 1896 New 
Orleans followed the example of New York and Chicago in sub- 
jecting its civil service to a competitive merit system and to 
rules of a civil service board. The police board is non-partisan. 
The board of education is composed of seventeen members, each 
elected by one of the seventeen wards of the city. In addition 
to the city board of health, a state board acts with municipal 
authority, and (since April 1907) the United States government 
maintains the maritime quarantine of the Mississippi. The 
commissioners of the port are officials of the state. Owing to 
the complete dominance of the Democratic party, all reform 
movements in politics must come from within that organization. 
Reform organizations have been intermittently powerful since 
1888, and among their achievements for good were the beginning 
of the great drainage and sewerage improvements and the 
adoption of the charter of 1896. The present government of 
the city compares very favourably with systems tried in the past. 1 

1 The charter of 1805 organized the old citi (the Vieux Carrf) 
and the faubourgs as distinct municipalities with almost wholly 



In 1 909 the total assessed valuation of property was $221, 3 73,362, 
of which $154,604,325 was realty and the remainder personalty. 
The bonded debt on the 3oth of June 1909 was $32,521,040 and 
the floating debt at the end of 1908 was $1,264,030. 

From 1890 to 1900 the expenditures for permanent works (includ- 
ing sewerage, lighting, paving, levees, improvements in connexion 
with street and steam railways, docks, &c.) aggregated $30,000,000. 
Almost all the public services, nevertheless, were in 1909 in private 
hands. Electric traction was introduced in 1891-1895, and the 
street railways were consolidated in 1902 under one management. 
In 1869 the city bought, and nine years later sold again, the water- 
works; municipal ownership and control, under a sewerage and 
water board, was again undertaken in 1900. In 1900 arrangements 
were made to transfer the extensive markets from private lessees to 
direct municipal control, and in May 1901 the wharves of the city 
passed from private to municipal control. 2 The municipal belt 
railway was constructed in 1905-1907. 

Until 1900 there were no sewers, open gutters serving their purpose. 
It is remarkable that the city twice granted franchises to private 
parties for the construction of a sewerage system, but without 
result. The low and extremely level character of the city site, of 
which nearly one-third is at or below the level of the Gulf, the re- 
currence of back-water floods from Lake Pontchartrain and the 
tremendous rains of the region have made the engineering problems 
involved Ci"V2; difficult. In 1896 a Drainage Commission (merged in 
1900 in a Sewerage and Water Board) devised a plan involving the 
sale of street railway franchises to pay for the installation of drainage 
canals and pumps, and in 1899 the people voted a 2-mill tax over 
42 years assuring a bond issue of $12,000,000 to pay for sewerage, 
drainage and water works to be owned by the municipality and to be 
controlled by a Sewerage and Water Board. Work was begun on 
the sewerage system in 1903 and on the water works in 1905. In 
1906 the legislature authorized the issue of municipal bonds for 
$8,000,000 to be expended on this work. Up to 1909 the drainage 
system had cost about $6,000,000 and the sewerage system about 
$5,000,000; and 310 m. of sewers and nine sewerage pumping 
stations discharged sewage into the Mississippi below the centre of 
the city. Garbage is used to fill in swamps and abandoned canals. 
The new water-supply is secured from the river and is filtered by 
mechanical precipitation and other means. By 1909 about 500 m. 
of water-mains had been laid, $7,000,000 had been expended for the 
water-system, and filtering plants had been established with a 
capacity of 50,000,000 gallons a day. In August 1905 a city ordin- 
ance required the screening of aerial cisterns, formerly characteristic 
of the city, which were breeding-places of the yellow fever Slegomyia, 
and soon afterwards the state legislature authorized the Sewerage 
and Water Board to require the removal of all such cisterns. About 
two-thirds of the street surface in 1899 was still unpaved; the first 
improvements in paving began in 1890. 

As regards hygienic conditions much too has been done in recent 
years. New Orleans was long notorious for unhealthiness. Yellow 
fever first appeared in 1769, and there were about thirty epidemics 
from 1769 to 1878. Though the first board of health and first 
quarantine system date back to 1821, from 1787 to 1853 the average 
death-rate was 59-63 per 1000; never did it fall below 25-00, which 
was the rate in 1827. In 1832, a cholera year, it rose to 148; in 
1853-1854-1855, the great yellow-fever years, complicated in 1854- 
1855 by cholera, it was 102, 72 and 73. During these three years 
there were more than 25,000 deaths. The millesimal mortality in 
1851-1855 and succeeding quinquennial periods to 1880 was as 
follows: 70, 45, 40, 39, 34-5 and 33-5. The rate reported by the 
national census of 1900 was 28-9, the highest of any of the large 



separate governments: they issued paper money independently, for 
example. The charter of 1836 was also an extreme statement of 
local self-government; the municipalities were practically inde- 
pendent, although there was a common mayor and a general council 
of the entire city meeting once annually. This organization was in 
large part due to the hostility of the Creoles to the Americans. The 
charter of 1852 formed a consolidated city. That of 1856 added to 
and amended its predecessor. That of 1870 was very notable as 
an attempt to secure a business-like and simplified administration. 
A mayor and seven " administrators," eVected on a general ticket 
and constituting individually the different administrative depart- 
ments, formed collectively a council with legislative powers. All 
sessions of the council were public, and liberties of suggestion were 
freely accorded to the citizens. Tried in better times, and as a move- 
ment for reform sprung from the people and not due primarily to an 
external impulse, this system might have been permanent a^d might 
have exercised great influence on other cities. The early 'seventies 
were marked by a great widening of the city's corporate limits. 
In 1882 another charter went back to the ordinary^ American plan 
of elective district councillors chosen for the legislative branch, 
and executive officers chosen on a general ticket. The latter held 
seats in the council and could debate but not vote. This is vne 
present system. 

2 They were leased to a private company in 1891-1901, but the 
lease was unprofitable and was disadvantageous to trade. From 
1901 to 1908 wharfage and harbour dues were reduced 25 to 85 %. 



NEW ORLEANS 



cities of the United States. 1 This high death-rate is often attri- 
buted in great part to the large negro population, among whom the 
mortality in 1900 was 42-1 per 1000; but the negro population 
largely comprises that labouring element whose faulty provision for 
health and sickness in every large city swells the death-rate. A 
light yellow-fever epidemic occurred in 1897-1898-1899, after nine- 
teen years of immunity, and a more serious one in 1905, when the 
United States Marine Hospital Service for a time took control of 
the city's sanitation and attempted to exterminate the Stegomyia 
mosquito. The city Board of Health has done much to secure pure 
food for the people, and has exercised efficient oversight of com- 
municable diseases, including yellow fever. In movements for the 
betterment of the city in commerce, sanitation, public works and 
general enterprise a leading part has been taken by an organization 
of citizens known as the New Orleans Progressive Union, whose 
charter and by-laws prohibit its participation in political and religious 
issues. 

History. New Orleans was founded in 1718 by Jean Baptiste 
Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville, and was named in honour of 
the then Regent of France. 2 The priest-chronicler Charlevoix 
described it in 1721 as a place of a hundred wretched hovels in 
a malarious wet thicket of willows and dwarf palmettos, infested 
by serpents and alligators; he seems to have been the first, 
however, to predict for it an imperial future. In 1722 New 
Orleans was made the capital of the vast province of Louisiana 
(q.v.). Much of the population in early days was of the wildest 
and, in part, of the most undesirable character deported 
galley-slaves, trappers, gold-hunters and city scourings; and 
the governors' letters are full of complaints regarding the riff- 
raff sent as soldiers as late as Kerlerec's administration (1753- 
1763). In 1788 a fire destroyed a large part of the city. In 
1795-1796 the sugar industry was first put upon a firm basis. 
The last twenty years of the i8th century were especially char- 
acterized by the growth of commerce on the Mississippi, and the 
development of those international interests, commercial and 
political, of which New Orleans was the centre. The year 1803 
is memorable for the actual transfer (at New Orleans) of Louis- 
iana to France, and the establishment of American dominion. 
At this time the city had about 10,000 inhabitants, mostly French 
Creoles and their slaves. The next dozen years were marked by 
the beginnings of self-government in city and state; by the 
excitement attending the Aaron Burr conspiracy (in the course 
of which, in 1806-1807, General James Wilkinson practically 
put New Orleans under martial law); by the immigration from 
Cuba of French planters; and by the American War of 1812. 

In 1815 New Orleans was attacked by a conjunct expedition 
of British naval and military forces from Halifax, N.S., and other 
points. The American government managed to obtain early 
information of the enterprise and prepared to meet it with forces 
(regular and militia) under Maj.-Gen. Andrew Jackson. The 
British advance was made by way of Lake Borgne, and the 
troops landed at a fisherman's village on the 23rd of December 
1814, Major-General Sir E. Pakenham taking command there 
on the 25th. An immediate advance on the still insufficiently 
prepared defences of the Americans might have led to the 
capture of the city, but this was not attempted, and both sides 
remained inactive for some time awaiting reinforcements. At 
last in the early morning of the 8th of January 1815 (after the 
Treaty of Ghent had been signed) a direct attack was made on 
the now strongly entrenched line of the defenders at Chalmette, 
near the Mississippi river. It failed disastrously with a loss of 
2000 out of 9000 British troops engaged, among the dead being 
Pakenham and Major-General Gibbs. The expedition was soon 
afterwards abandoned and the troops embarked for England. 

From this time to the outbreak of the American Civil War the 
city annals are almost wholly commercial. Hopeful activity 

1 But the death-rate of New Orleans was not so high as that of 
some smaller Southern cities, Richmond (29-7), Savannah (34-3) or 
Charleston (37-5), for example. According to Mortality Statistics, 
1905 (Washington, 1907), the death-rate in New Orleans in 1905 was 
23-7, and the annual average between 1900 and 1904 was 23-1. 

1 Two of the lakes in the vicinity commemorate respectively Louis 
Phelypeaux, Count Pontchartrain, minister and chancellor of 
France, and Jean Frederic Phelypeaux, Count Maurepas, minister 
and secretary of state; a third is really a landlocked inlet of the sea, 
and its name (Lake Borgne) has reference to its " incomplete " or 
" defective " character. 



and great development characterized especially the decade 
1830-1840. The introduction of gas (about 1830); the building 
of the New Orleans and Pontchartrain railway (1820-1830), one 
of the earliest in the United States; the introduction of the first 
steam cotton press (1832), and the beginning of the public school 
system (1840) marked these years; foreign exports more than 
doubled in the period 1831-1833. Travellers in this decade have 
left pictures of the animation of the river trade more congested 
in those days of river boats and steamers and ocean-sailing craft 
than to-day; of the institution of slavery, the quadroon balls, 
the medley of Latin tongues, the disorder and carousals of the 
river-men and adventurers that filled the city. Altogether there 
was much of the wildness of a frontier town, and a seemingly 
boundless promise of prosperity. The crisis of 1837, indeed, was 
severely felt, but did not greatly retard the city's advancement, 
which continued unchecked until the Civil War. In 1849 
Baton Rouge replaced New Orleans as the capital of the state. 
In 1850 telegraphic communication was established with St 
Louis and New York; in 1851 the New Orleans & Jackson 
railway, the first railway outlet northward, now part of the 
Illinois CentrsJ,and in 1854 the western outlet, now the Southern 
Pacific, were begun. 

The political and commercial importance of New Orleans, 
as well as its strategic position, marked it out as the objective 
of a Union expedition soon after the opening of the Civil War. 
Captain D. G. Farragut (q.v.) was selected by the Union govern- 
ment for the command of the Western Gulf squadron in January 
1862. The four heavy ships of the squadron (none of them 
armoured) were with many difficulties brought up to the head of 
the passes, and around them assembled nineteen smaller vessels 
(mostly gunboats) and a flotilla of twenty mortar-boats under 
Commander D. D. Porter (g.v.). The main defences of the 
Mississippi consisted of the two permanent forts Jackson and St 
Philip. These were of masonry and brick construction, armed 
with heavy rifled guns as well as smooth-bores, and placed on 
either bank so as to command long reaches of the river and the 
surrounding flats. In addition, the Confederates had some im- 
provised ironclads and gunboats, large and small. On the i6th 
of April, after elaborate reconnaissances, the Union fleet steamed 
up into position below the forts, and on the i8th the mortar-boats 
opened fire. Their shells fell with great accuracy, and although 
one of the boats was sunk and two disabled, fort Jackson was 
seriously damaged. But the defences were by no means crippled 
even after a second bombardment on the 19th, and a formidable 
obstacle to the advance of the Union main fleet was a boom 
between the forts designed to detain the ships under close fire 
should they attempt to run past. At that time the eternal duel 
of ship versus fort seemed to have been settled in favour of the 
latter, and it was well for the Union government that it. had 
placed its ablest and most resolute officer at the head of the 
squadron. Gunboats were repeatedly sent up at night to 
endeavour to destroy the boom, and the bombardment went on, 
disabling only a few guns but keeping the gunners of fort Jackson 
under cover. At last the gunboats " Pinola " and " Itasca " ran 
in and broke a gap in the boom, and at 2 A.M. on the 24th the 
fleet weighed, Farragut in the corvette " Hartford " leading. 
After a severe conflict at close quarters, with the forts and with 
the ironclads and fire rafts of the defence, almost all the Union fleet 
(except the mortar-boats) forced its way past. At noon on the 
25th Farragut anchored in front of New Orleans; forts Jackson and 
St Philip, isolated and continuously bombarded by the mortar- 
boats, surrendered on the 28th; and soon afterwards the military 
portion of the expedition occupied the city. The commander, 
General B. F. Butler, subjected New Orleans to a rigorous 
martial law so tactlessly administered as greatly to intensify the 
hostility of South and North, but his administration was in many 
respects beneficial to the city, which was kept both orderly 
and healthy. Towards the end of the war General N.P. Banks 
held the command at New Orleans. 

Throughout the years of the Civil War and the Reconstruction 
period the history of the city is inseparable from that of the state. 
All the constitutional conventions were held here, the seat of 



532 



NEW PHILADELPHIA NEWPORT 



government again was here (in 1864-1882) and New Orleans 
was the centre of dispute and organization in the struggle 
between the races for the control of government. Notable events 
of that struggle in city history were : the street riot of the 3oth of 
July 1866, at the time of the meeting of the radical constitutional 
convention; and the " revolution " of the I4th of September 
1874, when the White League worsted the Republican metro- 
politan police in pitched battle and forced the temporary flight 
of the Kellogg government. The latter was reinstated in power 
by the United States troops, and by the same power the Democrats 
were frustrated in January 1875, after they had wrested from 
the Republicans the organization of the state legislature. Never- 
theless, the " revolution " of 1874 is generally regarded as the 
independence day of Reconstruction, although not until President 
Hayes withdrew the troops in 1877 and the Packard government 
fell did the Democrats actually hold control of the state and city. 
The financial condition of the city when the whites gained control 
was very bad. The tax-rate had risen in 1873 to 3%. The city 
defaulted in 1874 on the interest of its bonded debt, later re- 
funding this ($22,000,000 in 1875) at a lower rate, so as to Decrease 
the annual charge from $1,416,000 to $307,500. Among events 
in the decade 1880-1890 were the World's Industrial and Cotton 
Centennial Exposition of 1884-1885 (celebrating the centennial 
of the cotton industry of the country), and the introduction of 
electric lighting (1886); in the decade 1890-1900 the intro- 
duction of electric transit, the latest charter and the improve- 
ments in public works already detailed. The lynching of Italian 
subjects by a mob in 1891' caused serious international com- 
plications. 

Among the many floods from which the city has suffered those 
of 1849 and 1882 were the most destructive. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For description see the Historical Sketch Book 
and Guide to New Orleans . . . compiled by several leading writers of 
the New Orleans Press (New York, 1885); B. M. Norman, New 
Orleans and Environs (New Orleans, 1845); Grace King, New 
Orleans, the Place and the People (New York, 1895); and the novels 
and magazine writings of G. W. Cable. The Picayune publishes a 
guide, frequently revised. For administration, Manual of the City 
of New Orleans (periodical); W. W. Howe, " Municipal History of 
New Orleans," in Johns Hopkins University Studies, series vii., No. 4 
(Baltimore, 1889); for accounts of the worst of the yellow-fever 
epidemics, W. L. Robison's Diary of a Samaritan, by a member of the 
Howard Association of New Orleans (New York, 1860) ; Report of the 
Sanitary Commission of New Orleans on the Epidemic Yellow Fever of 
1853 (New Orleans, 1854); and for much miscellaneous information, 
loth Census of the United States (1880), Social Statistics of Cities. 
History and Present Condition of New Orleans . . . by G. E. Waring 
and G. W. Cable (Washington, 1881). 

NEW PHILADELPHIA, a city and the county-seat of Tuscar- 
awas county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Tuscarawas River and near the 
Ohio canal, about 75 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 4456; 
(1900) 6213 (554 foreign-born); (1910) 8542. It is served by the 
Baltimore & Ohio (the Cleveland, Lorain & Wheeling Division), 
and the Pennsylvania (Cleveland & Pittsburgh Division) railways, 
and by an inter-urban electric system. The city has a level site 
in the midst of a good agricultural country, which abounds in 
coal and fire-clay. In the public square is a soldiers' monument, 
and the city has a public library and a park. Its principal 
manufactures are steel, enamelled ware, clay goods, brooms, 
flour and carriages. The first settlement in the vicinity was made 
in May 1772, when Moravian Indian converts migrated from 
Pennsylvania (Friedenshutten, Bradford county, and Frieden- 
stadt, Lawrence county) to Schoenbrunn, called by the Indians 
Welhik-Tuppeek, a spring (now dry) a little south of the present 
New Philadelphia. Under David Zeisberger (1721-1808) and 

1 In October 1890 the chief of police was assassinated, and before 
he died charged the crime to Italians. He had been active in pro- 
ceedings against certain Italians accused of crime, and his death was 
popularly attributed to the Mafia. Nineteen Sicilians were indicted, 
and of nine put on trial six were acquitted and three escaped convic- 
tion on the ground of a mis-trial. On the I4th of March 1891 a mob 
broke into the jail and lynched eleven of the accused. The Italian 
government demanded that the lynchers should be punished, entered 
claims for indemnity in the case of the three Sicilians who had been 
Italian subjects, and, failing to secure as prompt an answer as it 
desired, withdrew its ambassador from Washington. In 1892 the 
United States paid an indemnity of $25,000 to Italy. 



Johann Gottlieb Ernestus Heckewelder (1743-1823) other 
missionary villages were planted at Gnadenhiitten (October 1772)* 
Lichtenau (1776) and Salem (1780), all in the present county 
of Tuscarawas. After the massacre of Christian Indians at 
Gnadenhiitten in 1782 the Indians removed to Michigan and 
in 1791 to Fairfield, Ontario; in 1798 some of them returned to 
Tuscarawas county and settled Goshen, where Zeisberger is 
buried. New Philadelphia was laid out in 1804 and was named 
by its founder, John Knisely, after Philadelphia in Pennsylvania; 
it was incorporated as a village in 1815, and was first chartered 
as a city in 1896. 

See Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly for April 1909 
(Columbus, Ohio) for several articles on the early settlement by 
Moravian Indians. 

NEW PLYMOUTH, a municipality and seaport on the west coast 
of North Island, New Zealand, capital of the provincial district 
of Taranaki, 258 m. N.N.W. of Wellington by rail. Pop. (1906) 
5141. The town slopes to the ocean, with a background of forest 
surmounted by the snow-clad volcanic cone of Mount Egmont 
(8270 ft.). The district is not unjustly termed " the garden of 
New Zealand." It is highly fertile, cereals and fruits growing 
well; and dairy products are extensively exported. In the town 
are leather-works, timber-works and flour-mills, with freezing- 
works for export dairy produce. The settlement was founded in 
1841 by the Plymouth Company under the auspices of the 
New Zealand Company, and chiefly consisted of emigrants from 
Devonshire and Cornwall. On the seashore in the neighbourhood 
are extensive deposits of ironsand. 

NEW POMERANIA (Ger. Neu-Pommern, formerly New 
Britain, native Birara), an island of the Bismarck Archipelago, 
N.E. of New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean, about 6 S., 150 E., 
in the administration of German New Guinea. It is crescent- 
shaped, about 330 m. long, and, except where the Willaumez 
Peninsula projects northward, nowhere more than 60 m. wide. 
The north-eastern extremity consists of the broad, irregular 
Gazelle Peninsula, joined to the main mass by a narrow neck. 
The total area is about 9500 sq. m. The island is in great part 
unexplored. The coasts are in some parts precipitous; in 
others the mountains recede inland, and the coast is flat and 
bordered by coral reefs. The formation appears otherwise to be 
volcanic, and there are some active craters. The greatest 
elevation occurs towards the west about 6500 ft. There is a 
rich tropical vegetation, and a number of considerable streams 
water the island. The chief centre is Herbertshohe at the north 
of the Gazelle Peninsula; it is the seat of the governor of German 
New Guinea (see NEW GUINEA]). 

The natives are Melanesians, resembling their Papuan kinsmen of 
eastern New Guinea, and are a powerful well-formed race. Their 
villages are clean and well kept. Unlike their Papuan relatives, the 
islanders are unskilled in carving and pottery, but are clever farmers 
and fishermen, constructing ingenious fishing weirs. They have a 
fixed monetary system consisting of strings of cowries. They per- 
form complicated surgical operations with an obsidian knife or a 
shark's tooth. The common dead are buried or exposed to sharks 
on the reefs; bodies of chiefs are exposed in the fork of a tree. 
Justice is executed, and taboos, feasts, taxes, &c., arranged by a 
mysterious disguised figure, the duk-duk. The population is divided 
into two exogamous classes. The children belong to the class of the 
mother, and when the father dies go to her village for support, the 
land and fruit trees in each district being divided between the two 
classes. There are several dialects, the construction resembling 
Fijian, as in the pronominal suffixes in singular, triad and plural; 
the numerals, however, are Polynesian in character. 

NEWPORT, a market town and municipal borough, the 
chief town of the Isle of Wight, England. Pop. (1901) 10,911. 
It is situated near the centre of the island, at the head of the 
navigation of the Medina River, 5 m. S. from its mouth at Cowes. 
It is the chief centre of the railway system of the island. The 
church of St Thomas of Canterbury, rebuilt in 1854 in the 
Decorated style, contains many interesting old monuments; 
and one by Marochetti to the princess Elizabeth, daughter of 
Charles I., erected by Queen Victoria. The guildhall, erected in 
1816 from the designs of Nash, includes the town-hall in the 
upper story with the market-place below. There are a corn 
exchange and museum. The grammar school (the scene of 



NEWPORT 



533 



negotiations between Charles I. and the parliament) was founded 
in 1612, and there is a blue-coat school for girls founded in 
1761. The Albany barracks and Parkhurst prison lie north of 
the town. A considerable trade is carried on in timber, malt, 
wheat and flour. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen 
and 18 councillors. Area 504 acres. 

It is supposed that Newport (Neuport) was a Roman settle- 
ment, then known as Medina. There are no traces of Saxon 
occupation, and no evidence that Newport became a borough 
before the reign of Henry II., though it was probably used 
before that time as a port of entrance for the ancient capital of 
Carisbrooke. The first charter was granted by Richard de 
Redvers between 1177 and 1184, freeing the burgesses from 
tolls throughout the island, from hundred suits, and from being 
impleaded without the walls, and giving them permission to 
choose their own reeve privileges for which they paid 18 marks 
yearly. These grants, repeated and extended by the countess 
Isabel de Fortibus, were confirmed in 1349 by Edward III. and 
afterwards by successive kings, Henry VII. in 1489 granting 
in addition the petty customs within all ports and creeks of the 
island. The borough was incorporated by James I. in 1607, 
and a second charter of incorporation granted by Charles I. 
in 1637 is that by which Newport was governed until 1835. It 
was represented in parliament in 1295, but no return was made 
from that time until 1 584, from which date it regularly sent two 
members. In 1867 the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 
its representation was merged in that of the island. A fair was 
formerly held on Whit-Monday and the two following days, and 
on the three Saturdays nearest Whitsuntide, known as " Bargain 
Saturdays," there was a hiring fair for servants. There is now 
no fair. The Saturday market dates from 1184, and there is a 
Wednesday cattle market. Owing to its facilities for trade, 
Newport early superseded Carisbrooke as the capital of the 
island. Its prosperity in medieval times depended upon its 
harbour dues and its oyster beds in the river Medina. 

NEWPORT, a municipal and county borough, contributory 
parliamentary borough, seaport and market town in the Mon- 
mouth parliamentary division of boroughs, Monmouthshire, 
England, on the Usk, 5 m. from its confluence with the Severn, 
and 1335 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. 
Pop. (1891) 54,707; (1901) 67,270. It lies chiefly on the right 
(west) bank of the river, and on the E., N. and W. it is sheltered 
by a line of lofty hills. The old parish church of St Woollos 
stands finely on Stow Hill. Originally it consisted only of the 
present nave, a fine specimen of grand though unadorned 
Norman architecture; but a massive square tower (of the time 
of Henry III.) and a chancel were subsequently added; a large 
western Early English lady-chapel is interposed between the 
nave and the tower. The old castle, built about 1 130 by Robert, 
earl of Gloucester, was greatly altered in the late Perpendicular 
period. The remains include two towers and the river frontage. 
The old Dominican monastery is entirely rebuilt and occupied as 
a private residence; but there are a few fragments of a house of 
White Friars. The principal public buildings are the spacious 
Victoria Hall, the Albert Hall, the town-hall, county council 
offices, market-house, custom-house, and museum and art 
gallery. Newport owes a rapid increase in importance to its 
situation on a deep and spacious tidal river, which renders it a 
convenient outlet for the trade of a rich mineral district. It 
has extensive docks and wharves, to which large steamers have 
access at all tides. Three docks, the Alexandra, South and Old 
Docks, had together a water area of about 60 acres, besides 
the Alexandra graving dock and dry docks. But additional 
accommodation was found necessary. In 1905 the Alexandra 
Docks and Railway company let the contract for the extension 
of the docks by 50 acres of water area, and the scheme was 
enlarged later so as to afford an additional area of 86 acres in all. 
The new works, added to the old Alexandra Dock, give a total 
deep-water area of over 130 acres. The first part to be 
completed (48 acres) was filled in the autumn of 1907. The 
river is crossed by a transporter bridge, opened in 1906, and 
having a span of 645 ft. and a clear headway from high water 



of 177 ft., with a travelling truck worked by electricity. Iron 
ore, pig iron, timber and grain are among the chief imports, 
while coal and iron goods are exported. Besides the Great 
Western railway, Newport is served by the London and North- 
Western, the Rhymney, and the Brecon & Merthyr systems. 
The town possesses large iron foundries and engineering works, 
and among other industries are the manufacture of wagons and 
wheels, nails, bolts and wire, shipbuilding and the making of 
railway plant, chemical manures and agricultural implements. 
There are also large breweries, glass and pottery works, and an 
extensive cattle market. Newport gives name to a Roman 
Catholic bishopric, but the cathedral church is at Belmont near 
Hereford. With Monmouth and Usk, Newport returns one 
member to parliament. In 1889 Maindee, a populous suburb 
on the left bank of the Usk, was incorporated with Newport, 
and constitutes one of its five wards. The town is governed by 
a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area 4431 acres. 

Newport, an ancient mesne borough and castle, occupied an 
important position on the Welsh marches. The town, which is 
not mentioned in Domesday, grew up round the castle built 
early in the 1 2th century. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in 1 187, 
calls it Novus Burgus, probably to distinguish it from Caerleon, 
whose prosperity declined as that of Newport increased. The 
first lord was Robert Fitz Hamon, who died in 1107, and from 
him the lordship passed to the earls of Gloucester and Stafford 
and the dukes of Buckingham. Hugh le Despenser, who held 
the lordship for a short time, obtained in 1323 a charter of 
liberties for the burgesses, granting them freedom from toll 
throughout England, Ireland and Aquitaine. The earl of 
Stafford granted a further charter in 1385, confirmed by his 
grandson in 1427, which gave the burgesses the right of self- 
government and of a merchant gild. On the attainder of the 
duke of Buckingham in 1483 the lordship lapsed to the crown, 
of whom it was held in the i6th and i7th centuries by the 
Pembrokes, and in the igth by the Beauforts. The town was 
incorporated by charter of James I. in 1624 under the title of 
" Mayor and Bailiffs." This charter was confirmed by Charles II. 
in 1685 and holds force at the present day. By the act of 
1535-1536 Newport is entitled as an ancient borough to take 
part in the election of a member for Monmouth town. The 
commercial importance of the town dates only from the second 
half of the igth century, the Old Dock being partially formed in 
1842, while the Alexandra was opened in 1875. In 1801 the 
population of the town was only 1135. In 1385 the borough 
obtained a market lasting fifteen days from the vigil of St 
Lawrence (August 10). The charter of 1624 granted two fairs, 
one on the feast of the Ascension, and a second (still held) on 
St Leonard's day (November 6). Newport was the scene of a 
serious Chartist riot in 1839. 

NEWPORT, a market town in the Newport parliamentary 
division of Shropshire, England, 145 m. N.W. from London 
on the Stafford-Shrewsbury joint line of the London & North- 
Western and Great Western railways, and on the Shrewsbury 
canal. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3241. The church of St 
Nicholas is Early English and Perpendicular. There is an 
ancient market cross, greatly decayed. Newport possesses a 
literary institute, and a free grammar school founded in 1665. 
Four miles S. are the beautiful ruins of Lilleshall abbey, including 
a fine Norman west door and part of the front, considerable 
remains of the church besides, and traces of domestic buildings. 
The abbey was founded in 1145, under charter from King 
Stephen, by Richard de Baumes or Belmeis, dean of St Alkmund, 
Shrewsbury, for Augustinian canons, who were brought from 
Dorchester Abbey, Oxfordshire. Ironstone, coal and limestone 
are worked in the parish. 

Newport is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but 
at the time of the Conquest formed part of the manor of Edg- 
mond, which William I. gave with the rest of the county of 
Shropshire to Roger, earl of Shrewsbury. Henry I. is supposed 
to have founded the borough, at first called New Borough, after 
the manor had come into his hands through the forfeiture of 
Robert de Belesme. The site was probably chosen partly on 



534 



NEWPORT 



account of the fisheries, which are mentioned in the Domesday 
Survey, one of the chief services of the burgesses being that of 
taking fish to the king's court wherever it might be. This 
custom was continued after Henry III. had granted the borough 
with the manor of Edgmond, to Henry de Audley, but in the 
middle of the I3th century James, son of Henry de Audley, 
granted that the burgesses need not take the fish anywhere 
except within the county of Shropshire. The burgesses must 
have received certain privileges from Henry I., since Henry II. 
in an undated charter granted them all the liberties, rights and 
customs which they had in the time of Henry I. This probably 
included a gild merchant which is mentioned in the Quo Warranto 
Rolls as one of the privileges claimed by the burgesses. Con- 
firmation charters were granted by Edward I. in 1287 and 
Edward II. in 1311, while the town was incorporated in 1551 
by Edward VI. whose charter was confirmed by James I. in 
1604. The governing body consisted of a high steward, deputy 
steward, two water-bailiffs and 28 burgesses, but the corporation 
was abolished by the Municipal Corporation Act of 1883, and a 
Local Board was formed, which, under the Local Government 
Act, gave place in 1894 to an urban district council. 

See Edward Jones, Historical Records of Newport, co. Salop; 
Shropshire Archaeol. and Natural History Society, vols. viii. and ix. 
(1885-1886); Victoria County History, Shropshire. 

NEWPORT, a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 
on the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, Ohio, and at the mouth 
of the Licking River opposite Covington, Ky. Pop. (1900) 
28,301, of whom 4081 were foreign-born and 424 were negroes; 
(1910 census) 30,309. It is served by the Louisville & Nash- 
ville, and the Chesapeake & Ohio railways, and by electric lines 
to Covington, Cincinnati, Bellevue, Fort Thomas and Dayton. 
With Cincinnati and Covington it is connected by bridges. In 
the highlands, about 3 m. back of the city, is Fort Thomas, a 
United States military post, established in 1888 to supersede 
Newport Barracks (1804), in the city, which were abandoned 
in 1894. Newport is essentially a residential suburb of Cin- 
cinnati, but it is also industrially important. In 1905 the value 
of the factory product was $5,231,084, Newport ranking third 
among the manufacturing centres of the state. Newport was 
settled late in the i8th century, was laid out in 1791, was incor- 
porated as a town in 1795, and was chartered as a city in 1834. 

NEWPORT, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of 
Newport county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., occupying the southern 
portion of the island of Rhode Island at the entrance to Narra- 
gansett Bay, about 30 m. S. by E. of Providence, about 71 m. 
S. by W. of Boston and about 165 m. E.N.E. of New York. 
Pop. (1905 state census) 25,039, of whom 6m were foreign- 
born, 2590 being born in Ireland; (1910 U.S. census) 27,149. 
It is served by the Newport & Wickford Railroad and Steam- 
boat Line, which connects with the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford railway at Wickford Junction; by ferry to Bristol, 
and by steamboats to Providence, Fall River and New York. 

The broken water-front of the island, about 17 m. long, is 
partly rocky and partly made up of sandy beaches. From 
the harbour on the south-west the land rises to a gently rolling 
plateau with maximum elevations of about 250 ft. The climate 
is notably mild and equable throughout the greater part of the 
year. In the newer parts of the city there are many magnificent 
estates of summer residents; and in the " Old Town," the 
greater part of which is close to the harbour, and extending up 
the hillside, are many 18th-century houses and Thames Street, 
its principal business thoroughfare, only 20 ft. wide. Near 
the northern end of Thames Street, Washington Square or the 
Parade, connects with Broadway, which extends northward 
and is the principal thoroughfare through a large residential 
district of the permanent inhabitants. From the Parade, also, 
Touro Street extends eastward to the upper end of Bellevue 
Avenue, the principal street, which extends southward to the 
ocean. There Bellevue Avenue connects with the southern 
end of the Cliff Walk, which for about 3 m. winds along the 
cliffs on the eastern coast of the island. North of the walk is 
the smooth, hard Easton's Beach, frequented for sea-bathing. 



South of the Cliff Walk is Bailey's Beach, a private bathing- 
beach; at its western end is the Spouting Rock, through an 
opening in which the water, during violent south-east gales, has- 
been thrown to a height of about 50 ft. Ocean Drive, about 
9 m. long, encircles the south-western peninsula. Beyond 
Easton's Beach, in the town of Middletown, is Sachuest, or 
Second, Beach, with a heavier surf, and here is a fissure in the 
rocks, 150 ft. long and 50 ft. deep, and 8-14 ft. wide, known as 
Purgatory. North of Sachuest Beach are the picturesque 
Paradise Rocks and the Hanging Rocks. 

At the head of the Parade stands the old State House (used 
when Newport was one of the capitals of Rhode Island); it 
was completed about 1743, was used as a hospital during the 
War of Independence, and is now the seat of the county court. 
In the vicinity are the City Hall and a monument to Oliver 
Hazard Perry. Fronting on Touro Street is a synagogue, erected 
in 1762-1763, and said to be the oldest in the United States; 
one of the early rabbis was Isaac Touro, a Jew of Dutch birth, 
whose name is borne by a street and a park in Newport. Near 
the corner of Touro Street and Bellevue Avenue is the Hebrew 
cemetery. Of chief historic interest along Bellevue Avenue 
are Touro Park and Redwood Library. In the park is the 
historic old Stone Mill or " Round Tower," which Longfellow, 
in accordance with the contention of certain members of the 
Society of Danish Antiquarians, ascribes, in his Skeleton in 
Armour, to the Norsemen, but which Benedict Arnold (1615- 
1678), governor of Rhode Island, repeatedly mentions in his 
will as " my Stone-built Wind-Mill." Opposite the park stands 
the William Ellery Channing Memorial Church; and in the park 
are monuments to Channing and to Matthew Calbraith Perry. 
The Channing House on Mary Street, built in 1751, is now used 
for a Children's Home. The Redwood Library grew out of the 
Philosophical Society, established in 1730, which Bishop (then 
Dean) Berkeley possibly helped to found during his residence 
here in 1729-1731; the Library was incorporated in 1747, 
being named in honour of Abraham Redwood (c. 1709-1788), 
a wealthy Friend who early contributed 500 toward supplying 
it with books; the building was completed in 1750. In Berkeley 
Avenue, north of Paradise Road, is Whitehall, which Berkeley 
built for his home in 1729 and which was restored in 1900. The 
first newspaper of Newport was published in 1732 by James 
Franklin, a brother of Benjamin Franklin, and in 1758 James 
Franklin's son, also named James, founded the present Newport 
Mercury. 

Newport is best known as a fashionable resort during the 
summer and autumn; there are annual horse and dog shows, 
and fox-hunting is one of the amusements. The harbour is a 
rendezvous for racing- and pleasure-yachts. On Bellevue Avenue 
is the country club, the Casino. Among the great estates with 
magnificent " cottages " here are those of Mrs Cornelius Vander- 
bilt, Wm. B. Leeds, Mrs O. H. P. Belmont (the " Marble Palace," 
built for W. K. Vanderbilt), Mrs Ogden Goelet, Mrs Robert 
Goelet, Perry Belmont, and J. J. Astor all on the Cliff Walk. 

Newport has an inner and an outer harbour; the inner is 
landlocked, i m. long and 5 m. wide, but is not deep enough 
to admit vessels drawing more than 15 ft. of water; the outer 
admits the largest vessels and is a refuge for foreign and coastwise 
commerce. The whole harbour is protected at its entrance 
by Fort Adams, at the mouth of the inner harbour, Fort Wetherill 
on Conanicut Island, and Fort Greble on Dutch Island. The 
Lime Rock Lighthouse was for many years in charge of Mrs Ida 
Lewis Wilson (b. 1841), famous for the many lives she saved. 
On Goat Island, which partly encloses the inner harbour, is 
Fort Walcott, with a United States torpedo station and torpedo 
factory, and on Coasters Harbor Island, farther north, are a 
United States Naval Training Station and a War College. Along 
the western border of the outer harbour is Conanicut Island, on 
which is the town of Jamestown (pop. in 1905, 1337), with the 
Conanicut Yacht Club and other attractions for summer visitors. 
Newport has little foreign trade. There is, however, considerable 
coastwise trade in fish, coal and general merchandise, and in 
1905 the total tonnage of the port amounted to 1,770,816 tons. 



NEWPORT NEWS NEW ROCHELLE 



535 



Fishing is an industry of some importance. The value of the city's 
factory products decreased from $1,575,192 in 1900 to $1,347,104 
in 1905. 

Newport is governed under a charter of 1906, which is unique 
as an instrument for the government of a city, and aims to restore 
in a measure the salient features of township government. Most 
of the powers usually vested in a town meeting are here vested 
in a representative council of 195 members 39 from each of 5 
wards. A candidate for councilman must secure the signature of 
at least 30 electors in his ward before his name can be placed on 
the ballot. A mayor, one alderman from each ward, and a school 
committee are elected in much the same manner: a candidate 
for mayor must have his election paper signed by at least 250 
qualified electors, and an alderman or member of the school 
committee by at least 100. All other important officers are 
appointed by the council. The mayor and aldermen are for the 
most part executive officials corresponding to the selectmen of 
a town. 

Newport was founded by Nicholas Easton (1593-1675), 
William Coddington (1601-1678), John Coggcshall, John Clarke 
(1609-1676), William Brenton (d. 1674), William Dyer, Thomas 
Hazard, Henry Bull (1609-1693) and Jeremy Clerke (d. 1652), 
who, as Antinomians, were driven from Massachusetts Bay, 
and in 1638 settled at Pocasset (later Portsmouth, in the northern 
part of the island of Rhode Island; pop. in 1905, 2371). As radical 
tendencies prevailed in Pocasset they removed, and in 1639 settled 
Newport at the southern end of the island (called Aquidneck 
until 1644), which they had bought from the Indians. Most of 
the founders are commemorated by place-names in the city; in 
the Coddington Burying-Ground are the tombs of Governor 
William Coddington, Governor Henry Bull, and Governor 
Nicholas Easton; and in the Coggeshall Burying-Ground John 
Coggeshall was buried. At the beginning an independent 
government by judge and elders was established (Newport and 
Portsmouth being united in 1640), but in 1647 the town was 
united with Providence, Portsmouth and Warwick in the forma- 
tion of Rhode Island according to the Williams (or, as it is 
commonly called, the Warwick) charter of 1644. During 1651- 
1654 Newport and Portsmouth were temporarily separated 
from the other two towns. About 1640 a Baptist Church was 
founded, which is probably the oldest in the United States 
except the Baptist congregation in Providence; here, too, at 
nearly the same time, one of the first free schools in America was 
opened. In 1656 English Friends settled here. Between 1739 
and 1760 great fortunes were amassed by the "Triangular 
Trade," which consisted in the exchange in Africa of rum for 
slaves, the exchange in the Barbadoes of slaves for sugar and 
molasses, and the exchange in Newport of sugar and molasses for 
rum. The destruction here on the I7th of May 1769 of the 
British revenue sloop " Liberty," formerly the property of John 
Hancock, was one of the first acts of violence leading up to the 
War of American Independence. The foreign trade of Newport, 
which in 1770 was greater than that of New York, was destroyed 
by the War of Independence. During the war the town was in the 
possession of the British from December 1776 to the 25th of 
October 1779; a plan to recover it in 1778 by a land force under 
General John Sullivan, co-operating with the French fleet under 
Count d'Estaing, came to nothing. Soon after the evacuation of 
the British, French troops, under Comte de Rochambeau, 
arrived and remained until near the end of the war, and Newport 
was a station of the French fleet in 1780-1781. The Sayer house, 
which was the headquarters of Richard Prescott (1725-1788), 
the British general; the Vernon house, which was the head- 
quarters of Rochambeaa, and the Gibbs house, which was for 
a short time occupied by Major-General Nathanael Greene, are 
still standing. 

Newport was chartered as a city in 1784, but in 1787 it sur- 
rendered its charter and returned to government by town meeting. 
It was rechartered as a city in 1853; the charter of this year 
was much amended in 1875 and in 1906 was superseded by 
another. Until 1900, when Providence became the sole capital, 
Newport was one of the seats of government of Rhode Island. 



See Mrs J. K. Van Rensselaer, Newport, Our Serial Capital (Phila- 
delphia, 1905); Susan C. Woolsey, " Newport, the Isle of Peace," in 
L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of New England (New York, 1898); 
G. C. Mason, Reminiscences of Newport (Newport, 1884); W. A. 
Greene and others, The Providence Plantations for Two Hundred and 
Fifty Years (Providence, 1886); C. T. Brooks, Controversy touching 
the Old Stone Mill (Newport, 1851); R. M. Bayles (ed.), History of 
Newport County (New York, 1888); E. Peterson, History of Rhode 
Island (i.e. Aquidneck) (New York, 1853). 

NEWPORT NEWS, a city and port of entry of Warwick 
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the James River and Hampton 
Roads, 14 m. N. by W. of Norfolk and 75 m. S.E. of Richmond; 
it is situated on what is known as the Virginia Peninsula. Pop. 
(1890) 4449; (1900) 19,635, of whom 1614 were foreign-born 
and 6798 were negroes; (1910 census) 20,205. Newport 
News is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, of which it is 
a terminus; by river boats to Richmond and Petersburg, Va.; 
by coastwise steamship lines to Washington, D.C., Baltimore, 
Philadelphia, New York, Boston and Providence; by foreign 
steamship lines to London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast, 
Rotterdam, Hamburg and other ports; and by electric lines to 
Old Point Comfort, Norfolk and Portsmouth. A public park 
extending from the James to the heart of the city, a deep, 
spacious and well-protected harbour, a large shipbuilding yard 
with three immense dry docks, and two large grain elevators of 
2,000,000 bushels capacity, are among the most prominent 
features; at the shipbuilding yard various United States battle- 
ships, including the " Kearsarge," " Kentucky," " Illinois," 
" Missouri," " Louisiana," " Minnesota," " Virginia " and 
" West Virginia," were constructed, as well as cruisers, gun-boats, 
merchant vessels, ferry-boats and submarines. The city's 
export of grain and its coastwise trade in coal are especially 
large. Among the manufactures are shoes, tobacco, medicines 
and knit goods. The value of the factory products in 1905 was 
$9,053,906, being 52-5% more than in 1900. Both in 1900 and 
in 1905 Newport News ranked second to Richmond among the 
cities of the state in the value of factory products. The first 
settlement on the site of Newport News was made in 1621 by 
planters brought from Ireland by Daniel Gookin, the father 
of Daniel Gookin (1612-1687) of Massachusetts, who selected 
the site on the advice of Sir William Newce and his brother 
Captain Newce. The present city dates only from 1882, when 
it was laid out in consequence of the extension of the Chesapeake 
& Ohio railway to the coast here; it was incorporated in 1896. 
The name is said to be in honour of Christopher Newport and Sir 
William Newce. 

NEWPORT PAGNELL, a market town in the Buckingham 
parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 56 m. 
N.W. by N. of London, on a branch of the London & North- 
Western railway, and at the junction of the river Ouzel with 
the Ouse. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4028. The church of 
St Paul and St Peter has Early English portions, including fine 
north and south porches. An inscription on the tomb of Thomas 
Abbott Hamilton in the churchyard is by the poet Cowper, who 
lived in the neighbouring town of Olney (q.v.). The almshouse 
called Queen Anne's Hospital is named from Anne of Denmark, 
queen of James I., who reconstituted a foundation of the time of 
Edward I., dedicated to St John the Baptist and St John the 
Evangelist. 

NEWQUAY, a seaport and watering-place, in the St Austell 
parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 14 m. N. of Truro, 
on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district 
(1901) 2935. It is finely situated on the north coast, on Newquay 
Bay, which is sheltered to the west by Towan Head. The cliff 
scenery is grand, and there is a fine sandy beach along the 
northward sweep of the coast in Watergate Bay. The harbour, 
artificially constructed, and equipped with a jetty and piers, 
admits vessels of 250 tons. The chief exports are iron and other 
ores, china clay, granite, fish and grain. The imports are coal, 
salt and manures. 

NEW ROCHELLE, a city of Westchester county, in southern 
New York, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, i6J m. from the Grand 
Central Station, New York City. Pop. (1890) 9057, (1900) 



536 



NEW ROSS NEW SIBERIA ARCHIPELAGO 



14,720, of whom 4425 were foreign-born and 777 negroes; (1910 
census) 28,867. It is served by the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Railroad, and by electric railways to New York City 
and neighbouring places. The city is primarily a residential 
suburb of New York City, and has some fine colonial residences, 
and several beautiful residential parks, notably Rochelle, 
Neptune, and Beechmont Parks. Its large foreign-born popula- 
tion is comparatively recent and comparatively isolated. Among 
the prominent buildings of the city are a public library, the high 
school, a theatre (owned by the Knights of Columbus), a Masonic 
Temple, the City Bank and several churches, of which the most 
notable, perhaps, are the Baptist, Methodist, and St Gabriel's 
(Roman Catholic), which is the gift of members of the Iselin 
family, to whose interest in yachting is due in part the prominence 
of the New Rochelle and Larchmont Yacht Clubs. The Ursuline 
College of St Angela (1904) and the Merrill School (1906), both for 
girls, are in New Rochelle. The principal building of the first 
is Leland Castle, built in 1858-1860 by Simon Leland and finely 
decorated with frescoes and coloured marbles. A People's 
Forum, growing out of the work of the People's Institute of 
New York City, was established here in 1903-1904. In the road 
between New Rochelle and White Plains is the monument to 
Thomas Paine, provided for in his will, on the farm which was 
confiscated from a Tory by the state and was given to him at the 
end of the American War of Independence. On the Sound, 
in Hudson Park, is a monument commemorating the landing- 
place of the first Huguenot settlers. Immediately S. of 
New Rochelle, in the Sound, is Glen Island, an amusement 
resort; belonging to the Glen Island group, E. of Pelham 
Manor, is Travers Island, with the out-of-town clubhouse and 
grounds of the New York Athletic Club. On David's Island, 
15 m. S.W. of New Rochelle, is Fort Slocum, a United States 
Army post. The suburban villages of Larchmont and Pelham 
(and Pelham Manor) lie respectively N.E. and W. of New 
Rochelle. The important industries are the manufacture of 
scales and of other instruments of precision, and printing and 
publishing the Knickerbocker Press of G. P. Putnam's Sons, 
New York, is here. The site of New Rochelle is part of a purchase 
by Thomas Pell in 1654 and of a grant to him by Richard Nicolls 
in 1666; it was sold in 1689 to Jacob Leisler. The first settle- 
ment of importance was made in 1688 by Huguenots, some of 
whom were natives of La Rochelle. New Rochelle was incor- 
porated as a village in 1847, and as a city in 1899. 

See R. and C. W. Bolton, History of the Several Towns, Manors 
and Patents of Westchester County (New York, 1881), and J. Thomas 
Scharf's History of Westchester County (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1886). 

NEW ROSS, a market-town of Co. Wexford, Ireland, on the 
acclivity of a hill on the E. bank of the Barrow, 2 m. below its 
junction with the Nore, 102 m. S.S.W. of Dublin by the Dublin 
& South-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 5847. The Barrow 
is crossed by an iron bridge with a swivel pillar in the centre 
on which a portion of the bridge is turned to admit the passage 
of vessels. Vessels of 600 tons can lie alongside the quays. The 
inland water communications reach to Dublin by means of the 
Barrow and the Grand Canal. The Nore is navigable to Inistioge. 
New Ross has breweries and tan-yards, a salmon fishery, and a 
brisk export trade in agricultural produce. The urban district of 
New Ross includes Rosbercon, on the opposite side of the Barrow. 

It is stated that St Alban built the abbey of Rossmactreoin, 
which gave rise to an ancient city formerly called Rossglas. A 
Dominican foundation of the I3th century has left some remains 
in Rosbercon. According to Camden, New Ross was founded by 
Isabella, daughter of Strongbow and wife of William Marshal, 
afterwards earl of Pembroke. A charter was granted to it by 
Roger Bigod in the reign of Edward I., which was extended by 
James I. and James II. From 1374 it returned two members 
to parliament, but at the Union in 1800 the number was reduced 
to one, and the town ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 
1885. In 1269 it was surrounded by walls. The fortresses were 
dismantled by Cromwell, but some remains are extant. 

NEWRY, a seaport, market town and parliamentary borough 
(returning one member) of Co. Down, Ireland, on the Newry 



water and Newry canal at the extreme head of Carlingford Lough. 
Pop. (1901) 12,405. It is 73 m. N. of Dublin by the Great 
Northern railway. A railway owned by the London & North- 
Western company connects Newry with the deep-water harbour 
at Greenore; and there is an electric railway to Bessbrook 
in Co. Armagh. The western part, called Ballybot, is con- 
nected with the eastern part, or old town, by four bridges over 
the canal and four over the tidal water. The situation of the 
town is striking, the Newry Mountains and Slieve Gullion on 
the west, and the Mourne Mountains on the east, enclosing the 
narrow valley in which it lies. Newry is one of the most 
important ports of the province of Ulster, and in connexion with 
several sub-ports farther down the river is the outlet for the 
trade of a very extensive district. The port admits vessels 
of 2000 tons to Victoria Docks, 3 m. from the town, but vessels 
drawing 1 5 ft. can go up the ship canal to the Albert Basin, 3 m. 
from the sea. The principal exports are grain, eggs, cattle, linen 
cloth and flax, and the imports include timber, groceries and coal. 
In the neighbourhood granite of a fine quality is quarried, and 
the town possesses rope and sail works, breweries, distilleries, 
flour-mills and tanneries. It is governed by an urban district 
council. In 1175 an abbey was founded here by Maurice 
M'Loughlin, king of Ireland. The abbey was converted in 1 543 
into a collegiate church for secular priests, and was dissolved by 
Edward VI., who granted it to Sir Nicholas Bagenal, marshal of 
Ireland. Bagenal made it his private residence, and laid the 
foundations of its prosperity. In 1689 Newry was set on fire by 
the duke of Berwick when in retreat before Schomberg. Charters 
were granted to the town by James I. and James II. By the 
charter of James I. it sent two members to parliament, but at the 
Union in 1800 it was restricted to one member. Until 1898 a 
portion of Newry was situated in Co. Armagh. A mile N.E. of 
the town is a notable rath or enclosure, taking its name of 
Crown rath from traditional single encounters between native 
princes in contention for the sovereignty. 

NEW SIBERIA ARCHIPELAGO, a group of islands situated 
off the Arctic coast of Siberia, from 73 to 76 6' N., and 135 20' 
to 148 E. The name is loosely applied, covering either the 
northern group only of these islands, for which the name of New 
Siberia Archipelago, or of Anjou Islands, ought properly to be 
reserved, or the southern group as well, which ought to maintain 
its name of Lyakhov Islands. Some confusion prevails also as 
to whether the islands Bennett, Henrietta and Jeannette, dis- 
covered by the " Jeannette " expedition, ought to be included in 
the same archipelago, or described separately as the Jeannette 
Islands. The first of these three belongs geographically, and 
probably geologically, to New Siberia Archipelago, from which 
it is only 97 m. distant. As to Henrietta and Jeannette Islands, 
situated 200 m. N.E. of New Siberia Island, in 157 to 159 E., 
they can hardly be included in the New Siberia Archipelago. 
There seems, moreover, to be land due north of Kotelnyi Island 
in 78 N., first sighted by Sannikov and described as Sannikov 
Land. It was also seen by Baron Toll. 

The New Siberia or Anjou Islands consist, beginning from the 
west, of Kotelnyi, the largest (116 m. long, 100 m. wide), having the 
small island Byelkoyskiy near its western shore; Thaddeus (Fad- 
d^evskiy), in the middle; and New Siberia (Novaya Sibir), in the 
east (90 m. long, 40 m. wide). Kotelnyi is the highest and most 
massive of the four, reaching a maximum altitude of 1200 ft. in the 
Malakatyn-tras mountain. Its north-east portion consists of Upper 
Silurian coral limestones (Llandoyery division), containing a rich 
fossil fauna and representing a series of folds running north-north- 
west. The same Silurian deposits are widely spread on the mainland 
as far as Olenek. The western portion of Kotelnyi is built up of 
Middle Devonian limestones and slates, folded the same way, of which 
the fossil fauna is similar to that of the Urals. Triassic slates appear 
in the south-east. Diabases pierce to Devonian rocks, and olivine 
rocks appear as dykes amidst the Triassic deposits. The Malakatyn- 
tras is also made up of volcanic rocks. The eastern portion of the 
island, named Bunge's Land, is thickly covered with Post-Tertiary 
deposits. Thaddeus Island has a long promontory, Anjou, protrud- 
ing north-westwards. New Siberia Island attains altitudes of 200 
to 300 ft. in its western portion. A range of hills, composed of 
Tertiary deposits, and named Hedenstrom^ Mountains, runs along 
its south-western coast, and the same rocks form a promontory 
protruding northwards. The so-called Wood Mountains, which 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



537 



were supposed to be accumulations of floating wood, are denudations 
of Miocene deposits containing layers of brown coal with full stems 
of trees. These Tertiary deposits are characterized by a rich fauna ; 
fully developed leaves of poplars, numerous fruits of the mammoth 
tree, needles of several conifers, &c., being found in them, thus 
testifying to a climate once very much warmer. The only repre- 
sentative of tree vegetation now is a dwarf willow I in. high. 

The Lyakhov Islands consist of the Bolshoy (Large), or Blizhniy 
(Nearest), which is separated by Laptev Strait, 27 m. wide, from 
Svyatoy Nos of Siberia; Malyi (Small), or Dalniy (Farthest), to 
the north-west of Blizhniy ; and three smaller islands Stolbovyi 
(Pillars), Semenovskiy and Vasilevskiy to the west of Malyi. 
Dr Bunge found Bolshoy to consist of granite protruding from be- 
neath non-fossiliferous deposits; while the promontory of Svyatoy 
Nos consists of basalt hills, 1400 ft. high. Along the southern coast 
of Bolshoy Baron Toll found immense layers of fossil ice, 70 ft. 
thick, evidently relics from the Ice Age, covered by an upper layer 
of Post-Tertiary deposits containing numbers of perfectly well- 
preserved mammoth remains, rhinoceros, Ovibos, and bones of 
the horse, reindeer, American stag, antelope, saiga and even the 
tiger. The proof that these animals lived -and fed in this latitude 
(73 20' N)., at a time when the islands were not yet separated from 
the continent, is given by the relics of forest vegetation which are 
found in the same deposits. A stem of Alnus fruticosa, 90 ft. high, 
was found with all its roots and even fruits. 

Basalts and Tertiary brown coal deposits enter into the com- 
position of the southern extremity of Bennett Island, and the 
mountains of Sannikov Land, seen by Toll, have the aspect of 
basaltic " table mountains." 

The climate of these islands is very severe. In 1886 the winter 
ended only in June, to begin anew in August (2ist May, -5-8 
F.; i6th October, -34-6). The highest summer temperature 
was 50. Flocks of geese and other birds come to the islands 
from the north (Bunge and Toll), as also the gull Leslrispomarina, 
which feeds chiefly on the lemming. The lemmings are very 
numerous, and in certain years undertake migrations to the 
mainland and back. Reindeer, followed by wolves, come also 
every year to the islands; the polar fox and polar bear, both 
feeding on the lemmings, are numerous. Hunters come in 
numbers to the Lyakhovs, which must have been long known 
to Arctic hunters. 

A Yakutsk Cossack, named Vaghin, wintered on Bolshoy 
in 1712, but it was a merchant, Lyakhov, who first described 
the two greater islands of this group in 1770, and three years 
later reached on sledges the largest island of the New Siberia 
group, which he named Kotelnyi. The Lyakhovs were mapped 
in 1777. J. Sannikov, with a party of hunters, discovered in 
1805-1808 Stolbovyi, Thaddeus and New Siberia Islands, and 
a merchant, Byelkov, the Byelkovskyi Islands. He sighted 
the land to the north of Kotelnyi and the land to the north 
of New Siberia (now Bennett Island). A Russian officer named 
Hedenstrom, accompanied by Sannikov, explored the archi- 
pelago and published a map of it in 1811. Lieutenant Anjou 
visited it in 1821-1823. A scientific expedition under Dr 
Alexander Bunge (including Baron Eduard Toll) explored it in 
1885-1886. Baron Toll revisited it in 1893 with Lieutenant 
Shileiko, and again in 1900 with F. G. Seeberg. Papers were 
found on Bennett Island showing that he left it for the south in 
November 1902, but he never returned home, and two relief 
parties in 1903 failed to find traces of him. 

AUTHORITIES. The works of Hedenstrom, Ferdinand von 
Wrangell, and Anjou, Bunge and Toll in Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des 
russischen Reichs, 3te Folge, Bd. iii. (1887). Baron Toll in Memoirs 
(Zapiski) of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences, 7th series, vol. 
xxxvii. (1889), xliii. (1895), and 8th series, vol. ix. (1899), with maps. 
J. Schmalhausen, " Tertiare Pflanzen," in same Memoirs, 7th series, 
vol. xxxvii. (1890); Geographical Journal, passim. (P. A. K.) 

NEW SOUTH WALES, a state of the Australian Common- 
wealth. The name was given by Captain Cook, in his exploratory 
voyage in 1770, to the southern portion of the eastern coast of 
Australia, from some imagined resemblance of its coast-line to 
that of South Wales. The name was afterwards extended to 
the eastern half of Australia, but now designates a much more 
restricted area. New South Wales is bounded by the Pacific 
Ocean on the E., by Queensland on the N., by South Australia 
on the W. and by Victoria on the S. It lies between 28 and 
38 S. lat., and 141 and 154 E. long. The coast-line, which 
is about 700 m. in length, extends from Cape Howe (37 30') 



at the south-eastern corner of Australia to Point Danger in 
28 7' S. The colony is approximately rectangular in form, 
with an average depth from the coast of 650 m. and an average 
width from north to south of 500 m. The superficial area is 
estimated at 310,700 sq. m., or about one-tenth of the whole of 
Australia. 

Physical Configuration. The surface of the state is divided 
naturally into three distinct zones, each widely differing in general 
character and physical aspect, and clearly defined by the Great 
Dividing Range running from north to south. The tableland, 
which forms the summit of the range, comprises one of the three 
zones and separates the other zones, viz. the coastal region, and 
the great plain district of the interior. The main range follows 
the line of the coast, varying from 30 to 140 m. distant, being 
nearest at the south and receding the farthest at the sources 
of the Goulburn river, the main tributary of the Hunter. The 
crest of this range is, in some places, narrow; in others it spreads 
out into a wide tableland. The eastern slopes are, as a rule, 
rugged and precipitous, but the western versant falls gently 
to plains. The highest part of the Dividing Range is in the 
south-eastern portions of the state, on the borders of Victoria. 
Here some of the peaks rise to a height of over 7000 ft. ; one of 
these, Mount Kosciusco, the highest peak in Australia, attains 
an elevation of 73 28 ft. The tableland varies greatly in elevation, 
but nowhere does it fall below 1500 ft., and in places it reaches 
an average of 5000 ft. The great plain district, lying west of the 
tableland, is part of a vast basin which comprises portions of 
Queensland, South Australia and Victoria, as well as of New 
South Wales. The great plains are traversed by a few rivers, 
whose long and uncertain courses carry their waters to the river 
Murray, which empties itself into the Southern Ocean through 
the state of South Australia, and during 1250 m. of its course 
forms the boundary between the states of New South Wales 
and Victoria. The Murray has a very tortuous course, as may 
be judged from the fact that the measurement along the joint 
boundary of New South Wales and Victoria is only 460 m. in a 
straight line, the river course being 1250. The chief tributaries 
of the Murray are the Darling and the Murrumbidgee, which is 
joined by the Lachlan. The Murray and the Murrumbidgee are 
permanent streams, but the Darling occasionally ceases to run 
in part of its course, and for a thousand miles above its junction 
with the Murray it receives no tributary. In its upper course 
the Darling receives numerous tributaries. Those on the right 
bank all come from Queensland and bring down enormous 
volumes of water in flood time; on the left bank the most im- 
portant tributaries are the Gwydir, Namoi, Castlereagh, Bogan 
and Macquarie. Here and there along the course of the western 
rivers are found lagoons, sometimes of considerable dimensions. 
These are commonly called lakes, but are in reality shallow 
depressions receiving water from the overflow of the rivers in 
times of flood, and in return feeding them when the floods have 
subsided. 

The coastal belt differs greatly from the other divisions of 
the state. The main range gives rise to numerous rivers flowing 
eastward to the South Pacific. Almost everywhere between the 
main range and the sea the country is hilly and serrated, more 
particularly in the southern portions of the state. In the Illa- 
warra district, 50 m. south of Sydney, the mountains skirt the 
very edge of the coast, but farther north there is a wider coast- 
land, with greater stretches of country available for tillage and 
pasture. 

Along the sea-board are twenty-two well-defined headlands 
or capes and about a score of bays or inlets, to mark which for 
navigators there are thirty-four lighthouses. There are four 
very fine natural harbours, viz. Jervis Bay, Port Jackson, 
Broken Bay and Port Stephens, and several others of minor im- 
portance. Port Jackson, on which is situated the city of Sydney, 
is one of the six greatest ports of the Britjsh empire. The 
port second of commercial importance to Sydney is Newcastle, 
at the mouth of the Hunter river, which is the great coal-shipping 
port of the colony. Secondary harbours, available for coasting 
steamers, south of Sydney are at Port Hacking, Wollongong, 



538 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



Kiama, Shoalhaven, Bateman's Bay, Ulladulla, Merimbula, 
and Twofold Bay. North of Sydney the secondary ports are 
at the mouths of the Hawkesbury, Manning, Hastings, Macleay, 
Nambucca, Bellingen, Clarence, Richmond and Tweed rivers. 
The rivers of the sea-board are as just enumerated, the only other 
of importance being the Hunter. The Richmond drains an area 
of 2400 sq. m. and is navigable for 60 m. The Clarence is a fine 
stream draining an area of 8000 sq. m.; it has a course of 
240 m. navigable for 67 m. The Macleay drains an area of 4800 
sq. m., and empties at Trial Bay after a course of 200 m., of 
which 20 m. are navigable. The Hastings and Manning are both 
important rivers. The Hunter is one of the chief rivers of the 
state and embouches at Port Hunter or Newcastle Harbour after 
a course of 200 m. It drains an area of 11,000 sq. m., more than 
twice the area of the Thames basin. Less commercially important 
than the Hunter, the Hawkesbury is nevertheless a fine stream; 
it has a course of 330 m., of which 70 m. are navigable. South 
of Sydney the rivers are of less importance; the principal is the 
Shoalhaven, 260 m. long, draining an area of 3300 sq. m. 

Climate. The three geographical regions above described 
constitute three distinct climatic divisions. The coastal region, 
28 to 37 S. lat., shows a difference between the average summer 
and winter temperatures of only 24 Fahrenheit. Sydney, which 
is situated midway between the extreme points of the state 
(33 S 1 ' S.), has a mean temperature of 63, the mean summer 
temperature being 71 and that of winter 54, showing a mean 
range of 17; the highest temperature in the shade experienced 
at Sydney in 1896 was 108-5, and the lowest 35-9. The coastal 
district has an area of 38,000 sq. m., over which there is an 
average rainfall of 42 in. The rainfall is greatest at the sea-board, 
diminishing inland; the fall also diminishes from north to south. 
Sydney has an average fall of 50 in., while the Clarence Heads, 
in the north, has 58 in., and Eden, in the south, 35-5 in. The 
tableland is a distinct climatic region. On the high southern 
plateau, at an elevation of 4640 ft., stands the town of Kiandra, 
with a mean summer temperature of 36-4 and winter of 32-5. 
Cooma, in the centre of the Monaro plains, at an elevation of 
2637 ft., has a mean summer temperature of 65-9 and winter, 
41-7; its summers are therefore as mild as those of London 
or Paris, while its winters are much less severe. On the New 
England tableland, under latitude 30 S., the yearly average 
temperature is 56-5, the mean summer 67-7 and the mean 
winter 44-3. The tablelands cover an area of 85,000 sq. m. 
and have an average rainfall of 32-6 in.; there is, however, a 
small area in the southern portion where an average fall of 64 in. 
is experienced. In the western division, or great plains, severe 
heat is experienced throughout the summer, and on occasional 
days the thermometer in the shade ranges above 100 Fahrenheit, 
but it is a dry heat and more easily borne than a much less degree 
of temperature at the sea-board. The mean summer temperature 
ranges between 75 at Deniliquin in the south and 84 at Bourke. 
The mean range in winter is between 48 and 54-5, and, accom- 
panied as this is with clear skies, the season is very refreshing. 
West of the tableland the amount of rainfall decreases as the 
distance from the Pacific increases, and in a large area west of 
the Darling the average annual rainfall does not exceed 10 in. 
For the whole western division, embracing an area of 188,000 
sq. m., the average rainfall is 19-8 in. (T. A. C.) 

Geology. New South Wales consists geologically as well as geo- 
graphically of three main divisions which traverse the state from 
north to south. The highlands of eastern Australia form the middle 
belt of the state, to the east of which are the low coastal districts 
and to the west the wide western plains. The highlands of New 
South Wales consist, geographically, of a series of tablelands, now 
in the condition of dissected peneplains; geologically, they are 
built of a foundation of Archean and folded Lower Palaeozoic rocks, 
covered in places by sheets of more horizontal Upper Palaeozoic 
and Mesozoic rocks; these deposits occur along the edge of the 
highlands, and are widely distributed on the floor of the coastal 
districts. They have been lowered to this level by a monoclinal fold, 
which has brought down the Mesozoic rocks, so that they extend 
eastward to the coast, where they dip beneath the sea. The western 
plains contain isolated ridges of the old Archean and Lower Palaeo- 
zoic rocks; but in the main, they consist of plains of Cretaceous 
beds covered by Cainozoic drifts. The stratified rocks in the high- 
lands strike north and south, as if they had been crumpled into folds, 



in Upper Palaeozoic times, by pressure from east to west. The weak 
areas in the crust caused by the earth movements were invaded by 
great masses of Devonian granites. They altered the Lower Palaeo- 
zoic rocks on their edges, and were once thought to have converted 
wide areas of Lower Palaeozoic rocks into schists and gneisses. 
Most of these foliated rocks, however, are doubtless of Archean age. 
The highland rocks no doubt once extended along the whole length 
of the state from north to south; but they are now crossed by a 
band of Upper Palaeozoic sediments, which extend up to the valley 
of the Hunter river and separate the Blue Mountains and the 
Southern Highlands of New South Wales from the New England 
tableland to the north. 

The oldest rocks in New South Wales are referrable to the Archean 
system, and consist of gneisses and schists, including the glauco- 
phane-schists in the New England tableland, and hornblende- 
schists of Berthong. The Archean rocks are comparatively sparsely 
exposed in New South Wales. They enter the state from the south, 
being continuous with the Archean block of north-eastern Victoria. 
They occupy a large area in the western districts of New South 
Wales, where a projection from the Archean plateau of central 
Australia crosses into the state from South Australia; it is best 
exposed in the Barrier Ranges around Broken Hill. Cambrian rocks 
have not yet been discovered in New South Wales; but Pittman 
has recorded an Agnostus from Mandurama, near Orange. The 
rocks of the Ordovician system, though widely distributed, have not 
always been separated from the Silurian rocks, which they often 
closely resemble lithologically. The occurrence of Ordovician rocks 
was first established by Dun at Tomingley, 33 m. S.W. of Dubbo, 
where he discovered graptolites that he identified as Climacograptus 
and Dicellograptus. Other graptolites have been found near Orange, 
and at Lyndnurst, near Carcoar. The fossiliferous horizon is of 
Upper Ordovician age. The extent of the Ordovician will probably 
be increased by addition of areas, which cannot yet be separated 
from the Silurian. The Silurian system is the best-known con- 
stituent of the Lower Palaeozoic foundation of New South Wales. 
The rocks consist of sandstones, quartzites, slates and shales, asso- 
ciated with lenticular masses of limestone. The typical Silurian rocks 
are richly fossiliferous, the shales containing trilobites, the sand- 
stones many brachiopods, and the limestones a rich coral and bryo- 
zoan fauna. There are also beds of chert, which are largely composed 
of radiolaria. Caves have been dissolved in the limestones by under- 
ground streams; the Jenolan caves in the Blue Mountains and 
those of Yarrangobilly and the Goulburn district are the most famous. 
The slates of the Silurian have been bent into folds, and saddle reefs 
occur along the axis of the folds, as at Hargraves. Numerous 
quartz reefs occur both in the Silurian and Ordovician rocks. In 
these reefs the chief mineral is gold. Some schists, attributed to 
the Silurian, but possibly older, contain platinum; and associated 
with the limestones are beds of copper. 

The rocks of the Devonian system rest unconformably upon the 
Silurian; but some beds of which the age is still uncertain are 
called Devono-Silurian. The Devonian beds are well developed in 
the Blue Mountains, where the lower Devonian sediments at Mount 
Lambie are estimated to be 10,000 ft. in thickness. They are ex- 
tensively developed . along the Cox river and along the slopes of 
Mount Canoblas. They are also developed in the New South Wales 
highlands, to the south-east of Goulburn. Some of the best-known 
exposures are in the ranges which rise above the western plains, 
such as the Rankin Range on the Darling and the Kokopara Range 
to the north of the Murrumbidgee. The Devonian rocks at Yalwal 
are sharply folded and are associated with a series of rhvolites and 
basic lavas. The lower part of this series is probably Lower De- 
vonian; and it is covered by shales and volcanic rocks belonging 
to the Upper Devonian. In the extreme south-east of New South 
Wales, at the head of the Genoa river, are sandstones with Archaeo- 
pteris howilti, which are an extension of the Lower Devonian 1 eds 
of Victoria; while farther to the east, at Eden and Twofold Bay, 
are Upper Devonian sandstones. 

The Devonian system is separated from the Carboniferous by an 
interval, during which there were powerful earth movements; they 
produced a lofty mountain chain, running north and south across 
New South Wales. The highlands are the worn down stumps of 
this mountain line. In Lower Carboniferous times these mountains 
were snow-capped, and the valleys on their flanks were occupied by 
glaciers. 

The Lower Carboniferous beds are represented by conglomerates 
and sandstones with some shales and limestones. The sandstones 
are characterized by Lepidodendron (Bergeria) australe. It is asso- 
ciated with beds of lava and volcanic ash, some of which contain 
copper ores. Granites and granodiorites were intruded at this period 
into the older rocks, and altered the adjacent Devonian beds into 
slates and quartzites, and formed gold-quartz veins, which have 
been worked in the Devonian rocks at Yalwal. The Lower Carboni- 
ferous rocks also occur in the Blue Mountains, along the Cox river 
and Capertee river; and a northern continuation occurs along the 
western slope of the New England tableland, from the Macintyre 
river to the Queensland border. 

The Upper Carboniferous rocks are most important from their 
rich seams of coal. They occupy from 24,000 to 28,000 sq. m., 
which are best exposed in the Hunter river and around Newcastle. 



n TT ^~=-S\ TT .-'T 




NEW SOUTH WALES 



539 



Farther south they disappear beneath the Mesozoic sandstones, 
from which they again rise along the coast around Lake Illawarra 
and near the mouth of the Shoalhaven river. The Coal Measures 
have been reached under Sydney, by a deep bore at Balmain, which 
pierced a seam of coal 10 ft. thick, at the depth of 2917 ft. The Coal 
Measures are classified by Professor T. VV. David as follows : 

Ft. 

1. Upper or Newcastle Coal Measures, containing 

an aggregate of about 100 ft. of coal . . 1,150 

2. Dempsey Series; freshwater beds, containing 

no productive coal. This series thins out 
completely in certain directions . . . 2,000 

3. Middle, or Tomago, or East Maitland Coal 

Measures, containing an aggregate of about 

40 ft. of coal ...... 570 

4. Upper Marine Series; specially characterized by 

the predominance of Productus brachythaerus 5,000 

5. Lower or Greta Coal Measures, containing an 

aggregate of about 20 ft. of coal . . . 130 

6. Lower Marine Series; specially characterized by 

the predominance of Eurydesma cordaia . 4,800 

13.650 

Geologically, perhaps, the most interesting rocks in the Carbon- 
iferous are the glacial conglomerates, containing ice-scratched, 
erratic blocks. Some of the boulders are encrusted by marine 
organisms and must have been dropped by icebergs in the sea. The 
northern limit of the glacial beds is in dispute; they have been 
described as far north as Ashford. The Carboniferous beds contain 
numerous sheets and flows of basalt and andesite. A syenite massif 
of this age occurs at Mittagong; and leucite has been discovered in 
Carboniferous basalts by David. 

The Mesozoic rocks of New South Wales begin with the Narrabeen 
Shales; they are covered by the Hawkesbury Sandstones, which are 
well exposed around Sydney; and they in turn are covered by the 
Wianamatta Shales. The Triassic age of the Hawkesbury Sand- 
stone is supported by the evidence of the fossil fish; though, accord- 
ing to Dr Smith Woodward, they may perhaps be Rhaetic. But the 
fossil plants of which the chief are Taeniopteris daintreei and Thinn- 
feldia odontopteroides are regarded by Seward as Lower Jurassic. 
At Talbragar there is a bed containing Jurassic fish, which rests in an 
erosion hollow in the Hawkesbury Sandstone. The Talbragar beds, 
then, may be representative of the Jurassic; and the underlying 
Hawkesbury Sandstone may be Upper Triassic. The Cretaceous 
system is widely developed in the western part of the state, where it 
is represented by two divisions. The Rolling Downs formation is 
regarded as Lower Cretaceous. It consists of a thick series of shales 
containing marine fossils. It is covered in places by tablelands and 
ridges of the Desert Sandstone, the remnants of a sheet which 
doubtless once covered the whole of the Western Plains. The chief 
economic product of the Desert Sandstone is opal, which occurs in it 
at White Cliffs and Wilcannia. The opal beds contain Cretaceous 
fossils such as Cimoliosaurus. An occurrence of Upper Cretaceous 
beds occurs in the coastal district at Nimbin on the Richmond river. 
The Cainozoic rocks are best developed in the western districts, as 
the silts of the Darling and Murray plains. They include some 
Miocene, or perhaps Oligocene marine sands, formed in the northern 
part of an inland sea, which occupied the basin of the Lower Murray. 
The most significant point in the distribution of the marine Cainozoic 
rocks in New South Wales is their complete absence from the coastal 
districts; this fact indicates that while the Middle Cainozoic marine 
beds of Victoria and New Guinea were being deposited, Australia 
extended far eastward into the Tasman Sea. The Cainozoic series of 
New South Wales contains many interesting volcanic rocks, including 
leucite-basalts, nepheline-basalts and sodalite-basalts. In a basic 
neck of this period at Inverell, there are eclogite boulders, containing 
diamonds in situ; and it is doubtless from these basic volcanic necks 
that the diamonds of the New England tableland have been derived. 
The volcanic rocks occur on the tableland of New South Wales, and 
contribute much to the fertility of their soils. 

The most important mineral in New South Wales is coal, of which 
the state has probably a larger available supply than any other 
country in the southern hemisphere. The coal-fields occupy 24,000 
sq. m. The coal is present in such vast amount as to offer the 
possibility of very economical working of the abundant iron ores of 
Australia. Kerosene shale occurs in the Blue Mountains to the west 
of Sydney, in the Upper Carboniferous rocks. Gold is widely 
distributed through the highlands. It was first recorded by James 
McBrien in 1823, as occurring in grains in the sands of the Fish river, 
between Rydal and Bathurst ; and though further discoveries were 
made, they were kept secret as far as possible. The first discovery 
of gold in mining quantities was made by Hargraves in 1851, at the 
junction of Lewis Ponds and Summerhill Creek, in what was called the 
Ophir Diggings, near Bathurst. The gold mines are very numerous 
and widely scattered, but individually they are mostly small and of 
no great depth. The total value of the gold raised since 1850 is over 
50,000,000. The output of alluvial gold is now increased by the 
employment of dredges. The gold-quartz veins are mainly in the 
Ordovician and Silurian rocks; but some also occur in the Devonian, 



and there are impregnations of gold in tufas of Devonian age. Deep 
leads beneath the basalts occur at Kiandra. 

The silver-lead mines of New South Wales are famous owing to the 
importance of Broken Hill. The mines there occur in gneiss and 
schists, which are probably of Archean age; the lode has in places 
been worked for a width of over 200 ft. The zinc ores associated 
with the silver-lead long lay unutilized, as the problem of their 
separation from the associated rhodonite has only recently been 
overcome. Tin is worked in the rivers of the New England tableland 
as at Vegetable Creek. The chief copper field is at Cobar in the 
north-western plains. Bismuth, platinum, molybdenum and anti- 
mony are obtained in small quantities. 

The geology of New South Wales has been described in the Mono- 
graphs, Memoirs and Records of the Geological Survey, which in the 
Fullness and high scientific character form the most valuable contri- 
bution to Australasian geology. Pittman's map of the state in two 
sheets, on the scale of 16 m. to the inch, was issued by the Survey in 
1893. The economic geology has been admirably summarized in a 
work by E. F. Pittman, The Mineral Resources of New South Wales 
(1901). Numerous geological memoirs have appeared in the Rep. 
Austral. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, the Journ. R. Soc. 
N.S. Wales and the Proc. of the Linnaean Soc. N.S. Wales. A 
systematic account of the minerals has been published by A. 
Liversidge, The Minerals of New South Wales (1888), and to him is 
due a valuable chemical study of the meteorites and gold nuggets. 
Contributions on the palaeontology of New South Wales are con- 
tained in the Rec. Austral. Museum, Sydney. A bibliography of the 
economic geography has been issued by W. S. Dun, Rec. Geol. Sure. 
N.S. Wales, vol. vi., 1899, and of the Cretaceous geology, also by 
W. S. Dun, in Journ. of Proc. Royal Soc. N.S. Wales, 1903, vol. 
xxxvii. pp. 140-153. (J. W. G.) 

Artesian Water. Before actual boring proved that the belief was 
well founded, it had long been scientifically demonstrated that water 
would probably be obtained in the Cretaceous formation which 
underlies the whole of the north-west of New South Wales; and it is 
probable that the artesian water-bearing basin extends much 
farther south than was previously supposed. It may, indeed, be yet 
found to extend approximately along the course of the Lower 
Darling. Artesian water is also obtainable in other than Cretaceous 
rocks. This is shown by palaeontological evidence; and some of the 
most successful bores, such as those at Coonamble, Moree, Gil Gil 
and Euroka, have pierced rocks of Triassic age, corresponding with 
the Ipswich Coal Measures. 

Population. The population on the ist of July 1906 was 
1,504,700, viz. 799,260 males and 705,440 females. The total 
includes 105,000 Chinese and 7500 aborigines and half-castes. 
Since 1860 New South Wales had added more largely to its 
population than any of the other Australian states. In 1860 
the population was 348,546; in 1890 the number was 1,121,860. 
From 1890 to 1901 the population increased 238,083, or at the 
rate of 21-2%. By far the largest part of the increase is due 
to excess of births over deaths, for out of the increase of over 
1,000,000 since 1860, only 350,000 was due to immigration. In 

1905 there were 39,572 births and 14,980 deaths; these figures 
are equal to 26-78 and 10-13 Per thousand respectively. The 
birth-rate has fallen very much, especially since 1899. In 1861- 
1865 it was 42-71 per 1000; in 1896-1899 it was 27-92, and in 

1906 it had fallen still further to 26-78. The marriage rate for 

1905 was 7-40 per thousand, and the persons married 14-80 
per thousand. The mean for 20 years was 7-39. The chief 
cities are Sydney and suburbs, population in 1906, 535,000; 
Newcastle and suburbs, 56,000; Broken Hill, 30,000; in 1901, 
Parramatta, 12,568; Goulburn, 10,610; and Maitland (East 
and West), 10,085. There are nine other towns with between 
5000 and 10,000 inhabitants each. 

Religion. The proportions of the leading denominations in 1901 
were: Church of England, 46-6%; Roman Catholic, 26-0; 
Presbyterian, 9-9; Wesleyan and other Methodists, 10-3; Congre- 
gationalist, i-o; Baptist, 1-2; Jews, 0-5; others, 3-6. Sydney is 
the seat of Anglican and Roman Catholic archbishoprics; the 
Anglican archbishop is also primate of Australia and Tasmania. 

Education. The state has in its employ 3135 male and 2424 
female teachers, and maintains 2901 schools. The law requires that 
all children over six years and under fourteen years shall attend 
school, and in 1904, 220,000 children of these ages, as well as 39,000 
others below or beyond the school ages, were receiving instruction, 
making a total of 259,000. Of this number 211,000 were in state 
schools and 48,000 in private schools. The majority of the private 
schools are controlled by one or other of the religious bodies. The 
Roman Catholic Church has 361 schools, with 1835 teachers and an 
attendance of 33,000 pupils. The total expenditure of the state on 
public instruction, science and art during the year ended 3Oth June 

1906 was 91 1,000. During the calendar year 1906 a sum of 840,000 
was expended on primary instruction. The fees from pupils 



540 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



amounted to 82,000, making the actual cost of primary instruction 
758,000. There are a university and a technical college in Sydney. 
Finance. The revenue of the state is derived from four mam 
sources, viz. taxation ; sale and lease of lands ; earnings of railways, 
tramways and other services; and share of surplus revenue returned 
by the commonwealth. During 1906 the income derived under 
each of these heads was: from taxation 1,297,776; from lands 
1,729,887; from railways and other services 5,856,826; from 
commonwealth 2,742,770; these with miscellaneous collections to 
the amount of 655,823 made up a total revenue of 12,283,082. 
The direct taxation is represented by a tax of one penny in the 
pound on the unimproved value of land, sixpence in the pound on 
the annual income derived in the state from all sources, except the 
use and occupation of land and improvements thereon. There are 
also various stamp duties. The land revenue is derived partly from 
the alienation of the public estate, either absolutely or under con- 
ditions, but mainly from the occupation of the public lands. There 
is also a small revenue from mining lands, timber licences, &c. The 
state still holds 146 million acres out of a total of 196 million acres, 
having alienated about 50 million acres. The principal heads of ex- 
penditure were: interest and charges on public debt, 3,291,059; 
public instruction, 911,177; working expenses of railways and 
tramways, 2,954,777; other services working expenses, 208,242; 
other services, 3,900,726. The public debt in 1906 was 85,641,734, 
equal to 56, us. per inhabitant; the great proportion of this debt 
has been incurred for works that are revenue producing, only about 
11,000,000 was not so expended. Of the total debt in 1903 about 
66,000,000 was held in London. The net return from public works 
in excess of expenditure in 1906 amounted to nearly 3i% on the 
whole public debt, and the interest paid averages 3-6 %. 

Administration. The political constitution of New South 
Wales is that of a self-governing British colony, and rests on the 
provisions of the Constitution Act. The governor is appointed 
by the crown, the term of office being generally for five years, 
and the salary 5000. The governor is the official medium of 
communication between the colonial government and the 
secretary for the colonies, but at the same time the colony 
maintains its own agent-general in London, who not only sees to 
all its commercial business but communicates with the colonial 
office. The powers of the state parliament have been since 
1901 restricted by the transfer of certain powers to the common- 
wealth of Australia. In the legislative assembly there are 90 
members. The principle adopted in distributing the representa- 
tion is that of equal electoral districts, modified in practice by a 
preference given to the distant and rural constituencies at the 
cost of the metropolitan electorates. The suffrage qualification 
is a residence of twelve months and the attainment of the age 
of 21 years. Women are entitled to the franchise: there are 
the usual restrictions in regard to the pauper and criminal 
classes. An elector has only one vote, which is attached to the 
district in which he resides. Members of the Legislative Assembly 
are allowed a salary of 300 a year. There were in 1906 about 
700,000 electors. Each electoral district returns one member. 
The Legislative Council consists of persons nominated for life 
by the governor, acting on the advice of the Executive Council; 
the number of members is not fixed by law but in 1906 it was 55. 
Parliaments are triennial. Local government was extended in 
1905 and 1906 to the whole state, excepting the sparsely popu- 
lated western division; formerly it was confined to an area of 
about 2800 sq. m. There are altogether about 55. m. of 
road communications, but not more than 15,000 m. are properly 
formed. The various local bodies are municipalities or shires, 
the former is the term applied to closely peopled areas of small 
extent endowed with complete local government, and the latter 
is the designation of the more extensive districts, thinly peopled, 
to which a less complete system of local government has been 
granted. 

Federal Capital. In 1908 the Seat of Government Act pro- 
vided that the federal territory and capital of Australia should 
be in the Yass-Canberra district of New South Wales, and that 
the territory should have an area of not less than 900 sq. m. and 
easy access to the sea. In 1909 a Board appointed to consider 
the several possible sites within this district reported in favour 
of Canberra, on the Molonglo river, near Queanbeyan, as the 
site for the new city, and the basins of the Molonglo, Queanbeyan 
and Cotter rivers were indicated as suitable to form the federal 
territory. Jervis Bay was recommended as offering a site for a 



port for the territory. Bills were passed in 1909 by the legis- 
lative assembly of New South Wales and by the federal parlia- 
ment, transferring this territory to the federation. 

Agriculture. New South Wales might be described as essentially 
a pastoral country, and the cultivation of the soil has always been 
secondary to stock-raising. But the predominance of the pastoral 
industry is not by any means so marked as it was even as late as the 
last decade of the igth century. The want of progress in agriculture 
was not to be ascribed to defects of climate or soil, but chiefly to 
the great distance of Australia from the markets of the world. This 
difficulty has, for the most part, been removed by the establishment 
of numerous important lines of steamers trading between Australia 
and Europe, and recent years have therefore seen considerable 
expansion in all forms of agriculture. 

In 1882 the area of land under cultivation was 733,582 acres, 
which is slightly less than I acre per inhabitant. In 1900 the total 
area under cultivation was 2,439,639 acres, and in 1906 it had risen 
to 2,838,081 acres, which is a little short of 2 acres per inhabitant. 

The area devoted to each of the principal crops was as follows: 



Wheat 
Maize 
Oats . 
Sugar Cane 
Hay . 
Vines 



Acres. 

1,939,400 

189,000 

38,500 

21,500 

438,000 

8,100 



The average yield per acre of crops may be set down as follows : 

Bushels. 

Wheat 10-5 

Maize 30 

Oats 23 

Sugar Cane .... 20 tons, cane 

Hay I ton 

Wine 185 gallons 

The total value of production in the year 1906 may be set down 
at 6,543,000, which works out at 2, 6s. id. per acre. 

Although the coastal districts are still important, as the crops 
yielding the largest returns per acre are grown there, as regards the 
total area under crop these districts are of much less importance 
compared with the whole state than formerly. 

The area under crop on the coast districts is about 320,000 acres; 
on the tablelands 375,000 acres; on the western slopes, 1,100,000 
acres; the Riverina district, 750,000 acres; the western plains, 
chiefly in the central portion, 270,000 acres; and less than 20,000 
acres in the western division, which comprises nearly half the total 
area of the state. The soil in that part of the country is, for the most 
part, suitable for cultivation, and there are large areas of rich land, 
but the rainfall is too light and irregular for the purpose of 
agriculture. 

There were 76.000 occupiers of rural holdings in 1905, and the 
area occupied by them, exclusive of lands leased from the state, is 
48,081,000 acres. The great majority, 80% in 1905, of occupiers 
are freeholders; the practice of renting farm lands is not followed 
to any considerable extent, except in the dairying lands on the coast 
district. New South Wales took up its position amongst wheat- 
exporting countries in 1900; the bulk of the grain exported goes to 
the United Kingdom. Hay crops and maize rank next in importance 
to wheat. The cultivation of fruit is receiving increased attention, 
but the growing of sugar cane and tobacco and the production of 
wine, until recently so promising, are, if not declining, at least 
stationary, in spite of the suitability of the soil of many districts 
for these crops. 

Grazing and Dairying. "The grazing industry still holds a chief 
place amongst the productive industries of the state. In 1906 the 
number of horses was 507,000; of sheep, 40,000,000; of cattle, 
2,340,000; and swine, 311,000. There were considerable losses of 
sheep in 1902 owing to the drought of that year, but the flocks in 
1906 were of better quality than at any previous period and little 
short of the number of 1898. The vast majority of the sheep are 
of the merino breed, but there are about a million long-woolled sheep 
and between two and three million cross-bred. Dairying made very 
great strides in the ten years preceding 1906, and ranks as one of 
the great industries of the state. There were 644,000 dairy cows in 
1906, and the numbers are increasing year by year. The production 
of wool was 300,000,000 ft, as in the grease; tallow, 493,000 cwt. ; 
butter, 500,000 cwt.; cheese, 42,000 cwt.; and bacon and hams, 
110,000 cwt. 

Mining. The mining industry has made great strides. In 1905 
there were about 38,000 men engaged in the various mines, besides 
3300 employed in smelting. Of these, 10,700 were employed in gold- 
mining; in coal-mining there were 14,100; silver, 71' tin, 2759 1 
and copper, 1850. The value of mining machinery may be approxi- 
mately set down at 2,900,000. The following summary shows 
the value of the various minerals won in 1905. _It is impossible to 
separate the values of silver and lead contained in the ore obtained 
at Broken Hill ; the two metals are therefore shown together. 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



541 



Minerals. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Metallic 


274,267 


/i.i65.oii 


Silver 


4.17,520 


52,196 


Silver, lead and ore ... ton 
Lead, pig, &c. .... 
Zinc spelter and concentrates 
Tin ingots and ore .... 
Copper ingots and ore 
Antimony and ore .... 
Bismuth 
Wolfram 


44L447 

2IO 
103,532 

1-957 
8,592 
388 

55 
86 


2,441,856 
2,657 
221,155 
226,110 
527.403 

5.221 
20,763 
7 ^6 1 




n8 


IO 122 


Molybdenite .... 


19 

^O8 


2,507 
82 * 


Non-metallic 
Coal ton 


6 632 138 


2 OO3 461 


Coke 


162 961 




Kerosene shale .... 


38,226 

2 7O2 


21,247 

6 7^o 


Limestone flux .... 


14,941 

6 801 


9.519 


Marble 




2 420 


Diamonds carat 


6 icj. 


1 7J.^ 


Opal 






Sundry minerals 




2 QIQ 








Total . . . 




6,897,081 



The value of gold won varies from year to year, but from 189410 
1906 in only two years did it fall below 1,000,000. About one- 
fourth of the gold won is alluvial. The yield of gold from quartz 
mines was in 1904 n dwt. 14 grs. per ton, which was somewhat 
below the average for the previous ten years. The Broken Hill 
silver lode is the largest as yet discovered; it varies in width from 
lo ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several miles. The Broken 
Hill Proprietary Company owns the principal mine, and at Port 
Pirie in the neighbouring colony of South Australia erected a com- 
plete smelting plant; the problem of the recovery of the zinc con- 
tents of the ore having been satisfactorily solved, the company 
made extensive additions to the plant already erected, and in 1906 
the manufacture of spelter was undertaken. From the commence- 
ment of mining operations on a large scale in 1885 to the end of 1905 
the value of silver and lead ore won was 40,000,000. The pro- 
duction of tin rapidly declined after 1881, when the value of ore 
raised was 569,000: the production varies both with the price 
and the occurrence of rain, but the principal cause of the decreased 
production was the exhaustion of the shallow deposits of stream tin, 
from which most of the ore was obtained. The principal deposits of 
copper are in the central parts between the Macquarie, Began and 
Darling rivers. The copper lodes ot New South Wales contain ores 
of a much higher grade than those of many well-known mines 
worked at a profit in other parts of the world, and, with a fair price 
for copper, the production largely increases. Iron is widely diffused, 
principally in the form of magnetite, brown haematite, limonite 
and bog iron. Coal mining is carried on in three districts. In the 
northern or Hunter river district there were 63 collieries, employing 
10,500 men, and the quantity of coal raised was in 1904 about 
4,100,000 tons; in the southern district there were fifteen collieries, 
employing 3100 men and raising 1,600,000 tons of coal. The western 
or mountain collieries were seventeen in number, employing 540 men 
and raising about 418,000 tons. About 52% of the coal obtained 
is exported. Kerosene shale (torbanite) is abundant and is system- 
atically worked. 

Manufacturing. There are a large and rapidly increasing number 
of manufactories, but in 1905 only about 250 employed more than 
50 hands. The following gives a statement of factory employment 
for eleven years : 



Year. 


No. of 
Establish- 
ments. 


Hands 
Employed. 


Value of 
Plant and 
Machinery. 


1895 
1900 

1905 


2723 
30/7 
3700 


48,030 
60,779 
72,175 


5,255,000 
5,708,000 
7,920,000 



About 5-3% of the males and 10-6% of the females employed 
are under sixteen years; the total number of male employees in 1905 
was 56,117, and of females, 16,058. About two-thirds of the hands 
are employed in Sydney and the adjacent district. The total value 
of the articles produced in manufactories, and the increased value 
of materials after undergoing treatment, was 30,028,000 in 1905, 
of which 17,500,000 represented value of materials used and 
600,000 the value of fuel: the total wages paid was 5,200,000. 

Commerce. During 1905, 2725 vessels entered New South Wales 
ports from places outside the state; their tonnage was 4,697,500; 



the value of goods imported was 29,424,008; and the value of 
exports was 36,757,002. The average value of imports per in- 
habitant was 20 and of exports 24, 175. The bulk of the trade is 
carried on with the other Australian states; in 1905 the value of 
such trade was, imports, 14,938,885, and exports, 12,263,472; 
the British trade is also considerable, the imports direct from Great 
Britain being valued at 8,602,288 and the exports 10,222,422. 
With all British countries the trade was, imports, 25,989,399, and 
exports, 25,994,563. New South Wales maintains a large trade 
with foreign countries aggregating 3,434,609 imports and 
10,762,439 exports. France, Germany.JBelgium and the United 
States are the principal foreign countries with which the state 
trades. 

Wool is the staple export, and represents, in most years, one-third 
the value of the exports. Gold coin and bullion form one of the 
principal items in the export list, but only a small portion of the 
export is of local production, the balance being Queensland and 
New Zealand gold sent to Sydney for coinage. The course of trade 
from 1880 to 1905 was as follows: 



Year. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


1880 
1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 


14,176,063 

23.737-461 
22,615,004 

15,992,415 
27,561,071 
29,424,008 


15,682,802 
16,750,107 
22,045,937 

21,934,785 
28,164,516 
36,757-002 



The principal articles of export in 1905 were: Wool, 13,446,260; 
gold, 3,053,331; silver and concentrates, 2,407,142; lead, 
1,072,858; butter, 817,820; coal, 1,565,602; copper, 1,280,599; 
breadstuffs, 1,345,589; leather and skins, 1,559,033; meats, 
761,235; tallow, 464,330; timber, 353,265; tin, 466,049. 

Banktng. The banks of issue number thirteen; their paid-up 
capital amounts to 13,918,000 and the capital and reserves to 
19,319,000, but of this sum only about 9,000,000 is used in the 
state. On the 3Oth of June 1906 the coin and bullion in reserve 
amounted to 8,192,000 and the note circulation to 1,462,000. 
The banks had on deposit 23,325,730 bearing interest and 
15,773,883 not bearing interest, representing a total of 39,100,000. 
The savings banks had on their books at the close of 1905 about 
355,714 depositors, with 13,500,000 to their credit. This repre- 
sents 9, is. 6d. per inhabitant. The total deposits in all banks 
therefore amounted to 52,600,000. The progress from 1860 to 
1905 was as follows: 



Year. 


Amount on 
Deposit. 


Average per 
Inhabitant. 


i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1905 


5,721,208 
7,044,464 
19,958,880 
43,390,141 
43.135,000 
52,600,000 


. s. d. 
16 8 3 
14 2 6 
26 13 8 
38 13 6 
31 17 o 
34 17 6 



Postal and Telegraph Service. The postal business of 1905 was 
represented by the carriage of 102,292,888 letters and postcards, 
44,599,104 newspapers and 23,077,094 parcels and books; the 
telegrams despatched numbered 3,837,962. To transact the postal 
business of the country, mail conveyances travelled 1 2, 000,000 m. 
The income of the postal and telegraph department in 1905 was 
1,065,618 and the expenditure 933,121, but there were some 
items of expenditure not included in the sum named, such as interest 
charges, &c., and cost of new buildings. The administration of the 
post office is under the commonwealth government 

Railways. The railways are almost entirely in the hands of the 
state, for out of 3471 m. open in 1906 the state owned 3390 m. 
The capital expended on the state lines open for traffic was 
43,626,000, of which sum 7,400,000 was expended on rolling 
stock and equipment and 36,226,000 on construction of roads, 
stations and permanent ways. The net earnings amounted in 1906 
to 1,926,407, which represents a return of 4-41 % upon the capital 
invested. The state pays, on an average, 3-69% for the money 
borrowed to construct the lines, and there is therefore a considerable 
surplus to the advantage of the revenue. The year 1906 was, how- 
ever, a very excellent one as regards railway working, the operations 
of the ten previous years showing an average loss of about a quarter 
of I %. (T. A. C.) 

HISTORY 

New South Wales was discovered by Captain Cook on board 
the " Endeavour," on 2oth April 1770. After he had observed 
the transit of Venus at Tahiti, he circumnavigated 
New Zealand and went in search of the eastern coast bittory. 
of the great continent whose western shores had long 
been known to the Dutch. He sighted the Australian coast at 



542 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



Gippsland, Victoria, near Cape Everard, which he named Point 
Hicks, and sailed along the east coast of Australia as far north 
as Botany Bay, where he landed, and claimed possession of the 
continent on behalf of King George III. He then continued his 
voyage along the east coast of Australia, and returned to England 
by way of Torres Strait and the Indian Ocean. The favourable 
reports made by Captain Cook of the country around Botany 
Bay induced the British government to found a penal settlement 
on the south-eastern part of what was then known as New 
Holland. An expedition, consisting of H.M.S. " Sirius" of 20 
guns, the armed trader " Supply," three store-ships and six 
transports, left England on ijih May 1787, and after touching at 
Tenerife, Rio de Janeiro, and the Cape of Good Hope, arrived at 
Botany Bay on the 2oth of January 1788, under the command of 
Captain Arthur Phillip, R.N., with Captain John Hunter, R.N., 
as second. The persons on board the fleet included 564 male 
and 192 female convicts, and a detachment of marines, consisting 
of Major Ross, commandant, 16 officers, 24 non-commissioned 
officers, an adjutant and quartermaster, 160 privates and 40 
women. There were in addition five medical men and a few 
mechanics. The live stock consisted of one bull and four cows, 
a stallion and three mares, some sheep, goats, pigs and a large 
number of fowls. The expedition was well provided with seeds 
of all descriptions. 

The shores of Botany Bay were found to be unsuitable for 
residence or cultivation, and Captain Phillip transferred the 

people under his command to Port Jackson, half a 
settlement ^ ozen mil 68 away, near the site of the present city of 
regime. Sydney. For some years the history of the infant 

settlement was that of a large gaol; the attempts 
made to till the soil at Farm Cove near Sydney and near Parra- 
matta were only partially successful, and upon several occasions 
the residents of the encampment suffered much privation. But 
by degrees the difficulties inseparable from the foundation of a 
remote colony were surmounted, several additional convict- 
ships landed their living freight on the shores of Port Jackson, 
and in 1793 an emigrant-ship arrived with free settlers, who 
were furnished with provisions and presented with free grants 
of land. By the end of the 1 8th century the inhabitants of Sydney 
and its neighbourhood numbered 5000. Immediately after the 
arrival of the first fleet, surveys of the adjacent coast were made; 
the existence of a strait between Australia and Tasmania was 
discovered by Surgeon Bass; and before the retirement of 
Governor King in 1806 Australia had been circumnavigated 
and the principal features of its coast-line accurately surveyed 
by Captain Flinders, R.N. The explorations landward were, 
however, not so successful, and for many years the Blue Moun- 
tains, which rise a few miles back from Sydney, formed an im- 
penetrable barrier to the progress of colonization. Penal 
establishments were formed at Newcastle in New South Wales, 
at Hobart and Launceston in Tasmania, and an unsuccessful 
attempt was made to colonize Port Phillip. The most note- 
worthy incident in the first decade of the ipth century was the 
forcible deportation by the officers of. the New South Wales 
Corps, a regiment raised in England for service in the colony, of 
the governor, Captain Bligh, R.N., the naval officer identified 
with the mutiny of the " Bounty." For some time the govern- 
ment was administered by the senior officer of the New South 
Wales Corps, but in 1809 he was succeeded by Captain 
Macquarie, who retained the governorship for eleven years. 

During the regime of this able administrator New South Wales 
was transformed from a penal settlement to a colony. Before 
Captain the arr i va l of Macquarie schools and churches had 
Mac- been erected, a newspaper, the Sydney Gazette and 

New South Wales Advertiser, had been started, and 

a 116111 ? 1 ^ had been made to acclimatize the drama. 

But he was the first governor to open up the country. 
He constructed permanent buildings at Sydney and Parramatta, 
formed roads and built bridges in the districts along the coast, 
and commenced a track across the Blue Mountains, which had 
been crossed in 1813 by Wentworth and others, thus opening 
up the rich interior to the inhabitants of Sydney. It was during 



Captain Macquarie's administration that the first banking in- 
stitution, the Bank of New South Wales, was founded. The 
final fall of Napoleon in 1815 gave the people of the United 
Kingdom leisure to think about their possessions at the Anti- 
podes; and in 1817 free settlers commenced to arrive in con- 
siderable numbers, attracted by the success of Captain John 
M'Arthur, an officer in the New South Wales Regiment, who 
had demonstrated that the soil, grass and climate were well 
adapted for the growth of merino wool. But although the 
free settlers prospered, and were enabled to purchase land on 
very easy terms, they were dissatisfied with the administration 
of justice, which was in the hands of a judge-advocate assisted 
by military officers, and with the absence of a free press and 
representative institutions. They also demanded permission 
to occupy the vast plains of the interior, without having to 
obtain by purchase or by grant the fee-simple of the lands upon 
which their sheep and cattle grazed. These demands were 
urged during the governorships of Sir Thomas Brisbane and 
General Darling; but they were not finally conceded, together 
with perfect religious equality, until the regime of Sir Richard 
Bourke, which lasted from 1831 to 1837. At the 
latter date the population had increased to 76,793, ISS ^ 
of whom 25,254 males and 2557 females were or had 
been convicts. Settlement had progressed at a rapid rate. 
Parramatta, Richmond and Windsor had indeed been founded 
within the first decade of the colony's existence; Newcastle, 
Maitland and Morpeth, near the coast to the north of Sydney, 
had been begun during the earlier years of the igih century; 
but the towns of the interior, Goulburn, Bathurst and others, 
were not commenced till about 1835, in which year the site of 
Melbourne was first occupied by Batman and Fawkner. The 
explorations which followed the passage of the Blue Mountains 
opened up a large portion of south-eastern Australia. Van 
Diemen's Land was declared a separate colony in 1825, West 
Australia in 1829, South Australia in 1836 and New Zealand 
in 1839; so that before 1840 the original area of New South 
Wales, which at first included the mainland of Australia and 
the islands in the South Pacific, had been greatly reduced. In 
1840 the press was free in every part of Australia, trial by jury 
had been introduced, and every colony possessed a legislature, 
although in none of them except New South Wales had the 
principle of representation been introduced, and in that colony 
only to a very limited extent. The policy of granting land 
without payment, originally in force in New South Wales, had 
been abandoned in favour of sales of the public lands by auction 
at the upset price of twenty shillings per acre; and the system 
of squatting licences, under which colonists were allowed to 
occupy the waste lands on payment of a small annual licence, 
had been conceded. In 1851, when separate autonomy was 
granted to Victoria, New South Wales had a population of 
187,243, the annual imports were 2,078,338, the exports 
2,399,580, the revenue was 575,794, and the colony contained 
132,437 horses, 1,738,965 cattle and 13,059,324 sheep. 

Gold was discovered at Summerhill Creek, near Bathurst, 
in February 1851, by Edward Hammond Hargraves; and at 
the end of June the first shipment, valued at 3500, left Sydney. 
This discovery made an important change in the position of the 
colony, and transportation, which had been discontinued during 
the previous year, was finally abolished. The first mail steamer 
arrived in August 1852, and in 1853 a branch of the Royal 
Mint was estabh'shed at Sydney. The New Constitution Bill, 
passed during the same year by the local legislature, provided 
for two deliberative chambers, the assembly to be elected and 
the council nominated, and for the responsibility of the execu- 
tive to the legislature. The Sydney University, founded in 
1850, was enlarged in 1854, and the first railway in /f espons . 
New South Wales, from Sydney to Parramatta, com- oat 
menced in 1850, was opened in 1855. In the same govern- 
year the Imperial parliament passed the New Con- /j' 
stitution Act; and in June 1856 the first responsible 
government in Australia was formed, during the governor- 
ship of Sir William Denison, by Mr Stuart Alexander Donaldson. 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



543 



The first administration lasted only for a few weeks, and 
it was some years before constitutional government worked 
smoothly. The powers of the new parliament were utilized 
for extending representative institutions. Vote by ballot was 
introduced; the number of members in the assembly was 
increased to 80, and the franchise was granted to every adult 
male after six months' residence in any electoral area. Mean- 
while the material progress of the colony was unchecked. A 
census taken at the end of 1857 showed that the population 
of Sydney was, including the suburbs, 81,327. Telegraphic 
communication was established between Sydney, Melbourne, 
Adelaide and Tasmania in 1859; and during the same year 
the Moreton Bay district was separated from New South Wales 
and was constituted the colony of Queensland. 

During the regime of Sir John Young, afterwards Lord Lisgar, 
who succeeded Sir William Denison in 1861, several important 
sirjoha events occurred. The land policy of previous govern- 
Youag's ments was entirely revised, and the Land Bill, framed 
governor- by Sir John Robertson, introduced the principle of 
fhip. deferred payments for the purchase of crown lands, 

and made residence and cultivation, rather than a sufficient 
price, the object to be sought by the crown in alienating the 
public estate. This measure, passed with great difficulty and 
by bringing considerable pressure to bear upon the nominated 
council, was the outcome of a lengthened agitation throughout 
the Australian colonies, and was followed by similar legislation 
in all of them. It was during the governorship of Sir John 
Young that the distinction between the descendants of convicts 
and the descendants of free settlers, hitherto maintained with 
great strictness, was finally abandoned. In 1862 the agitation 
against the Chinese assumed importance, and the attitude of 
the miners at Lambing Flat was so threatening that a large 
force, military and police, was despatched to that goldfield in 
order to protect the Chinamen from ill-treatment by the miners. 
At this time, the only drawback to the general progress and 
prosperity of the country was the recrudescence of bushranging, 
or robbery under arms, in the country districts. This crime, 
originally confined to runaway convicts, was now committed 
by young men born in the colony, familiar with its mountains 
and forests, who were good horsemen and excellent shots. It 
was not until a large number of lives had been sacrificed, and 
many bushrangers brought to the scaffold, that the offence was 
thoroughly stamped out in New South Wales, only to reappear 
some years afterwards in Victoria under somewhat similar 
conditions. 

The earl of Belmore became governor in 1868, and it was 
during his first year of office that H.R.H. the duke of Edinburgh 
visited the colony in command of the " Galatea." An attempt 
made upon his life, during a picnic at Clontarf, caused great 
excitement throughout Australia, and his assailant, a man named 
O'Farrell, was hanged. A measure which virtually made 
primary education free, compulsory and unsectarian came into 
operation. A census taken in 1871 showed that the population 
was 503,981; the revenue, 2,908,155; the expenditure, 
3,006,576; the imports, 9,609,508; and the exports, 
i 1,245,032. Sir Hercules Robinson, afterwards Lord Rosmead, 
was sworn in as governor in 1872. During his rule, which lasted 
till 1879, the Fiji Islands were annexed; telegraphic communica- 
tion with England and mail communication with the United 
States were established; and the long series of political struggles, 
which prevented any administration from remaining in office 
long enough to develop its policy, was brought to an end by a 
coalition between Sir Henry Parkes and Sir John Robertson. 
Lord Augustus Loft us became governor in 1879, in time to 
inaugurate the first International Exhibition ever held in 
Australia. The census taken during the following year gave the 
population of the colony as 751,468, of whom 411,149 were 
males and 340,319 females. The railway to Melbourne was com- 
pleted in 1880; and in 1883 valuable deposits of silver were 
discovered at Broken Hill. In 1885 the Hon. W. B. Dalley, who 
was acting Premier during the absence through ill-health of 
Sir Alexander Stuart, made to the British government the offer 



a at 



of a contingent of the armed forces of New South Wales to aid the 
Imperial troops in the Sudan. The offer was accepted; the 
contingent left Sydney in March 1885, on board the 
" Iberia " and " Australasian," and for the first time 
a British colony sent its armed forces outside its own 
boundaries to fight on behalf of the mother-country. 
In July of the same year Dr Moran, the Roman Catholic arch- 
bishop of Sydney, became the first Australasian cardinal. Lord 
Carrington, who was appointed governor in 1888, opened the 
railway to Queensland, and during the same year the centenary 
of the colony was celebrated. The agitation against the Chinese, 
always more or less existent, became intense, and the govern- 
ment forcibly prevented the Chinese passengers of four ships 
from landing, and passed laws which practically prohibit the 
immigration of Chinese. 

In 1889 the premier, Sir Henry Parkes, gave in his adhesion to 
the movement for Australasian federation, and New South Wales 
was represented at the first conference held at Melbourne in the 
beginning of 1890. Lord Jersey assumed office on the isth of 
January 1891, and a few weeks afterwards the conference to 
consider the question of federating the Australian colonies was 
held at Sydney, and the great strike, which at one time had 
threatened to paralyse the trade of the colony, came to an end. 
A board of arbitration and conciliation to hear and determine 
labour questions and disputes was formed, and by later legisla- 
tion its .powers have been strengthened. (For the labour 
legislation of the state, see AUSTRALIA.) A census taken on the 
5th of April 1891 showed that the population was 1,134,207, 
of whom the aborigines numbered 7705 and the Chinese 12,781. 
In 1893 a financial crisis resulted in the suspension of ten banks; 
but with two exceptions they were reconstructed, and by the 
following year the effects of the degression had passed away. 
Federation was not so popular in New South Wales as in the 
neighbouring colonies, and no progress was made between 1891 
and 1894, although Sir Henry Parkes, who was at that time 
in opposition, brought the question before the legislature. The 
Rt. Hon. Sir William Duff, who followed Lord Jersey as governor, 
died at Sydney in 1895, and was succeeded by Lord Hampden. In 
1896 a conference of Australian premiers was held at Sydney to 
consider the question of federation. The then Premier, Mr Reid, 
was rather lukewarm, as he considered that the free-trade policy 
of New South Wales would be overridden by its 
protectionist neighbours and its metropolitan position ,'"^" 
interfered with. But his hand was to a great extent federation. 
forced by a People's Federation Convention held at 
Bathurst, and in the early portion of 1897 delegates from New 
South Wales met those from all the other colonies, except 
Queensland, at Adelaide, and drafted the constitution, which 
with some few modifications eventually became law. The 
visit of the Australian premiers to England on the occasion of 
Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee gave an additional impetus 
to federation, and in September 1897 the convention reassembled 
in Sydney and discussed the modifications in the constitution 
which had been suggested in the local parliaments. In January 
1898 the bill was finally agreed to and submitted to a popular 
referendum of the inhabitants of each colony. Those of Victoria, 
South Australia and Tasmania agreed to the measure; but 
the majority in New South Wales, 5458, was not sufficient to 
carry the bill. The local parliament subsequently suggested 
certain amendments, one of them being that Sydney should be 
the federal capital. The general election returned a majority 
pledged to federation, and after some opposition to the federal 
Bill by the legislative council it was again referred to the 
electors of the colony and agreed to by them, 107,420 votes being 
recorded in its favour, and 82,741 against it. One of the provisions 
of the bill as finally carried was that the federal metropolis, 
although in New South Wales, should be more than 100 m. from 
Sydney. The Enabling Bill passed through all its stages in the 
British parliament during the summer of 1900, all the Australian 
colonies assenting to its provisions; and on the ist of January 
1901 Lord Hopetoun, the governor-general of Australia, and the 
federal ministry, of which the premier, Mr Barton, and Sir 



544 



NEWSPAPERS 



[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



William Lyne, Home Secretary, represented New South Wales, 
were sworn in at Sydney amidst great rejoicings. Large con- 
tingents of troops from New South Wales were sent to South 
Africa during 1899 and 1900. (G. C. L.) 

NEWSPAPERS. The word " newspaper," as now employed, 
covers so wide a field that it is difficult, if not impossible, to give 
it a precise definition. By the English " Newspaper Libel and 
Registration Act " of 1881 it is defined as " any paper containing 
public news, intelligence or occurrences, or any remarks or 
observations therein printed for sale, and published periodically 
or in parts or numbers at intervals not exceeding twenty-six 
days "; and the British Post Office defines a newspaper as " any 
publication " to summarize the wording " printed and pub- 
lished in numbers at intervals of not more than seven days, 
consisting wholly or in part of political or other news, or of 
articles relating thereto or to other current topics, with or without 
advertisements.'"' In ordinary practice, the " newspapers," 
as distinguished from other periodicals (g.v.), mean the daily 
or (at most) weekly publications which are principally concerned 
with reporting and commenting upon general current events. 

For the laws regulating the conduct and contents of newspapers 
see PRESS LAWS and allied articles. The two real essentials of 
a " newspaper " are that it contains " news," and is issued at 
regular intervals. But the course of history has involved 
considerable changes both in the mode of issue and in the con- 
ception of what " news " is. For purposes of modern usage we 
have to distinguish historically between the product of a printing- 
press which is manifolded by that means, and a mere manuscript 
sheet which is only capable of being copied by hand. " News" 
again varies both according to the appetite and according to its 
method of collection and presentation. A distinction ought 
perhaps to be made between literary and pictorial news, but this 
is almost impossible in practice. 

i. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

So far as very early forms of what we now recognize as corre- 
sponding to a " newspaper " are concerned, involving public 
reports of news, the Roman Ada Diurna and the Chinese Peking 
Gazette may be mentioned here, if only on account of their 
historical interest. The Ada Diurna (" Daily Events ") in 
ancient Rome (lasting to the fall of the Western Empire), were 
short announcements containing official intelligence of battles, 
elections, games, fires, religious rites, &c., and were compiled by 
the actuarii officers appointed for the purpose; they were kept 
as public records, and were also posted up in the forum or other 
places in Rome, and were sometimes copied for despatch to the 
provinces. Juvenal speaks of a Roman lady passing her morning 
in reading the paper, so that it appears that private copies were 
in vogue. In China the Peking Gazette, as foreigners call it, 
containing imperial rescripts and official news, has appeared 
regularly ever since the days of the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-905). 
Even older than it, as is alleged, is the monthly Peking News 
(Tsing-Pao) now in appearance an octavo book of 24 pages in 
a yellow cover which, according to M. Huart, French Consul 
at Canton, was founded early in the 6th century. But it is not 
of any real moment to do more than refer to such publications 
as these, which have little in common with the ideas of Western 
civilization. The " newspaper " in its modern acceptation can 
only be properly dated from the time when in Western Europe 
the invention of printing made a multiplication of copies a 
commercial possibility in any satisfactory sense. 

On the point of terminology, Mr J. B. W. Williams, in his 
History of English Journalism to the Foundation of the Gazette 
(1908), the first scholarly account of the early evolution of the 
Press in England, describes the Oxford Gazette of 1665 (the 
original of the London Gazette) as the first English " newspaper " 
in the precise sense, i.e. a "paper "of news; 1 for it was a half- 
sheet in folio, two pages, and not a " pamphlet " as previous 
periodicals of news had been. A pamphlet (q.v .) was one or more 

1 For the earliest known use of the term " newspaper " he cites 
a letter in 1670 to Charles Perrot, second editor of the Gazette: " I 
wanted your newes paper Monday last past." 



unbound sheets of paper folded in quarto, and these earlier 
periodicals were called " news books." The term " news sheet," 
again, had iniplied, up to that time, a written letter of news a 
" newsletter " as it came afterwards to be called. But it is 
hardly necessary to insist here on the distinction between a 
" news book " and a " newspaper," interesting as it is to note 
that the English inclusion of newspapers among " books " for 
the purpose of the law of copyright is strictly justified by the 
original nomenclature. The " newsbook " made what is for 
modern purposes the essential advance upon either the written 
" newsletter " or the isolated printed announcement of some 
event, in being both printed and also issued in a series at regular 
and continuous intervals. Yet both these forms of publication 
were in the direct ancestry of the newspaper. The writing of 
" letters of news " or " letters of intelligence " was a regular 
profession before the printed newspaper was introduced, and 
lasted as such for some time afterwards, having indeed the 
advantage of being outside the necessity of obtaining a licence, 
which hampered the printed publication; and the profession of 
" scrivener " naturally suggested that of the later type of 
journalist. Of what used, again, to be called a " relation," i.e. 
a statement of an isolated piece of news, there are various printed 
examples as early as during the latter part of the i5th century. 
For instance, an official manifesto of Archbishop Dietrich of 
Cologne was printed at Mainz in 1462. A French pamphlet 
giving an account of the surrender of Granada to Ferdinand 
and Isabella " le premier jour de Janvier dernidrement passe " 
appeared in 1492. 

Precisely at what point, and in what instance, it can be said 
that a continuous series of news-pamphlets started, which can 
therefore be called the earliest newspaper, is hard to decide, 
upon the materials now available. But it was on the continent 
of Europe, and not in England; and probably in the Nether- 
lands. We have, for instance, pamphlets in the British Museum, 
which contain news-items and suggest periodical publication, 
though they are not actually known to form copies of a regular 
series. A Newe Zeytung; Die Schlact des turkischen Keysers, 
&c., dates from 1526; another Newe Zeytung, still more varied in 
its contents, contains a letter from Winchester dated July 24, 
1554. In Germany alone about 800 examples of such news- 
pamphlets dating earlier than 1610 are known. The effect of 
the Cologne Mercurius Gattobelgicus (1594) on English purveyors 
of " relations " is dealt with below (under United Kingdom); 
but this was rather a book than a newspaper. The earliest plainly 
periodical publication containing " news of the day " was, how- 
ever, the German Frankfurter Journal, a weekly started by 
Egenolph Emmel in 1615. The Antwerp Nieuwe Tijdinghen 
followed in 1616; and in 1622 the history of English newspapers 
begins with the Weekly Newes published in London by Archer and 
Bourne. From this point we are on firmer ground, and the 
evolution of the modern Press in the different countries, as traced 
below, can be continuously followed. It is worth noting that 
a link in the history of journalism with the Roman Ada Diurna 
is provided by the Venetian government written gazetti (from 
which comes our " gazette ") of the i6th century, official bulletins 
or leaflets dealing with public affairs, which were avowedly based 
on the ancient Roman model. Italy indeed originated not only 
the title " gazette " (probably derived from the Gr. 7<xfa, i.e. 
treasury of news), but also that of " coranto " (Fr. courant; also 
early anglicized as " current," i.e. a " running " relation), both of 
which are familiar in the history of the English and foreign Press. 

The art and business of journalism, as now understood 
taking " journalism " here in the sense of the production of the 
literary contents of a newspaper, and not the production 
and distribution of the printed sheet itself is a 
combination of the mere recording or reporting of news 
and of its presentation in such a way, and with such comment, 
as to influence the minds of readers in some particular direction. 
The history of the " leading article " as a great factor in the 
shaping of public opinion begins with Swift, Defoe, Bolingbroke 
and Pulteney, in the many English newspapers, from the Review 
and the Examiner to the Craftsman, by which was waged the 



Journal- 
ism. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS] 



NEWSPAPERS 



545 



keen political strife of the years 1704-1740. There is no counter- 
part to it in France until the Revolution of 1789, nor in Germany 
until 1796 or 1798. It was a Frenchman who wrote " Suffer 
yourself to be blamed, imprisoned, condemned; suffer yourself 
even to be hanged; but publish your opinions. It is not a right; 
it is a duty." It was in England that the course so pithily 
described was actually taken, in the face of fine, imprisonment 
and pillory, at a time when in France the public had to depend 
upon foreign journals illicitly circulated, when its own chief 
writers resorted to clandestine presses, to paltry disguises, and 
to very poor subterfuges to escape the responsibilities of avowed 
authorship, and when in Germany there was no political publicity 
worthy to be named. When the Mercure de France (1672), 
after a long period of mediocrity, came into the hands of men of 
large intellectual faculty, they had the most cogent reasons for 
exerting their powers upon topics of literature rather than upon 
themes of politics. True political journalism dates in France 
only from the French Revolution (see, for instance, MALLET DU 
PAN), and it then had a very brief existence. It occupied a 
cluster of writers, some of whom left an enduring mark upon 
French literature. A term of high aspiration was followed 
quickly by a much longer term of frantic licence and of literary 
infamy. Then came the long rule of a despotic censorship; and 
cycles of licence followed by cycles of repression. In 1870 indeed 
the democratic government at Bordeaux issued against journals 
of high aims and of unspotted integrity, but opposed to its 
pretensions, edicts as arbitrary as the worst acts in that kind of 
Napoleon L, and unparalleled in the whole course of the govern- 
ment of Napoleon III. 

In all the other countries of Europe political journalism, in 
any characteristic sense, was the creation of the igth century 
somewhat earlier in the century in northern Europe, somewhat 
later in southern. The Ordinarie Post-Tidende of Stockholm 
dates indeed from 1643, but until recent times it was a mere 
news-letter. Denmark had no sort of journal worth remark 
until the foundation in 1 749 of the Berlingske Tidende, and that 
too attained to no political rank. The Gazette (V-iedomosti) of 
St Petersburg the patriarch of Russian newspapers dating 
from the i6th of December 1702, is a government organ, and 
nearly synchronizes with the Boston News-Letter (1704), the first 
successful attempt at a newspaper in the British colonies in 
America. Journalism in Italy begins with the Diario di Roma 
in 1716, but in politics the Italian press remained a nullity for 
all practical purposes until nearly the middle of the igth century, 
when the newspapers of Sardinia, at the impulse of Cavour, 
began to foreshadow the approach of the influential Italian 
press of a later day. In Spain no rudiments of a newspaper press 
can be found until the i8th century; the Gaceta de Madrid 
started about 1726. As late as in 1826 an inquisitive American 
traveller recorded his inability to lay his hands, during his 
Peninsular tour, upon more than two Spanish newspapers. 

While originally the newspaper depended entirely on its own 
reporters and correspondents for news, and still largely does so, 
the widening of the field of modern journalism is largely due to 
collective enterprise, by which outside organizations "known as 
" news agencies " send a common service of news to all papers 
which arrange to take it. The first of the great collecting and 
distributing news agencies, Reuter's Agency, was founded by 
Julius Reuter, a Prussian government-messenger, who was 
impressed by the common interest roused by the revolutionary 
movements of 1848. In 1849 he established a news-transmitting 
agency in Paris, with all the appliances that were then available. 
Between Brussels and Aix-la-Chapelle he formed a pigeon- 
service, connecting it with Paris and with Berlin by telegraph. 
As the wires extended, he quickly followed them with agency- 
offices in many parts of the continent. He then went to London, 
where his progress was for a moment held in check. Mr Walter 
of The Times listened very courteously to his proposals, but 
(on that first occasion) ended their interview by saying, " We 
generally find that we can do our own business better than 
anybody else can." He went to the office of the Morning 
Advertiser, which had then the next largest circulation to that 
xix. 18 



of The Times, and had better success. He entered into an agree- 
ment with that and afterwards with other London journals, 
including The Times, and also with many commercial corporations 
and firms. The newspapers, of course, continued to employ 
their own organizations and to extend them, but they found 
great advantage in the use of Reuter's telegrams as supple- 
mentary. Within a few years the business is said to have yielded 
the founder some 25,000 a year, and in 1865 it was transferred 
to a limited company. In later years this type of news-agency 
operating all over the world was repeated by others, and also 
by agencies operating mainly or exclusively only in one country. 

It is no longer possible nowadays to confine the meaning of 
" journalism " merely to the work of those who write for the 
Press. Properly it may be said to include the whole intellectual 
work comprised in the production of a newspaper; and although 
the designation of " journalist " is generally applied only to 
editors and to writers, and would not be extended at all to the 
purely mechanical staff the compositors, foundry-men and 
machinists nor even to the proof-readers, whose sphere is 
analogous rather to the sub-editorial than to the mechanical 
departments, the modern tendency has nevertheless been, not 
only to install mere reporting (q.v.) in a place of high importance, 
but to give increased weight in journalism to those who occupy 
what may be called the " managerial " offices, the business side 
of making a paper pay having itself developed into an art on 
its own account. To be a great " journalist " was once, but is 
hardly now, the same as being a great " publicist." The publicist 
proper is he who delivers his views on public affairs in the Press; 
but the excellence of his articles may nevertheless be consistent 
with the journal being a disastrous failure, and his reputation 
as a journalist is then but poor. The great journalist is he who 
makes the paper with which he is connected a success; and in 
days of competition the elements necessary for obtaining and 
keeping a hold on the public are so diverse, and the factors bear- 
ing on the financial success, the business side, of the paper are 
so many, that the organization of victory frequently depends 
on other considerations than those of its intrinsic literary 
excellence or sagacity of opinion, even if it cannot be wholly 
independent of these. The modern newspaper, moreover, depends 
for its financial success no longer primarily on its receipts from 
circulation, but on its receipts from advertisements; and though 
these can only ultimately be secured on the basis of circulation 
(the number of people who buy and read the paper), the establish- 
ment of the paper as the organ of a large body of readers for 
whose custom it is desirable to advertise often involves other 
capacities than those of the great publicist; and even in so far 
as the circulation depends on the attractiveness of its " news," 
the direction given to the supply of news may be managerial 
rather than editorial. Thus, in the division of labour, the editorial 
functions, formerly supreme and all-embracing, because the 
excellence of the contents of the paper made its success, have 
gradually, by a fissiparous process, yielded some of their authority 
to the managerial functions, and these have grown into an in- 
dependence which since editorial possibilities ultimately depend 
on financial resources has given increased importance in 
journalism to the business side. 

It must suffice here to say therefore that the work of journalism 
may be broadly divided into its editorial and managerial sides. 
And apart from exceptional cases of a working proprietor who 
is both editor and manager, or of a managing-editor, or of a great 
manager who exercises editorial functions, or a great editor 
who exercises managerial functions, the ordinary course is to 
keep them fairly distinct. The managerial side involves the 
business work of a paper, including the obtaining of advertise- 
ments and all the operations directly connected with producing 
it and making it pay as a commercial enterprise. The editorial 
side is engaged however much managerial exigencies may 
dictate its policy in providing the " reading matter " which 
forms its contents, other than such as is of the nature of advertis- 
ing. The editorial staff includes 'editors and assistant-editors, 
sub-editors (in Great Britain a term usually restricted in daily 
journalism to those engaged in the " news " departments), 



546 



NEWSPAPERS 



[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



leader-writers, critics, reporters (more narrowly considered part 
of the " sub-editorial " staff), &c. The actual owner of the paper, 
the proprietor, may or may not take part in either side, but in 
law his authority is delegated to those who produce it. The older 
ideas of journalistic management survive in making the editor, 
publisher and printer, but curiously not the " manager," liable 
in a writ for libel, contempt of court, &c., together with the 
proprietor in English law. But no satisfactory legal definition 
of " editor," still less of " manager," is possible, since their 
positions and powers vary according to circumstances. 

So far as the general relations of the staff of a paper with its pro- 
prietor are concerned, we may briefly note that engagements are 
contracts for personal service; they will not therefore be specifically 
enforced, and the remedy for inj ury is dismissal or action for damages ; 
and they must be in writing and stamped, to be evidence in law, if 
for a year or longer. The editor is the agent of the proprietor, and 
binds him for acts within the scope of editorial authority (which 
includes the insertion of any matter in the paper). Being an agent 
he can have no power as against the proprietor, but unreasonable 
interference on the latter's part may entitle an editor to an action 
for breach of contract or for damage to his professional reputation : 
while gross misconduct on the part of an editor might similarly 
entitle the proprietor to damages. Letters, manuscripts, &c., come 
into the editor's hands as agent for his proprietor, and are the 
latter's property. Uninvited contributors send him articles at their 
own risk, but the sending to them of a type-set proof has been held 
to be evidence of acceptance. Apart from special terms, the editor 
is entitled to " edit " such articles, i.e. use them wholly or in part, 
or alter them ; he has a free hand to do so in the case of anonymous 
articles; in the case of signed articles it is clearly his duty to keep 
them free from libel or illegality, but the right to edit is limited 
in so far as his alterations might attribute to the writer anything 
which would give the latter a claim for damages. Though the highest 
function of an editor is embodied in the etymology of the word (a 
" bringer forth " or producer), as one who acts as the literary 
midwife in the literary setting forth of ideas, it is probably his use of 
the proverbial blue-pencil, altering or deleting, which is generally 
associated with the word "to edit. Each aspect, however, of edi- 
torial work has its own importance the organization and inspiration 
on the one hand, the moulding into shape on the other. And " good " 
editing is necessarily relative, depending to a certain extent on the 
character of the paper which it is intended to produce. 

See PRESS LAWS, LIBEL, COPYRIGHT, &c. ; and generally, for law, 
Fisher and Strachan, Law of the Press (2nd ed., 1898). 

The history of the Newspaper Press is told for various countries 
of importance under their respective sections below. The 
practical development of the modern newspaper is indeed due 
to a union of causes, largely mechanical, that may well be termed 
marvellous. A machine (see PRINTING) that, from a web of 
paper 3 or 4 m. long, can. in one hour, print, fold, cut and deliver 
many thousand perfected broadsheets, is, however, not so great 
a marvel as is the organizing skill which collects information 
by conversation, post or telegraph, from all over the world, 
and then distributes these communications in cheap printed 
copies regularly every day to an enormous public, sifted, arranged 
and commented upon, in the course of a few hours. But for a 
high ideal of public responsibility and duty, conjoined with high 
culture and with great " staying-power," in the editorial rooms, 
all these marvels of ingenuity which now combine to develop 
public opinion on great public interests, and to guide it would 
be nothing better than a vast mechanism for making money out 
of man's natural aptitude to spend his time either in telling or 
in hearing some new thing. A newspaper, after all, is essentially 
a business, conducted by its proprietors for gain. That the 
commercial motive is a danger to honest journals is obvious, 
were it not indeed that here as elsewhere honesty is in the long 
run the best commercial policy. 

The example of American journalism has so greatly affected 
the developments in England and other countries since about 
The tana- I ^9> tnat * l ' s important to realize the conditions 
enceof under which, in the United States, the newer type 
American of journalism arose. 1 In substance very much the 

f aal ' same causes produced very much the same effects, 

though at a slower rate, in England ;, but British 

conservatism operated here as elsewhere. Several circumstances 

combined in the last quarter of the ipth century to promote 

1 The account which follows is reproduced from Mr Whitelaw 
Reid's article in the loth edition of the Ency. Brit. 



great changes in the condition and character of American 
lewspapers. (i) Paper was enormously cheapened. Before and 
during the Civil War it cost large New York newspapers at 
times 22 cents per Ib for even a poor quality. In 1864 it cost 
1 6 cents in February, and ran up a cent every month till in mid- 
summer it touched 21 and 22 cents. As late as 1873 it was still 
sold at from 12 to 13 cents. As new materials were found and 
machinery was improved, the price slowly declined. When the 
manufacture from wood-pulp was made commercially successful, 
the profits tempted great investments of new capital; bigger 
mills were built, competition became keen, and new inventions 
cheapened the various processes. Thus in New York in 1875 
the average price for the year for fair" news " paper was 8-53 
cents per ft; in 1880, 6-92; in 1885, 5-16; and in 1890, 3-38. 
At last, about 1897, large contracts for a good average quality, 
delivered at the press-room, were made in New York at as low 
figure as 1-5 cents per ft. Subsequently advances in raw 
materials, one or two dry seasons which curtailed the water- 
power, and combinations resulting from over-competition, caused 
some reaction. Yet it could still be said in 1900 that prudent 
publishers could buy for $i as much paper as would have cost 
them $3 twenty years earlier, or $10 about 1875. (2) Printing 
machinery for great newspaper offices was transformed. Instead 
of the old cylinder presses fed by hand, with the product then 
folded and counted by hand, machines came into common use 
to print, fold, cut, paste and count and deliver in bundles, 
ready either for the carrier or the mail, at rates of speed formerly 
not dreamed of. The size of the paper could be increased or 
diminished at will, as late news might require, within an hour 
of the time when it must be in the hands of its readers. Instead 
of cutting down other news to make room for something late and 
important, more pages were added, and this steadily increased 
the tendency to larger papers. Devices were also found for 
printing the same sheet in different colours at the same rate of 
speed; and in this way startling headlines were made more 
startling in red ink, or a piece of news for which special attention 
was desired was made so glaring that no one could help seeing 
it. (3) Hand-setting (for great newspapers) was practically 
abolished. Instead of the slow gathering of single types by 
hand separate lines were now produced and cast by machines, 
capable when pushed to their utmost capacity of doing each 
the work of five average compositors. Thus between 1880 and 
1900 there were reductions in the cost (i) of the raw material 
for the manufacture of newspapers from two-thirds to three- 
fourths; (2) of printing, at least as much; and (3) of com- 
position, at least one-half, while the facilities in each department 
for a greater product within a given time were enormously 
increased. The obvious business tendency of these changes was 
either a reduction in price or an increase of size, or both. 

Electricity became the only news-carrier. New ocean cables 
broke down the high rates charged at the outset. The American 
news appetite, growing by what it fed on, soon demanded far 
fuller cablegrams of European news; and the wars in which 
Great Britain and the United States were involved accelerated 
the movement. The establishment of a strong telegraph com- 
pany, capable of efficient competition with the one which 
practically controlled the inland service in 1880, likewise 
cheapened domestic news by telegraph and increased its volume. 
The companies presently recognized their interest in encouraging 
rival news associations, and so getting double work for the 
wires, while promoting the establishment of new papers. Wild 
competition between news agencies was thus encouraged (even 
in the cases of some already known to be bankrupt) to the 
extent of credits of a quarter or half a million dollars on tele- 
graphic tolls. The rapid spread of long-distance telephone lines 
further contributed to this tendency to make the whole continent 
a whispering gallery for the press. Every great paper had both 
telegraph and telephone wires run directly into its newsroom. 

Photography and etching were added to the office equipment. 
Various " process " methods were found, by which the popular 
desire for a pic'ture to make the news clearer could be gratified. 
Drawings were reproduced successfully in stereotype plates for 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS] 



NEWSPAPERS 



547 



the fastest rotary presses. The field of political caricature had 
heretofore belonged exclusively to the weekly papers, but the 
great dailies now seized upon it, and commanded the service of 
the cleverest caricaturists. Newspapers found a way to put the 
" half-tone " etching of a photograph, such as had heretofore 
been printed only on slow flat presses, bodily into the stereotype 
plate for the great quadruple and octuple presses; and there- 
after portraits and photographs of important groups on notable 
occasions began to appear, embodied in the text describing the 
occurrences, a few hours after the camera had been turned on 
them, in papers printed at the rate of thirty and forty thousand 
an hour. In this development of illustrated daily journalism 
America rapidly went far beyond other countries. 

News agencies multiplied and gave cheaper service. The 
New York Associated Press had been the chief agency for the 
whole country. It admitted new customers with great caution, 
and its refusal to admit was almost prohibitory, while its with- 
drawal of news from established papers was practically fatal. 
It was owned by the leading New York journals. Their dis- 
agreements led to the success of a rival, the United Press. The 
New York Associated Press finally dissolved, most of the New 
York members became connected with the United Press, and 
many of their Western and Southern clients organized the 
Associated Press of Illinois, more nearly on a mutual plan. The 
United Press finally failed, and most of its New York members 
went into the Associated Press of Illinois, which in turn was 
forced into plans for reorganization by decisions of Illinois 
courts against its rules for confining its services to its own 
members. One result of these successive changes was to en- 
courage new papers by making it easy for them to secure a 
comprehensive news service, and thus to threaten the value of 
the old papers. Another was the struggle to increase the volume 
of the service, leading to reports of multitudes of occurrences 
formerly left without notice in the great news centres, and ex- 
tension of agencies into the remotest hamlets, and less scrupulous 
care in the consideration and preparation of the reports filed at 
many points for transmission. News syndicates for special 
purposes also developed, as well as small news associations, 
sometimes with a service sufficient for the wants of many 
papers. The almost official authenticity which the public 
formerly attributed to an Associated Press despatch measurably 
declined; and the dailies found more difficulty in sifting and 
deciding upon the news that came to them, and incurred more 
individual responsibility for what they printed. 

The great accumulation of private fortunes also changed the 
newspapers. Millionaires came to think it advantageous to 
own newspapers, openly or secretly, which could be conducted 
without reference to direct profits, for the sake primarily of 
political, social or business considerations. To secure large 
circulations for such enterprises they were willing to sell the 
paper for long periods at much below the cost of manufacture, 
and to spend money for news and writers more lavishly than 
the legitimate business of established journals would allow. 
Great business corporations seeking for favourable or fearing 
adverse legislation sometimes made secret newspaper investments 
for the same purpose. 

These various new conditions, affecting the newspaper press 
of the United States with ever-increasing force, gradually 
changed the average character of the papers and their effect 
upon their readers. A large circulation became the only evidence 
of success and the only way to make the sale of a newspaper 
below cost ultimately a source of profit. A disposition to lower 
the character in order to catch the largest audience naturally 
followed. Criminal news was reported more fully than formerly, 
with more piquant details. Competitors outdid each other in 
the effort to treat all news with unprecedented sensationalism. 
The lowest possible price was regarded as essential to the largest 
possible circulation, and so a favourite price even for large 
newspapers became one cent to the public, and consequently 
only half a cent to the publishers, whose business was practically 
all at wholesale with dealers and news companies. The feeling 
that the most must be given for the money prompted also the 



great increase in size, only made possible by the reductions in 
paper, composition, presswork, &c., already noted. Yet mere 
quantity and mere sensation after a time palled on the jaded 
appetite, and the spice of intense personality became necessary. 
As most people like to see their names in print, and can bear 
criticism of their neighbours with composure, these two chords 
of human nature were incessantly played upon. 

The principal feature in the development of modern news- 
papers is the importance attached to obtaining, and prominently 
displaying, " news " of all sorts, and incidentally cftww> 
there has been a considerable change of view as to what tensiks 
sort of news should be given prominence. Sport and of modem 
finance are treated at greater length and more popu- ^"^ 
larly; and, partly owing to the largely increased * 
number of papers and consequent greater competition, partly 
to a desire to appeal to the larger public, which is now able to 
read and ready to buy reading-matter, there has been a tendency 
to follow the tastes of the vast number of people who can read 
at all rather than of those to whom reading means a very 
high standard of literary and intellectual enjoyment. This has 
involved a more popular form of presenting news, not only in 
a less literary style and by the presentation of " tit-bits " of 
information with an appeal to cruder sentiments, but also in a 
more liberal use of headlines and of similar devices for catching 
the eye of the reader. " Personal journalism," i.e. paragraphs 
about the private life or personal appearance of individuals 
either men or women of note or notoriety in society or public 
affairs, has become far more marked; and in this respect, as 
in many others, encouragement has been given to a spirit of 
inquisitiveness, and also to a widespread inclination either to 
flatter or be oneself flattered, the latter desire being indeed con- 
spicuously prevalent in these "democratic days" even among 
the classes which once affected to despise such publicity. 

The modern impulse, culminating in England in the last 
decade of the igth century in what was then called the "New 
Journalism," was a direct product of American conditions and 
ways of life, but in Great Britain it was also the result of the 
democratic movement produced by the Education Act of 1870 
and the Reform Act of 1885; and it affected more or less all 
countries which came within the influence of free institutions. 
The most generally adopted American innovation (for, though 
not known before even in England, it was practically a new 
thing as carried out in American newspapers) was the " inter- 
view " (the report in dialogue form of a conversation with some 
prominent person, whose views were thus elicited by a reporter), 
which during the early 'nineties was taken up in varying degrees 
by English newspapers; it was "cheap copy" the word 
" copy " covering in journalistic slang any matter in the shape 
of an article and could easily be made both informing and 
interesting; and " interviewing " caused a large increase in the 
journalistic profession, notably among women. The rage for the 
" interview " again declined in vogue outside American journalism 
in proportion as people of importance became less ready to talk 
for publication or for nothing. 

From the highest class of paper downwards, however, real 
news and especially early news has been more and more 
sought after, and all the force of organization both within 
individual newspaper offices and outside them in the shape of 
news agencies, has been applied to the purpose of obtaining 
early news and publishing it as quickly as possible. In this 
matter the Press has certainly been helped most materially 
not only by the advance in telegraphic facilities (see REPORTING) 
but by all the other new rapid methods of production in Type- 
setting (see TYPOGRAPHY) and Press-work (see PRINTING) which 
have been the feature of the modern period. The vastly increased 
amount of telegraphic work now done has perhaps not been all 
pure gain to the best sort of journalism. It has to some extent 
weakened the effect of the considered article, and led to hasty 
conclusions and precipitate publication, with results that 
sometimes cannot be compensated for by any later contradiction 
or modification. In some cases a reaction ensued. Take for 
instance the case of war correspondence. The prestige of the 



54 8 

" war correspondent " became at one time enormous, and his 
evolution from the days of H. Crabb Robinson, who wrote to 
The Times from Spain in 1807-1809, has been traced by busy 
pens with all the precision of a special interest in history. 
Certainly nothing finer in active English journalism was ever 
done than in W. H. Russell's letters to The Times from the 
Crimea, or the work of Archibald Forbes and others in the Franco- 
Prussian War; but more recently, although first-rate abilities 
have been forthcoming, the news agencies, often favoured by the 
military Press censor, have generally been ahead of the " specials," 
and the individual work that might have been done for isolated 
papers has been much hampered by restrictions. This is due 
partly to the increased competition, partly to military jealousy 
and officialism, partly to the vital importance of secrecy in 
modern warfare: but the result has been to a considerable 
extent to reduce the value of the " war correspondent " as 
compared with what was done in the Press in the days of Russell 
and Forbes. A letter arriving weeks after the telegraphic 
account, however meagre, is largely shorn of its interest. Given 
a brilliant foreign correspondent, the form of letters sent home 
from abroad on general subjects is still, no doubt, very effective. 
But the telegram is necessarily the backbone of the news service 
of the daily paper. The Press, be it added, is frequently able to 
acquaint the public with what is going on while a government 
itself is still uninformed. The work of officials and statesmen 
is admittedly increased and sometimes embarrassed by the 
new strain imposed upon them in consequence, but the public 
are on the whole well served by their emancipation from the 
obscurity of purely official intelligence and by the obligation 
of straightforward dealing imposed upon governments, which 
in their nature are apt to be secretive. 

Connected with the increased attention given to news is the 
greater vogue of the newspaper " poster " or contents-bill, 
which is exhibited in the streets. The poster has acquired 
commercial importance for indicating the possession of some 
special news without revealing its whole nature, and the tendency 
has been to have fewer lines and fewer words in larger type, in 
order to catch the eye more impressively. Rotary machines for 
printing these posters enable them to be turned out with greater 
rapidity; and in the case especially of evening papers it is 
possible at any time during the afternoon, should important news 
arrive, to issue a new poster and thus secure a large street sale 
by the insertion of a few words only in the " stop press " or 
" fudge " without the necessity of changes in the plates. The 
catch-penny style of the poster has transferred itself also to the 
newspaper itself, in the shape of the " scare " headlines. And 
there has been a tendency for the news to be so " displayed " 
in the headlines as to make any further reading unnecessary. 

Apart from the publication of " news " and reports, and 
occasional original articles of a descriptive and miscellaneous 
character, the chief function of a newspaper is criticism, whether 
of politics or other topics of the moment, or of the drama, art, 
music, books, sport or finance. As regards sport, the comments 
of the various newspapers are mainly descriptive; but a prominent 
feature in the United Kingdom has been the attention paid to 
" tipping " probable winners on the Turf, and the insertion of 
betting news. The publication of the " odds " some time before 
a race, and of starting-prices, undoubtedly helped to foster the 
increase of this form of gambling, as was pointed out in the 
report of the Select Committee on Gambling in England in 1902, 
but the efforts to induce the English newspapers to keep such 
matter out of their columns have not had much success. The 
Daily News (London) in 1902 started on a new proprietorship 
under Mr Cadbury with a declared policy of not referring to horse- 
racing or betting; but when its principal proprietors in 1909 
became largely concerned also in the Star and Morning Leader, 
they were apparently content to retain the " tipster " elements 
which bulked large in them, and this inconsistency aroused 
considerable comment. The sporting interest (i.e. the desire 
to know results of racing and cricket, &c.) largely inflates the 
circulation of most of the London and provincial halfpenny 
evening papers. 



NEWSPAPERS 



[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



Between about 1870 and 1880 the English newspapers began to 
pay increased attention to literary and artistic criticism; and 
gradually the daily Press, which formerly applied itself mainly 
to recording news, and to political, social and financial subjects, 
became a formidable rival in this sphere to the weekly reviews 
and the monthly and quarterly magazines. Books are "re- 
viewed " in the Press partly for literary reasons, partly as a 
quid pro quo for publishers' advertisements; and the desire for 
" something to quote," irrespectively of the responsible nature 
of the criticism, became in the early 'nineties a mania with 
publishers, who in general appear to have considered that their 
sales depended upon their catching a public which would be 
satisfied by seeing in the advertisement that such and such a book 
was pronounced by such and such a paper to be " indispensable 
to any gentleman's library." Unfortunately the enormous 
output of books made it impossible for editors to have them all 
reviewed, and equally impossible for them to be certain of 
discriminating properly between those which were really worth 
reviewing or not. The result has been that the work of book- 
reviewing in the newspapers is often hastily and poorly or very 
spasmodically done. But there have been some honourable 
exceptions. The " Literary Supplement " (since 1901) to 
The Times is the most ambitious attempt made by any daily 
paper to deal seriously with literature. The Daily Chronicle 
started a " literary page " in 1891, and it was imitated in varying 
degrees by other English papers. The Scotsman and some other 
provincial papers have also for some time devoted much space 
to excellent literary criticism. The " literary supplement " 
has also been developed to excellent effect in some journals 
in the United States, such as the New York Times, where this 
feature was indeed originally started. As a form of serious 
criticism, however, the review has, in the general newspapers of 
later years, taken a lower place than must be desirable, partly 
owing to the cause named, partly to a tendency among reviewers 
either to indiscriminate praise or to irresponsible irrelevance, 
partly to a suspicion of " log-rolling "; and to a large extent 
it has become the practice merely to treat the appearance of 
new books as so much news, to be chronicled, with or without 
extracts, according as the subject makes good " copy," like any 
other event of the day. 

The modern tendency, resulting from the enormous amount 
of newspaper production, has been to make journalism less 
literary and at the same time literature more journalistic. 
Either as reviewers, leader-writers or editors, many of the 
principal " men of letters " have worked for longer or shorter 
periods as writers for some newspaper or other, and much of 
the published literature of the time has appeared originally in 
the columns of the newspapers, in the form of essays, poems, 
short stories or novels (in serial form). Publication in this 
shape has many advantages for an author besides that of ad- 
ditional remuneration; it offers an opportunity for a new writer 
to try his wings, and it helps to introduce him at once to a large 
public. Moreover, the newspapers read by the educated classes 
profit by the superior class of journalist represented by writers 
of a literary turn. But the increased popularity of the news- 
paper, and the close tie between it and the literary world, have 
on the whole impressed a journalistic stamp upon much of the 
literature of the day. However popular at the moment a writer 
may be, the infection with journalistic methods while rightly 
employed by journalists, as such, in dealing with contemporary 
events and for strictly contemporary purposes is apt to be 
responsible for something wanting in his work, the loss of which 
deprives him of the permanent literary or scientific rank to 
which he might otherwise aspire. 

The new point of departure for the more popular style of 
English journalism (apart from the influence of American 
models) is really to be found in the publication of Sir George 
(then Mr) Newnes's Tit- Bits in 1881. This penny weekly 
paper, with its appeal to the masses, who liked to read snippets 
of information brightly put together, showed what enormous 
profits were to be made by this style of enterprise; and the 
multiplication of journals of this description notably Mr 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS] 



NEWSPAPERS 



549 



Alfred Harms-worth's (Lord Northcliffe's) Answers (1888) and 
Mr C. Arthur Pearson's Pearson's Weekly (1890) had a further 
influence on public taste, so that even the classes above that 
which primarily enjoyed these publications were affected in 
the same direction. A new note was thus introduced into 
English daily journalism in England. Whereas before 1885 
the chief feature in London journalism, outside The Times and 
other great morning papers, had been the literary brilliance 
of the Saturday Review and its evening paper analogues, the 
Pall Mall and St James's Gazettes, in the early 'nineties came 
a craze for " actuality." Mr T. P. O'Connor, with his vivid 
pen (first in the Star, then in the Sunday Sun and elsewhere), 
set the pace for a crowd of imitators; the successful establish- 
ment of the Daily Mail in 1896, with its system of compressing 
the news of the day briefly and pointedly into short paragraphs, 
while at the same time catering for aU tastes and employing 
first-rate correspondents and reporters to supply it with special 
information, gave a distinct shake-up to the older traditions 
of daily journalism. The old tendency had be^n to rely for 
success either on writers of exceptional knowledge or capacity, 
men who were essentially amateurs, or on a class of professional 
journalists who at all events had a literary tradition behind them. 
A different sort of amateur now arose, and a different sort of 
professional. Even when an attempt was made to provide for 
a literary public, success came to be generally sought by popular 
rather than by literary methods. The literary public in the 
proper sense of the word is inevitably a small one, and the greater 
part of the Press deals with literature on lines more suited to 
a larger and less refined clientele. It may be claimed, no doubt, 
that the best sort of journalism shows a high, and sometimes 
the highest, literary standard, but the fact remains that for the 
bulk of modern journalism its conductors realize only too well 
that their business is to appeal to the masses, and to a standard 
of education and taste which falls far short of anything that can 
be called intellectual. 

It is often said that the leading articles or " editorials," 
expressing the attitude of the paper towards important subjects 
of the Jay, have lost their importance, but this is only a half- 
truth. Allowance being made for changes in literary style, 
the actual amount of good writing in this department in the 
great organs of opinion well-informed, scholarly and incisive 
may justly be considered equal to anything done in what are 
sometimes considered its palmy days. 1 On the other hand, 
it is undoubtedly the case that in the newer type of newspaper, 
which appeals rather on the score of its tit-bits of news and 
rapid readableness to a more casual and less serious public, the 
whole raison d'etre of the old-fashioned leading article has 
disappeared, and its place is taken by a few brief notes, merely 
indicating the attitude of the paper, and not seeking to discuss 
any subject comprehensively at all. The " leader " is to some 
extent a form of newspaper routine, but on the whole it is a 
routine which has proved its value by experience. The con- 
tinuous high standard of tone, maintained by so many great 
journals, depends more largely than is sometimes realized on 
the regular industry and skill of those whose business it is to 
discuss the latest developments of affairs every day or every week 
in a manner which gives reasonable men something fresh to think 
about, or interprets for them the thoughts which are only 
vaguely floating in their minds. The liberty of the Press enables 
every sort of view, right or wrong, to be discussed in this 
prominent form, and thus every aspect of a question is brought 
out in public, to be accepted or rejected according to the weight 
of evidence and of argument. 

The same end is assisted by the devotion of so much space 
to " letters to the editor." It is sometimes said that in England 
the London Times owes its position largely to the fact that if 
any individual grievance is felt it is generally ventilated by a 
letter to The Times. Whatever may be the organization of the 

1 It must be remembered that the style of public speeches has also 
altered. Nobody thinks of quoting the classics nowadays in the 
House of Commons. A more business-like form of speech is adopted 
in public life, and the Press reflects this change. 



Press for reporting the news of the day, the resources of no 
newspaper staff are great enough to cover an area of information 
as large as that represented by its readers; and the value of 
the outlet for opinion and information afforded by the corre- 
spondence columns cannot be overstated. 

Most people probably read more papers than is compatible 
with a healthy mental digestion, but the Press, as such, has 
to-day an enormous and none the less real because subtle 
influence; and this is largely due to the reputation maintained 
by its higher representatives. While, individually, the great 
papers wield considerable influence, due partly to real sagacity 
and authority, partly to the psychological effect produced by 
mere print or by reiterated statement, collectively the Press 
now represents the Public, and expresses popular opinion more 
directly than any representative assembly. The multiplication 
of " Press-cutting agencies," and of such essentially " newsy " 
publications as Who's Who (the English form of which originated 
with Mr Douglas Sladen hi 1897) and similar biographical 
reference books all tending to increase the publicity of modern 
life has contributed materially to the pervading influence of 
journalism in everyday life and the constant dependence of 
society in most of its manifestations on the activity of the 
" Fourth Estate." (H. CH.) 

From the introduction of low rates for telegraphy and from 
the increase of mechanical methods of production, and of the 
desire to read and the growth of advertising (see 
ADVERTISEMENT), the modern low-priced newspaper 
has resulted. But it is by no means a recent develop- papers. 
ment merely. In France, Theophrastus Renaudot's 
Gazette de Paris (1631) was started at the price of six centimes. 
In England we find the first mention of inexpensive news-sheets 
towards the close of the I7th century, when a number of half- 
penny and farthing Posts sprang into existence, and appeared 
at more or less irregular intervals. These consisted of small 
leaflets, containing a few items of news sometimes accompanied 
by advertisements and were commonly sold in the streets by 
hawkers. The rise in cost was really due to artificial causes. 
The increase of these newspapers, and especially the growing 
practice of inserting advertisements, led the legislature to con- 
template a stamp tax of a penny per sheet on all news publica- 
tions. As a protest, a curious pamphlet of which a copy is 
preserved in the British Museum was issued in 1701, and it 
sheds an interesting light upon this early phase of cheap journal- 
ism. The pamphlet is entitled Reasons humbly offered to the 
Parliament on behalf of several persons concerned in the paper- 
making, printing and publishing of the halfpenny newspapers. 
It states that five master printers were engaged in the trade, 
which used 20,000 reams of paper per annum. The journals 
are described in the following terms: " The said newspapers 
have been always a whole sheet and a half, and sold for one 
halfpenny to the poorer sort of people, who are purchasers of 
it by reason of its cheapness, to divert themselves, and also to 
allure herewith their young children and entice them to reading; 
and should a duty of three halfpence be laid on these mean news- 
papers (which, by reason of the coarseness of the paper, the 
generality of gentlemen are above conversing with), it would 
utterly extinguish and suppress the same." The pamphlet goes 
on to say that hundreds of families, including a considerable 
number of blind people, were supported by selling the half- 
penny journals in the streets. 

In 1712 a tax of a halfpenny per sheet was imposed, and the 
cheap newspapers at once ceased to exist. This tax on the press 
was increased from time to time, till in 1815 it stood at fourpence 
per sheet. The usual price of newspapers was then sevenpence 
a copy. From these facts it seems highly probable that, had not 
the stamp tax been imposed, the halfpenny paper would soon 
have become the normal type, and would have continued so to 
this day. In 1724 a committee of the House of Commons sat 
to consider the action of certain printers who were evading the 
stamp tax by publishing cheap newspapers under the guise of 
pamphlets. They found that there were then two Halfpenny 
Posts published in London, one by Read of Whitefriars. and the 



550 



NEWSPAPERS 



[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



other by Parker of Salisbury Street. There were also three 
weekly papers issued at a halfpenny a copy. The tax, after 
several reductions, was finally repealed on isth June 1855, and 
a rush of cheap papers immediately followed. A penny became 
the useal price for London daily papers, with the exception of 
The Times, and halfpenny papers soon became common. 

The growth of the cheap newspaper has since been practically 
a simultaneous one throughout the civilized world. This has 
been notably the case in the United States, France and Great 
Britain. The general tendency in newspaper production, as in 
all other branches of industry, has in recent times been towards 
the lowering of prices while maintaining excellence of quality, 
experience having proved the advantage of large sales with a 
small margin of profit over a limited circulation with a higher rate 
of profit. The development and indeed the possibility of 
the cheap daily paper was due to a number of causes operating 
together during the latter half of the igth century. Among 
these, the first place must undoubtedly be given to the cheapening 
of paper, through the introduction of wood pulp and the perfect- 
ing of the machinery used in the manufacture. From 1875 to 
1885 paper cheapened rapidly, and it has been estimated that 
the introduction of wood pulp trebled the circulation of news- 
papers in England. Keen competition in the paper trade also 
did much to lower prices. At the same time the prime cost of 
newspaper production was increased by the introduction of 
improved machinery into the printing office. The growth of 
advertisements must also be taken into account in considering 
the evolution of the halfpenny journal. The income from this 
source alone made it possible to embark upon journalistic enter- 
prises which would otherwise have been simply to court disaster. 
The popular journal of the present day does not, however, 
owe its existence and success merely to questions of diminished 
cost and improved methods of production. A change has come 
over the public mind. The modern reader likes his news in a 
brief, handy form, so that he can see at a glance the main facts 
without the task of reading through wordy articles. This is 
especially the case with the man of business, who desires to master 
the news of the past twenty-four hours as he travels to his office 
in the morning. It is to economize time rather than money 
that the modern reader would often prefer a halfpenny paper; 
while the man of leisure, who likes to peruse leading articles 
and full descriptive accounts, finds what he needs in the more 
highly priced journals. The halfpenny paper in England has not 
had to contend with the opposition that the penny newspaper 
met from its threepenny contemporaries in the 'fifties and 'sixties. 
This is largely due to the fact that in most cases the contributors, 
paper, printing and general arrangement of the cheaper journal 
do not leave much room for criticism. Mr G. A. Sala once com- 
plained that the reporters of the older papers objected to work 
side by side with him when he represented the first penny London 
daily (the Daily Telegraph), through fear of losing caste, but 
this does not now apply, for in the United Kingdom, France and 
the United States the cheap journals, owing to their vast circula- 
tion, are able to offer the best rates of remuneration, and can 
thus command the services of some of the best men in all the 
various departments of journalism. (N.) 

Another aspect of the newspaper which may here be considered 
is the introduction of pictorial illustrations (see also ILLUSTRA- 
.. * * * TION). The earliest attempts at popular illustration 

Illustrated , r-T'ijri.j 

papers. * news events took the form in England of broad- 
sides." One broadside dated 1587 recounted the 
Valiant Exploits of Sir Francis Drake; another dated 1607 
gave an account of A wonderful flood in Somersetshire and 
Norfolk. The series of murder broadsides which lasted almost 
to our own time commenced in 1613 with one that gave an account 
of the murder of Mr William Storre, a clergyman of Market 
Rasen, in Lincolnshire, by Francis Cartwright. Early in the 
reign of Charles I. there appeared a broadside which described 
a fall of meteors in Berkshire. A little later in 1683 the 
Weekly News came out with the picture of an island which was 
supposed to have risen from the sea on the French coast. The 
execution of Straff ord in 1641 was made the subject of a picture 



pamphlet that is to be seen in the British Museum, and in 1642 
the first attempt to portray the House of Commons appeared 
in A Perfect Diurnall of the Passages in Parliament. In 1643 
a pamphlet was published, called The Bloody Prince; or a 
Declaration of the Most Cruel Practices of Prince Rupert and the 
rest of the Cavaliers infighting against God and the True Ministers 
of His Church. This contains a woodcut representation of 
Prince Rupert on his charger, one of the first attempts at pro- 
viding the public with a portrait of a contemporary celebrity. 

Soon after this there appeared a journal, entitled Mercurius 
Civicus, which frequently gave illustrations, and, allowing for 
the Weekly News with its one attempt at an illustration above 
mentioned, must be counted the first illustrated paper. Mer- 
curius Civicus, however, only gave portraits; it published 
Charles I. and his queen, Prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Fairfax 
and all the leading men on both sides in the Civil War. Perhaps 
the most interesting illustration of the next four years was that 
contained in a tract intended to evoke sympathy for the con- 
quered and captured king. It represented Charles in Carisbrooke 
Castle in 1648. There were many later attempts to depict the 
tragedy of Charles I.'s execution, and several woodcuts present 
to us also the execution of the regicides after Charles II. came to 
the throne. A broadside of the reign of the second Charles 
shows the Frost Fair on the Thames in 1683, and with a broad- 
side describing Great Britain's Lamentations, or the Funeral 
Obsequies of that most incomparable Protestant Princess Queen 
Mary, the wife of William III., in 1695 we close the illustrated 
journalism of the I7th century. 

Curiously enough, the 1 8th century, so rich in journalistic 
enterprise and initiative so far as the printed page was concerned, 
did less than the previous century to illustrate news. In 1731, 
however, in the Grub Street Journal, there appeared the first 
illustration of the Lord Mayor's procession. In 1740 another 
journal, the Daily Post, gave an illustration of Admiral Vernon's 
attack on Porto Bello. The narrative was introduced by the 
editor with the information that the letter that he is printing 
is from a friend who witnessed the conflict between the English 
and the Spaniards. The writer of the letter, who must be put 
on record as the father of war correspondents, signed himself 
" William Richardson." 

There were some interesting efforts to illustrate magazines 
about this time. In the Gentleman's Magazine for 1746 there 
was a lengthy account of the famous rising of 1745, and a map 
was given of the country round Carlisle, showing the route of 
the Scottish rebels; and in the same volume there was a portrait 
of the duke of Cumberland. In 1747 the Gentleman's gave a 
bird's-eye view of the city of Genoa, illustrating the account of 
the insurrection there, and so on year by year there were further 
pictures. In 1751 an obituary notice was illustrated by a 
portrait of a certain Edward Bright of Maldon, Essex. Mr 
Bright died at the age of thirty, and his interest to the public 
was that he weighed 42^ stones. There were a number of maga- 
zines besides the Gentleman's that came out about this time and 
continued well into the next century. In the Thespian Magazine 
for 1793, for example, there is an illustration of a new theatre 
at Birmingham. Then there were the English Magazine, the 
Macaroni Magazine, the Monstrous Magazine. Every one of 
these contained illustrations on copper, more or less topical. 

William Clement, the proprietor of the Observer, the first 
number of which was published in 1791, was the first real 
pioneer of illustrated journalism, although his ideals fell short 
in this particular, that he was never prepared to face the illustra- 
tion of news systematically; he only attempted to illustrate 
events when there was a great crisis in public affairs. In 1818 
Abraham Thornton, who was tried for murder, appealed to the 
wager of battle, which after long arguments before judges was 
proved to be still in accordance with statute law, and he escaped 
hanging in consequence. Thornton's portrait appeared in the 
Observer. Clement owned for some time Bell's Life and the 
Morning Chronicle. All his journals contained occasional 
topical illustrations. The Observer's illustration of the house 
where the Cato Street conspirators met is really sufficiently 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS] 



NEWSPAPERS 



elaborate for a journal of to-day, and in 1820 it gave its readers 
" A Faithful Reproduction of the Interior of the House of Lords 
as prepared for the Trial of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen 
Caroline." In 1821 it published an interior of the House of 
Commons with the members in their places. The Observer 
of 22nd July 1821 the Coronation number contained four 
engravings. Of the George IV. Coronation number Mr Clement 
sold 60,000 copies, but even that was nothing to the popularity 
that this journal secured by its illustrations of the once famous 
murder of Mr Weare and the trial of the murderer Thurtell. 
The Observer in 1838 gave a picture of the Coronation of Queen 
Victoria. In 1841 there was a fire at the Tower of London, 
when the armoury was destroyed. The Observer published 
three illustrations of the fire; it further published an emblematic 
engraving on the birth of the prince of Wales, and issued a large 
page engraving of the christening ceremony in the following 
January. Thus it had in it all the elements of pictorial journalism 
as we know it to-day. 

The weekly Illustrated London News was, however, the first 
illustrated newspaper by virtue of its regularity. It was the 
first illustrated paper, because all the illustrations to which we 
have referred as appearing in the Observer and other publications 
were irregular. They came at intervals; they were quite sub- 
ordinate to the letterpress of the paper; they were given only 
occasionally in times of excitement, with a view to promoting 
some little extra sale. That they did not really achieve the 
result hoped for to any great extent may be gauged by the fact 
that from 1842 to 1847 the Observer published scarcely any 
illustrations at all, and in the meantime the Illustrated London 
News had taken an assured place as a journal devoted mainly 
to the illustration of news week by week. That is why its first 
publication marked an epoch in journalism. The casual illustra- 
tion of other journals still went on: the Weekly Chronicle, for 
example, still published a number of pictures; the Sunday 
Times, also a very old paper, illustrated in these early days 
many topical subjects. In 1834, indeed, it pictured the ruins 
of the House of Commons, when that building was burned down. 
A paper started in 1837 called the Magnet gave illustrations, 
one of them of the removal from St Helena and delivery of the 
remains of the emperor Napoleon to the prince de joinville 
in 1840. 

The first number of the Illustrated London News appeared on 
I4th May 1842. Its founder was Herbert Ingram (1811-1860), 
who was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, and started life amid 
the most humble surroundings, what education he ever received 
having been secured at the free school of his native town. 
Apprenticed at fourteen to a printer in Hull, he later settled in 
Nottingham as a printer and newsagent in a small way. It 
was during his career as a newsvendor at Nottingham that he 
was seized with the belief that it was possible to produce a paper 
entirely devoted to illustration of news. In the first number of 
the Illustrated London News, however, there was not a single 
picture that was drawn from actual sight, the factor which is 
the most essential element of the illustrated journalism of to-day. 
Sir John Gilbert (1817-1897), the artist, has stated that not one 
of the events depicted by him a state ball at which the queen 
and the prince consort appeared, the queen with the young 
prince of Wales in her arms, and other incidental illustrations 
was taken from life. 

The Illustrated London News had not been long in existence 
before there were many imitators, in America Harper's Weekly, 
in France L 'Illustration and in Germany Uber Land und Meer, 
and from that day there has been constant development, the 
Illustrated Zeitung of Leipzig being perhaps the most striking. 
In America the use of illustrations in the daily papers has become 
a regular feature, culminating in the bulky Sunday editions of 
the principal journals; and the practice of presenting the news 
in pictorial form has increased continuously even in England. 
In 1910 three London daily newspapers were principally devoted 
to illustration the Daily Graphic, the Daily Mirror and the 
Daily Sketch, while most of the penny and halfpenny journals 
included some form of pictorial matter. This change was due 



to the ever-increasing cheapening and ever-growing celerity of 
manufacture of what are known as half-tone blocks. It was in 
1890 that the application of photography to illustrated journalism 
began in England, and by 1910 it had grown to enormous 
dimensions, but the first newspaper photographs (mainly 
portraits) had to be engraved on wood, although the use of half- 
tone came in well-nigh simultaneously. Up to 1890 illustrated 
journalism was in the hands of the artists, and the artists were 
in the hands of the wood engravers, who reproduced their work 
sometimes effectively often inefficiently. But in the course of 
twenty years the wood engraver had been utterly superseded so far 
as illustrated journalism was concerned. The further develop- 
ments of journalism seemed likely to be entirely in the direction of 
coloured reproductions, block-making and machinery for facili- 
tating their production having made particularly rapid strides. 

(C. K. S.) 

It is almost impossible by any statistical detail to give an idea of 
the advances made by the newspaper press as a whole; Camoara 
but an outline of the general results for 1828, 1866 and Jj^ e f w . 
1882, together with a fourth, as given in the loth edition tistlcs 
of this encyclopaedia for 1900, may have its utility. 

The earliest summary is that of Adrien Balbi. It was published in 
the Revue encyclopedique for 1828 (vol. i. pp. 593-603), along with 
much matter of more than merely statistical interest. The numbers 
of newspapers published in different countries at that date are given 
as follows: France, 490; United Kingdom, 483; Austria, about 80; 
Prussia, 288; rest of the Germanic Confederation, 305; Nether- 
lands, 150; Spain, 16; Portugal and the Azores, 17; Denmark, 
Sweden and Norway, 161; Russia and Poland, 84. The respective 
proportions of journals to populations were for Prussia I to 41,500, 
German states I to 45,300, United Kingdom I to 46,000, France I 
to 64,000, Switzerland I to 66,000, Austria I to 400,000, Russia I to 
565,000. Europe had in all 2142 newspapers, America 978, Asia 27, 
Africa 12 and Oceania 9; total 3168. Of these, 1378 were published 
in English-speaking countries (800 of them in the United States), 
having a population of 154 millions, and 1790 in other countries, 
with a population of 583 millions. 

The second summary (1886) is that given by Eugene Hatin in 
an appendix to his valuable Bibliothique de la presse periodique. 
His enumeration of newspapers is as follows: France, 1640; United 
Kingdom, 1260; Prussia, 700; Italy, 500; Austria-Hungary, 365; 
Switzerland, 300; Belgium, 275; Holland, 225; Russia, 200; 
Spain, 200; Sweden and Norway, 150; Denmark, 100; United 
States, 4000. Here the proportions of papers to population are 
Switzerland and United States I to 7000, Belgium I to 17,000, 
France and the United Kingdom I to 20,000, Prussia I to 30,000, 
Spain i to 75,000, Austria I to 100,000, Russia I to 300,000. Hatin 
assigns to Europe a total of 7000, to America 5000 and to the rest of 
the world 250, making in all 12,500. 

The third summary is taken from that of Henry Hubbard, pub- 
lished in his Newspaper Directory of the World (New Haven, Con- 
necticut, 1882). Its scope embraces a considerable number of serial 
publications which cannot be classed as newspapers. Still Hubbard's 
figures, which were collected (chiefly by the American consuls and 
consular agents in all parts of the world) about 1880, cannot be 
disregarded. The following are his general results: 





Daily 
Newspapers. 


Other 
Publications. 


Europe . 
Asia . 
Africa . . 
N. America . 
S. America 
Australasia 

Total . 


2403 
154 
25 
1136 
208 
94 


10,73 

337 
125 
9,656 
427 
471 


4020 


21,746 



The following summary for 1900, given in the loth edition of the 
Ency. Brit., and compiled by G. F. Barwick and Dorset Eccles, of 
the British Museum, included everything in the nature of a news- 
paper, as distinct from periodicals. 

Totals of Newspapers, icjoo. 



Great Britain and Ire- 
land . . . . . 
United States . 
France . . . . 
Germany . . . '. 
Austria . . . 


2,902 

15,904 
2,400 
3,278 
393 


Belgium . 
Holland . 
Luxemburg 
Russia 
Italy . . 
Spain . 


Hungary 


171 


Portugal . 


Sweden 
Denmark .... 
Iceland and Faroe Islands 
Norway 


213 
H5 
3 
132 


Switzerland 
Greece 
Rumania . 
Servia 



290 
312 

12 

280 
25J 
338 

79 
600 

47 
47 
24 



552 

Bulgaria .... 
Montenegro . 
Turkey . . . 
Persia . . . 
Syria .... 
India .... 
Ceylon . 
China 

Siam .... 
Straits Settlements 
Cochin China. . 
Japan 

East Indies . 
South Africa 
West Africa . 
Central Africa, &c. 
Egypt . . . 
Canada . 



NEWSPAPERS 



[BRITISH 



15 


Central and West Indies 129 


2 


South American Republics 340 


22 


Australasia 


3 


New South Wales 




227 


6 


Queensland . . 




109 


600 


South Australia 




44 


IO 


Victoria . 




310 


40 


West Australia 




18 


5 


Tasmania . 




18 


12 


New Zealand 






4 
150 


Otago . . 
Wellington . 




28 
29 


39 


Auckland . 




17 


109 


Hawkes Bay 




II 


IO 


Canterbury 




23 


76 


Sundry . 




36 


2 I 

742 


Total. . 31,026 



news- 
letters. 



2. BRITISH NEWSPAPERS 

United Kingdom. 1 

The first regular English journalists may be identified with 
the writers of manuscript " news-letters," originally the depend- 
ants of great men, each employed in keeping his own master 
or patron well-informed, during his absence from court, of all 
that happened there. The duty grew at length into a calling. 
The writer had his periodical subscription list, and instead of 
writing a single letter wrote as many letters as he had customers. 
Then one more enterprising than the rest established an " in- 
telligence office," with a staff of clerks, such as Ben Jonson's 
Cymbal depicts from the life in The Staple of News, acted in 
1625, which is the best-known dramatic notice of the news-sheets. 
" This is the outer room where my clerks sit, 
And keep their sides, the register in the midst; 
The examiner, he sits private there within; 
And here I have my several rolls and files 
Of news by the alphabet, and all put up 
Under their heads." 

Of the earlier news-letters good examples may be seen in the 
Paston Letters, and in the Sydney Papers. Of those of later 
date specimens will be found in Knowler's Letters and 
Despatches of Straff ord, and other well-known books. 
Still later examples may be seen amongst the papers 
collected by the historian Thomas Carte, preserved in 
the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Of these, several series were 
addressed to the first duke of Ormond, partly by correspondents 
in England and Ireland, partly by correspondents in Paris; others 
were addressed to successive earls of Huntingdon; others, again, 
to various members of the Wharton family. And similar valuable 
collections are to be seen in the library of the British Museum, and 
in the Record Office in London. In Edinburgh the Advocates' 
Library possesses a series of the i6th century, written by Richard 
Scudamore to Sir Philip Hoby during his embassy to Vienna. 
The MS. news-letters some of them proceeding from writers 
of marked ability who had access to official information, and 
were able to write with, greater freedom and independence 
of tone than the compilers of the printed news held their 
ground, although within narrowing limits, until nearly the 
middle of the i8th century. The distinction between the news- 
letter and the newspaper is pointed out in the preceding section. 
It was at one time believed that the earliest regular English 
newspaper was an English Mercuric of 1588, to which George 
Chalmers, the political writer and antiquarian, referred 
in his Life of Ruddiman (1794) as being (with others of 
the same date) in the British Museum. The falsehood 
of this supposition, which was long accepted on 
Chalmers's authority, was, however, pointed out by Thomas 
Watts, of the British Museum, in 1839, in a volume with the 
title Letter to Antonio Panizzi on the Reputed earliest printed 
Newspaper, and again in 1850, in an article in the Gentleman's 
Magazine (n.s. xxxiii. 485-491). The documents in question are 
(i) a MS. unnumbered issue of the English Mercuric, dated 
" Whitehall, July 26th, 1588 "; (2) a printed copy, No. 50, of 

1 In the following account of early British newspapers certain 
portions of the article by E. Edwards in the 9th ed. of the Ency. Brit. 
have been incorporated. 



news- 
papers. 



July 23, 1588; (3) a printed copy of No. 51; (4) a printed copy 
of No. 54, of November 24, 1588; (5) and three other MS. copies. 
These were included in a collection bequeathed to the Museum 
of Dr Birch (1766), and are incontestably 18th-century forgeries. 
The handwriting of the spurious MSS. was identified by a letter 
among Dr Birch's correspondence as that of Philip Yorke, 
afterwards 2nd Lord Hardwicke, and there were trifling correc- 
tions in Dr Birch's handwriting, showing that he was a party 
with Yorke, the author, to the mystification. No information 
is forthcoming as to the object of it, but it is worth mentioning 
that Yorke and his brother also published a clever jew d 'esprit 
called The Athenian Letters, purporting to be a transcript from 
a Spanish translation of letters written by a Persian agent during 
the Peloponnesian War; so that it may be inferred that this 
sort of thing recommended itself to Yorke, and not necessarily 
for any deception. 

Various English pamphlets, as well as French, Italian and 
German, occur in the i6th century with such titles as Newes from 
Spaine, and the like. In the early years of the i7th century 
they became very numerous; the Charles Burney collection in 
the British Museum is particularly valuable for this early period, 
the newsbooks and newspapers in it commencing with a " rela- 
tion " of 1603. In 1614 we find Burton (the author of the 
Anatomy of Melancholy) pointing a sarcasm against the non- 
reading habits of " the major part " by adding, " if they read a 
book at any time . . . 'tis an English chronicle, Sir Huon of 
Bordeaux, Amadis de Gaul, &c., a play-book, or some pamphlet 
of news." But up to 1641, owing to the fact that to print 
domestic news was barred by the royal prerogative, the English 
periodicals which are to be considered as strictly the forerunners 
of the regular newspaper were only translations or adaptations 
of foreign periodicals containing news of what was going on 
abroad. 

There is in the British Museum a Mercurius Gallobelgicus; 
Sine rerum in Gallia et Belgio potissimum, Hispania quoque, 
Italia, Anglia, Germania, Polonia, Vicinisque Locis ab anno 1588 
usque ad Martium anni praesentis 1594 gestarum, nuncius. 
Opusculum in Sex libris qui totidem annos complectuntur, divisum 
auctore D. M. Jansonio Doccomensi Frisio. Editio altera. 
Coloniae Agrippinae. A pud Godefridum Kempensem. Anno 
MDXCIV. This production of Janson's at Cologne is a fairly 
thick octavo book, giving a Latin chronicle of events from 1587 
to 1594, and is really a sort of annual register. It was continued 
down to 1635. The Mercurius Gallobelgicus is chiefly interesting 
because, by circulating in England, it started the idea of a 
periodical supplying foreign news, and apparently became to 
English contemporaries a type of the newfangled news-sum- 
maries. 1 In 1614 there was published in London a little square 
book (45 pp.), by Robert Booth, A Relation of all matters passed 
. . . since March last to the present 1614, translated according to 
the originall of Mercurius Gallobelgicus, which has the running 
title Mercurius Gallobelgicus his relation since March last. From 
a repetition of such " relations " at irregular intervals, to the 
periodical publication of news-books with a common title in a 
numbered series, was a natural development. Thus on the ist 
of June 1619 Ralph Rounthwaite entered at Stationers' Hall 
A Relation of all matters done in Bohemia, Austria, Poland, 
Sletia, France, &c., that is worthy of relating, since the 2nd of 
March 1618 (1619 N.S.) until the 4th of May? Again at the 
beginning of November 1621 Bartholomew Downes and another 
entered in like manner The certaine and true newes from all parts 
of Germany and Poland, to this present 20 of October 1621? No 
copy of either of these papers is now known to exist. Nor is any 
copy known of the Courant or Weekly Newes from foreign parts 
of October 9, 1621" taken out of the High Dutch," men- 
tioned by John Nichols. 4 But in May 1622 we arrive at a regular 
weekly newspaper which may still be seen in the British Museum. 

1 The title Mercurius or Mercury as representing the messenger 
of the gods thus became a common one for English periodicals. 

s Registers of the Stationers' Company, as printed by Edward 
Arber, iii. 302. 

1 Ibid. iv. 23. * Literary Anecdotes, iv. 38. 



BRITISH] 



NEWSPAPERS 



553 



The Stationers' Registers contain an entry on May i8th of A 
Currant of generall newes. Dated in I4th May last; no copy oi 
this issue is preserved, but what is presumably the next number 
is to be found in the Burney collection. It is entitled " The 
23rd of May The Weekely Newes from Italy, Germany, &c., 
London, printed by J. D. for Nicholas Bourne and Thomas 
Archer." On many subsequent numbers the name of Nathaniel 
Butter appears in connexion sometimes with Bourne and some- 
times with Archer; so that there was probably an eventual 
partnership in the new undertaking. Archer is known as a 
publisher of "relations" since 1603; he died in 1634. Butter 
had published Newes from Spaine in 1611, and he continued to be 
a publisher of news until 1641, if not later, 1 and died in 1664. 

For details of the history of the development of the news-book 
down to 1641, and thence to the starting of the London Gazette in 
1665, reference should be made to Mr J. B. Williams's History of 
English Journalism (1908), already referred to. Mr Williams, by 
his study of the materials preserved in the British Museum in the 
Burney and Thomason * collections, has considerably modified many 
of the previously accepted views as to the affiliation and authorship 
of these early English periodicals. The leading facts can only be 
summarized here. 

The Weekely Newes (1622), though the first English " Coranto," 
had no regular title connecting one number with the rest; it was 
simply the news of the week, and so described. The. first period- 
ical with a title was a Mercurius Britannicus published by Archer 
(1625; the earliest ccfpy in existence being No. 16, April 7th), 
which probably lasted till the end of 1627. But the activity of 
the Coranto-makers was checked by the Star Chamber edict in 
1632 against the printing of news from foreign parts. The next 
step in the evolution of the newspaper was due to the abolition 
of the Star Chamber in 1641, and the consequent freeing of the 
Press; and at last we come to the English periodical with 
domestic news. In November 1641 begins The Head of sever all 
proceedings in the present parliament (outside title) or Diurnal 
Occurrences (inside title), the latter being the title under which 
it was soon known as a weekly; and on Jan. 3ist 1642 appeared 
A Perfect Diurnal of the Passages in Parliament. These were 
printed for William Cooke, and were written apparently by 
Samuel Pecke, " the first of the patriarchs of English domestic 
journalism " (Williams). It is unnecessary here to mention 
every domestic journal which played its part in the verbal 
warfare in the Great Rebellion. The weekly Diurnals were 
soon copied by other booksellers. At first they were naturally 
on the side of the parliament. In January 1643, however, 
appeared at Oxford the first Royalist diurnal, named 
Mercurius Aulicus (continued till September 1645, and soon 
succeeded by Mercurius Academicus), which struck a higher 
literary note; its chief writer was Sir John Birkenhead. 
Mercurius Civicus, the first regularly illustrated periodical in 
London, was started by the parliamentarian Richard Collings 
on May nth, 1643 (continued to December 1646); Collings 
had also started earlier in the year the Kingdome's Weekly 
Intelligencer, which lasted till October 1649. In September 
1643 appeared another Puritan opponent of M. Aulicus in 
the Mercurius Britanicus (sic) of Captain Thomas Audley, 
which temporarily ceased publication on September gth, 1644, 
only to be revived on September 3Oth by Marchamont (or 
Marchmont) Nedham, a writer who plays a prominent part in 
the journalism of this period, and to be continued till May i8th 
1646. 

In January 1647 was started the Perfect Occurrences by Henry 
Walker (" Luke Harruney "), who was not only a great journalist 

1 It is to him that a passage in Fletcher's Fair Maid of the Inn 
(Act iv. Sc. 2) obviously refers (written in 1625) : " It shall be the 
ghost of some lying stationer. A spirit shall look as if butter would 
not melt in his mouth; a new Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus." The 
quotation also illustrates the contemporary regard paid to the 
Mercurius Gallobelgicus. 

2 George Thomason (d. 1666) was a London bookseller who in 
1641 began collecting contemporary pamphlets, &c. His collection 
was ultimately bought by George III. and presented to the British 
Museum in 1762. A catalogue was completed in 1908, with intro- 
duction by Dr G. K. Fortescue. There is also a catalogue of early 
English newspapers intheBMiothecaLindesiana, Collections and Notes 
No. 5, of Lord Crawford (1901). 



on the parliamentary side but is important as having originated 
the introduction of advertisements into the news-books. Later 
in the year a number of new Royalist Mercuries came into the 
field from which Aulicus and Academicus had now withdrawn: 
the first was Mercuricus Melancholicus (until 1649), and the 
most important were Mercurius Pragmaticus (Sept. 1647 to 
May 1650) and Mercuricus Elencticus (Nov. 1647 to Nov. 1649). 
M. Pragmaticus was not, as has been stated, originated by 
Marchamont Nedham (who about this time turned his coat 
and became Royalist), but in 1648-1649 he was its writer until 
he again turned parliamentarian; " history," says Mr Williams, 
" has no personage so shamelessly cynical as Marchamont Nedham, 
with his powerful pen and his political convictions ever ready 
to be enlisted on the side of the highest bidder; he even wrote 
for Charles II. in later years." Against the unlicensed Royalist 
Mercuries in London, where the people were on the king's side, 
the parliament waged active war, but some of them managed to 
come out, although writer after writer was imprisoned, until 
the middle of 1650. Meanwhile from October 1649 to June 
1650, by a new act of parliament, the licensed press itself was 
entirely suppressed, and in 1649 two official journals were issued, 
A Brief Relation (up to October 1650) and Severall Proceedings 
in Parliament (till September 1(155), a third licensed periodical, 
A Perfect Diurnall (till September 1655), being added later in 
the year, and a fourth, Mercurius Politicus (of which Milton was 
the editor for a year or so and Marchamont Nedham one of the 
principal writers), starting on June i3th, 1650 (continuing till 
April I2th, 1660). After the middle of 1650 there was a revival 
of some of the older licensed news-books; but the Weekly 
Intelligence of the Commonwealth (July 1650 to September 1655), 
by R. Collings, was the only important newcomer up to September 
1655, when Cromwell suppressed all such publications with the 
exception of Mercurius Politicus and the Publick Intelligencer 
(October 1655 to April 1660), both being official and conducted 
by Marchamont Nedham. 

Till Cromwell's death (Sept. 3rd. 1658) Nedham reigned alone 
in the press, but with the Rump he fell into disgrace, and in 
1659 a rival appeared in Henry Muddiman (a great writer also 
of " news-letters "), whose Parliamentary Intelligencer, renamed 
the Kingdom's Intelligencer (till August 1663), was supported 
by General Monck. Nedham's journalistic career came finally 
to an end (he died in 1678) at the hand of Monck's council of 
state in April 1660. The following announcement was published 
in the Parliamentary Intelligencer: " Whereas Marchmont 
Nedham, the author of the weekly news-books called Mercurius 
Politicus and the Publique Intelligencer is, by order of the council 
of state, discharged from writing or publishing any publique 
intelligence; the reader is desired to take notice that, by order 
of the said council, Giles Dury and Henry Muddiman are 
authorized henceforth to write and publish the said intelligence, 
the one upon the Thursday and the other upon the Monday, 
which they do intend to set out under the titles of the Parlia- 
mentary Intelligencer and of Mercurius Publicus." This arrange- 
ment with Muddiman lasted till 1663, when he was supplanted 
by Sir Roger L'Estrange, who was appointed " surveyor of the 
Press." On him was conferred by royal grant and, as it 
proved, for only a short period " all the sole privilege of writing, 
printing, and publishing all narratives, advertisements, mercuries, 
intelligencers, diurnals and other books of public intelligence; 
. . . with power to search for and seize the unlicensed and treason- 
able schismatical and scandalous books and papers." L'Estrange 
discontinued Mercurius Politicus and Kingdom's Intelligencer 
and substituted two papers, the Intelligencer (Aug. ist) and 
the Newes (Sept. 3rd) at a halfpenny, the former on Mondays 
and the latter on Thursdays; they were continued till January 
29th, 1666, but from the beginning of 1664 the Intelligencer 
was made consecutive with the Newes, numbered and paged as 
one. 

We come now to the origin of the famous London Gazette. 
Muddiman, obliged to devote himself solely to his news-letters, 
was associated with Joseph Williamson (under-secretary and 
afterwards secretary of state), who was for a time L'Estrange's 



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assistant in the compilation of the Intelligencer. 1 Muddiman 
organized for himself a far-spread foreign correspondence, and 
carried on the business of a news-letter writer on a larger scale 
than had till then been known. Presently L'Estrange, 
T he aaoa . whose monopoly of printing was highly unpopular, 
Gazette, found his own sources of information much abridged, 
while Williamson, for his own ambitious purposes, 
entered into a complicated intrigue (analysed in detail by Williams, 
op._cit. pp. 190 seq.) for getting the whole business into his 
hands, with Muddiman as his tool and with Muddiman's clients 
as his customers. To L'Estrange's application for renewed 
assistance Williamson replied that he could not give it, but 
would procure for him a salary of 100 a year if he would give 
up his right in the news-book. 2 The Intelligencer appealed 
(Oct. 1665) to Lord Arlington, and pathetically assured him 
that the charge for " entertaining spies for information was 
500 in the first year." 3 But L'Estrange boasted that he had 
" doubled " the size and price of the book, 4 and had brought 
the profit from 200 to 400 or 500 a year. 6 The appeal was 
in vain. At that time the great plague had driven the court to 
Oxford. The first number of the bi-weekly Oxford Gazette. 
licensed by Arlington and written by Muddiman, was published 
on the i6th November 1665. It was a " paper " of news, of the 
same size and shape as Muddiman's news-letters. With the 
publication of the 24th number (Monday, February 5th, 1665- 
1666 O.S.) the Oxford Gazette became the London Gazette. After 
the 25th number Muddiman, who saw that he was not safe in 
Williamson's hands, seceded. Williamson had the general 
control of the Gazette, and for a considerable time Charles 
Perrot, a member of Oriel College, was the acting editor. 6 
L'Estrange was soon driven out of the field, being solaced, on 
his personal appeal to the king, with a charge of 100 a year on 
the news-books (henceforth " taken into the secretaries' office ") 
and a further 200 out of secret service money for his place as 
surveyor of the press. Muddiman, meanwhile, attached himself 
to the other secretary of state, Sir W. Morice, and he was 
authorized to issue an opposition official paper, which appeared 
as Current Intelligence (June 4-Aug. 20, 1666); and though the 
Great Fire, which burnt out all the London printers, resulted in 
the reappearance, after a week's interval, of the Gazette alone, 
Muddiman's unrivalled organization of news-letters remained; 
and they continued, till his death in 1692, to be the more popular 
source of information. The Gazette, however, now remained 
for some time the only " newspaper " in the strict sense already 
mentioned. For several years it was regularly translated into 
French by one Moranville. During the Stuart reigns generally 
its contents were very meagre, although in the reign of Anne 
some improvement is already visible. More than a century after 
the establishment of the Gazette, we find Secretary Lord Wey- 
mouth addressing a circular 7 to the several secretaries of legation 
and the British consuls abroad, in which he says, " The writer of the 
Gazette has represented that the reputation of that paper is greatly 
lessened, and the sale diminished, from the small portion of foreign 
news with which it is supplied." He desires that each of them 
will send regularly all such articles of foreign intelligence as may 
appear proper for that paper, " taking particular care as the 
Gazette is the only paper of authority printed in this country; 
never to send anything concerning the authenticity of which there 
is the smallest doubt." From such humble beginnings has arisen 
the great repertory of State Papers, now so valuable to the writers 
and to the students of English history. The London Gazette has 
appeared twice a week (on Tuesday and Friday) in a continuous 
series ever since 8 The editorship is a government appointment. 

1 This help seems to have been given at the request of the secretary 
of state, Lord Arlington (then Sir H. Bennet), in 1663; State Papers, 
Domestic, Charles II., Ixxix. 112, 113. 

1 State Papers, Domestic, Charles II., cxxxiv. 103 (Rolls House). 

1 Ibid. 117. 

4 In 1664 he had halved them, so that this really only means he 
had now restored the original size. 

' State Papers, Domestic, Charles II., cxxxv. 24. 

Anthony Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, " Perrot." 

' Calendar of Home-Office Papers, 1766^-1769, p. 483 (1879). 

8 A complete set is now of extreme rarity. 



We come now to the Revolution. The very day after the 
departure of James II. was marked by the appearance of three 
newspapers The Universal Intelligence, the English Courant 
and the London Courant. Within a few days more these were 
followed by the London Mercury, the Orange Gazette, the London 
Intelligence, the Harlem Currant and others. The Licensing Act, 
which was in force at the date of the Revolution, expired in 
1692, but was continued for a year, after which it finally ceased. 
On the appearance of a paragraph in the Flying Post of ist April 
1697, which appeared to the House of Commons to attack the 
credit of the Exchequer Bills, leave was given to bring in a bill 
" to prevent writing, printing or publishing of any news without 
licence "; but the bill was thrown out in an early stage of its 
progress. That Flying Post which gave occasion to this attempt 
was also noticeable for a new method of printing, which it thus 
announced to its customers " If any gentleman has a mind 
to oblige his country friend or correspondent with this account 
of public affairs, he can have it for twopence ... on a sheet 
of fine paper, half of which being left blank, he may thereon 
write his own affairs, or the material news of the day." 

In 1696 Edward Lloyd the virtual founder of the famous 
" Lloyd's " of commerce started a thrice-a-week paper, Lloyd's 
News, which had but a brief existence in its first shape, but 
was the precursor of the Lloyd's List of the present day. No. 
76 of the original paper contained a paragraph referring to the 
House of Lords, for the appearance of which a public apology 
must, the publisher was told, be made. He preferred to dis- 
continue his publication (February 1697). Nearly thirty years 
afterwards he in part revived it, under the title of Lloyd's List 
published at first weekly, afterwards twice a week.' This dates 
from 1 726. It is now published daily. 

It was in the reign of Queen Anne that the English newspaper 
press first became really eminent for the amount of intellectual 
power and of versatile talent which was employed 

upon it. It was also in that reign that the press was Flrst 
,. . , , , ., ,, ' . London 

first fettered by the newspaper stamp. The accession aaiiy. 

of Anne was quickly followed by the appearance of 
the first successful London daily newspaper, the Daily Courant 
(nth of March 1702-1703). Seven years earlier, in 1695, the 
Postboy had been started as a daily paper (actually the first 
in London), but only four numbers appeared. The Courant 
was published and edited by the learned printer Samuel Buckley, 
who explained to the public that " the author has taken care 
to be duly furnished with all that comes from abroad, in any 
language. ... At the beginning of each article he will quote 
the foreign paper from which it is taken, that the public, seeing 
from what country a piece of news comes, with the allowance 
of that government, may be better able to judge of the credibility 
and fairness of the relation. Nor will he take upon himself 
to give any comments, . . . supposing other people to have 
sense enough to make reflexions for themselves." Then came, 
in rapid succession, a crowd of new competitors for public 
favour, of less frequent publication. The first number of one 
of these, the Country Gentleman's Courant (1706), was given 
away gratuitously, and made a special claim to public favour 
on the ground that " here the reader is not only diverted with 
a faithful register of the most remarkable and momentary [i.e. 
momentous] transactions at home and abroad, . . . but also 
with a geographical description of the most material places 
mentioned in every article of news, whereby he is freed the 
trouble of looking into maps." 

On the igth of February 1704, whilst still imprisoned in 
Newgate for a political offence, Defoe (?..) began his famous 
paper, the Review. At the outset it was published De/oe . s 
weekly, afterwards twice, and at length three times j? e v/e-. 
a week. It continued substantially in its first form 
until July 29, 1712; and a complete set is of extreme rarity. 
From the first page to the last it is characterized by the manly 

'Frederick Martin, History of Lloyd's, 66-77 and 107-120. The 
great collection of newspapers in the British Museum contains only 
one number of Lloyd's News; but sixty-nine numbers may be seen in 
the Bodleian Library. Of the List, also, no complete series is known 
to exist; that in the library of Lloyd's begins with 1740. 



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Stamp 
tax of 
1712. 



boldness and persistent tenacity with which the almost unaided 
author utters and defends his opinions on public affairs against 
a host of able and bitter assailants. Some of the numbers were 
written during travel, some in Edinburgh. But the Review 
appeared regularly. When interrupted by the pressure of the 
Stamp Act (which came into force on the ist of August 1712), 
the writer modified the form of his paper, and began a new 
series (August 2, 1712, to June u, 1713). In those early and 
monthly supplements of his paper which he entitled " Advice 
from the Scandalous Club," and set apart for the discussion of 
questions of literature and manners, and sometimes of topics 
of a graver kind, Defoe to some extent anticipated Richard 
Steele's Taller (1709) and Steele and Addison's Spectator (1711). 
In 1 705 he severed those supplements from his chief newspaper, 
and published them twice a week as the Little Review. But 
they soon ceased to appear. It may here be added that in May 
1716, Defoe began a new monthly paper under an old title, 
Mercurius Politicus, ..." by a lover of old England." This 
journal continued to appear until September 1720. The year 
1710 was marked by the appearance of the Examiner, or Re- 
marks upon Papers and Occurrences (No. i, August 3), of which 
thirteen numbers appeared by the co-operation of Bolingbroke, 
Prior, Freind and King before it was placed under the sole control 
of Swift. The Whig Examiner, avowedly intended " to censure 
the writings of others, and to give all persons a rehearing who 
had suffered under any unjust sentence of the Examiner," 
followed on the ist September, and the Medley three weeks 
afterwards. 

This increasing popularity and influence of the newspaper 
press could not fail to be distasteful to the government of the 
day. Prosecutions were multiplied, but with small 
success. At length some busy projector hit upon 
the expedient of a newspaper tax. The paper which 
seems to contain the first germ of the plan is still 
preserved amongst the treasury papers. It is anonymous and 
undated, but probably belongs to the year 1711. " There are 
published weekly," says the writer, " about 44,000 newspapers, 
viz. Daily Courant, London Post, English Post, London Gazette, 
Postman, Postboy, Flying Post, Review and Observator." 1 The 
duty eventually imposed (1712) was a halfpenny on papers 
of half a sheet or less, and a penny on such as ranged from half 
a sheet to a single sheet (10 Anne, c. xix. 101). The first results 
of the tax cannot be more succinctly or more vividly described 
than in the following characteristic passage of Swift's Journal 
to Stella (August 7, 1712): "Do you know that Grub Street 
is dead and gone last week? No more ghosts or murders now 
for love or money. I plied it close the last fortnight, and pub- 
lished at least seven papers of my own, besides some of other 
people's; but now every single half-sheet pays a halfpenny 
to the queen. The Observator is fallen; the Medleys are jumbled 
together with the Flying Post; the Examiner is deadly sick; 
the Spectator keeps up, and doubles its price I know not how 
long it will hold. Have you seen the red stamp the papers are 
marked with? Melhinks the stamping is worth a halfpenny." 

Swift's doubt as to the ability of the Spectator to hold out 
against the tax was justified by its discontinuance in December 
1712, Steele starting the Guardian in 1713, which only ran for 
six months. But the impost which was thus fruitful in mischief, 
by suppressing much good literature, wholly failed in keeping 
out bad. Some of the worst journals that were already in 
existence kept their ground, and the number of such ere long 
increased. 2 An enumeration of the London papers of 1714 
comprises the Daily Courant, the Examiner, the British Merchant, 
the Lover, the Patriot, the Monitor, the Flying Post, the Postboy, 
Mercator, the Weekly Pacquet and Dunton's Ghost. Another 
enumeration in 1733 includes the Daily Courant, the Craftsman, 
Fog's Journal, Mist's Journal, the London Journal, the Free 
1 " A Proposition to Increase the Revenue of the Stamp-Office," 
Redington, Calendar of Treasury Papers, 1708-1714, p. 235. The 
stamp-office dated from 1694, when the earliest duties on paper and 
parchment were enacted. 

1 See the Burney collection of newspapers in the British Museum; 
and Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, iv. 33-97. 



Briton, the Grub Street Journal, the Weekly Register, the Uni- 
versal Spectator, the Auditor, the Weekly Miscellany, the London 
Crier, Read's Journal, Oedipus or the Postman Remounted, the 
St James's Post, the London Evening Post and the London 
Daily Post, which afterwards became better known as the Public 
Advertiser. Part of this increase may fairly be ascribed to 
political corruption. In 1742 the committee of the House of 
Commons appointed to inquire into the political conduct of the 
earl of Orford reported to the House that during the last ten 
years of the Walpole ministry there was paid, out of public 
money, no " less a sum than 50,077, i8s. to authors and printers 
of newspapers, such as the Free Briton, Daily Courant, Gazetteer 
and other political papers." 3 But some part of the payment 
may well have been made for advertisements. Towards the 
middle of the century the provisions and the penalties of the 
Stamp Act were made more stringent. Yet the number of 
newspapers continued to rise. Dr Johnson, who in 
1750 started his twopenny bi-weekly Rambler, and jZ hnsoa , f 
in 1758 his weekly Idler, writing in the latter bears time. 
testimony to the still growing thirst for news: " Jour- 
nals are daily multiplied, without increase of knowledge. The 
tale of the morning paper is told in the evening, and the narra- 
tives of the evening are bought again in the morning. These 
repetitions, indeed, waste time, but they do not shorten it. The 
most eager peruser of news is tired before he has completed his 
labour; and many a man who enters the coffee-house in his 
nightgown and slippers is called away to his shop or his dinner 
before he has well considered the state of Europe." Five years 
before (i.e. in 1753) the aggregate number of copies of news- 
papers annually sold in England, on an average of three years, 
amounted to 7,411,757. In 1760 it had risen to 9,464,790, 
and in 1767 to 11,300,980. In 1776 the number of newspapers 
published in London alone had increased to fifty-three. 

When Johnson wrote his sarcastic strictures on the newspapers 
that were the contemporaries and, in a sense, the rivals of the 
Idler, the newswriters had fallen below the standard of an 
earlier day. A generation before the newspaper was often much 
more of a political organ than of an industrial venture. All of 
the many enterprises of Defoe in this field of journalism united 
indeed both characteristics. But if he was a keen tradesman, 
he was also a passionate politician. And not a few of his fellow- 
workers in that field were conspicuous as statesmen no less 
than as journalists. Even less than twenty years before the 
appearance of Johnson's remarks, men of the mental calibre 
of Henry Fielding were still to be found amongst the editors 
and writers of newspapers. The task had fallen to a different 
class of men in 1750. 

The history of newspapers during the long reign of George 
III. is a history of the struggle for freedom of speech in the face 
of repeated criminal prosecutions, in which individual 
writers and editors were defeated and severely punished, 
while the Press itself derived new strength from the tioas. 
protracted conflict, and turned ignominious penalties 
into signal triumphs. From the days of Wilkes's North Briton 
onwards (see WILKES, JOHN: it was started in 1761), every 
conspicuous newspaper prosecution gave tenfold currency to 
the doctrines that were assailed. In the earh'er part of this 
period men who were mere traders in politics whose motives 
were obviously base and their lives contemptible became for 
a time powers in the state, able to brave king, legislature and 
law courts, by virtue of the simple truth that a free people must 
have a free press. One of the minor incidents of the North 
Briton excitement (Wilkes's prosecution in 1763) led indirectly 
to valuable results with reference to the much-vexed question of 
parliamentary reporting. During the discussions respecting 
the Middlesex election, Almon, a bookseller, collected from 
members of the House of Commons some particulars of the 
debates, and published them in the London Evening Post. The 
success which attended these reports induced the proprietors 
of the St James's Chronicle to employ a reporter to collect notes 

* " Fourth Report of the Committee of Secrecy," &c., in Hansard's 
Parliamentary History, xii. 814. 



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in the lobby and at the coffee-houses. This repeated infraction 
of the privilege of secret legislation led to the memorable proceed- 
ings of the House of Commons in 1771, with their fierce debates, 
angry resolutions, and arbitrary imprisonments all resulting, 
at length, in that tacit concession of publicity of discussion which 
in the main, with brief occasional exceptions, has ever since 
prevailed. 

Evening journalism in England started originally with supple- 
mental editions of the morning papers, giving the latest foreign 
war news. In July 1695, when William III. was 
n gh tm S France in the Netherlands, a " Postscript to 
the Pacquet-boat from Holland to Flanders " was 
published with special advices from the seat of war; 
and from that time there were frequent afternoon issues of 
morning journals, giving war news. In August 1706 a " Six at 
Night " evening paper was started in London. The first London 
evening paper of any importance, however, was the Courier 
(1792), which during the latter part of the Napoleonic War, with 
Mackintosh, Coleridge and Wordsworth among its contributors, 
became one of the chief papers of the day. It was edited suc- 
cessively by Daniel Stuart, William Mudford, Eugenius Roche, 
John Gait, James Stuart and Laman Blanchard. In 1827 a 
twenty-fourth share in the paper sold for 5000 guineas, but it 
gradually declined and came to an end in 1842, when it was 
incorporated by the Globe (still existing). 

The principal metropolitan newspapers at different periods 
of George III.'s reign were the Public Advertiser, the Morning 
London P st > the Morning Chronicle, the Morning Herald 
press la and finally The Times. Of these the Morning Post 
George and The Times, still existing, are dealt with later. Of 
ill.'* jjjg tij ree w hich eventually ceased to exist, the first 

was known in 1726 as the London Daily Post and 
General Advertiser. In 1738 the first part of this title was 
dropped, and in 1752 General Advertiser was altered into Public 
Advertiser, a name which the letters of Junius made so famous. 
Many of these had appeared before the smallest perceptible 
effect was produced on the circulation of the paper; but when 
the "Letter to the King" came out (igth December 1769, 
almost a year from the beginning of the series) it caused an 
addition of 1750 copies to the ordinary impression. The effect 
of subsequent letters was variable; but when Junius ceased to 
write the monthly sale of the paper had risen to 83,950. This 
was in December 1771. Seven years earlier the monthly sale 
had been but 47,515. It now became so valuable a property 
that shares in it were sold, according to John Nichols, " as 
regularly as those of the New River Company." But the 
fortunes of the Advertiser declined almost as rapidly as they had 
risen. It continued to appear until 1798, and then expired, 
being amalgamated with the commercial paper called the Public 
Ledger (dating from 1759). Actions for libel were brought 
against the paper by Edmund Burke in 1784, and by William 
Pitt in 1785, and in both suits damages were given. 

The Morning Chronicle was begun in 1 769. William Woodfall 
was its printer, reporter and editor, and continued to conduct 
it until 1789. James Perry succeeded him as editor, and so 
continued, with an interval during which the editorship was in 
the hands of Mr Sergeant Spankie, until his death in 1821. 
Perry's editorial functions were occasionally discharged in 
Newgate in consequence of repeated prosecutions for political 
libel. In 1819 the daily sale reached nearly 4000. It was sold 
in 1823 to Mr Clement, the purchase-money amounting to 
42,000. Mr Clement held it for about eleven years, and then 
sold it to Sir John Easthope for 16,000. It was then, and 
until 1843, edited by John Black, who numbered amongst 
his staff Albany Fonblanque, Charles Dickens and John Payne 
Collier, the circulation being about 6000. The paper continued 
to be distinguished by much literary ability, but not by com- 
mercial prosperity. In 1849 (the circulation having fallen to 
3000) it became the joint property of the duke of Newcastle, Mr 
W. E. Gladstone and some of their political friends; and by 
them, in 1854, it was sold to Mr Sergeant Glover. From 1848 
to 1854 Douglas Cook (afterwards of the Saturday Review) was 



editor. At length the Morning Chronicle ended in the Bankruptcy 
Court, after an existence of more than ninety years. The 
Morning Herald was founded and first edited by Henry Bate 
(Sir Henry Bate Dudley) in 1781, and came to an end at the 
close of 1869; for some time it was a popular Tory paper, and 
from 1835 to 1845 had a circulation of about 6000. 

The development of the Press was enormously assisted by 
the gradual abolition of the " taxes on knowledge," and also 
by the introduction of a cheap postal system. In A /, oIltloa 
1756 an additional halfpenny was added to the tax O f taxes 
of 1712. In 1765 and in 1773 various restrictive ontnow 
regulations were imposed. In 1789 the three-halfpence led z e - 
was increased to twopence, in 1798 to twopence-halfpenny, 
in 1804 to threepence-halfpenny, and in 1815 to fourpence, 
less a discount of 20%. Penalties of all kinds were also 
increased, ,and obstructive regulations were multiplied. In 
the course of the struggle between this constantly enhanced 
taxation and the irrepressible desire for cheap newspapers, more 
than seven hundred prosecutions for publishing unstamped 
journals were instituted, and more than five hundred were 
imprisoned, sometimes for considerable periods. As the prosecu- 
tions multiplied, and the penalties became more serious, Poor 
Man's Guardians, Democrats, Destructives and their congeners 
multiplied also, and their revolutionary tendencies increased 
in a still greater ratio. Blasphemy was added to sedition. 
Penny and halfpenny journals were established which dealt 
exclusively with narratives of gross vice and crime, and which 
vied with each other in every kind of artifice to make vice and 
crime attractive. Between the years 1831 and 1835 many 
scores of unstamped newspapers made their appearance. The 
political tone of most of them was fiercely revolutionary. Prose- 
cution followed prosecution; but all failed to suppress the 
obnoxious publications. 

To Bulwer'Lytton, the novelist and politician (Baron Lytton), 
and subsequently to Milner Gibson and Richard Cobden, is 
chiefly due the credit of grappling with this question in the 
House of Commons in a manner which secured first the reduction 
of the tax to a penny on the isth of September 1836, and then 
its total abolition at last in 1855. The measure for the final 
abolition of the stamp tax was substantially prepared by W. E. 
Gladstone during his chancellorship of the exchequer in 1854, 
but was carried by his successor in 1855. The number of news- 
papers established from the early part of 1855, when the repeal 
of the duty had become a certainty, and continuing in existence 
at the beginning of 1857, amounted to 107; 26 were metropolitan 
and 81 provincial. Of the latter, the majority belonged to 
towns which possessed no newspaper whatever under the Stamp 
Acts, and the price of nearly one-third of them was but a penny. 
In some cases, however, a portion of these new cheap papers 
of 1857 was printed in London, usually with pictorial illustrations, 
and to this was added a local supplement containing the news of 
the district. 

Amongst the earliest results of the change in newspaper law 
made in 1855 was the establishment in quick succession of a 
series of penny metropolitan local papers, chiefly suburban, of 
a kind very different from their unstamped forerunners. They 
spread rapidly, and attained considerable success, chiefly as 
advertising sheets, and as sometimes the organs, more often 
the critics, of the local vestries and other administrations. One 
of them, the Clerkenwell News and Daily Chronicle, so prospered 
in the commercial sense, being crowded with advertisements, 
that it sold for 30,000, and was then transformed into the 
London Daily Chronicle (28th May 1877). Another conspicuous 
result of the legislation of 1855 was an enormous increase in the 
number and influence of what are known as " class papers " 
and professional and trade papers. The duties on paper itself 
were finally abolished in 1861. 

" Taxes on knowledge " having thus been abolished, the 
later developments in newspaper history are mainly connected 
with the increase in number, due largely to the spread of educa- 
tion, the improvements in machinery and distribution and in 
collection of news, the constant adaptation to the new demands 



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of a wider public, and the progress in the art 'of advertising 
as applied to the Press. The following sections on the more 
important newspapers in London and the Provinces fill in the 
remaining details of the history of the British Press, so far 
as they are substantially important or interesting. Much that 
is in its nature ephemeral or trivial is necessarily passed 
over. 

Modern London Newspapers. 

The Morning Post (oldest of existing London daily papers) dates 
from 1772. For some years it was in the hands of Henry Bate 
"Morning ^' r Henry Bate Dudley), and it attained some degree of 
p^ s< temporary popularity, though of no very enviable sort. 
In 1795 the entire copyright, with house and printing 
materials, was sold for 600 to Peter and Daniel Stuart, who quickly 
raised the position of the Post by enlisting Sir James Mackintosh 
and the poet Coleridge in its service, and also by giving unremitting 
attention to advertisements and to the copious supply of incidental 
news and amusing paragraphs. There has been much controversy 
about the share which Coleridge had in elevating the Post from 
obscurity to eminence. That he greatly promoted this result there 
can be no doubt. His famous " Character of Pitt," published in 
1800, was especially successful, and created a demand for the par- 
ticular number in which it appeared that lasted for weeks, a thing 
almost withouOprecedent. Coleridge wrote for this paper from 1795 
until 1802, and during that period its circulation in ordinary rose 
from 350 copies, on the average, to 4500. Whatever the amount of 
rhetorical hyperbole in Fox's saying recorded as spoken in the 
House of Commons " Mr Coleridge's essays in the Morning Post 
led to the rupture of the treaty of Amiens," it is none the less a 
striking testimony, not only to Coleridge's powers as a publicist, 
but to the position which the newspaper press had won, in spite of 
innumerable obstacles at that time. The list of his fellow-workers 
in the Post is a most brilliant and varied one. Besides Mackintosh, 
Southey and Arthur Young, it included a galaxy of poets. Many of 
the lyrics of Moore, many of the social verses of Mackworth Praed, 
some of the noblest sonnets of Wordsworth, were first published in 
the columns of the Post. And the story of the paper, in its early 
days, had tragic as well as poetic episodes. In consequence of 
offence taken at some of its articles, the editor and proprietor, 
Nicholas Byrne (who succeeded Daniel Stuart), was assaulted and 
murdered whilst sitting in his office. 

Up to about 1850 the history of the Morning Post offers little 
to record; with the Morning Chronicle and Morning Herald, and 
having a smaller circulation than either of them, it was being rapidly 
eclipsed in London journalism by The Times (see below), and in 1847 
only sold some three thousand copies. Heavily in debt to Messrs J. 
and T. B. Crompton, the paper manufacturers, it had been taken over 
by them ; and in that year the management was entrusted to Peter 
Borthwick (1804-1852), a Scotsman who, after graduation both at 
Edinburgh and Cambridge, had taken to politics in the Conservative 
interest and had sat in parliament for Evesham from 1835 to 1838 
and from 1841 to 1847, when he was almost ruined by fighting an 
election petition in which he was unseated. Peter Borthwick took 
the task of reviving the paper seriously in hand, and in a few years 
was already improving its position when he fell ill and died ; and he 
was succeeded in 1852 by his son Algernon Borthwick, afterwards 
Lord Glenesk (1830-1908). The later history of the paper is prim- 
arily connected with its practical re-establishment and successful 
conduct under the latter. Algernon Borthwick had been its Paris 
correspondent from 1850, and had shown social gifts and journalistic 
acumen of great promise. When he became managing editor in 
1852 he devoted himself with such energy to the work that in seven 
years the debt on the business had been paid off. He gave the paper 
a strong. political colour, Conservative, Imperialist and Protectionist; 
and in the 'fifties and 'sixties Borthwick was a keen supporter of 
Lord Palmerston. After the death of Mr Crompton, his nephew, 
Mr Rideout, the principal surviving partner in the paper manu- 
facturing firm, was so impressed with Borthwick's success that he 
vested the entire control of the paper in him for life; and on Mr 
Rideout's death in 1877, Borthwick was enabled, by the help of 
his friend Andrew Montague, to buy the property and become sole 
proprietor. The Morning Post had now become, largely through 
Borthwick's own social qualities, the principal organ of the fashion- 
able world; but in 1881 he took what was then considered the 
hazardous step of reducing its price from threepence to a penny, 
and appealing no longer to the " threepenny public " with The 
Times but to a wider clientele with the Daily Telegraph and Standard. 
The result was a ten-fold increase in circulation and a financial 
success exceeding all anticipations. Borthwick himself, who was 
knighted in 1880, and was created a baronet in 1887, had entered 
parliament in 1880 for Evesham, and from 1885 to 1895 sat for South 
Kensington, being finally raised to the peerage in 1895. His political 
gifts naturally increased the influence of the paper; he supported 
the " Tory democracy " and was an active worker for the Primrose 
League, of which he was three times chancellor; and the Morning 
Post, under his control, became one of the great organs of opinion 
on the Conservative side. From 1880 onwards he devolved the 



editorial duties on others, at first Sir William Hardman, and then 
successively Mr A. K. Moore, Mr Algernon Locker, Mr James Nicol 
Dunn (from 1897 to 1905; afterwards editor of the Manchester 
Courier) and Mr Fabian Ware; under them the literary standard of 
the paper was kept at a high level, and constant improvements were 
introduced ; and the staff included a number of well-known writers, 
notably Mr Spencer Wilkinson (b. 1853), who in 1909 was appointed 
professor of military history at Oxford. From 1897 till his death in 
1905, at the age of thirty-two, Lord Glenesk's son, Oliver Borthwick, 
had much to do with the managerial side. On Lord Glenesk's own 
death on the 24th November 1908, the proprietorship passed to the 
trustees of his only surviving child, a daughter, who in 1893 had 
married the 7th Earl Bathurst. 

The Times 1 is usually dated from the 1st of January 1788, but 
was really started by John Walter on the 1st of January 1785, under 
the title of The London Daily Universal Register, printed 
logographically. On its reaching its 94<>th issue its name "^, he 
was changed. The logographic or "word-printing" process * '""* 
had been invented by a printer named Henry Johnson several years 
before, and found a warm advocate in John Walter, who expounded 
its peculiarities, at great length in No. 510 of his Daily Universal 
Register. In a later number he stated, very amusingly, his reasons 
for adopting the altered title, which the enterprise and ability of his 
successors (see WALTER, JOHN) made world-famous. Within two 
years John Walter had his share in the Georgian persecutions of the 
press, by successive sentences to three fines and to three several 
imprisonments in Newgate, chiefly for having stated that the prince 
of Wales and the dukes of York and Clarence had so misconducted 
themselves " as to incur the just disapprobation of his Majesty." 
In 1803 the management was transferred (together with the joint 
proprietorship of the journal) to his son, John Walter (2), by whom 
it was carried on with extraordinary energy and consummate ability, 
and at the same time with marked independence. To Lord Sid- 
mouth's government he gave a general but independent support. 
That of Pitt he opposed, especially on the questions of the Catamaran 
expedition and the malversations of Lord Melville. This opposition 
was resented by depriving the elder Walter of the printing for the 
customs department, by the withdrawal of government advertise- 
ments from The Times, and also, it is said, by the systematic deten- 
tion at the outports of the foreign intelligence addressed to its editor. 
John Walter the Second, however, was strong and resolute enough 
to brave the government. He organized a better system of news 
transmission than had ever before existed. He introduced steam- 
printing (1814) and repeatedly improved its mechanism (see PRINT- 
ING) ; and although modern machines may now seem to thrust into 
insignificance a press of which it was at first announced as a notable 
triumph that " no less than noo sheets are impressed in one hour," 
yet the assertion was none the less true that The Times of 2gth 
November 1814 " presented to the public the practical result of the 
greatest improvement connected with printing since the discovery 
of the art itself." The effort to secure for The Times the best attain- 
able literary talent in all departments kept at least an equal pace 
with those which were directed towards the improvement of its 
mechanical resources. And thus it came to pass that a circulation 
which did not, even in 1815, exceed on the average 5000 copies 
became, in 1834, 10,000; in 1840, 18,500; in 1844, 23,000; in 1851, 
40,000; and in 1854, 51,648. In the year last named the average 
circulation of the other London dailies was Morning Advertiser, 
7644; Daily News, 4160; Morning Herald, 3712; Morning Chronicle, 
2800; Morning Post, 2667; so that the supremacy of The Times can 
readily be understood. 

Sir John Stoddart, afterwards governor of Malta, edited The Times 
for several years prior to 1 8 1 6. He was succeeded by Thomas Barnes, 
who for many years wrote largely in the paper. When his health 
began to fail the largest share of the editorial work came into the 
hands of Captain Edward Sterling the contributor about a quarter 
of a century earlier of a noteworthy series of political letters signed 
" Vetus," the Paris correspondent of The Times in 1814 and subse- 
quent eventful years, and afterwards for many years the most 
conspicuous among its leader-writers. 1 From 1841 to 1877 the chief 
editor was John Thadeus Delane, who had his brother-in-law G. W. 
Dasent for assistant-editor, and another brother-in-law, Mowbray 
Morris, as business manager. By the time of the second John 
Walter's death (1847) the substantial monopoly of The Times in 
London journalism had been established ; and under the proprietor- 
ship of the third John Walter the result of the labour of Delane as 
editor, and of the brilliant staff of contributors whom he directed, 
among whom Henry Reeve was conspicuous as regards foreign affairs, 



1 See the centenary number of January 2, 1888; the pamphlet by 
S. V. Makower, issued by The Times in 1904, " The History of The 
Times "; and the article by Hugh Chisholm on " The Times, 1785- 
1908 " in the National Review (May 1908). 

1 See Life of John Sterling, by Carlyle, who says of him at this time : 
" The emphatic, big-voiced, always influential and often strongly 
unreasonable Times newspaper was the express emblem of Edward 
Sterling. He, more than any other man, . . . was The Times, and 
thundered through it, to the shaking of the spheres." The nick- 
name of " The Thunderer," for The Times, came in vogue in hisday. 



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was to turn the " favourite broadsheet " of the English public into 
the " leading journal of the world." When Delane retired, he was 
succeeded as editor by Thomas Chenery, and on his death in 1884 
by George Earle Buckle (b. 1854). At the beginning of 1908 con- 
siderable changes took place in the proprietorial side of The Times, 
which was converted into a company, with Mr A. F. Walter (chief 
proprietor since 1891) as chairman and Mr C. Moberly Bell (b. 1847; 
manager since 1890) as managing director; the financial control 
passing into the hands of Lord Northcliffe. 

In the history of The Times its influence on the mechanical side of 
newspaper work was very great. The increasing circulation of The 
Times between the years 1840 and 1850 made an improvement in the 
printing-presses necessary, as sometimes the publication could not be 
completed before the afternoon. To meet this want the Applegath 
vertical press was introduced in 1848 and the American Hoe ten- 
feeder press in 1858. Meanwhile the idea of stereotyping from the 
movable types had been making steady progress. About the year 
1856, however, a Swiss named Dellagana introduced to The Times 
Kroning's idea of casting from papier-mache instead of plaster, 
and was allowed to experiment in The Times office. After a time 
the invention was so much improved that matrices of pages could be 
taken and the stereotype plates fixed bodily on the printing machine 
in place of the movable type. This cleared the way for the intro- 
duction of the famous Walter press. Hitherto only one set of 
" formes " could be used, as the type was set up once only one side 
of the paper being worked on one machine and the sheets then taken 
to another machine to be " perfected." Stereotyping enabled the 
formes to be multiplied to any extent, as several plates could be cast 
from one matrix. Mr MacDonald, the manager of The Times, had 
devoted himself for several years to the production of a press which 
could print papers on both sides in one operation from a large reel 
of paper, the web of paper being cut into the required size after print- 
ing, instead of each sheet being " laid on " by a man and then printed. 
After years of experiment the Walter press was introduced into the 
Times machine-room in 1869, and the question of printing great 
numbers in a short time was solved. Each press turned out 12,000 
sheets per hour, and it was therefore only a question of multiplying 
the stereo plates and presses to obtain any number of printed papers 
by a certain time. Meanwhile Messrs Hoe had set about producing 
something even quicker and better than the Walter press. They 
succeeded in accomplishing this by multiplying the reels of paper on 
each press, and also adding folders and stitchers. The result was the 
production of over 36,000 sheets per hour from each machine. These 
presses were adopted by The Times in 1895. 

In 1868 the question of composing machines for the quicker 
setting-up of type was taken up by The Times. A German named 
Kastenbein had an invention which he brought to the notice of The 
Times, and arrangements were made for him to continue his ex- 
periments in The Times office. In a couple of years a machine was 
made, which was worked and improved until in 1874 several machines 
were ready to set up a portion of the paper; but it was not until 
1879 that the arrangements were sufficiently advanced to make 
certain that they coufd do all that was wanted from them. The 
introduction of composing machines, and the necessary alterations 
in the office arrangements which followed, led to some trouble 
among the compositors, which in 1880 culminated in a partial strike; 
but a part of the staff remaining loyal, the printer was able by extra 
effort to produce the paper at the proper time on the morning 
following the strike. Various improvements were made, until one 
machine was able to set up as many as 298 lines of The Times in one 
hour, equal to 16,688 separate types. A system of. telephoning the 
parliamentary report from the House of Commons direct to the com- 
positor was begun in 1885, and was continued until the House decided 
to rise at midnight, which enabled the more economical method of 
composing direct from the " copy " to be resumed. 

Ever since the introduction of the composing machines the business 
had been much hampered by the question of " distribution " that 
is, the breaking-up and sorting of the types after use. Kastenbein 
had invented a distributing machine to accompany his composing 
machine, but it proved to be unsatisfactory. Various systems were 
tried at The Times office, but for many years the work ol the 
composing machines was to some extent crippled by the distribu- 
tion difficulty. This had been recognized by Mr Frederick Wicks 
(d. 1910), the inventor of the Wicks Rotary Type-casting Machine, 
who for many years had been working at a machine which would 
cast new type so quickly and so cheaply as to do away with the old 
system of distribution and substitute new type every day. In 1899 
his rnachine was practically perfect, and The Times entered into a 
contract with him to supply any quantity of new type every day. 
The difficult question of distribution was thus surmounted, and 
composition by machines placed on a satisfactory basis. 

Thus during the last half of the igth century The Times continued 
to take the lead in new inventions relating to the printing of a news- 
paper, just as it had in the fifty years preceding. The three most 
important advances during the later period were practically worked 
ut at The Times office namely, fast-printing presses, stereotyping 
and machine composing, and without these it is safe to say that the 
cheap newspaper of the present day could not exist. Further in- 
dications of the enterprise of The Times in taking up journalistic 
novelties may also be seen in its organizing a wireless telegraphy 



service, with a special steamer, in the Far East, at the opening of the 
Russo-Japanese War. 

The price at which The Times has been sold has been changed at 
various dates: in 1796 to 4Jd., 1799 to 6d., 1809 to 6|d., 1815 to 7d., 
1836 to 5d., 1855 to 4d., 1861 (Oct. i) to 3d., and in 1904 (still 
remaining at 3d.) it started a method of payment by subscription 
which gave subscribers an advantage in one form or another and thus 
in reality reduced the price further. In 1905 this advantage took 
the form of the price (3d.) covering a subscription to The Times 
Book Club, a circulating library and book-shop on novel lines 
(see BOOKSELLING and PUBLISHING). 

The first number of the paper contained 57 brief advertisements, 
but as it grew in repute and in size its advertising revenue became 
very large, and with the growth of this revenue came pari passu 
the means of spending more money on the contents. As far back as 
1861 a single issue had contained 105 columns of advertisements, 
and another 98. Prior to 1884 the paper had only on two occasions 
consisted of 24 pages in a single issue. Between that year and 1902 
more than 80 separate issues of this size were published, many of 
them containing over 80 columns of advertisements. Of two issues, 
one containing the news of the death and the other the account of 
the funeral of Queen Victoria, 140,000 copies were printed. From 
that time issues of 20 pages and over became an ordinary matter: 
and on May 24 ,1909 (Empire Day), The Times signalized the occasion 
by bringing put a huge supplement of 72 pages full of articles on 
Imperial topics. 

The Times has long stood in a class by itself among newspapers, 
owing to its abundance of trustworthy news, its high literary standard 
and its command of the ablest writers, who, however, are generally 
anonymous in its columns. It has always claimed to be a national 
rather than a party organ. It was Liberal in its politics in the 
Reform days, but became more and more Conservative and Im- 
perialist when the Unionist and anti-Home Rule era set in. On the 
conversion of Mr Gladstone to Home Rule, The Times was, indeed, 
largely instrumental in forming the Liberal-Unionist party. In the 
course of its vigorous campaign against Irish Nationalism it published 
as part of its case a series of articles on " Parnellism and Crime," 
including what were alleged to be facsimile reproductions of letters 
from Mr Parnell showing his complicity with the Phoenix Park 
murders. The history of this episode, and of the appointment of 
the Special Commission of investigation by the government, is told 
under PARNELL. One of the strongest features of The Times has been 
always its foreign correspondence. 

Among leading incidents in the history of The Times a few may be 
more particularly mentioned. In 1840 the Paris correspondent of 
the paper (Mr O'Reilly) obtained information respecting a gigantic 
scheme of forgery which had been planned in France, together with 
particulars of the examination at Antwerp of a minor agent in the 
conspiracy, who had been there, almost by chance, arrested. All 
that he could collect on the subject, inclining the names of the 
chief conspirators, was published by The Times on the 26th of May 
in that year, under the heading " Extraordinary and Extensive 
Forgery and Swindling Conspiracy on the Continent (Private 
Correspondence)." The project contemplated the almost simultane- 
ous presentation at the chief banking-houses throughout the Con- 
tinent of forged letters of credit, purporting to be those of Glyn & 
Company, to a very large amount ; and its failure appears to have 
been in a great degree owing to the exertions made, and the re- 
sponsibility assumed, by The Times. One of the persons implicated 
brought an action for libel against the paper, which was tried at 
Croydon in August 1841, with a verdict for the plaintiff, one farthing 
damages. A subscription towards defraying the heavy expenses 
(amounting to more than 5000) which The Times had incurred was 
speedily opened, but the proprietors declined to profit by it; and 
the sum which had been raised was devoted to the foundation of 
two " Times scholarships, ' in connexion with Christ's Hospital and 
the City of London School. Three years afterwards The Times 
rendered noble public service in a different direction. It used its 
vast power with vigour at the expense of materially checking the 
growth of its own advertisement fund by denouncing the fraudulent 
schemes which underlay the " railway mania " of 1845. The 
Parnell affair has already been mentioned. And more recently the 
" book war," arising out of the attack by the combined publishers 
on The Times Book Club in 1906, was prosecuted by The Times 
with great vigour, until in 1908 it came quietly to an end. 

Various adjuncts to The Times, issued by its proprietors, have 
still to be mentioned. The Mail, published three times a week 
at the price of 2d. per number, gives a summary of two days' issue 
of The Times. The Times Weekly Edition (begun in 1877) is pub- 
lished every Friday at 2d., and gives an epitome of The Times for 
the six days. The Law Reports (begun in 1884) are conducted by a 
special staff of Times law reporters. Commercial Cases deals with 
cases of a commercial nature. Issues is a useful half-yearly com- 
pilation of all the company announcements and demands for new 
capital, taken from the advertisement columns of The Times. 

In 1897 The Times started a weekly literary organ under the title 
of Literature. In 1901, however, a weekly literary supplement to 
The Times was issued instead, and Literature passed into the hands 
of the proprietor of the Academy, with which paper it was incor- 
porated. The " Literary Supplement," which appears each Thursday 



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559 



(at first on Fridays), is printed in a different form, and separately 
paged. In 1904 a " Financial and Commercial Supplement " (at 
first on Mondays, and later on Fridays) was added; in 1905 an 
" Engineering Supplement " (Wednesdays), and in 19103 "Woman's 
Supplement. ' 

The publishing department of Tlie Times also invaded several 
new fields of enterprise. The Times Atlas was first published in 
1895, and this publication was supplemented by that of The Times 
(previously Longmans') Gazetteer. A much larger amd more im- 
portant venture was the issue in 1898 of a reprint of the ninth 
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica at less than half the original 
price, on a new system of terms (known as The Times system) that 
enabled the purchaser to receive the whole work at once and to pay 
for it by a series of equal monthly payments. This was followed by 
a similar sale of the Century Dictionary and of a reprint of the first 
fifty years of Punch ; and eleven new volumes of the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, supplementing the ninth edition, and forming with it 
the tenth edition, were issued by The Times in 1902 on similar 
terms (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA) . 

In 1895 The Times, through its Vienna correspondent, purchased 
from Dr Moritz Busch the MS. and entire copyright of his journals, 
containing a very minute record of his intimate relations with 
Bismarck. It was stipulated in the contract that these were not to 
be published until after the death of the prince. That event occurred 
on the 30th July 1898, and on the 1 2th September of the same year 
The Times published through Messrs Macmillan (in 3 vols.) Bismarck: 
Some Secret Pages of his History, by Dr Moritz Busch. 

The Times History of the War in South Africa arose out of a desire 
to preserve in a more readable form the excellent work done by the 
numerous Times correspondents in South Africa. When originally 
projected in the early days of 1900 it was hoped that the war would 
be of short duration, and that the history of it could be rapidly com- 
pleted. The length of the war naturally upset all these cajculations, 
and eventually the sixth and last volume was only issued in 1909. 

For a long period after the establishment of The Times, no effort 
to found a new daily London morning newspaper was ever con- 
spicuously successful. Among unfruitful attempts were (i) the 
New Times, started by Dr (afterwards Sir John) Stoddart, upon his 
departure from Printing-House Square; (2) the Representative 
(1824), established by John Murray, under circumstances which 
seemed at the outset exceptionally promising; (3) the Constitutional, 
begun in 1836 and carried on for eight months by a joint-stock 
company, exceptionally favoured in having for editor and sub- 
editor Laman Blanchard and Thornton Hunt, with a staff of con- 
tributors which included Thackeray, Douglas Jerrold and Bulwer; 
(4) the Morning Star, founded in 1856, and kept afloat until 1870, 
when it was merged in the Daily News; (5) in 1867, the Day, for 
six weeks only; (6) in 1873 the Hour, for three years; (7) in 1878, 
the Daily Express, which soon failed. 

A measure of greater success followed the establishment (1794) 
of the Morning Advertiser, under special circumstances. It was the 
"Mora- joint-stock venture of a large society of licensed victuallers, 
lazAd- amongst whom subscription to the paper was the condi- 
vertlser " t ' on membership. For nearly sixty years its circulation 
lay almost entirely in public-houses and coffee-houses, but 
amongst them it sold nearly 5000 copies daily, and it yielded a steady 
profit of about 6000 a year. Then, by the ability and enterprise 
of an experienced editor, James Grant (1802-1879), it was within 
four years raised to a circulation of nearly 8000, and to an aggregate 
profit of 12,000 a year. In 1891 its price was reduced from three- 
pence to a penny. 

The history of the Daily News, founded in 1846, has been told by 
Mr Justin McCarthy and Sir John R. Robinson in a volume of 
"Ball " P'' t ' ca ' an d social retrospect " published in 1896 on 

a y ,, the occasion of its jubilee. It could boast of having 
continuously been the champion of Liberal ideas and 
principles of what (so long as Mr Gladstone lived) might be called 
official Liberalism at home and of liberty abroad. It became a 
penny paper in 1868. Its only rival in the history of Liberal journal- 
ism in London for many years was the Morning Star, which in 1870 
it absorbed. Notably, it led British public opinion in foreign affairs 
as champion of the North in the American Civil War, of the cause 
of Italy, of the emancipation of Bulgaria from the Turk and of 
Armenia. Its early editors were Charles Dickens (2ist January- 
March 1846), John Forster (March-October 1846), E. 6. Crowe 
(1847-1851), F. K. Hunt (1851-1854), W. Weir (1854-1858), T. 
Walker (1858-1869). In 1868 the price was reduced to a penny, 
and it came under the management of Mr (afterwards Sir) John R. 
Robinson (1828-1903), who only retired in 1901. Its later editors 
included (1868-1886) Mr F. H. Hill (the brilliant author of Political 
Portraits), and subsequently Sir John Robinson, as managing 
editor, in conjunction with Mr P. W. Clayden (1827-1902), the 
author of Life of Samuel Rogers, England under the Coalition and 
other able works, as political and literary editor, down to 1896, 
and Mr E. T. Cook from 1896 to 1901. Mr Cook, during the negotia- 
tions with the Boer government in 1899, strongly supported Sir 
Alfred Milner; and under him the Daily News, as an exponent of 
Lord Rosebery's Liberal Imperialism, gave no countenance to the 
pro-Boer views of some of the more active members of the Liberal 
party. In 1901, however, the proprietary changed, and Mr George 



Cadbury became chief owner of the paper. Mr E. T. Cook, who 
had shown brilliant ability as a publicist, but whose views on the 
Boer War were not shared by the new proprietor, retired, subse- 
quently joining the staff of the Daily Chronicle; the journal then 
became an organ of the anti-imperialist section of the Liberal party. 
Mr A. G. Gardiner became editor in 1902; and in 1904 considerable 
changes were made in the style of the paper, which was reduced in 
price to a halfpenny. The influence of Mr Cadbury, and of the 
group of Quaker families largely associated with the manufacture 
of cocoa who followed his example in promoting the publication 
of Liberal and Free Trade newspapers, led in later years to somewhat 
violent attacks from political opponents on the so-called " Cocoa 
Press," with the Daily News at its head. 

The first number of the Daily Telegraph was published on 2gth 
June 1855, as a twopenny newspaper. Its proprietor was Colonel 
Sleigh. This gentleman soon found himself in pecuniary .. 
straits, and in satisfaction of the debt for the printing 7- / . 
of the paper it was transferred to Mr Joseph Moses Levy '. 

in the following September. On 171(1 September Mr Levy ^ p ' 
published it as a four-paged penny journal, the first penny newspaper 
produced in London. His son, afterwards Sir Edward Lawson 
(b. 1833), who was created Baron Burnham in 1904, immediately 
entered the office, and after a short time became editor, a post 
which he only abandoned in 1885, when he became managing 
proprietor and sole director. From the outset Mr Levy gathered 
round him a staff of high literary skill and reputation. Among the 
first were Thornton Hunt, Geoffrey Prowse, George Hooper and Sir 
Edwin Arnold. E. L. Blanchard was among the earliest of the 
dramatic critics, and Alexander Harper the City editor. Later 
there came George Augustus Sala (q.v.), then one of Charles Dickens's 
young men; Clement Scott (1841-1904), at one time a clerk in the 
War Office; and Edward Dicey (b. 1832), then fresh from Cambridge. 
The Hon. Frank Lawley turned to journalism from official life; and 
among the most remarkable of the early contributors to the paper 
was J. P. Benjamin, the great Anglo-American lawyer. H. D. 
Traill was a leader-writer for well-nigh a quarter of a century. 
I. M. Le Sage (b. 1837), for many years the managing editor, began 
his connexion with the paper under Mr Levy. Others prominently 
associated with the paper have been W. L. Courtney (b. 1850), 
a distinguished man of letters who, after several years of work as 
tutor at New College, Oxford, joined the staff in 1890, and in 1894 
also became editor of the Fortnightly Review ; E. B. Iwan-Miiller 
(d. 1910) and J. L. Garvin (from 1899), afterwards (1904) editor of 
the Observer. After 1890 Mr H. W. L. Lawson, Lord Burnham's eldest 
son and heir, assisted his father in the general control of the paper. 

The Daily Telegraph may be said to have led the way in London 
journalism in capturing a large and important reading-public from 
the monopoly of The Times. It became the great organ of the 
middle classes, and was distinguished for its enterprise in many 
fields. In June 1873 the Telegraph despatched George Smith to 
carry out a series of archaeological researches in Nineveh, which 
resulted in the discovery of the missing fragments of the cuneiform 
account of the Deluge, and many other inscriptions. In co-operation 
with the New York Herald it equipped H. M. Stanley's second great 
expedition to Central Africa (1875-1877). Another geographical 
feat with which the name of the Daily Telegraph is associated was 
the exploration of Kilimanjaro (1884-1885) by Mr (afterwards Sir) 
Harry Johnston, whose account of his work appeared in the Daily 
Telegraph during 1885. And Mr Lionel Decle's march from the 
Cape to Cairo, in 1899 and 1900, was also undertaken under the 
auspices of the paper. The Telegraph raised many large funds for 
public purposes. Almost the first was the subscription for the 
relief of the sufferers by the cotton famine in Lancashire, in the 
winter of 1862-1863 ; the fund in aid of the starving and impoverished 
people of Paris at the close of the siege in 1871 ; the prince of Wales's 
Hospital Fund in commemoration of the Jubilee of 1897; and the 
Shilling Fund for the soldiers' widows and orphans in connexion 
with the Boer War. An undertaking of a more festive kind was the 
fte g^iven to 30,000 London school children in Hyde Park on the 
occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887. 

In politics the Daily Telegraph was consistently Liberal up to 
1878, when it opposed Mr Gladstone's foreign policy as explained 
in his Midlothian speeches. After 1886 it represented Unionist 
opinions. Among special feats of which it can boast was the first 
news brought to England of the conclusion of peace after the Franco- 
German War. 

Prior to 1874 the Daily Telegraph was printed by eight- and ten- 
feeder machines, through which every sheet had to be passed twice 
to complete the impression. Under these conditions it was necessary 
to start printing one side of the paper as early as ten or eleven o'clock. 
The handicap which this imposed on the satisfactory production of 
a newspaper was removed by the introduction of Hoe's web machines 
at the end of 1874. No further change took place until 1891, when 
they were superseded by others built by the same makers capable of 
printing a 12-page paper at the rate of about 24,000 an hour, cut, 
folded, delivered and counted in quires. In 1896 they were modified 
so as to be suitable for turning out an 8-, 10-, 12-, 14- or i6-page 
paper. Up to 1894 the setting of type had been done entirely by 
hand, but in that year the linotype, after an experimental trial, was 
introduced on a large scale. 



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The Standard was established as an evening paper in the Tory 
interest (as the express organ of the opponents of the measure for 
_. removing Roman Catholic disabilities) in 1827, its first 

if* . _. editor being Stanley Lees Giffard, father of the first earl 
Standard. rf Halsburyi who ha{ j A laric Watts and Dr William 
Maginn, famous as one of the originators of Fraser's Magazine, as 
his chief helpers. In the course of two or three years it became a 
pecuniary, as it had from the first been a political, success, and 
gradually ousted the Courier, which was for a time conducted by 
William Mudford, whose son half a century later became the most 
distinguished editor of the Standard. In course of time the latter 
became the property of Mr Charles Baldwin, whose father was 
proprietor of the Morning Herald, and when the father died the son 
found himself in possession of both a morning and an evening journal. 
In his hands neither of them prospered, although the Standard 
retained a large circulation and constantly printed early and accurate 
political information. At length, midway in the 'fifties, both papers 
were purchased by Mr James Johnstone, Mr John Maxwell, the pub- 
lisher, being for a time associated with him in the ownership. Mr 
Johnstone realized that he had before him a great opportunity, and 
at once set to work to grasp it. He brought out the Standard as a 
morning paper (zgth June 1857), increased its size from four to eight 
pages, and reduced the price from fourpence to twopence. One of 
the most curious features of the early numbers was a novel by 
William Howard Russell. The evening edition was continued. In 
February 1858 Mr Johnstone again reduced the price, this time to 
a penny. When that step was taken the Standard announced 
that its politics were " enlightened amelioration and progress," but 
that it was " bound to no party "; and to those independent lines 
it in the main adhered. In the course of four or five years it became 
a financial success, and then began to attract to itself many brilliant 
pens, one of its contributors in the 'sixties, Lord Robert Cecil, 
being destined to become illustrious as marquess of Salisbury. 
Lord Robert was an occasional leader-writer, whose contributions 
were confined almost entirely to political subjects. It was at this 
time that the Standard laid the foundation of the great reputation 
for early and detailed foreign news which it has ever since enjoyed. 
During the American Civil War it obtained the services of a repre- 
sentative signing himself " Manhattan," whose vivid and forcible 
letters from the battlefield arrested attention from the beginning. 
As the campaign progressed, these full, picturesque and accurate 
accounts of the most terrible struggle of modern times were looked 
for with eager interest. There were no " special cables " to discount 
the poignant curiosity of the reader, and the paper reached a circu- 
lation far beyond anything hitherto known. The distinction thus 
acquired was maintained during the Prussian-Austrian War of 1866, 
and greatly increased by the letters and telegrams describing the 
triumphs and disasters of the campaign of 1870. In the early 'sixties 
the staff had been reinforced by the engagement of Mr William 
Heseltine Mudford. In the midst of his work as a parliamentary 
reporter, he was sent as special correspondent to Jamaica in 1865 
to report upon the troubles which involved the recall of Governor 
Eyre; a further period in the gallery of the House of Commons 
followed, and in 1873 Mr Mudford became business manager. Mr 
Johnstone's first editor was Captain Hamber, who afterwards 
seceded to the short-lived Hour, with whom had been associated 
Mr David Morier Evans as manager. He was succeeded by the 
owner's eldest son, to whom Mr (afterwards Sir) John Gorst was 
joined in a consultative capacity. In 1876 Mr Mudford became 
editor, still, however, retaining managerial control. Mr Johnstone, 
the proprietor to whose energy and perspicacity the paper owed so 
much, died in 1878, and under his will Mr Mudford was appointed 
editor and manager for life, or until resignation. Already a great 
property, the Standard in Mr Mudford's hands entered upon a very 
successful period. He had for his first assistant-editor Mr Gilbert 
Venables, who was succeeded after a short term by Mr George 
Byron Curtis, previously one of the leader-writers, who thus held the 
position through nearly the whole of Mr Mudford's long editorship. 
The staff at this time comprised many men, and some women, 
whose names are distinguished in letters as well as in journalism. 
Mr Alfred Austin, Mr T. H. S. Escott, Miss Frances Power Cobbe 
and Professor Palmer were all writing for the paper at the same time. 
To them must be added, among others, Mr E. D. J. Wilson, the 
brilliant political leader-writer (afterwards of The Times), Mr Percy 
Greg, son of " Cassandra " Greg, Mr T. E. Kebbel and Dr Robert 
Brown, who wrote copiously upon scientific and miscellaneous 
subjects. Foremost among the war correspondents were Mr G. A. 
Henty, who represented the paper on many a stricken field ; Mr John 
A. Cameron, who was killed at Abu Klea; and Mr William Maxwell. 
In January 1900 Mr Mudford retired, and was succeeded in theeditor- 
ship by Mr G. Byron Curtis (d. 1907), Mr S. H. Jeyes, whose con- 
nexion with the paper had begun in 1891, becoming assistant-editor. 
In November 1904 the Standard, which had at that time taken rather 
a strong line in deprecating the tariff reform movement within the 
Unionist party, was sold to Mr C. Arthur Pearson (proprietor of the 
Daily Express, see below), who was chairman of the Tariff Reform 
League, and considerable changes were made in the paper, Mr H. A. 
Gwynne becoming editor. In 1910 Mr Pearson, owing to ill-health, 
transferred his interests in the proprietary company he had formed 
in 1904 to Mr Davison Dalziel. 



The Daily Chronicle arose, as already mentioned, out of the local 
Clerkenwell News, the latter paper having been purchased by Mr 
Edward Lloyd in 1877, and converted into "an Imperial _ .. 
morning paper" on independent Liberal lines. Under 7~f , , 
the editorship of Mr R. Whelan Boyle the Daily Chronicle W " 1 
soon took rank among the other London daily journals, the only 
traces of its original character being show,n in the attention paid to 
metropolitan affairs and the appearance of numerous small advertise- 
ments. The independent tone of the journal was conspicuous in its 
treatment of the Home Rule question. At first deprecating the 
system of combined agitation and outrage with which the term was 
synonymous, the Daily Chronicle, under the editorship of Mr A. E. 
Fletcher (1890-1895), ceased to be a Unionist journal, and supported 
Mr Gladstone's Bill of 1893. Another instance was afforded in the 
course of the Boer War. During the negotiations and the early 
stages of the campaign, the Daily Chronicle, which was then edited 
by Mr H. W. Massingham (b. 1860), strove for peace by supporting 
the Boer side against the diplomacy of Mr Chamberlain. Mr 
Massingham's policy was, however, not to the liking of the pro- 
prietors, and he retired from the editorship towards the end of 
1899, Mr W. J. Fisher succeeding him as editor. In 1904 Mr Robert 
Donald became editor, and the price was reduced to a halfpenny. 
Mr Massingham during his editorship, ably seconded by Mr (after- 
wards Sir) Henry Norman (b. 1858), had largely increased the interest 
of the paper, particularly^ on its literary side. A new impetus had 
been given in this direction in 1891, when a " literary page " was 
started, conducted at first by Mr J. A. Manson, and after 1892 by 
Mr Massingham, when he became assistant-editor under Mr Fletcher. 
The Chronicle had taken a leading part in many public movements 
since 1877. It was conspicuous in its advocacy of the cause of the 
men in the London dock strike of 1889; and in the great mining 
dispute for a " living wage," which was brought to a close by Lord 
Rosebery in November 1893, raised over 13,000 for the relief com- 
mittees. Much attention was given to the theosophical discussion 
of 1891 and to the exposure of the adventurer " De Rougemont " 
after he had appeared before the British Association at Bristol in 
1898. The Chronicle took an active part in the negotiations which 
leu to the Venezuelan Arbitration Treaty of 1897; it energetically 
pleaded the cause of the Armenians and Cretans during the massacres 
of 1896, and it encouraged the Greeks in the war with Turkey in 
1897. Its foreign policy was, however, more distinguished by good- 
will than by discretion and notably in the latter instance. The 
Chronicle also worked strenuously for the Progressive cause in London 
in regard to the County Council, Borough Councils and the School 
Board. Its new successes included the first announcement of the 
revolution in eastern Rumelia (1885); the first circumstantial 
account of the death of Prince Rudolph (1889); Nansen's own 
narrative of his expedition towards the North Pole; Sir Martin 
Conway's journey across Spitsbergen in 1896; and the first ascent 
of Aconcagua in 1897. 

In 1890 the illustrated morning daily paper, the Daily Graphic, 
was founded by W. L. Thomas (1830-1901) as an offshoot D n 



from the weekly illustrated Graphic, and soon came into 



Graphic. 



favour. 

In 1906 a new Liberal morning daily was started by Mr Franklin 
Thpmason in the shape of the Tribune, edited by Mr W. Hill, who 
retired after a few months, with Mr L. T. Hobhouse as Tribune 
political editor. Later Mr Pryor became managing 
editor, but at the beginning of 1908, after heavy losses, the publication 
was stopped. 

Two morning papers, at the popular price of halfpenny, appeared 
in the spring of 1892, the Morning and the Morning Leader. They 
raced for priority of publication, the former winning by nmiaz 
a day. The Morning Leader, under the same manage- Leader 
ment as the (evening) Star, continued to flourish, but the 
Morning had but a brief career. 

The halfpenny Daily Mail was originated by Mr Alfred Charles 
Harmsworth (b. 1865), who was subsequently created a baronet 
(1904) and in 1905 a peer as Baron Northcliffe; it appeared 
in 1896, on the same day as Sir G. Newnes's penny Courier 
(which only lasted a few weeks) . I n the evolution of English 
journalism the foundation of the Daily Mail carried still farther the 
work begun by the Daily Telegraph in earlier days. It was the first 
halfpenny morning newspaper to place at the disposal of its readers 
a news service competing with that of any of the higher-priced 
newspapers, and soon took an increasingly important place in the 
Press. At the opening of the 2Oth century it claimed a regular 
circulation of about a million copies daily (and had occasionally 
sold as many as 1,500,000 copies of a single issue), and it was pro- 
duced simultaneously in London and Manchester, the whole of the 
contents being telegraphed nightly. In May 1904 it began publish- 
ing a continental edition in Paris. The sensational success of the 
Daily Mail, which first made Lord Northcliffe one of the dominant 
personalities in English journalism, was due, not to individual 
writers, but to a consistent policy of catering for a modern public 
and serving them with lively news and articles, and constant change 
of interest. Its large circulation, and resulting advertising revenue, 
gave it an influence which in politics was used on the Unionist side; 
but the readers of the Daily Mail went to it, not for politics, but for 
news, brightly and briefly displayed. Its triumph represented the 



BRITISH] 



NEWSPAPERS 



561 



Dally 
Express. 



success of a business organization, in which individual views on affairs 
played a comparatively minor part. 

The halfpenny Daily Express, founded by Mr Cyril Arthur Pearson 
(b. 1866) on the lines of the Daily Mail, first appeared in 1900, and 
soon won a large clientele. With R. D. Blumenfeld as 
editor (from 1904) it worked strenuously for Tariff Reform. 
The Daily Mirror, started by Mr Harmsworth as a 
women's penny daily in 1904, failed to attract in its original form 
and was quickly changed into a halfpenny general daily, relying as 
_.. a novelty on the presentation of news by photographic 

Wrfor pictures of current events. This new feature soon ob- 
tained for it a large circulation under the enterprising 
management of Mr Kennedy Jones (b. 1865), who was already known 
for his successful conduct of the Evening News and his share in the 
business of the Daily Mail. 

The Globe (founded Jan. 1st., 1803), the oldest of existing London 
evening papers, owed its origin to the desire of the booksellers or 
Globe publishers of the day for an advertising medium, at a 

moment when the Morning Post gave them the cold 
shoulder. A syndicate of publishers started a morning paper, 
the British Press (which had only a short career), to combat the 
Post, and the Globe as a rival to the Courier (see above), which, like 
the Post, was under Daniel Stuart's control. George Lane, previously 
Stuart's chief assistant, was the editor. From 1815 a prominent 
member of the staff was Mr (afterwards vice-chancellor Sir James) 
Bacon. After swallowing up some other journals, in 1823 it absorbed 
the property and title of the Traveller, controlled by Colonel Torrens, 
who in the reorganization became principal proprietor and brought 
over Walter Coulson as the editor. John Wilson succeeded as editor 
in 1834, efficiently seconded by Mr Moran; Thomas Love Peacock 
and R. H. Barham (" Ingoldsby ") being famous contributors 
during his regime. For some time the Globe was the principal Whig 
organ, and Mr (afterwards Deputy Judge Advocate Sir James) 
O'Dowd its political inspirer. Mahony (Father Prout ") was its 
Paris correspondent. In 1842 the Courier was incorporated, but a 
gradual decline in the fortunes of the paper, and Colonel Torrens's 
death in 1864, brought about a reorganization in 1866, when a small 
Conservative syndicate, including Sir Stafford Northcote, bought it 
and converted the Globe into a Conservative organ. In 1868 the 
pink colour since associated with the paper was started. In 1869 
its price (originally sixpence) was lowered to a penny. Mr W. T. 
Madge (b. 1845), whose vigorous management was afterwards so 
valuable, and who in 1881 started with Captain Armstrong the 
People, a popular Sunday journal for the masses, joined the paper 
in 1866; and after brief periods of editorship by Messrs Westcomb, 
R. H. Patterson, H. N. Barnett and Marwood Tucker (1868), in 
1871 Captain George C. H. Armstrong (1836-10.07), who in 1892 
was created a baronet, was put in control ; he edited the paper for 
some years, and then it became his property. The editorial chair 
was filled in succession by Mr Ponsonby Ogle, Mr Algernon Locker 
(1891), and the proprietor's son and heir Lieut. G. E. Armstrong, 
R.N. (1895), until in June 1907, after Sir G. Armstrong's death, the 
paper was sold to Mr Hildebrand Harmsworth. The Globe " Turn- 
overs " (miscellaneous articles, turning over from the first to the 
second page) began in 1871, and became famous for variety and 
humour. The jocular " By the Way " column, another characteristic 
feature, was started in 1881, and owed much to Mr Kay Robinson 
and Mr C. L. Graves. In the history of the Globe one of the best- 
known incidents is its publication of the Salisbury-Schuvaloff 
treaty of 1878. It was the first London daily to use the linotype 
composing-machine (1892). 

A new period of evening journalism, characteristic of the later 
igth century, opened with the founding of the Pall Mall Gazette. 
n .. The first number (at twopence) was issued on 7th February 
<azet" l865 from Sa'jstmry Street, Strand. Mr George Smith, 
of the publishing firm of Smith and Elder, was its first 
proprietor; Mr Frederick Greenwood (q.v.), its first editor, took the 
Anti- Jacobin for his model; the paper was intended to realize 
Thackeray's picture (in Pcndennis) of one " written by gentlemen for 
gentlemen." Its political attitude was to be independent, and 
much space was to be given to literature and non-political matter. 
It had brilliant supporters, such as Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen as writer 
of leading articles (replaced to a certain extent, after 1869, by Sir 
Henry Maine), R. H. Hutton, Matthew James Higgins (" Jacob 
Omnium "), James Hannay, and George Henry Lewes, with George 
Eliot, Anthony Trollope, Charles Reade, and Thomas Hughes as occa- 
sional contributors ; but the paper failed to attract the general public 
until, in the following year, Mr Greenwood's brother, James, furnished 
it with three articles on " A Night in a Workhouse: by an Amateur 
Casual." A morning edition had already been tried and dropped, 
and so was a distinct morning paper attempted in 1870. In 1867 
new premises were taken in Northumberland Street, Strand. Three 
years later the Pall Matt Gazette was the first to announce the sur- 
render of Napoleon III. at Sedan. Matthew Arnold contributed his 
famous " Arminius " letters (" Friendship's Garland ") in 1871, and 
Richard Jefferies contributed " The Gamekeeper at Home " in 1876 
and onwards. Mr Greenwood made the paper unflinchingly Con- 
servative and strongly adherent to Lord Beaconsfield's foreign 
policy. In 1880, however, Mr Smith handed over the Pall Mall 
Gazette to his son-in-law, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, who turned 



it into a Liberal journal. Mr Greenwood then retired from the 
editorship and shortly afterwards started the St James's Gazette ; 
Mr John (afterwards Viscount) Morley became editor of the Pall 
Mall, with Mr W. T. Stead (b. 1849) as assistant-editor. The price 
was reduced in 1882 to one penny. Many of the old contributors 
remained, and they were reinforced by Robert Louis Stevenson, 
who wrote some " Letters from Davos," Professor Tyndall, Professor 
Freeman, James Payn and Mrs Humphry Ward. When Mr Morley 
exchanged journalism for politics in 1883, he was succeeded by Mr 
W. T. Stead (q.v.), with Mr Alfred Milner, afterwards Lord Milner, 
as his assistant. Adopting an adventurous policy, Mr Stead im- 
ported the " interview " from America, and a report of General 
Gordon's opinion was believed to have been the cause of his ill-fated 
mission to Khartum. A series of articles called " The Truth about 
the Navy " (1884) had considerable influence in causing the Ad- 
miralty to lay down more ships next year. But Mr Stead's career 
as the editor came to an end in 1889, in consequence of his publishing 
a series of articles called " The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon," 

gurporting to further the Criminal Law Amendment Bill. Mr 
lead had made a feature of reprints called " extras "; and, edited 
by Mr Charles Morley, the Pott Mall Budget became an illustrated 
weekly. Mr Stead was replaced in 1889 by E. T. Cook, who had 
become assistant-editor in succession to Milner. The Pall Mall 
Gazette was now steadily Liberal and a strong advocate of Irish 
Home Rule. On its staff were Edmund Garrett (a gifted writer who 
became editor of the Cape Times in South Africa, and died pre- 
maturely in 1907), F. C. Gould the caricaturist, and I. Alfred Spender 
(b. 1862). Mr Cook resigned in 1892, on the sale of the paper to Mr 
William Waldorf Astor, the American millionaire, who turned it 
again into a Conservative organ, and also changed its shape, abandon- 
ing the old small pages for a larger sheet; and he and his assistant 
Mr Spender continued the Liberalism of the Pott Mall in the West- 
minster Gazette (see below). Mr Henry Cust, M.P., was appointed 
editor, with Mr E. B. Iwan-Muller as assistant-editor. Mr Cust 
(b. 1 86 1 ), who was Lord Brownlow's heir, and came fresh to editorship 
with enthusiasms acquired from his experiences in parliament and 
in society, made the columns of the Pall Mall very lively for the 
next couple of years. It became well known for its " booms," and 
its " smartness " generally. Some papers contributed to it by 
Sir Charles Dilke and Mr Spenser Wilkinson resulted in the establish- 
ment of the Navy League in 1894. The paper had, too, the first 
news of Mr Gladstone's resignation and the appointment of Lord 
Rosebery to succeed him. But though the Pall Mall under Mr Cust 
had outshone all its competitors, its independence of those business 
considerations which ultimately appeal to most proprietors hardly 
represented a durable state of affairs; and eventually the relations 
between proprietor and editor became strained. In February 1896 
Mr Cust and Mr Iwan-Muller were succeeded respectively by Sir 
Douglas Straight and Mr Lloyd Sanders, the latter of whom retired 
in 1902. Sir Douglas Straight (b. 1844) had been in early days a 
well-known London barrister, and from 1879 to 1892 was a judge in 
India. Sir Douglas Straight remained editor till the end of 1908, 
when he was succeeded by Mr Higginbottom. 

Founded in 1880 by Mr H. Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Alden- 
ham), for Mr Frederick Greenwood to edit when he had left the 
Pall Mall, the St James's Gazette represented the more _. _ 
intellectual and literary side of Tory journalism in op- . , 
position to the new Liberalism of Mr Greenwood's former gazette 
organ; it was in fact meant to carry on the idea of the 
original Poll Moll as Mr Greenwood had conceived it, and was 
(like it) more of a daily review than a chronicle of news. In 1888 
the paper having then been sold to Mr E. Steinkopff, Mr Greenwood 
retired and was succeeded as editor (1888-1897) by Mr Sidney Low, 
subsequently author of The Governance of England and other able 
works, who had as his chief assistant-editors Mr S. H. Jeyes (till 
1 89 1 ) , and Mr Hugh Chisholm ( 1 892-1 897) ,the latter succeeding him as 
editor (1897-1900). In those days mere news was not considered 
the important feature; or rather, original and sagacious views were 
identified with a sort of novelty such a paper could best promulgate. 
The St James's was for many years conspicuous for its literary 
character, and for the number of distinguished literary men who 
wrote for it, some of whom first became known to the public by 
means of its columns. Its interest in newspaper history is really 
that of a paper which appealed to and influenced a comparatively 
small circle of cultured readers,- a " superior " function more and 
more difficult to reconcile with business considerations. It was 
one of the earliest supporters of the Imperialist movement, and 
between 1895 and 1899 was the chief advocate in the Press of 
resistance to the foreign bounties on sugar which were ruining the 
West Indies, thus giving an early impetus to the movement for 
Tariff Reform and Colonial Preference. During the years immedi- 
ately following 1892, when the Pall Mall Gazette again became 
Conservative, the competition between Conservative evening papers 
became acute, because the Globe and Evening Standard were also 
penny Conservative journals; and it was increasingly difficult to 
carry on the St James's on its old lines so as to secure a profit to the 
proprietor; by degrees modifications were made in the general 
character of the paper, with a view to its containing more news 
and less purely literary matter. But it retained its original shape; 
with sixteen (after 1897, twenty) small pages, a form which the 



562 



NEWSPAPERS 



[BRITISH 



Pall Mall abandoned in 1892. Gradually these changes took effect. 
In 1900 Mr Theodore Andrea Cook, who had been assistant-editor 
since 1898, became editor for a brief period, and subsequently Mr 
Ronald MacNeill (till 1903) acted in this capacity, with Mr W. D. 
Ross as manager. Meanwhile the St James s Budget, which up to 
1893 had been a weekly edition of the Gazelle, was turned into an 
independent illustrated weekly, edited from the same office by 
Mr J. Penderel-Brodhurst (afterwards editor of the Guardian), who 
had been on the editorial staff since 1888; and it -continued to be 
published till 1899. In 1903 the St James's was sold to Mr C. Arthur 
Pearson, who in 1905, having bought the morning Standard, amal- 
gamated the St James's with the Evening Standard. 

The Evening Standard had been founded in 1827 (see under the 

Standard above), and when it was amalgamated with 

ening ^ & ^ James's Gazette in 1905, the two titles covered a 

Standard. new paper, i n a new form, as the penny Evening Standard 

and St James's Gazette. 

When the Pall Mall Gazette was sold to Mr Astor in 1892 and 
converted into a Conservative organ, Mr E. T. Cook, the editor, and 
most of his staff, resigned, and in 1893 they came together 
" again on the Westminster Gazette, newly started for the 
purpose by Sir G. Newnes (who had made a fortune out 
Gazette. o f pit-bits and other popular papers) as a penny Liberal 
evening paper. It was printed on green paper, but the novelty of 
this soon wore off. The paper was conducted on the lines of the old 
Pall Mall, and it had the advantage of a brilliant political cartoonist 
in F. Carruthers Gould. In 1895 Mr Cook was appointed editor of 
the Daily News, and his place was ably filled by Mr J. Alfred Spender, 
who had been his assistant -editor, Mr Gould (who was knighted in 
1906) being his chief assistant. Apart from Sir F. C. Gould's cartoons, 
the Westminster became conspicuous in London evening journalism 
for its high standard of judicious political and literary criticism. 
It gradually became the chief organ of Liberal thought in London. 
One of its early literary successes was the original publication of 
Mr Anthony Hope's Dolly Dialogues, and it continued to maintain, 
more than any other evening paper, the older literary and political 
tradition of the " gentlemanly journalism " out of which it had 
sprung. In 1908 a change of proprietorship took place, the paper 
being sold by Sir G. Newnes (d. 1910) to Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred 
Mond, but without affecting the personnel or policy of the paper. 

The first modern English evening newspaper to be issued at a half- 
penny was the London Evening News afterwards known as the Day. 
. It was started in 1855, but soon failed to meet expenses 

a penny an( j disappeared f rom the scene. In 1 868 appeared the 
""* London Echo, published by Henry Cassell. It had for its 
Papers. jj rst ec j; tori unt ;i 5875, Mr (afterwards Sir) Arthur Arnold 
(1833-1902), afterwards M.P. for Salford (1880-1886) and chairman 
of the London County Council (1895-1896), who was well known 
both as a writer and traveller and as founder of the Free Land League 
(1885). Baron Albert Grant (1830-1899), the pioneer of modern 
mammoth company-promoting, 1 afterwards took the Echo in hand 
and wasted a fortune over it; and eventually it was owned for some 
years by Mr Passmore Edwards, coming to an end in 1905. The 
Evening News was begun at a halfpenny in 1881 as a Liberal organ, 
but was shortly afterwards bought by a Conservative syndicate. 
It saw stormy times, and at the end of thirteen years it had absorbed 
298,000 and was heavily in debt. Its shares could then be purchased 
for threepence or fourpence each. In August 1894 it was purchased 
by Messrs Harmsworth for 25,000, and under Mr Kennedy Jones's 
management developed into a highly successful property. On 1 7th 
January 1888 the first number of the Star appeared, under the editor- 
ship of Mr T. P. O'Connor (b. 1848), as a half penny evening newspaper 
in support of Mr. Gladstone's policy. When Mr O'Connor left the 
paper, Mr H. W. Massingham became its editor, and subsequently Mr 
Ernest Parke. In 1909 the Star was acquired by a new proprietor- 
ship in which Messrs Cadbury and the Daily News had an important 
share. From the first it was conspicuous for its advanced attitude 
in politics, and also for excellent literary criticism. In 1893 MrT. P. 
O'Connor founded the Sun, which eventually passed into the hands 
of a succession of proprietors and came to an end in October 1906. 
As regards the purely sporting press in London, Sporting Life, 
_ .. started in 1859, became a daily in 1883, and in 1886 
incorporated the old Bell's Life. The daily Sportsman, 
the leading paper, was founded in 1865. The financial 
daily press is a modern creation and has taken many 
shapes; the Financier was the first regular daily, but in 
1884 the Financial News, under Mr H. H. Marks, made its appear- 

1 Albert Grant, who took that name though his father's was 
Gottheimer, was given the title of baron by King Victor Emmanuel 
of Italy in 1868 for his services in connexion with the Milan picture 
gallery. He made a large fortune by company-promoting, and in 
1865 became M.P. for Kidderminster. He became a prominent public 
character in London. In 1873 he built Kensington House, a vast 
mansion close to Kensington Palace, which in 1883 was demolished 
and the site seized by his creditors. In 1874 he bought up Leicester 
Square, converted it into a public garden, and presented it to the 
Metropolitan Board of Works. But soon afterwards he failed, and 
from 1876 to his death he constantly figured in the law-courts at the 
suit of his creditors. 



and 

financial 

dailies. 



ance, and in 1888 the Financial Times; and these became the leading 
papers of their class. 

The London weekly press (see also under Periodicals) has always 
worn a motley garb. Weekly publication facilitates the individuality 
of a journal, both as respects its editorship and as respects 
the class of readers to which it more especially addresses ** 

itself. From the days of Daniel Defoe there have always 
been newspapers bearing the unmistakable impress of an 
individual and powerful mind. Cobbett's Weekly Register Papers. 
affords perhaps as striking an illustration of journalism in its great- 
ness and in its meanness as could be found throughout its 
entire annals. And Cobbett's paper has had many successors, 
some of which, profiting by the marvellous mechanical appli- 
ances of the present day, have attained a far wider popular 
influence than was possessed by the Weekly Register in its most 
prosperous days. 

The history of the weekly reviews practically begins with the 
Examiner, which was founded in 1808 and had a long career as one 
of the most prominent organs of the Liberals, ending in 1881. That 
its literary reputation was great resulted naturally from a succession 
of such editors as Leigh Hunt, Albany Fonblanque, John Forster 
and Henry Morley. This was succeeded in January 1817 by the 
foundation of the Literary Gazette, the proprietor of which was Henry 
Colburn and the first editor William Jerdan. Jerdan succeeded in 
inducing Crabbe and Campbell to contribute to it, and among those 
who assisted him were Bulwer Lytton, Barry Cornwall and Mrs 
Hemans. The Literary Gazette came to an end in 1862. At the end 
of 1820 Theodore Hook founded John Bull, which for a time had 
extraordinary popularity; to it he contributed the most brilliant 
of his jeux d'esprit. 

Epochs in the development of this form of literature were marked 
by the foundation of the Athenaeum by James Silk Buckingham in 
January 1828 and by that of the Spectator by Robert Stephen Rintoul 
later in the same year. 

The Spectator was edited for thirty years by Robert Rintoul. In 
1858 the latter sold the paper to Mr Scott, who retired, however, 
from the editorship after a few months ; and for a time the Spectator 
Spectator was in low water. In 1861 it passed intothehands ^ 
of R. H. Hutton (q.v.) and Meredith Townsend, and under Saturday 
them became a successful exponent of moderate Liberalism n i 
and thoughtful criticism, particularly in the discussion of 
religious problems, such as were uppermost in the days of the Meta- 
physical Society. The high character and literary reputation of the 
Spectator were already established when, in 1897, it passed into the 
hands of Mr J. St Loe Strachey (b. 1860), but under him it became 
a more powerful organ, if only because it more than maintained its 
position while the other weekly papers declined. Unionist in politics 
since 1 886, the Spectator after 1903 was the leading organ of FreeTrade 
Unionists who opposed tariff reform, until the progress of socialism 
and the extravagance of Mr Lloyd-George's budget in 1909 caused 
it to accept the full policy of the Unionist party in preference to the 
dangers of socialistic radicalism. No paper in London, it may well 
be said, has earned higher respect than the Spectator, or carried more 
weight in its criticisms, both on politics and on literature. This has 
not been on account of any special brilliance of the pyrotechnic 
order, but because of continuous sobriety and good sense and 
unimpeachable good faith. 

The Saturday Review, on the other hand, is important historically 
rather for the brilliance of its " palmy days." First published on 
the 3rd of November 1855, it was founded by A. I. B. Beresford 
Hope (1820-1887), a brother-in-law of Lord Salisbury, M.P. for 
Maidstone and for Cambridge University, and a prominent church- 
man and art patron; with John Douglas Cook (18081868) as editor. 
Mr Hope was the son of James Hope (1770-1831), author of Anas- 
tatius; and it was reputed that Douglas Cook was " Anastatius " 
Hope's natural son. For several years he Saturday maintained an 
exceptional position in London journalism. On the political side 
it was at first Peelite, but the strong churchmanship of Mr Beresford 
Hope and antagonism to Mr Gladstone did much to bring it round 
to a pronounced Conservative view. Most, though not all, of its 
early staff had already worked under Mr Cook, when he was editor 
of the Morning Chronicle (from 1848 to 1854). In its literary com- 
ment it gave much space to articles of pure criticism and scholarship, 
and almost every writer of contemporary note on the Tory side 
contributed to its columns. But the matter which did most to give 
it its peculiar character was found in its outspoken or even sensational 
" middles " " The Frisky Matron," " The Girl of the Period " 
(by Mrs Lynn Linton), " The Birch in the Boudoir," &c. The 
editorship remained in the hands of Mr Cook till his death in 1868. 
In 1861 a secession from the Saturday lasting till 1863, led to the 
temporary brilliance of the London Review (1860-1868), started by 
Charles Mackay. Douglas Cook was succeeded by Philip Harwood 
(1809-1887), who had followed him from the Morning Chronicle 
and under whom Mr Andrew Lang became a contributor, with others 
of note. Mr" Harwood retired in 1883, and was succeeded by his 
former assistant Mr Walter Herries Pollock, under whom the paper 
underwent some modifications in form to meet changes in the public 
taste; Mr G. Saintsbury and Mr H. D. Traill were then prominent 
members of the staff, and Mr Frederick Greenwood wrote for the 
paper till he started the Anti-Jacobin. In 1894 the Saturday Review 



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was sold by the heirs of Mr Beresford Hope to Mr Lewis Edmunds, 
from whose hands it soon passed to Mr Frank Harris. In 1899 the 
paper was sold to Lord Hardwicke and came under the editorship of 
Mr Harold Hodge, who remained in this position when, after Lord 
Hardwicke's death in 1905, it passed into the hands of Mr Gervase 
Becket. 

The Saturday Review and Spectator, as the exponents of brilliant 
Toryism and serious Liberalism, had the field practically to them- 
selves for some years; but when in 1886 the Spectator followed the 
Liberal Unionists in opposing Home Rule for Ireland, and ceased to 
support Mr Gladstone, the result was the addition to London journal- 
ism of the Radical Speaker (1898); and in 1898 the threepenny 
Outlook (altered in price in 1905 to sixpence) was started, to present 
more particularly the growing interests of the Colonies and the 
Empire, a side further developed in 1905 and 1906 under the editor- 
ship of Mr J. L. Garyin (b. 1868) in its advocacy of Mr Chamberlain's 
policy of a preferential tariff, when the Spectator became aggressively 
Free Trade. In December 1906 the Outlook was sold by its pro- 
prietor, Mr C. S. Goldman, to Lord Iveagh, and Mr Garvin resigned 
the editorship. In 1907 the Speaker was incorporated with the 
Nation, a new Radical weekly, edited by H. W. Massingham. Several 
ambitious new weeklies meanwhile started, and some passed away 
before the end of the century, such as the Realm, the British Review 
and the Review of the Week. The most brilliant of all these, which 
also lasted the longest, was the Scots (soon renamed the National) 
Observer (1888-1897), edited at first by W. E. Henley (q.v.), and 
subsequently by J. E. Vincent (d. 1909). Mr Henley, assisted by Mr 
Charles Whibley, collected a band of clever young writers, who 
formed almost a " school " of literary journalism, and many of whom 
won their spurs in literature by their contributions to this paper. 
The Pilot (1900) under Mr D. C. Lathbury was another brilliant 
attempt, but it failed to pay its way and hardly lasted for three years. 

Among purely literary weeklies the Athenaeum found a rival in the 
Academy, founded in October 1869 by Dr Appleton and edited by 
him. Later, under the editorship of J. S. Cotton, it was famous 
for its signed reviews and scholarly character; but the small circle 
to whom pure literature appealed made financial success difficult. 
In 1896 the Academy was bought by Mr Morgan Richards, and for 
some years was edited by Mr Lewis Hind, amalgamating Literature 
(a weekly which had been started by The Times) in 1901 ; and 
subsequently under changed proprietors it was successively edited 
by Mr Teignmouth Shore and Mr Anderson Graham. In April 
1907 it was bought from Sir G. Newnes by Sir Edward Tennant, 
and subsequently passed under the control of Lord Alfred 
Douglas, who in 1910 parted with it to a new proprietary. 

The publication of Sunday editions of the daily papers has not 
found the same favour in England as in the United States. In 1899 
Suadav a Sunday Daily Mail and a Sunday Daily Telegraph 
"oers appeared simultaneously; but public opinion was so 
violent against seven-day journalism that both were 
withdrawn. The oldest of the Sunday papers, the Observer (1791), 
was conducted by one editor, Mr Doxat, for more than fifty years. 
It was one of the first papers to contain illustrations. In later years 
Mr Edward Dicey was a notable editor. In 1905 the Observer passed 
into the hands of Lord Northcliffe, his first editor being Mr Austin 
Harrison, a son of Frederic Harrison. In 1907 Mr J. L. Garvin 
became editor, and under him the old influence of the Observer 
revived. 

Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper started as an unstamped illustrated 
journal at a penny in September 1842. In 1843 it was enlarged in 
size, and the price raised to threepence. Curious ingenuity was shown 
in advertising it by all sorts of expedients. Amongst others, all the 
pennies its proprietor could lay his hands on were embossed, by a 
cleverly constructed machine, with the title and price of the new 
journal. The Times drew attention to this defacement of the coin 
of the realm, and so gave it a better advertisement still. From 
a weekly sale of 33,000 in 1848 it rose to 170,000 in 1861. In antici- 
pation of the abolition of the paper duty, the price was then reduced 
to a penny, and its circulation continued to increase. In later years 
it had an able editor in Mr T. Catling. Reynolds' 's Weekly Newspaper, 
an extreme Radical paper with a large circulation, dates from May 
1850. Other Sunday papers came later into existence the People 
(1881), the Sunday (afterwards Weekly) Sun (1891), the Sunday 
Special (1897) with which in 1904 was amalgamated the Sunday 
Times (1822). The Referee (1877), a paper with a strong sporting 
and theatrical interest, is famous for the humorous contributions by 
" Dagonet " (G. R. Sims) and the pungency of its miscellaneous 

Of the London illustrated weekly papers the oldest, the Illustrated 
London News, was founded in 1842; the Graphic in 1869; while the 
Pictorial World, which lasted for some years, began in 1874. 
In 1891 Black and White was started; and in 1892 the 
Sketch, edited by Mr Clement Shorter (also then editor of 
the Illustrated London News), introduced a lighter vein. 
Mr Shorter gave up the editorship of these two weeklies in 1901, 
and became editor of a new illustrated weekly, the Sphere, with the 
proprietorship of which came also to be associated the Taller. 
Another new illustrated weekly of a high class, Country Life Illus- 
trated, began in 1897. 

The " Society " weeklies, Truth (1877), Vanity Fair (1868) with 



a separate cartoon as a special feature, famous for the artistic work 

of Pellegrini, Leslie Ward and others and the World Soclet 

(1874), brought a new "note "into regular journalism, 

Mr Edmund Yates's success with the World largely con- e g k les 

tributing to the increase of the personal style which he 

did so much to introduce; and Truth made its proprietor, the 

politician Mr Henry Labouchere, one of the most prominent men of 

the day, not so much for its aggressive Radicalism as for its vigorous 

exposures of all sorts of public charlatanry. 

Among other weeklies, .important ones are such ecclesiastical 
papers as the Guardian (1846), the Record (1828), the Church Times 
(1863), the Tablet (1840), Christian World (1857), Methodist Times 
(1885); the medical papers, the Lancet (1823) and British Medical 
Journal ; the financial papers, the Economist (1843) and Statist 
(1878); and the great sporting and country-house paper, the Field 

(1853)- 

Among humorous papers Punch (1840) stands first (see CARI- 
CATURE,) of which (1895) Mr M. H. Spielmann published aHistory; 
Fun (1860-1901), Mr Harry Furniss's Lika Joko (1894, 
only for a few months), Judy (1867), Moonshine (1879) 
and Pick-me-up (1888), have also catered for popular 
gaiety. 

The introduction of women into English journalism in any large 
degree was one of the new departures of the last quarter of the igth 
century. It was indeed no new thing for women to write 
for the Press. Harriet Martineau was, in her day, one of the 
principal membersof theUoiYyATewistaff.andMissFrances Jouraal- 
PowerCobbe (i822-iox>5)theadvocateof anti-vivisection- '*'* 
ism, was an active journalist. Miss Flora Shaw (Lady Lugard), as 
writer of colonial topics for The Times, or Mrs Crawford, as Paris 
correspondent of the Daily News, are other notable instances of the 
prominence of women's work in the same spheres with the ablest 
men. But such cases as these were exceptional, in which something 
in the nature of a personal mission and a peculiar aptitude gave the 
impulse. Journalism as a profession for women came, however, 
to be widely resorted to, partly through its obvious recommendation 
in a day when women's education required an alternative outlet, 
for those who had to earn their living, to that of the teaching pro- 
fession; partly, and pari passu, through the immense increase in 
women readers and the immensely increased publicity given in news- 
papers to matters of primarily feminine interest. In 1880 the only 
" ladies' paper " of any importance was the Queen, a weekly which 
dates from 1861. But subsequently a considerable number of new 
weeklies entered the field: notably the Lady's Pictorial (1880); 
the Lady (1885); Woman (1889); the Gentlewoman (1890), which 
owed its success to the vigorous management of Mr J. S. Wood; 
Madame (1895); and the Ladies' Field (1898). New monthlies also 
appeared, in the Englishwoman, the Ladies' Realm and the Woman 
at Home. The sphere of action of the lady journalist was soon 
by no means confined to the " ladies' papers, or to the writing 
of columns on dress or cookery for such general journals as found 
it useful to cultivate feminine readers; women invaded every other 
field of journalism, especially the large new field of " interviewing " 
and fashionable gossip. The increase in women-writers generally, 
novelists, dramatists, poets, reacted on their connexion with journal- 
ism ; the increased " respectability " of journalism made it easier 
for them to work side by side with men; and gradually nobody 
thought the introduction of women into this sphere anything out of 
the common; a lady journalist, in fact, was much less remarkable 
than a lady doctor. 

British Provincial Press. 

England and Wales. Though the real development of English 
provincial journalism, as a power co-ordinate with that of London, 
only dates from the abolition of the stamp duty in 1855, many country 
newspapers before that time had been marked by literary ability 
and originality of character. The history of the provincial press of 
England begins in 1690 with the weekly Worcester Postman (now 
Berrow's Worcester Journal). The Stamford Mercury (1695; earliest 
known 1712; long known as Lincoln, Rutland and Stamford Mer- 
cury); Norwich Postman 1 (1706); Nottingham Courant (1710), 
afterwards renamed Journal; Newcastle Courant (1711); Liverpool 
Courant (1712; shortlived); Hereford Journal (1713); Salisbury 
Postman (1715); Bristol Felix Farley's Journal (1715; merged into 
the Bristol Times in I735 2 ); the Canterbury Kentish Post (1717; 
afterwards Kentish Gazette); Leeds Mercury (1717); Exeter Mercury, 
Protestant Mercury, and Postmaster or Loyal Mercury (all 1718*); 
York Mercury (1718), and Manchester Weekly Journal (1719), came 

1 The Norwich Postman, a small quarto of meagre contents, was 
published at a penny, but its proprietor notified that "a halfpenny 
is not refused I Within a few years Norwich also had its Courant 
(1712) and Weekly Mercury or Protestant's Packet (1720). 

2 Amalgamated with the Bristol Mirror (1773) in 1865 to form the 
Daily Bristol Times and Mirror. 

3 Exeter was then fiercely political. These three newspapers 
commented so freely on proceedings in parliament that their editors 
were summoned to appear at bar (Journal of the House of Commons, 
xix. 30, 43, 1718). The incident is curious as showing that each 
represented a rival MS. news-letter writer in London. 



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quickly afterwards; and other early papers worth mentioning were 
the Salisbury Journal (1729); Manchester Gazette (1730-1760); 
Manchester Mercury (1762-1830); the earliest Birmingham 
paper, Aris's Gazette (1741); the Cambridge Chronicle (1744): 
and the Oxford Journal (1753). Liverpool also boasted of the 
Liverpool Advertiser (1756) and Gore's General Advertiser (1765- 
1870). Of the above the Leeds Mercury (171?) became an in- 
creasingly important provincial organ. It was originally published 
weekly, and its price was three-halfpence. In 1729 it was reduced 
to four pages of larger size, and sold, with a stamp, at twopence. 
From 1755 to 1766 its publication was suspended, but was resumed 
in January 1767, under the management of James Bpwley, who 
continued to conduct it for twenty-seven years, and raised it to a 
circulation of 3000. Its price at this time was fourpence. The 
increase of the stamp duty in 1797 altered its price to sixpence, 
and the circulation sank from 3000 to 800. It was purchased in 
1801 by Edward Baines, who first began the insertion of " leaders," 
and whose family left an impress not only on journalism but on 
literature in the North of England. It took him three years to 
obtain a circulation of 1500; but the Mercury afterwards made 
rapid progress. When the Stamp Tax was removed, its price was 
reduced to a penny, and in 1901 to a halfpenny. For many years it 
admitted neither racing nor theatrical new to its columns, and it 
had a powerful moral and political influence in Lancashire and 
Yorkshire. 

The abolition of the duty on advertisements in 1853, of the 
stamp duty in 1855, and of the paper duty in 1861, opened the way 
for a cheap press, and within ten years of the abolition of the paper 
duty penny morning newspapers had taken up commanding posi- 
tions in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen; in Liver- 
pool, Manchester, Leeds, Bradford, Newcastle and Sheffield; in 
Birmingham and Nottingham; in Bristol, Cardiff and Plymouth; 
and across St George's Channel in Dublin, Cork, Belfast and Water- 
ford. As time went on, and increasingly after the 'seventies, pro- 
vincial evening papers began to multiply. But any real importance 
as organs of opinion was still confined to only a few of the great penny 
provincial dailies, notably the Yorkshire Post, Manchester Guardian, 
Birmingham Post (1857), Sheffield Telegraph (associated with Sir 
W. Leng), Liverpool Daily Post, Leeds Mercury and Western Morning 
News; others top numerous to mention here were at the same time 
cradling journalists who were to become famous in a larger sphere, 
such as the Darlington Northern Echo, on which Mr W. T. Stead made 
his debut, while Mr Joseph Cowen for some years made the Newcastle 
Daily Chronicle a powerful force. 

The provincial journals began as strictly local organs. But even 
in 1870 it was beginning to be universally perceived that, though the 
influence of a newspaper depends upon the sagacity, sound judgment 
and courage of the editor, its success as a business enterprise rests 
mainly with the business manager. Managers demanded less local- 
ism, a wider range of news, prompter and fuller reports of all im- 
portant events, longer parliamentary reports, parliamentary 
sketches, verbatim reports of speeches by statesmen of the first rank. 
In the early 'seventies such a thing as a full telegraphic report in a 
provincial morning newspaper of parliamentary proceedings, or of 
a speech by a leading statesman, was almost unheard of. The Press 
Association had been in existence a short time, but had not then 
covered the country with its organization. Reuter's foreign news 
service very briefly reported important events. Leading articles were 
written during the day. Between 1870 and 1880 a complete revolu- 
tion was effected, as the result of the social and educational changes. 
Leader-writers began to discuss the latest topics. Newspapers that 
had been content to fill their columns with local news and clippings 
from London and distant provincial papers put such matter aside. 
Telegraphic news crushed it out. In February 1870 the govern- 
ment took over the telegraph system. The advantage of the change 
was immediately felt by newspapers and their readers. Leading 
English and Irish newspapers, following Scotland's lead, began to 
open offices in London, where Fleet Street soon began to be an open 
directory to the provincial press English, Scottish and Irish. The 
Scottish and the leading Irish newspapers of necessity, the wealthiest 
and most enterprising English papers for convenience and advantage, 
engaged special wires. Others that were near enough to London to 
do so secured London news and advertisements by railway, and 
completed their news supply by a liberal use of the telegraph. 
Commercial news, both home and foreign, especially American, was 
expanded. The Press Association spread its news-collecting organ- 
ization over the whole country, and was stimulated to activity by the 
rising opposition of the Central News. All this energy had its 
counterpart in the business side of the press. Rapid " perfecting " 
printing machines were introduced, and newspaper managers found 
themselves in possession of newspapers full of the latest news, and 
procurable in practically unlimited quantities. By the use of 
special trains and other organizations, circulation increased apace. 
The development of news agencies, and their universal employment, 
tended to produce sameness in the provincial press. From this fate 
the more enterprising journals saved themselves by special London 
letters, parliamentary sketches .and other special contributions. 
In 1881 the reporters gallery in the House of Commons was opened 
to some provincial newspapers, and these accordingly enjoyed new 
facilities for special effort and distinction. A more important matter, 



however, was the bombardment of Alexandria and the subsequent 
Egyptian War. The leading provincial newspapers had already 
emancipated themselves from localism, and in general news and 
criticism had risen almost, if not quite, to the average level of the 
first-class London journals. Now they were to step abroad into the 
field of war. Singly or in syndicates, or by arrangement with London 
journals, the leading provincial newspapers sent out war corre- 
spondents, and were able to record the history of events as promptly 
and fully as the metropolitan press. The first syndicate to send cut 
war correspondents was formed by the Glasgow News, the Liverpool 
Daily Post, Manchester Courier, Birmingham Gazette and Western 
Morning News, who despatched two correspondents to Egypt, and 
the new departure was attended with complete success. The 
Central News also sent out war correspondents to Egypt and the 
Sudan. During the South African War (1899-1902) the Press 
Association, in conjunction with Reuter's Agency, employed corre- 
spondents, as well as the Central News. The leading provincial 
newspapers, however, all formed syndicates amongst themselves to 
secure war telegrams, and in many cases made arrangements for the 
simultaneous publication of the letters and telegrams of leading 
London journals. This system of securing simultaneous publication, 
in provincial newspapers, of special contributions to London morning 
newspapers was afterwards still further extended, and articles of 
exceptional interest that have been specially prepared for London 
journals may now be found on the same day in some of the leading 
provincial newspapers. 

By the beginning of 1880 the country had fallen upon a period of 
low prices, and extra expenditure upon war telegrams and on an 
improved supply of general news was to a considerable extent 
balanced by the reduced cost of paper. A list compiled at the com- 
mencement of 1902 gave the names of eighty-seven halfpenny daily 
newspapers published in English provincial towns, a considerable 
number of these being morning journals. Of these, sixty-two had 
been issued since 1870, those bearing earlier dates of origin being in 
most cases sheets which formerly were issued at a penny or more, 
but had subsequently reduced their prices. Of the sixty-two that 
were issued since 1870, twenty-seven appeared between 1871 and 
1882, nineteen between 1882 and 1892 and sixteen between 1892 
and 1902. Under the stimulus of cheapness the news-sheet was 
enlarged. More advertisements, more news, more varied contri- 
butions, filled up the additional space. The cost of composition 
increased, and, though circulation and revenue increased also, there 
was some danger to the margin of profit. Again invention came to 
the rescue. In the 'eighties some of the leading provincial newspapers 
began to use type-setting machines. In this forward step the 
provinces were far ahead of the London papers, excepting The Times. 
The Southport Daily News since dead led the way by introducing 
six Hattersley machines, and soon afterwards type-setting machinery 
became the rule in the provincial press. In the development of 
provincial papers, one factor of special importance must be noted, 
the desire for news about all branches of sport. In 1870 sporting 
meant horse-racing and little more. By degrees it embraced 
athleticism in all its branches, and progressive newspapers were 
looked to for information on football, hockey, golf, cricket, lawn- 
tennis, yachting, boating, cycling, wrestling, coursing, hunting, polo, 
running, bowls, billiards, chess, &c., quite as much as for notices of 
musical and dramatic performances, and of other forms of recreation 
and amusement. The ordinary provincial press, and its halfpenny 
evening representatives, largely depend on the attraction of the 
sporting news; and a number of special local papers have also been 
started to cater for this public. 

Scotland. The first newspaper purporting by its title to be 
Scottish (the Scotch Intelligencer, 1 7th September 1643) and the first 
newspapers actually printed in Scotland (Mercurius Criticus and 
Mercunus Politicus, published at Leith in 1651 and 1653) were of 
English manufacture the first being intended to communicate 
more particularly the affairs of Scotland to the Londoners, the 
others to keep Cromwell's army well acquainted with the London 
news. The reprinting of the Politicus was transferred to Edinburgh 
in November 1654, and it continued to appear (under the altered 
title Mercurius Publicus subsequently to April 1660) until the 
beginning of 1663. Meanwhile an attempt by Thomas Sydserfe to 
establish a really Scottish newspaper, Mercurius Caledonius, had 
failed after the appearance of ten numbers, the first of which had 
been published at Edinburgh on the 8th of January 1660. It was 
not until March 1699 that a Scottish newspaper was firmly estab- 
lished, under the title of the Edinburgh Gazette, by James Watson, 
a printer of eminent skill in his art. 2 Before the close of the 

1 This was followed by the Scotch Dove, the first number of which 
is dated " September 30 to October 20, 1643," and by the Scottish 
Mercury (No. I, October 5, 1643). In 1648 a Mercurius Scoticus and 
a Mercurius Caledonius were published in London. The Scotch Dove 
was the only one of these which attained a lengthened existence. 

2 Watson was the printer and editor, but the person licensed was 
James Donaldson, merchant in Edinburgh (" Act in favors of 
James Donaldson for printing the Gazette," March 10,1699, published 
in Miscellany of the MaitlanaClub, ii. 232 sq.). Arnot, in his History 
of Edinburgh, mentions as the second of Edinburgh newspapers 
intervening between Mercurius Caledonius and the Gazette a 



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year the Gazette was transferred to John Reid, by whose family it 
long continued to be printed. In February 1705 Watson started the 
Edinburgh Courant, of which he only published fifty-five numbers. 
He states it to be his plan to give " most of the remarkable foreign 
news from their prints, and also the home news from the ports of this 
kingdom . . . now altogether neglected." The Courant appeared 
thrice a week. Upon complaint being made to the privy council 
concerning an advertisement inserted after the transfer of the paper 
to Adam Boig, the new printer presented a supplication to the 
council in which he expressed his willingness " that in all time 
coming no inland news or advertisements shall be put into the 
Courant, but at the sight and allowance of the clerks of council." 
In 1710 the town council authorized Mr Daniel Defoe to print the 
Edinburgh Courant in the place of the deceased Adam Boig. Four 
years earlier (1706) the indefatigable pioneer of the Scottish press, 
James Watson, had begun the Scots Courant, which he continued to 
print until after the year 1718. To these papers were added in 
October 1708 the Edinburgh Flying Post and in August 1709 the 
Scots Postman. Five years later this paper appears to have been 
incorporated with the Edinburgh Gazette. The Caledonian Mercury 
began April 28, 1720. At one period it was published thrice and 
afterwards twice a week. Its first proprietor was William Holland, 
an advocate, and its first editor Thomas Ruddiman. The property 
passed to Ruddiman on Rolland's death in 1729, and remained in his 
family until 1772. It is curious to notice that in his initiatory 
number of April 1720, Rolland claimed a right to identify his 
Mercury with that of 1660. This journal, he said in his preface to the 
public, " is the oldest [existing] in Great Britain." And his successor 
of the year 1860 followed suit by celebrating the " second centenary " 
of the Caledonian Mercury. He brought out a facsimile of No. I of 
Mercurius Caledonius (January 1660), in its eight pages of small 
quarto, curiously contrasting with the great double sheet of the day. 
But sixty years is a long period of suspended animation, and the 
connexion of the two newspapers cannot be proved to be more than 
nominal. The Caledonian Mercury was the first of Scottish journals 
to give conspicuous place to literature foreign as well as Scottish. 
In " the '45 one of its editors, Thomas Ruddiman, junior, virtually 
sacrificed his life, 1 and the other, James Grant, went into exile, for 
the expression of conscientious political opinion. Its publication 
ceased after an existence of more than one hundred and forty 
years. 

Notwithstanding the positive assertion * that the Edinburgh 
Courant and the Edinburgh Evening Courant " were entirely different 
journals, and never had any connexion whatever with each other," 
a substantial identity may be asserted upon better grounds than 
those for which identity used to be claimed for the Caledonian 
Mercury with Mercurius Caledonius. The grant by the town council 
of Edinburgh in December 1718 of a licence to James M'Ewan to 
print an Evening Courant three times a week appears to have been 
really a revival, in altered form, of the original Courant, repeatedly 
referred to in earlier, but not much earlier, records of the same 
corporation. So revived, the Evening Courant was the first Scottish 
paper to give foreign intelligence from original sources, instead of 
repeating the advices sent to London. In 1780 David Ramsay 
became its proprietor. Under his management it is said to have 
attained the largest Scottish circulation of its day. It was then of 
neutral politics. Subsequently, returning to its original title, and 
appearing as a daily morning paper, it ranked for long as the senior 
organ of the Conservative party in Scotland, but at last the compe- 
tition of the Scotsman caused its disappearance, and after amalgamat- 
ing with the Glasgow News or the Scottish News in 1886, it expired in 
1888. 

The Edinburgh Weekly Journal began in 1744, but it only attained 
celebrity when, almost seventy years afterwards, it became the joint 
property of Sir Walter Scott and of James Ballantyne. Scott wrote 
in its columns many characteristic articles. Ballantyne edited it 
until his death in 1833, and was succeeded in the editorship by 
Thomas Moir. The paper was discontinued about 1840. The 
Edinburgh Evening News started in 1873. 

The Scotsman, the leading Scottish newspaper, was established 
as a twice-a-week paper in January 1817 and became a daily in June 
1855. It ranked as the chief organ of the Liberal party in Scotland, 
until the Home Rule split in 1886, when it became Unionist. It was 
founded by William Ritchie, in conjunction with Charles Maclaren. 
For a short period it was edited by J. R. M'Culloch, the eminent 
political economist. He was succeeded by Maclaren, who edited the 
paper until 1845, and he in turn in 1848 by Alexander Russel (1814- 
1876), who (with Mr Law as manager) continued to conduct it with 

Kingdom's Intelligencer. But this was a London newspaper, dating 
from 1662, which may occasionally have been reprinted in Scotland; 
no such copies, however, are now known to exist. In like manner 
the Scottish Mercury, No. I, May 8, 1692, appears to have been a 
London newspaper based upon Scottish news-letters, although in an 
article written in 1848, in the Scottish Journal of Topography, vol. ii. 
P- 33i it is mentioned as an Edinburgh newspaper. 

1 During an imprisonment of six weeks in the Tolbooth of Edin- 
burgh his health suffered so severely that he died very shortly after 
his release. 

2 Grant, History of the Newspaper Press (1873), ' 4'2- 



great ability until 1876. In 1859 the first of Hoe's rotary machines 
Drought into Scotland was erected for the Scotsman. The Scotsman 
soon developed into a great newspaper, strong both on its literary 
side and also in gathering news; and it was circulated all over 
Scotland, its publishing offices being opened in Glasgow, which was 
a better centre for distributing in the west, and in Perth for the 
north. At last under Charles A. Cooper it succeeded in killing all 
its rivals in Edinburgh. In 1885 the Scotsman issued an evening 
paper. 

The North British Advertiser was founded in 1826. The Witness 
began in 1840 as the avowed organ of what speedily became the 
Free Church party in Scotland. In its first prospectus it calls itself 
the Old Whig. The paper appeared twice a week, and its editor, Hugh 
Miller, very soon made it famous. In the course of less than sixteen 
years he wrote about a thousand articles and papers, conspicuous for 
literary ability, still more so for a wide range of acquirement and of 
original thought, most of all for deep conscientiousness. It survived 
its first editor's death (1855) only a few years. 

In Glasgow the Glasgow Herald was founded in 1782. When the 
Scotsman extended its activities to Glasgow, the Herald opened an 
office in Edinburgh; and it took an active part in breaking down 
the old localism, of Scottish papers. In later years it became a 
powerful organ. The North British Daily Mail was established in 
April 1847. George Troup, its first editor, made it specially famous 
for the organizing skill with which he brought his intelligence at an 
unprecedented rate of speed from Carlisle, the nearest point then 
connected with London by railway. 3 The Glasgow Evening News 
was started in 1870. 

The Aberdeen Journal was founded as a weekly paper in 1748 and 
became a daijy in 1876. In 1879 it issued an evening edition. The 
Aberdeen Daily Free Press, originally a weekly, dates from 1853. 
In 1 88 1 it issued an evening paper in connexion with itself. The 
Dundee Advertiser, established in 1801, towards the latter part of the 
century extended its sphere of influence much on the lines of the 
Scotsman and Glasgow Herald. It issued the Evening Telegraph in 
1877. In 1859 the Dundee Courier, a halfpenny paper, had begun. 

It may be added that a very large number of the men who have 
distinguished themselves by their labours on the great newspapers 
of London, and several who rank as founders of these, began their 
career and have left their mark on the newspapers of Scotland. 

Ireland. In 1641 appeared a sheet called Warranted Tidings from 
Ireland, but this, with Ireland's True Diurnal (1642), Mercurius 
Hibernicus (1644), the Irish Courant (1690), were all of them London 
newspapers containing Irish news. The real newspaper press of 
Ireland began with the Dublin News-Letter of 1685. Five years later 
appeared the Dublin Intelligencer (No. I, September 30, 1690). 
Both of these were shortlived. Pue's Occurrences followed in 1700 
and lasted for more than fifty years, as the pioneer of the daily 
press of Ireland. In 1710 or in 1711 (there is some doubt as to the 
date of the earliest number) the Dublin Gazette began to appear, 
the official organ of the vice-regal government. Falkener's Journal 
was established in 1728. Esdatle's News-Letter began in 1744, took 
the title of Saunders's News-Letter in 1754 (when it appeared three 
times a week), and became a daily newspaper in 1777. 

In the Nationalist press the famous Freeman's Journal has lone 
been prominent amongst the Dublin papers. It was established 
as a daily paper by a committee of the first society of "United 
Irishmen " in 1763, and its first editor was Dr Lucas. Flood and 
Grattan were at one time numbered amongst its contributors, 
although the latter, at a subsequent period, is reported to have 
exclaimed in his place in the Irish parliament, " The Freeman's 
Journal is a liar ... a public, pitiful liar." In 1870 it brought out 
the Evening Telegraph. In 1891 the dissensions among the Irish 
Nationalists led to the establishment of the Parnellite Dublin Daily 
Independent and Evening Herald. In 1897 the Nation, formerly a 
weekly, was brought out as a daily. On the Unionist side the 
principal Irish paper is the Dublin Irish Times (1859). 

Waterford possessed a newspaper as early as 1729, entitled the 
Waterford Flying Post. It professed to contain " the most material 
news both foreign and domestic," was printed on common writing 
paper and published twice a week at the price of a halfpenny. The 
Waterford Chronicle was started in 1766. 

The Belfast News-Letter was started in 1737; the Belfast Evening 
Telegraph in 1870; the Belfast Northern Whig in 1824. 

British Dominions beyond the Sea. 

It is unnecessary here to give all the statistics for the British 
Colonial press, which has enormously developed in modern times. 
So far as its early history is concerned, it may be noted that Keimer's 
Gazette was started in Barbadoes in 1731 and Granada followed with 
a newspaper of its own in 1742. In Canada the Halifax Gazette was 
established in 1751 and the Montreal Gazette in 1765. The first 
Australasian paper was the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales 
Advertiser (1803-1843), the Derwent Star, in Van Dieman's Land 
(Tasmania), starting in 1810. In modern days all the British 
dominions beyond the sea have produced important and well-con- 
ducted papers. The Canadian press has naturally had certain 
marked affinities with the American ; but the Globe in Toronto, as 

' See Notes and Queries, 5th series, vii. 45, viii. 205. 



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the organ of the Liberal party, has played a leading part in Canadian 
history. In Australia the Sydney Bulletin, the Sydney Morning 
Herald (1831 daily since 1840), Sydney Daily Telegraph, Melbourne 
Argus (1846) and Melbourne Age (1854), with the evening Melbourne 
Herald, have been the most important. In South Africa the Cape 
Times (1876) has been the principal paper, but some of the Transvaal 
English papers have exercised great influence in the disturbed 
political conditions since about 1895. 

India. For a considerable period under the rule of the East India 
Company the Indian press was very unimportant both in character 
and influence. It was permitted to shape its course and to gain 
a position as it could, under the potent checks of the deportation 
power and the libel law, without any direct censorship. Nor was it 
found difficult to inflict exemplary punishment on the writers of 
" offensive paragraphs." 

Prior to Lord Wellesley's administration the most considerable 
newspapers published at Calcutta were the World, the Bengal Journal, 
the Hurkaru, the Calcutta, Gazette (the organ of the Bengal govern- 
ment), the Telegraph, the Calcutta Courier, the Asiatic Mirror and 
the Indian Gazette. Mr Duane, the editor of the World, was sent to 
Europe in 1794 for " an inflammatory address to the army," as was 
Mr Charles Maclean, four years afterwards for animadverting in 
the Telegraph on the official conduct of a local magistrate. 

The Calcutta Englishman dates from 1821. Lord Wellesley was the 
first governor-general who created a censorship (April 1799). His 
press-code was abolished by the marquis of Hastings in 1818. The 
power of transporting obnoxious editors to Europe of course remained. 
Perhaps the most conspicuous instance of its exercise was the re- 
moval of the editor of the Calcutta Journal (Silk Buckingham), 
which occurred immediately after Lord Hastings's departure from 
India and during the government of his temporary successor, Mr 
John Adan. Buckingham's departure was followed closely (i4th 
March 1823) by a new licensing act, far exceeding in stringency that 
of Lord Wellesley, and (sth April 1823) by an elaborate " Regulation 
for preventing the Establishment of Printing- Presses without Licence, 
and for restraining under certain circumstances the Circulation of 
Printed Books and Papers." The first application of it was to 
suppress the Calcutta Journal. 

In the course of the elaborate inquiry into the administration of 
India which occupied both Houses of Parliament in 1832, prior 
to the renewal of the Company's charter, it was stated that there 
were, besides 5 native journals, 6 European newspapers: three 
daily, the Bengal Hurkaru, John Bull and the Indian Gazette; 
one published twice a week, the Government Gazette; and two 
weekly the Bengal Herald and the Oriental Observer. At this 
period every paper was published under a licence, revocable at 
pleasure, with or without previous inquiry or notice. At Madras, 
on the other hand, the press remained under rigid restriction. The 
Madras censorship was removed whilst the parliamentary inquiry of 
1832 was still pending. 

One question only, and that but for a brief interval, disturbed 
Lord William Bentinck's love of free discussion. The too famous 
" Half-Batta " measure led him to think that a resolute persistence 
in an unwise policy by the home government against the known 
convictions of the men actually at the helm in India and an un- 
fettered press were two things that could scarcely co-exist. It was 
on this occasion that Sir Charles Metcalfe recorded his minute 
of September 1830, the reasoning of which fully justifies the assertion 

-" I have, for my own part, always advocated the liberty of the 
press, believing its benefits to outweigh its mischiefs ; and I continue 
of the same opinion." This opinion was amply carried out in the 
memorable law (drafted by Macaulay and enacted by Metcalfe as 
governor-general in 1835), which totally abrogated the licensing 
system. It left all men at liberty to express their sentiments on 
public affairs, under the legal and moral responsibilities of ordinary 
life, and remained in force until the outbreak of the mutiny of 
1857. 

In 1853 Garcin de Tassy, when opening at Paris his annual course 
of lectures on the Hindustani language, enumerated and gave some 
interesting details concerning twenty-seven journals (of all sorts) in 
Hindustani. In 1860 he made mention of seventeen additional ones. 
Of course the circulation and the literary merits of all of them were 
relatively small. One, however, he said, had reached a sale of 
4000 copies. 1 

In 1857 Lord Canning's law, like that of 1823, on which it was 
closely modelled, absolutely prohibited the keeping or using of 
printing-presses, types or other materials for printing, in any part 
of the territories in the possession and under the government of 
the East Indian Company, except with the previous sanction and 
licence of government, and also gave full powers for the seizure and 
prohibition from circulation of all books and papers, whether 
printed within the Indian territories or elsewhere. 

In 1878 an act was passed, which long remained in force, regulating 
the vernacular press of India: " Printers or publishers of journals in 
Oriental languages must, upon demand by the due officer, give bond 
not to print or publish in such newspapers anything likely to excite 

1 The Hurkaru and the Indian Gazette were long afterwards com- 
bined under the new leading title, Indian Daily News (with the old 
name appended). 



feelings of disaffection to the government or antipathy between 
persons of different castes or religions, or for purposes of extortion. 
Notification of warning is to be made in the official gazette if these 
regulations be infringed (whether there be bond or not) ; on repeti- 
tion, a warrant is to issue for seizure of plant, &c. ; if a deposit have 
been made, forfeiture is to ensue. Provision is made not to exact 
a deposit if there be an agreement to submit to a government officer 
proofs before publication." After the disturbances of 1908-1909 
further and more stringent regulations were made. 

The Indian Daily Mirror (1863) was the first Indian daily in English 
edited by natives. The total number of journals of all kinds pub- 
lished within all the territories of British India was reported by the 
American consular staff in 1882 as 373, with an estimated average 
aggregate circulation per issue of 288,300 copies. Of these, 43, with 
an aggregate circulation of 56,650 copies, were published in Cal- 
cutta; 60, with an aggregate circulation of 51,776 copies, at Bombay. 
In 1900 it appeared from the official tables that there were about 
600 newspapers, so called, published in the Indian empire, of which 
about one-third, mostly dailies, were in the Indian vernaculars. 
Calcutta had 15 dailies (Calcutta Englishman, &c.); Bombay 2 
(Bombay Gazette) ; Madras 4 (Madras Mail) ; Rangoon 3 (Rangoon 
Times) ; Allahabad 2 (Pioneer) ; Lahore 2 (Civil and Military 
Gazette). 

AUTHORITIES. For late developments, see Mitchell's, Sell's and 
Willing's Press Directories. For historical information: J. B. W. 
Williams, Hist, of British Journalism to the Foundation of the Gazette 
(1908); H. R. Fox-Bourne, English Newspapers (1877); "The 
Newspaper Press," Quarterly Review, cl. 498-537 (October, 1880) ; 
Hatton, Journalistic London (1882); Pebody's English Journalism 
(1882); Progress of British Newspapers in the ipth Century (1901; 
published by Simpkin, Marshall & Co.) ; Andrews, History of British 
Journalism (2 vols., 1860); Hunt, The Fourth Estate; Grant, The 
Newspaper Press (3 vols., 1871-1873); Plummer, "The British 
Newspaper Press," Companion to the Almanac (1876); Nichols, 
Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, iv. 33-97. (H. CH.) 

3. NEWSPAPERS or THE UNITED STATES 2 
Massachusetts. Boston was the first city of America that 
possessed a local newspaper; but the earliest attempt in that 
direction, made in 1689, and a second attempt, under the title 
Publick Occurrences, which followed in September 1690, were 
both suppressed by the government of Massachusetts. Nearly 
fourteen years afterwards (April 24, 1704), the first number of 
the Boston News-Letter was " printed by B. Green, and sold by 
Nicholas Boone." Its proprietor and editor so far as it can be 
said to have had an editor, for extracts from the London papers 
were its staple contents was John Campbell, postmaster of the 
town. In 1719 he enlarged his paper, in order, as he told his 
readers, " to make the news newer and more acceptable; . . . 
whereby that which seem'd old in the former half-sheets becomes 
new now by the sheet. . . . This time twelvemonth we were 
thirteen months behind with the foreign news beyond Great 
Britain, 3 and now less than five months; so that ... we have 
retrieved about eight months since January last"; and he 
encourages his subscribers with the assurance that if they will 
continue steady " until January next, life permitted, they will 
be accommodated with all the news of Europe . . . that are 
needful to be known in these parts." But Campbell's new plans 
were soon disturbed by the loss of his office, and the commence- 
ment of a new journal by his successor in the postmastership, 
William Brooker, entitled the Boston Gazette " published by 
authority" (No. i, 2ist December 1719). The old journalist 
had a bitter controversy with his rival, but at the end of the year 
1722 relinquished his concern in the paper to Benjamin Green, 
who carried it on, with highei aims and greater success, until his 
death, at the close of 1733, being then succeeded by his son-in- 
law, John Draper, who published it until December 1762. By 
Richard Draper, who followed his father, the title was altered 
to Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter; and the 
maintenance of the British rule against the rising spirit of 
independence uniformly characterized his editorship and that 
of his widow (to whom, at a subsequent period, a pension was 
1 For the general conditions producing the modern type of 
American newspaper, see the first section of this article. In the 
following account of American and foreign newspapers, the historical 
material in the gth and loth editions of the Ency. Brit, has been 
utilized and in parts repeated. 

3 In other words, the attention of the Bostonian politicians was 
engrossed on the siege of Belgrade, when their contemporaries in the 
mother country were intent on the destruction of the Spanish fleet 
on the coast of Sicily. 



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567 



granted by the British government). It was the only paper 
printed in Boston during the siege, and ceased to appear when the 
British troops were compelled to evacuate the city. 

The Boston Gazette, founded in 1719, had James Franklin, 
elder brother of the celebrated Benjamin Franklin, as its first 
printer. It lasted until the end of 1754, its editorship usually 
changing with the change of the postmasters. On the i7th 
August 1721 James Franklin started the New England Courant, 
the publication of which ceased in 1727; and two years later 
Benjamin Franklin purchased the Pennsylvania Gazette, which 
he continued weekly until 1765. 

To the Boston Gazette and the Courant succeeded the New 
England Weekly Journal (2oth March 1727; incorporated with 
the Boston Gazette in 1741), and the Weekly Rehearsal (27th 
September 1731), which became the Boston Evening Post (August 
1735), and under that title was for a time the most popular of the 
Boston newspapers. It aimed at neutrality in politics, and there- 
fore did not survive the exciting events of the spring of 1775. 
Several minor papers followed, which may be passed over without 
notice. A new Boston Gazette, which began in April 1755 (merged 
in 1836 in the Centinel), is of more interest. For a long time it 
was the main organ of the popular party against England, and 
expounded their policy with great ability, and in a dignified 
temper. Otis, John Adams, Samuel Adams and Joseph Warren 
were amongst its writers. It was strongly Republican after the 
adoption of the constitution, especially opposing its old con- 
tributor John Adams. 

The Massachusetts Spy (1770), under the indefatigable editor- 
ship of the American historian of printing, Isaiah Thomas, 
did yeoman's service in this struggle, although of a different 
kind from that of the Boston Gazette. The latter spoke chiefly 
to the thinkers and natural leaders of the. people. The Spy was 
a light and active skirmisher who engaged his antagonists 
wherever he met them, and frequently carried the war into the 
enemy's country. In July 1774, during the operation of the 
Boston Port Act, and soon after the landing of four British 
regiments, it adopted Franklin's odd device, representing Great 
Britain as a dragon, and the colonies as a snake divided into 
nine parts with the motto, " join or die." But Boston grew too 
hot for the patriotic printer, and he had to remove to Worcester 
on the day of the battle of Lexington. Here the paper continued 
to be published (as the Worcester Spy) until 1786, the lack of the 
stirring revolutionary matter being occasionally supplied by the 
repubh'cation in its columns of entire books, such as Robertson's 
America and Gordon's History of the Revolution. This journal, 
like so many more, was for a time killed by a tax. The stamp 
duty imposed in March 1786, though amounting to but two- 
thirds of a penny, and very speedily repealed, led to its suspension 
until April 1788, when the weekly Massachusetts Spy was revived, 
lasting till 1848. A morning edition, the Worcester Spy, was 
started in 1845 and continued to be published till May 1904. 

The Boston Centinel was another memorable newspaper. It 
was founded in 1784 as the Massachusetts Centinel and the 
Republican Journal, a semi- weekly; in 1790 becoming the 
Columbian Centinel. For many years it was edited by Major 
B. Russell (1761-1845), a man who combined real ability with 
moderation of temper and singular modesty and disinterested- 
ness. He printed the Acts of Congress for a very long time 
without charge, but the government eventually gave him 1400 
in recognition of his work. The Centinel had good foreign news, 
and Russell was intimate with Louis Philippe and Talleyrand 
when they were in Boston. In 1830 it absorbed the Palladium 
(founded in 1793 as the Massachusetts Mercury, and renamed 
in 1801 the Massachusetts Mercury and New England Palladium), 
and in 1836 the Boston Gazette, but in 1840 was merged in the 
Boston Advertiser. The Boston Daily Advertiser was founded in 
1813, and in 1832 absorbed the Patriot, which in 1819 was started 
out of a nucleus chiefly composed of the New England Chronicle 

(1776). 

William Lloyd Garrison's once well-known Liberator was 
founded at Boston on New Year's Day 1831. For a time its 
editor was also writer, compositor and pressman. In December 



of that year the legislature of Georgia offered a reward of 5000 
dollars to any one who would cause him to be apprehended and 
brought to trial. He continued the paper till 1865 and lived to 
witness the abolition of negro slavery. In 1827 Garrison also 
edited in Boston the National Philanthropist, the first American 
total abstinence paper. 

Among modern Boston papers the most important are the 
Evening Transcript (1830), Herald (1836), Daily Advertiser (1813), 
Globe (1872), Boston American (1904) and Post (1831). 

Of Massachusetts papers outside Boston the most important 
still in existence in 1910 was the morning Springfield Republican 
(weekly, 1824; daily, 1844), established by Samuel Bowles, 
father of Samuel Bowles (1826-1878), its most famous editor. 

The Evening Salem Gazette, originally a weekly (1768), was a 
famous paper during the War of Independence and in the period 
immediately after. The Hampshire Gazette of Northampton, 
Massachusetts, founded in September 1786 in the interests of the 
Administration at the time of Shays's Rebellion, started its daily 
edition in 1890. The weekly Gazette and Courier (1841), was a 
consolidation of the Greenfield Gazette (1792) and the Courier (1838). 
The Salem Register and Mercury continues the Salem Register (1800) 
and the Mercury, which was published in Salem as early as 1768, 
but not continuously. The Haverhill Evening Gazette dates from 
1798. In Pittsfield is published the Berkshire County Eagle, a weekly 
established in 1789, with an evening edition, the Berkshire Evening 
Eagle (1892). The Newburyport Herald (evening 1880; morning 
1892) continues the title of an earlier paper (1797) owned by Ephraim 
W. Allen and William S. Allen. 

At the commencement of the struggle for independence in 1775 
Massachusetts possessed 7 newspapers, New Hampshire I (the New 
Hampshire Gazette), Rhode Island 2, and Connecticut 3, making 13 
in all for the New England colonies. Pennsylvania had 8, of which 
the earliest in date was the American Weekly Mercury (No. I, 22nd 
December 1719) ; and New York but 3, the oldest of them being the 
New York Gazette (1725). Up to that period (1725) Boston and 
Philadelphia were the only towns possessing a newspaper throughout 
America. In the middle and southern colonies there were, in 1775, 
in the aggregate, 10 journals, of which Maryland, Virginia and North 
Carolina possessed each 2, South Carolina 3 and Georgia I. The 
tctal number of the Anglo-American papers was 34, and all of them 
were of weekly publication. 

New Hampshire. The New Hampshire Gazette (1756; daily 
edition since 1852), published at Portsmouth, was the " father " 
of the New England press. The Cheshire Republican (1793) and 
New Hampshire Sentinel (1799; evening edition since 1890) are 
still published at Keene. 

Vermont. The earliest paper established in Vermont was 
the Green Mountain Postboy, first published in April 1781. The 
oldest important paper in Vermont is the Rutland Herald 
(established in 1794 as a weekly; daily edition since 1861). 
The Vermont Journal of Windsor, Vermont, was established in 

1783- 

Maine. The first papers of any importance published in 
Maine were the Portland Advertiser (evening, 1785), of which 
James G. Blaine was editor in 1857-1860; and the Eastern 
Argus of Portland (September 1803). The latter was established 
by Nathaniel Willis (1780-1870), the father of N. P. Willis. 
Willis was converted in Portland by Edward Payson and about 
1808 he left the paper. In 1816-1826 he established in Boston 
the Recorder, which is supposed to have been the first American 
religious paper. In 1827 Willis established the Youth's Com- 
panion, the most popular American juvenile paper. The Eastern 
Argus was edited in 1820-1824 by Seba Smith (1818-1868), 
who established in 1829 the Portland Courier, which he edited 
until 1837 and to which he contributed the sketches republished 
in 1833 as Life and Letters of Major Jack Downing. 

Connecticut. The Connecticut Courant of Hartford was 
established in October 1764 as a weekly; in 1893 there appeared 
a semi-weekly issue, and its daily issue, the Hartford Courant, 
first appeared in 1837. The paper was a strong supporter of the 
administrations of Washington and Adams. Probably the best 
known of its editors is Joseph R. Hawley. Charles Dudley 
Warner was long a member of the staff. The Hartford, Times 
(semi- weekly 1817; daily, 1841) has always been a prominent 
paper. Its principal early editors were Gideon Wells in 1826- 
1836 (in 1861-1869 ne was United States secretary of the navy), 
and John Milton Niles (1787-1856), who was United States 



5 68 



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[AMERICAN 



senator in 1835-1839 and 1843-1849 and was postmaster-general 
of the United States in 1840-1841. 

Next to the Courant, the oldest paper still published in Con- 
necticut is the New Haven Journal, established as a weekly in 
1766 (the weekly edition is now styled the Connecticut Herald), 
which first appeared as a daily in 1834 as the Morning Journal 
and Courier. The New London Gazette (1763), which in 1773 
became the Connecticut Gazette, ceased publication in 1844. 
Another Gazette was established in New London for a time, 
but is no longer published and was in no way connected with the 
earlier paper. The D anbury News (weekly, 1870, when The 
Times and Jefersonian were consolidated; daily, 1883) is known 
for the humorous sketches contributed by its proprietor James 
Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894). The Republican Farmer 
(weekly) was established in 1 790 in Danbury and in 1810 removed 
to Bridgeport; the Evening Farmer was first published iu 1855. 
The Norwich Courier (weekly, 1796) has a daily edition, the 
Bulletin (1858). 

Rhode Island. The oldest paper now published in Rhode 
Island is the Newport Mercury (weekly; 1758), which, like most 
of the other New England patriot sheets, was suppressed in 1765; 
it was established by James Franklin, a nephew of Benjamin 
Franklin. 

Pennsylvania. The Aurora (1790) was the most notable of 
the early Philadelphia papers, next to Franklin's Gazette. It 
was founded by Franklin's grandson, Benjamin Franklin Bache, 
who in 1784 had started the American Daily Advertiser, the first 
American daily. Bache and his successor William Duane (who 
edited the paper till 1822) bitterly attacked Washington, Adams 
and Hamilton; and the Aurora after 1793 was practically the 
organ of Jefferson, but ceased to be of importance after the 
national capital was removed from Philadelphia. From 1791 
to 1793 the principal Anti-Federalist paper was the National 
Gazette, edited by Philip Freneau, whom Jefferson brought to 
Philadelphia. As opposed to these there was the United States 
Gazette, founded in New York in 1789, but removed to Phila- 
delphia in 1790, which represented Alexander Hamilton. This 
journal afterwards (1826-1847) was an important Whig organ, 
under the editorship of Joseph Ripley Chandler (1792-1880). 
In 1847 it was consolidated with the North American (1830), 
which still survives in Philadelphia, having in its progress also 
absorbed the Pennsylvania Gazette (1729-1845), for a time owned 
by Benjamin Franklin, the Pennsylvania Packet (founded 1771) 
and other papers. 

Other important Philadelphia papers still in existence are, 
the Public Ledger (1836), founded as a one-cent paper, purchased 
in 1864 by George W. Childs, who increased the price from 
d\ to 10 cents a week; the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, which 
consolidated the American Sentinel (1815) and the Evening 
Bulletin (1847); and the Press (1857), edited from 1880 to 1908 
by Charles Emory Smith (1842-1908), United States Minister 
to Russia in 1890-1892, and postmaster-general of the United 
States in 1898-1902. 

Benjamin Lundy edited in Philadelphia in 1836-1838 the 
National Enquirer (anti-slavery), which became the Pennsylvania 
Freeman and in 1838-1840 was edited by John G. Whittier. 

Outside of Philadelphia the oldest papers of importance in Penn- 
sylvania are the Pittsburgh Gazette, first published in 1786 and 
probably the first newspaper published west of the Alleghanies, 
which in 1906 was consolidated with the Times (1879) to form the 
Gazette Times; and the Pittsburgh Post (1792; daily, 1842), one of 
the few influential Democratic papers published in Pennsylvania ; the 
Pittsburgh Dispatch (1846) is a morning paper. Other papers 
founded before 1801 (and still published) in Pennsylvania are: the 
Franklin Repository of Chambersburg (weekly, 1790; daily, 1883), 
of which A. K. McClure was proprietor and editor in 1850-1856; the 
Reading Adler (weekly, 1796), the oldest existing German newspaper 
in the country; the Intelligencer of Lancaster (1799), with which 
the Journal (1794) was combined in 1839; the Westmoreland 
Democrat of Greensburg (weekly, 1799); the Herald of Norristown 
(weekly, 1799; daily, 1848). 

Maryland. The earliest journal of Maryland was William 
Parks's Maryland Gazelle, of Annapolis, begun in 1727, when in all 
America it had but six existing predecessors. Discontinued in 
1736, it was revived in 1739 by Jonas Green and lasted till 1839. 



The oldest paper now published in Baltimore is the American, 
the successor of the Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser 
founded in August 1773; on the 2ist September 1814 it pub- 
lished " The Star Spangled Banner." The Baltimore Sun was 
started in 1837. 

New Jersey. New Jersey had no really established newspaper 
before the Revolution, although the first number of an intended 
journal was published in 1765, under the title of the Constitu- 
tional Gazette, containing matters interesting to Liberty, but no wise 
repugnant to Royalty. The earliest regular paper was the New 
Jersey Gazette, which began in December 1777 at Burlington 
(soon removing to Trenton), and ceased publication in 1786. 
A Stale Gazette (weekly), now published in Trenton, dates from 
1792 (daily, 1846); Trenton's largest paper is the Times (evening; 
1882). The Sentinel of Freedom, a Newark weekly, was first 
published in 1796; its daily edition, the Star, dates from 
1832. Newark's largest paper is the Evening News (1883). 
The New Brunswick Times was first published as a weekly in 
1792; a daily edition was added in 1849. 

Virginia. Virginia, notwithstanding its illustrious pre- 
cedency the province of Raleigh, the cradle of Washington 
possessed neither newspaper nor printing office until 1736, so 
that (as respects one-half at least of the wish) there was once a 
prospect that the devout aspiration of Sir William Berkeley 
might be realized. " Thank God," said this Virginian governor 
in 1671, " we have neither free school nor printing press, and I 
hope may not have for a hundred years to come." The earliest 
journal established in the state was the Virginia Gazette, 
commenced in 1736. It was still published at Williamsburg in 
1766, when a second paper of the same name was established 
there. This second paper, backed by Thomas Jefferson, was 
afterwards called the American Advertiser and then the Com- 
mercial Advertiser, and stopped in 1822. The Richmond En- 
quirer, which started in 1808, succeeding the Examiner, early 
attained a leading position as a Democratic organ; it was 
discontinued in 1880. The Alexandria Gazette (1816) is still 
published. 

Washington, D.C. The first " administration organ " (i.e. 
expressing the political views of the administration, but not 
officially a government paper), was the National Intelligencer 
(1800); this position it held until 1829, when it became an 
opposition paper. In Jackson's administration the United 
States Telegraph, which had been purchased in 1826 by Duff 
Green, became the "administration organ"; but in 1830 
it was supplanted by the Globe. The United States Telegraph, 
which had supported Calhoun, remained his organ until 
1835, strongly favouring slavery and opposing the abolition 
press. The Globe after December 1830 was conducted by 
Francis Preston Blair the elder and John C. Rives (1795-1864); 
it opposed Nullification, Secession, and the Southern wing of the 
Democratic party. In 1841 the National Intelligencer became 
the administration organ; it was succeeded in the same year 
by a new paper, the Daily Madisonian, President Tyler's organ, 
and in 1845 the Union became the organ of President Polk. 
To the Union in 1845 the Globe sold out, but only as a 
party organ. In 1846 to 1871 the Globe was the publisher of 
the Congressional debates. President Taylor's organ during his 
administration was the newly established Republican. During 
President Fillmore's presidency the National Intelligencer, 
which was a Webster- Whig organ, returned to power, and during 
Pierce's administration the Union was again the administration 
organ, with the Evening Star (1852) a close second. In 
Buchanan's administration the influence of the Union continued. 
During the Civil War most of these papers died off, except the 
Star and the National Intelligencer, which in 1870 removed to 
New York, where it stayed as a semi-weekly for some time. 
The Washington Post, now the leading paper, was founded in 
1877. The National Era, the organ of the American and Foreign 
Anti-Slavery Society, first published in Washington in 1844 
(the Cincinnati Philanthropist was merged with it in 1847) by 
Gamaliel Bailey, is known principally because Uncle Tom's 
Cabin ran in its columns as a serial in 1851-1852. A New 



AMERICAN] 



NEWSPAPERS 



569 



National Era (1870), was conducted in Washington by Frederick 
Douglass and his sons. 

New York. The New York Gazette (which started in New York 
City on the i6th of October 1725) was followed by the Weekly 
Journal (No. i, 5th November 1733), still memorable for the 
prosecution for sedition which it entailed on its printer, John 
Peter Zenger, and for the masterly defence of the accused by 
Andrew Hamilton. " The trial of Zenger," said Gouverneur 
Morris, " was the germ of American freedom." Gaines's New 
York Mercury was published from 1752 to 1783. James Riving- 
ton (1724-1802) in 1773 published the New York Gazetteer as a 
loyalist sheet, but his press was destroyed in 1775 and he went 
to England; in 1777 he returned and published Rivington's 
New York Loyal Gazette (semi-weekly), renamed first the Royal 
Gazette and then Rivington's New York Gazette and Universal 
Advertiser, which came to an end in 1783. The semi-weekly 
Independent Journal was one of the papers of New York City in 
which, between October 27th, 1787, and April 2nd, 1788, the 
Federalist essays were published; in 1788 it became part of the 
New York Gazette, and then in 1840 was consolidated with the 
Journal of Commerce. The first daily newspaper published in 
the city or state of New York was the New York Journal and 
Register, commenced in 1788. In 1802 the Morning Chronicle, 
edited by Peter Irving (1771-1838), a brother of Washington 
Irving, was established as Aaron Burr's organ; in 1805 it was 
merged in the Poughkeepsie Journal. Another political paper 
was the Minerva (1793), under Noah Webster, which had a semi- 
weekly edition, the Herald. These in 1797 became the Com- 
mercial Advertiser and New York Spectator respectively. The 
former (surviving as the Globe and Commerical Advertiser) was 
edited in 1820-1844 by W. L. Stone and in 1867 by Thurlow 
Weed. 

In 1810 the aggregate number of papers published within the 
state was 66, of which 14 belonged to New York City. Ten years 
later the city press included 8 daily journals, with an aggregate 
daily circulation of 10,800 copies. No one paper circulated more 
than 2000, and but two the Evening Post (1801) and the Com- 
mercial Advertiser (1797) attained that number. 

The New York Evening Post was at first strongly Federalist 
and practically an organ of Alexander Hamilton, who with John 
Jay assisted in founding it. Its first editor was William Coleman 
(1766-1829). In the years immediately following 1819 John 
Rodman Drake contributed to the Post the " Croaker " pieces, 
in which FitzGreene Halleck joined. William Cullen Bryant 
began to write for the Post in 1826, and became its editor-in-chief 
in 1828. John Bigelow, Parke Godwin, Carl Schurz, Horace 
White, E. L. Godkin, editor from 1881 to 1901, and Henry 
Villard, are the important names in its history. Rollo Ogden 
became editor in 1903. Closely connected with the Post is 
the weekly Nation, long edited by E. L. Godkin (q.v.). The 
Post was strongly Federalist until the War of 1812; it opposed 
the Hartford Convention; until 1860 it was consistently 
Democratic; it supported Lincoln in 1860 and in 1864 and 
Grant in 1868; in later years it was an advocate of free trade 
and of civil service reform. There were earlier Evening Posts 
in 1746-1747 and in 1794. 

The cheap (two-cent) press of America (the previous price 
having usually been six cents) began in New York in the shape 
of the Morning Post (ist January 1833), which only lasted a few 
weeks; the real pioneer was the Daily Sun (No. i, 23rd 
September 1833), written, edited, set up, and worked off by 
Benjamin Henry Day, a journeyman printer. It sold at one 
cent till the Civil War, when it charged two cents, the price 
remaining at that figure. The New York Sun was acquired in 
1868 by Charles Anderson Dana (q.v.), who made it a powerful 
organ, and under his successor William M. Lallan (1848-1909) 
it remained one of the great dailies. 

The New York Herald followed in May 1835, founded and 
edited by James Gordon Bennett (q.v.), and his efforts and those 
of his son gave it an enormous commercial success. 

The New York Tribune was established in 1841 by Horace 
Greeley (q.v.), who remained its editor and one of its proprietors 



until his death, shortly after his defeat for the presidency in 
1872. He was succeeded as editor and proprietor by Whitelaw 
Reid (b. 1837), who had joined the staff in 1868 and afterwards 
became U.S. Ambassador in London. Directed by two such 
men the Tribune became a powerful organ. 

The New York Times, which was to rank with the Tribune 
and Sun among the best modern American daily papers, was 
established by Henry J. Raymond (q.v.) in September 1851; and, 
though absent at times in .the discharge of his duties as lieut.- 
governor of New York and member of Congress, he continued 
its editor and chief proprietor until his death in June 1869. 
At the end of the century, under the control of Mr Adolph S. 
Ochs (b. 1858), it was prominent in American journalism for the 
excellence of its news service and literary character. 

The New York World was founded in 1860 as a highly moral 
and religious sheet, which immediately failed and had to be 
reorganized. In 1861 the Morning Courier and the Enquirer 
were merged into it. In 1864 it and the Journal of Commerce 
were suppressed for several days by the Federal authorities 
because each had been tricked into publishing a forged presidential 
proclamation of a draft and of a general fast day. In 1869 it 
became the sole property of Manton Marble (b. 1834), who 
retired from its editorship in 1875; in 1876 it was sold to a 
syndicate and came under the control of Jay Gould; in 1883 it 
was purchased by Joseph Pulitzer (b. 1847), and its modern 
activity began. It worked hard for Grover Cleveland, especially 
in his first campaign, and opposed W. J. Bryan and his policies. 

The journals owned by W. R. Hearst (b. 1863) all over America 
represent perhaps more conspicuously than any others the 
popular developments which at the end of the igth century 
were associated with the nickname of the " Yellow Press." 
His papers in New York in 1910 were the American (originally 
Journal; morning except Sunday); the Evening Journal, the 
American and Journal (Sunday) and Das M or gen Journal. 
Starting in the 'nineties as proprietor of the San Francisco 
Examiner, Mr Hearst had a large fortune to enable him to carry 
out his ideas of a thoroughgoing democratic journalism, appealing 
particularly to the less literate masses and supplying all sorts 
of sensational news. The class prejudice often underlying the 
policy of his papers was bitterly criticized and resented by sober 
American opinion, but their passionate appeal to the masses, 
combined with their audacious and lively presentation of news, 
gave Mr Hearst nevertheless a position of considerable power; 
and no secret was made of his ambition to reach the highest 
political'.positions, both in New York itself and in the Republic. 
Dangerous as his social influence was considered by important 
sections of the community, and unsuccessful as he remained up 
to 1910 in obtaining municipal office or presidential nomination, 
it remained the fact that, in the type of journalism so indefatigably 
conducted under him, he represented a serious force in American 
social and political life, and his journalistic methods were a 
remarkable outcome of the conditions of a modern free press 
in a democratic country, where a large public exists for the 
consumption of the sort of newspaper fare which he was ready 
to provide. 

The New York Press (1887) is a morning Republican paper of 
the strictest party type. 

An important commercial paper of long standing in New York 
is the Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, founded 
in 1827 as the Journal of Commerce by Arthur Tappan (1786- 
1865) and his brother Lewis Tappan (1788-1873), and in 1893 
consolidated with the Commercial Bulletin (1865). The Journal 
of Commerce in 1829-1830 was the first American paper to send 
out news schooners which intercepted packet ships which brought 
news especially of the French Revolution of 1830. Arthur 
Tappan, who was one of the founders of Oberlin College, estab- 
lished in 1833 the Emancipator, an abolitionist paper, of which 
in 1833-1837 Elizur Wright (1804-1885), and in 1837-1840 
Joshua Leavitt (1794-1873), were editors. Leavitt took the 
paper to Boston. It was the weekly organ of the American 
Anti-Slavery Society. 

The New York Evening Mail (1833), for a time the Mail 



57 



NEWSPAPERS 



[AMERICAN 



and Express, was bought in 1888 and reorganized by Elliott 
Fitch Shepard (1833-1893). The Express was established in 
1836 with the help of Willis Hall (1801-1868), a prominent 
Whig lawyer and politician, by James Brooks (1810-1873), 
who had formerly been on the Portland Advertiser and in 1832 
had written (for the Advertiser) the first regular Washington 
correspondence. His brother Erastus (1815-1886) was joint 
owner of the Express in 1836-1877. James Brooks wrote several 
books cf travel and was involved in the scandal of the Credit 
Mobilier. 

Of the New York newspapers not in English the most important 
are the following. The Staats-Zeitung (evening, 1834) is published 
by a company of which in 1909 Herman Ridder (b. 1851) was 
president, having since 1890 been treasurer and manager. Ridder, 
a prominent German Democrat and Roman Catholic, established in 
1886 the Catholic News, a weekly with a large circulation, edited by 
his son Henry Ridder. The Zeitung (morning, 1845), Herald (even- 
ing, 1879), and Revue (Sundays) are other German papers published 
by one company. Mr Hearst's Das Morgen Journal dates from 
1890. A Socialist Labour paper daily Volks Zeitung and weekly 
Vorwaerts was established in 1878. The Jewish Daily News and 
(weekly) Jewish Gazette (1874) in Yiddish and English have large 
circulations; so have the Jewish Morning Journal (1901; Abend 
Post, 1899, and weekly, Jewish Journal, 1899); the Jewish Herald 
(evening) and Volksadvocat (weekly), both editions, 1887; and 
Forward (evening, 1897). The Courrier des Etats-Unis (1828) 
publishes small daily, Sunday and weekly editions. There are four 
Italian dailies, the more important being L'Araldo Italiano (1894) 
and // Progresso Italo-Americn.no (1879). The Atlantis (evening, 
1894) is a Greek daily. The Listy (1875) and Hlas Lidu (1886) are 
Bohemian dailies; the Narodni List (1898) is a Croatian daily; the 
Gaelic American (1903), Irish Nationalist (1888), Irish-American 
(1849) and Irish World are Irish weeklies printed in English; the 
Amerikai Magyar Nepsava (1897) is a Hungarian daily, also pub- 
lished in Cleveland, Ohio; the Glas Naroda (1893) is a small Slavonic 
daily. 

Among the New York weekly publications must be mentioned 
Harper's Weekly, founded in 1856; George William Curtis was 
first connected with it in 1857, and after 1864 was its political 
editor. Under Curtis it was a powerful advocate of civil service 
reform, and its campaigns against Tammany were made famous by 
the cartoons of Thomas Nast. During the Civil War Harper's 
Weekly published Nast's sketches in the field. Frank Leslie's 
Illustrated Newspaper (now Leslie's Weekly) was founded in 1855 
by Frank Leslie (18211880), whose ability as a wood-engraver was 
the basis of its success. Nast was employed by Leslie in 1854 and 
subsequent years, and was sent to England to sketch the Heenan- 
Sayers fight. With Harper's and Leslie's Weeklies ranks Collier's 
Weekly, established in r888 by Peter Fenclon Collier (d. 1909). 

The following are newspapers of Brooklyn. The Eagle (evening, 
1841), of which Walt Whitman was editor in 1846-1847, came in 
1885 under the editorship of St Clair McKelway (b. 1845), editor in 
1878-1885 of the Albany Argus. The Times (evening, 1848), like the 
Eagle, makes a specialty of the news of Long Island. Brooklyner 
Freie Presse (evening, 1864). The Standard Union (evening, 1864). 
The Citizen (evening, 1886). 

Outside of New York City the most important papers in the 
political history of the state have been those of Albany. The 
Albany Argus, established in 1813 (daily, 1824), was the organ of 
the famous Albany Regency. The Evening Journal of Albany was 
established in 1830 by Thurlow Weed, who controlled it for 35 
years. After 1865 it became the property of Samuel Wilkeson (1817- 
1889), and in 1889 William Barnes, Jr., became its editor. The Argus 
and the Journal held alternately the valuable state printing. A 
factional fight in the Democratic party over the printing resulted 
in the establishment of the Atlas in 1843; in 1858 this was con- 
solidated with the Argus. 

In Buffalo the oldest paper is the Commercial, the successor of 
the Buffalo Gazette (1811, weekly), which in 1818 became the Niagara 
Patriot and in 1820 the Buffalo Patriot, and in 1834 the Buffalo 
Patriot and Commercial Advertiser. The daily issue began in 1835 as 
the Commercial Advertiser; the weekly was still called by the earlier 
name. The weekly ceased publication in 1909. In 1890 the daily 
became the Commercial. The first daily in Buffalo was the Courier 
(1828), controlled in 1909 by W. J. Conners. The Evening Times 
(1885) was in 1909 edited by Norman Mack, who was in 1908 
treasurer of the Democratic National Committee. 

In Rochester are the Democrat and Chronicle (morning and 
weekly; Democrat, 1826; Chronicle, 1868); Post-Express (evening, 
1858); Herald (morning, 1879); and Union and Advertiser (evening, 
182,6). It was in Rochester that Myron Holly (1779-1841), who had 
formerly edited the Lyons (N.Y.) Countryman (anti-masonic), edited 
the Freeman, an anti-slavery paper; and here in 1847-1860 
Frederick Douglass edited the North Star, called Frederick Douglass's 
Paper after 1855. 

In Syracuse are the Evening Herald (1877) and the Post-Standard 
(morning, Standard, 1829. and Post, 1894, consolidated in 1899). 



In Troy are the Record (morning and evening, successor to the 
Post, 1812), the Times (daily, 1851; weekly, 1856), the Evening 
Standard {1877), and the Northern Budget (weekly only, 1797). 

The Utica Herald-Despatch and Daily Gazette is the successor of 
the Whitestown Gazette (1793); the Daily Gazette first appeared in 
1842; the Morning Herald (1847) was consolidated with it in 1867: 
and in 1900 it was purchased by the owners of the Evening Despatch 
(1898). 

In Catskill, Greene county, New York, was established in August 
1792 by Mackay Croswell the Packet, which in May 1804 was suc- 
ceeded by the Recorder, which in 1909 was still published as a weekly, 
the largest in the county. Mackay Croswell's son Edwin Croswell 
(1797-1871) left the Recorder in 1823 and in 1824 became editor of 
the Albany Argus; Croswell was state printer in 1824-1840 and 
1844-1847. 

Other papers (mostly with small circulations) in New York state 
founded before 1801 are: the Gazette of Hudson (weekly, 1785; 
daily, Evening Register, 1866); the Register of Newburgh (1796; 
now a daily only) ; the Washington County Post of Cambridge 
(weekly only, 1798); the Journal of Ballston Spa (weekly, 1798; 
Ballston Daily Journal, 1894; Republican) ; and the Gazette of Owego 
(weekly only, 1800). 

Ohio. The Repository (weekly, 1815; daily, 1878), formerly 
the Ohio Repository, of Canton, is one of the oldest papers in 
Ohio. The Western Hemisphere of Columbus was purchased 
in 1836 by Samuel Medary (1801-1864), who changed its name 
to the Ohio Statesman; Medary the " old wheel hors.e of 
Democracy," who is said to have originated the cry of " Fifty- 
four, forty, or fight! " was a friend of Stephen A. Douglas and 
governor of Minnesota in 1857-1858 and of Kansas in 1858- 
1860; S. S. Cox was editor of the Statesman in 1853-1854. 

The Weekly Gazette of Cincinnati (founded in 1793 as the 
Centinel; in 1804-1815 called the Liberty Hall; in 1815-1883 
the Cincinnati Gazette), and the Commercial Tribune (morning; 
formed in 1896 by the consolidation of the Commercial Gazette 
and Tribune), are published by the same firm. In 1825-1840 
Charles Hammond (1770-1841), an anti-slavery leader, was 
editor of the Gazette. The Commercial was made by Murat 
Halstead (1829-1908), a prominent Republican politician, and 
writer of several " campaign lives " of Republican presidential 
candidates, who was the first editor in the Middle West to get 
news freely by telegraph. The Cincinnati Enquirer (morning, 
1842) became a great power in Ohio politics under the ownership 
(after 1852) of Washington McLean and his son John R. McLean. 
The Post (1880), the Times-Star (Times 1836), the Volksblatt 
(1836), .the Volksfrettnd (daily 1850; weekly 1852), and the 
Freie Presse (1874) are the other large dailies of 'Cincinnati. 
In Cincinnati James G. Birney established in 1835 the Philan- 
thropist, an anti-slavery paper, which Gamaliel Bailey edited 
in 1837-1847. 

The Cleveland Leader (Republican, 1847) was bought in 1853 
by Edwin Cowles (1825-1890) and Joseph Medill (after 1855 
of the Chicago Tribune). Cowles became sole owner in 1854; 
he was an anti-slavery Whig and one of the founders of the 
Republican party in the state. The Leader of 1853 was a con- 
solidation of the Cleveland Forest City, a Whig paper founded 
in 1849 by Joseph Medill and united in 1852 with the Free 
Democrat. Like the Chicago Tribune it was in 1909 controlled 
by Medill's grandson, Medill McCormick (b. 1877), a son-in-law 
of M. A. Hanna. The Press of Cleveland (evening, independent) 
was established in 1878 by James Edmund Scripps (1835-1906); 
with Milton A. McRae (b. 1858) he formed the Scripps-McRae 
Press Association of Cleveland and the Scripps-McRae League, 
which included the Cincinnati Post, the St Louis Star-Chronicle, 
the Cleveland Press, the Kentucky Post of Covington, the 
Columbus Citizen, and the Times, the News-Bee and Times- 
Bee of Toledo. Scripps and McRae organized the Publishers' 
Press Association of New York, a rival of the Associated Press. 
Scripps in his later years was a benefactor of the city of Detroit, 
where he had established (1873) the Evening News. The Cleveland 
Plain-Dealer (morning, ,1841) is a well-known paper; in its 
columns appeared the first " Artemus Ward " sketches, contri- 
buted by Charles Farrar Browne (1834-1867), who in 1861 went 
to New York to edit the short-lived humorous Vanity Fair. 
The Waechter und Anzeiger (Waechter 1852; Anzeiger 1872) is 
published in Cleveland. 



AMERICAN] 



NEWSPAPERS 



The larger papers of Columbus are the Ohio Stale Journal 
(morning, 1811), the Press-Post (evening, 1827), the Citizen 
(evening, 1899),- and the Express und Westbote (weekly, 1880; 
Sunday, 1878; daily, 1890 the different editions being under 
different names). The News of Springfield has a weekly edition, 
the Weekly Republic, which was founded in 1817. The Toledo 
Blade (daily, 1848; weekly, 1835) before and during the Civil 
War contained the attacks on slavery and on political abuses 
written by " Petroleum V. Nasby," i.e. David Ross Locke 
(1833-1888). The first of these letters (signed " Rev. Petroleum 
Vesuvious Nasby") appeared in the Jeffersonian of Findlay, 
Ohio, in 1860, when he was its editor. He had edited small 
papers in Plymouth and Mansfield (O.) before his connexion 
with the Blade; in 1871 he became managing editor of the 
Evening Mail of New York City. Will Carleton (b. 1845) was 
a member of the Blade's staff, and contributed to the Blade 
his first " ballads." The News-Bee (evening) of Toledo was 
formed by the consolidation in 1903 of the Times (1846), News 
(1888) and Bee (1894), and has a morning edition called the Times 
and a Sunday edition called the Times-Bee. The Zanesville 
Courier (Republican; daily, 1846) has a weekly edition dating 
from 1809 (originally the Muskingum Messenger). 

Among the smaller newspapers of Ohio the following are more than 
loo years old: the Western Star of Lebanon (weekly, 1806); the 
Ohio Patriot of Lisbon (weekly, 1808; daily and semi- weekly, 1898); 
and the Journal of Dayton (morning, 1808). 

Illinois. The first newspaper in Illinois was the Illinois 
Herald (1814; succeeded in 1815 by the Illinois Intelligencer) 
of Kaskaskia (then the seat of government); it removed to 
Vandalia, which then became the capital, in 1820; it became 
the Vandalia Whig and Illinois Intelligencer in 1832; and it 
ceased publication about 1839, when Springfield became the 
capital. 

The principal papers in Illinois are naturally those of Chicago. 
The Chicago Tribune (morning; 1847) succeeded The Gem of 
the Prairie (1844), and a weekly edition was for a time continued 
under that name. In August 1848 John Locke Scripps (1818- 
1866) bought a third interest in the Tribune and became its 
managing editor. In 1852 he sold it to a syndicate of Whig 
politicians. A part (in 1855) and eventually the whole (in 1874) 
was bought by Joseph Medill (1823-1899). Horace White 
(b. 1834) was a reporter on the Tribune in 1856, and was its 
editor and one of its proprietors in 1864-1874; from 1883 to 
1903 he was editor-in-chief of the New York Evening Post. 
In 1858 the Daily Democratic Press, which J. L. Scripps had 
established in 1852 with William Bross, was consolidated with 
the Tribune as the Press and Tribune; in 1860 the name became 
the Tribune again; the Tribune Company was incorporated 
in 1861, with J. L. Scripps as its president. The first newspaper 
published in Chicago, the Democrat (November 1833), was 
merged with the Daily Tribune in 1861. The Inter-Ocean 
(morning; 1872), under the editorship (from 1897) of George 
Wheeler Hinman (b. 1863), has made a specialty of foreign 
affairs. The News (evening ; 1875) was founded and developed by 
Melville E. Stone (b. 1848) as a one-cent evening paper. After 
1883 Eugene Field contributed to this paper his column " Sharps 
and Flats," including much verse. In 1888 Victor Fremont 
Lawson (b. 1850), who had been associated with Stone, acquired 
the paper. The Record (morning; 1881), started by Lawson, was 
consolidated in 1901 with the Herald (1881) as the Record-Herald. 
The Evening Post dates from 1889. In 1900 W. R. Hearst estab- 
lished in Chicago two papers, Hearst's Evening American and the 
Examiner (the name assumed in 1902 for his morning American). 
The Chicago German papers include the Freie Presse (evening 
and weekly; 1871), the Stoats- Zeitung (daily, 1847, weekly 
Weslen und Daheim 1845; evening edition, the Abend Presse) 
and Abendpost (1899). The Skandinaven (semi- weekly, 1866; 
daily, 1871) is an important Norwegian-Danish paper; and 
there are large Bohemian and Polish dailies. 

In Springfield, the state capital, there are two party journals, 
the Illinois State Journal (Republican; semi-weekly, 1831; daily, 
1848) and the Illinois State Register (Democratic; weekly, 1836; 
daily, 1848). 



Michigan. The Detroit Free Press (morning, 1835; with a weekly 
agricultural edition, Farm and Live Stock Journal, 1831) was 
particularly known in 1869-1801 for the humorous sketches of 
Charles Bertrand Lewis (b. 1842), who wrote under the pseudonym 
" M. Quad." The News (morning, 1873) was established by J. E. 
Scripps (1835-1906). 

Missouri. The oldest paper is the Republic of St Louis, formerly 
the Republican, founded as a weekly in July 1808, by Joseph 
Charless, an Irishman who had worked on the Kentucky Gazette 
in Lexington; it was called first the Missouri Gazette, then (1809) 
the Louisiana Gazette, then (1812) the Missouri Gazette again, and 
then (1822) the Missouri Republican, and in 1886-1888 the 5* Louis 
Republican; the present name was adopted in 1888. Its first 
daily issue was in September 1836 and the first Sunday issue in 
1848. The Republican was originally a Jeffersonian Democratic 
paper; it opposed Thos. H. Benton; it supported Wm. Henry 
Harrison in 1840, and became a Whig organ; and from 1856 was a 
Democratic paper. A cause celebre was the trial in 1830 for the 
impeachment of Judge James H. Peck of the U.S. District Court 
for Missouri, who had suspended from practice for 18 months and 
had imprisoned for 24 hours an attorney, Luke Edward Lawless, 
who had criticized in the Republican Judge Peck's decision in a 
Spanish land grant case, which was adverse to Lawless, attorney 
for the plaintiff. William Wirt appeared for Peck, and he was 
acquitted. Since 1837 the paper has been almost continuously the 
property of the Knapp and Paschall families. In 1871 the Repub- 
lican purchased a Walter press from The Times of London; it 
introduced stereotyping in 1860, probably before any other news- 
paper. The Globe-Democrat (morning; Republican, 1852) of St 
Louis early became a valuable property: in 1872 it was sold for 
$456,100. In St Louis in 1833-1836 Elijah P. Lovejoy published 
the Observer, primarily a religious paper, which because of local 
opposition to its attacks on slavery he removed in July 1836 to 
Alton, 111., where he was killed by a mob. 

The Post-Dispatch (evening, 1851) is a consolidation made in 
1878 by its proprietor Joseph Pulitzer. Pulitzer's first newspaper 
experience was in 1868 as a reporter on the Westliche Post (morning, 
1857) of St Louis, which has an evening edition, the Anzeiger, a 
Sunday edition, Mississippi Blaetter, ana a semi-weekly and weekly 
edition, Anzeiger des Westens. Carl Schurz was editor of the West- 
liche Post in 1867. Another German newspaper in St Louis is 
Amerika (morning; 1872). 

The two principal dailies of Kansas City are the Star (evening, 
1880-1881; with a morning edition, the Times, 1838, and a Weekly 
Star, 1890), founded by William R. Nelson (b. 1841) ; and the Journal 
(morning, 1854; with a weekly edition). The News-Press (News, 
1878; Press, 1902; evening) is the principal paper of St Joseph. 

North Carolina. The Observer (weekly, 1817; daily, 1896) of 
Fayetteville. The News and Observer (daily; News, 1872; Observer, 
1876) and North Carolinian (weekly, 1892) of Raleigh. 

South Carolina. The News and Courier of Charleston (Courier, 
established 1803 by Loring Andrews, d. 1805, of Hingham, Mass.; 
News, 1865; consolidated, 1873). The City Gazette of Charleston 
(founded in 1783 as the South Carolina Weekly Gazette) was edited 
by W. G. Simms in 1828-1833, but then failed, after bravely attempt- 
ing to oppose Nullification, and was finally purchased by the Courier. 
The State of Columbia (1891) is one of the most influential papers in 
the South. 

Alabama. The News (evening, 1887) and Age-Herald (morning, 
1887) of Birmingham. The Mercury of Huntsville(weekly, 1816 ; daily, 
1885). The Register of Mobile (weekly, 1821). The Advertiser of 
Montgomery (1828). The Morning Times of Selma (weekly edition, 
1825). 

Georgia. The Constitution of Atlanta (daily, 1868; weekly, 1870) : 
Henry W. Grady (1851-1889), the orator, was its editor and pro- 
prietor-in-part from 1880 until his death ; Joel Chandler Harris was 
an editor (1890-1901) and contributed the Uncle Remus sketches; 
Frank Lebby Stanton (b. 1857) is well known as a contributor of 
humorous paragraphs and excellent verse. The Journal of Atlanta 
(1883; semi-weekly, 1885); its proprietor in 1887-1898 was Hoke 
Smith (b. 1855), U.S. -Secretary of the Interior in 1893-1896, and 
governor of Georgia in 1907-1909. The Chronicle of Augusta (1785, 
semi-weekly; now semi-weekly and, since 1837, daily); originally 
the Augusta Chronicle and Gazette of the Stale, in 1821 it became the 
Augusta Chronicle and Georgia Gazelle (then Advertiser); in 1835, 
the Augusta Chronicle; in 1837, when it incorporated the Stale's 
Rights Sentinel edited for about a dozen years by Judge Augustus 
Baldwin Longstreet (1790-1870), son of the inventor William 
Longstreet, and author of Georgia Scenes (1840) the Daily Chronicle 
and Sentinel; in 1877, after merging with the Constitutionalist 
(founded before 1 800), the Chronicle and Constitutionalist; James 
R. Randall (1839-1908), author of " Maryland, my Maryland," was 
senior editor of the Chronicle for some time, having been connected 
with the Constitutionalist after 1866. The Enquirer-Sun of Columbus 
(weekly, 1828; daily, 1858). The Telegraph of Macon (semi-weekly, 
1826; now daily also). The Union-Recorder of Milledgeville (the 
Federal Union, 1829, and the Southern Recorder, 1819, united in 
1872). The Tribune of Rome (1843). The Morning News of 
Savannah (1850). 



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NEWSPAPERS 



[FRENCH 



Louisiana. The Picayune of New Orleans (daily, 1837; weekly, 
1841). The Item (evening, 1877) of New Orleans. The Times- 
Democrat (daily, 1863; semi-weekly, 1895) of New Orleans. 
L'Abetile de la Nouvelle-Orleans (1827). The States (1880) of New 
Orleans. On all these see NEW ORLEANS. De Bow's Commercial 
Review appeared in New Orleans in 1846-1861, in Charleston and 
Washington in 1861-1864, and in New York in 1866-1870; it was 
edited by James Dunwoody BrownsonDe Bow (1820-1867), formerly 
(1844-1845) of the Southern Quarterly Review, professor (1848-1850) 
of political economy in the University of Louisiana, director of the 
state census in 1850-1853, and of the Federal census in 1853-1855. 
The Review was intensely Southern in tone and is a most important 
" source " for the economic history of the South; from it De Bow 
extracted Industrial Resources of the Southern and Western States 
(3 vols. New Orleans, 1852-1853). 

Florida. The Florida Times Union and Citizen (1865), with daily 
and semi-weekly editions; and the Metropolis (1887), both of 
Jacksonville. The Morning Tribune (weekly, 1870; daily, 1891) of 
Tampa. 

Texas. The Statesman of Austin (1871). The Morning News of 
Dallas, established in 1885 by Alfred H. Belo (1839-1901), who in 1875 
bought the Galveston News (established 1842) and built up these 
two papers. The Post (1880) and the Chronicle and Herald (1901) 
of Houston. 

Tennessee. The Journal and Tribune (Journal, 1839, and Tribune, 
1816, consolidated in 1898) of Knoxville. The Commercial Appeal 
(Appeal, 1840; Avalanche, 1857; Commercial, 1889; consolidated 
in 1894); and the News Scimitar (Evening Scimitar, 1880, and News, 
1902, consolidated in 1904), both of Memphis. The Banner (1875), 
and the American (1830), both of Nashville. The first paper 
published in the state was the Gazette (1791) of Rogersville, which 
removed in 1818 to Knoxville, where it was published for a few years. 

Kentucky. The Louisville Courier- Journal (Journal, 1830; 
Courier, 1843; Democrat, 1844; consolidated 1868), edited by Henry 
Watterson. who began his connexion with the Journal in 1867. 
The Herald (1869) of Louisville. In Frankfort, the Argus of Western 
America was established in 1806; in 1816 Amos Kendall (1789- 
1869) became part owner and co-editor, and under him the Argus was 
a political power ; it was succeeded in 1 840 by the Yeoman. 

Indiana. The first paper in Indianapolis was the Gazette (January 
1822), which in 1830 was consolidated with (and took the name of) 
the Indiana Democrat; in 1840 it was reorganized as the Indiana 
Sentinel; in 1851 it was first published as a daily; in 1865 its name 
was changed to the Herald, and in 1868 again to the Indianapolis 
Sentinel; in February 1905 it was bought by the News (v. infra). 
The Indianapolis Journal (1823) ceased publication in 1904, but 
was an important Republican sheet especially after 1878, when John 
Chalfant New (1831-1906) became its editor and proprietor; New 
was a wealthy banker who was U.S. treasurer in 18751876, assistant 
secretary of the treasury in 1882-1884, a "d for many years a member 
(part of the time, treasurer) of the Republican National Committee. 
The paper was also owned and edited by his son, Harry Stewart New 
(b. 1858), who was a member of the executive committee of the 
Republican National Committee. The Indianapolis News (evening, 
1869) and the Star (morning, 1903) are the principal papers in the 
city. The first paper published in the state was at Vincennes in 
July 1804 and called the Western Sun; it is still published (daily 
edition since 1879). 

Wisconsin. The principal papers are those of Milwaukee: the 
Evening Wisconsin (1847); the Sentinel (morning, 1837), edited in 
1845-1861 by Rufus King (1814-1876), who was U.S. minister to the 
Pontifical States in 1863-1867, and a brigadier of volunteers in the 
Civil War; the News (evening, 1866); the Free Press (morning, 
1901); the Germania- Abend- Post (1872, with a large weekly edition), 
and the Kuryer Polski (evening, 1888). 

Minnesota. The Journal (evening, 1878); the Tribune (morning, 
evening and weekly, 1867); and the Tidende (daily, 1887; weekly, 
1851 ; Norwegian-Danish) are the principal papers of Minneapolis. 
In St Paul the best-known paper is the Pioneer Press (founded in 
1849; daily since 1854); the Minnesota Pioneer was the first paper 
printed in the state, and in 1855 it was consolidated with the 
Minnesota Democrat under the name of Pioneer and Democrat; in 
1862 it became the St Paul Pioneer; and in 1875 after the St Paul 
Press united with it it took the name of the Pioneer Press. The other 
dailies are the Dispatch (evening, 1868); the News (evening, 1900) 
and the Volks Zeitung (weekly, 1857; daily, 1877). 

Kansas. The Emporia Gazette (evening, 1890) is one of the notable 
smaller city papers of the country; its reputation being due to its 
editor and proprietor William Allen White (b. 1868). Other papers 
of interest are the Leaven worth Times (morning and weekly, 1857) ; 
in Topeka, the Capital (daily and semi-weekly, 1879); the 
State Journal (evening and weekly, 1872), and the Herald (evening, 
1901); and in Wichita, the Eagle (morning, 1884, and weekly, 
1872). 

Nebraska. The News (evening, 1899), the World-Herald (morning 
and evening, weekly and semi-weekly, 1865), and the Omaha Bee 
(morning and evening, 1871) are all of Omaha. The Bee was 
established by Edward Rosewater (1841-1906); his son Victor 
(b. 1871) succeeding him in 1895 as managing editor. The Rose- 
waters were prominent in the Republican party and headed the 



opposition in the state to William Jennings Bryan, who was in 1894- 
1896 editor of the World-Herald. Bryan also founded at Lincoln the 
Commoner, a weekly used by him in spreading his political views and 
in advancing his candidacy for the presidency. The Lincoln dailies 
are the Nebraska State Journal (morning, 1870; Evening News, 
1880; Weekly State Journal, 1868), the Star (evening, 1902); and 
the evening Post (1896). 

Iowa. The Des Moines papers are the Capital (evening, 1883), the 
News (evening, 1881), and the Register and Leader (morning, Leader, 
1849, and Register, 1856, consolidated in 1902). At Burlington is the 
Hawk Eye (morning, 1839), to which Robert Jones Burdette (b. 
1 844) , associate editor in the 'seventies, contributed humorous squibs. 
The Burlington Evening Gazette, originally the Wisconsin Territorial 
Gazette (1837), is one of the oldest papers in the state. 

Arkansas. The Arkansas Gazette (Democratic; morning and 
weekly) was first published at Arkansas Post in 1819, then removed 
to Little Rock. 

t Colorado. At Denver are the Republican (morning and weekly, 
1866); the Post (evening, 1893; weekly, 1901); and the Rocky 
Mountain News (morning, 1859; evening, The Times, 1872; and a 
weekly edition). 

Arizona. At Tombstone, the county-seat of Cochise county, is 
the well-known Epitaph (1882),' a Sunday edition of the Prospector 
(daily, 1886). 

Utah. At Salt Lake City are the Deserel Evening News (daily and 
semi-weekly, 1850), controlled by the Mormons; the Salt Lake 
Tribune (daily, 1870; semi- weekly, 1894), founded by Godbe and 
Harrison, opponents of Brigham Young, and always anti-Mormon ; 
and the Salt Lake Herald (daily and semi-weekly, 1870). The last 
named was the principal and for a time the only Democratic 
paper in Utah; in 1901 it was purchased by Senator W. A. Clark, 
who sold it in August 1909 to Republican politicians. 

California. At San Francisco are the Call (morning, 1856), 
owned by John D. Spreckels (b. 1853), principal owner of the Oceanic 
Steamship Company, and son of Claus Spreckels the " sugar-king "; 
the Examiner (morning, 1865), founded by Senator George Hearst 
(1820-1891), the inheritance of which started his son, William 
Randolph Hearst, in the newspaper business; the Bulletin (morning, 
1855); the Chronicle (morning, 1865; weekly, 1874); the Evening 
Post (1871; weekly edition, 1875), and the California Demokrat 
(morning, 1853; consolidated in 1902 with the Abend Post; weekly 
edition, California Staats-Zeitung, 1854). The Argonaut (1877) is 
an able literary weekly. 

In Los Angeles the large dailies are the Times (morning, 1881 ; 
weekly edition, Saturday Times and Weekly Mirror, 1873); the 
Herald, (morning, 1873); the Express (evening, 1871); the Record 
(evening, 1895) ; and W. R. Hearst's Examiner (morning, 1903). 

Oregon. At Portland are the Morning Oregonian (1861; weekly 
edition, 1850) which has a great reputation on the Pacific Coast; 
the Oregon Daily Journal (evening and semi-weekly; 1902); and the 
Evening Telegram (1868). 

Washington. At Seattle are the Post Intelligencer (morning, 1867), 
and the Times (evening and weekly, 1861). 

4. NEWSPAPERS OF FRANCE 

The annals of French journalism begin with the Gazette 
(afterwards called Gazette de France), established by Theo- 
phraste Renaudot in 1631, under the patronage of 
Richelieu, and with his active co-operation. Its price 
was six centimes. Much of its earliest foreign news 
came direct from the minister, and not seldom in his own hand. 
Louis XIII. took a keen, perhaps a somewhat childish, interest 
in the progress of the infant Gazette, and was a frequent con- 
tributor, now and then taking his little paragraphs to the printing 
office himself, and seeing them put into type. Renaudot was 
born at Loudun in 1584, studied medicine in Paris and at Mont- 
pellier, established himself in the capital in 1612, and soon became 
conspicuous both within and beyond the limits of his profession. 
Endowed by nature with great energy and versatility, he seems 
at an early period of his career to have attracted the attention 
of the great cardinal, and to have obtained permission to establish 
a sort of general agency office, under the designation of " Bureau 
d'Adresses et de Rencontre." An enterprise like this would, 
perhaps, naturally suggest to such a mind as Renaudot 's the 
advantage of following it up by the foundation of a newspaper. 
According to some French writers, however, the project was 
formed by Pierre d'Hozier, the genealogist, who carried on an 
extensive correspondence both at home and abroad, and was 
thus in a position to give valuable help; according to others 
by Richelieu himself. Be this as it may, Renaudot put his hand 
zealously to the work, and brought out his first weekly number 
in May 1631. So much, at least, may be inferred from the date 
(4th July 1631) of the sixth number, which was the first dated 



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publication, the five preceding numbers being marked by 
" signatures " only A to E. Each number consists of a single 
sheet (eight pages) in small quarto, and is divided into two 
parts the first simply entitled Gazette, the second Nouvelles 
ordinaires de divers endroits. For this division the author 
assigns two reasons (i) that two persons may thus read his 
journal at the same time, and (2) that it facilitates a division 
of the subject-matter, the Nouvelles containing usually intel- 
ligence from the northern and western countries, the Gazelle 
from the southern and eastern. He commonly begins with 
foreign and ends with home news, a method which was long and 
generally followed, and which still obtains. Once a month he 
published a supplement, under the title of Relation des nouvelles 
du monde, revues dans tout le mois. In October 1631 Renaudot 
obtained letters patent to himself and his heirs, conferring the 
exclusive privilege of printing and selling, where and how they 
might please, " the gazettes, news and narratives of all that 
has passed or may pass within and without the kingdom." 
His assailants were numerous, but he steadily pursued his course, 
and at his death in October 1653 left the Gazette to his sons in 
flourishing circumstances. In 1752 the title Gazelle de France 
was first used. Under this designation it continued to appear 
until the 24th August 1348. During the five days which followed 
that date it was suspended; on the 3oth it was resumed as Le 
Peuple franfais, journal de I'appel A la nation, and again modi- 
fied on the I4th September to L'Etoile de la France, journal des 
droils de tous. On the 25th October it became Gazette de France, 
journal de I'appel d la nation; and under this title it continued. 

Jean Loret's rhymed Gazette (1650 to March 1665) will always 
have interest in the eyes of students who care less for the 
" dignity " of history than for the fidelity Of its local colour- 
ing and the animation of its backgrounds. It were vain to 
look there for any deep appreciation of the events of those 
stormy times; but it abounds in vivid portraits of the men 
and manners of the day. It paints rudely, yet to the life, the 
Paris of the Fronde, with all its effervescence and depression, 
its versatility and fickleness, its cowardice and its courage. 

Of the Mercure galant, established by Donneau de Vize in 
1672, with Thomas Corneille for its sub-editor, it may be said 
that it sought to combine the qualities of the Gazettes, 
^ otn 8 rave an d S av - Like the Gazette de France, it 
contained the permitted state news and court circulars 
of the day. Like Loret's Gazette, it amused its readers 
with satirical verses, and with sketches of men and manners, 
which, if not always true, were at least well invented. Reviews 
and sermons, law pleas and street airs, the last reception at the 
Academy and the last new fashion of the milliners, all found 
their place. De Vize carried on his enterprise for more than 
thirty years, and at his death (1710) it was continued by Riviere 
du Fresny. The next editor, Lefevre de Fontenay, altered 
the title to Nouveau Mercure, which in 1728 was altered to 
Mercure de France, a designation retained, with slight modifica- 
tion, until 1853. The Mercure passed through many hands 
before it came into those of Panckoucke, at the eve of the Revolu- 
tion. Amongst its more conspicuous writers, immediately before 
this change, had been Raynal and Marmontel. The latter, 
indeed, had for many years been its principal editor, and in his 
Memoires has left us a very interesting record of the views and 
aims which governed him in the performance of an arduous 
task. He there narrates the curious fact that it was Madame 
de Pompadour who contrived the plan of giving pensions to 
eminent men of letters out of the profits of the Mercure. To 
one of Marmontel's predecessors the " privilege," or patent, 
had been worth more than 1000 sterling annually. This 
revenue was now to be shared amongst several, and to become 
a means of extending royal " patronage " of literature at a 
cheap rate. It is to this pension scheme, too, that we owe the 
Conies Moraux. Marmontel, who had long before lost his 
" patent " by an act of high-minded generosity, continued to 
share in the composition of the literary articles with Chamfort 
and La Harpe, whilst Mallet du Pan, a far abler writer than 
either, became the most prominent of the political writers in 



the Mercure. In 1789 he contributed a series of remarkable 
articles on the well-known book of de Lolme; and in the same 
year he penned some comments on the " Declaration of the 
Rights of Man," very distasteful to violent men of all parties, 
but which forcibly illustrate the pregnant truth they begin 
with: " The gospel has given the simplest, the shortest and 
the most comprehensive ' Declaration of the Rights of Man,' 
in saying, ' Do unto others as you would that they should do 
unto you.' All politics hinge upon this." 

In 1790 the sale of the Mercure rose very rapidly. It attained 
for a time a circulation of 13,000 copies. Mirabeau styled 
it in debate " the most able of the newspapers." Great pains 
were taken in the collection of statistics and state papers, the 
absence of which from the French newspaper press had helped 
to depress its credit as compared with the political journalism 
of England and to some extent of Germany. But, as the Revo- 
lution marched on towards a destructive democracy, Mallet du 
Pan evinced more and more unmistakably his rooted attach- 
ment to a constitutional monarchy. And, like so many of his 
compatriots, he soon found the tide too strong for him. The 
political part of the Mercure (in 1791 its title was altered to 
Mercure franfais) changed hands, and after the loth August 
1792 its publication was suspended. 

All this time the Moniteur (Gazette nationale, ou le moniteur 
universel), founded in 1789, was under the same general manage- 
ment. The first idea, indeed, of this famous official nft 
journal appears to have been Panckoucke's, but it uah-ersei. 
did not firmly establish itself until he had purchased 
the Journal de I'assemblte nationale, and so secured the 
best report of the debates. The Moniteur, however, kept 
step with the majority of the assembly, the Mercure with the 
minority. So marked a contrast between two journals, with 
one proprietor, gave too favourable a leverage to the republican 
wits not to be turned to good account. Camille Desmoulins 
depicted him as Janus one face radiant at the blessings of 
coming liberty, the other plunged in grief for the epoch that 
was rapidly disappearing. 

When resumed, after a very brief interval, the Mercure 
franfais became again Mercure de France its political im- 
portance diminished, whilst its literary worth was enhanced. 
During the later days of the Revolution, and under the imperial 
rule, its roll of contributors included the names of Geoffrey, 
Ginguene, Morellet, Lacretelle, Fontanes and Chateaubriand. 
The statesman last named brought upon the Mercure another 
temporary suppression in June 1807 (at which date he was 
its sole proprietor), by words in true unison with the noblest 
deed of his chequered career his retirement, namely, from 
the imperial service on the day that the news of the execution 
of the duke of Enghien reached him, being the day after he had 
been appointed by Napoleon a minister plenipotentiary. 

Thus it chanced that alike under the brilliant despotism of 
Napoleon and under the crapulous malversation of Louis XV. 
the management of the Mercure was revolutionized for protests 
which conferred honour upon the journal no less than upon 
the individual writers who made them. Resumed by other 
hands, the Mercure continued to appear until January 1820, 
when it was again suspended. In the following year it reappeared 
as Le Mercure de France, au dix-neuvieme siecle, and in February 
1853 it finally ceased. 

The only other newspaper of a date anterior to the Revolution 
which needs to be noticed here is the first French daily, the 
Journal de Paris, which was started on New Year's 
Day of 1777. It had but a feeble infancy, yet lived 
till 1819. Its tameness, however, did not save it from 
sharing in the " suspensions " of its predecessors. After the 
Revolution such men as Garat, Condorcet and Regnaud de 
St Jean d'Ang61y appear amongst its contributors, but those 
of earlier date were obscure. Its period of highest prosperity 
may be dated about 1792, when its circulation is said to have 
exceeded 20,000. 

The police adventures of the writers of the MS. news-letters, 
or Nouvelles d la main, were still more numerous, and, if we 



574 



NEWSPAPERS 



[FRENCH 



ila 
main. 



may judge from the copious specimens of these epistles which yet 
survive, must also not unfrequently have aris,en from lack of 
official employment, rather than from substantial pro- 
Noavelies vocation. Madame Doublet de Persan, the widow of 
a member of the French board of trade, was a con- 
spicuous purveyor of news of this sort. For nearly 
forty years daily meetings were held in her house at which the 
gossip and table-talk of the town were systematically (and 
literally) registered; and weekly abstracts or epitomes were 
sent into the country by post. Piron, Mirabaud, Falconet, 
D'Argental and, above all, Bachaumont, were prominent 
members of the " society," and each of them is said to have 
had his assigned seat beneath his own portrait. The lady's 
valet-de-chambre appears to have been editor ex officio; and 
as he occasionally suffered imprisonment, when offensive news- 
letters had been seized by the police, so responsible a duty was 
doubtless " considered in the wages." News and anecdotes 
of all kinds political and literary, grave, gay or merely scandal- 
ous were all admitted into the Nouvelles a la main; and their 
contents, during a long series of years, form the staple of those 
Memoires secrets pour senrir a I'histoire de la republique des 
letlres which extend to thirty-six volumes, have been frequently 
printed (at first with the false imprint " Londres: John Adam- 
son, 1777-89 "), and are usually referred to by French writers 
as the Memoires de Bachaumont. 

The journalism of the first Revolution has been the theme 
of many bulky volumes, and only a very casual glance at this 
News- P ar t of our subject can be given to it here. When 
papers of at least one half of the French people was in a ferment 
the Re- o f jj O p e or o f f ear a j t}j e approaching convocation 
of the states-general, most of the existing newspapers 
were still in a state of torpor. Long paragraphs, for .example, 
about a terrible " wild beast of the Gevaudan " whether wolf 
or bear, or as yet nondescript, was uncertain were still current 
in the Paris journals at this momentous juncture. Mirabeau 
was among the foremost to supply the popular want. His 
Lettres a ses commettants began on the 2nd May 1789, and with 
the twenty-first number became the Courrier de Provence. 
Within a week Maret (afterwards duke of Bassano) followed 
with the Bulletin des seances de I'assemblee nationale, and 
Lehodey with the Journal des itals generaux. In June Brissot 
de Warville began his Patriote franqais. Gorsas published the 
first number of his Courrier de Versailles in the following month, 
from which also dates the famous periodical of Prudhomme, 
Loustalot and Tournon, entitled Revolutions de Paris, with 
its characteristic motto " Les grands ne nous paraissent 
grands que parce que nous sommes a genoux; levons nous! " 
In August 1789 Baudouin began the Journal des debats (edited 
Journal in 1792 by Louvet) and Marat the Ami du Peuple 
des debats (which at first was called Le Publiciste parisien). 
a " d The Monileur uniiiersel (of which we have spoken 

already) was first published on the 24th November, 
although numbers were afterwards printed bearing date from 
the sth May, the day on which the states-general first assembled. 
Camille Desmoulins also commenced his Revolutions de France 
el de Brabant in November 1789. The Ami du roi was first 
published in June 1790, La Quotidienne in September 1792. 

The Moniteur and Debats survived, but most of these papers 
expired either in the autumn of 1792 or with the fall of the party 
of the Gironde in September 1793. In some of them the energy 
for good and for evil of a whole lifetime seems to be compressed 
into the fugitive writings of a few months. Even the satirical 
journals which combated the Revolution with shafts of ridicule 
and wit, keen enough after their kind, but too light to do 
much damage to men terribly in earnest, abound with matter 
well deserving the attention of all students desirous of a thorough 
knowledge of the period. 

The consular government began its dealings with the press 

by reducing the number of political papers to thirteen. At this 

period the number of daily journals had been nineteen, and 

.their aggregate provincial circulation, apart from the Paris 

sale, 49,313, an average of 2600 each. 



Under Napoleon the Moniteur was the only political paper 
that was really regarded with an eye of favour. Even as respects 
the nation at large, the monstrous excesses into which the 
Revolutionary press had plunged left an enduring stigma on 
the class. When Berlin acquired the Journal des debats from 
Baudouin, the printer, for 20,000 francs, he had to vanquish 
popular indifference on the one hand, as well as imperial mistrust 
on the other. The men he called to his aid were Geoffroy and 
Fievee; and by the brilliancy of their talents and the keenness 
of his own judgment he converted the Debats into a paper having 
32,000 subscribers, and producing a profit of 200,000 francs 
a year. When the imposition of a special censorship was 
threatened in 1805, at the instance of Fouche, a remarkable 
correspondence took place between Fievee and Napoleon himself, 
in the course of which the emperor wrote that the only means 
of preserving a newspaper from suspension was " to avoid the 
publication of any news unfavourable to the government, until 
the truth of it is so well established that the publication becomes 
needless." The censorship was avoided, but Fievee had to 
become the responsible editor, and the title was altered to 
Journal de I'empire the imperial critic taking exception to 
the word Debats as " inconvenient." The old title was resumed 
in August 1815. The revolution of July did but enhance the 
power and the profit of the paper. It has held its course since 
with uniform dignity, as well as with splendid ability, and may 
still be said, in the words which Lamartine applied to it in an 
earlier day, to have " made itself part of French history." 

Shortly before the Journal de I'empire became again the 
Journal des debats (in 1815), a severance 'occurred amidst 
both the writers and subscribers. It led to the foundation 
of the Constitutionnel, which at first and for a short time bore 
the title of L'Independant. The former became, for a time, the 
organ of the royalists par excellence, the latter the leader of the 
opposition. In 1824, however, both were in conflict with the 
government of the day. At that date, in a secret report addressed 
to the ministry, the aggregate circulation of the opposition 
press of Paris was stated at 41,330,' while that of the government 
press amounted only to I4,344. 2 

The rapid rise of the Constitutionnel was due partly to the 
great ability and influence of Jay, of Etienne, of Beranger 
and of Saint Albin (who had been secretary to Carnot 
in his ministry of 1815), all of whom co-operated in 
its early editorship, and partly to its sympathy with 
the popular reverence for the memory of Napoleon, as well 
as to the vigorous share it took in the literary quarrel between 
the classicists and romanticists. Its part in bringing about 
the revolution of 1830 raised it to the zenith of its fortunes. 
For a brief period it could boast of 23,000 subscribers at 80 
francs a year. But the invasion of cheap newspapers, and that 
temporary lack of enterprise which so often follows a brilliant 
success, lowered it with still greater rapidity. When the author 
of the Memoires d'un bourgeois, Dr Veron, purchased it, the 
sale had sunk to 3000. Veron gave 100,000 francs for the Juif 
errant of Sue, and the Sue fever rewarded him for a while with 
more than the old circulation. Afterwards the paper passed 
under the editorship of Cesena, Granier de Cassagnac, and La 
Gueronniere. 

The cheap journalism of Paris began in 1836 (ist July) with 
the journal of Girardin, La Presse, followed instantly by Le 
Siecle, under the management of Dutacq, to whom, 
it is said not incredibly the original idea was really ^" 
due. The first -named journal attained a circulation t e 
of 10,000 copies within three months of its commence- 
ment of and soon doubled that number. The Siecle prospered 
even more strikingly, and in a few years had reached a circula- 
tion (then without precedent in France) of 38,000 copies. 

The rapid growth of the newspaper press of Paris under 

1 Le Constitutionnel, 16,250; Journal des debats, 13,000; La 
Quotidienne, 5800; Le Courrier franc,ais, 2975; Journal de com- 
merce, 2380; L'Aristarque, 925. 

2 Journal de Paris. 4175; L'FJoile, 2749; Gazette de France, 2370; 
Le Moniteur, 2250; Le Drapeau blanc, 1900; Le Pilote, 900. 



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Louis-Philippe will be best appreciated from the fact that, 
while in 1828 the number of stamps issued was 28 millions, in 
1836, 1843, !845 and 1846 the figures were 42, 61, 65 and 79 
millions respectively. At the last-mentioned date the papers 
with a circulation of upwards of io,coo were (besides the Moni- 
teur, of which the circulation was chiefly official and gratuitous) 
as follows: Le Siecle, 31,000; La Presse and Le Constitutionnel, 
between 20,000 and 25,000; Journal des Debats and L'Epoque, 
between 10,000 and 15,000. 

If we cast a retrospective glance at the general characteristics 
(l) of the newspaper press of France, and (2) of the legislation con- 
cerning it, between the respective periods of the devastating revolu- 
tion of 1 793- 1794 and the scarcely less destructive revolution of 
1848, it will be found that the years 1819, 1828, 1830 (July), and 1835 
(September) mark epochs full of pregnant teaching upon our subject. 
We pass over, as already sufficiently indicated, the newspaper 
licence of the first-named years (1793-1794), carried to a pitch which 
became a disgrace to civilization, and the stern Napoleonic censor- 
ship which followed it also carried to an excess, disgraceful, not, 
indeed, to civilization, but to the splendid intellect which had once 
given utterance to the words, " Physical discovery is a grand faculty 
of the human mind, but literature is the mind itself." 

The year 1819 is marked by a virtual cessation of the arbitrary 
power of suppression lodged till then in the government, and by the 
substitution of a graduated system of preliminary bonds and surety- 
ships (" cautionnements ") on the one hand, and of strict penalties for 
convicted press-offences on the other. This initiatory amelioration 
of 1819 became, in 1828, a measure of substantial yet regulated 
freedom, which for two years worked, in the main, alike with equity 
towards the just claims of journalism as a profession and with steady 
development towards the public of its capabilities as a great factor in 
the growth of civilization. Those tv/o years were followed by a 
widely contrasted period of five years. That was a term of entire 
liberty often grossly abused, and fitly ending with the just and 
necessary restrictions of September 1835. But that period of 1830- 
1835 was also signalized by some noble attempts to use the powers 
of the newspaper press for promoting the highest and the enduring 
interests of France. Not least memorable amongst these was the 
joint enterprise of Montalembert and Lamennais soon to be aided 
by Lacordaire, when, by the establishment (October 1830) of the 
newspaper L'Avenir, they claimed for the church of France " her 
just part in the liberties acquired by the country," and asserted for 
the sacred symbols of Christianity their lawful place, alike above 
the tricolor and above the lilies. " Dieu et la Iibert6 " was the motto 
which Montalembert chose for his newspaper, as he had chosen it 
long before for the guiding star of his youthful aspirations. L'Avenir 
existed only for one year and one month. It came to its early end 
from no lack of energy and patience in its writers, but in part from 
that mission of the editors to Rome (November 1831) which, 
at least for a time, necessitated the discontinuance of their news- 
paper. Human regrets had higher than human consolations. " Our 
labours " on L'Avenir, wrote Montalembert, with simple truth, 
" decided the attitude of Catholics in France and elsewhere, from the 
time of the July revolution to the time of the second empire." 

There were many other papers, at this time and afterwards, which, 
like L'Avenir, were, in their degree, organs of ideas, not speculations 
of trade. But they cannot be even enumerated here. No very 
notable specially religious paper succeeded L'Avenir until the founda- 
tion in 1843 under widely different auspices, although twice at the 
outset the editorship was offered to Lacordaire of L'Univers 
Religieux. That journal was edited, at first, by De Coux, then 
by Louis Veuillot; it underwent innumerable lawsuits, "warn- 
ings," suppressions and interdicts, for causes very diverse. Several 
prelates suppressed L' Univers Religieux in their respective dioceses, 
amongst them the great bishop Dupanloup in that of Orleans (1853). 
Napoleon III. suppressed it in 1861, permitted it to reappear as Le 
Monde, and suspended it many times afterwards; but it survived 
all its misfortunes for a good many years. Le Monde had the curious 
fate, at one time, of being conducted jointly by the first editor of 
L'Avenir, Lamennais, and by George Sand, who had previously 
figured in the newspaper annals of France as co-foundress of 
L'&claireur de I'lndre, a journal published at Orleans. The account 
given by that brilliant writer of her adventures in what was then to 
her a new department of activity is an instructive one. With that 
breadth of sympathy which was so characteristic of her, she strove 
to interest all her friends (however varied in character, as in rank) 
in the enterprise. There is, perhaps, scarcely anything more amusing 
in French journalistic annals than is her (contemporary) account of 
the first meeting of the shareholders at which, she tells us, about 
five hundred resolutions were moved for the guidance of the editor 
at his desk. 

The impulse given to the growth of advertisements in the days 
which followed July 1830, became, as the years rolled on, sufficiently 
developed to induce the formation of a company in which one of 
the Laffittcs took part to farm them, 1 at a yearly rent of 12,000 

1 Or, to speak more precisely, to farm a certain conspicuous page 
of each newspaper, in perpetuity. 



sterling (300,000 francs), so far (at first) as regarded the four leading 
journals (Debats, Constitutionnel, Sikcle, Presse), to which were after- 
wards added two others (Le Pays and La Patrie). The combina- 
tion greatly embarrassed advertisers, first, since its great aim was to 
force them either to advertise in all, whether addressing the classes 
intended to be canvassed or not, or else to pay for each advertisement 
in a selected newspaper the price of many proffered advertisements 
in all the papers collectively, and, secondly, because by many repeti- 
tions in certain newspapers no additional publicity was really gained, 
two or three of the favoured journals circulating for the main amongst 
the same class of buyers. La. France was then the newspaper of the 
Conservative aristocracy of the nation; Le Monde and the Union 
more especially addressed the clergy; the Debats and the Temps were 
the journals of the upper mercantile class, the Siecle and L'Opinion 
of the lower or shopkeeping class. A man who asked to advertise 
briefly, in the Siecle, for example, alone, was charged 2 francs for each 
several insertion. If he went the round of the six, his advertisement 
cost him only 75 centimes per journal, for ten successive insertions 
in each of them, all round. 

To a great extent, the inundation of newspapers which followed 
the revolution of February 1848 was but a parody on the revolu- 
tionary press of 1793. Most of them, of course, had very 
short lives. When Cavaignac took the helm he suppressed rj l 
eleven journals, including La Presse and L'AssembUe 
Nationale. The former had at this period a circulation of nearly 
70,000, and its proprietor, in a petition to the National Assembly, 
declared that it gave subsistence to more than one thousand persons, 
and was worth in the market at least 1 ,500,000 francs. In August the 
system of sureties was restored. On the I3th June 1849 the president 
of the republic suspended Le Peuple, La Revolution Democratique et 
Sociale, La Vraie Republique, La Democratic Pacifique, La Reforme 
and La Tribune des Peuples. On July 16, 1850, the assembly passed 
what is called the " Loi Tinguy (from the name of the otherwise 
obscure deputy who proposed it), by which the author of every news- 
paper article on any subject, political, philosophical or religious, 
was bound to affix his name to it, on penalty, of a fine of 500 francs 
for the first offence, and of icoo francs for its repetition. Every 
false or feigned signature was to be punished by a fine of 1000 francs, 
" together^with six months' imprisonment, both for the author and 
the editor." The practical working of this law lay in the creation of 
a new functionary in the more important newspaper offices, who was 
called " secrdtaire de la redaction," and was, in fact, the scapegoat 
ex officio. The " Loi Tinguy," though now long repealed, has had a 
permanent influence on French journalism in the continued preval- 
ence of signed articles, and the consequent prominence of individual 
writers as compared with the same class of work in other countries. 
In February 1852 all the press laws were incorporated, with increased 
stringency, into a " Decret organique sur la presse." The stamp duty 
for each sheet was fixed at 6 centimes, within certain dimensions, 
and a proportional increase in case of excess. 

In 1858 the order of the six leading Parisian papers in point of 
circulation was (i) Siecle, (2) Presse, (3) Constitutionnel, (4) Patrie, 
(5) Debats, (6) Assembled Nationale. The number of provincial 
papers exceeded five hundred. " Newspapers, nowadays, wrote a 
keenly observant publicist in that year, are almanacs, bulletins, 
advertising mediums, rather than the guides and the centres of 
opinion." In 1866 the change had become more marked still. The 
monetary success of Girardin's many commercial speculations in 
this branch of commerce greatly increased the number of Parisian 
journals, whilst lowering the status of those of established rank. 
The aggregate daily issue of the Parisian " dailies " had increased 
to about 350,000 copies, but the evening paper, Le Petit Moniteur, 
alone issued nearly 130,000 of these. The average circulation of 
Le Siecle had fallen from 55,000 to 45,000 copies; that of La Patrie 
was reduced by one-half (32,000 to 16,000); that of Le Constitu- 
tionnel from 24,000 to 13,000; of L'Opinion Nationale from 18,000 
to 15,000; whilst the chief journal of all -with grand antecedents 
and with a brilliant history of public service rendered had for a 
time descended, it is said, from 12,000 copies to 9000. And yet 
almost over the whole of this very period the brilliant " Lundis " 
of Sainte-Beuve were making their punctual appearance in Le 
Constitutionnel, to be presently continued in Le Moniteur and in 
Le Temps; and writers like St Marc Girardin, Cuvillier-Fleury, and 
Pr6vost-ParadolJwere constantly writing in the Journal des Debats. 
Meanwhile, Villemessant and his colleagues were making their 
fortunes out of Le Figaro (begun 1854, but a daily from 1866), and 
helping to make frivolous petty " paragraphs " on matters of 
literature almost everywhere take the place of able and well-elabor- 
ated articles. Well might Albert Sorel say, 2 " Our trumpery news- 
papers are the newspapers that pay." In 1872 the circulation of Le 
Petit Journal (founded 1863), the pioneer of the French halfpenny 
press, was 212,500, and it went on rapidly increasing. 

No incident in the newspaper history of this period made more 
temporary noise than did the strange charges brought in 1867 against 
the Debats, the Sikcle and L'Opinion Nationale, by M. Kerveguen, 
member for Toulon, in the French assembly. He charged them 



* When comparing the French newspaper press as it stood in 1873. 
with that of Germany, in the Revue des deux Mondes, article " La 
Presse Allemande," vol. ii. of 1873, p. 715. 



NEWSPAPERS 



[FRENCH 



collectively with receiving bribes, both from the government of 
Prussia and from that of Italy upon the faith, as it afterwards 
appeared, of statements made by another newspaper, not of France 
but of Belgium, La Finance. An elaborate inquiry, presided over 
by M Berryer, pronounced the accusation to be absolutely ground- 
less. Yet it was soon revived by Le Pays, in the shape of a specific 
charge against an individual editor of Le SikcleLa. Varenne. 
All that was eventually proved, in due course of law, was merely 
the agency in Paris of La Varenne for the Italian government, at 
a time prior to the events of 1866. 

In 1874 an elaborate return showed that in thirty-five principal 
towns of France, comprising a population of 2,566,000, their re- 
spective journals had an aggregate weekly issue of 2,800,000 copies. 

In 1878 the total number of journals of all kinds published in 
France was 2200. Of these 150 were political, strictly speaking, of 
which Paris published 49. Of Parisian journals other than political 
there were 1141 (including 71 religious, 104 legal, 153 commercial, 
134 technological, 98 scientific and medical, 59 artistic). At that 
date Li Figaro had a circulation of about 70,000, Le Petit Journal 
(at a halfpenny) one of about 650,000. 

The principal Parisian newspapers in 1883 may be classified thus 

(a) Organs of the Legitimists and of the Church of France: 
Gazette de France, Le Monde, L' Union, La Defense, La Civilisation, 
L' Univers. 

(b) Orleanist organs: Le Moniteur Universel, Le Constitutional, 
Le Frarfais (under the auspices of the Due de Broglie), Le Soleil. 

(c) Bonapartist organ: Le Pays (edited at one time by La- 
martine). 

(d) Republican organs: Journal des Debals, Le Temps (founded 
1861, with the title of the earlier Temps of 1829-1842), Le Siecle, 
Le XIX. Si&cle, Le Paix, La Justice, Paris, La RepuUique Franc_aise 
(founded in 1871 by Gambetta), Le Parlement (founded by Dufaure), 
the Socialist La Petite RepuUique (1875). 

The law concerning the liberty of the press, of July 29, 1881, 
abolished suretyship for newspapers, and transferred their registra- 
tion from the ministry of justice at Paris to the local representative 
of the attorney-general (le parquet) in each town respectively. It 
made the establishment of a newspaper virtually free, upon legal 
deposit of two copies, and upon due registration of each newspaper 
under the simple guarantee of a registered director, French by birth, 
responsible in case of libel. And it took away the former discretion- 
ary power, lodged in the home office, of interdicting the circulation 
in France of foreign journals. The home minister might still pro- 
hibit a single number of a newspaper; only the whole council of 
ministers, duly convened, could prohibit the circulation of a foreign 
newspaper absolutely. 1 

The newspapers of Paris, and similarly of France, practically 
doubled in number between 1880 and 1900. In 1880 there 
were about 120 Paris newspapers, in 1890 about 
160, and in 1900 about 240. The total number of 
newspapers, as distinguished from periodicals, pub- 
lished in France during 1900 was in round numbers 
2400. Of these, about 2160 appeared in 540 provincial towns. 

The history of the French press during the last twenty years 
of the igth century followed very closely that of the country 
itself, Boulangist and anti-Boulangist, Dreyfusist or anti- 
Dreyfusist, Republican or Nationalist; finally it became either 
Moderate Republican or Radical-Socialist with a sprinkling 
of Nationalist organs and a small minority of Royalist and 
Bonapartist sheets. 

At the head of the Moderate" Republican organs were Le 
Temps and Le Journal des Debats among the evening papers, 

1 The history of French journals published abroad is interesting. 
The Annales politiques of Lmguet for a time of Linguet and Mallet 
du Pan jointly was, from about 1770 to about 1785, almost a 
power in Europe, in its way. Mallet du Pan's own Mercure Britan- 
nique, during the eventful years 1798-1800, was brilliant, sagacious 
and honest. When the pen literally fell from his dying hand a 
hand that had kept its integrity under the pains of exile and of bitter 
poverty that pen was taken up (for a short interval) by Malouet. 
When Napoleon forcibly suppressed, a little later, the Courrier de 
I'Europe of the count of Montlosier, he offered the deprived editor a 
pension, which was refused, until accompanied by the offer of a post 
in which the able minister of Louis XVI. could still work for his 
country. 

English journalism in France was for long associated with 
Gahgnani s Messenger, started by Giovanni Antonio Galignani (1757- 
1822) m 1814, and turned into a daily just before his death. Its 
palmy days were between 1814 and 1848. In 1895 it was turned into 
the Daily Messenger, but proved a failure and was dropped in 1904- 
'xr* 3 !/ L y ki " ed bv the competition of the Paris edition of the 
New York Herald. It had been preceded by Sampson Perry's Arms 
(1809), a Napoleonic organ. In May 1905 a new era of English 
journalism on the continent began by the institution of the Paris 
edition of the London Daily Mail. 



and Le Figaro, Le Journal, Le Siecle, Le Petit Parisien and 
Le Petit Journal among the morning dailies. Le Figaro was 
until 1901 under the editorship of M. F. de Rodays, and the 
brilliant articles of M. J. Comely were one of the features of the 
paper; but a dispute among the proprietors in 1901 resulted 
in the dismissal of M. Comely and the retirement of M. de 
Rodays. M. Jean Dupuy (a member of the Waldeck-Rousseau 
government) was the proprietor and editor of Le Petit Parisien, 
a popular organ almost rivalling Le Petit Journal; the circula- 
tion of the latter had, however, reached over one million and a 
quarter copies daily. 

Le Matin and L'Eclair, among the Moderate Republican 
organs, gave less attention to the discussion of political questions 
from the party point of view than to the collection of news, 
and they were followed by the cho de Paris (1884). Le Matin, 
which also dates from 1884, was from its origin essentially 
what is called in France a journal d' informations, publishing 
every morning a mass of telegraphic news from all countries. 
By an arrangement with the London Times, it gave every 
day a translation of most of the telegrams published in that 
newspaper. TJ 

In April 1901 the proprietorship of Le Sitcle was changed, 
in consequence of the lack of support given by Parisian readers 
to that journal as edited by M. Yves Guyot (formerly minister 
of public works). The latter was a staunch free-trader, a 
courageous defender of Captain Dreyfus, and an eloquent 
advocate of a good understanding between France and England; 
he emphatically endorsed the British policy in South Africa, 
and tried to explain it to his countrymen. The paper was, 
however, bought in by a number of friends of M. Yves Guyot, 
who remained as editor. The greatest opponent of Yves Guyot 
from the economic point of view was Jules Meline, also a former 
minister, whose paper, La Rtpublique, was the recognized organ 
of Protectionism. . , \^,\. 

The Radical and Socialist ideas which in latter years made 
such progress in France were very ably advocated by several 
newspapers whose influence steadily grew, such as L'Aurore, 
La Lanterne and L'Humanite (the organ of Jean Jaures). 
Such individual organs of opinion must also be mentioned as 
L' Intransigent, the organ of Henri Rochefort, and M. 
Clemenceau's organ, Le Bloc, in which he advocated the practical 
application of all of the revolutionary republican principles, 
pure and unadulterated, forming a whole (bloc), no part of which 
could or ought to be sacrificed to temporary political necessities. 

As an intermediate link between the Republican organs 
of all shades and the various Monarchist newspapers, came 
the so-called Nationalist press, an offshoot of or successor to 
the Boulangist press of the preceding decade. As were the 
Boulangists, so were the Nationalists, a sort of syndicat des 
mecontents, their chief organs being La Patrie, edited by M. 
Millevoye, and La Cocarde; these papers represented the views 
of those who had vague hankerings after a different regime and 
a decided hostility towards the republican form of government. 

There was a considerable diminution of influence in the 
Monarchist press. Le Soleil, however, had a large circle of readers 
among the Conservative bourgeoisie with Orleanist leanings. 
Le Gaulois remained a Royalist paper of somewhat doubtful 
tendencies, the editor, M. Arthur Meyer, having incurred the 
displeasure of the Pretender whose cause he defended. Of the 
old Legitimist press there remained the old Gazette de France, 
which was founded in 1631 and had Still a diminishing band of 
faithful readers. The organ of the religious (Roman Catholic) 
associations in France, La Croix, founded in 1880, represented 
the views of the French religious associations, and discussed all 
questions from the point of view of Catholic interests. La 
Croix was published in Paris, but had in the provinces one hundred 
and four local weekly supplements to the Paris edition, each 
one taking its name from the parent journal and adding to it 
the name of the department or locality in which it was printed, 
such as La Croix de I'Allier, La Croix de Lyon. 

The French papers, of whatever party, took an increased 
interest during this period in foreign matters, and much improved 



GERMAN] 



NEWSPAPERS 



577 



their organization for collecting news. Some of them, in fact, 
were almost exclusively news-sheets, and the journal d'informa- 
tions Le Matin or L'clair, for instance took its place beside 
the journal properly so called, more perhaps as a rival than as a 
complement. The natural result followed, and the more old- 
type newspapers took steps to provide their readers with news 
as well as with leading articles, current and literary topics, 
society gossip, dramatic criticism and law reports. The most 
remarkable as well as perhaps the earliest attempt to enlarge 
the scope of Parisian newspapers was made in 1893 by Georges 
Patinot, editor of the Journal des Debats. Instead of one edition, 
that newspaper published two entirely distinct editions, a morning 
one and an evening one. After some time the plucky attempt 
had to be given up, and the Journal des Debats became an 
evening paper. The bold experiment made by the Journal 
des Debats (which celebrated its centenary in 1889) led the other 
newspapers to find a happy mean between a four-page paper 
published twice a day and an eight-page paper on the pattern 
of English newspapers, and the result was that now most great 
daily papers in Paris came out with six pages, the Figaro giving 
the lead. As French newspapers increased in size they reduced 
their price. Most six-page newspapers, with the exception of 
Le Figaro, were by 1902 sold at 5 centimes, and the price of 
15 centimes, which used to be the rule, became the exception. 
In 1902 60 Paris papers (daily and weekly) were sold at 5 centimes 
and 51 at 10 centimes, whilst only n cost 15 centimes. In 1880 
only 23 were 5-centime papers and 24 were xo-centime papers. 

The American style of journalism came into vogue in Paris 
in the 'eighties, and " interviews " were frequent; but the 
general tendency of Parisian editors was to adopt the English 
compromise, and to eschew any extreme sensational methods. 
Most of the important Parisian newspapers had their special 
correspondents in the great capitals of Europe, London, Berlin, 
St Petersburg, Vienna and Rome. Nothing perhaps was so 
striking after 1890 as the demand of the French public for foreign 
and colonial news, or the readiness of the papers to supply it 
by means of special representatives independent of the news 
agencies. 

In home matters the French press made greater progress still 
in the rapid and accurate collection of news, and in this respect 
the provincial press showed more enterprise and more ability 
than that of Paris. Its development was remarkable, for whereas 
in 1880 the inhabitants of the departments had to await the 
arrival of the Parisian papers for their news, they now had the 
advantage of being supplied every morning with local newspapers 
inferior to none of the best organs of Paris. Among the best 
provincial papers may be mentioned La Gironde and La Petite 
Gironde of Bordeaux, La Depfahe of Toulouse, Le Lyon Ri- 
publicain, L'Echo du Nord of Lille, Le Journal de Rouen, all 
having a staff in Paris engaged in collecting news, reporting 
parliamentary proceedings and law cases, telegraphed or tele- 
phoned during the night and published early the next morning 
in their respective localities. Being perfectly independent 
ol purely Parisian opinion or even bias, the decentralization of 
the French provincial press became complete. The newspapers 
of the large towns circulated not only in the city in which they 
were printed but throughout the region of which it was the centre. 
Thus the Depeche of Toulouse, with its twelve editions daily, 
was read in the whole of the departments extending from the 
Lot to the Pyrenees, whilst the Petite Gironde was found in all 
south-western France. The influence of the provincial, as of the 
Paris, press became so great that, as M. Avenel says in his book 
on the French press, there came a tendency to resent its omni- 
potence. The power of the newspaper in France differs from 
that of the English newspaper, in that it seems to act more on 
the government and the parliament than on public opinion. 
The French newspapers have taken upon themselves, in many 
cases, functions which belong more properly to the legislative 
or to the judicial power than to the press, and the result has not 
always been successful. The cause of this is that too many men 
of talent with political ambition look upon journalism as " leading 
to everything, provided one gets out of it." and use it alternately 
xix. 19 



as an antechamber of parliament or of the cabinet, and a lounge 
during their parliamentary or ministerial eclipses. 

See generally Hatin, Histoire de la Presse en France (8 vols., 1860- 
1861); Gallois, Histoire des Journaux et Journalistes de la Revolution 
(2 vols.); "Journalism in France," Quarterly Review, Ixv. 422-468 
(March, 1840); Henri Avenel, La Presse fran^aise au vingtikme 
siede (Paris, 1901). 

5. NEWSPAPERS OF GERMANY 

Printed newspapers in Germany begin with the Frankfurter 
Journal, established in 1615 by Egenolph Emmel, a bookseller 
of Frankfort-on-Main. The following year saw the foundation 
of the Frankfurter Oberpostamtszeitung continued until the 
year 1 866 as Frankfurter Postzeitung. Fulda appears to have been 
the next German town to possess a newspaper, then Hildesheim 
(1619) and Herford (1630). In the course of the century almost 
all German cities of the first rank possessed their respective 
journals. The earliest in Leipzig bears the date 1660. The 
Rostocker Zeitung was founded in 1710. The Hamburgischer 
Correspondent (1714) was originally published under the name 
of Holsteinische Zeitungs-Correspondenz, two years earlier, and 
was almost the only German newspaper which really drew its 
foreign news from " our own correspondent." Berlin had in the 
1 8th century two papers, those of Voss (the Vossische Zeitung, 
1722) and of J. K. P. Spener (1749-1827; the Spener'sche 
Zeitung, or Berlinische Nachrichten, 1772). Some half-dozen 
papers which glimmered in the surrounding darkness were the 
reservoirs whence the rest replenished their little lamps. On the 
whole, it may be said that the German newspapers were of very 
small account until after the outbreak of the French Revolution. 
Meanwhile the MS. news-letters, as in earlier days, continued to 
enjoy a large circulation in Germany. Many came from London. 
The correspondence, for instance, known under the name of 
" Mary Pinearis " that, apparently, of a French refugee 
settled in London had a great German circulation between 
1725 and 1735. Another series was edited by the Cologne 
gazetteer, Jean Ignace de Roderique, also a French refugee, and 
remembered as the subject of a characteristic despatch from 
Frederick II. of Prussia to his envoy in that city, enclosing too 
ducats to be expended hi hiring a stout fellow with a cudgel to 
give a beating to the gazetteer as the punishment of an offensive 
paragraph. 1 The money, it seems, was earned, for Roderique 
was well-nigh killed. At Berlin itself, Franz Hermann Ortgies 
carried on a brisk trade in these news-letters (1728-1735), 
until he too came under displeasure on account of them, was 
kept in prison several months, and then exiled for life. 2 Nor, 
indeed, can any journal of a high order be mentioned of prior 
appearance to the Attgemeine Zeitung, founded at Leipzig by 
the bookseller Cotta (at first under the title of Neueste Weltkunde) 
in 1798. Posselt was its first editor, but his want of nerve and 
perhaps his weak health hindered the application of his high 
powers to political journalism. His articles, too, gave offence 
to the Austrian court, and the paper had to change both its 
title and its place of publication. It had been commenced at 
Tubingen, and removed to Stuttgart; it was now transferred 
to Ulm, and again to Augsburg. It was Cotta's aim to make this 
the organ of statesmen and publicists, to reach the public through 
the thinkers, to hold an even balance between the rival parties 
of the day, and to provide a trustworthy magazine of materials 
for the historians to come; and, in the course of time, his plan 
was so worked out as to raise the Attgemeine Zeitung into European 
fame. Cotta was also the founder, at various periods, of the 
Morgenblatt, which became famous for its critical ability and 
tact, of Vesperus, of Das Inland, of Nemesis, of the Oppositions- 
Malt of Weimar (for a time edited by Bertuch), and even of the 
Archives Parisiennes. 

Whilst French influence was dominant in Germany, the 
German papers were naturally little more than echoes of the 
Parisian press. But amidst the excitements of the " war of 

1 Fr. Kapp, " Berliner geschriebene Zeitungen," in Deutsche Rund- 
schau, xxi. 107-122 (1879), citing Droysen, Zeitschr. f. preuss. Gesch. 
xiii. 1 1 . The story, as told by Droysen, is an instructive commentary 
on Carlyle's praise of Frederick's love of the liberty of the press. ' 

* Kapp, ut supra. 

5 



578 



NEWSPAPERS 



[GERMAN 



liberation " a crowd of new journals appeared. Niebuhr started 
a Preussischer Correspondent; Gorres who in 1798 had founded 
at Coblentz Das rothe Blatt, soon suppressed by the invading 
French undertook the Rheinischer Mercur (January 1814 to 
January 1816), which was suppressed by the Prussian govern- 
ment, under Von Hardenberg. This journal, during its initiatory 
year, had the honour of being termed by Napoleon perhaps 
satirically " the fifth power of Europe." Wetzel, somewhat 
later, founded the Frankischer Mercur, published at Bamberg, 
and Friedrich Seybold the Neckarzeitung. Some of these journals 
lasted but two or three years. Most of the survivors fell victims 
to that resolution of the diet (2oth September 1819) which 
subjected the newspaper press, even of countries where the 
censorship had been formally aboh'shed, to police superintendence 
of a very stringent kind. 

The aspirations for some measure of freedom which burst 
forth again under the influences of 1830 led to the establishment 
of such papers as Siebenpfeiffer's Westbole, Lohbauer's Hodt- 
iviichter, Wirth's Deutsche Tribune, Eisenmann's Baierisches 
Volksblatt, Der Freisinnige of Rotteck and Welcker, and many 
more of much freer utterance than had been heard before in 
Germany. This led, in the ordinary course, to new declarations in 
the diet against the licence and revolutionary tendencies of the 
press, and to " regulations " of a kind which will be sufficiently 
indicated by the mention of one, in virtue whereof no editor of 
a suppressed journal could undertake another journal, during 
the space of five years, within any part of Germany. It need 
hardly be added that few of the newspapers of 1830 saw the 
Christmas of 1832. Very gradually some of the older journals 
and amongst the number the patriarch of all, the Frank- 
furter Oberpostamtszeilung plucked up courage enough to speak 
out a little; and some additional newspapers were again 
attempted. Amongst those which acquired deserved influence 
were Brockhaus's Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, the advocate 
of free trade and of a moderate liberalism, possessing a large 
circulation in northern Germany (1837); the Deutsche Zeitung, 
edited by Gervinus, at Heidelberg (July 1847); and the Dorj- 
zeitung, published at Hildburghausen. The stirring events of 
1848 called forth in Germany, as in so many other countries, a 
plentiful crop of political instructors of the people, many of 
whom manifestly lacked even the capacity to learn, and vanished 
almost as suddenly as they had appeared. But it is undeniable 
that a marked improvement in the ability and energy of the 
German political press may be dated from this period. 

At the beginning of the 2oth century the position and influence 
of the German press were passing through a period of change. 
The Germans had become a newspaper-reading people. Indeed, 
with the remarkable growth of the commercial spirit in Germany 
there had simultaneously been a change in the intellectual 
attitude and habits of the mass of the nation. The German of 
" the great period " of 1866 and 1870 derived his knowledge of 
his own and other countries to a very great extent from the more 
or less intelligent study of books, pamphlets and magazines. 
The busy German of the opening years of the 2oth century had 
become almost as much the slave of his newspaper as the average 
American. Berlin in 1900 had 45 dailies, Leipzig 8, Munich 12, 
Hamburg n, Stuttgart 8, Strassburg 6. In the domains both 
of home and of foreign politics the result was often a chaos of 
crude opinions and impulses, the strata of which were only 
differentiated by certain permanent tendencies of German 
political thought based upon tradition, class feeling, material 
interests, or distinctions of religious creed. In these circum- 
stances it was still possible for the government, as in the days of 
Prince Bismarck and Dr Moritz Busch, to bring its superior 
knowledge to bear upon the anarchy of public sentiment through 
the medium of the inspired (or as it used to be called, the " rep- 
tile ") press, but this operation had now to be performed with 
greater delicacy and skill. The press had begun to feel its power. 
It was at least able to drive a bargain with those who would 
officially control it, and it was conscious in its relations with the 
authorities that the advantage no longer rested exclusively on 
the side of the latter. It would be instructive to compare, with 



the aid of Dr Busch's " Secret Pages " of the history of Prince 
Bismarck, the methods by which the first Chancellor used to 
create and control a movement of public opinion with the devices 
by which, for instance, count von Billow and his subordinates 
endeavoured to manage the press of a later day. The journalists 
who placed themselves at the disposal of Prince Bismarck were 
mostly treated as his menials; as he himself said, " Decent 
people do not write for me." Count von Billow's methods, and 
to a certain extent those of his predecessor, Prince Hohenlohe, 
moved on somewhat different lines. These methods might be 
characterized as the psychological treatment of the individual 
journalist, .the endeavour to appeal to his personal vanity or to 
his legitimate ambition, and only in a minor degree to his fear 
of the dossier, the public prosecutor, and the official boycott. 
There was also a further development of Prince Bismarck's 
system of acknowledging the existence of political and social 
movements the origin of which was wholly or partially inde- 
pendent. As in Bismarck's time, the tendencies of these move- 
ments were carefully observed, and they were turned to account 
where they seemed capable of subserving the main objects of 
state policy. Thus at the opening of the century the pro-Boer 
and agrarian movements were both employed in support of 
German foreign and colonial policy, and of an elaborate scheme 
of naval construction; while the growth of the commercial 
spirit on the one hand and the awakening of the lower middle 
classes on the other, were pressed into the service of Welt-politik 
and of its auxiliary a system of protective tariffs. It required 
no small skill to bring into line and to hold together the various 
classes and interests from time to time arrayed in the press in 
support of German foreign policy. The organs of the govern- 
ment in the press were the sheep-dogs which held the flock 
together. 

The German journals of which foreigners hear most belong with 
few exceptions to the daily press of Berlin. There are, however, 
one or two provincial or non-Prussian newspapers which from time 
to time enjoy more careful inspiration from the government offices 
than any of their Berlin contemporaries. There is, for example, the 
Cologne Gazette (Kolnische Zeitung, 1848), of which Prince Bismarck 
once said that it was " worth an army corps on the Rhine." It is 
difficult to trace all the channels by which information is conveyed 
to an organ of this kind, but there have undoubtedly been times when 
leading articles and entre-filets in the Rhenish organ were virtually or 
actually written in the German Foreign Office. Indeed, the methods 
of the institution which has been called the " Press Bureau," but 
which in the realm of foreign policy at least represented no concrete 
organization, have been so numerous and varied that it would be 
hopeless for any one except the most practised observer to trace their 
manifestations. The advantage of a semi-official press, if it could be 
manipulated with unvarying success, is that it can easily be dis- 
avowed when the suggestions, overtures or menaces of which it has 
been the exponent have served their turn or have become inexpedient. 
Thus during the blockade of Manila in 1898 the Cologne Gazette gave 
all the prominence of its first column and of leaded type to an article 
taken from the Marine Polilische Korrespondenz, which practically 
warned the United States of the intention of Germany to have a 
share in the Pacific possessions of Spain if these should eventually 
change hands. Some ten days later the authority of this menace was 
explicitly disavowed by the North German Gazette, which announced 
that the Marine Politische Korrespondenz had never possessed a 
semi-official character. .The Cologne Gazette continued in the west of 
Germany to serve the 'German government much as it did in the 
time of Prince Bismarck, although for prudential reasons its inspira- 
tion became on the whole more intermittent than it was in the days 
of the first Chancellor. The Hamburgischer Correspondent, the lead- 
ing Hamburg journal, played a minor role of the same nature in the 
chief Hanseatic port, while the Hamburger Nachrichien, celebrated 
especially during the exile of Prince Bismarck and the closing years 
of his life at Friedrichsruh as the receptacle of indiscreet revelations 
and violent attacks upon his successors, almost lost all significance 
except as a local organ of violent Anglophobia. The Allgemeine 
Zeitung of Munich, once famous throughout Europe as the Augs- 
burger Allgemeine Zeitung before its transference to the Bavarian 
capital, became in the hands of new proprietbrs practically an organ 
of the imperial Chancellor. In Prince Bismarck's days the press 
bureau of the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, and a similar organ- 
ization in the Imperial Home Office, used to furnish hundreds of petty 
local newspapers known as Kreis-bldtter with whole articles gratis, so 
that the policy of the government might be advocated in every nook 
and corner of the country. The numerous journals in which these 
communications used to appear simultaneously and in an identical 
form were the government organs to which the Radical and Socialist 



MISCELLANEOUS EUROPEAN] 



NEWSPAPERS 



579 



opposition more particularly applied the term " Reptile Press." 
Later this practice of wholesale inspiration was abandoned, but 
there remained many channels, public and private, through which 
almost every department of the government could communicate 
information and guidance to newspapers in all parts of Germany. 
The Prussian Ministry of the Interior distributed to all and sundry 
a news-letter known as the Berliner Korrespondenz, professing only 
to give statistics and information, and to correct erroneous statements, 
but also frequently containing articles advocating some proposal of 
the government or combating the arguments of its opponents. 
The Siid-Deutsche Reichs-Korrespondenz had a similar character, and 
in 1902 served as an exponent of the policy and tactics of the imperial 
Chancellor, count von Billow. Almost every one of the political 
parties has its Korrespondenz (or news-letter) supplying views rather 
than news. These circular letters deal, in fact, with the policy of the 
party with which they are associated, although they occasionally 
also embody information which the party leaders in the Reichstag or 
in the Prussian Diet have received from representatives of the 
government for their own guidance. They form the means of hold- 
ing the parties together, and of inspiring them with common aims, as 
they are reproduced throughout the country by all the party organs. 

It was in the press of Berlin that the greatest changes took place 
towards the end of the igth century. During the regime of Prince 
Bismarck the North German Gazette, and occasionally the Post, 
used to keep Europe in a state of nervous tension by fulminant com- 
muniques which the great Chancellor himself often dictated, or by 
what he used to call " jets of cold water " (Kaltwasserstrahl), which 
were mostly directed against France or Russia. So far as France arid 
Russia are concerned, a much more pacific tone prevailed in Berlin 
after the conclusion of the Dual Alliance, and it was upon England 
that the press mainly concentrated its attacks. The North German 
Gazette, which was originally established by a private individual, in 
order " to place a blank sheet of paper at the disposal of Prince 
Bismarck," became on the whole, a mere record of home news and 
a summary of foreign intelligence bearing the semi-official stamp 
of Wolff's Telegraph Agency. It had doubtless been found that 
the constant employment of an organ so distinctly official as the 
Norddeutsche Allgemeine as a medium of expression for the views of 
the government was apt to lead to indiscretions which committed 
the authorities too deeply. Indeed, immediately before Prince 
Bismarck's fall he had actually employed this journal in order to 
attack the labour policy of the emperor. Official communications 
still continued to appear in the North German Gazette, but mostly 
characterized by a vagueness and awkwardness of style in striking 
contrast to the force and point of Prince Bismarck's polemics. The 
Imperial Gazette (Reichsanzeiger), corresponding to the London 
Gazette, is purely a record of official intelligence, though on rare 
occasions it publishes in the section marked Nicht Amtlich (non- 
official), some dementi, some statement of policy or some official 
document a proceeding which always requires the express sanction 
of the emperor. 

The journals which in 1880 were most widely read in Berlin, and 
which were best known abroad as the exponents of Berlin opinion, 
were the Liberal or Radical Vossische Zeitung and Berliner Tageblatt, 
and the National Liberal National Zeitung. The Vossische Zeitung, 
the oldest of all the Berlin newspapers, written with a degree of 
literary ability which justified its real title, Koniglich priviligierte 
Berlinische Zeitung fur Slaats- und Gelehrtensachen, held its place. 
The National Zeitung, however (founded in 1848 by Bernhard Wolff, 
the originator of Wolff's news agency), which represented as long as it 
could those vestiges of old German Liberalism which survived in the 
National Liberal party, was compelled to come to an end on January 
1st, 1905. The Kreuz Zeitung represented the " small but mighty 
party " of the reactionary Conservatives and Agrarians in the state, 
and of the orthodox (Lutheran) Protestants in the Church. It was 
the favourite journal of officers in the army, of the Conservative 
gentry (Junker), as well as the medium through which people of 
social standing preferred to announce births, marriages and deaths. 
The Post continued to be subsidized by a small number of industrial 
and rural magnates in the interests of the Reichspartei, or Free 
Conservative party, which for the most part subordinated its views 
to those of the government. The Berliner Neueste Nachrichten, like 
the Post, was a consistent advocate of the development of the German 
navy and of a vigorous Welt-politik. The Boersen Zeitung and the 
Boersen-Courier were organs of the Berlin Stock Exchange; the 
first of a National Liberal colour, and the other expressing the views 
of the Moderate Radicals (Freisinnige Vereinigung) and of opponents 
of extreme protection. The Vorwarts was the central organ of the 
German Social- Democrats, who had established a considerable 
number of other journals throughout Germany. The clericals or 
Centre party were represented by the Germania, less influential than 
the other leading organ of the Roman Catholic " governing party," 
the Kolnische Volks-zeitung. The Deutsche Tageszeitung made 
itself a name by its advocacy of the agrarian movement, while the 
Freisinnige Zeitung (founded, and to a great extent edited, by the 
Radical leader Eugen Richter) represented the Radical point of view. 
Among the provincial papers the Frankfurter Zeitung (Radical) was 
distinguished by the excellence of its news, especially on commercial 
subjects. The Schlesische Zeitung (1752) a leading Conservative 
organ, had continued to appear in Breslau since the days of Frederick 



the Great. The Magdeburger Zeitung and the Hannoversche Courier 
gave an independent or National Liberal support to the government. 
The Weser Zeitung, published at Bremen, was an exponent of the 
Liberalism of the commercial classes, while the Strassburger Post was 
one of the journals which enjoyed government inspiration, and 
helped to maintain die Wacht am Rhein. A considerable number of 
journals, published in the Polish language, advocated the Polish cause 
in the eastern provinces of Prussia. 

Great success attended a new departure in German journalism, 
represented by newspapers like the Berlin Lokal-Anzeiger, describing 
themselves as non-political. The Lokal-Anzeiger, founded by 
August Scherl, who had gained his journalistic experience in America, 
had a circulation in Germany comparable with that of the Petit 
Journal in France, and it exercised a very marked influence upon 
public opinion in Berlin. 

The external form and arrangement of German newspapers is 
often puzzling at first sight to an English reader. There is an 
absence of the striking headlines, which in English journals direct 
attention to news of importance, and which in America almost swamp 
the text. The outside page generally contains the editorial articles 
and the news of most importance, while the intelligence received 
immediately before going to press is placed in the last column of the 
last sheet. The bulk of the paper can apparently be increased in- 
definitely in accordance with the supply of news or literary matter, 
or with the number of advertisements. The Vossische Zeitung on a 
Sunday morning assumes, with its numerous supplementary sheets, 
the dimensions of a thick Blue-book. The quantity of extraneous 
matter, such as articles on literary, social and technical subjects, is 
enormous, and even the most serious political journals invariably 
publish a novel in serial form, as well as numerous novelettes and 
sketches. The local news in Berlin and other large cities is written 
with the minuteness and the familiarity of style of a village chronicle, 
and gives the impression that every one is occupied in observing the 
doings of his neighbour. The signed article is very much in vogue, 
and most writers and salaried correspondents have at least a cypher or 
initial by which they are distinguished. The greatest licence prevails 
in reporting and discussing the affairs of other countries, combined 
with the keenest sensitiveness to foreign criticism of anything that 
concerns Germany. The example of the government is followed in 
advertising the products of German industry, while those of foreigners 
are studiously depreciated. 

6. OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 

Austria-Hungary. At the beginning of 1840 the whole number of 
Austro-German and Hungarian periodicals, of all sorts, was less than 
100, only 22 being (after a fashion) political newspapers; and of 
these nearly all drew their materials and their inspiration from the 
official papers of Vienna (Wiener Zeitung and Oesterreichischer 
Beobachter). These two were all that appeared in the capital. 
Agram, Pesth, Pressburg, Lemberg and Prague had also two each; 
but no other city had more than a single journal. In 1846 the 
aggregate number of periodicals had grown to 155, of which 46 
were political, but political only in the character of mere conduit- 
pipes for intelligence " approved of " by the government. In 1855 
the number of political papers published throughout the entire 
territory under Austrian government, the Italian provinces excepted, 
was 60. The Neue Freie Presse, the chief Vienna daily, was founded 
in 1864. In 1873, ten years after the virtual cessation of a very 
strict censorship, the number of political journals, including all the 
specifically administrative organs, as well local as general, was 267, 
and that of mere advertising papers 42; in 1883 the former number 
had increased to about 280, the latter to about 60. Vienna had in 
1883 in all 1 8 daily newspapers, ten of which ranged in average 
circulation from 14,000 to 54,000 copies. 

In the period from 1880 to 1888 the only notable paper founded in 
Austria, was the Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung (1880). It appeared 
three times daily, but in spite of the impetus communicated to its 
start by the well-known " Freilands " Apostle Theodor Hertzka, it 
soon fell away, and eventually became simply a late evening paper, 
known as the 6 Uhr Abendblatt. It was with the rise of the anti- 
Semitic and Socialistic movements of 1888 onwards that the Vienna 
daily press first began a fresh increase. The Deutsche Volksblatt 
(anti-Semitic) was founded in 1888, the Ostdeutsche Rundschau 
(Radical) in 1893, and the Reichspost (the organ of the Catholic section 
of the Christian Socialist party) in 1894. The Labour movement led 
to the development of the Arbeiterzeitung from a weekly, when it 
succeeded the Gleichheit in 1880, to a daily in 1895. It was therefore 
the first Social Democratic daily of Austria. In 1893 the Neues 
Wiener Journal was founded as a political neutral, and the old 
Presse disappeared in 1894, its place being filled by the weekly 
Reichswehr (military), established in 1888. The French daily paper, 
Le Petit Journal de Vienne, was founded in May 1899. In 1902 
nineteen political dailies were published in Vienna. 

In 1883 the Hungarian journals numbered 170; in 1899 they were 
returned as 764. Budapest, which in 1890 had 14 dailies and 10 
weeklies, in 1900 had 21 and 3 respectively. The leading papers are 
the Budapest Kogtong, the Pester Lloyd and the Budapeste Hirlap. 
Of the German provincial press the most highly developed is in the 
German towns of Bohemia and in Prague, and the foundation of the 
Deutsche Volkszeitung at Reichenberg in 1885 marks the date of 



5 8o 



NEWSPAPERS 



[MISCELLANEOUS EUROPEAN 



separation of the Deutschfortschrittliche and Deutschvolkliche parties, 
while the Radical party, which greatly increased in Bohemia, was 
first represented by the weekly Deutscher Volksbote at Prague, and 
also in 1897 by the Unverfdlschte deutsche Wprte, edited by Iro at 
Eger. A peculiar feature in Austrian journalism is the existence of 
German organs of the Czech national movement, of which the repre- 
sentative is the Prague daily Politik, founded in 1862. In Silesia the 
anti-Semitic Freie Schlesische Presse was founded in 1881 at Troppau, 
and when it changed sides in 1889 it was speedily replaced, 1891, by 
the Deutsche Wehr. In Moravia the representative papers of the 
Czech Conservatives and Radicals were the Mir and the Pozar 
respectively. The newspapers in Galicia, which increased steadily 
after 1870, are both numerous and important. The leading ones are 
the Slovo Polskie in Lemberg and the Glos Naroda in Cracow. In 
1900 there were 161 newspapers in Polish, as against 10 in 1848 and 
50 in 1873. Of the lesser Slavic nations, the Slovenians advanced the 
most, the Slovenski List having started at the end of 1896. In 
Illyrian journalism the chief newspapers founded after 1880 were the 
Crvena Hrvatska (1891), and the Hrvatska Kruno, (1893). An attempt 
at unity amongst the Ruthenian factions in 1 885 to 1 887 produced the 
Mir, while the Ruslan, a daily founded at Lemberg in 1896, advo- 
cated joint action by Poles and Ruthenians. The Bukowyna, 
established in 1885, developed into the organ of " Young Ruthenia," 
and the Bukowinska Widomosty, established in 1895, represented the 
Old Ruthenians. 

The Italian press in Austria was represented in 1900 chiefly by the 
very popular daily Piccolo, published at Trieste ; it had a formidable 
rival in the Mattino, from 1885 to 1898. The Fede e Lavoro, published 
at Roveredo, was the organ of the Catholic Labour party, and 
L'Awenire del Lavoro, at Bozen, that of the Socialists. In Dalmatia 
the Corriere Nazionale, founded in 1896 at Zara and afterwards 
published at Trieste, was the organ of the autonomist Italians, while 
// Dalmata continued to represent the National Liberals. 

Belgium. The Nieuwe Tijdinghen of Antwerp, published by 
Abraham Verhoeven, has been said to date virtually from 1605, in 
which year a " licence for the exclusive retailing of news " was ac- 
corded to him by the archduke Albert and the archduchess Isabella. 
But the claim is conjectural. No copy of any number anterior to 1616 
is now known to exist. It seems probable that the Gazette Extra- 
ordinaris Postlijdinghen, published by Wilhelm Verdussen between 
1637 and 1644, is a continuation of Verhoeven's paper. But, be this as 
it may, that of Verdussen was certainly the foundation of the well- 
known Gazette van Antwerpen, which continued to appear until 1827. 

Bruges had its Nieuwe Tijdinghen uyt verscheyden Quartieren, 
published (in black letter) by Nicholaes Breyghel. When this paper 
was commenced is uncertain, but various numbers of it exist with 
dates between 1637 and 1645. In one of these (26th July 1644) 
a Brusselsche Gazette of the 24th of that month is quoted, apart from 
which citation no Brussels paper is known of earlier date than 16^9. 
When the first number of Le Courier veritable des Pays-Bas made its 
appearance, the publisher (Jean Mommaert) prefaced the first 
number by an address to the reader, in which he says: " I have 
long endeavoured to meet with somebody who would give employ- 
ment to my presses in defending truth against the falsehoods which 
malignity and ignorance send daily abroad. I have at length found 
what I sought, and shall now be able to tell you, weekly, the most 
important things that are going on in the world." This paper 
became afterwards the Gazette de Bruxelles, then Gazette des Pays- 
Bas; and, under the last-named title, it continued to appear until 
1791. The Annales Politiques of Linguet was one of the most re- 
markable of the political journals of Brussels in the l8th century. 
For a time the editor won the favour of the emperor Joseph II. by 
praising his reforms, and the Government subscribed for 1200 copies 
of his paper at two louis d'ors each a year; but here, as in almost 
every other place of residence during his chequered career, Linguet 
at length incurred fine and imprisonment. His journal was re- 
peatedly suppressed, and as often resumed under many modifications 
of title. It was continued in France, in Switzerland (at Lausanne), 
and in England. At one time it was so popular that a printer in 
Brussels regularly and rapidly published a pirated edition of it. 
For a brief period the publication was resumed at Brussels. Mallet 
DuPan was, for a time, a collaborator in the editorship. Linguet 
died by the guillotine in 1794. Le National was a famous paper for 
a short period prior to the revolution of 1830. Soon after its cessa- 
tion its presses were destroyed by the populace on the 26th August 
the official journal, Le Moniteur Beige, was established, " the 
ministry deeming it indispensable to the success of its great political 
enterprise that a journal should be created which might expound its 
views, and act daily upon public opinion " ; and, on decree of the 
regency, it was published accordingly. 

The first newspaper published at Ghent, Gazette van Gent, appeared 
in 1667. Den'Vaderlander, begun in October 1829, was, for a long 
period, one of the most widely circulated of the Flemish journals. 

In 1890 Brussels published 34 papers of various periodicity, among 
which the Moniteur Beige held the lead with a circulation of 90,000, 
while Le National (revived in 1885) and L'Etoile (1869) circulated 
21,000 and 5000 respectively. In 1900 there were 18 dailies and 14 
weeklies, &c. Antwerp had 7 dailies in 1890 and 1 900; Ghent 7 
dailies in 1890 and 6 in 1900; Liege 6 in 1890 and 5 in 1900. The 
halfpenny paper is well established^ 



Holland. The kingdom of the Netherlands has always been rich in 
newspapers, but they have usually had more weight commercially 
than politically. Amsterdam in 1890 had 10 dailies, and in 1900 had 
12 dailies (Algemeen Handelsblad, Nieuivs van den Dag, &c.). In 
1900 the Hague had 6 dailies (Daeblad, Vaderland, &c.) ; and Rotter- 
dam had 5 dailies (Nieuwe Rotteraammer Couranl, &c.). The oldest 
Dutch paper, the Haarlemsche Courant, founded in 1656, is still one 
of the leading journals. 

Italy. The Diario di Roma, although dating only from 1716, may 
claim to have been the patriarch of the Italian press. It lasted for 
nearly a century and a half. During its later years it was a daily 
paper, with a weekly supplement having the somewhat whimsical 
title Notizie del Giorno. Next to this came the Gazzetta Uffiziale di 
Napoli. These and their congeners were published under a rigid 
censorship until far into theigth century, and exercised little influ- 
ence of any kind. The first tentative movement towards a free press 
may, perhaps, be dated from the effort to establish at Milan, in 1818, 
under the editorship of Silvio Pellico, the Conciliatore, in which 
Sirnonde de Sismondi, Gonfalonieri and Romagnosi were fellow- 
writers. But the new journal was suppressed in 1820. The first 
really effectual effort had to wait for the lapse of nearly thirty years. 
L'Opinione was first published in Turin (26th December 1847) after- 
wards in Rome. It had, amongst its many editors, Giacomo Durando 
(a soldier of mark, and twice minister of foreign affairs), Montezenolo, 
Giovini Bianchi and Giacomo Dina. The Florence Diritto, originally 
founded at Turin, in 1851 , by Lorenzo Valeric, was edited successively 
by Macchi, Bargini and Civinini, and as a radical organ attained 
great influence. Counting journals of all kinds, there were published 
in Italy in 1836 185 newspapers; in 1845, 200; in 1856, 311; in 
1864, 450; in 1875, 479. In 1882 the " periodicals " of all kinds 
numbered 1454, and total number of political dailies was 149. In 
1890 Rome published 13 dailies, and in 1900, 10 dailies. The leading 
Roman papers were the Fanfulla, representing the court and govern- 
ment; the Tribuna (5 centimes), a Liberal paper founded in 1883; 
the organ of the Vatican, L'Osservatore Romano; and the popular 
Messageiero. II Secolo (1866) and the Corriere della Sera (1876) are 
issued from Milan. 

Russia, Poland and Finland. The earliest gazette of Moscow 
(Moskovskya Viedomosti) was issued by order of Peter the Great on 
the i6th December 1702, but no copy is known now to exist of earlier 
date than the 2nd January following. The whole gazette of the year 
1703 was reproduced in facsimile by order of Baron de Korff (the 
imperial librarian at St Petersburg) in 1855, on occasion of the 
festival for the 3rd century of Moscow university. The existing 
Viedomosti dates only from 1766. That of St Petersburg dates from 
1718. The historian Karamzin established a short-lived Moscow 
journal (Moskovski Listok), and afterwards at St Petersburg the once 
widely-known Russian Courrier de I'Europe (1802). The profits of 
the successful Invalide Russe (Russki Invalid), established in 1815 by 
Persprovius, were devoted to the sufferers by the war with France. 
Adding to the distinctively political journals those of miscellaneous 
character, the whole number of newspapers published within the 
Russian states Poland and Finland excepted in the year 1835 
was 136; in 1858 that number had grown to 179, of which 82 were 
published in St Petersburg and 15 in Moscow; 132 were printed in 
Russian, 3 in Russian and in German, I in Russian and in Polish, 28 
in German, 8 in French, 3 in English, I in Polish, I in Lithuanian, I in 
Italian. In 1879, under the more liberal rule of Alexander II., the 
number of political and miscellaneous journals had grown to 293, 
and of these 105 were under the direct influence of the Government. 
But, in truth, the period of relaxation of censorship, if strictly ex- 
amined, will be found to have lasted only from 1855 to 1864, when 
repressive measures were again and frequently resorted to. Poland in 
1830 had 49 newspapers. Fifty years later the number was still less 
than 70, of which 54 were in Polish, these numbers including journals 
of all kinds. Finland in 1860 had 24 newspapers, half in Swedish, 
half in Finnish. In 1863 the number had increased to 32, in spite of 
the zealous opposition of Count de Berg, the governor-general, to all 
discussion of political events and " subjects which do not concern the 
people." He was very friendly to journals of gardening and cottage 
economy, and to magazines of light literature, and did not regard 
comic papers with anger provided they kept quite clear of politics. 
The paper which was long the chief Finnish organ, Suometar (founded 
at Helsingfors in 1847), owed much of its popularity to the pains its 
editors took with their correspondence.' The Oulun Wukko-Samomat 
(" Uleaborg Daily News ") was for a considerable period the most 
northerly newspaper of the world, with the one exception of the 
little journal published at Tromso, in Norway. 

In 1880 the whole number of newspapers printed within the 
government of Finland was 46, while the total number of news- 
papers and journals of all kinds published within the whole Russian 
empire during the same year was 608. Of these, 417 were printed 
in the Russian language, 155 of them being official or administrative 
organs; 54 were printed in Polish, 40 in German, II in Lettish, 
10 in French, 7 in Esthonian, 3 in Lithuanian. 

In 1800 St Petersburg had 6 dailies; and in 1900 there were 16 
dailies (the St Petersburgskya Viedomosti, the Novoya Vremja, the 
Journal de St Petersbourg, &c.). Moscow increased from 5 to 8 
dailies (the Moskovskya Viedomosti, &c.). The rest of Russia proper 
produced about 100 newspapers, of which one-third were dailies. 



NEWT 



581 



In Russian Poland about 1 1 papers, one-half being dailies, were 
published at Warsaw in 1900 (Kurier Warsawski, Gazeta Polska, &c.). 

Spain and Portugal. In Spain no newspaper of any kind existed 
earlier than the i8th century, a Gaceta de Madrid starting about 
1726 (an alleged gaceta in 1626 is a myth). Even during the early 
years of the igth century the capital contented itself with a 
single journal, the Diario de Madrid. The Peninsular War and 
the establishment of the Cortes gave the first impulse towards some- 
thing which might be called political journalism, but the change from 
total repression to absolute freedom was too sudden not to be grossly 
abused. The Diario de las Cortes, the Semanario Patriotico (published 
at Cadiz from 1808 to 1811,) and the Aurora Mallorquina (published 
at Palma in 1812-1813) were the first of the new papers that attained 
importance. In 1814 the circulation or receipt in Spain of English 
newspapers was prohibited under penalty of ten years' imprison- 
ment. Most of the native journals fell with the Cortes in 1823. In 
the following year Ferdinand decreed the suppression of all the 
journals except the then Diario and Gaceta of Madrid, the Gaceta de 
Bayona, and certain provincial papers which dealt exclusively with 
commercial or scientific subjects. At the close of his reign only three 
or four papers were published in Madrid. Ten years afterwards 
there were 40; but the number was far more noticeable than the 
value. Spanish newspapers have been too often the mere stepping- 
stones of political adventurers, and not unfrequently the worst of 
them appear to have served the turn more completely than the best. 
Gonzales Bravo attained office mainly by the help of a paper of 
notorious scurrility, El Guirigay. His press-law of 1867 introduced 
a sort of indirect censorship, and a system of " warnings," rather 
clandestine than avowed; and his former rivals met craft with 
craft. The Universal and the Correo were successively the organs of 
Tos6 Salamanca. At the end of 1854 the political journals published 
in Madrid numbered about 40, the most conspicuous being the now 
defunct Espana and El Clamor Publico. In 1890 Madrid published 
38 papers, of which 15 were dailies; but by 1900 they declined to 28, 
of which 19 were dailies. The leading Spanish papers in 1900 were 
El Correo (1879), Monarchicp-Liberal; La Epoca, Conservative; 
El Imparcial, Independent Liberal; La Justicia, an evening Re- 
publican paper; El Liberal, numbering among its contributors the 
best writers without distinction of party ; and El Pais, the organ of 
the Progressives. 

Portugal in 1882 was credited with 179 journals of all kinds and 
of various periodicity. Of this number 68 appeared in Lisbon. The 
strictly political daily papers of Lisbon were 6 in number; those of 
Oporto 3. In 1890 Lisbon published II dailies; and in 1900, 19 
dailies. 

Sweden. In Sweden the earliest regular newspaper appears to 
have been the Ordinarie Post-Tidende of Stockholm, first published 
in 1645, and continued until- 1680, then, after long suspension, re- 
vived under the title Post- och Inrikes-Tidning. Stockholm has also 
its Aftonbladet. The Post-Tidende was followed by the Svensk 
Mercurius (1675-1683) and the Latin Relationes Curiosae (1682- 
1701). In 1742 a Swedish newspaper in French (Gazette Franchise de 
Stockholm) was commenced, and was followed in 1 772 by the Mercure 
de Suede. But the press in Sweden had small political influence until 
1820, when the Argus was established by Johannsen. The strife 
between " classicists " and " romanticists " spread itself in Sweden, 
as in France, from the field of literature into that of politics. Crusen- 
stolpe's Fdderneslandbladet and Hjerta's Aftonbladet, founded in 
1830, were long the most conspicuous of the Swedish journals, the 
former on the side of the royalists, the latter on that of the reformers. 
Hjerta's paper, in its best days, could boast of a circulation of 5000 
copies ; but on the accession of King Oscar it ceased to appear as an 
opposition organ. Almost every town in the provinces now has its 
paper. In 1890 Stockholm had $ dailies and 12 weeklies, &c.; in 
1900 it had 1 1 dailies and 4. weeklies, &c., while 93 provincial towns 
published 197 papers, mostly weeklies, &c. In the period 1890-1894 
a large number of newspapers appeared at Stockholm, but their 
duration was in general very short, often only a few months 
(Lundstadt, Sveriges Periodiska Literatur, ii. 1896). A newspaper in 
Finnish is published at Haparanda. 

Denmark. While Denmark published an Europaische Zeitung as 
early as 1663 and the Danske Mercurius in 1666, the political influ- 
ence of the press is a newer thing in that country than even in 
Sweden. Until 1830 Copenhagen had but two papers, and they filled 
their columns with mild extracts from foreign journals. Real 
activity in this direction dates from the establishment of the pro- 
vincial states in 1834. The Berlingske Tidende dates from 1749, and 
was at first published in German. The Fddrelandet in 1848-1849 was 
in a glow of zeal for Scandinavianism and " Young Denmark. ' In 
1890 Copenhagen produced 8 dailies and 6 weeklies, &c. In 1900 it 
had 12 dailies and 2 weeklies, while 12 1 papers appeared in sixty- 
eight provincial towns. 

Reykjavik (Iceland) published two weekly papers in 1890, and the 
same number in 1900 (Thiodolfr and Isafold). 

Norway. The earliest Norwegian paper was the Christiania 
Intelligentssedler, founded in 1763. Next to this came the Adresse- 
contors Efterretninger (1765), published at Bergen. Den Constitu- 
tionelle absorbed an older paper, called Norske Rigstidende. The 
Morgenblad was founded in 1819. In 1890 Christiania published 12 
papers, of which only three appeared daily; in 1900 only 10 papers 



were produced, but 8 of them were dailies. The Morgenbladet still 
held its rank, and the Aftenposten had a large circulation. 

Switzerland. In 1873 the total number of political and general 
newspapers in Switzerland was 230. In 1881 they numbered 342; 
53 were of daily issue, 166 appeared twice or thrice a week, and 7 
only were of weekly issue. A monthly compendium of the news of 
the day appeared at Rorschach, in the canton of St Gall, as early as 
January 1597. The editor was a German, one Samuel Dilbaum, of 
Augsburg. He varied his titles, so that his monthly newsbooks, 
although really consecutive, do not wear the appearance of serial 
publications. Sometimes he called his issue Historische Relatio, 
sometimes Beschreibung, sometimes Historische Erzdhlung. Switzer- 
jand has since become remarkable for the number of its newspapers 
in proportion to its size. Among the more important may be 
mentioned the Journal de Geribve and the Gazette de Lausanne, both 
Moderate Liberal, and the Catholic Cpurrier de Genkve. La Tribune 
de Genbve (1878) is a leading five-centime paper. 

Greece. The few newspapers that made their sudden appearance 
in Greece during the war of liberation departed as hastily when King 
Otho brought with him a press-law, one of the provisos of which 
demanded caution-money by actual deposit. The journal Saviour 
was established, in 1834, as a Government organ, and was soon 
followed by Athena as the journal of the opposition. Ten years later 
7 distinctively political papers had been established, along with 13 
journals of miscellaneous nature. In 1877 there were, of all sorts, 
8 1 journals, of which 77 appeared in Greek, 2 in Greek and French, 
2 in French only; 37 of these were printed in Athens, 17 in the Ionian 
Islands. In 1890 Athens published 9 dailies and 4 weeklies, &c., and 
in 1900, 10 dailies and 2 weeklies. The chief papers, the Asty and the 
Acropolis, were mainly political and on the Liberal side, as indeed 
were nearly all the Athenian papers. 

Turkey. During the embassy (1795) of Verninac Saint-Maur, 
envoy of the French republic, a French journal was established at 
Pera. This, possibly, is the pioneer of all Turkish newspapers. 
Thirty years later (1825) the Spectateur de I'Orient was founded at 
Smyrna, also by a Frenchman (Alexander Blacquet?). It was after- 
wards published under the titles Courrier and Journal de Smyrne. 
In like manner, the Moniteur Ottoman, first of strictly Constantinp- 
politan journals, was founded by the above-named Blacquet in 
1831. It soon changed its language to Turkish, and was edited by 
Franceschi. The second Smyrna newspaper, Echo de I'Orient, 
established in 1838, was transferred to Constantinople in 1846. But 
not one of these papers has survived. In 1876 the total number of 
journals of all kinds published in the capital was 72 (namely, 20 in 
French, 16 in Turkish, 13 in Armenian, 12 in Greek, n in as many 
other tongues). In 1890 there were 19 papers, in various languages, 
published at Constantinople, most of them dailies; and in 1900 the 
number of papers decreased to 18. They appeared in the following 
languages: the Stamboul and 4 others in French, 3 in Turkish, I in 
Turkish and Greek, 3 in Greek, 2 in Armenian, I in English and 
French, and I each in Arabic, English, Italian and Persian. Smyrna 
published 8 papers, mostly weeklies, in 1890, and the same number 
in 1900. Owing to the number of Mahommedan fasts and feasts 
Turkish newspapers are somewhat irregular in their appearance. 

For the newspapers of other countries (e.g. Japan) or of important 
towns, see under the separate topographical headings. (H. CH.) 

NEWT (a corrupted form from " an evet " or " an effet," a 
term of Anglo-Saxon origin, still used in many parts of England), 
the name usually applied to the aquatic members of the family 
Salamandridae which constitute the genus Molge, formerly 
known as Triton. But the name Triton, applied to these 
Batrachians by N. Laurenti (1768), has already been used by 
Linnaeus (Systema Naturae) for parts of the barnacle (Lepas 
anatifera). B. Merem (1820) proposed to substitute for it the 
name Molge, said to be derived from the Gr. MoX^ijs or M6X7os, 
" slow," in allusion to the movements of these animals on 
land. The similar name Mokh designates these Batrachians in 
German. 

The newts are very closely related to the true Salamanders, 
Salamandra, from which they differ principally in the shape of 
the tail, which is compressed, in relation to their aquatic habits 
during a considerable part of the active period. Their aquatic 
progression is effected principally by means of the tail, and during 
the act of swimming the legs are turned backwards and folded 
against the body and tail, so as to admit of the smallest possible 
degree of resistance. 

A very marked sexual dimorphism prevails in most species 
of this genus, the males being more brilliantly coloured than the 
females and provided with a dorsal crest which attains its greatest 
development during the breeding season, lasting through the 
spring and the early summer. Later in the season the males 
more or less completely lose their crests and other nuptial orna- 
ments, and the two sexes are more alike; they then retire on 



NEWTON, A. NEWTON, SIR C. T. 



land, concealing themselves under stones, logs of wood, or in 
holes in damp earth, but leaving their retreat at night or in wet 
weather. to search for earth-worms and slugs which constitute 
their principal food. In the water they are very destructive of 
tadpoles, insect larvae and crustaceans. 

A remarkable feature of the newts, which they share with the 
other tailed Batrachians and the larvae of the frogs and toads, 
is the great facility with which they regenerate lost parts, such 
as the tail, limbs, and even the eye, a faculty which has 
given rise to a great variety of experiments, from the days of 
Charles Bonnet and Spallanzani to those of the present school 
of Enlwickelungsmechanik. 

Extraordinary as it may appear, considering the abundance of 
these creatures and the attention they have received from naturalists, 
it was only in 1880 that their mode of fecundation was correctly 
ascertained, from observation of the common newt by the Italian 
zoologist F. Gasco. The amorous games of the newts, so graphically 
represented by M. Rusconi, had been repeatedly described, and AbbiS 
Spallanzani, as early as 1766, had ascertained the impregnation to be 
internal. The then current belief that the water served as a vehicle 
to convey the spermatozoa to the female organs had received a blow 
on Karl Theodor von Siebold's discovery of a receptaculum seminis in 
the female, but no satisfactory explanation had been given of the 
manner in which the spermatozoa reach these pouches. This 
mystery Gasco succeeded in elucidating in his masterly paper 
published in 1880, which has since been supplemented by his own 
investigations on the axolotl, and those of E. Zeller, E. O. Jordan and 
others on the European and American newts. 

All who have kept newts in an aquarium have witnessed the curious 
antics of the male placing himself before the female and rapidly 
vibrating his folded tail, or bending his body in a semicircle, as if to 
prevent her from passing ahead of him. The male then emits, at 
short intervals, in front of the female, several conical or bell-shaped 
spermatophores (a gelatinous secretion from the cloaca), adhering 
to the ground and crowned by a spherical mass of spermatozoa, 
which the female afterwards gathers in the lips of her cloaca either 
by mere application or by holding the spermatophpre between her 
hind legs and pressing the mass of spermatozoa into the cloaca, 
whence they ultimately find their way into the lower part of the 
oviducts, where the eggs are fecundated as they descend. 

The larvae are provided with three pairs of long, fringed, plume- 
like external gills, which are not lost until the very last stages of the 
metamorphosis, and, in exceptional cases are even retained through- 
out life, the newt breeding in the branchiate condition, as often 
happens in the axolotl. The fore limbs are developed before the 
hind limbs. 

The genus Molge has a wide distribution, extending over Europe, 
north-west Africa, south-western Asia, eastern temperate Asia 
(China and Japan) and North America as far south as southern 
California and the Rio Grande del Norte. Twenty species are dis- 
tinguished. The British species are the crested newt (M. cristata), 
the common newt (M. vulgaris) and the palmated newt (M. palmata). 
The first is the largest, and measures 4 to 6 in. The skin is more or 
less rugose, with granular warts, a strong fold extends across the 
throat, and the male is provided with a very high dentate dorsal 
crest which is interrupted over the sacral region ; the upper parts are 
dark, with more or less xlistinct black spots; the sides are speckled 
with white, and the lower parts are yellow or orange, spotted or 
marbled with black; a silvery stripe adorns the side of the tail in the 
male. The common and the palmated newts are smaller, 2\ to 4 in. 
in length, and have a smooth skin. The dorsal crest of the male is 
high and festooned in the former, low and straight-edged in the 
latter; during the breeding season the feet of the common newt are 
lobate like a grebe's, whilst they are webbed like a duck's in the 
palmated newt, which is further distinguished in having the tail 
truncate and terminating in a filament. 

_ It is a remarkable fact that, although related so closely and occur- 
ring so frequently together in pools of small extent, the common and 
palmated newts are not known ever to produce hybrids, whilst the 
crested newt, when coexisting (in some parts of France) with a 
south-western ally, the beautiful Molge marmorata, to which it is by 
no means more nearly akin than are the two above-named species 
to each other, regularly gives rise to the form known as M. blasii, 
which has been proved to be a cross between M. cristata and M. 
marmorata. 

Principal references: G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Batrachia 
Gradienlms. Caudata (1882); J. de Bedriaga, Lurchfauna Europas, 

Ur ?* ela (1897); F. Gasco, "Sviluppo del Tritone alpestre," 
it"^i ift ^f??' xvi ' < I88 ); E - Ze er, " Befruchtung bei den 
!u? ,7 %****/* ** (1890) and li. (1891); M Rusconi, 
Amiursdes Salamandres aquatiques (1821); W. Wolterstorff, " Uber 

isu, Zool. Jahrb., Syst., xix. p. 647 (1904) 
NEWTON. ALFRED (1820-1007), English zoologist, was born 
at Geneva on the nth of June 1829. In 1854 he was elected 
travelling fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, of which he 



had been an undergraduate, and subsequently visited many parts 
of the world, including Lapland, Iceland, Spitsbergen, the West 
Indies and North America. In 1866 he became the first professor 
of zoology and comparative anatomy at Cambridge, a position 
which he retained till his death. His services to ornithology and 
zoogeography were recognized by the Royal Society in 1900, 
when it awarded him a Royal medal. He wrote many books, 
including Zoology of Ancient Europe (1862), Ootheca WoUeyana 
(begun in 1864), Zoology (1872), and a Dictionary of Birds (1893- 
1896). The last, still a standard work, was an amplification of 
the numerous articles on birds which he contributed to the 9th 
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and which with com- 
paratively slight revision are retained in the present edition. He 
contributed many memoirs to scientific societies, and edited The 
Ibis (1865-1870), the Zoological Record (1870-1872), and Yarrell's 
British Birds (1871-1882). He died at Cambridge on the 7th of 
June 1907. 

NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894), British 
archaeologist, was born on the i6th of September 1816, at 
Bredwardine in Herefordshire, and educated at Shrewsbury 
School and Christ Church, Oxford. He entered the British 
Museum in 1840 as an assistant in the Antiquities Department. 
Antiquities, classical, Oriental and medieval, as well as ethno- 
graphical objects, were at the time included in one department, 
which had no classical archaeologist among its officers. In 
1852 Newton quitted the Museum to become vice-consul at 
Mitylene, with the object of exploring the coasts and islands 
of Asia Minor. Aided by funds supplied by Lord Stratford de 
Redcliffe, then British ambassador at Constantinople, he made 
in 1852 and 1855 important discoveries of inscriptions at the 
island of Calymnos, off the coast of Caria; and in 1856-1857 
achieved the great archaeological exploit of his life by the 
discovery of the remains of the mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 
one of the " seven wonders " of the ancient world. He was 
greatly assisted by Murdoch Smith, afterwards celebrated in 
connexion with Persian telegraphs. The results were described 
by Newton in his History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus (1862- 
1863), written in conjunction with R. P. Pullan, and in his 
Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (1865). These works 
included particulars of other important discoveries, especially 
at Branchidae, where he disinterred the statues which had 
anciently lined the Sacred Way, and at Cnidos, where R. P. 
Pullan, acting under his direction, found the colossal lion now 
in the British Museum. 

In 1855 Newton declined the regius professorship of Greek at 
Oxford. In 1860 he was made British consul at Rome, but had 
scarcely entered upon the post when an opportunity presented 
itself of reorganizing the amorphous department of antiquities 
at the British Museum, which was divided into three and ulti- 
mately four branches. The Greek and Roman section naturally 
fell to Newton, who returned as Keeper, and held the office until 
1885, declining the offer of the principal librarianship made to 
him in 1878. The Mausoleum Room, to accommodate the 
treasures he had found in Asia Minor, was built under his super- 
vision, but the most brilliant episode of his administration was 
the acquisition of the Blacas and Castellani gems and sculptures. 
The Farnese and Pourtales collections were also acquired by him. 
He took a leading part in the foundation of the Society for the 
Promotion of Hellenic Studies, the British School at Athens, 
and the Egypt Exploration Fund. He was Yates professor of 
classical archaeology at University College, London, from 1880 
to 1888. His collected Essays on Art and Archaeology were 
published in 1886. When, on his retirement from the Museum, 
his bust by Boehm, now placed in one of the sculpture galleries, 
was presented to him as a testimonial, he desired the unexpended 
balance to be given to the school at Athens. After his retirement 
he was much occupied with the publication of the Greek inscrip- 
tions in the British Museum, but his health failed greatly in the 
latter years of his life. He died at Margate on the 28th of 
November 1894. He married in 1861 the daughter of his 
successor in the consulate at Rome, the painter Severn, herself 
a distinguished artist. She died in 1866. (R. G.) 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



583 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727), English natural philo- 
sopher, was born on the 25th of December 1642 (o.s.), at Wools- 
thorpe, a hamlet in the parish of Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, 
about 6 m. from Grantham. His father (also Isaac Newton) 
who farmed a small freehold property of his own, died before his 
son's birth, a few months after his marriage to Hannah Ayscough, 
a daughter of James Ayscough of Market-Overton. When 
Newton was little more than two years old his mother married 
Barnabas Smith, rector of North Witham. Of this marriage 
there was issue, Benjamin, Mary and Hannah Smith, and to their 
children Sir Isaac Newton subsequently left the greater part 
of his property. After having acquired the rudiments of educa- 
tion at two small schools in hamlets close to Woolsthorpe, 
Newton was sent at the age of twelve to the grammar school of 
Grantham. While attending Grantham school Newton lived 
in the house of Mr Clark, an apothecary of that town. According 
to his own confession he was far from industrious, and stood 
very low in his class. An unprovoked attack from the boy next 
above him led to a fight, in which Newton's pluck gave him the 
victory. This success seems to have led him to greater exertions, 
and he rose to be the head boy of the school. He displayed 
very early a taste and an aptitude for mechanical contrivances. 
He made windmills, water-clocks, kites and dials, and he is said 
to have invented a four-wheeled carriage which was to be moved 
by the rider. In 1656 Mr Smith died, and Newton's mother 
came back with her three children to Woolsthorpe. Newton 
was then in his fifteenth year, and, as his mother in all probability 
intended him to be a farmer, he was taken away from school. He 
was frequently sent on market days to Grantham with an old 
and trusty servant, who made all the purchases, while Newton 
spent his time among the books in Mr Clark's house. It soon 
became apparent to Newton's relatives that they were making 
a great mistake in attempting to turn him into a farmer, 
and he was therefore sent back again to school at Grantham. 
His mother's brother, William Ayscough, the rector of Burton 
Goggles, the next parish, was a graduate of Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and when he found that Newton's mind was wholly 
devoted to mechanical and mathematical problems, he urged 
upon Mrs Smith the desirability of sending her son to his own 
college. He was accordingly admitted a member of Trinity 
College on the sth of June 1661, as a subsizar, and was matricu- 
lated on the Sth of July. We have scarcely any information 
as to his attainments when he commenced residence, and very 
little as to his studies as an undergraduate. It is known that 
while still at Woolsthorpe Sanderson's Logic had been read by 
him to such purpose that his tutor at Trinity College excused 
his attendance at a course of lectures on that subject. Newton 
tells us himself that, when he had purchased a book on astrology 
at Stourbridge fair, a fair held close to Cambridge, he was unable, 
on account of his ignorance of trigonometry, to understand a 
figure of the heavens which was drawn in this book. He therefore 
bought an English edition of Euclid with an index of propositions 
at the end of it, and, having turned to two or three which he 
thought likely to remove his difficulties, he found them so self- 
evident that he put aside Euclid " as a trifling book," and 
applied himself to the study of Descartes's Geometry. It is 
reported that in his examination for a scholarship at Trinity, 
to which he was elected on the 28th of April 1664, he was 
examined in Euclid by Dr Isaac Barrow, who formed a poor 
opinion of his knowledge, and that in consequence Newton 
was led to read the Elements again with care, and thereby to 
form a more favourable estimate of Euclid's merits. 

The study of Descartes's Geometry seems to have inspired 
Newton with a love of the subject, and to have introduced him 
to the higher mathematics. In a small commonplace book, 
bearing on the seventh page the date of January 1663/1664, 
there are several articles on angular sections, and the squaring 
of curves and " crooked lines that may be squared," several 
calculations about musical notes, geometrical propositions from 
Francis Vieta and Frans van Schooten, annotations out of Wallis's 
Arithmetic of Infinities, together with observations on refraction, 
on the grinding of " spherical optic glasses," on the errors of lenses 



and the method of rectifying them, and on the extraction of 
all kinds of roots, particularly those " in affected powers." 
And in this same commonplace book the following entry made by 
Newton himself, many years afterwards, gives a further account 
of the nature of his work during the period when he was an 
undergraduate : 

" July 4, 1699. By consulting an account of my expenses at 
Cambridge, in the years 1663 and 1664, I find that in the year 1664 
a little before Christmas, I, being then Senior Sophister, bought 
Schooten's Miscellanies and Cartes' Geometry (having read this 
Geometry and Oughtred's Clavis clean over half a year before), and 
borrowed Wallis's works, and by consequence made these annotations 
out of Schooten and Wallis, in winter between the years 1664 and 
1665. At such time I found the method of Infinite Series; and in 
summer 1665, being forced from Cambridge by the plague, I com- 
puted the area of the Hyperbola at Boothby, in Lincolnshire, to 
two and fifty figures by the same method." 

That Newton must have begun early to make careful observa- 
tions of natural phenomena is sufficiently testified by the follow- 
ing remarks about halos, which appear in his Optics, book ii. 
part iv. obs. 13: 

" The like Crowns appear sometimes about the moon; for in the 
beginning of the Year 1664, February igth, at night, I saw two 
such Crowns about her. The Diameter of the first or innermost 
was about three Degrees, and that of the second about five Degrees 
and an half. Next about the moon was a Circle of white, and next 
about that the inner Crown, which was of a bluish green within 
next the white, and of a yellow and red without, and next about 
these Colours were blue and green on the inside of the Outward 
Crown, and red on the outside of it. At the same time there appear'd 
a Halo about 22 Degrees 35' distant from the center of the moon. 
It was elliptical, and its long Diameter was perpendicular to the 
Horizon, verging below farthest from the moon." 

In January 1665 Newton took the degree of B.A. The persons 
appointed (in conjunction with the proctors, John Slade of 
Catharine Hall, and Benjamin Pulleyn of Trinity College, 
Newton's tutor) to examine the questionists were John Eachard 
of Catharine Hall and Thomas Gipps of Trinity College. It 
is a curious accident that we have no information about the 
respective merits of the candidates for a degree in this year, 
as the " ordo senioritatis " of the bachelors of arts for the year 
is omitted in the " Grace Book." 

It is supposed that it was in 1665 that the method of fluxions 
first occurred to Newton's mind. There are several papers 
still existing in Newton's handwriting bearing dates 1665 and 
1666 in which the method is described, in some of which dotted 
or dashed letters are used to represent fluxions, and in some of 
which the method is explained without the use of dotted letters. 

Both in 1665 and in 1666 Trinity College was dismissed on 
account of the plague. On each occasion it was agreed, as 
appears by entries in the " Conclusion Book " of the college, 
bearing dates August 7th, 1665, and June 22nd, 1666, and signed 
by the master of the college, Dr Pearson, that all fellows and 
scholars who were dismissed on account of the pestilence be allowed 
one month's commons. Newton must have left college before 
August 1665, as his name does not appear in the list of those 
who received extra commons on that occasion, and he tells us him- 
self in the extract from his commonplace book already quoted 
that he was " forced from Cambridge by the plague " in the 
summer of that year. He was elected a fellow of his college on 
the ist of October 1667. There were nine vacancies, one of which 
was caused by the death of Abraham Cowley in the previous 
summer, and the nine successful candidates were all of the same 
academical standing. A few weeks after his election to a 
fellowship Newton went to Lincolnshire, and did not return to 
Cambridge till the February following. On the i6th of March 
1668 he took his degree of M.A. 

During the years 1666 to 1669 Newton's studies were of a 
very varied kind. It is known that he purchased prisms and 
lenses on two or three several occasions, and also chemicals 
and a furnace, apparently for chemical experiments; but he 
also employed part of his time on the theory of fluxions and other 
branches of pure mathematics. He wrote a paper Analysis 
per Equationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas, which he put, pro- 
bably in June 1669, into the hands of Isaac Barrow (then 
Lucasian professor of mathematics), at the same time giving him 



5 8 4 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



permission to communicate the contents to their common friend 
John Collins (1624-1683), a mathematician of no mean order. 
Barrow did this on the 3ist of July 1669, but kept the name of 
the author a secret, and merely told Collins that he was a friend 
staying at Cambridge, who had a powerful genius for such 
matters. In a subsequent letter on the 2oth of August, Barrow 
expressed his pleasure at hearing the favourable opinion which 
Collins had formed of the paper, and added, " the name of the 
author is Newton, a fellow of our college, and a young man, 
who is only in his second year since he took the degree of master 
of arts, and who, with an unparalleled genius (eximio quo est 
acumine), has made very great progress in this branch of mathe- 
matics." Shortly afterwards Barrow resigned his chair, and was 
instrumental in securing Newton's election as his successor. 
Newton was elected Lucasian professor on the 2gth of October 
1669. It was his duty as professor to lecture at least once a week 
in term time on some portion of geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, 
geography, optics, statics, or some other mathematical subject, 
and also for two hours in the week to allow an audience to any 
student who might come to consult with the professor on any 
difficulties he had met with. The subject which Newton chose 
for his lectures was optics. The success which attended his 
researches in optics must have been great, although the results 
were known only through his own oral lectures, until he presented 
an account of them to the Royal Society in the spring of 1672. 
On the 2ist of December 1671 he was proposed as a candidate 
for admission into the Royal Society by Dr Seth Ward, bishop 
of Salisbury, and on the nth of January 1672 he was elected a 
fellow of the Society. At the meeting at which Newton was 
elected a description of a reflecting telescope which he had in- 
vented was read, and " it was ordered that a letter should be 
written by the secretary to Mr Newton to acquaint him of his 
election into the Society, and to thank him for the communication 
of his telescope, and to assure him that the Society would take 
care that all right should be done him with respect to this 
invention." 

In his reply to the secretary on the i8th of January 1672, 
Newton writes: 

" I desire that in your next letter you would inform me for what 
time the society continue their weekly meetings; because, if they 
continue them for any time, I am purposing them to be considered 
of and examined an account of a philosophical discovery, which 
induced me to the making of the said telescope, and which I doubt 
not but will prove much more grateful than the communication of 
that instrument being in my judgment the oddest if not the most 
considerable detection which hath hitherto been made into the 
operations of nature." 

The promise here made was fulfilled in a communication 
which Newton addressed to Henry Oldenburg, the secretary of 
the Royal Society, on the 6th of February 1672, and which was 
read before the socfety two days afterwards. The whole is 
printed in No. 80 of the Philosophical Transactions. 

After explaining his discovery of the composition of white light, he 
proceeds : 

" When I understood this, I left off my aforesaid Glass works; for 
I saw, that the perfection of Telescopes was hitherto limited, not so 
much for want of glasses truly figured according to the prescriptions 
of Optick Authors (which all men have hitherto imagined), as 
because that Light itself is a Heterogeneous mixture of differently 
refrangible Rays. So that, were a glass so exactly figured as to 
collect any one sort of rays into one point, it could not collect those 
also into the same point, which having the same Incidence upon the 
same Medium are apt to suffer a different refraction. Nay, I 
wondered, that seeing the difference of refrangibility was so great, as 
I found it, Telescopes should arrive to that perfection they are 
now at." 

He then points out why " the object-glass of any Telescope cannot 
collect all the rays which come from one point of an object, so as to 
make them convene at its/oes in less room than in a circular space, 
whose diameter is the 5oth part of the Diameter of its Aperture: 
which is an irregularity some hundreds of times greater, than a 
circularly figured Lens, of so small a section as the Object-glasses of 
long Telescopes are, would cause by the unfitness of its figure, were 
Light uniform." He adds: "This made me take reflections into 
consideration, and finding them regular, so that the Angle of Reflec- 
tion of all sorts of Rays was equal to their Angle of Incidence; I 
understood, that by their mediation Optick instruments might be 
brought to any degree of perfection imaginable, provided a Re- 
flecting substance could be found, which would polish as finely as 



Glass, and reflect as much light, as glass transmits, and the art of 
communicating to it a Parabolick figure be also attained. But these 
seemed very great difficulties, and I have almost thought them 
insuperable, when I further considered, that every irregularity in a 
reflecting superficies makes the rays stray 5 or 6 times more out of 
their due course, than the like irregularities in a refracting one; so 
that a much greater curiosity would be here requisite, than in figuring 
glasses for Refraction. 

" Amidst these thoughts I was forced from Cambridge by the 
Intervening Plague, and it was more than two years before I pro- 
ceeded further. But then having thought on a tender way of polish- 
ing, proper for metall, whereby, as I imagined, the figure also would 
be corrected to the last ; I began to try, what might be effected in 
this kind, and by degrees so far perfected an Instrument (in the 
essential parts of it like that I sent to London), by which I could 
discern Jupiters 4 Concomitants, and shewed them divers times to 
two others of my acquaintance. I could also discern the Moon-like 
phase of Venus, but not very distinctly, nor without some niceness in 
disposing the Instrument. 

" From that time I was interrupted till this last Autumn, when I 
made the other. And as that was sensibly better than the first 
(especially for Day-Objects), so I doubt not, but they will be still 
brought to a much greater perfection by their endeavours, who, as 
you inform me, are taking care about it at London." 

After a remark that microscopes seem as capable of improvement 
as telescopes, he adds: " I shall now proceed to acquaint you with 
another more notable difformity in its Rays, wherein the Origin of 
Colour is unfolded : Concerning which I shall lay down the Doctrine 
first, and then, for its examination, give you an instance or two of the 
Experiments, as a specimen of the rest. The Doctrine you will find 
comprehended and illustrated in the following propositions : 

" i. As the Rays of light differ in degrees of Refrangibility, so 
they also differ in their disposition to exhibit this or that particular 
colour. Colours are not Qualifications of Light, derived from Refrac- 
tions, or Reflections of natural Bodies (as 'tis generally believed), 
but original and connate properties, which in divers Rays are divers. 
Some Rays are disposed to exhibit a red colour and no other; some a 
yellow and no other, some a green and no other, and so of the rest. 
Nor are there only Rays proper and particular to the more eminent 
colours, but even to all their intermediate gradations. 

" 2. To the same degree of Refrangibility ever belongs the same 
colour, and to the same colour ever belongs the same degree of 
Refrangibility. The least Refrangible Rays are all disposed to 
exhibit a Red colour, and contrarily those Rays, which are disposed 
to exhibit a Red colour, are all the least Refrangible: So the most 
refrangible Rays are all disposed to exhibit a deep Violet Colour, 
and contrarily those which are apt to exhibit such a violet colour 
are all the most Refrangible. 

" And so to all the intermediate colours in a continued series 
belong intermediate degrees of refrangibility. And this Analogy 
'twixt colours, and refrangibility is very precise and strict; the 
Rays always either exactly agreeing in both, or proportionally 
disagreeing in both. 

" 3. The species of colour, and degree of Refrangibility proper to 
any particular sort of Rays, is not mutable by Refraction, nor by 
Reflection from natural bodies, nor by any other cause, that I could 
yet observe. When any one sort of Rays hath been well parted 
from those of other kinds, it hath afterwards obstinately retained 
its colour, notwithstanding my utmost endeavours to change it. I 
have refracted it with Prismes, and reflected it with Bodies, which 
in Day-light were of other colours; I have intercepted it with the 
coloured film of Air interceding two compressed plates of glass, 
transmitted it through coloured Mediums, and through Mediums 
irradiated with other sorts of Rays, and diversly terminated it ; and 
yet could never produce any new colour out of it. It would by 
contracting or dilating become more brisk, or faint, and by the loss 
of many Rays, in some cases very obscure and dark; but I could 
never see it changed in specie. 

" Yet seeming transmutations of Colours may be made, where 
there is any mixture of divers sorts of Rays. For in such mixtures, 
the component colours appear not, but, by their mutual allaying 
each other constitute a midling colour." 

Further on, after some remarks on the subject of compound colours, 
be says: " I might add more instances of this nature, but I shall 
:onclude with this general one, that the Colours of all natural Bodies 
have no other origin than this, that they are variously qualified 
to reflect one sort of light in greater plenty then another. And this 
1 have experimented in a dark Room by illuminating those bodies 
with uncompounded light of divers colours. For by that means any 
aody may be made to appear of any colour. They have there no 
appropriate colour, but ever appear of the colour of the light cast 
upon them, but yet with this difference, that they are most brisk 
and vivid in the light of their own day-light colour. Minium 
appeareth there of any colour indifferently, with which 'tis illustrated, 
jut yet most luminous in red, and so Bise appeareth indifferently of 
any colour with which 'tis illustrated, but yet most luminous in 
:>lew. And therefore minium reflecteth Rays of any colour, but 
most copiously those indued with red; and consequently when 
'llustrated with day-light, that is with all sorts of Rays promiscuously 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



585 



blended, those qualified with red shall abound most in the reflected 
light, and by their prevalence cause it to appear of that colour. 
And for the same reason Bise, reflecting blew most copiously, shall 
appear blew by the excess of those Rays in its reflected light; and 
the like of other bodies. And that this is the intire and adequate 
cause of their colours, is manifest, because they have no power to 
change or alter the colours of any sort of Rays incident apart, but 
put on all colours indifferently, with which they are inlightened. 

" Reviewing what I have written, I see the discourse it self will 
lead to divers Experiments sufficient for its examination: And 
therefore I shall not trouble you further, than to describe one of 
those, which I have already insinuated. 

" In a darkened Room make a hole in the shut of a window whose 
diameter may conveniently be about a third part of an inch, to 
admit a convenient quantity of the Suns light: And there place a 
clear and colourless Prisme, to refract the entring light towards the 
further part of the Room, which, as I said, will thereby be diffused 
into an oblong coloured Image. Then place a Lens of about three foot 
radius (suppose a broad Object-glass of a three foot Telescope), at 
the distance of about four or five foot from thence, through which all 
those colours may at once be transmitted, and made by its Refraction 
to convene at a further distance of about ten or twelve feet. If at 
that distance you intercept this light with a sheet of white paper, you 
will see the colours converted into whiteness again by being mingled. 

" But it is requisite, that the Prisme and Lens be placed steddy, 
and that the paper, on which the colours are cast be moved to and 
fro; for, by such motion, you will not only find, at what distance 
the whiteness is most perfect but also see, how the colours gradually 
convene, and vanish into whiteness, and afterwards having crossed 
one another in that place where they compound Whiteness, are again 
dissipated and severed, and in an inverted order retain the same 
colours, which they had before they entered the composition. You 
may also see, that, if any of the Colours at the Lens be intercepted, 
the Whiteness will be changed into the other colours. And therefore, 
that the composition of whiteness be perfect, care must be taken, 
that none of the colours fall besides the Lens." 

He concludes his communication with the words: " This, I 
conceive, is enough for an Introduction to Experiments of this kind : 
which if any of the R. Society shall be so curious as to prosecute, I 
should be very glad to be informed with what success: That, if any 
thing seem to be defective, or to thwart this relation, I may have an 
opportunity of giving further direction about it, or of acknowledging 
my errors, if I have committed any." 

The publication of these discoveries led to a series of con- 
troversies which lasted for several years, in which Newton had 
to contend with the eminent English natural philosopher Robert 
Hooke; Lucas, mathematical professor at Liege; Linus, a physician 
in Liege, and many others. Some of his opponents denied the 
truth of his experiments, refusing to believe in the existence of the 
spectrum. Others criticized the experiments, saying that the 
length of the spectrum was never more than three and a half 
times the breadth, whereas Newton found it to be five times 
the breadth. It appears that Newton made the mistake of 
supposing that all prisms would give a spectrum of exactly the 
same length ; the objections of his opponents led him to measure 
carefully the lengths of spectra formed by prisms of different 
angles and of different refractive indices; and it seems strange 
that he was not led thereby to the discovery of the different 
dispersive powers of different refractive substances. 

Newton carried on the discussion with the objectors with great 
courtesy and patience, but the amount of pain which these 
perpetual discussions gave to his sensitive mind may be estimated 
from the fact of his writing on the iSth of November 1676 to 
Oldenburg: 

" I promised to send you an answer to Mr Lucas this next Tuesday, 
but I find I shall scarce finish what I have designed, so as to get a 
copy taken of it by that time, and therefore I beg your patience a 
week longer. I see I nave made myself a slave to philosophy, but if 
I get free of Mr Lucas's business, I will resolutely bid adieu to it 
eternally, excepting what I do for my private satisfaction, or leave 
to come out after me; for I see a man must either resolve to put out 
nothing new, or to become a slave to defend it." 

It was a fortunate circumstance that these disputes did not so 
thoroughly damp Newton's ardour as he at the time felt they 
would. He subsequently published many papers in the Philo- 
sophical Transactions on various parts of the science of optics, 
and, although some of his views have been found to be erroneous, 
and are now almost universally rejected, his investigations 
led to discoveries which are of permanent value. He succeeded in 
explaining the colour of thin and of thick plates, and the inflexion 
of light, and he wrote on double refraction, polarization and 



binocular vision. He also invented a reflecting sextant for 
observing the distance between the moon and the fixed stars, 
the same in every essential as the instrument which is still in 
everyday use at sea under the name of Hadley's quadrant. 
This discovery was communicated by him to Edmund Halley 
in 1700, but was not published, or communicated to the Royal 
Society, till after Newton's death, when a description of it was 
found among his papers. 

In March 1673 Newton took a prominent part in a dispute in 
the university. The public oratorship fell vacant, and a contest 
arose between the heads of the colleges and the members of the 
senate as to the mode of electing to the office. The heads 
claimed the right of nominating two persons, one of whom was 
to be elected by the senate. The senate insisted that the proper 
mode was by an open election. The duke of Buckingham, who 
was the chancellor of the university, endeavoured to effect a 
compromise which, he says, " I hope may for the present satisfy 
both sides. I propose that the heads may for this time nominate 
and the body comply, yet interposing (if they think fit) a pro- 
testation concerning their plea that this election may not here- 
after pass for a decisive precedent in prejudice of their claim," 
and, " whereas I understand that the whole university has 
chiefly consideration for Dr Henry Paman of St John's and Mr 
Craven of Trinity College, I do recommend them both to be 
nominated." The heads, however, nominated Dr Paman and 
Ralph Sanderson of St John's, and the next day one hundred and 
twenty-one members of the senate recorded their votes for 
Craven and ninety-eight for Paman. On the morning of the 
election a protest in which Newton's name appeared was read, and 
entered in the Regent House. But the vice-chancellor admitted 
Paman the same morning, and so ended the first contest of a 
non-scientific character in which Newton took part. 

On the 8th of March 1673 Newton wrote to Oldenburg, the 
secretary of the Royal Society: 

" Sir, I desire that you will procure that I may be put out from 
being any longer Fellow of the Royal Society: for though I honour 
that body, yet since I see I shall neither profit them, nor (by reason 
of this distance) can partake of the advantage of their assemblies, I 
desire to withdraw." 

Oldenburg must have replied to this by an offer to apply to the 
Society to excuse Newton the weekly payments, as in a letter of 
Newton's to Oldenburg, dated the 23rd of June 1673, ne says, 
" For your proffer about my quarterly payments, I thank you, 
but I would not have you trouble yourself to get them excused, 
if you have not done it already." Nothing further seems to have 
been done in the matter until the 28th of January 1675, when 
Oldenburg informed " the Society that Mr Newton is now in such 
circumstances that he desires to be excused from the weekly 
payments." Upon this " it was agreed to by the council that he 
be dispensed with, as several others are." On the i8th of February 

1675 Newton was formally admitted into the Society. The 
most probable explanation of the cause why Newton wished to be 
excused from these payments is to be found in the fact that, as 
he was not in holy orders, his fellowship at Trinity College would 
lapse in the autumn of 1675. It is true that the loss to his income 
which this would have caused was obviated by a patent from 
the crown in April 1675, allowing him as Lucasian professor 
to retain his fellowship without the obligation of taking holy 
orders. This must have relieved Newton's mind from a great deal 
of anxiety about pecuniary matters, as we find him in November 

1676 subscribing 40 towards the building of the new library of 
Trinity College. 

It is supposed that it was at Woolsthorpe in the summer of 
1666 that Newton's thoughts were directed to the subject of 
gravity. Voltaire is the authority for the well-known anecdote 
about the apple. He had his information from Newton's 
favourite niece Catharine Barton, who married Conduitt, a 
fellow of the Royal Society, and one of Newton's intimate 
friends. How much truth there is in what is a plausible and a 
favourite story can never be known, but it is certain that tradition 
marked a tree as that from which the apple fell, till 1820, when, 
owing to decay, the tree was cut down and its wood carefully 
preserved. 



586 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



Johann Kepler had proved by an elaborate series of measure- 
ments that each planet revolves in an elliptical orbit round the 
sun, whose centre occupies one of the foci of the orbit, that the 
radius vector of each planet drawn from the sun describes equal 
areas in equal times, and that the squares of the periodic times 
of the planets are in the same proportion as the cubes of their 
mean distances from the sun. The fact that heavy bodies have 
always a tendency to fall to the earth, no matter at what height 
they are placed above the earth's surface, seems to have led 
Newton to conjecture that it was possible that the same tendency 
to fall to the earth was the cause by which the moon was retained 
in its orbit round the earth. Newton, by calculating from 
Kepler's laws, and supposing the orbits of the planets to be 
circles round the sun in the centre, had already proved that the 
force of the sun acting upon the different planets must vary 
as the inverse square of the distances of the planets from the sun. 
He therefore was Jed to inquire whether, if the earth's attraction 
extended to the moon, the force at that distance would be of the 
exact magnitude necessary to retain the moon in its orbit. He 
found that the moon by her motion in her orbit was deflected from 
the tangent in every minute of time through a space of thirteen 
feet. But by observing the distance through which a body 
would fall in one second of time at the earth's surface, and by 
calculating from that on the supposition of the force diminishing 
in the ratio of the inverse square of the distance, he found that the 
earth's attraction at the distance of the moon would draw a 
body through 15 ft. in i min. Newton regarded the discrepancy 
between the results as a proof of the inaccuracy of his conjecture, 
and " laid aside at that time any further thoughts of this matter." 
But in 1679 a controversy between Hooke and Newton, about 
the form of the path of a body falling from a height, taking 
the motion of the earth round its axis into consideration, led 
Newton again to revert to his former conjectures on the moon. 
The measure of the earth, which had hitherto been accepted by 
geographers and navigators, was based on the very rough 
estimate that the length of a degree of latitude of the earth's 
surface measured along a meridian was 60 m. More accurate 
estimates had been made by R. Norwood and W. Snell, and more 
recently by P. Picard. At a meeting of the Royal Society on the 
nth of January 1672, Oldenburg the secretary read a letter from 
Paris describing the method followed by Picard in measuring a 
degree, and specifically stating the precise length that he 
calculated it to be. It is probable that Newton had become 
acquainted with this measurement of Picard's, and that he was 
therefore led to make use of it when his thoughts were redirected 
to the subject. This estimate of the earth's magnitude, giving 
69-1 m. to i, made the two results, the discrepancy between 
which Newton had regarded as a disproof of his conjecture, to 
agree so exactly that he now regarded his conjecture as fully 
established. 

In January 1684 Sir Christopher Wren, Halley and Hooke 
were led to discuss the law of gravity, and, although probably 
they all agreed in the truth of the law of the inverse square, 
yet this truth was not looked upon as established. It appears 
that Hooke professed to have a solution of the problem of the 
path of a body moving round a centre of force attracting as the 
inverse square of the distance; but Halley, finding, after a 
delay of some months, that Hooke " had not been so good as 
his word " in showing his solution to Wren, started in the month 
of August 1684 for Cambridge to consult Newton on the subject. 
Without mentioning the speculations which had been made, 
he asked Newton what would be the curve described by a planet 
round the sun on the assumption that the sun's force diminished 
as the square of the distance. Newton replied promptly, "an 
ellipse," and on being questioned by Halley as to the reason 
for his answer he replied, " Why, I have calculated it." He 
could not, however, put his hand upon his calculation, but he 
promised to send it to Halley. After the latter had left Cam- 
bridge, Newton set to work to reproduce the calculation. After 
making a mistake and producing a different result he corrected 
his work and obtained his former result. 

In the following November Newton redeemed his promise 



to Halley by sending him, by the hand of Mr Paget, one of 
the fellows of his own college, and at that time mathematical 
master of Christ's Hospital, a copy of his demonstration; and 
very soon afterwards Halley paid another visit to Cambridge 
to confer with Newton about the problem; and on his return 
to London on the loth of December 1684, he informed the 
Royal Society " that he had lately seen Mr Newton at Cam- 
bridge, who had showed him a curious treatise De Motu," 
which at Halley's desire he promised to send to the Society to 
be entered upon their register. " Mr Halley was desired to put 
Mr Newton in mind of his promise for the securing this invention 
to himself, till such time as he could be at leisure to publish 
it," and Paget was desired to join with Halley in urging Newton 
to do so. By the middle of February Newton had sent his paper 
to Aston, one of the secretaries of the Society, and in a letter 
to Aston dated the 2^rd of February 1685, we find Newton thank- 
ing him for " having entered on the register his notions about 
motion." This treatise De Motu was the germ of the Principia, 
and was obviously meant to be a short account of what that 
work was intended to embrace. It occupies twenty-four octavo 
pages, and consists of four theorems and seven problems, some 
of which are identical with some of the most important pro- 
positions of the second and third sections of the first book of 
the Principia. 

The years 1685 and 1686 will ever be memorable in the history 
of science. It was in them that Newton composed almost the 
whole of his great work. During this period Newton had a very 
extensive correspondence with John Flamsteed, who was then 
the astronomer-royal. Many of the letters are lost, but it is 
clear from one of Newton's, dated the igth of September 1685, 
that he had received many useful communications from Flam- 
steed, and especially regarding Saturn, " whose orbit, as defined 
by Kepler," Newton " found too little for the sesquialterate 
proportions." In the other letters written in 1685 and 1686 
he applies to Flamsteed for information respecting the orbits 
of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, respecting the rise and 
fall of the spring and neap tides at the solstices and the equin- 
oxes, respecting the flattening of Jupiter at the poles (which, 
if certain, he says, would conduce much to the stating the reasons 
of the precession of the equinoxes), and respecting the difference 
between the observed places of Saturn and those computed 
from Kepler's tables about the time of his conjunction with 
Jupiter. On this last point the information supplied by Flam- 
steed was peculiarly gratifying to Newton; and it is obvious 
from the language of this part of his letter that he had still 
doubts of the universal application of the sesquialteral pro- 
portion. " Your information," he says, " about the errors of 
Kepler's tables for Jupiter and Saturn has eased me of several 
scruples. I was apt to suspect there might be some cause or 
other unknown to me which might disturb the sesquialteral 
proportions, for the influences of the planets one upon another 
seemed not great enough, though I imagined Jupiter's influence 
greater than your numbers determine it. It would add to my 
satisfaction if you would be pleased to let me know the long 
diameters of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, assigned by 
yourself and Mr Halley in your new tables, that I may see how 
the sesquialteral proportion fills the heavens, together with 
another small proportion which must be allowed for." 

Upon Newton's return from Lincolnshire in the beginning 
of April 1685, he seems to have devoted himself to the prepara- 
tion of his work. In the spring he had determined the attrac- 
tions of masses, and thus completed the law of universal gravi- 
tation. In the summer he had finished the second book of the 
Principia, the first book being the treatise De Motu, which 
he had enlarged and completed. Excepting in the correspond- 
ence with Flamsteed we hear nothing more of the preparation 
of the Principia until the 2ist of April 1686, when Halley read 
to the Royal Society his Discourse concerning Gravity and its 
Properties, in which he states " that his worthy countryman 
Mr Isaac Newton has an incomparable treatise of motion almost 
ready for the press," and that the law of the inverse square 
" is the principle on which Mr Newton has made out all the 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



587 



phenomena of the celestial motions so easily and naturally, 
that its truth is past dispute." At the next meeting of the 
Society, on the 28th of April, " Dr Vincent presented to the 
Society a manuscript treatise entitled Philosophiae Naturalis 
Principia Mathematica, and dedicated to the Society by Mr 
Isaac Newton." Although this manuscript contained only the 
first book, yet such was the confidence the Society placed in the 
author that an order was given " that a letter of thanks be 
written to Mr Newton; and that the printing of his book be 
referred to the consideration of the council; and that in the 
meantime the book be put into the hands of Mr Halley, to 
make a report thereof to the council." Although there could 
be no doubt as to the intention of this report, yet no step was 
taken towards the publication of the work. At the next meeting 
of the Society, on the igth of May, some dissatisfaction seems 
to have been expressed at the delay, as it was ordered " that Mr 
Newton's work should be printed forthwith in quarto, and that 
a letter should be written to him to signify the Society's resolu- 
tions, and to desire his opinion as to the print, volume, cuts 
and so forth." Three days afterwards Halley communicated 
the resolution to Newton, and stated to him that the printing 
was to be at the charge of the Society. At the next meeting 
of the council, on the 2nd of June, it was again ordered " that 
Mr Newton's book be printed," but, instead of sanctioning 
the resolution of the general meeting to print it at their charge, 
they added " that Mr Halley undertake the business of looking 
after it, and printing it at his own charge, which he engaged 
to do." 

In order to explain to Newton the cause of the delay, Halley in 
his letter of the 22nd of May alleges that it arose from " the 
president's attendance on the king, and the absence of the vice- 
presidents, whom the good weather had drawn out of town"; 
but there is reason to believe that this was not the true cause, and 
that the unwillingness of the council to undertake the publication 
arose from the state of the finances of the Society. Halley 
certainly deserves the gratitude of posterity for undertaking 
the publication of the work at a very considerable pecuniary 
risk to himself. In the same letter Halley found it necessary to 
inform Newton of Hooke's conduct when the manuscript of the 
Principia was presented to the Society. Sir John Hoskyns was 
in the chair when Dr Vincent presented the manuscript, and 
passed a high encomium on the novelty and dignity of the subject. 
Hooke was offended because Sir John did not mention what he 
had told him of his own discovery. Halley only communicated 
to Newton the fact " that Hooke had some pretensions to the 
invention of the rule for the decrease of gravity being reciprocally 
as the squares of the distances from the centre," acknowledging 
at the same time that, though Newton had the notion from him, 
" yet the demonstration of the curves generated thereby belonged 
wholly to Newton." " How much of this," Halley adds, " is 
so, you know best, so likewise what you have to do in this matter; 
only Mr Hooke seems to expect you should make some mention 
of him in the preface, which 'tis possible you may see reason to 
prefix. I must beg your pardon that 'tis I that send you this 
ungrateful account; but I thought it my duty to let you know 
it, so that you might act accordingly, being in myself fully satisfied 
that nothing but the greatest candour imaginable is to be ex- 
pected from a person who has fff all men the least need to borrow 
reputation." 

In thus appealing to Newton's candour, Halley obviously 
wished that some acknowledgment of Hooke should be made. 
He knew indeed that before Newton had announced the inverse 
law Hooke and Wren and himself had spoken of it and discussed 
it, and therefore justice demanded that, though none of them 
had given a demonstration of the law, Hooke especially should 
receive credit for having maintained it as a truth of which he 
was seeking the demonstration. On the 2oth of June 1686 
Newton wrote to Halley the following letter: 

" Sir, In order to let you know the case between Mr Hooke and 
me, I give you an account of what passed between us in our letters, 
so far as I could remember; for 'tis long since they were writ, and 
I do not know that I have seen them since. I am almost confident by 
circumstances, that Sir Chr. Wren knew the duplicate proportion 



when I gave him a visit; and then Mr Hooke (by his book Cometa 
written afterwards) will prove the last of us three that knew it. I 
intended in this letter to let you understand the case fully; but it 
being a frivolous business, I shall content myself to give you the 
heads of it in short, viz. that I never extended the duplicate pro- 
portion lower than to the superficies of the earth, and before a certain 
demonstration I found the last year, have suspected it did not 
reach accurately enough down so low; and therefore in the doctrine 
of projectiles never used it nor considered the motions of the heavens; 
and consequently Mr Hooke could not from my letters, which were 
about projectiles and the regions descending hence to the centre, 
conclude me ignorant of the theory of the heavens. That what he 
told me of the duplicate proportion was erroneous, namely, that it 
reached down from hence to the centre of the earth. 

" That it is not candid to require me now to confess myself, in 
print, then ignorant of the duplicate proportion in the heavens; 
for no other reason, but because he had told it me in the case of 
projectiles, and so upon mistaken grounds accused me of that ignor- 
ance. That in my answer to his first letter I refused his correspond- 
ence, told him I had laid philosophy ^side, sent him. only the 
experiment of projectiles (rather shortly hinted than carefully 
described), in compliment to sweeten my answer, expected to hear no 
further from him ; could scarce persuade myself to answer his second 
letter; did not answer his third, was upon other things; thought no 
further of philosophical matters than his letters put me upon it, and 
therefore may be allowed not to have had my thoughts of that kind 
about me so well at that time. That by the same reason he concludes 
me then ignorant of the rest of the duplicate proportion, he may as 
well conclude me ignorant of the rest of that theory I had read before 
in his books. That in one of my papers writ (I cannot say in what 
year, but I am sure some time before I had any correspondence with 
Mr Oldenburg, and that's above fifteen years ago), the proportion of 
the forces of the planets from the sun, reciprocally duplicate of their 
distances from him, is expressed, and the proportion of our gravity 
to the moon's conatus recedendi a centra terras is calculated, though 
not accurately enough. That when Hugenius put out his Horol. 
Oscil., a copy being presented to me, in my letter of thanks to him 
I gave those rules in the end thereof a particular commendation for 
their usefulness in Philosophy, and added out of my aforesaid paper 
an instance of their usefulness, in comparing the forces of the moon 
from the earth, and earth from the sun; in determining a problem 
about the moon's phase, and putting a limit to the sun's parallax, 
which shews that 1 had then my eye upon comparing the forces of 
the planets arising from their circular motion, and understood it; 
so that a while after, when Mr Hooke propounded the problem 
solemnly, in the end of his attempt to prove the motion of the earth, 
if I had not known the duplicate proportion before, I could not but 
have found it now. Between ten and eleven years ago there was an 
hypothesis of mine registered in your books, wherein I hinted a 
cause of gravity towards the earth, sun and planets, with the de- 
pendence of the celestial motions thereon; in which the proportion 
of the decrease of gravity from the superficies of the planet (though 
for brevity's sake not there expressed) can be no other than re- 
ciprocally duplicate of the distance from the centre. And I hope I 
shall not be urged to declare, in print, that I understood not the 
obvious mathematical condition of my own hypothesis. But, grant 
I received it afterwards from Mr Hooke, yet nave I as great a right 
to it as to the ellipsis. For as Kepler knew the orb to be not circular 
but oval, and guessed it to be elliptical, so Mr Hooke, without 
knowing what I have found out since his letters to me, can know no 
more, but that the proportion was duplicate quant proxime at great 
distances from the centre, and only guessed it to be so accurately, 
and guessed amiss in extending that proportion down to the very 
centre, whereas Kepler guessed right at the ellipsis. And so Mr 
Hooke found less of the proportion than Kepler of the ellipsis. 

" There is so strong an objection against the accurateness of this 
proportion, that without my demonstrations, to which Mr Hooke 
is yet a stranger, it cannot be believed by a judicious philosopher to 
be' any where accurate. And so, in stating this business, I do 
pretend to have done as much for the proportion as for the ellipsis, 
and to have as much right to the one from Mr Hooke and all men, 
as to the other from Kepler; and therefore on this account also he 
must at least moderate his pretences. 

" The proof you sent me I like very well. I designed the whole 
to consist of three books; the second was finished last summer being 
short, and only wants transcribing, and drawing the cuts fairly. 
Some new propositions I have since thought on, which I can as well 
let alone. The third wants the theory of comets. In autumn last I 
spent two months in calculations to no purpose for want of a good 
method, which made me afterwards return to the first book, and 
enlarge it with divers propositions, some relating to comets, others to 
other things, found put last winter. The third I now design to sup- 
press. Philosophy is such an impertinently litigious lady, that a 
man has as good be engaged in lawsuits, as have to do with her. _ I 
found it so formerly, and now I am no sooner come near her again, 
but she gives me warning. The two first books, without the third, 
will not so well bear the title of Philosophiae Naturalis Principia 
Mathematica; and therefore I had altered it to this, De Motu 
Corporum libri duo. 



5 88 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



" But, upon second thoughts, I retain the former title. 'Twill 
help the sale of the book, which I ought not to diminish now 'tis 
yours. The articles are, with the largest, to be called by that 
name; if you please you may change the word to sections, though 
it be not material. In the first page, I have struck out the words 
' uti posthac docebitur,' as referring to the third book; which is 
all at present, from your affectionate friend, and humble servant, 

" Is. NEWTON." 

On the 29th of June 1686 Halley wrote to Newton: " I 
am heartily sorry that in this matter, wherein all mankind ought 
to acknowledge their obligations to you, you should meet with 
anything that should give you unquiet "; and then, after an 
account of Hooke's claim to the discovery as made at a meeting 
of the Royal Society, he concludes: 

" But I found that they were all of opinion that nothing thereof 
appearing in print, nor on the books of the Society, you ought to 
be considered as the inventor. And if in truth he knew it before 
you, he ought not to blame any but himself for having taken no 
more care to secure a discovery, which he puts so much value on. 
What application he has made in private, I know not; but I am 
sure that the Society have a very great satisfaction, in the honour 
you do them, by the dedication of so worthy a treatise. Sir, I 
must now again beg you, not to let your resentments run so high, 
as to deprive us of your third book, wherein the application of your 
mathematical doctrine to the theory of comets and several curious 
experiments, which, as I guess by what you write, ought to compose 
it, will undoubtedly render it acceptable to those, who will call 
themselves Philosophers without Mathematics, which are much 
the greater number. Now you approve of the character and paper, 
I will push on the edition vigorously. I have sometimes had thoughts 
of having the cuts neatly done in wood, so as to stand in the page 
with the demonstrations. It will be more convenient, and not much 
more charge. If it please you to have it so, I will try how well it can 
be done; otherwise I will have them in somewhat a larger size 
than those you have sent up. I am, Sir, your most affectionate 
humble servant. E. HALLEY." 

On the 30th of June 1686 the president was desired by the 
council to license Newton's book, entitled Philosophiae Naturalis 
Principia Mathematica. 

On the I4th of July 1686 Newton wrote to Halley approving 
of his proposal to introduce woodcuts among the letterpress, 
stating clearly the different things which he had from Hooke, 
and adding, " And now having sincerely told you the case between 
Mr Hooke and me, I hope I shall be free for the future from the 
prejudice of his letters. I have considered how best to compose 
the present dispute, and I think it may be done by the inclosed 
scholium to the fourth proposition." This scholium was 
" The inverse law of gravity holds in all the celestial motions, 
as was discovered also independently by my countrymen Wren, 
Hooke and Halley." After this letter of Newton's the printing 
of the Principia was begun. The second book, though ready for 
the press in the autumn of 1686, was not sent to the printers 
until March 1687. The third book was presented to the Society 
on the 6th of April 1687, and the whole work published about 
midsummer in that year. It was dedicated to the Royal Society, 
and to it was prefixed a set of Latin hexameters addressed by 
Halley to the author. The work, as might have been expected, 
caused a great deal of excitement throughout Europe, and the 
whole of the impression was very soon sold. In 1691 a copy of 
the Principia was hardly to be procured. 

While Newton was writing the second and third books of the 
Principia, a very important event occurred at Cambridge which 
had the effect of bringing him before the public in a new light. 
James II. had already, in 1686, in open violation of the law, 
conferred the deanery of Christ Church at Oxford on John 
Massey, a person whose sole qualification was that he was a 
member of the Church of Rome; and the king had boasted to the 
pope's legate that " what he had done at Oxford would very soon 
be done at Cambridge." In accordance with this boast, in 
February 1687 he issued a mandate directing that Father 
Alban Francis, a Benedictine monk, should be admitted a master 
'of arts of the university of Cambridge, without taking the oaths 
of allegiance and supremacy. Upon receiving the mandamus 
Dr Pechell, the master of Magdalene College, who was vice- 
chancellor, sent a messenger to the duke of Albemarle, the 
chancellor, to request him to get the mandamus recalled; and 
the registrary and the bedells waited upon Francis to offer him 



instant admission to the degree if only he would take the necessary 
oaths. Both the king and the monk were inexorable. The court 
and the university were thus placed in open collision. A menacing 
letter was despatched by Sunderland to shake the firmness of 
the university; but, though humble and respectful explanations 
were returned, the university showed no sign of comph'ance, 
nor even of a desire to suggest a compromise. In consequence the 
vice-chancellor and deputies from the senate were summoned to 
appear before the High Commission Court at Westminster. 
Newton was one of the eight deputies appointed by the senate 
for this purpose. The deputies, before starting for London, held 
a meeting to prepare their case for the court. A compromise 
which was put forward by one of them was stoutly and success- 
fully resisted by Newton, and on the zist of April the deputation, 
with their case carefully prepared, appeared before the court. 
Lord Jeffreys presided at the board. The deputation appeared 
as a matter of course before the commissioners, and were dis- 
missed. On the 27th of April they gave in their plea. On the 
7th of May it was discussed, and feebly defended by the vice- 
chancellor. The deputies maintained that in the late reign 
several royal mandates had been withdrawn, and that no degree 
had ever been conferred without the oaths having been previously 
taken. Jeffreys spoke with his accustomed insolence to the vice- 
chancellor, silenced the other deputies when they offered to 
speak, and ordered them out of court. When recalled the deputies 
were reprimanded, and Pechell was deprived of his office as 
vice-chancellor, and of his emoluments as master of Magdalene. 
Newton returned to Trinity College to complete the Principia. 
While thus occupied he had an extensive correspondence with 
Halley, a very great part of which is extant. The following 
letter from Halley, dated London, July sth, 1687, announcing 
the completion of the Principia, is of peculiar interest: 

" I have at length brought your book to an end, and hope it will 
please you. The last errata came just in time to be inserted. I 
will present from you the book you desire to the Royal Society, 
Mr Boyle, Mr Paget, Mr Flamsteed, and if there be any else in town 
that you design to gratify that way; and I have sent you to bestow 
on your friends in the University 20 copies, which I entreat you 
to accept. In the same parcel you will receive 40 more, which 
having no acquaintance in Cambridge, I must entreat you to put 
into the hands of one or more of your ablest booksellers to dispose 
of them. I intend the price of them, bound in calves' leather, and 
lettered, to be 9 shillings here. Those I send you I value in quires at 
6 shillings, to take my money as they are sold, or at 5" h ' for ready, 
or else at some short time ; for I am satisfied there is no dealing in 
books without interesting the booksellers; and I am contented to 
let them go halves with me, rather than have your excellent work 
smothered by their combinations. I hope you will not repent you 
of the pains you have taken in so laudable a piece, so much to your 
own and the nation's credit, but rather, after you shall have a little 
diverted yourself with other studies, that you will resume those 
contemplations wherein you had so great success, and attempt the 
perfection of the lunar theory, which will be of prodigious use in 
navigation, as well as of profound and public speculation. . . . You 
will receive a box from me on Thursday next by the waggon, that 
starts from town to-morrow." 

In 1692 and 1693 Newton seems to have had a serious illness, 
the nature of which has given rise to very considerable dispute. 
In a letter dated the I3th of September 1693, addressed to 
Samuel Pepys, he writes: 

" Some time after Mr Millington had delivered your message, he 
pressed me to see you the next time.I went to London. I was averse, 
but upon his pressing consented, before I considered what I did, for 
I am extremely troubled at the embroilment I am in, and have 
neither ate nor slept well this twelvemonth, nor have my former 
consistency of mind. I never designed to get any thing by your 
interest, nor by King James's favour, but am now sensible that I 
must withdraw from your acquaintance, and see neither you nor the 
rest of my friends any more, if I may but have them quietly. I beg 
your pardon for saying I would see you again, and rest your most 
humble and obedient servant." 

And in a letter written to John Locke in reply to one of his 
about the second edition of his book, and dated the isth of 
October 1693, Newton wrote: 

" The last winter, by sleeping too often by my fire, I got an ill 
habit of sleeping; and a distemper, which this summer has been 
epidemical, put me farther out of order, so that when I wrote to 
you, I had not slept an hour a night for a fortnight together, and 
for five days together not a wink. I remember I wrote to you, but 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



589 



what I said of your book I remember not. If you please to send 
me a transcript of that passage, I will give you an account of it if 
I can." 

The loss of sleep to a person of Newton's temperament, whose 
mind was never at rest, and at times so wholly engrossed in his 
scientific pursuits that he even neglected to take food, must 
necessarily have led to a very great deal of nervous excitability. 
It is not astonishing that rumours got abroad that there was a 
danger of his mind giving way, or, according to a report which 
was believed at the time, that it had actually done so. Pepys 
must have heard such rumours, as in a letter to his friend Milling- 
ton, the tutor of Magdalene College at Cambridge, dated the 26th 
of September 1693, he wrote: 

" I must acknowledge myself not at the ease I would be glad to 
be at in reference to excellent Mr Newton; concerning whom 
(methinks) your answer labours under the same kind of restraint 
which (to tell you the truth) my asking did. For I was loth at first 
'dash to tell you that I had lately received a letter from him so 
surprising to me for the inconsistency of every part of it, as to be 
put into great disorder by it, from the concernment I have for him, 
lest it should arise from that which of all mankind I should least 
dread from him and most lament for I mean a discomposure in 
head, or mind, or both. Let me, therefore, beg you, Sir, having 
now told you the true ground of the trouble I lately gave you, to 
let me know the very truth of the matter, as far at least as comes 
within your knowledge." 

On the 30th of September 1693 Millington wrote to Pepys 
that he had been to look for Newton some time before, but that 
" he was out of town, and since," he says, 

" I have not seen him, till upon the 28th I met him at Huntingdon, 
where, upon his own accord, and before I had time to ask him any 
question, he told me that he had writt to you a very odd letter, at 
which he was much concerned; added, that it was in a distemper 
that much seized his head, and that kept him awake for above 
five nights together, which upon occasion he desired I would represent 
to you, and beg your pardon, he being very much ashamed he should 
be so rude to a person for whom he hath so great an honour. He is 
now very well, and though I fear he is under some small degree of 
melancholy, yet I think there is no reason to suspect it hath at all 
touched his understanding, and I hope never will ; and so I am sure 
all ought to wish that love learning or the honour of our nation, which 
it is a sign how much it is looked after, when such a person as Mr 
Newton lyes so neglected by those in power. "_ 

The illness of Newton was very much exaggerated by foreign 
contemporary writers. In a manuscript journal of Huygens is to 
be found an entry; 

" 29 Maj. 1694. Narravit mihi D. Colm Scotus virum celeber- 
rimum ac summum geometram Is. Neutonum in phrenesin incidisse 
abhinc anno et sex mensibus. An ex nimia studii assiduitate, an 
dolore infortunii, quod incendio laboratorium chymicum et scripta 
quaedam amiserat ? Cum ad Archiepiscopum Cantabrigiensem 
venisset, ea locutum, quae alienationem mentis indicarent. Deinde 
ab amicis curam ejus susceptam, domoque clauso remedia volenti 
nolenti adhibita, quibus jam sanitatem recuperavit ut jam rursus 
librum suum Principiorum Philosophiae Mathematicorum intelligere 
incipiat." 

Huygens, in a letter dated the 8th of June 1694, wrote to 
Leibnitz, " I do not know if you are acquainted with the accident 
which has happened to the good Mr Newton, namely, that he has 
had an attack of phrenitis, which lasted eighteen months, 
and of which they say his friends have cured him by means of 
remedies, and keeping him shut up." To which Leibnitz, in a 
letter dated the 22nd of June, replied, " I am very glad that I 
received information of the cure of Mr Newton at the same time 
that I first heard of his illness, which doubtless must have been 
very alarming." 

The active part which Newton had taken in defending the legal 
privileges of the university against the encroachments of the 
crown had probably at least equal weight with his scientific re- 
putation when his friends chose him as a candidate for a seat in 
parliament as one of the representatives of the university. The 
other candidates were Sir Robert Sawyer and Mr Finch. Sir 
Robert stood at the head of the poll with 125 votes, Newton 
next with 122 and Mr Finch was last with 117 votes. Newton 
retained his seat only about a year, from January 1689 till 
the dissolution of the Convention Parliament in February 1690. 
During this time Newton does not appear to have taken part in 
any of the debates in the House; but he was not neglectful 
of his duties as a member. On the 3oth of April 1689 he moved 



for leave to bring in a bill to settle the charters and privileges 
of the university of Cambridge, just as Sir Thomas Clarges did 
:or Oxford at the same time, and he wrote a series of letters to Dr 
Lovel, the vice-chancellor of the university, on points which 
affected the interests of the university and its members. 

Some of the members of the university who had lately sworn 
allegiance to James had some difficulty in swearing allegiance 
to his successor. On the i2th of February 1689, the day of the 
coronation of William and Mary, Newton intimated to the vice- 
chancellor that he would soon receive an order to proclaim them 
at Cambridge. He enclosed a form of the proclamation, and 
expressed a hearty " wish that the university would so compose 
themselves as to perform the solemnity with a reasonable 
decorum." 

During his residence in London Newton had made the acquaint- 
ance of John Locke. Locke had taken a very great interest in the 
new theories of the Principia. He was one of a number of 
Newton's friends who began to be uneasy and dissatisfied at 
seeing the most eminent scientific man of his age left to depend 
upon the meagre emoluments of a college fellowship and a 
professorship. 

At one time Newton's friends had nearly succeeded in getting 
him appointed provost of King's College, Cambridge, but the 
college offered a successful resistance on the ground that the 
appointment would be illegal, as the statutes required that the 
provost should be in priest's orders. Charles Montague, who was 
afterwards earl of Halifax, was a fellow of Trinity College, and 
was a very intimate friend of Newton; and it was on his 
influence that Newton relied in the main for promotion to some 
post of honour and emolument. His hopes, however, were 
blighted by long delay. In one of his letters to Locke at the 
beginning of 1692, when Montague, Lord Monmouth and Locke 
were exerting themselves to obtain some appointment for him, 
Newton wrote that he was " fully convinced that Mr Montague, 
upon an old grudge which he thought had been worn out, was 
false to him." Newton was now in his fifty-fifth year, and whilst 
those of his own standing at the university had been appointed 
to high posts in church or state, he still remained without any 
mark of national gratitude. But this blot upon the English 
name was at last removed by Montague in 1694, when he was 
appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He had previously con- 
sulted Newton upon the subject of the recoinage, and on the 
opportunity occurring he appointed Newton to the post of warden 
of the mint. In a letter to Newton announcing the news, 
Montague writes: 

" I am very glad that at last I can give you a good proof of my 
friendship, and the esteem the king has of your merits. Mr Overton, 
the warden of the mint, is made one of the Commissioners of Customs, 
and the king has promised me to make Mr Newton warden of the 
mint. The office is the most proper for you. Tis the chief office 
in the mint: 'tis worth five or six hundred pounds per annum, and 
has not too much business to require more attendance than you can 
spare." 

This letter must have convinced Newton of the sincerity of 
Montague's good intentions towards him; we find them living 
as friends on the most intimate terms until Halifax's death in 



Newton's chemical and mathematical knowledge proved of 
great use in carrying out the recoinage. This was completed in 
about two years. In 1697 Newton was appointed to the master- 
ship of the mint, a post worth between 1200 and 1500 per 
annum. While he held this office, Newton drew up a very 
extensive table of assays of foreign coins, and composed an 
official report on the coinage. 

Up to the time of the publication of the Principia in 1687 the 
method of fluxions which had been invented by Newton, and 
had been of great assistance to him in his mathematical investiga- 
tions, was still, except to Newton and his friends, a secret. 
One of the most important rules of the method forms the second 
lemma of the second book of the Principia. Though this new 
and powerful method was of great help to Newton in his work, he 
did not exhibit it in the results. He was aware that the well- 
known geometrical methods of the ancients would clothe his new 



59 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



creations in a garb which would appear less strange and uncouth 
to those not familiar with the new method. The Principia 
gives no information on the subject of the notation adopted in 
the new calculus, and it was not until 1693 that it was com- 
municated to the scientific world in the second volume of Dr 
Wallis's works. 

Newton's admirers in Holland had informed Dr Wallis that 
Newton's method of fluxions passed there under the name 
of Leibnitz's Calculus Differentialis. It was therefore thought 
necessary that an early opportunity should be taken of asserting 
Newton's claim to be the inventor of the method of fluxions, and 
this was the reason for this method first appearing in Wallis's 
works. A further account of the method was given in the first 
edition of Newton's Optics, which appeared in 1 704. To this work 
were added two treatises, entitled Tractatus duo de speciebus et 
magnitudine figurarum cuniUinearum, the one bearing the title 
Tractatus de Quadratura Cuniarum, and the other Enumeralio 
linearum tertii ordinis. The first contains an explanation of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and of its application to the quadrature 
of curves; the second, a classification of seventy-two curves of 
the third order, with an account of their properties. The reason 
for publishing these two tracts in his Optics, from the subsequent 
editions of which they were omitted, is thus stated in the 
advertisement : 

" In a letter written to M Leibnitz in the year 1679, and published 
by Dr Wallis, I mentioned a method by which I had found some 
general theorems about squaring curvilinear figures on comparing 
them with the conic sections, or other the simplest figures with which 
they might be compared. And some years ago I lent out a manu- 
script containing such theorems; and having since met with some 
things copied out of it, I have on this occasion made it public, pre- 
fixing to it an introduction, and joining a Scholium concerning that 
method. And I have joined with it another small tract concerning 
the curvilineal figures of the second kind, which was also written 
many years ago, and made known to some friends, who have solicited 
the making it public." 

In 1707 William Whiston published the algebraical lectures 
which Newton had delivered at Cambridge, under the title of 
Arithmetica Universalis, sive de Compositione et Resolutioiie 
Arithmetica Liber. We are not accurately informed how Whiston 
obtained possession of this work; but it is stated by one of the 
editors of the English edition " that Mr Whiston, thinking it a 
pity that so noble and useful a work should be doomed to a 
college confinement, obtained leave to make it public." It was 
soon afterwards translated into English by Raphson; and a 
second edition of it, with improvements by the author, was 
published at London in 1712, by Dr Machin, secretary to the 
Royal Society. With the view of stimulating mathematicians 
to write annotations on this admirable work, the celebrated 
's Gravesande published a tract, entitled Specimen Commentarii 
in Arithmeticam Universalem; and Maclaurin's Algebra seems 
to have been drawn up in consequence of this appeal. 

Newton's solution of the celebrated problems proposed by 
John Bernoulli and Leibnitz deserves mention among his mathe- 
matical works. In June 1696 Bernoulli addressed a letter to 
the mathematicians of Europe challenging them to solve two 
problems (i) to determine the brachistochrone between two 
given points not in the same vertical line, (2) to determine a 
curve such that, if a straight line drawn through a fixed point 
A meet it in two points P 1; P 2 ,then AP! m +AP 2 m will be constant. 
This challenge was first made in the Acta Lipsiensia for June 
1696. Six months were allowed by Bernoulli for the solution of 
the problem, and in the event of none being sent to him he 
promised to publish his own. The six months elapsed without 
any solution being produced; but he received a letter from 
Leibnitz, stating that he had "cut the knot of the most beautiful 
of these problems," and requesting that the period for their 
solution should be extended to Christmas next, that the French 
and Italian mathematicians might have no reason to complain 
of the shortness of the period. Bernoulli adopted the suggestion, 
and publicly announced the prorogation for the information of 
those who might not see the Acta Lipsiensia. 

On the 2Qth of January 1696/7 Newton received from 
France two copies of the printed paper containing the problems, 



and on the following day he transmitted a solution of them to 
Montague, then president of the Royal Society. He announced 
that the curve required in the first problem must be a cycloid, 
and he gave a method of determining it. He solved also the 
second problem, and he showed that by the same method other 
curves might be found which shall cut off three or more segments 
having the like properties. Solutions were also obtained from 
Leibnitz and the Marquis de L'Hopital; and, although that 
of Newton was anonymous, yet Bernoulli recognized the author 
in his disguise; " tanquam," says he, " ex ungue leonem." 

In 1699 Newton's position as a mathematician and natural 
philosopher was recognized by the French Academy of Sciences. 
In that year the Academy was remodelled, and eight foreign 
associates were created. Leibnitz, Domenico Guglielmini (1655- 
1710), Hartsoeker, and E. W. Tschirnhausen were appointed on 
the 4th of February, James Bernoulli and John Bernoulli on 
the I4th of February, and Newton and Olaus Roemer on the 
2ist of February. 

While Newton held the office of warden of the mint, he retained 
his chair of mathematics at Cambridge, and discharged the duties 
of the post, but shortly after he was promoted to be master of the 
mint he appointed Whiston his deputy with " the full profits of 
the place." Whiston began his astronomical lectures as Newton's 
deputy in January 1701. On the icth of December 1701 Newton 
resigned his professorship, thereby at the same time resigning 
his fellowship at Trinity, which he had held with the Lucasian 
professorship since 1675 by virtue of the royal mandate. 
Whiston 's claims to succeed Newton in the Lucasian chair were 
successfully supported by Newton himself. 

On the 26th of November 1701 Newton was again elected one 
of the representatives of the university in parliament, but he 
retained his seat only until the dissolution in the following July. 
Newton does not seem to have been a candidate at this election, 
but at the next dissolution in 1705 he was again a candidate for 
the representation of the university. He was warmly supported 
by the residents, but being a Whig in politics he was opposed by 
the non-residents, and beaten by a large majority. 

In the autumn of 1703 Lord Scmers retired from the presidency 
of the Royal Society, and Newton on the 3oth of November 
1703 was elected to succeed him. Newton was annually re- 
elected to this honourable post during the remainder of his life. 
He held the office in all twenty-five years, a period in which he 
has been exceeded by but one other president of the Royal 
Society, Sir Joseph Banks. As president Newton was brought 
into close connexion with Prince George of Denmark, the queen's 
husband, who had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society. 
The prince had offered, on Newton's recommendation, to be 
at the expense of printing Flamsteed's observations, and especi- 
ally his catalogue of the stars. It was natural that the queen 
should form a high opinion of one whose merits had made such 
a deep impression on her husband. In April 1 705, when the queen, 
the prince and the court were staying at the royal residence at 
Newmarket, they paid a visit to Cambridge, where they were the 
guests of Dr Bentley, the master of Trinity. Her Majesty went 
in state to the Regent House, where a congregation of the senate 
was held, and a number of honorary degrees conferred. After- 
wards the queen held a court at Trinity Lodge, where (i6th 
of April 1705) she conferred the order of knighthood upon Sir 
Isaac Newton. 

As soon as the first edition of the Principia was published 
Newton began to prepare for a second edition. He was anxious 
to improve the work by additions to the theory of the motion of 
the moon and the planets. Dr Edleston, in his preface to 
Newton's correspondence with Cotes, justly remarks: 

_" If Flamsteed the Astronomer-Royal had cordially co-operated 
with him in the humble capacity of an observer in the way that 
Newton pointed out and requested of him . . . the lunar theory 
would, if its creator did not overrate his own powers, have been 
completely investigated, so far as he could do it, in the first few 
months of 1695, and a second edition of the Principia would probably 
have followed the execution of the task at no long interval." 

Newton, however, could not get the information he wanted 
from Flamsteed, and after the spring of 1696 his time was much 



NEWTON, SIR ISAAC 



59 1 



occupied by his duties at the mint. Rumours, however, of his 
work, and of a new edition, were heard from time to time. In 
February 1700 Leibnitz writes of Newton, " J'ai appris aussi 
(je ne scai ou) qu'il donnera encore quelque chose sur le mouve- 
ment de la lune: et on m'a dit aussi qu'il y aura une nouvelle 
edition de ses principes de la nature." 

Dr Bentley, the master of Trinity College, had for a long time 
urged Newton to give his consent to the republication of the 
Principia. In the middle of 1 708 Newton's consent was obtained, 
but it was not till the spring of 1709 that he was prevailed upon 
to entrust the superintendence of it to a young mathematician 
of great promise, Roger Cotes, fellow of Trinity College, who had 
been recently appointed the first Plumian professor of astronomy 
and experimental philosophy. On the aist of May 1709, after 
having been that day with Newton, Bentley announced this 
arrangement to Cotes: " Sir Isaac Newton," he said, " will be 
glad to see you in June, and then put into your hands one part 
of his book corrected for the press." About the middle of July 
Cotes went to London, in the expectation doubtless to bring down 
with him to Cambridge the corrected portion of the Principia. 
Although Cotes was impatient to begin his work, it was nearly the 
end of September before the corrected copy was put into bis hands. 

During the printing of this edition a correspondence went on 
continuously between Newton and Cotes. On the 3ist of March 
1713, when the edition was nearly ready for publication, Newton 
wrote to Cotes: 

" I heare that Mr Bernoulli has sent a Paper of 40 pages to be 
published in the Acta Leipsica relating to what I have written upon 
the curve Lines described by Projectiles in resisting Mediums. And 
therein he partly makes Observations upon what I have written & 
partly improves it. To prevent being blamed by him or others for 
any disingenuity in not acknowledging my oversights or slips in the 
first edition, I believe it will not be amiss to print next after the old 
Pratfatio ad Lectorem, the following account of this new Edition. 

' ' In hac secunda Principiorum Editione, multa sparsim emen- 
dantur & nonnulla adjiciuntur. In Libri primi Sect. ii. Inventio 
virium quibus corpora in Orbibus datis revolvi possint, facilior 
redditur et amplior. In Libri secundi Sect. vii. Theoria resistentiae 
fluidorum accuratius'inyestigatur & novis experimentis confirmatur. 
In Librp tertio Theoria Lunae & Praecessio Aequinoctiorum ex 
Principiis suis plenius deducuntur, et Theoria Cometarum pluribus 
et accuratius computatis Orbium exemplis confirmatur. 

' ' 28 Mar. 1713. I. N.' 

" If you write any further Preface, I must not see it, for I find 
that I shall be examined about it. The cuts for y Comet of 1680 & 
1 68 1 are printed off and will be sent to Dr Bently this week by the 
Carrier." 

Newton's desire to have no hand in writing the preface seems 
to have proceeded from a knowledge that Cotes was proposing 
to allude to the dispute about the invention of fluxions. At 
last, about midsummer 1713, was published the long and im- 
patiently expected second edition of the Principia, and, on the 
27th of July, Newton waited on the queen to present her with 
a copy of the new edition. 

In 1714 the question of finding the longitude at sea, which 
had been looked upon as an important one for several years, 
was brought into prominence by a petition presented to the 
House of Commons by a number of captains of Her Majesty's 
ships and merchant ships and of London merchants. The 
petition was referred to a committee of the House, who called 
witnesses. Newton appeared before them and gave evidence. 
He stated that for determining the longitude at sea there had 
been several projects, true in theory but difficult to execute. 
He mentioned four: (i) by a watch to keep time exactly, (2) 
by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, (3) by the place of the 
moon, (4) by a new method proposed by Mr Ditton. Newton 
criticized all the methods, pointing out their weak points, and 
it is due mainly to his evidence that the committee brought 
in the report which was accepted by the House, and shortly 
afterwards was converted into a Bill, passed both Houses, and 
_ received the royal assent. The report ran " that it is the opinion 
of this committee that a reward be settled by parliament upon 
such person or persons as shall discover a more certain and 
practicable method of ascertaining the longitude than any yet 
in practice; and the said reward be proportioned to the degree 
of exactness to which the said method shall reach." 



Sir Isaac Newton was a very popular visitor at the court 
of Geojge I. The princess of Wales, afterwards Queen Caroline, 
wife of George II., took every opportunity of conversing with 
him. Having one day been told by Sir Isaac that he had com- 
posed a new system of chronology while he was still resident 
at Cambridge, she requested him to give her a copy. He accord- 
ingly drew up an abstract of the system from his papers, and 
sent it to the princess for her own private use; but he after- 
wards allowed a copy to be made for the Abbe Conti on the 
express understanding that it should not be communicated to 
any other person. The abbe, however, lent his copy to M 
Freret, an antiquary at Paris, who translated it, and endeavoured 
to refute it. The translation was printed under the title Abrtgi 
de chronologic de M le Chevallier Newton, fait par lui-meme et 
traduit sur le manuscrit anglais. Upon receiving a copy of this 
work, Sir Isaac Newton printed, in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions for 1725, a paper entitled " Remarks on the observations 
made on a Chronological Index of Sir Isaac Newton, translated 
into French by the observator, and published at Paris." In these 
remarks Sir Isaac charged the abbe with a breach of promise, 
and gave a triumphant answer to the objections which Freret 
had urged against his system. Father Souciet entered the field 
in defence of Freret; and in consequence of this controversy 
Sir Isaac was induced to prepare his larger work, which was 
published in 1728, after his death, and entitled The Chronology 
of Ancient Kingdoms amended, to which is prefixed a short Chronicle 
from the First Memory of Kings in Europe to the Conquest of 
Persia by Alexander the Great. 

From an early period of his life Newton had paid great atten- 
tion to theological studies, and it is well known that he had 
begun to study the subject of the prophecies before the year 
1690. M Biot, with a view of showing that his theological 
writings were the productions of bis dotage, has fixed their 
date between 1712 and 1719. That Newton's mind was even 
then quite clear and powerful is sufficiently proved by his ability 
to attack the most difficult mathematical problems with success. 
For it was in 1716 that Leibnitz, in a letter to the Abbe Conti, 
proposed a problem for solution " for the purpose of feeling 
the pulse of the English analysts." The problem was to find 
the orthogonal trajectories of a series of curves represented 
by a single equation. Newton received this problem about 
5 o'clock in the afternoon as he was returning from the mint, 
but, though he was fatigued with business, he solved the problem 
the same evening. 

One of the most remarkable of Sir Isaac's theological pro- 
ductions is his Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions 
of the Scripture, in a letter to a friend. This friend was Locke, 
who received the letter in November 1690. Sir Isaac seems 
to have been then anxious for its publication; but, as the effect 
of his argument was to deprive the Trinitarians of two passages 
in favour of the Trinity, he became alarmed at the probable 
consequences of such a step. He therefore requested Locke, 
who was then going to Holland, to get it translated into French, 
and published on the continent. Being prevented from going 
to Holland, Locke copied the manuscript, and sent it, without 
Newton's name, to Le Clerc, who received it before the nth 
of April 1691. On the 2oth of January 1692 Le Clerc announced 
to Locke his intention to publish the pamphlet in Latin; and, 
upon the intimation of this to Sir Isaac, he entreated him " to 
stop the translation and impression as soon as he could, for 
he designed to suppress them." This was accordingly done; 
but Le Clerc sent the manuscript to the library of the Remon- 
strants, and it was afterwards published at London in 1754, 
under the title of Two Letters from Sir Isaac Newton to M le 
Clerc. This edition is imperfect, and in many places erroneous. 
Dr Horsley therefore published a genuine one, which is in the 
form of a single letter to a friend, and was taken from a manu- 
script in Sir Isaac's own hand. 

Sir Isaac Newton left behind him in manuscript a work en- 
titled Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse 
of St John, which was published in London in 1733, in one 
volume 410; another work, entitled Lexicon Prophetkum, 



592 



NEWTON 



with a dissertation on the sacred cubit of the Jews, which was 
printed in 1737; and four letters addressed to Bentley, con- 
taining some arguments in proof of a Deity, which were published 
by Cumberland, a nephew of Bentley, in 1756. Sir Isaac also 
left a Church History complete, a History of the Creation, Para- 
doxical Questions regarding Athanasius, and many divinity 
tracts. 

Newton devoted much of his time to the study of chemistry; 
but the greater number of his experiments still remain in manu- 
script. His Tabula Quantitatum el Graduum Caloris contains 
a comparative scale of temperature from that of melting ice 
to that of a small kitchen fire. He wrote also another chemical 
paper De Natura Acidorum, which has been published by Dr 
Horsley. Sir Isaac spent much time in the study of the works 
of the alchemists. He had diligently studied the works of 
Jacob Boehme, and there were found amongst his manuscripts 
copious abstracts from them in his own handwriting. In the 
earlier part of his life he and his relation Dr Newton of Grantham 
had put up furnaces, and had wrought for several months in 
quest of the philosopher's tincture. Among the manuscripts 
in the possession of the earl of Portsmouth there are many 
sheets in Sir Isaac's hand of Flamsteed's Explication of Hiero- 
glyphic Figures, and in another hand many sheets of William 
Yworth's Processus Mysterii Magni Philosophicus. 

In the last few years of his life Newton was troubled with 
incontinence of urine, which was supposed to be due to stone; 
but with care he kept the disease under control. In January 
1725 he was seized with a violent cough and inflammation of 
the lungs, which induced him to reside at Kensington; and 
in the following month he had a severe attack of gout, which 
produced a decided improvement in his general health. His 
duties at the mint were discharged by John Conduitt, and he 
therefore seldom went from home. On the 28th of February 
1727, feeling well, he went to London to preside at a meeting 
of the Royal Society; but the fatigue which attended this 
duty brought on a violent return of his former complaint, and 
he returned to Kensington on the 4th of March, when Dr Mead 
and Dr Chesselden pronounced his disease to be stone. He 
endured the sufferings of this complaint with wonderful patience. 
He seemed a little better on the 15th of March, and on the i8th 
he read the newspapers and conversed with Dr Mead; but 
at 6 o'clock in the evening he became insensible, and continued 
in that state till Monday the 2oth of March 1727, when he 
expired without pain between one and two o'clock in the morning. 
His body was removed to London, and on Tuesday the 28th of 
March it lay in state in the Jerusalem Chamber, and was thence 
conveyed to Westminster Abbey, where it was buried. 

AUTHORITIES. Commercium Epistolicum D. Johannis Collins el 
aliorum de analyst promota: jussu Societatis Regiae in lucent editum, 
&c. (1712; 2nd ed., 1722); H. Pemberton, A View of Sir Isaac 
Newton's Philosophy (1728); Colin Maclaurin, Sir Isaac Newton's 
Philosophical Discoveries (1775); F. Baily, An Account of the Rev. 
John Flamsteed, the First Astronomer-Royal, &c. (1835); W. 
Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (1837); S. P. Rigaud, 
Historical Essay on the First Publication of Sir Isaac Newton's 
Principia (1838); Edleston, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and 
Professor Cotes, &c. (1850); Sir D. Brewster, Memoirs of the Life, 
Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855; new ed. 1893); 
Lord Brougham and Routh's Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newton's 
Principia (1855); S. P. Rigaud, Correspondence of Scientific Men of 
the ijth Century, &c., from the Originals in the Collection of the Earl 
of Macclesfield (1841); J. Raphson, History of Fluxions, showing in 
a compendious manner the First Rise of and Various Improvements 
made in that Incomparable Method (1715); W. W. R. Ball, Essay on 
Newton's Principia (1893). A complete bibliography of Newton's 
writings has been given by G. J. Gray (Cambridge, 1880). The 
collected works of Newton were published in 1779-1785 by Dr 
Samuel Horsley, F.R.S., under the title Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae 
exstant Omnia. (H. M. T.) 

NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807), English divine, was born in 
.London on the 24th of July 1725 (O.S.). His father, who for a 
long time was master of a ship in the Mediterranean trade, 
became in 1748 governor of York Fort, Hudson Bay, where 
he died in 1751. The lad had little education and served on his 
father's ship from 1737 to 1742; shortly afterwards he was 
impressed on board a man-of-war, the " Harwich," where he 



was made a midshipman. For an attempt to escape while his 
ship lay off Plymouth he was degraded, and treated with so 
much severity that he gladly exchanged into an African trader. 
He made many voyages as mate and then as master on slave- 
trading ships, devoting his leisure to the improvement of his 
education. The state of his health and perhaps a growing dis- 
taste for the slave trade led him to quit the sea in 1755, when 
he was appointed tide-surveyor at Liverpool. He began to 
study Greek and Hebrew, and in 1758 applied to the archbishop 
of York for ordination. This was refused him, but, having had 
the curacy of Olney offered to him in April 1764 he was ordained 
by the bishop of Lincoln. In October 1767 William Cowper 
settled in the parish. An intimate friendship sprang up between 
the two men, and they published together the Olney Hymns 
(1779). In 1779 Newton left Olney to become rector of St 
Mary Woolnoth, London, where he laboured with unceasing 
diligence and great popularity till his death on the 3ist of 
December 1807. 

Like Cowper, Newton held Calvinistic views, although his 
evangelical fervour allied him closely with the sentiments of 
Wesley and the Methodists. His fame rests on certain of the 
Olney Hymns (e.g. " Glorious things of Thee are spoken," 
" How sweet the name of Jesus sounds," " One there is above all 
others,") remarkable for vigour, simplicity and directness of 
devotional utterance. 

His prose works include an Authentic Narrative of some Interesting 
and Remarkable Particulars in the Life of John Newton (1764), a 
volume of Sermons (1767), Omicron (a series of letters on religion, 
1774), Review of Ecclesiastical History (1769) and Cardiphonia (1781). 
This last was a further selection of religious correspondence, which 
did much to help the Evangelical revival. Thomas Scott, William 
Wilberforce, Charles Simeon, William Jay and Hannah More all 
came under his direct influence. His Letters to a Wife (1793) and 
Letters to Rev. W. Bull (posthumous, 1847) illustrate the frankness 
with which he exposed his most intimate personal experiences. A 
Life of Newton by Richard Cecil was prefixed to a collected edition 
of his works (6 vols., 1808; I vol. 1827). See also T. Wright, The 
Town of Cowper. 

NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895), American general and engineer, 
was born in Norfolk, Virginia, on the 24th of August 1823, and 
graduated second in his class at the U.S. Military Academy 
in 1842. From 1842 to 1861 he was engaged in the construction 
of coast defences and the improvement of waterways; he was 
assistant professor of engineering in the Military Academy 
from 1843 to 1846, became a captain in 1856, and took part as 
chief engineer in the Utah expedition of 1857-1858. He served 
as an engineer in the Virginian campaign of 1861, and was 
promoted brigadier-general, U.S.V., in September. He 
especially distinguished himself in the Seven Days' battle and at 
Antietam, and after the battle of Fredericksburg was made 
major-general, U.S.V. In the Chancellorsville campaign Newton 
took part in the storming of Marye's Heights at Fredericksburg, 
on the 3rd of May 1863, and at the battle of Gettysburg he was 
for a time in command of the I. corps. He had already received 
the brevet of lieutenant-colonel for his services at Antietam, 
and he now became brevet colonel for his services at Gettysburg. 
Later he was transferred to Sherman's army, and as a division 
commander under General Oliver O. Howard took part in the 
Atlanta campaign. For gallant conduct at Peach Tree Creek 
he was made brevet brigadier-general, and at the close of the 
war was made brevet major-general, U.S.A. Returning to 
regular engineering duty after the war, he was stationed at New 
York from 1866 to 1884. His most important work there was 
the improvement of the Hudson river, and especially the 
removal of the obstructions to shipping in the dangerous entrance 
to the East river from Long Island Sound, known as Hell Gate. 
Under two of the largest obstructions Hallet's Point and Flood 
Rock, with a surface of three acres and nine acres respectively 
shafts were sunk from the shore, and tunnels were bored in every 
direction. In these tunnels thousands of pounds of explosives 
were placed, and the rocks were blown into fragments. In 
March 1884 he became Chief of Engineers, with the rank of 
brigadier-general, and held this position until his retirement 
from the army, at his own request, in August 1886. In 1887-1888 



NEWTON NEWTOWNARDS 



593 



he was commissioner of public works in New York City, and 
from 1888 until his death, on the ist of May 1895, he was president 
of the Panama railway. 

NEWTON, a city and the county-seat of Harvey county, 
Kansas, U.S.A., about 27 m. N. of Wichita. Pop. (1905)6601; 
(1910) 7862. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe (of which it is a division point and which has shops here), 
and the Missouri Pacific railways. Newton is the centre of the 
settlements of the German-Russian Mennonites, a thrifty people, 
who immigrated in 1873 and subsequently; Bethel College 
(opened 1893) is a Mennonite secondary school, and there is a 
Mennonite hospital. Newton is a supply and distributing point 
for the surrounding agricultural and stock-raising region, and 
has various manufactures. The municipality has natural gas for 
heating, lighting and manufacturing. Newton was first settled 
in 1871, was chartered as a city in 1872, and in 1910 adopted 
a commission form of government. 

NEWTON, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 
10 m. W. of Boston, on the S. bank of the Charles river, which 
borders it for 16 m. Pop. (1880) 16,995; (1890) 24,379; (19) 
33,587, of whom 10,068 were foreign-born, 19,006 of foreign 
parentage and 505 were negroes; (1910, census) 39,806. 
Newton is served by the Boston & Albany railway. The city, 
with an area of 17-98 sq. m., contains 15 villages. In Newton, 
the most prominent of these villages, is a stone terrace monu- 
ment to John Eliot, erected on the site of Waban's wigwam 
near Nonantum Hill, where Eliot founded the first Indian Church 
on the 28th of October 1646 the Nonantum Indians, under 
their chief Waban, removed to Natick in 1651. On Institution 
Hill, Newton Centre, is the first Baptist theological seminary 
in America, Newton Theological Institution, founded in 1825. 
Here also is the residence of Samuel Francis Smith (1808-1895), 
author of " America " and several missionary hymns, and pastor 
here in 1842-1854. In Newton Upper Falls, Echo Bridge (of 
the Boston Aqueduct) crosses the Charles near the falls in 
Hemlock Gorge Reservation of the Metropolitan Park system. 
Auburndale is the seat of Lasell Seminary for Young Women, 
founded in 1851 by Edward Lasell (1809-1852). Other of the 
villages are Newtonville, West Newton and Newton Highlands. 
The city of Newton is primarily a residential suburb of Boston; 
along the Charles is a part (191-12 acres) of the Charles River 
Reservation of the Metropolitan Park system, and the city has 
several attractive public parks, including Norumbega Park, 
on the banks of the river, with a large open-air theatre; boating, 
especially canoeing, on the river is very popular. The city has 
a public library, a high school and a technical high school. 
Among its manufactures are foundry and machine shop products, 
worsted goods and electrical apparatus; the factories utilize 
the water power of the falls. The value of the manufactured 
product in 1905 was $4,140,996. The region was settled as a 
part of Cambridge in 1630 and was called South Side (i.e. of the 
Charles), Nonantum (the Indian name), Cambridge Village, 
Little Cambridge or New Cambridge; in 1688 it was incorporated 
as a separate town and in 1691 received its present name; it 
annexed an island in the Charles in 1803; parts of it were 
annexed to Roxbury (1838) and Waltham (1849); it became a 
city in 1873; and in 1875 it annexed a part of Boston, with which 
there have been several more recent boundary adjustments. 

NEWTON ABBOT, a market town and seaport in the Ash- 
burton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 20 m. 
S. by W. of Exeter by the Great Western railway. Pop. of 
urban district (1901) 12,517. Beautifully situated at the head 
of the Teign estuary, the town grew rapidly in the igth century. 
The two parish churches, St Mary's in Wolborough, and All 
Saints' in Highweek, are Perpendicular in style. St Mary's 
contains a Norman font, an ancient brass lectern, buried during 
the Civil Wars, and some interesting heraldic ornaments which 
date from the isth century. Of the i4th century chapel of St 
Leonard, only a tower survives. A large nunnery, called St 
Augustine's Priory, was erected near the town in 1861; while 
eastward is the Jacobean Forde House, belonging to the earl 
of Devon, and visited by Charles I. and William of Orange, 



who first read his declaration to the people of England at Newton 
Abbot market-cross. The establishment of large engine works 
by the Great Western railway has aided the development of 
local industries, and there is a considerable shipping trade, 
fine china clay and pipeclay being worked near the towns and 
exported to the Potteries. Large fairs are held for the sale of 
agricultural produce and livestock. The portion of Newton 
Abbot in the parish of Highweek was formerly a separate town, 
known as Newton Bushel. 

Probably both Newton Abbot and Newton Bushel were 
originally included under the name of Newton. Newton Abbot 
was given to the abbot of Tor by William Lord Brewer, founder 
of the monastery (1196). Newton Bushel was so called from 
Robert Bussell or Bushel, foster-child and kinsman of Theobald 
de Englishville, who was made lord of the manor by -Henry III. 
in 1246. 

NEWTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, or NEWTON-LE-WILLOWS, an 
urban district in the Newton parliamentary division of Lanca- 
shire, England, 15^ m. W. of Manchester by the London & 
North- Western railway. Pop. (1891) 12,861; (1901) 16,699. 
At a short distance from the town is a moated Elizabethan 
half-timbered house, and also an ancient barrow of great extent. 
The Liverpool farm reformatory school is in the neighbourhood. 
The industrial establishments include foundries, printing and 
stationery works, paper mills, glass works and sugar refineries. 
Coal abounds in the neighbourhood. 

The township of Newton-in-Makerfield, gave its name in 
Saxon times and in the reign of William the Conqueror to one 
of the hundreds of Lancashire. The barony was held by the 
Banastres from the conquest to 1286 and passed successively 
to the Langtons, Fleetwoods and Leghs. It does not seem that 
the barons were ever summoned to parliament, and the title, 
like all parliamentary titles, has fallen into disuse since the 
abolition of feudal tenures. The courts-baron and courts-leet 
are held twice annually. The township returned two members 
to parliament from 1559 to 1831, but was disfranchised by the 
Reform Act of 1832. There was a market here at least as early 
as 1558 which is now discontinued. Near the town a party of 
Highlanders were taken prisoners in 1648 by Cromwell's troops, 
and hanged in an adjoining wood, still called Callow's Cross. 

NEWTOWN, a municipality of Cumberland county, New 
South Wales, Australia, 3^ m. S.W. of Sydney. It consists 
chiefly of the residences of the wealthier citizens of Sydney and 
is connected with the city by rail and tram. As a municipality 
it dates from 1862. Pop (1901) 22,598. 

NEWTOWN (Welsh Drefnewydd, with the same meaning, 
formerly Uanfair Cedewain), a market town and contributory 
parliamentary borough of Montgomeryshire, situated on both 
sides of the Severn, and on the Cambrian railway, 195 m. from 
London. Pop. of urban district of Newtown and Llanllwchhaiarn 
(1901) 6500. It is connected with Shrewsbury (Amwythig) 
by the Montgomeryshire canal. The old Anglican church, 
partly Decorated and partly Perpendicular, has been superseded 
by the modern St Mary's, which contains the font and rood-screen 
of the old building. In the old churchyard lies Robert Owen, 
born in 1771 at Newtown, where he died in 1858, known as 
" the patriarch of reason," author of New Views of Society, &c., 
and one of the fathers of communism. Newtown, rather than 
Welshpool, is the chief seat of Welsh flannel manufacture, 
together with that of tweeds and shawls. It joins with Welshpool, 
Llanfyllin, Montgomery (Trefaldwyn) , Llanidloes and Machynl- 
leth, in returning a member to parliament. 

NEWTOWNARDS (pron. Newton&rds), a market town of 
Co. Down, Ireland, beautifully situated near the northern 
extremity of Strangford Lough, on a branch of the Belfast and 
Co. Down railway, 95 m. E. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 9110. The 
town is sheltered by the Scrabo Hills on the west and north, and 
possesses a fine square, in which the pedestal of an ancient cross 
was erected in 1636. Muslin embroidery is the principal industry. 
There are also mills for flax and hemp yarns, a weaving factory 
and a hosiery factory. The remains of the old church, originally 
erected in 1244, contain good Perpendicular work, and the 



594 



NEW ULM NEW YORK 



family vault of the Londonderry*; there are also the parish 
church and Presbyterian church, with lofty spires, and a Roman 
Catholic chapel. In the neighbourhood there are freestone 
quarries. 

The town owes its origin to a Dominican monastery founded 
in 1244 by Walter de Burgh. It was forfeited by the O'Neills, 
and given to the Hamiltons and Montgomeries, from whom it 
passed to the marquess of Londonderry. It received a charter 
from James I., and until the Union in 1800 returned two members 
to parliament. The ruined abbey of Moville, 15 m. N.E., is 
the most notable of the many ecclesiastical remains in the 
neighbourhood. It is attributed to St Finian (c. 550). 

NEW ULM, a city and the county seat of Brown county, 
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Minnesota river, 
88 m. (by rail) S.W. of Minneapolis, in the south central part 
of the state. Pop. (1905, state census) 5720 (1287 of German 
birth); (1910) 5648. New Ulm is served by the Minne- 
apolis & St Louis, and the 'Chicago & North Western railways. 
In the south-western part of the city, on a wooded hill called 
Hermann Heights, there is a statue of Arminius erected by the 
Grand Lodge of Hermann's Sons of the United States. New 
Ulm is an important livestock market. The city is the seat of 
the Dr Martin Luther College (Lutheran, 1884), a secondary 
school, with a normal and a collegiate department. St Michael's 
Academy and St Alexander Hospital are under the charge of 
Roman Catholic sisters. New Ulm was settled about 1853, 
and was twice attacked and almost destroyed by the Indians 
during the Sioux uprising of 1862. There is a monument to 
those who lost their lives in the Sioux massacres. 

NEW WASHINGTON, a town of the province of Capiz, island 
of Panay, Philippine Islands, on the N. coast about 17 m. W. 
of Capiz, the capital of the province. The town was formed in 
1903 by uniting the towns of Batan, Jimeno, Balete and the 
village or barrio of Lagatic in the town of Calibo; the total 
population at that time was 24,480. There are about sixty-six 
barrios, but all of these except Lagatic, the seat of the municipal 
government, had in 1903 less than tooo inhabitants. The 
language is Visayan. The cultivation of rice, sugar cane, hemp, 
and Indian corn and the raising of cattle and horses are the 
principal industries. 

NEW WESTMINSTER, a city on the north bank of the Fraser 
river, British Columbia, 15 m. from the mouth. Pop. (1906 
estimate) 7900. Founded in 1859 it was the capital of British 
Columbia when the British possessions on the Pacific coast 
formed two colonies i.e. British Columbia (the mainland 
portion) and Vancouver Island. The city is accessible to ocean- 
going ships of 16 ft. draught. It is the chief centre of the farming 
country of the lower Fraser and has a small export lumber trade. 
In 1898 the greater portion of the business part of the city was 
destroyed by fire, and though much of it was rebuilt, the estab- 
lishment of the city of Vancouver, only 12 m. distant, seriously 
affected its growth. It is connected with Vancouver by an 
electric railway. The Great Northern railway, connecting with 
Seattle and other points in the state of Washington, here crosses 
the Fraser river by a fine bridge. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY, the first day of the year. In the Gregorian 
calendar this date occurs twelve days earlier than in the Julian ; 
thus in Russia, Greece, &c., where the latter is still employed, 
New Year's Day is celebrated on the English i3th of January. 

The ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians and Persians began their 
year at the autumnal equinox (Sept. 21) and the Greeks until 
the 5th century B.C. at the winter solstice (Dec. 21). In 432 B.C. 
the latter altered their New Year's Day to the 2ist of June. 
The ancient Romans celebrated the beginning of the year on the 
aist of December, but Caesar by the adoption of the Julian 
calendar postponed it to the ist of January. The Jews have 
always reckoned their civil year from the first day" of the month 
of Tishri (Sept. 6-Oct. 5), but their ecclesiastical year begins at 
the spring equinox (March 21). The zsth of March was the 
usual date among most Christian peoples in early medieval days. 
In Anglo-Saxon England, however, the 2Sth of December was 
New Year's Day. At the Norman Conquest owing, it is believed, 



to the coincidence of his coronation being arranged for that date, 
William the Conqueror ordered that the year should start on the 
ist of January. But later England began her year with the rest 
of Christendom on the 2$th of March. The Gregorian calendar 
(1582), which restored the ist of January to its position as New 
Year's Day, was accepted by all Catholic countries at once; 
by Germany, Denmark and Sweden about 1700, but not until 
1751 by England. 

The Romans, after the adoption of the Julian calendar, kept 
the ist of January as a general holiday. Sacrifices were made to 
Janus; gifts and visits were exchanged, and masquerading and 
feasting were general. Congratulatory presents were made to 
the magistrates who entered upon office on this day. The 
emperors at the new year exacted from their subjects tribute of 
a pound of gold. This quasi-present was called strena, a term 
(extended to all New Year's gifts in Rome) traditionally derived 
from a custom initiated by the legendary King Tatius, to whom 
branches of vervain gathered in the sacred Grove of Strenua, 
the goddess of strength, were presented as a good omen on the 
first day of the year 747 B.C. The imperial strenae later became 
so excessive that Claudius found it necessary to limit the amount 
by formal decree. 

Participation in the ordinary New Year's Day observances 
as well as in the Saturnalia of December was from the first 
discouraged by the Church. Christians were expected to spend 
the day in quiet meditation, reading of scripture and acts of 
charity. When about the sth century the 25th of December 
had become a fixed festival commemorative of the Nativity, 
the ist of January assumed a specially sacred character as the 
octave of Christmas Day and as the anniversary of the Circum- 
cision. As such it still figures in the calendars of the various 
branches of the Eastern and Western Church, though only as a 
feast of subordinate importance. The first mention of it in 
Christian literature as a feast occurs in Canon 17 of a council 
which met at Tours in 567. 

The custom of giving and receiving strenae for luck at the New 
Year survives in France (where New Year's Day is known as 
le jour d'etrennes) and the Continent generally. In England its 
place has been taken by the Christmas-gift. In Scotland, where 
New Year's Day is more generally observed than Christmas, 
the custom is still universal. The Persians celebrated the begin- 
ning of the year by exchanging presents of eggs. The Druids 
distributed as New Year's gifts branches of the sacred mistletoe. 
In Anglo-Saxon and Norman England New Year's gifts were 
common. According to Matthew Paris, Henry III. followed the 
Roman precedent by extorting New Year's gifts from his subjects. 
These in later reigns became voluntary but none the less obli- 
gatory on those who wished to stand well with the throne. The 
custom reached its climax in Tudor times. Wolsey one New Year 
gave Henry VIII. a gold cup valued at 117, 173. 6d. in the 
coinage of that time. An MS. account is preserved of money 
gifts given to King Henry by all classes of his subjects on New 
Year's Day 1533. The total reached many thousands. Bishop 
Latimer, however, handed Henry instead of a purse a New 
Testament with a leaf doubled down at Hebrews xiii. 4, as 
apposite to the king's then impending marriage with Anne 
Boleyn. In Edward VI. 's time, if not earlier, it was usual for 
the sovereign to give " rewards " to those who presented New 
Year's gifts. Elizabeth is related to have been most conscientious 
in this regard. The custom of offering New Year's gifts to the 
sovereign became obsolete during the Commonwealth and was 
not revived at the Restoration. 

NEW YORK, one of the original thirteen United States of 
America, situated between 40 29' 40" and 45 o' 2" N., and 
between 71 51' and 79 45' 54-4" W. Its northern boundary 
is, for the most part, formed by Lake Ontario and the St Law- 
rence river, which separate it from the province of Ontario, 
Canada; but north of the Adirondacks the boundary line leaves 
the St Lawrence, extending in a due east direction to the lower 
end of Lake Champlain. Thus the boundary between New York 
and the province of Quebec, Canada, is wholly artificial. 
Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut bound New York on 



NEW YORK 



595 



the E. ; the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, on 
the S. ; and Pennsylvania, Lake Erie and the Niagara river on 
theW. 

The state has a triangular outline, with a breadth from E. 
to W. of 326-46 m. and from N. to S., on the line of the Hudson, 
of 300 m. In addition, it includes Long Island and Staten 
Island on the Atlantic Coast. Its land area is 47,654 sq. m. and 
the area of the inland waters is 1550 sq. m., giving a total area 
of 49,204 sq. m. In addition to this, New York includes 3140 
sq. m. of water in Lakes Ontario and Erie. 

Topography. The most notable topographic feature is the roughly 
circular mountain area of north-eastern New York known as the 
Adirondack mountains (<?..). This is a very ancient mountain mass 
of crystalline rocks resembling more the Laurentian mountains of 
Canada than the Appalachians. Indeed, it is commonly considered 
to be an extension of the Canadian mountains. Parts of the crystal- 
line area are worn down to a condition of low relief, but in the main 
mountain mass, although greatly worn, there are still elevations of 
truly mountainous proportions. The highest peak is Mount Marcy 
(5344 ft-)> though associated with it are several other peaks with an 
elevation from 4000 to 5000 ft. Even the higher summits are worn 
to a rounded condition, and are therefore for the most part forest 
covered up to the timber line which, on Mount Marcy, is at an 
elevation of about 4900 ft. From the crest of the dome of the 
Adirondacks proper the surface slopes in all directions to surround- 
ing lowlands: to the St Lawrence valley on the N. ; the Champlain- 
Hudson lowland on the E. ; the Mohawk valley on the S. ; and Lake 
Ontario on the W. While igneous and metamorphic crystalline 
rocks form the bulk of the Adirondack area, it is surrounded by a ring 
of ancient Palaeozoic sediments in which these peripheral lowlands 
have been developed. The Adirondack area proper, and much of 
the surrounding ring of more recent rocks, is either too rugged, or 
has a soil too thin and rocky for extensive agriculture. It is there- 
fore a sparsely settled region with lumbering for one of the leading 
industries, though there is some mining, as of iron. Owing to the 
varied and beautiful scenery, this is a favourite summer resort; 
the game of the forests and the fishing in the streams and in the 
multitude of lakes serve as further attractions. In the peripheral 
ring farming increases, especially dairying; and manufacturing 
industries connected with the products of forests, farms and mines 
are developed. These and other manufacturing industries are greatly 
aided by the extensive water power furnished by the mountain 
streams which flow out radially from the central area. 

South of the Adirondack region, and S. of the Mohawk Valley, 
rises a high-level plateau which extends westward to the Pennsyl- 
vania boundary. Here the rocks are all essentially horizontal and of 
Palaeozoic age, mainly Devonian. This plateau province, which 
includes more than half the state, differs greatly from place to place. 
Its elevation decreases toward the N. by a series of steps, having its 
lowest elevation on the Ontario plain which skirts the southern shore 
of Lake Ontario. Similar to this is a narrow plain along the southern 
shore of Lake Erie, which, in fact, lies in a shallow depression in this 
Erie plain. Both of these plains are so level, and have so fertile a soil 
that they are the seats of extensive agriculture, especially fruit 
raising, which is further encouraged by the influence of the large 
bodies of lake water that moderate the heat of summer and the cold 
of winter, and tend to check the late frosts of spring and the early 
frosts of autumn. 

Elsewhere in the plateau province the land is higher and the surface 
far more irregular, increasing in ruggedness toward both the S. and 
the E. Elevations of between 1500 and 2000 ft. are common in this 
region all the way from Chautauqua county in the extreme W. to 
the Catskill mountains in the E. ; and in places the surface becomes 
so rugged as to simulate the features of mountains and locally to 
win the name mountain. Valleys are deeply sunk in the plateau, 
the largest with bottom lands of sufficient width to give rise to strips 
of fertile farm land. The valley walls rise to undulating, and often 
fairly level uplands, which are, in large part, cleared of forest; but 
the uplands are remote from markets, and the soil is thin. In the 
main they are grazing lands the seat of important dairy and sheep- 
raising industries. This is the region of abandoned farm houses. 
Thousands have been deserted and they may be found along all the 
upland roads. 

Since this plateau region is a northward extension of the Allegheny 
plateau, which skirts the western base of the Appalachian mountains, 
it rises as the mountains are approached. Thus, in S.E. New York, 
where the Appalachians enter the state, the plateau becomes much 
higher than in the W., reaching its culmination in the Catskills. 
Here, partly because of elevation, and partly because of the resistant 
nature of the Catskill sandstones, dissection has so scujptured the 
plateau as to carve it into a mountainous mass which is generally 
known as the Catskill mountains. In this part of the plateau, 
summit elevations of from 3000 to 4000 ft. are common, the highest 
point being Slide Mountain (4205 ft.). Like the Adirondacks, this 
region is largely forest covered, and is a favourite summer resort ; 
but it is far less a wilderness than the Adirondacks, and in places is 
cleared for farming, especially for pasturage. 



In the plateau province there are other areas known as mountains, 
of which the Helderberg mountains are the most conspicuous. This 
formation is really an escarpment facing the lower Mohawk and the 
Hudson river S. of Albany, where there is a downward step in the 
plateau. The steeply rising face of the plateau here is due to the resist- 
ance of a durable layer of limestone, known as the Helderberg lime- 
stone. There are other lower escarpments in the plateau province, 
similar in form and cause to the Helderberg escarpment. Of these the 
most notable is the Niagara escarpment which extends eastward from 
Canada, past Lewiston and Lockport, a downward step from the 
Erie to the Ontario plain, where the Niagara limestone outcrops, and 
its resistance to denudation accounts for the steeply rising face at the 
boundary between the two plains. 

South and S.E. of the Catskills, although including only a small 
portion of the state, there are a number of different topographic 
features, due to the belts of different rock structure which cross the 
state from S.W. to N.E. First come the low folds of the western 
Appalachians, which, though well developed in Pennsylvania, die 
out near the New York boundary. The most pronounced of these 
upfolded strata in New York form the low Shawangunk mountains, 
which descend, toward the S.E., to a lowland region of folded strata 
of limestone, slate and other rocks in Orange and Dutchess counties. 
This lowland area, due to the non-resistant character of the strata, 
is a continuation of the Great Valley of the Appalachians, and ex- 
tends N.E. into Vermont and S.W. across New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Maryland and Virginia. It is bounded on its S.E. side by the 
Highlands, a belt of ancient crystalline rocks which extends N.E. 
into Connecticut and Massachusetts,' and S.W. into the Highlands 
of New Jersey and thence to the Blue Ridge. South of the High- 
jands, in New Jersey, but extending to the very banks of the Hudson, 
is a belt of Triassic sandstone with intrusions of trarp rock, which, on 
account of its peculiar columnar jointing, has developed a palisade 
structure the famous Palisades of the lower Hudson. On the New 
York side of the Hudson the rocks are crystalline, the surface a 
region of low hills, a continuation of the crystalline area of Con- 
necticut, and comparable with the Piedmont plateau of the Southern 
states. Long Island, though modified by extensive glacial deposits, 
may be considered a N.E. extension of the coastal plains which attain 
a much more perfect development in New Jersey and the states 
farther S. 

The entire surface of New York, with the exception of a very small 
area in the extreme W., in Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties, 
was covered by the continental glacier. With its source in Canada, it 
overrode even the highest mountains and spread beyond the boundary 
of New York into Pennsylvania and New Jersey; but farther E. its 
front rested on Staten Island and Long Island, whose surface features, 
and a part of whose area, are due to the deposits along the ice front, 
including terminal moraines and outwash gravel plains. Elsewhere in 
the state, also, the work of the glacier is very evident. It broadened 
and deepened many of the valleys; rounded the hills; turned aside 
many streams, causing changes in drainage and giving rise to in- 
numerable waterfalls and rapids; and it formed the thousands of 
lakes, large and small, which dot the surface. As the ice receded, it 
halted at various points, forming moraines and other glacial 
deposits. Thus the soil of almost the entire state has been derived 
by glacial action. After the continental ice sheet entirely disap- 
peared from the state, local valley glaciers lingered in the Adirondacks 
and the Catskills. 

Drainage. The drainage of New York finds its way to the sea in 
various directions. The St Lawrence system receives the most, 
mainly from short streams from the plateau province and from the 
Adirondacks. A small part of the state, in the W., drains to the 
Ohio, and thence, by way of the Mississippi, to the Gulf of Mexico; 
and a much larger area drains into the Susquehanna, entering the 
head of Chesapeake Bay. A part of the Catskills, and the region 
farther S., drains into Delaware Bay through the Delaware river. 
Thus New York is pre-eminently a divide region, sending its drainage, 
by various courses, into widely separated parts of the ocean. Only 
the Hudson and a few streams in the extreme S. have independent 
courses to the sea within the state itself. 

The Hudson (q.v.) is essentially a New York stream, though it 
receives some drainage from the New England States through its 
small eastern tributaries. Its entire course is within New York, from 
which it receives most of its water supply. It is by far the most 
important river in the state, for, owing to the sinking of the land, 
which has admitted the tide as far as Troy, it is navigable for 151 m. 
from the sea. Thence westward the Mohawk Valley furnishes a 
highway which is followed by canal, railway and waggon road. Thus 
there is here a gap, easily traversed, across the Appalachian mountains 
and plateaus to the more level and fertile plains beyond. A low 
gap also leads northward from the Hudson to the Champlain Valley 
across a pass only 147 ft. above sea-level. This was of much import- 
ance in early wars; but it is of only minor importance as a com- 
mercial highway since it leads to Canada through a region of little 
economic importance. 

The lower Hudson, below Troy, is really a fiord, the stream valley 
being drowned by the sea through subsidence of the land. It is noted 
for ics remarkable scenery, especially where it crosses the Highlands. 
The other large river valleys are far less useful as highways, though 
each is paralleled by one or more railways. The action of the 



59 6 



NEW YORK 



continental glacier in scouring down the passes between the St 
Lawrence and southern drainage, and in turning streams southward, 
has facilitated the building of railways across the divides. 

There are thousands of lakes and ponds in the state, most of them 
very small and all, even including Lakes Erie and Ontario, the result 
of glacial action. The largest lake apart from Erie and Ontario is the 
beautiful Lake Champlam, which lies on the eastern boundary, 
partly in Vermont, and with the N. end in Canada. It occupies the 
lower portion of the trough between the Adirondacks and the Green 
Mountains. The largest lake entirely within the state is Lake George, 
famous for its beautiful scenery. In the central part of the state 
are a series of peculiar elongated lakes, extending in a nearly N.S. 
direction, known as the Finger Lakes. The largest of these are 
Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka, Canandaigua, Owasco and Skaneateles. In 
the extreme western part of the state is Chautauqua Lake, beautifully 
situated in the plateau of western New York. 

New York is noted for its many falls and rapids, some of them of 
great beauty. Of these the largest is the cataract of Niagara, about 
I m. wide and 1 60 ft. high. The American Fall is entirely within the 
state; but the Canadian boundary-line passes down the centre of the 
Horseshoe or Canadian Fall. Other notable falls are those of the 
Genesee at Portage and at Rochester, Trenton Falls, the Falls of 
Ticonderoga, and a multitude of falls and rapids in the Adirondack 
region and along the shores of the upper portions of the Finger Lakes. 
Here the tributary strearrts tumble down the sides of the lake valleys, 
whose bottoms have been deepened by glacial erosion, leaving the 
tributary valleys hanging. There are scores of picturesque glens 
here, and hundreds of waterfalls, among the most beautiful being in 
the Cayuga valley notably Enfield Falls, a few miles S. of Ithaca, 
Ithaca Falls in the city, and Taughannock, a few miles N. of Ithaca. 
The last, the highest waterfall in the state, has a vertical fall of 
2 1 5 ft. Similar glens and falls are found in the Seneca Valley, the best 
known being the widely renowned Watkins Glen, now reserved as a 
state park (see WATKINS). Many of the waterfalls of New York, 
but notably Niagara, are used as a source of power. 

The Coast-line. New York has extensive coast-line along the 
Great Lakes, 75 m. on Lake Erie and over 200 m. on Lake Ontario. 
Where the lake waters flood the stream mouths, there are excellent 
harbours, and lake navigation is therefore of high importance. The 
largest of the lake ports is at Buffalo at the head of Niagara river, 
where, owing to the Niagara cataract, lake boats from the W. must 
transfer their goods to rail or canal. Buffalo lies at the lower end 
of natural lake navigation, though by the building of a ship canal in 
Canada, lake steamers can proceed into Lake Ontario and thence to 
the St Lawrence. 

The ocean coast-line, though of limited extent, is by far the most 
important in the United States. The greater part of the sea coast is 
on Long Island a low, sandy coast, the seat of numerous summer 
resorts and of some fishing. The mainland, opposite the western end 
of Long Island, is traversed by the lower Hudson and other channels 
submerged valleys which form a branching bay with several 
islands, the largest of which are Staten and Manhattan Islands. The 
western bank of the lower Hudson is in New Jersey. This branching 
bay makes an excellent protected harbour, with an immense water 
front, at the outlet of the chief natural highway from the E. to the 
interior of the country. Naturally, therefore, a dense population, 
engaged mainly in manufacturing and commerce, has gathered 
around the shores of this harbour, the greatest number on Manhattan 
Island and the contiguous mainland in New York City, but large 
numbers also on western Long Island, in Brooklyn, on the smaller 
islands, and on the New Jersey side. The harbour entrance is some- 
what obstructed by sand bars, so that extensive government work 
has been necessary to open and maintain a channel for large draft 
ocean vessels. This sand has not been brought by the Hudson itself, 
for that river drops most of its sediment load far up stream, in its long 
tidal channel. It is supplied by the tidal- and wind-formed currents, 
which are drifting sand from the Long Island and New Jersey 
coasts, extending the barrier beaches, such as Sandy Hook, out 
across the entrance to New York Bay. 

Climate. In general the climate of New York is typical of that of 
northern United States, a climate of extremes, hot in summer, and 
cold in winter, and yet healthful, stimulating, and, on the whole, 
not disagreeable. In the absence of extensive alluvial plains and 
marshes, there is little malaria. The average mean annual tempera- 
ture is not far from 45 F., though it varies from over 50 near New 
York City, and 48 near the Lake Erie shore, to less than 40 in the 
high Adirondacks. The average maximum summer heat is about 
93, temperature of 100 being rarely reached. In the winter the 
temperature descends below zero during exceptionally cold spells. 
A temperature of -20 or lower is never attained in the southern 
portion, seldom in the central, but is often passed, by 5 or 10 degrees, 
in the Adirondacks and in the higher parts of the plateau. The 
rivers and smaller lakes freeze in winter and navigation on the St 
Lawrence river is closed by ice on the average from about the middle 
of December until early in April. The average rainfall is between 40 
and 45 in., but it is less than 30 in. in the Lake Champlain Valley and 
over 55 in. N. of New York City. In most of the state frosts begin 
from September 1st to October 1st, and end from April 1st to May 
1st. In the Adirondack region the snowfall is heavy, the winter long 
and severe. In central New York it is not uncommon for snow to 



accumulate to the depth of 3 or 4 ft., and yet this is not persistent. 
About New York City, and on Long Island, the snow rarely exceeds 
I ft. in depth. The climate is very variable, owing to the frequent 
passage of cyclonic storms from the W. and S.W., bringing warmer 
weather with rain and snow in winter, and causing days of great 
heat and humidity, with thunderstorms, in summer. Between these 
cyclonic storms come areas of high pressure, or anticyclones, with 
dry cool air in summer, and dry cold air in winter, sometimes with 
such decided changes in temperature as to merit the name cold wave. 
About New York City, and on Long Island, the ocean softens the 
rigours of winter, and through the influence of cold surface waters 
off the coast, tempers the heat of summer. The temperature of the 
larger valleys is notably higher than that of the uplands; and the 
temperature along the lake shores is decidedly influenced by the 
large bodies of water. Lakes Ontario and Erie never freeze com- 
pletely over in winter. 

Although one of the smaller states in the Union, being 3oth in 
area, New York ranks first in population and in wealth, and has 
won for itself the name Empire State. The physiography 
has enabled the state to become a great highway of commerce 
between the central part of the United States and the sea-coast, 
by rail and by water, along the Mohawk Gap and by other routes. 
The Great Lakes waterway naturally finds an outlet in New York 
City. This has made it easy for the states to the west to con- 
tribute raw materials, notably coal and iron, adding these to the 
natural raw products of New York. Thus it happens that 
from Buffalo to New York City there is a chain of busy manu- 
facturing centres along the natural highway followed by the 
Erie Canal and the Hudson river. Other parts of the state, 
where connected with the main highway, are influenced by it 
to some extent; but away from the great natural route of 
commerce New York is not especially noteworthy either for its 
density of population or for extensive manufacturing and 
commerce. (R. S. T.) 

Flora. When first settled by Europeans New York was a wood- 
land region containing nearly all the varieties of trees, shrubs and 
plants which were common to the territory lying E. of the Mississippi 
river, N. of the Ohio, and S. of the St Lawrence. In the Adirondack 
region the trees were principally white pine, spruce, hemlock and 
balsam, but mixed with these were some birch, maple, beech and 
basswood, and smaller numbers of ash and elm ; in the swamps of this 
region were also larch and cedar. The forests of the W. half of the 
state contained pine, but here such hardwood trees as oak, chestnut, 
hickory, maple and beech were more common. The tulip tree was 
common both in the S.W. and N. ; and the walnut, butternut, 
poplar, sycamore and locust were widely distributed. The original 
varieties of trees still abound, though in less numbers, on lands ill- 
adapted to agriculture, and in the Adirondack and Catskill Mountains, 
where the state has established forest preserves, and the Forest, 
Fish and Game Commissioner began reforesting in 1901, principally 
with pine, spruce and larch. On the summits of the Adirondacks are 
a few alpine species, such as reindeer moss and other lichens; on the 
shores of Long Island, Staten Island and Westchester county are a 
number of maritime species; and on Long Island are several species 
especially characteristic of the pine barrens of New Jersey. Laurel, 
rhododendron, and whortleberry are common shrubs in the mountain 
districts, and sumac, hazel, sassafras and elder are quite widely 
distributed elsewhere. Among indigenous fruit-bearing plants th 
state has the black cherry, red cherry, red plum, yellow plum, grape, 
black currant, blackberry, dewberry, strawberry and cranberry. 
Blue flag, snake root, ginseng, lobelia, tansy, wormwood, winter- 
green, pleurisy root, plantain, burdock, sarsaparilla and horehound 
are among its medicinal plants. Cowslips, violets, anemones, 
buttercups and blood-roots are conspicuous in early spring, the 
white pond lily and the yellow pond lily in summer, asters and 
golden-rod in autumn, and besides these there are about 1500 other 
flowering plants in the state and more than 50 species of ferns. 

Fauna. Of the fur and game animals which were inhabitants of 
the primeval forests few of the larger species remain except in the 
Adirondack region. Here the puma (" panther ") has become 
extinct and the Canada lynx is rare. The moose, the elk and the 
beaver have been placed under he protection of the Forest, Fish 
and Game Commissioner. There are many deer in the Adirondacks. 
The porcupine is common, but the Canada pine marten or American 
sable, fisher, and red fox are rare, and the black bear and grey wolf 
are found only in small numbers. Rabbits and squirrels are 
numerous in nearly all parts of the state; skunks, weasels, 
muskrats and woodchucks are common; there are some racoons; 
mink are frequently taken in the Adirondacks; and a few otter 
remain. In the lower counties are some " Virginia " opossums. 

Among birds of prey a bald eagle and a golden eagle are occasion- 
ally seen in secluded places. Game birds include ducks, geese, 
plovers, snipe, loons, grebes, terns, rails, the woodcock and the ruffed 
grouse; quails are scarce except on Long Island, where a number of 
young birds are liberated each year, and by the same means a supply 



NEW YORK 



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597 






of pheasants is maintained in some parts of the state. There is a 
state game bird farm (1909) near Sherburne in Chenango county. 
Herons, the brown pelican, bittern, and mud hen frequent the 
marshes. The robin, song sparrow, chickadee, thrushes, warblers, 
vireos, orioles, wrens, blue-bird, cat-bird and phoebe are favourite 
song birds. 

There are about 375 species of fish in New York waters (see below 
under FISHERIES). 

Soil. The soil is mostly glacial drift, but its depth and composi- 
tion often vary greatly even within small areas. The most widely 
distributed soil, especially in the W. half of the state, is mainly a clay 
which was formed by the glacial pulverizing of limestone and shale 
and is still forming from the decomposition of fragments of these 
substances. In the larger valleys and along the shores of lakes 
considerable alluvium is mixed with this clay. In the E. there is 
some clay formed mainly by the decomposition of slate. A sandy 
loam is quite characteristic of some of the N. counties, and gravelly 
loams containing limestone are not uncommon. 

Agriculture and Stock-Raising. Although New York has lost in the 
competition with the Western States in the production of most of the 
grains, especially wheat and barley, and in the production of wool, 
mutton and pork, it has made steady progress in the dairy business 
and continues to produce great crops of hay. The state has made 
great advances, too, in the production of flowers, ornamental plants, 
nursery products, fruits, vegetables, poultry and eggs. In 1900 a 
little less than three-fourths of the state's total land area was in- 
cluded in farms and a little more than two-thirds of this was im- 
proved. The number of farms gradually increased from 170,621 in 
1850 to 226,720 in 1900, and the average size decreased from 112-1 
acres in 1850 to 97- 1 acres in 1890, but increased to 99-9 acres in 1900. 
More than two-thirds of the farms (152,956) were operated by owners 
or part owners, 29,000 were operated by share tenants, and 24,303 
by cash tenants. Of the total acreage of all crops, 5,154,965 acres 
(54'i %) were of hay and 3,125,077 acres (32-8%) were of cereals. 
In 1909 the amount of the hay crop (5,002,000 tons) was greater than 
that of any other state except Iowa, and its value ($7 1,028,000) was 
greater than in any other state. The oat crop in 1909 was 37,365,000 
bushels; the Indian corn crop, 1,910,000 bushels; the wheat crop, 
24,120,000 bushels; the barley crop, 8,820,000 bushels; the rye crop, 
2,720,000 bushels; buckwheat, 7,512,000 bushels._ 

There were less than one-third as many sheep in 1910 (1,177,000) 
as in 1850; but in the same period the number of dairy cows 
(1,771,000 in 1910) steadily increased. The number of cattle other 
than dairy cows was 946,315 in 1850 and 889,000 in 1910. Horses 
increased from 447,014 in 1850 to 717,000 in 1910. 

New York has a larger acreage of vegetables than any other state. 
Its crop of potatoes in 1909 was 52,560,000 bushels and that of 
Maine, the next largest, 29,250,000 bushels; and the state is a large 
producer of onions, turnips, cabbages, cauliflower, sweet Indian 
corn, cucumbers, rhubarb, parsnips, carrots, green peas and green 
beans. During the years 1850-1889 New York produced about 70 % 
of the hop crop of the entire country, but since 1890 hop culture has 
been rapidly extended in the Pacific Coast states and suffered to de- 
cline in New York, and the crop from 1899 to 1007 averaged only 
about one-half that of 1889 (20,063,029 Ib). Tobacco culture was 
introduced in 1845, and in 1860 the crop was 5,764,582 Ib. During 
1860-1880 the increase was slight, but in 1899 the crop was 
13,958,370 Ib; in 1909 the crop was only 7,050,000 ft>. The value of 
the fruit crop in 1899 ($15,844,346) was second only to that of 
California; and the most productive agricultural lands are those 
devoted to floriculture and nurseries. 

The dairy business and the production of hay are especially 
prominent in the rugged region W. of the Adirondack Mountains and 
in the rugged portions of the counties in the S. half of the state. A 
large portion of the Indian corn, wheat and barley is produced on the 
Ontario plain. There are large crops of oats here, too, but the culture 
of this cereal is quite extensive in most of the counties W. of the 
Adirondacks. The lower valley of the Hudson is noted for its crops 
of rye. The buckwheat belt extends S.W. across the _ state from 
Albany and Saratoga counties. The principal hop-producing counties 
are Otsego, Schoharie and Madison, all of which are between Albany 
and Syracuse. Those producing most tobacco are in a district ex- 
tending from the S.E. shore of Lake Ontario southward across the 
state. The great orchards are in the tier of counties bordering the S. 
shore of Lake Ontario and in Dutchess and Ulster counties in the 
Hudson Valley. Chautauqua county alone produced more than 
one-half of the state's crop of grapes in 1899, but this fruit is grown 
extensively also in the region W. of Seneca Lake in the vicinity of 
Lake Keuka, and in parts of the lower valley of the Hudson. The 
culture of small fruits and vegetables is widely distributed throughout 
the W. half of the state and in the valley of the Hudson, and the 
greater part of Long Island under cultivation is devoted to market 
gardening, floriculture and nurseries. The largest nurseries, however, 
are in the vicinity of Rochester. 

Forest Products. The principal forest area is in the Adirondack 
region where the state has a forest preserve (in Clinton, Essex, 
Franklin, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Oneida, St Law- 
rence, Saratoga, Warren and Washington counties) containing (1909) 
'.530,559 acres, and there is as much or more in private pre- 
serves and in tracts owned by lumbermen. The state has a forest 



preserve also in the Catskill region (in Delaware, Greene, Sullivan 
and Ulster counties) of 110,964 acres, and there are wood-lots on 
many farms throughout the state that produce commercial timber. 
Originally white pine was the principal timber of the Adirondacks, 
but most of the merchantable portion has been cut, and in 1905 
nearly one-half of the lumber product of this section was spruce, the 
other half mainly hemlock, pine and hardwoods (yellow birch, maple, 
beech and basswood.and smaller amounts of elm, cherry and ash). 
The state is reforesting portions of its preserve chiefly with pine, 
spruce and larch. In the Catskills and in the farming regions the 
lumber product consists largely of hardwoods (mostly oak, chestnut 
and hickory), smaller amounts of hemlock and pine, and a very little 
spruce. The state's entire timber product in 1905 was 1,212,070,168 
ft. (board measure) ; of this about five-eighths was from the Adiron- 
dack region, a little more than one-fourth was from the farming 
regions, and a little less than one-eighth was from the Catskill region. 
Maple sugar is an important by-product of the forests, and in the 
production of this commodity New York ranks second only to 
Vermont ; 3,623,540 ft were made in 1900. 

Fisheries. New York was in 1904 more extensively engaged in 
oyster culture than any other state, and was making more rapid 
progress in the cultivation of hard clams. In 1909 there were 
distributed from state fish hatcheries 1 531,293,721 fishes (mostly 
smelt, pike-perch, and winter flatfish) ; a large number of fish 
and eggs were also placed in New York waters by the United States 
Bureau of Fisheries. The products of the marine fisheries decreased 
nearly 30 % in value from 1891 to 1897, but from 1897 to 1904 they 
increased from $3,391,595 to $6,230,558, or 80-3 %, and a large part 
of this increase was due to the extension of the successful oyster 
culture at the E. end of Long Island; the value of oysters alone 
rising from $2,050,058 to $3,780,352. The value of hard clams rose 
during the same period from $198,930 to $303,599. Peconic Bay, 
at the E. end of Long Island, yields more scallops than all the other 
waters of the United States. Soft clams, lobsters, hard crabs and 
soft crabs are other shell-fish obtained in small quantities. Menhaden 
are caught in much larger quantities in New York than any other 
fish, but being too bony for food they are used only in the manu- 
facture of oil and fertilizer. The most valuable catches of food fish 
in 1904 were those of bluefish ($556,527), squeteague ($212,623), 
flounders ($67,159), eels ($53,832), cod ($52,710), scup ($48,068) 
and shad ($36,826). The shad fishery is mainly in the lower waters 
of the Hudson river, and the catch diminished so rapidly from 1901 
that in 1904 it was only about one-eighth of the average for the 
decade from 1890 to 1900. The New York fisheries of Lakes Erie 
and Ontario and the Niagara and St Lawrence rivers yielded pro- 
ducts in 1903 valued at $187,798 and consisting largely of pike- 
perch, herring, catfish, bullheads and sturgeon, and in 1902 there were 
commercial fisheries in sixteen interior lakes and rivers which yielded 
muscallonge, smelt, bullheads, pickerel, pike-perch and several other 
varieties having a total value of $87,897. 

Minerals. More than thirty mineral substances are obtained in 
commercial quantities from the mines, quarries and wells of New 
York, but of the total value of the mineral products in 1908 
($45,660,861), nearly six-sevenths was represented: by clay products 
($8,929;224), pig iron ($15,879,000), stone ($6,157,279), cement 
($2,254,759), salt ($2,136,738), petroleum ($2,071,533), and sandand 
gravel ($1,349,163). The extensive deposits of clay in the Hudson 
Valley together with the easy water communications with New 
York City have made this valley the greatest brick-making region in 
the world; in 1906 the common bricks made here numbered 
1,230,692,000. There are also deposits of clay suitable for making 
bricks, terra-cotta and tiles in nearly every county outside of this 
valley, and there are some pottery clays in Albany and Onondaga 
counties. The common bricks made in New York in 1908 were 
valued at $5,066,084, an amount in excess of that in any other 
state; and the total value of brick and tile products was $7,270,981, 
being less than that of Ohio, Pennsylvania or Illinois. In 1750 the 
mining of iron ore was begun near Monroe, Orange county. Ore 
has since been found in most of the eastern counties and as far W. 
as Wayne county, but the mines in Essex, Clinton and Franklin 
counties of the Adirondack region are by far the most productive. 
The ores are principally magnetites (New York is the largest producer 
of magnetite ore among the states, producing about 45 % of the total 
for the United States in 1907 and 1908), but red haematites occur in 
the N. and W. section of the Adirondacks and in the central part of 
the state, and brown haematites and carbonate ore in the S.E. 
counties. The total output of the state increased from 651,228 long 
tons in 1884 to 1,253,593 long tons in 1890, decreased to 179,951 
long tons in 1898, again increased to 1,375,020 long tons in 1907, 
when only three states produced more, and was only 697,473 long 
tons in 1008 when the state held the same rank as in 1007. Limestone 



'These include: the Adirondack Hatchery at Upper Saranac, 
Franklin county; the Caledonia Hatchery at Mumford, Monroe 
county; the Cold Spring Harbor Hatchery, at Cold Spring Harbor, 
Suffolk county; the Delaware Hatchery, at Margaretville, Delaware 
county; the Fulton Chain Hatchery, at Old Forge, Herkimer 
county; the Linlithgo Hatchery, at Linlithgo, Columbia county; 
the Oneida Hatchery, at Constantia, Oswego county; and the 
Pleasant Valley Hatchery, at Taggart, Steuben county. 



NEW YORK 



is widely distributed throughout the state, and great quantities of it 
are crushed for road-making, railway ballasts, and concrete, but as 
the prevailing colours are greyish or drab it is little used in the walls 
of buildings. In 1908 the total value of the output of this stone was 
$2,584,559. Three distinct varieties of sandstone are quarried 
extensively. Those popularly known as " bluestones " belong to 
the Hamilton period of the Devonian formation and occur mainly 
between the Hudson and Delaware rivers. They are dark blue-grey, 
fine grained and durable, and are much used for flagging and kerbing 
and for sills, caps and steps. Medina sandstones occur throughout a 
belt averaging about 10 m. wide along the S. shore of Lake Ontario 
and are either red or grey ; the red are used for building, the grey for 
street paving. A more durable and more beautiful stone for building 
is the reddish or reddish-brown Potsdam sandstone of which there 
are extensive formations on the N.W. border of the Adirondacks. 
The value of all sandstones quarried in 1908 was $1,774,843, an 
amount exceeded by no other state. Several choice marbles are 
obtained in the eastern counties. From Tuckahoe, Westchester 
county, has been taken white marble, used in some of the finest 
buildings in New York City, and a similar marble is obtained in 
Putnam and Dutchess counties. Near Gouverneur, St Lawrence 
county, is a large quarry of coarsely crystalline magnesian limestone, 
used as monumental marble. In the Lower Silurian formation at 
Plattsburg and Chazy, in Clinton county, are two beautiful grey or 
grey and pink marbles, one of which is a favourite among domestic 
marbles for mantels, table tops and other interior decorations. 
From an extensive deposit of blue-black magnesian limestone at 
Glens Falls are taken the choicest varieties of black marble quarried 
in the United States. At Moriah and Port Henry, in Essex county, 
is a stone known as ophlite marble, a mixture of serpentine, dolomite 
and calcite interspersed with small flecks of phlogopite. Larger 
deposits of serpentine occur at several places in St Lawrence county ; 
and at Warwick, in Orange county, is some beautiful marble of a 
carmine-red colour occasionally mottled with white or showing white 
veins. The marble quarried in 1908 was valued at $706,858. There 
are extensive formations of granitic rocks in the Adirondacks, in the 
lower Hudson Valley, and in the adjacent highlands, but they are not 
extensively quarried. Rockland county quarries considerable trap 
rock, used mostly for road-making and concrete, and Ulster county 
has for more than a century produced most of the domestic mill- 
stones used in the United States. Extending from Madison county 
to the W. border of the state in Erie county is a narrow belt con- 
taining large deposits of gypsum, and in 1908 the value of the state's 
output ($760,759) was greater than that of any other state, although 
Michigan produced a larger quantity. At or near Chittenango, in 
Madison county, natural-cement rock was first discovered in the 
United States, and the first use made of it was in the construction of 
the Erie Canal. The rock was found in much greater quantities at 
Rosendale, in Ulster county, in 1823, and the amount of this cement 
produced by New York rose to 4,689,167 barrels in 1899; the state 
is still the chief producer but only 947,929 barrels were made in 
1908. Limestone and clay suitable for making Portland cement are 
also found in Ulster county and elsewhere, and the production of 
this increased from 65,000 barrels in 1890 to 2,290,955 barrels in 
1908. Near Talcville, in St Lawrence county, is a large deposit of 
fibrous talc. In 1908 the total value of the state's talc product was 
$697,390, almost one-half the total for the entire country. 

New York and Michigan are the two principal salt-producing 
states in the Union. Salt was discovered by the Jesuits in Western 
New York about the middle of the I7th century, and was manu- 
factured by the Indians in the Onondaga region. The state bought 
the salt reservation in 1788, and soon afterward the manufacture of 
salt was begun by the whites. From 1880 to 1885 the first brines 
were obtained in Wyoming and Genesee counties by boring deep wells 
into beds of rock salt, and in 1885 the mining of the extensive de- 
posits of rock salt in Livingston county was begun. Salt is also pro- 
duced in Tompkins and Schuyler counties. In 1908 the total pro- 
duction of the state, 9,076,743 barrels valued at $2,136,738, was 
exceeded in quantity and (for the first time) in value by that of 
Michigan. 

The Appalachian oil field extends northward from West Virginia 
and Pennsylvania into Cattaraugus, Allegany and Steuben counties. 
The first oil well in the state was drilled at Limestone in Cattaraugus 
county in 1865, and the state's output of oil was 1,160,128 barrels, 
valued at $2,071, 533 in 1908. At Olean it is pumped into pipes which 
extend as far north as Buffalo and as far east as Long Island City. 
The village of Fredonia, in Chautauqua county, was illuminated by 
natural gas as early as 1825, and gas has since been discovered in 
several of the western counties. The value of the flow in 1908 was 
$959,280. 

There are more than forty mineral springs in New York whose 
waters are of commercial importance, and in 1908 the waters sold 
from them amounted to 8,007,092 gals., valued at $877,648; several 
of the springs, especially those in Saratoga county, attract a large 
number of summer visitors. Graphite is widely distributed in the 
Adirondack region, but the mining of it is confined for the most part 
to Essex and Warren counties; in 1908 the output was 1,932,000 Ib. 
valued at $116,100. Other mineral substances obtained in small 
quantities are: pyrite, in St Lawrence county; arsenical ore, in 
Putnam county; red, green and purple slate, in Washington county; 



garnet in Warren, Essex and St Lawrence counties; emery and 
felspar, in Westchester county; and infusorial earth in Herkimer 
county. 

Manufactures. The establishment of a great highway of commerce 
through the state from New York City to Buffalo by the construction 
of the Erie Canal, opened in 1825, and later by the building of rail- 
ways along the'line of the water route, made the state's manufactures 
quite independent of its own natural resources. The factory manu-. 
facture of clothing was begun in New York City about 1835, and 
received a great impetus from the invention of the sewing-machine, 
the demands created by the Civil War, and the immigration of vast 
numbers of foreign labourers. It is now the leading manufacturing 
industry of the state. The value of the clothing was $340,715,921 in 
1905. New York City ranks first ?.mong American cities in printing 
and publishing, the products being valued at $137,985,751 in 1905. 
Knitting by machinery was introduced into America in 1831 at 
Cohoes Falls, on the Mohawk river; the products, consisting largely 
of underwear, were valued at $46,108,600 in 1905. Of the other 
textile industries none except the manufacture of carpets and rugs and 
silk and silk goods has become very prominent, and yet the total 
value of all textile products in 1905 was $123,668,177. The refining 
of sugar was begun in New York City late in the l8th century, but 
the growth of the industry to its present magnitude has been com- 
paratively recent; the value of the sugar and molasses refined in 
1905 was $116,438,838. Foundry and machine-shop products were 
valued at $115,876,193 in 1905, and electrical machinery, apparatus, 
and supplies at $35,348,276. The manufacture of paper and wood-pulp 
products ($37,750,605 in 1905) is an industry for which the state still 
furnishes much of the raw material, and other large industries of 
which the same is true are the manufacture of flour and grist-mill 
products, dairy products, canned fruits and vegetables, wines, clay 
products, and salt. New York state has ranked first in the Union in 
the value of its manufactures since 1830, and their value rose to 
$2,488,345,579 in 1905. More than three-fifths of that of 1905 was 
represented by the manufactures of New York City alone. Buffalo, 
the second city in manufactures, shares largely with New York City 
the business of slaughtering and meat packing, the refining and 
smelting of copper, and the manufacture of foundry and machine- 
shop products, and with New York City and Rochester the manu- 
facture of flour and grist-mill products. Rochester ranks first 
among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of photo- 
graphic materials and apparatus and optical instruments. Niagara 
Falls and New York City manufacture a large part of the chemicals, 
and the value of the state's output rose to $29,090,484 in 1905. 
Gloversville and Johnstown are noted for leather gloves and mittens. 

Transportation and Commerce. From the very beginning of the 
occupation of New York by Europeans, commerce was much 
encouraged by the natural water-courses. The Western Inland 
Lock Navigation Company, chartered by the state in 1792, com- 
pleted three canals within about four years and thereby permitted the 
continuous passage from Schenectady to Lake Ontario of boats of 
about 17 tons. The Erie Canal was begun by the state in 1817 and 
opened to boats of about 75 tons burden in 1825. The Champlain 
Canal, connecting the Erie with Lake Champlain, was also begun in 
1817 and completed in 1823. The Oswego Canal, connecting the 
Erie with Lake Ontario, was begun in 1825 and completed in 1828. 
Several other tributary canals were constructed during this period, 
and between 1836 and 1862 the Erie was sufficiently enlarged to 
accommodate boats of 240 tons burden. 

The first railway in the state and the second in operation in the 
United States was the Mohawk & Hudson, opened from Albany to 
Schenectady in 1831. The railway mileage in the state increased to 
1361 m. in 1850, to 3928 m. in 1870, to 7684-41 m. in 1890, and to 
8422-14 m. in January 1909. The first great trunk line in the country 
was that of the Erie railway, opened from Piermont, on the Hudson 
river, to Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, in 1853. The New York Central & 
Hudson River railway, nearly parallel with the water route from 
New York City to Buffalo, was formed by the union, in 1869, of the 
New York Central with the Hudson River railway. The West Shore 
railway, which follows closely the route of the New York Central & 
Hudson River, was also the result of a consolidation, completed in 
1881, of several shorter lines. In 1886 the New York Central & 
Hudson River Railroad Company leased the West Shore for a term 
f 475 years, and this company operates another parallel line from 
Syracuse to Buffalo, a line following closely the entire N. border of 
the state (the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg), and several cross 
lines. Other important railways are the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware, 
Lackawanna & Western, and the Pennsylvania in the central and 
W. sections, the Delaware & Hudson, the Rutland, and the New 
York Ontario & Western in the E., and the Long Island on Long 
Island. In competition with the railways, traffic on the existing 
canals suffered a marked decline. As, however, this decline was 
accompanied with a considerable decrease in the proportion of the 
country's exports which passed through the port of New York, 
interest in the canals revived, and in 1903 the electorate of the state 
authorized the issue of bonds to the amount of $101,000,000 for the 
purpose of increasing the capacity of the Erie, the Champlain and 
the Oswego canals, to make each navigable by barges of 1000 tons 
burden. A project adopted by the state for the enlargement of the 
Erie provides for a new route up th Hudson from Troy to Waterford 



NEW YORK 



599 



and thence to the Mohawk river above Cohoes Falls. Up the Mohawk 
to Rome the old route is for the most part to be retained ; but from 
Rome to Clyde there is to be a diversion so as to utilize Oneida Lake 
and Oneida and Seneca rivers. Westward from Clyde the new 
channel, like the old but larger, will pass through Rochester and 
Lockport to the Niagara river at Tonawanda. Each of the three 
canals is to have a minimum depth of 12 ft., a minimum bottom 
width in rivers and lakes of 200 ft., and in other sections a bottom 
width generally of 75 ft. Their locks are to be 328 ft. in length and 
45 ft. in width. 

The imports to the port of New York increased in value from 
$466,527,631 in 1897 to $891,614,678 in 1909, while the exports 
increased in value from $404,750,496 to $627,782,767. Other ports 
of entry are Buffalo and Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, Niagara Falls, on 
the Niagara river, Ogdensburg and Cape Vincent, on the St 
Lawrence river, Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, Oswego, on Lake 
Ontario, Rochester, on the Genesee river, Albany and Syracuse in 
the interior, and Sag Harbor at the E. end of Long Island. 

Population. New York outstripped Pennsylvania in popula- 
tion in the first decade of the ipth century, and Virginia in the 
second decade, and since 1820 it has been the most populous 
state in the Union. In iSSo 1 the population was 5,082,871; 
in 1890, 5,997,853; in 1900, 7,268,894; in 1905, according to 
the state census, 8,067,308; and in 1910, 9,113,614. The 
foreign-born population in 1900 was 1,900,425, including 
480,026 natives of Germany, 425,553 of Ireland, 182,248 of 
Italy, 165,610 of Russia, 135,685 of England, 117,535 f Canada, 
78,491 of Austria, 69,755 f Poland and 64,055 of Scandinavia. 
More than two-thirds of the foreign-born were in New York City. 
The coloured population constituted only 1-5% of the total, 
and was composed of 99,232 negroes, 7170 Chinese, 5257 Indians 
and 354 Japanese. 

Most of the Indians were on eight reservations: the Allegany 
Reservation (30,469 acres) in Cattaraugus county; the Cattaraugus 
Reservation (21,680 acres) in Erie, Cattaraugus and Chautauqua 
counties; the St Regis Reservation (14,030 acres) in Franklin 
county ; the Tonawanda Reservation (7548 acres) in Erie and Genesee 
counties ; the Onondaga Reservation (7300 acres) in Onondaga county ; 
the Tuscarora Reservation (624 acres) in Niagara county; the Oneida 
Reservation (400 acres) in Madison county; and the Shinnecock 
Reservation (400 acres) near Southampton, on Long Island. 

Of 3,591,974 members of all religious denominations in 1906, 
2,285,768 were Roman Catholics, 313,689 Methodist Episco- 
palians, 199,923 Presbyterians, 193,890 Protestant Episcopalians, 
176,981 Baptists, 124,644 Lutherans, 57,351 Congregationalists, 
35,342 Jews (heads of families only), 26,183 members of the 
German Evangelical Synod, 19,302 members of Eastern Orthodox 
churches and 10,761 Universalists. The urban population (i.e. 
population of places having 4000 inhabitants or more) increased 
from 3,805,477 in 1890 to 5,176,414 in 1900, or 36%, while the 
rural population (i.e. population outside of incorporated places) 
decreased during this decade from 1,834,11910 1,625, 859 or 5-9%. 

The cities having a population of 15,000 or more in 1905 were: 
New York City, 4,013,781; Buffalo, 376,587; Rochester, 181,666; 
Syracuse, 117,503; Albany, 98,374; Troy, 76,910; Utica, 62,934; 
Yonkers, 61,716; Schenectady, 58,387; Binghamton, 42,036; 
Elmira, 34,687; Auburn, 31,422; Niagara Falls, 26,560; Newburgh, 
26,498; Jamestown, ' 26,160; Kingston, 25,556; Watertown, 
25,447; Poughkeepsie, 25,379; Mt. Vernon, 25,996; Cohoes, 
24,183; Amsterdam, 23,943; Oswego, 22,572; New Rochelle, 
20,479; Gloversville, 18,672; Lockport, 17,552; Rome, 16,562; 
and Dunkirk, 15,250. 

Government. Since becoming a state, New York has been 
governed under four constitutions, adopted in 1777, 1821, 1846 
and 1894 respectively. The first state constitution, adopted by a 
convention at Kingston, made few changes in the provincial 
system other than those necessary to establish it on a popular 
basis, but the powers of the governor were curtailed, especially 
his pov/ers of appointment and veto. These limitations worked 
unsatisfactorily, and their removal or modification and the 
extension of the franchise were the principal changes effected in 
1821. Under the first constitution the decentralization of 
administration, which began early in the colonial era, continued 
without interruption, and under the second it was checked by a 
few measures only. The third constitution, besides reorganizing 

1 The population at preceding census years was: (1790) 340,120; 
(1800) 589,051; (1810) 959,049; (1820) 1,372,812; (1830) 
1,918,608; (1840) 2,428,921; (1850) 3,097,394; (1860) 3,880,735; 
(1870) 4,382,759. 



the judiciary, transferred to the people the choice of many 
officers, state and local, who had been appointed by the governor 
or the legislature; and placed numerous restrictions on the 
law-making power of the legislature. Under this constitution 
the theory of local self-government was more fully realized 
in New York than at any other time. 

Since the middle of the igih century an attempt has been made 
to meet the problems arising from a rapid industrial and social 
development by creating bureaus or commissions to exercise a 
central control over local officials, corporations and even private 
individuals, and as most of the heads of these bureaus and the 
commissions are appointed by the governor the importance of 
that officer has increased. The constitutional changes since 
1846 affect principally the judiciary and cities. A constitutional 
convention met and proposed a new constitution in 1867, but 
every article was rejected by the people save one relating to the 
judiciary, which was adopted separately as an amendment in 
1869. The constitution of 1894 made further important changes 
in the judiciary and in the government of cities. The first 
constitution made no provision for its amendment or revision. 
The second provided that whenever a majority of the members 
elected to each house of the legislature voted for an amendment 
and two-thirds of those elected to the next legislature approved, 
it should be submitted to the people for their adoption or re- 
jection. The third modified this provision by requiring the 
approval of only a majority of the members elected to each 
house of the second legislature, and directed that the legislature 
should call a convention to revise the constitution at least once 
in twenty years if the people requested it. The present con- 
stitution contains the same clause as the third for the proposal 
of amendments by the legislature, and makes the unique pro- 
vision that if the people vote for a convention when the question 
is submitted to them this must be as often as once in twenty 
years the delegates shall be elected and shall assemble at an 
appointed time and place without the call of the legislature, 
this being the result of the governor's veto, in 1887, of a bill for 
calling a convention in response to an overwhelming vote of the 
people in favour of it. Under the first constitution there were 
property qualifications for voting which amounted in the election 
of the governor and senators to a freehold estate worth 100 
($500) and in the election of assemblymen to a freehold estate 
worth 20. ($100) or the payment of an annual rent of 405. ($10). 
But under the second constitution the most that was required 
of any white voter was the payment to the state or county of 
taxes on either personal or real property, and by an amendment 
of 1826 this requirement was abolished. The second con- 
stitution, however, imposed a property qualification on coloured 
voters amounting to a freehold estate worth $250, and this re- 
striction was not removed until 1874. Since 1874 the aim has 
been to bestow suffrage on all male citizens who shall have 
attainad the age of twenty-one years and shall have been in- 
habitants of the state for one year, but for the protection of the 
ballot citizenship for ninety days, 2 residence in the county for 
four months, and in the election district for thirty days next 
preceding the election are required. Conviction for bribery or 
of an infamous crime disqualifies, and personal identification 
of voters is required in New York City. A statement of 
receipts and expenditures of an election campaign, showing 
the amount received from each contributor and the name of 
every person or committee to whom more than $5 was paid, 
must be filed by the treasurer of every political committee within 
twenty days after the election; each candidate also must file a 
statement of his contributions. By an Act of 1910 women 
may vote on financial questions affecting a village in which 
they hold property. 

Executive. When the state government was first established, 
the governor and lieutenant-governor were the only state officers 
elected by the people. The state treasurer was chosen by the 
legislature, and for the appointment of other state officers as 
well as county officers and mayors of cities the Assembly chose 
four senators to constitute a council of appointment, a body 
1 Increased from ten days in 1894. 



6oo 



NEW YORK 



in which the governor had only a casting vote. But the con- 
stitution of 1821 abolished the council of appointment and 
gave the choice of the principal state departmental officers to 
the legislature, and the constitution of 1846 transferred the 
choice of these officers from the legislature to the people, where 
it has since remained. Under the constitution of 1821 a great 
number of local officers were appointed by the governor with 
the advice and consent of the Senate. The choice of most of 
these was given to the people in 1846, but since then many new 
state departments have been created, the heads of which are 
usually appointed by the governor, subject to the approval of 
the Senate. Under the present system, therefore, there is a 
biennial election (in even-numbered years) of a governor, a 
lieutenant-governor, a secretary of state, a state comptroller, 
a state treasurer, an attorney-general and a state engineer and 
surveyor; and the governor appoints, subject to the approval 
of the Senate, a superintendent of public works, a superintendent 
of state prisons, a superintendent of insurance, a superintendent 
of banks, a commissioner of excise, a commissioner of agri- 
culture, a forest, fish and game commissioner, a commissioner 
of health, a commissioner of labour, a state architect, a state 
historian, a state librarian, two public service commissions, 
a civil service commission, a board of charities, a commission 
of prisons, a commission in lunacy, three tax commissioners 
and several other boards and commissions. The governor has 
the power, also, of filling vacancies in certain state offices and 
on the benches of the supreme court and county courts, and 
he may remove or suspend certain county and municipal officers 
on charges. 

The first state constitution gave the veto power to a council of 
revision composed of the governor, the chancellor and the judges 
of the supreme court, but since 1821 this power has been exercised 
by the governor alone; and in 1874 it was extended to separate 
items in appropriation bills. A bill or item of an appropriation bill 
that has been vetoed by the governor can become a law only with 
the approval of two-thirds of the members elected to each house of 
the legislature. So long as the legislature is in session the governor 
is allowed ten days, besides Sundays, to consider a bill, and if he does 
not veto it within that time it becomes a law, but no bill becomes a 
law after the final adjournment of the legislature unless it is actually 
approved by the governor within thirty days after the adjourn- 
ment. The governor's power to grant reprieves, commutations or 
pardons is unrestricted by any board of pardons, but he is required 
to report to the legislature each case in which he exercises such 
power. A candidate for the office of governor or lieutenant-governor 
must be at least thirty years of age and must have resided within the 
state for five years next preceding his election. The governor's 
salary is $10,000 a year, and the lieutenant-governor's is $5000. 

Legislature. The legislative power is vested in a Senate of 
50 members elected biennially and an Assembly of 150 members 
elected annually. Since 1846 both senators and assemblymen 
have been elected by single districts, and ever since the state 
government was established they have been apportioned accord- 
ing to population, but the present constitution limits the repre- 
sentation of New York City in the Senate by declaring that no 
county shall have more than one-third of all the senators nor 
any two adjoining counties more than one-half of them. The 
first and second state constitutions required that every senator 
should be a freeholder, but since 1846 no property qualifications 
have been prescribed for membership in either house; the only 
persons disqualified are those who at the time of the election 
or within one hundred days before the election were members 
of Congress, civil or military officers under the United States, 
or officers under any city government. The constitution of 
1846 limited the pay of members of both houses to three dollars 
a day and to three hundred dollars for any one session (except 
in impeachment proceedings) besides an allowance for travelling 
expenses, but since an amendment of 1874 they have been paid 
$i 500 a year and ten cents a mile for travelling expenses. 

The legislature meets in annual sessions, beginning in January. 
Money bills may originate in either house, but at the final vote on 
such a bill in either house three-fifths of the members elected to that 
house must be present and the yeas and nays must be recorded; 
bills entailing appropriations for local or private purposes must 
receive a two-thirds majority to pass. The legislature appoints the 
board of regents of the University of the State of New York. To 
decrease the evil of lobbying a law was enacted in 1906 which requires 



that every person employed to promote or oppose the passage of any 
bill shall file in the office of the secretary of state a written statement 
showing who has employed him and describing the legislation in 
respect of which his services are to be rendered; the law also re- 
quires the employers of lobbyists to file in the same office within two 
months after the adjournment of the legislature an itemized state- 
ment of all their lobby ing expenses, and forbids the employment of a 
lobbyist for a contingent fee. 

Judiciary. At the close of the colonial era there were a 
court of chancery, a supreme court, circuit courts and courts 
of oyer and terminer which were held in the several counties 
by the justices of the supreme court, a court of common pleas 
and a court of sessions in each county, and courts held by justices 
of the peace in the several towns. This system, with the addition 
of the Senate, the chancellor and the justices of the supreme 
court occasionally sitting as a court for the correction of errors, 
was retained with only slight changes until 1846. But the new 
constitution of that year substituted a court of appeals for the 
court of errors, merged the court of chancery into the supreme 
court, established in each county a new county court composed 
of a single judge, and, taking the appointment of judges from 
the governor, gave the election of them to the people. Some 
further alterations in the constitution affecting the courts were 
made in 1869, 1879, 1888, 1894, 1899 and 1909, and the system 
as at present constituted comprises a supreme court of ninety- 
seven justices, an appellate division of the same, a court of 
appeals, a court of claims and local courts. The highest judicial 
court in the state is not, as in most states of the Union, the 
supreme court, but the court of appeals. This court consists 
of a chief judge and six associate judges elected from the state 
at large for a term of fourteen years. Its jurisdiction is limited, 
except where judgment is of death, to a review of questions of 
law. Vacancies are temporarily filled from among the justices 
of the supreme court by the governor. To expedite business, 
at the request of the court, the governor may designate not more 
than four justices of the supreme court to act temporarily as 
additional associate judges of the court of appeals. The salary of 
the chief judge is $14,200, of the associate judges $13,700 a year. 

The ninety-seven justices of the supreme court are elected for 
fourteen years from the nine districts into which the state is divided. 
Of these thirty are chosen in the first district (New York county) and 
seventeen in the second district (Long Island and Staten Island). 
The jurisdiction of each justice extends over the entire state. 
Vacancies are temporarily filled by the governor. Tne supreme 
court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, including all actions 
both civil and criminal. The salary of the justices in the first district 
and in Kings county of the second district is $17,500 a year; in the 
remainder of the second district it is $16,300 a year; in the other 
districts it is $10,000 a year. The state is divided into four depart- 
ments for each of which there is an Appellate Division consisting of 
seven justices in the first department (county of New York) and five 
in each of the others. The justices and presiding justice are desig- 
nated from among the justicespf the supreme court by the governor; 
the presiding justice and a majority of the other justices of each de- 
partment must be residents of the department. 

The court of claims consists of three judges, one presiding, ap- 
pointed by the governor for a term of six years. It has jurisdiction 
to hear and determine private claims against the state. 

The local judiciary includes the usual county and city judges, 
county surrogates and justices of the peace. New York City (j.f.) 
has an extensive judiciary system of its own. 

Local Government. The state is divided into sixty-one 
counties, each (unless wholly included in a city) having a county 
board of supervisors elected for two years, one from every town 
or city ward. This board has certain administrative and legis- 
lative powers, such as the care of county property, the borrowing 
of money for the erection of county buildings, the fixing of the 
salary of the county treasurer and of other county officers, the 
levying of county taxes and the division of the county into 
assembly districts and school commissioners' districts. Other 
county officers are a county judge and a county surrogate elected 
for a term of six years, a treasurer, a clerk, a district attorney, 
a sheriff and from one to four coroners elected for a term of 
three years. Cities are of three classes: (i) those having a 
population of 175,000 or more; (2) those having a population 
between 50,000 and 175,000; and (3) those whose population 
is less than 50,000; the classification is according to the latest 
state enumeration. 



NEW YORK 



601 



Bills for " special " city laws, as opposed to " general," must be 
approved (within fifteen days after their passage by both houses of 
the legislature) by the mayor of the city in first-class cities (in which, 
however, the state legislature may provide for the concurrence of the 
municipal legislative body), and in other cities by the mayor and 
council, before it is laid before the governor: if it is passed by the 
state legislature over the mayor's veto it goes direct to the governor. 
All city elections are held in odd numbered years. The organization 
of cities and villages is provided by the legislature, which may restrict 
their powers of taxation and of contracting debts and may fix 
salaries. Town (or township) government in New York somewhat 
resembles that of New England; the chief executive officer of the 
town is a supervisor, who represents his town in the county " board 
of supervisors." 

National Guard. The national guard of the state is commanded 
under the governor by a major-general. It consists of four brigades 
each commanded by a brigadier-general. The establishments in 1910 
consisted of thirteen regiments and fifty separate companies of 
infantry, two squadrons and two troops of cavalry, four light 
batteries, one regiment of engineers, a signal corps of two companies 
and a naval militia, commanded by a captain and consisting of 
two battalions and two separate divisions. 

Laws. A married woman has full control of her property whether 
acquired before or after marriage, and she may carry on any business, 
trade or occupation in her own right. A husband or a wife may 
convey real property directly to the other. A widow has a dower 
right in one-third of the real property to which her husband had 
absolute title, but a wife may convey or devise her real property free 
from her husband's right of tenancy by courtesy. The only ground 
for divorce is adultery. As soon as a divorce has been granted the 
plaintiff may marry again, but the defendant is not permitted to 
marry within the state any one except the plaintiff until five years 
have elapsed, and then only in case the court permits it because of 
the petitioner's uniformly good conduct in the meantime. Since the 
1st of January 1908 a marriage licence has been required for every 
lawful marriage. 

A homestead consisting of a lot of land with one or more buildings, 
and properly designated as.such in the office of the county clerk, but 
not exceeding $1000 in value, is exempt from forced sale so long as it is 
owned and occupied as a residence by a householder having a family 
or by a married woman, except to recover the purchase money, to 
satisfy a judgment obtained before it was designated as a homestead, 
or to collect taxes upon it. Personal property consisting of necessary 
household furniture, working tools and team of horses, professional 
instruments and a library, not exceeding $250 in value, besides the 
necessary food for the team for ninety days, provisions for the 
family, wearing apparel, wages or other income not exceeding $12 
a week, and several other things, when owned by a householder or 
person providing for a family, are also exempt from seizure for debt, 
unless the debt be for purchase money or for services performed in 
the family by a domestic. 

Eight hours constitute a legal day's work for all employees except 
those engaged in farm labour or domestic service. The employ- 
ment of children under fourteen years of age in any factory is for- 
bidden. Until sixteen years of age no child is to be so employed 
without an employment certificate issued by a commissioner of 
health, and showing that the child has completed an eight years' 
course of study in a public school of the state or has had an equivalent 
schooling elsewhere. For children under sixteen years of age who are 
so employed the hours of labour are limited to eight a day and the 
days to six a week, and such children must not begin work before 
eight o'clock in the morning or continue after five o'clock in the 
evening. For children between sixteen and eighteen years of age 
and for women the hours of labour in a factoiy are limited to ten a 
day, unless to prepare for a short day or a holiday, and the days to 
six a week. The employment of children under fourteen years of 
age in any mercantile establishment, business office, hotel, restaurant 
or apartment house is also forbidden, except that in villages and in 
cities of the second or third class children upwards of twelve years of 
age may be so employed during the summer vacation of the public 
schools. For both boys and girls sixteen years of age or upward the 
restrictions are removed for two weeks at Christmas time. 1 The 
Employers' Liability Act of 1902 (amended and broadened in 1910) 
holds an employer liable for damages in any case in which one of his 
employees sustains a personal injury by reason of the negligence of 
the employer, of a sub-contractor, of a superintendent, or any other 
person in the employer's service whose duty it was to see that " the 
ways, works or machinery connected with or jised in the business," 
were in proper condition, or whose duty it was to "direct . . . any 
employee," if it is not proved that the employee failed in due care and 
diligence; by another law of 1910 in certain dangerous employments 
the employer is liable unless the injured employee was negligent. 

Although the constitution of 1894 expressly declares that " any 
lottery or the sale of lottery tickets, pool-selling, book-making, or 
any other kind of gambling " shall not " hereafter be authorized or 
allowed within the state " and directs the legislature to pass ap- 



1 For further regulations relating to the employment of women and 
children see the Labour Law enacted in 1909 and the subsequent 
amendments. 



propriate laws prohibiting the same, the legislature passed an act 
in 1895, which in practice permitted pool-selling and book-making 
at race-tracks, but in 1908 and 1910 bills were enacted prohibiting 
gambling at race-tracks. License to sell intoxicating liquors is 
subject to a graduated tax. The sale of liquor on Sunday or between 
one o'clock and five o'clock in the morning of any other day is unlaw- 
ful. Any town (but not any city) may at its option wholly forbid the 
sale of intoxicating liquors, may allow it to be sold only on condition 
that it be not drunk on the vendor's premises, or may allow it to be 
sold only by hotel-keepers and pharmacists, or by pharmacists alone. 

Administrative Commissions. The regulation and control 
of such public service corporations as own or operate steam, 
electric or street railways, gas or electric plants, and express 
companies were, in 1907, vested in two public service com- 
missions (the first for New York City and the second for all other 
parts of the state), each of five members appointed by the 
governor with the approval of the Senate; in 1910 the regula- 
tion of telephone and telegraph companies throughout the state 
was vested in the second commission. 

A state civil service commission (1883) consists of three 
members (not more than two of the same political party) 
appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate. For 
the classified service of the state and of the minor civil divisions, 
except cities, the commission makes rules (subject to the 
governor's approval and to statutory and constitutional pro- 
visions) governing the classification of offices, the examination 
of candidates for office, and the appointment and promotion of 
employees. In cities the mayor is required to appoint a municipal 
civil service commission, with similar duties; not more than two- 
thirds of the members may be of the same political party. 

Prisons, Poor Law, Charities, &c. Penal institutions for sane adults, 
except reformatories for women, are under the general supervision 
of a state commission of prisons; hospitals for the insane are under 
the general supervision of a state commission in lunacy ; and all other 
charitable and penal institutions, maintained wholly or in part by 
the state, or by any county, city or town within the state, are under 
the general supervision of a state board of charities. This board of 
charities consists of one member from each of the nine judicial 
districts and three additional members from the City of New York, 
all appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate for a 
term of eight years. Its existence dates from 1867, but its authority 
was very limited, chiefly advisory, until 1895. Since then, however, 
its powers have been greatly increased. In 1910 the state charitable 
institutions were as follows: State Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, 
Bath; State School for the Blind, Batavia; the Thomas Indian 
School, Iroquois; State Woman's Relief Corps Home, Oxford; 
State Hospital for the care of Crippled and Deformed Children, West 
Haverstraw; Syracuse State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, 
Syracuse; State Hospital for the treatment of Incipient Pulmonary 
Tuberculosis, Ray Brook; Craig Colony for Epileptics, Sonyea; 
State Custodial Asylum for Feeble-Minded Women, Newark; Rome 
State Custodial Asylum for Unteachable Idiots, Rome; State Agri- 
cultural and Industrial School, Industry; State Training School 
for Girls, Hudson; Western House of Refuge, Albion; New York 
State Reformatory for Women, Bedford ; the State Training School 
for Boys; and Letchworth Village, a custodial asylum for epileptics 
and feeble-minded. Eight private institutions for the care or the 
care and instruction of deaf mutes and one for the care of the blind 
are supported mainly by the state. Many other charitable institu- 
tions receive public money, mostly from counties, cities and towns. 

The poor law of the state defines the town poor as those who have 
gained a settlement in some town or city, by residing there for one 
year prior to their application for public relief and who are unable 
to maintain themselves; the county poor as the poor who have not 
resided in any one town or city for one year before their application 
for public relief, but have been in some one county for sixty days; 
and the state poor as all other poor persons within the state. Wher- 
ever cared for, each town, city, county and the state must pay the 
cost of maintaining its own poor. In some counties there is no 
distinction between town and county poor, but in 1910 only one 
county had not a county superintendent for the general supervision 
and care of the poor; towns and cities not subject to special pro- 
visions intrusted public relief to one or more overseers of the poor or 
to commissioners of charities. In counties lacking adequate hospital 
accommodation a poor person requiring medical or surgical treatment 
may be sent to the nearest hospital approved by the state board of 
.charities. An Act of 1910 provides that indigent soldiers, sailors or 
marines of the U.S. and their families be cared for in their homes 
and not in almshouses. 

The first state insane asylum, designed chiefly for recent and 
curable cases, was opened at Utica in 1843. Since 1896 every public 
institution for the insane has been maintained and administered as 
a part of the state system. A state commissioner in lunacy was first 
appointed in 1874; this officer was replaced in 1889 by a com- 
mission in lunacy, which in 1894 was placed at the head of the 



602 



NEW YORK 



administration of the state's insanity law. This commission consists 
of three members appointed by the governor with the consent of the 
Senate. Its president must be a physician and alienist, and another 
member must be a lawyer. The commission appoints a board of 
experts to examine all immigrants suspected of insanity or allied 
mental disorders in order to prevent the admission of the insane 
into the country. In 1910 there were fourteen state hospitals 
(corresponding to fourteen state hospital districts) for the poor and 
indigent insane; these were at Utica, Willard, Poughkeepsie, 
Buffalo, Middletown (homoeopathic), Binghamton, Rochester, 
Ogdensburg, Gowanda (homoeopathic), Flatbush, Ward's Island, 
King's Park, Central Islip and Yorktown. There were also in 1910 
two hospitals for the criminal insane, at Matteawan and Dannemora. 
Each of these is under the immediate control of a superintendent 
appointed by the superintendent of state prisons. 

The state commission of" prisons consists of seven members ap- 
pointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate for a term of 
Four years, and the institutions under its supervision in 1910 were 
the Sing Sing State Prison, 1 at Ossining, the Auburn State Prison at 
Auburn, the Clinton State Prison at Dannemora, the New York 
State Retormatory at Elmira, the Eastern New York Reformatory 
at Napanoch, five county penitentiaries, and all other institutions 
for the detention of sane adults charged with or convicted of crime, 
or retained as witnesses or debtors. The state prisons are under a 
superintendent of state prisons, appointed by the governor, with the 
consent of the Senate, for five years ; and the state reformatories are 
managed by a board of seven managers similarly appointed for seven 
years. In the state reformatory at Elmira (which, like that at 
Napanoch, is for men between sixteen and thirty years of age who 
have been convicted of a state prison offence for the first time only), 
the plan of committing adult felons on an indeterminate sentence to 
be determined by their behaviour was first tested in America in 1877, 
and it has proved so satisfactory that it has been in part adopted 
for the state prisons. In order to minimize competition between 
prison labour and free labour, articles manufactured in the state 
prisons, the reformatories and the penitentiaries, are sold only to the 
institutions and departments of the state and its political divisions. 

Education. The first school was established by the Dutch at 
New Amsterdam (no\y New York City) as early as 1633, and at the 
close of the Dutch period there was a free elementary school in nearly 
every settlement. But from the English conquest to the close of the 
colonial era the chief purpose of the' government with respect to 
education was to prepare leaders for the state church ; to this end 
King's College was founded in 1754, and from 1704 to 1776 the other 
schools were principally those maintained by the Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Hardly any schools 
remained in operation throughout the War of Independence. In 
January 1784 Governor George Clinton recommended legislation for 
the " revival and encouragement of seminaries of learning," with the 
result that the legislature passed an act establishing a state university 
of which Columbia College, formerly King's, was the " mother " 
portion. In 1787 a second university act was passed which restored 
to Columbia College the substance of its original charter and made the 
University of the State of New York an exclusively executive body 
with authority to incorporate new colleges and academies and to 
exercise over them the right of visitation. In 1795 an act was passed 
which formed the basis of the present elementary-school system. 
This act appropriated 20,000 annually for five years for the establish- 
ment and maintenance of elementary schools, required each city and 
town to raise by taxation a sum for the same purpose equal to one- 
half of its share from the proceeds of the state fund, and provided for 
the election of school commissioners in each town and of trustees of 
each school. The state appropriation was discontinued in 1800; 
but in 1805 the proceeds of the sale of 500,000 acres of land were set 
apart for a permanent school fund, and in 1812, when the interest on 
this fund had become nearly $50,000 a year, the amount required 
before any of it could be distributed for school purposes, the common- 
school system was permanently established by an act which restored 
the main features of that of 1795, except that a superintendent of 
schools chosen by the council of appointment was now placed at its 
head. Although the interest on the state fund had risen to 870,000 
in 1819, this together with an equal sum raised by the cities and 
towns was insufficient, and to meet the deficiency the patrons in each 
district were required by a " rate bill " to contribute in proportion 
to the attendance of their children. The schools were made free only 
after a memorable contest against the " rate bill." The framers 
of the constitution of 1846 were nearly equally divided on this 
question. In 1849 the legislature passed a free-school bill subject to 
the approval of the people. The people approved by a vote of nearly 
three to one, but the court of appeals declared the act unconstitu- 
tional because of the referendum. In 1851 a compromise measure 
was substituted, increasing the state appropriation to 8800,000 and 
' exempting indigent parents from the rate bill," which was finally 
abolished in 1867. The administration of the common school 
system was in the hands of a state superintendent of schools from 
1813 to 1821, of the secretary of state from 1821 to 1854, and of a 

1 In 1906 a law was enacted for the establishment of a new state 
prison in the eastern part of the state to take the place of Sing Sing 
Prison. 



superintendent of public instruction from 1854 to 1904. In the 
meantime the functions of the university had been extended to 
include an oversight of the professional, scientific and technical 
schools, the administration of laws relating to admission to the 
professions, the charge of the State Library at Albany, the super- 
vision of local libraries, the custody of the State Museum and the 
direction of all scientific work prosecuted by the state. This dual 
system was consolidated by the Educational Unification Act of 1904, 
in conformity with which the university regents have become a 
legislative body, subordinate to the state legislature, for determining 
trie general educational policy of the state, and a commissioner of 
education acts as the chief executive, advisory and supervisory, 
officer of the whole educational system. 

The regents of the University are chosen by the legislature, one 
retiring each year; and an act of 1909 requires that their number 
shall at all times be three more than the number of judicial districts. 
The first commissioner of education was chosen by the legislature for 
a term of six years, but it was arranged that his successor should be 
chosen by the regents and continue in office during their pleasure. 
The commissioner (subject to approval of the regents) appoints three 
assistant commissioners, for higher, secondary and elementary educa- 
tion respectively. The elementary school is administered by a school 
commissioner in each of the school commissioner's districts into 
which a county may be divided, by one trustee or three trustees in 
each separate school district, and by a board of education in each 
city, village or union free school district having more than three 
hundred children. Any two or more adjoining school districts may 
unite to form a union free school district, and in any village or union 
free school district having a population of 5000 or more the board of 
education may appoint a superintendent of schools. 

The compulsory education law as amended in 1907 and 1909 
requires the full attendance at a public school, or at a school which is 
an approximate equivalent, of all children who are between seven 
and fourteen years of age, are in the proper physical and mental 
condition, and reside in a city or school district having a population 
of 5000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools; in such 
a city or district children between fourteen and sixteen years must 
attend school unless they obtain an employment certificate and are 
regularly engaged in some useful employment or service; and 
outside of such a city or district all children between the ages of 
eight and fourteen years and those between fourteen and sixteen 
years who are not regularly employed must attend school on all 
school days from October to June. In a city of the first or second 
class every boy between fourteen and sixteen years of age who'has an 
employment certificate, but has not completed the course of study 
prescribed for the elementary public schools or the equivalent, must 
attend an evening school not less than six hours each week for a 
period of not less than sixteen weeks each year, or a trade school not 
less than eight hours a week for sixteen weeks a year. By a law of 
1908 the board of education of any city is authorized to establish 
industrial schools for children who have completed the elementary 
school course or have attained the age of fourteen years, and trade 
schools for children who are more than sixteen years old and have 
completed the elementary school course or a course offered by any 
of the industrial schools. For the training of teachers for the ele- 
mentary schools the state maintains ten normal schools at Oswego 
(1863), Cortland (1866), Fredonia (1866), Potsdam (1866), Geneseo 
(1867), Brockport (1867), Buffalo (1867), New Paltz (1885), Oneonta 
(1887) and Plattsburg (1890) ; it also appropriates $700 annually for 
each teachers' training class in about one hundred of the secondary 
schools. The State Normal College at Albany, founded in 1 844 as 
the first state normal school, is designed principally for the training 
of teachers for the secondary schools, about 800 high schools and 
academies, supported wholly or in part by the state. 

The state controls professional and technical schools through the 
regents' examinations of candidates for admission to such schools 
and to the professions, determines the minimum requirements for 
admission to college by the regents' academic examinations, main- 
tains the large State Library and the valuable State Museum, and 
occasionally makes a gift to a college or a university for the support 
of courses in practical industries; but it maintains no college or 
university that is composed of a teaching body. To Cornell Uni- 
versity (g.f.), a non-sectarian institution opened at Ithaca in 1868, the 
state turned over the proceeds from the National land-grant act of 
1862 on condition that it should admit free one student annually 
from each Assembly district, and in 1909 a still closer relation between 
this institution and the state was established by an act which makes 
the governor, lieutenant-governor, speaker of the Assembly and 
commissioner of education ex-afficio members of its board of trustees, 
and authorizes the governor with the approval of the Senate to 
appoint five other members, one each year. 

Among the institutions of higher learning in the state, besides 
Columbia University (q.v.) and Cornell University (q.v.), are: Union 
University (1795, non-sectarian), at Schenectady; Hamilton 
College (1812, non-sectarian), at Clinton; Colgate University (1819, 
non-sectarian), at Hamilton ; Hobart College (1822, non-sectarian), at 
Geneva; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (1824, non-sectarian), at 
Troy; New York University (1832, non-sectarian), in New -York 
City; Alfred University (1836, non-sectarian), at Alfred; Fordham 
University (1841, Roman Catholic), in New York City; College of 



NEW YORK 



603 



St Francis Xayier (1847, Roman Catholic), in New York City; 
College of the City of New York (1849, city) ; University of Rochester 
(1850, Baptist), at Rochester; Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn 
(1854, non-sectarian), at Brooklyn; Niagara University (1856, 
Roman Catholic), at Niagara Falls; St Lawrence University (1858, 
non-sectarian), at Canton; St Bonaventure's College (1859, Roman 
Catholic), at St Bona venture; St Stephen's College (1860, Pro- 
testant Episcopal), at Annandale; Manhattan College (1863, Roman 
Catholic), at New York City; St John's College (1870, Roman 
Catholic), at Brooklyn; Canisius College (1870, Roman Catholic), 
at Buffalo; Syracuse University (1871, Methodist Episcopal), at 
Syracuse; Adelphi College (1896, non-sectarian), at Brooklyn; and 
Clarkson School of Technology (1896, non-sectarian), at Potsdam. 
The United States Military Academy (1802) is at West Point. 

Finance. In New York the direct property tax is levied by and 
for the benefit of localities. Revenues for state purposes are derived 
from special taxes collected from the liquor traffic, corporations, 
transfers of decedents' estates, transfers of shares of stock, recording 
tax on mortgages, sales of products of state institutions, fees of 
public officers including fines and penalties, interest on deposits of 
state funds, refunds from department examinations and revenue 
from investments of trust funds, the most important of which are the 
common school fund and the United States deposit fund. A board 
of three tax commissioners has supervision of methods of assessment 
within the state, and with the commissioners of the land office 
constitutes the state board of equalization. The county super- 
visors, with or without the aid of three commissioners whom they are 
authorized to appoint for the purpose, constitute a county board of 
equalization. The recording tax on mortgages, amounting to one- 
half of I % of the principal sums secured, is collected by the record- 
ing officers under the supervision of the state board of tax com- 
missioners. The administration of the liquor tax law is under the 
supervision of the state commissioner of excise and his deputies. 
The tax on corporations, originating as a capital stock tax in 1880 
and extended through succeeding years, is administered by the state 
comptroller. The comptroller also has charge of the enforcement of 
the stock transfer tax act and of the laws imposing taxes upon the 
transfer of decedents' estates. The aggregate of taxes received by 
the state treasury through the comptroller's department for the fiscal 
year ending September 30, 1909, was $23,000,000. 

On the 3Oth of September 1909 the state debt, most of which was 
created since 1895 for the purpose of canal improvements, amounted 
to $41,230,660. The surplus in the treasury was $8,435,848, the 
total amount in trust and sinking funds was $31,301,501. The 
constitution prohibits the legislature from lending the state's credit 
or incurring an indebtedness for current expenses in excess of 
$1,000,000 or incurring any indebtedness whatever, other than for 
war purposes, unless such indebtedness be authorized by lav.' for 
" some single work or object," the law to be approved by the people 
at a general election and providing for a direct annual tax sufficient 
to pay the interest and to liquidate the debt within eighteen years. 
That instrument further prohibits each county, city, town and 
village from lending its credit and from creating an indebtedness in 
excess of 10% of the assessed valuation of its real estate. 

The first state institution to receive a bank charter was the bank 
of New York, incorporated in 1791. In 1804 free banking was re- 
stricted to such an extent as to give practically a monopoly of the 
business to associations receiving special charters, and as these 
charters were generally awarded as favours to politicians the system 
was a formidable agency of corruption. Chiefly because of these 
evils the constitution of 1821 required the assent of two-thirds of the 
members elected to each house of the legislature to pass an act 
creating a corporation. In 1829 the Safety-Fund Act was passed, 
which required each bank thereafter chartered or rechartered to pay 
into the state treasury 3 % of its capital stock other than that owned 
by the state, and from this fund the debts of insolvent banks were to 
be paid. The fund became exhausted by many failures, and a free 
banking law was enacted in 1838. The constitution of 1846 pro- 
hibited the legislature from granting any special charters for bank- 
ing purposes, and consequently no more safety-fund banks were 
established. At the same time the free-banking system has been 
greatly improved. The state banks still have the right to issue 
currency, but the heavy tax on currency issue imposed by Congress 
in 1866 (after the introduction of the National banking system in 
1863) put a stop to the practice. In 1851 a state banking depart- 
ment was created, and at the head of this is a superintendent of banks 
appointed by the governor, with the consent of the Senate, for a term 
of three years. The superintendent or examiners appointed by 
him (from a civil service list) is required to examine every bank 
and every trust company at least twice each year, each building and 
loan association at least once a year, and every savings bank at 
least once in two years. The law provides specifically as to the in- 
vestment of deposits made in savings banks with the evident purpose 
of providing the greatest possible security to depositors. State 
banks must carry from 15% to 25% reserve and trust companies 
from 10% to 15% reserve, depending upon location. 

The introduction of the National banking system caused a decrease 
in the number of state banks from 309 in -1 863 to 45 in 1868, but their 
number has increased steadily since 1880 and in 1909 there were 202. 
In the same year there were 140 savings-banks, 85 trust companies, 46 



safe deposit companies, 255 building and loan associations and other 
miscellaneous corporations, with total resources of $3,833,500,000 
under the supervision of the banking department of the state. 
This is over 21 % of the entire banking power of the United States. 

To correct abuses in the life insurance business which were dis- 
covered in 1905 by a committee of the state legislature, laws were 
passed in the next year regulating the election of the directors of the 
insurance companies, and the investments of the companies and 
the distribution of dividends, limiting the amount of business of the 
larger companies and prohibiting rebates on insurance premiums. A 
state superintendent of insurance, (since 1860) appointed by the 
governor, holds office for three years. 

History. The aboriginal inhabitants of New York had an 
important influence on its colonial history. Within its limits 
from the upper Hudson westward to the Genesee river was the 
home of that powerful confederacy of Indian tribes, the Mohawks, 
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas, known to the French 
as the Iroquois and to the English as the Five (later Six) Nations. 
When supplied with firearms by Europeans they reduced a 
number of other tribes to subjection and extended their dominion 
over most of the territory from the St Lawrence to the Tennessee 
and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. They were at the 
height of their power about 1700. Of much less influence in 
New York were several Algonquian tribes in the lower valley 
of the Hudson and along the sea coast. 

New York Bay and the Hudson river were discovered by 
Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524, and were probably seen by 
Estevan Gomez in 1525; for many years following French 
vessels occasionally ascended the Hudson to trade with the 
Indians. The history of New York really begins, however, in 
1609. In July of that year Samuel de Champlain discovered the 
lake which bears his name and on its shores led his Algonquian 
Indian allies against the Iroquois, thus provoking against his 
countrymen the hostility of a people who for years were to hold 
the balance of power between the English and the French in 
America. On the 3rd of September Henry Hudson, in the 
employ of the Dutch East India Company, entered New York 
Bay in the " Half Moon " in search of the " northwest passage." 
He conceived that a vast trade with the Iroquois for furs might 
be established; his report aroused great interest in Holland; 
and the United Netherlands, whose independence had been 
acknowledged in the spring, claimed the newly discovered 
country. In 1610 a vessel was despatched with merchandise 
suitable for traffic with the Indians, the voyage resulted in 
profit, and a lucrative trade in peltry sprang up. Early in 1614 
Adriaen Block explored Long Island Sound and discovered 
Block Island. The merchants of Amsterdam and Hoorn soon 
formed themselves into the New Netherland Company, and on 
the nth of October 1614 received from the States-General a 
three years' monopoly of the Dutch fur trade in New Netherland, 
i.e. that part of America between New France and Virginia, or 
between latitudes 40 and 45 N. Late in the same year or early 
in 1615 a stockaded trading post called Fort Nassau was erected 
on Castle Island, now within the limits of Albany, and a few 
huts were erected about this time or earlier on the southern 
extremity of Manhattan Island; but no effort at colonization 
was as yet made. In 1617 the Dutch negotiated with the Iroquois 
a treaty of peace and alliance. Fort Na'ssau was soon removed 
to the mouth of Tawasentha Creek. On the expiration of the 
charter of the New Netherland Company (1618) the States- 
General refused to grant a renewal, and only private ventures 
were authorized until 1621, when the West India Company 
(q.ii.) was chartered for a term of twenty-four years; to this 
company was given a monopoly of Dutch trade with the whole 
American coast from Newfoundland to the Straits of Magellan. 
It was authorized to plant colonies and to govern them under 
a very limited supervision of the States-General, such as the 
approval of its appointment of a governor and of its instructions 
to him; and its own government was vested in five chambers 
of directors and an executive board or college of nineteen 
delegates from those chambers, eight of the nineteen representing 
the Chamber of Amsterdam. New Netherland became one of 
the more important interests of the Company. In June 1623, 
however, New Netherland was formally erected into a province 
and the management of its affairs assigned to the Chamber of 



604 



NEW YORK 



Amsterdam, which in March 1624 despatched the " New Nether- 
land," with the first permanent colonists (thirty families mostly 
Walloon), under Cornells Jacobsen Mey, the first governor 
or director of the colony. Arriving at Manhattan early in May, 
a few of the men remained there, another small party established 
a temporary post (Fort Nassau) on the Delaware river, and 
still another began a fortified settlement on the site of the 
present Hartford, Connecticut. But more than one-half of the 
families proceeded up the Hudson to Fort Orange, the successor 
of Fort Nassau, at the mouth of Tawasentha Creek, and there 
founded what is now Albany. Three more vessels arrived in 
1625, and when in that year Mey was succeeded as director by 
William Verhulst the colony had a population of 200 or more. 
The government of the province was fully established in 1626 
and was vested mainly in a director-general and council. The 
director-general was formally appointed by the Company subject 
to the approval of the States-General, but the Amsterdam 
Chamber and the College of Nineteen supervised his admini- 
stration. The members of the council were formally appointed 
by the Company, but the director-general actually determined 
who they should be, and as he was not bound by their advice 
they were no check to an autocratic rule. Peter Minuit, the first 
director general, arrived with more colonists in May 1626, and 
soon afterwards Manhattan Island was bought from the Indians, 
Fort Amsterdam was erected at its lower end, and the settlement 
here was made the seat of government. 

In 1629, chiefly to encourage agriculture, the Company issued 
its famous Charter of Privileges and Exemptions, which provided 
that any member might have anywhere in New Netherland 
except on Manhattan Island his choice of a tract of unoccupied 
land extending 16 m. along the seacoast or one side of a navigable 
river, or 8 m. along the river on both sides " and so far into the 
country as the situation of the occupyers will permit " by 
purchasing the same from the Indians and planting upon it a 
colony of fifty persons, upwards of 15 years old, within four years 
from the beginning of the undertaking, one-fourth part within 
one year; and that any private person might with the approval 
of the director-general and council take up as much land as he 
should be able to improve. The founder of a colony was styled 
a patroon, and, although the colonists were bound to him only 
by a voluntary contract for specified terms, the relations between 
them and the patroon during the continuance of the contract 
were in several important respects similar to those under the 
feudal system between the lord of a manor and his serfs. The 
patroon received his estate in perpetual inheritance and had the 
exclusive right of hunting and fishing upon it. Each colonist 
not only paid him a fixed rent, usually in kind, but had to share 
with him the increase of the stock and to have the grain ground 
at his mill. The patroon was the legal heir of all his colonists 
who died intestate. He had civil and criminal jurisdiction 
within the boundaries of his estate; he could create offices, 
found cities, and appoint officers and magistrates, and, although 
the charter permitted an appeal from his court to the director- 
general and council in any case in which the amount in dispute 
exceeded fifty guilders ($20), some of the patroons exacted 
from their colonists a promise not to avail themselves of the 
privilege. The Company promised to permit the patroons 
to engage in the fur trade, wherever it had no commissary of 
its own, subject to a tax of one guilder (40 cents) on each skin, 
and to engage in other trade along the coast from Newfoundland 
to Florida subject to a tax of 5 % on goods shipped to Europe. 
The colonists of the patroons were exempted from all taxes for 
a period of ten years, but were forbidden to manufacture any 
cloth whatever. The charter did not give the encouragement 
to agriculture that was expected of it because the status created 
for colonists of a patroon was no attraction to a successful farmer 
in the Netherlands. Immediately after the issue of the charter 
a few of the more adroit directors of the Amsterdam Chamber 
hastened to acquire for themselves, as patroons, the tracts 
of land most favourably situated for trade. On both sides 
of the entrance to Delaware Bay Samuel Godyn, Samuel 
Blomaert and five other directors who were admitted to partner- 



ship in the second year (1630) established the manor and colony 
of Swaanendael; on a tract opposite the lower end of Manhattan 
Island and including Staten Island, Michael Pauw established 
the manor and colony of Pavonia; on both sides of the Hudson 
and extending in all directions from Fort Orange (Albany) 
Kilian van Rensselaer established the manor and colony of 
Rensselaerwyck. The colony of Swaanendael was destroyed by 
the Indians in 1632. Pauw maintained his colony of Pavonia 
for about seven years and then sold out to the Company. The 
colony of Rensselaerwyck was the only one that prospered under 
the patroon system. In the meantime the patroons had 
claimed unrestricted rights of trade within the boundaries of their 
estates. These were stoutly denied by the Company. Director- 
General Minuit was recalled in 1632 on the ground that he had 
been partial to the patroons; and Wouter van T wilier, who arrived 
in 1633, endeavoured to promote only t*he selfish commercial 
policy of the Company; at the close of his administration (1637) 
the affairs of the province were in a ruinous condition. 

William Kieft was appointed director-general late in 1637, 
and in 1638 the Company abandoned its monopoly of trade 
in New Netherland and gave notice that all inhabitants of the 
United Provinces, and of friendly countries, might trade there 
subject to an import duty of 10%, an export duty of 15%, and 
to the requirement that the goods should be carried in the 
Company's ships. At the same time the director-general was 
instructed to issue to any immigrant applying for land a patent 
for as large a farm as he required for cultivation and pasturage, 
to be free of all charges for ten years and thereafter subject only 
to a quit-rent of one-tenth of the produce. Two years later, 
by a revision of the Charter of Privileges and Exemptions, the 
prohibition on manufactures was abolished, the privileges of 
the original charter with respect to patroons were extended 
to "all good inhabitants of the Netherlands," and the estate 
of a patroon was limited to 4 m. along the coast or a navigable 
river and 8 m. back into the country. The revised charter 
also provided that any one who brought over five colonists and 
established them in a new settlement should receive 200 acres, 
and if such a settlement grew to be a town or village it should 
receive a grant of municipal government. These inducements 
encouraged immigration not only from the Fatherland but from 
New England and Virginia. But the freedom of trade promoted 
dangerous relations with the Indians, and an attempt of Kieft 
to collect a tribute from the Algonquian tribes in the vicinity 
of Manhattan Island and other indiscretions of this officer pro- 
voked Indian hostilities (1641-1645), during which most of the 
outlying settlements were laid waste. 

Out of this warfare arose an organized movement for a govern- 
ment in which the colonists should have a voice. In August 
1641 Kieft called an assembly of the heads of families in the 
neighbourhood of Fort Amsterdam to consider the question of 
peace or war. The assembly chose a board of Twelve Men to 
represent it, and a few months later this board demanded certain 
reforms, especially that the membership of the director-general's 
council should be increased from one to five by the popular 
election of four members. Kieft promised the concessions to gain 
the board's consent to waging war, but later denied its authority 
to exact promises from him and dissolved it. At another crisis, 
in 1643, ne was obliged to call a second assembly of the people. 
This time a board of Eight Men was chosen to confer with him. 
It denied his right to levy certain war taxes, and when it had 
in vain protested to him against his arbitrary measures it sent 
a petition, in 1644, to the States-General for his recall, and this 
was granted. Peter Stuyvesant (<?..), his successor, arrived 
at Fort Amsterdam in May 1647. Under his rule there was a 
return of prosperity; from 1653 to 1664 the population of 
the province increased from 2000 to 10,000. Stuyvesant was, 
however, extremely arbitrary. Although he permitted the exist- 
ence of a board of Nine Men to act as " tribunes " for the people 
it was originally composed of his selections from eighteen persons 
chosen at a popular election, and annually thereafter the places 
of six retiring members were filled by his selections from twelve 
persons nominate'd by the board. He treated it with increasing 



NEW YORK 



605 



contempt, and the most that it could do was to remonstrate 
to the States-General. That body suggested a representative 
government, but this the Company refused to grant. 

Stuyvesant conducted a successful expedition against the 
Swedes on the southern border of New Netherland in 1655; 
but he was powerless against the English. The Dutch had 
long claimed the whole coast from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod, 
but by the treaty of Hartford (1650), negotiated between 
himself and the commissioners of the United Colonies of New 
England, Stuyvesant agreed to a boundary which on the mainland 
roughly determined the existing boundary between New York 
and Connecticut and on Long Island extended southward 
from the west side of Oyster Bay to the Atlantic Ocean. Not- 
withstanding the good claim to their province which the Dutch 
had established by discovery and occupancy, the government 
of Great Britain, basing its claim to the same territory on Cabot's 
discovery (1498), the patent to the London and Plymouth 
companies (1606), and the patent to the Council for New England 
(1620), contended that the Dutch were intruders. In 1653, 
during the war between England and Holland, the Dutch, 
fearing an English attack, built a wall, from which the present 
Wall Street was named, across Manhattan Island at what was 
then the northern limits of New Amsterdam. In the following 
year Cromwell actually sent out an expedition which, with the 
aid of New England, was to attempt the conquest, but before 
an attack was made peace was announced. The Connecticut 
Charter of 1662 included in that colony some settlements 
acknowledged by the treaty of Hartford to belong to New 
Netherland, and strife was renewed. Finally, in March 
1664, Charles II. formally erected into a province the whole 
territory from the west side of the Connecticut river to the 
east side of Delaware Bay together with all of Long Island 
and a few other dependencies of minor importance, and granted 
it to his brother James, the duke of York and Albany, as its 
lord proprietor. The duke appointed Colonel Richard Nicolls 
governor and placed him in command of an expedition to effect 
its conquest. Nicolls won over the burgomaster of New Amster- 
dam and other prominent citizens by the favourable terms 
which he offered, and Stuyvesant was forced, without fighting, 
into a formal surrender on the 8th of September. The duke's 
authority was proclaimed and New Netherland became New 
York. The separation from it of what is now New Jersey (q.v.) 
was begun by the duke's conveyance, in the preceding June, of 
that portion of his province to Berkeley and Carteret, and among 
numerous changes from Dutch to English names was that from 
Fort Orange to Fort Albany. A treaty of alliance with the 
Mohawks and Senecas procured for the English the same friendly 
relations with the Iroquois that the Dutch had enjoyed. The 
transition from Dutch to English institutions was effected 
gradually and the private rights of the Dutch were carefully 
preserved. The English executive, consisting of a governor 
and council, was much like the Dutch, but Nicolls, by his con- 
ciliatory spirit, made his administration more agreeable than 
Stuyvesant's. In the administration of local affairs some of the 
Dutch settlements were little disturbed until ten years or more 
after the conquest, but the introduction of English institutions 
into settlements wholly or largely English was begun in 1665 
by the erection of Long Island, Staten Island and Westchester 
into an English county under the name of Yorkshire, and by 
putting into operation in that county a code of laws known as 
the " Duke's Laws." This code was based largely on the laws 
of New England, and, although a source of popular discontent, 
it gave to the freeholders of each town a voice in the government 
of their town by permitting them to elect a board of eight over- 
seers which chose a constable and sat as a court for the trial of 
small causes. Nicolls resigned the governorship in 1668, but 
his successor, Francis Lovelace, continued his policy autocratic 
government, arbitrary in form but mild in practice, and pro- 
gressive in the matter of religious toleration. In August 1673, 
Holland and England being at war, a Dutch fleet surprised 
New York, captured the city, and restored Dutch authority 
and the names of New Netherland and New Amsterdam. But 



by the treaty of Westminster, February 1674, the Dutch title 
to the province was finally extinguished, and in November the 
English again took possession. A new charter was issued to the 
duke to perfect his title and Edmund (later Sir Edmund) Andros, 
the new governor, was instructed to establish English institutions 
and enforce English law in all sections. In 1675 Andros estab- 
lished at Albany a commission for Indian affairs which long 
rendered important service in preserving the English-Iroquois 
alliance. The imperious manner of Andros made him many 
enemies. Some of them preferred charges against him relating 
to his administration of the revenue. He was called to England 
in 1681 to answer these, and during his absence the demand for a 
representative assembly was accompanied with a refusal to pay 
the customs duties and so much other insubordination that the 
duke appointed Colonel Thomas Dongan to succeed Andros, 
and instructed him to call the desired assembly. It met at Fort 
James in the City of New York on the i7th of October 1683, 
was in session for about three weeks, and passed fifteen acts. 
The first, styled a charter of liberties and privileges, required 
that an assembly elected by the freeholders and freemen should 
be called at least once every three years; vested all legislative 
authority in the governor, council and assembly; forbade the 
imposition of any taxes without the consent of the assembly; 
and provided for religious liberty and trial by jury. Other acts 
divided the province into counties, established courts of justice, 
and provided for a revenue. In August 1684 when, by its charter, 
the western boundary of the province was not definitely extended 
beyond the Hudson, Dongan laid the basis of New York's claim 
to the western lands of the Iroquois by a new covenant with 
them in which they recognized the English as their protectors, 
and throughout his administration he was busy neutralizing 
French influence among the Iroquois and in diverting the fur 
trade of the north-west from the St Lawrence to Albany. The 
charter of liberties and privileges was approved by the duke, but 
before the news of this reached its authors the duke became 
King James II., and in 1686, when a frame of government for 
New York as a royal province was provided, the assembly was 
dispensed with. About the same time the new king adopted a 
policy for strengthening the imperial control over New England 
as well as for the erection of a stronger barrier against the 
French, and in 1688 New York and New Jersey were consoli- 
dated with the New England colonies into the Dominion of New 
England and placed under the viceregal authority of Sir Edmund 
Andros as governor-general. The news of the English revolution 
of 1688, however, caused an uprising in Boston, and in April 
1689 Andros was seized and imprisoned. Francis Nicholson as 
lieutenant-governor was still in quiet possession of the govern- 
ment of New York, and a majority of the population of the 
province were satisfied to await the outcome of the revolution 
in the mother country, but in the southern portion of the province, 
especially in the City of New York and on Long Island, were a 
number of restless spirits who were encouraged by the fall of 
Andros to take matters into their own hands. They found a 
leader in a German merchant, Jacob Leisler (q.v.). Leisler 
refused to pay duties on a cargo of wine on the ground that the 
collector was a " papist," and on the 3ist of May 1689, during 
a mutiny of the militia, he and other militia captains seized 
Fort James. In the following month Nicholson deserted his 
post and sailed for England, and Leisler easily gained possession 
of the city. To strengthen his position he called an assembly 
which conferred upon him the powers of a dictator. Some time 
after a copy of the order of the new monarchs (William and Mary) 
to continue all Protestants in their offices in the colonies had 
been received, Leisler falsely announced that he had received 
a commission as lieutenant-governor. He then attempted to 
revive the act of 1683 for raising revenue, but met with so much 
opposition that he issued writs for the election of another 
assembly. This, however, brought him chiefly petitions for 
the redress of grievances. Albany successfully defied his usurped 
authority until his recognition was necessary to a united front 
against the French and their Indian allies, who, in February 
1690, had surprised and burned Schenectady. Two other French 



6o6 



NEW YORK 



attacks had at the same time been directed against New England, 
and to meet the dangerous situation Leisler performed the one 
statesmanlike act of his public career, notable in American 
history as the first step toward the union of the colonies. At 
his call, delegates from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut 
and Maryland met in New York City with delegates from New 
York on the ist of May 1690 to consider concerted action against 
the enemy, and although the expedition which they sent out 
was a failure it numbered 855 men, New York furnishing about 
one-half the men, Massachusetts one of the two commanders and 
Connecticut the other. Leisler had proclaimed the new monarchs 
of Great Britain and had declared that it was his purpose only 
to protect the province and the Protestant religion until the 
arrival of a governor appointed by them; but he was enraged 
when he learned that he had been ignored and that under the 
new governor, Colonel Henry Sloughter, his enemies, van 
Cortlandt and Bayard, had again been appointed to the council. 
When Major Richard Ingoldsby arrived with two companies 
of the king's soldiers and demanded possession of the fort, 
Leisler refused although he still professed his willingness to 
deliver it to Sloughter. On the I7th of March 1691 Leisler's 
force fired on the king's soldiers, killing two and wounding 
several. Governor Sloughter arrived two days later, and the 
revolt terminated in the arrest of Leisler and his chief followers. 
Leisler and Jacob Milborne, his son-in-law, were pronounced 
guilty of treason, and were executed on the i6th of May. The 
execution was regarded even by many who had been indifferent 
to Leisler's cause, as an act of revenge. The case was carried 
to England, where in 1605 parliament reversed the attainders 
of the victims, and for many years the province was rent by the 
Leislerian and anti-Leislerian factions. 

Governor Sloughter, as his commission directed, re-established 
in 1691 the assembly which James II. had abolished in 1686, 
and throughout the remainder of the colonial era the history 
of the province relates chiefly to the rise of popular government 
and the defence of the northern frontier. At its first session 
the assembly passed an act declaratory of the rights and privileges 
of the people, and much like the charter of liberties and privileges 
enacted in 1683, except that annual instead of triennial sessions 
of the assembly were now requested and, as was also provided in 
Sloughter's commission and instructions, religious liberty was 
denied to Roman Catholics. This act was disallowed by the 
crown in 1697, and until Governor Cornbury's administration 
(1702-1708) both the Leislerians and the anti-Leislerians 
repeatedly bid for the governor's favour by supporting his 
measures instead of contending for popular rights. But Corn- 
bury's embezzlement of 1500, appropriated for fortifying the 
Narrows connecting Upper and Lower New York Bay, united 
the factions against him and started the assembly in the im- 
portant contest which ended in the establishment of its control 
over the public purse. In 1706 it won the right to appoint its 
own treasurer to care for money appropriated for extraordinary 
purposes, and eight years later the governor assented to an act 
which gave to this officer the custody of practically all public 
money. Until 1737 it had been the custom to continue the 
revenue acts from three to five years, but thereafter the assembly 
insisted on annual appropriations. 

The first newspaper of New York, the New York Gazette, 
was established in 1725 by William Bradford as a semi- 
official organ of the administration. In 1733 a popular organ, 
the New York Weekly 'Journal, was established under John 
Peter Zenger (1697-1746), and in 1735 both the freedom of the 
press and a great advance toward the independence of the 
judiciary were the outcome of a famous libel suit against Zenger. 

Between the administration of Governor Montgomerie (1728- 
1731) and Governor Cosby (1732-1736) there was an interregnum 
, of thirteen months during which Rip van Dam, president of the 
council, was acting-governor, and upon Cosby's arrival a dispute 
arose between him and van Dam over the division of the salary 
and fees. Both appealed to the law, and when the chief-justice, 
Lewis Morris, refused Cosby's request to have the court proceed 
in equity jurisdiction, and denied the right of the governor to 



establish courts of equity, he was removed from office. Not 
long afterwards there appeared in the Weekly Journal some 
severe criticisms of the administration. For printing these 
Zenger was arrested for libel in November 1734. The case was 
not brought to trial until August 1735, and in the meantime 
Zenger was kept in jail. Originally he had for counsel two of 
the most able lawyers in the province, James Alexander (1690- 
1756) and William Smith (1697-1769), but when they excepted 
to the commissions of the chief-justice, James de Lancey 
(1703-1760) and one of his associates, because by these com- 
missions the justices had been appointed " during pleasure " 
instead of " during good behaviour," the chief justice disbarred 
them. Their places, however, were taken by Andrew Hamilton, 
speaker of the Assembly of Pennsylvania and a lawyer of great 
reputation in the English colonies. The jury quickly agreed 
on a verdict of not guilty, and the acquittal was greeted by the 
populace with shouts of triumph. The further independence of 
judges became a leading issue in 1761 when the assembly 
insisted that they should be appointed during good behaviour, 
and refused to pay the salaries of those appointed during pleasure; 
but the home government met this refusal by ordering that they 
be paid out of the quit-rents. 

The defence of the northern frontier was a heavy burden to 
New York, but by its problems the growth of the union of the 
colonies was promoted. From the destruction of Schenectady to 
the Peace of Ryswick (1697) hostilities between the French and 
the English in the New World took the form of occasional raids 
across the frontier, chiefly by the Indian allies. The main effort 
of the French, however, was, by diplomacy, to destroy the English- 
Iroquois alliance. This rested on the fear of the Iroquois for 
the French and their hope of protection from the English. 
Therefore, in response to their repeated complaints of the weak- 
ness of the English arising from disunion, Governor Fletcher, 
in 1694, called another intercolonial conference consisting of 
delegates from New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
New Jersey, and urged the necessity of more united feelings. 
Open hostilities were interrupted for a few years by the Peace of 
Ryswick and for a longer period by the Peace of Utrecht (1713), 
but French priests continued to dwell among the Iroquois, 
teaching them and distributing presents, and of the success of this 
diplomacy the English were ever in danger. To counteract 
it they, in 1701, prevailed upon the chiefs to deed their territory, 
said to be 800 m. in length and 400 m. in breadth, to the king of 
England. The English, also, frequently distributed presents. 
But the success of the French at the close of the i7th century 
and the early portion of the i8th was prevented only by the 
ceaseless efforts of Peter Schuyler (1657-1724) whose personal 
influence was for years dominant among all the Iroquois except 
the Senecas. When they had assumed a neutral attitude, he 
persuaded a number of them to join troops from New York, 
New Jersey and Connecticut in the unsuccessful expeditions of 
1709 and 1711 against the French at Montreal. The English had 
a decided advantage over the French in that they could furnish 
goods for the Indian trade much cheaper than their rivals, and 
when Governor Burnet saw that this advantage was being lost 
by a trade between Albany and Montreal he persuaded the 
assembly to pass an act (1720) prohibiting it. Pursuing the same 
wise policy he established a trading post at Oswego in 1722 and 
fortified it in 1727, and thereby placed the Iroquois in the desir- 
able position of middlemen in a profitable fur trade with the 
" Far Indians." London merchants, in their greed, brought 
about the repeal of the prohibitory act in 1729, but its effects 
were only in part destroyed. At another intercolonial conference 
at Albany, called by Burnet, a line of trading posts along the 
northern and western frontiers was strongly recommended. 
But neither the other colonies nor the home government would 
co-operate, and the French were the first to accomplish it. In 
King George's War the co-operation of all the northern colonies 
was sought, and New York contributed 3000 and some cannon 
toward New England's successful expedition against Louisburg. 
But it was left alone to protect its own frontier against the French, 
and while the assembly was wrangling with Governor Clinton 



NEW YORK 



607 



for the control of expenditures the French and their Indians were 
burning farm houses, attacking Saratoga (November 16, 1745), 
and greatly endangering the English-Iroquois alliance. Even 
after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the Iroquois complained 
bitterly of the fraudulent land speculators, and in 1753 the chiefs 
of the Mohawks threatened to declare the covenant chain 
broken. A reconciliation was effected, however, by Colonel 
William Johnson (1715-1774), who had long been superintendent 
of Indian affairs. Largely to secure the co-operation of the 
Iroquois the home government itself now called to meet at 
Albany (q.v.) the most important assembly of colonial deputies 
that had yet gathered. This body, consisting of twenty-five 
members and representing seven colonies, met in June 1754, 
and, besides negotiating successfully with the Iroquois, it adopted, 
with some modifications, a plan of colonial union prepared by 
Benjamin Franklin; the plan was not approved, however, either 
by the home government or by any of the colonies. In the first 
year of the war (1755) expeditions set out against Fort Duquesne 
(on the site of Pittsburg) and Fort Niagara and Crown Point, 
on the New York frontier. None of these was taken but on the 
8th of September Major-General William Johnson, in command 
of the expedition against Crown Point, defeated a French and 
Indian force under Baron Dieskau in the battle of Lake George. 
As Johnson thought it unsafe to pursue the routed army his 
victory had no other effect than the erection here of the useless 
defences of Fort William Henry, but as it was the only success 
in a year of gloom parliament rewarded him with a grant of 
5000 and the title of a baronet. In August 1756 Montcalm took 
Oswego from the English and destroyed it, and in 1757 he 
captured Fort William Henry; but in the latter year the elder 
Pitt assumed control of affairs in England, and his aggressive, 
clear-sighted policy turned the tide of war in England's favour. 
Victory followed victory, Ticonderoga, Crown Point and Niagara 
were wrested from the French and New York was freed of its 
foes. 

England's attempt to make the colonies pay the expenses 
of the war by means of the stamp tax thoroughly aroused the 
opposition of commercial New York, already chafing under the 
hardships imposed by the Navigation Acts and burdened with 
a war debt of its own exceeding 300,000. The assembly was 
almost unanimous in voicing its protest to the governor. It 
authorized its committee, which had been appointed to corre- 
spond with the New York agent in London, to correspond also 
with the committees in the other colonies and this committee 
represented New York in the Stamp Act Congress, a body which 
was called at the suggestion of Massachusetts, met in New 
York City in October 1765, was composed of twenty-seven 
members representing nine colonies, and drew up a declaration 
of rights, an address to the king, and a petition to each house 
of parliament. When the Sons of Liberty, a society composed 
largely of unfranchised mechanics and artisans of New York 
City, which began to dominate the movement immediately 
after the Congress adjourned, resorted to mob violence destroy- 
ing property and burning in effigy the governor and other officers 
the propertied classes drew back, and a few years later the 
popular or patriot party lost its control of the assembly. Since 
the Zenger trial there had been a court party and a popular 
party: the former included many wealthy Anglicans and was 
under the leadership of the De Lanceys, the latter included 
many wealthy and influential dissenters and was under the 
leadership of the Livingstons. During the administration of 
Governor Clinton (1743-1753) a quarrel between the governor 
and James De Lancey, the chief-justice, had greatly weakened the 
court party, and nearly all its members supported their rivals 
in opposition to the Stamp Act. In the series of events which 
followed the first violence of the Sons of Liberty important 
changes were made in party lines. Personal rivalry and creed 
became subordinate to political principles. The court party 
became the Loyalist party, standing for law as against rebellion, 
monarchy and the union of the empire as against republicanism; 
the popular party became the patriot party, determined to stand 
on its rights at any cost. The Stamp Act was repealed in March 



1766, but the Townshend Acts, imposing duties on glass, paper, 
lead, painters' colours and tea, followed closely. They were met 
in New York by fresh outbursts of the Sons of Liberty and, 
as in the other colonies, by an association of nearly all the 
merchants, the members pledging themselves not to import any- 
thing from England until the duties were repealed. New York 
had also been requested to provide certain supplies for the British 
troops quartered in the city. This the assembly refused to do 
but parliament answered (1767) by forbidding it to do any other 
business until it complied. It was under these conditions that 
the Loyalists, in the elections of 1768 and 1769, gained control 
of the assembly and in the latter year passed an act granting 
the soldiers' supplies. When, in 1770, al! the duties except 
those on tea were repealed, the conservative merchants wished 
to permit the importation of all goods from England except 
tea. The Sons of Liberty strongly opposed this, but the con- 
servatives won and went over to the Loyalists. The moderate 
Loyalists joined in the election of delegates to the first Con- 
tinental Congress; but the great body of Loyalists in New York 
strongly disapproved of the " dangerous and extravagant " 
measures adopted by that body, and the assembly, in January 
I 775> refused to approve its acts or choose delegates to the 
second Continental Congress. The patriots met this refusal by 
calling a provincial convention to choose the delegates. Scarcely 
had they done this when news of. the encounter at Lexington 
produced a strong reaction in their favour, and in May 1775 they 
called a Provincial Congress which usurped the powers of the 
Assembly. Still, conditions were such in New York that a fight 
for independence was not to be lightly considered. The failure 
of Montgomery's expedition against Canada at the close of 1775 
left the colony exposed to British attacks from the north. In 
the south the chief city was exposed to the British fleet. Sir 
William Johnson died in 1774, but under his influence and that 
of his son, Sir John Johnson, and his nephew Guy Johnson, 
the Mohawks and other Iroquois Indians had become firmly 
attached to the British side and threatened the western frontier. 
In various sections, too, considerable numbers of Loyalists were 
determined to aid the British. When, in June 1776, a vote on 
the Declaration of Independence was pending in the Continental 
Congress, the New York Provincial Congress refused to instruct 
its delegates in the matter; but a newly elected Provincial 
Congress, influenced by a Loyalist plot against the life of Wash- 
ington, adopted the Declaration when it met, on the gth of July. 
The position of New York made it naturally one of the principal 
theatres of military operations during the War of Independence. 
It was a settled point of British military policy throughout the 
war to hold New York City, and from it, as a base, to establish 
a line of fortified posts along the Hudson by means of which 
communication might be maintained with another base on 
Lake Champlain. Such a scheme, if successfully carried out, 
would have driven a wedge into the line of colonial defence and 
cut off communication between New England and the southern 
colonies. A few days after the fight at Lexington and Concord, 
Connecticut authorized an expedition under Ethan Allen which 
surprised and captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In the 
following year (1776) the British began their offensive opera- 
tions for the control of the Hudson; an army under Sir William 
Howe was to capture New York City and get contro) of the 
lower Hudson, while another army under Sir Guy Carleton was 
to retake Crown Point and Ticonderoga and get control of the 
upper Hudson. Howe, with a force of British and Loyalists 
vastly superior in equipment and numbers to Washington's 
untrained militia, landed in July on Staten Island and late in 
August defeated Washington at the battle of Long Island 
within the present limits of Brooklyn borough. In the following 
month Washington withdrew from New York City which the 
British entered and held until the close of the war. Washington 
prepared to withstand the British behind fortifications on 
Harlem Heights, but discovering that Howe was attempting 
to outflank him by landing troops in the rear he retreated to 
the mainland, leaving only a garrison at Fort Washington, and 
established a line of fortified camps on the hills overlooking 



6o8 



NEW YORK 



the Bronx river as far as White Plains. This brought on the 
battle of White Plains late in October, in which Howe gained 
no advantage; and from here both armies withdrew into New 
Jersey, the British capturing Fort Washington on the way, the 
Americans leaving behind garrisons to guard the Highlands of 
the Hudson. In 1777 General John Burgoyne succeeded in 
taking Ticonderoga, but in the swampy forests southward from 
Lake Champlain he fought his way against heavy odds, and in 
the middle of October his campaign culminated disastrously 
in his surrender at Saratoga. Colonel Barry St Leger led an 
auxiliary expedition from Oswego against Fort Stanwix on the 
upper Mohawk, and on the 6th of August he fought at Oriskany 
one of the most bloody battles of the war, but a few days later, 
deserted by his terror-stricken Indian allies, he hastened back 
to Montreal. The British government intended that Howe 
should co-operate with Burgoyne by fighting his way up the 
Hudson, but as the secretary of state for the colonies neglected 
to send him such instructions this was not undertaken until 
early in October, and then an expedition for the purpose was 
placed under the command of Sir Henry Clinton. Clinton met 
with little difficulty from the principal American defences of 
the Highlands, consisting of Forts Montgomery and Clinton 
on the western bank, together with a huge chain and boom 
stretched across the river to a precipitous mountain (Anthony's 
Nose) on the opposite bank, and ascended as far as Esopus 
(now Kingston) which he burned, but he was too late to aid 
Burgoyne. The year 1778 saw the bloody operations of the 
Tory Butlers and their Loyalist and Indian allies in the Mohawk 
and Schoharie valleys and notably the massacre at Cherry 
Valley. In retaliation a punitive expedition under Generals 
John Sullivan and James Clinton in 1779 destroyed the Iroquois 
towns, and dealt the Indian confederacy a blow from which 
it never recovered. The American cause was strengthened this 
year also by several victories along the lower Hudson of which 
General Anthony Wayne's storming of the British fort at Stony 
Point was the most important. The closing episode of the war 
as far as New York was concerned was the discovery of Benedict 
Arnold's attempt in 1780 to betray West Point and other colonial 
posts on the Hudson to the British. On the 25th of November 
1783 the British forces finally evacuated New York City, but 
the British posts on Lakes Erie and Ontario were not evacuated 
until some years later. 

New York ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1778, and 
when Maryland refused to ratify unless those states asserting 
claims to territory west to the Mississippi agreed to surrender 
them, New York was the first to do so. But under the leadership 
of George Clinton, governor in 1777-1795, the state jealously 
guarded its commercial interests. The Confederation Congress 
appealed to it in vain for the right to collect duties at its port ; 
and there was determined opposition to the new Federal con- 
stitution. In support of the constitution, however, there arose 
the Federalist party under the able leadership of Alexander 
Hamilton. When a majority of the constitutional convention 
of 1787 had approved of the new constitution Hamilton alone 
of the three New York delegates remained to sign it; and when, 
after its ratification by eight states, the New York convention 
met at Poughkeepsie (June 17, 1788) to consider ratification, 
two-thirds of the members were opposed to it. But others 
were won over by the news that it had been ratified by New 
Hampshire and Virginia or by the telling arguments of Hamilton, 
and on the 26th of July the motion to ratify was carried by a 
vote of 30 to 27. 

The constitution having been ratified, personal rivalry among 
the great families the Clintons, the Livingstons and the 
Schuylers again became dominant in political affairs. The 
Clintons were most popular among the independent freeholders; 
the Livingstons had increased their influence by numerous 
marriage alliances with landed families; and the Schuylers 
had General Philip Schuyler and Alexander Hamilton, his 
son-in-law. Originally, the Livingstons, with whom John Jay 
was connected by marriage, were united with the Schuylers, 
and yet both together were unable to defeat the Clintons in an 



election for governor. Later, the Livingstons, piqued at Wash- 
ington's neglect to give them the offices they thought their due, 
joined the Clintons, but the Federal patronage was used against 
the anti-Federalists or Republicans with such effect that in 
1792 John Jay received more votes for governor than George 
Clinton, although the latter was counted in on a technicality. 
Jay was elected in 1795 and re-elected in 1798, but in 1801 the 
brief Federalist regime in the state came to an end with the 
election of George Clinton for a seventh term. The Republican 
leaders straightway quarrelled among themselves, thus starting 
the long series of factional strifes which have characterized the 
party politics of New York state; the bitterness of the factions 
and the irresponsible council of appointment are also responsible 
for the firm establishment early in the Republican regime of 
the " spoils system." The leaders of the several Republican 
groups were Chancellor Robert R. Livingston, Aaron Burr, then 
vice-president, Governor George Clinton and his nephew, De 
Witt Clinton, who in 1802 was elected United States senator. 
The first break came in the spring of 1804 when Burr, who had 
incurred the enmity of his Republican colleagues in 1800 by 
seeking Federalist votes in the electoral college at Jefferson's 
expense, became an independent candidate for governor against 
Morgan Lewis. Hamilton's action in counselling Federalists 
not to vote for Burr for governor just as he had counselled them 
not to support Burr against Jefferson in 1800, was one of the 
contributary causes of Burr's hostility to Hamilton which ended 
in the duel (July 1804) in which Burr killed Hamilton. Hamil- 
ton's death marked the end of the Federalists as a power in New 
York. The election as governor in 1804 of Lewis, a relative of 
the Livingstons, was followed by a bitter quarrel with the 
Clintons over patronage, and resulted at the state election of 
1807 in the choice of a Clintonian, Daniel D. Tompkins, for 
governor and the virtual elimination of the Livingstons from 
New York state politics. Tompkins served as governor by 
successive re-elections until 1817, his term covering the trying 
period of the second war with Great Britain. New York, whose 
growing shipping interests had suffered by the Embargo of 
1807, was as a commercial state opposed to the war. Politically 
this opposition had the effect of temporarily reviving the 
Federalist party, which secured control of the legislature, and 
gave the electoral vote of the state in 1812 to De Witt Clinton, 
whom the Federalists had accepted as a candidate to oppose 
Madison for re-election on the war issue. During the war New 
Yorkers served with the regular troops at Niagara, Plattsburg 
and other places on the western and northern frontiers of the 
state. For some years after the war political contests in New 
York state as in the rest of the country were not on party lines. 
The opposing groups were known as " Bucktails," whose leaders 
were Governor Tompkins and Martin Van Buren, and " Clin- 
tonians " or supporters of De Witt Clinton. In 1817 an act was 
passed which ten years later ended for ever slavery in New York 
state; in the same year De Witt Clinton was elected governor 
and, largely through his efforts, the Erie Canal was begun. 

The election of Martin Van Buren as governor in 1828 marked 
the beginning of the long ascendancy in the state of the " Albany 
Regency," a political coterie in which Van Buren, W. L. Marcy, 
Benjamin Franklin Butler (1795-1858) and Silas Wright were 
among the leaders; Thurlow Weed, their bitterest opponent 
and the man who gave them their name, declared of them that 
he " had never known a body of men who possessed so much 
power and used it so well." Thurlow Weed owed his early 
political advancement to the introduction into state politics of 
the anti-Masonic issue (see ANTI-MASONIC PARTY), which also 
brought into prominence his co-worker W. H. Seward. In 1826 in 
Genesee county the disappearance of a printer named William 
Morgan was attributed to Free-Masons and aroused a strong 
antipathy to that order; and the anti-Masonic movement, 
through the fostering care of Weed, Francis Granger (1792-1868) 
and others, spread to other states and led eventually to the 
establishment of a political organization that by uniting various 
anti-Jacksonian elements, polled in the New York state election 
of 1832 more than 156,000 votes for Francis Granger, their 



NEW YORK 



609 



candidate for governor against Marcy, who was chosen by about 
10,000 plurality. As the anti-Masonic wave subsided its leaders 
and most of its adherents found a place in the newly organized 
Whig party, which was powerful enough in New York to elect 
William H. Seward governor in 1838, and to re-elect him and 
to carry the state for W. H. Harrison against Van Buren in 1840. 
It was during the first administration of Governor Seward that 
the anti-rent agitation in the Hudson river counties began. 
The greater part of the land in this section was comprised in 
vast estates such as Rensselaerwyck, Livingston, Scarsdale, 
Phillipse, Pelham and Van Cortlandt manors, and on these 
the leasehold system with perpetual leases, leases for 99 years or 
leases for one to three lives had become general. Besides rent, 
many of the tenants were required to render certain services to 
the proprietor, and in case a tenant sold his interest in a farm 
to another he was required to pay the proprietor one-tenth to 
one-third cf the amount received as an alienation fine. Stephen 
van Rensselaer, the proprietor of Rensselaerwyck, had suffered 
the rents, especially those of his poorer tenants, to fall much 
in arrears, and when after his death (1839) the agents of his 
heirs attempted to collect them they encountered violent 
opposition. Governor Seward called out the militia to preserve 
order but asked the legislature to consider the tenants' grievances. 
The legislature appointed an arbitration commission, but this 
was unsuccessful, and the trouble, spreading to other counties, 
culminated ( 1 845) in the murder of the deputy-sheriff of Delaware 
county. Politically, the anti-rent associations which were 
formed often held the balance of power between the Whigs and 
the Democrats, and in this position they secured the election of 
Governor John Young (Whig) as well as of several members of the 
legislature favourable to their cause, and promoted the passage of 
the bill calling the constitutional convention of 1846. In the new 
constitution clauses were inserted abolishing feudal tenures 
and limiting future leases of agricultural land to a period of 
twelve years. The courts pronounced the alienation fines illegal. 
The legislature passed several measures for the destruction of the 
leasehold system, and under the pressure of public opinion the 
great landlords rapidly sold their farms. 1 Up to the election cf 
Seward as governor, New York had usually been Democratic, 
largely through the predominating influence of Van Buren and 
the " Albany Regency." After the defeat of Governor Silas 
Wright in 1846, however, the Democratic party split into two 
hostile factions known as the " Hunkers," or conservatives, and 
the " Barnburners," or radicals. The factions had their origin 
in canal politics, the conservatives advocating the use of canal 
revenues to complete the canals, the radicals insisting that they 
should be used to pay the state debt. Later when the con- 
servatives accepted the annexation of Texas and the radicals 
supported the Wilmot Proviso the split became- irrevocable. 
The split broke up the rule of the " regency," Marcy accepting the 
" Hunker " support and a seat in Folk's cabinet, while Wright, 
Butler and Van Buren joined the " Barnburners," a step pre- 
liminary to Van Buren 's acceptance of the " Free Soil " nomina- 
tion for president in the campaign of 1848. Only once between 
1846 and the Civil War did the Democratic party regain control 
of the state in 1853-1855 Horatio Seymour was governor for 
a single term. In 1854 the newly organized Republican party, 
formed largely from the remnants of the Whig party and including 
most of the Free Soil Democrats, with the aid of the temperance 
issue elected Myron Holley Clark (1806-1892) governor. Two 
years later the Republicans carried the state for Fremont for 
president, and a succession of Republican governors held office 
until 1862 when the discouragement in the North with respect to 
the Civil War brought a reaction which elected Seymour governor. 
With the exception of New York City the state was loyal to the 
Union cause during the war and furnished over a half million 
troops to the Federal armies. Certain commercial interests of New 
York City favoured the Confederate cause, but Mayor Wood's sug- 
gestion that the city (with Long Island and Staten Island) secede 
and form a free-city received scant support, and after the san- 

1 James Fenimore Cooper's novels Satanstoe (1845), The Chain- 
bearer (1845) and The Redskins (1846) preach the anti-rent doctrine. 

XIX. 20 



guinary draft riots of July 1863 (see NEW YORK CITY) no further 
difficulty was experienced. After the Civil War the state began 
to reassume the pivotal position in national politics which has 
always made its elections second only in interest and importance 
to those of the nation, and the high political tension emphasized 
the evils of the " spoils system." In 1868 Tammany Hall (?..), 
then under the rule of William M. Tweed, forced the Democratic 
state convention to nominate its henchman, John T. Hoffman, 
for governor, and by the issue of false naturalization papers 
and fraudulent voting in New York City on a gigantic scale 
Hoffman was chosen governor and the electoral vote was cast 
for Seymour. Tammany and Hoffman were again victorious 
in 1870; but in 1871 the New York Times disclosed the magni- 
tude of Tammany's thefts, amounting in the erection of the 
New York county court house alone to almost $8,000,000, 
and Tweed and his " Ring " were crushed in consequence. The 
Republicans carried the state in 1872, but in 1874 Samuel J. 
Tilden, a Democrat and the leading prosecutor of Tweed, was 
elected governor. The Republican legislature had in 1867 
appointed a committee to investigate the management of the 
canal system, but the abuses were allowed to continue until 
in 1875 Governor Tilden disclosed many frauds of the " Canal 
Ring," and punished the guilty. In 1876, Tilden having been 
nominated for the presidency, New York cast its electoral vote 
for him. In 1880 it was cast for Garfield, the Republican nominee. 
Two years later the Republicans, having split over a struggle for 
patronage into the two factions known as " Stalwarts " or 
administrative party and " Halfbreeds " of whom the leader 
was Roscoe Conkling, were defeated, Grover Cleveland being 
chosen governor. In 1884 Cleveland as the Democratic pre- 
sidential nominee received the electoral vote of his state. Cleve- 
land likewise carried the state in 1892, but in 1888 Benjamin 
Harrison, the Republican candidate, the factional quarrels 
being settled, carried the state. Hostility to free silver and 
" Bryanism " in the large financial and industrial centres put the 
state strongly in the Republican column in the elections of 1896, 
1900, 1904 and 1908. It was carried by the Democrats in the 
gubernatorial campaign of 1910. 



GOVERNORS OF NEW YORK 

Colonial. 

Cornells Jacobsen Mey 
William Verhulst . 
Peter Minuit 
Bastiaen Janssen Crol 
Wouter Van Twiller 
William Kieft 
Peter Stuyyesant . 
Richard Nicolls 
Francis Lovelace . 
Anthony Colve 
Edmund Andros . 
Thomas Dongan . 

Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant-Gove nor 
Jacob Leisler (de facto) 
Henry Sloughter . 
Richard Ingoldsby (Acting) 
Benjamin Fletcher 
Richard Coote, earl of Bcllomont 
John Nanfan (Acting) 
Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury 
John, Lord Lovelace . 
Richard Ingoldsby (Acting) 
Gerardus Beekman (Acting) 
Robert Hunter 
Peter Schuyler (Acting) 
William Burnet . 
John Montgomerie 
Rip van Dam (Acting) 
William Cosby 
George Clarke (Acting) 
George Clinton 
Sir Danvers Osborne . 
James de Lancey (Acting) . 
Sir Charles Hardy 
James de Lancey (Acting) . 
Cadwallader Golden (Acting) 
Robert Monckton 
Cadwallader Golden (Acting) 
Robert Monckton 



1624-1625 
1625-1626 
1626-1632 
1632-1633 

1633-1637 
1637-1647 
1647-1664 
1664-1668 
1668-1673 

1673-1674 

1674-1683 

1683-1688 

1688-1689 

1689-1691 

1691 

1691-1692 

1692-1698 

1698-1701 

1701-1702 

1702-1708 

1708-1709 

1709-1710 

1710 

1710-1719 

1719-1720 

1720-1728 

1728-1731 

I73I-I732 

1732-1736 

1736-1743 

1743-1753 

1753 

1753-1755 

1755-1757 

1757-1760 

1760-1761 

1761 

1761-1762 

1762-1763 



6io 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



Cadwallader Golden (Acting) .... 1763-1765 

Sir Henry Moore 1765-1769 

Cadwallader Colden (Acting) .... 1769-1770 
John Murray, earl of Dunmore, . . I77O-I77 1 

William Tryon !77i-!776 

Transition. 

Provincial Congress 1 776-1 777 

State. 
George Clinton .... 1777-1795 Anti-Federalist 

John Jay i795-i8i Federalist 

George Clinton .... 1801-1804 Dem.-Repub. 



Morgan Lewis 

Daniel D. Tompkins . 

John Taylor (Acting) . . . 

De Witt Clinton .... 

Joseph Christopher Yates . . 

De Witt Clinton .... 

Nathaniel Pitcher (Acting) 

Martin Van Buren 

Enos Thompson Throop (Acting) 

Enos Thompson Throop 

William Learned Marcy 

William Henrj Seward 

Willian. C. Bouck 

Silas Wright 

John Young 

Hamilton Fish .... 

Washington Hunt 

Horatio Seymour 

Myron Holley Clark . 

John Alsop King 

Edwin Dennison Morgan . 

Horatio Seymour 

Reuben Eaton Fenton 

John Thompson Hoffman . 

John Adams Dix 

Samuel Jones Tilden . 

Lucius Robinson 

Alonzo Barton Cornell 

Grover Cleveland 

David Bennett Hill (Acting) 

David Bennett Hill 

Roswell Pettibone Flower . 

Levi Parsons Morton . 

Frank Swett Black 

Theodore Roosevelt 

Benjamin Barker Odell 

Frank Wayland Higgins . 

Charles Evans Hughes 

Horace White .... 

John A. Dix . 



1804-1807 

1807-1817 

1817 

1817-1823 

1823-1825 

1825-1828 

1828-1829 

1829 Democrat 

1829-1831 

1831-1833 

1833-1839 

1839-1843 Whig 

1843-1845 Democrat 

1845-1847 

1847-1849 Whig 

1849-1851 

1851-1853 

1853-1855 Democrat 

1855-1857 Whig-Repub. 

1857-1859 Republican 

1859-1863 

1863-1865 Democrat 

1865-1869 Republican 

1869-1873 Democrat 

1873-1875 Republican 

1875-1877 Democrat 

1877-1880 

1880-1883 Republican 

1883-1885 Democrat 

1885-1886 

1886-1892 

1892-1895 

1895-1897 Republican 

1897-1899 

1899-1901 

1901-1905 

1905-1907 

1907-1910 

1910 

1911- Democrat 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. Physical Features and Climate: R. S. Tarr, 
Physical Geography of New York State (New York, 1902), with a 
chapter on climate by E. T. Turner; Reports of the New York 
Geological Survey from 1842 to 1854 (Albany); Reports of the Topo- 
graphical Survey of the Adirondack Region of New York (Albany, 1873 
1880); Report.'! of the New York Meteorological Bureau (1889 sqq.); 
and publications of the United States Weather Bureau. Fauna and 
Flora: Reports of the Forest, Fish and Game Commissioner (Albany, 
1902 sqq.) ; Ralph Hoffmann, Guide to the Birds of New England and 
Eastern New York (Boston, 1904) ; and Bulletins of the New York 
State Museum (Albany, 1888 sqq.). Government: W. C. Morey, 
The Government of New York: Its History and Administration (New 
York, 1902) after tracing briefly the development of the govern- 
mental system describes its structure and operation. C. Z. Lincoln, 
The Constitutional History of New York (5 vols., Rochester, 1906) is 
an elaborate and able study of the growth of the. constitution. See 
also J. A. Fairlie, The Centralization of Administration in New York 
State (New York, 1898); Annual Reports of the State Board of 
Charities (Albany, 1867 sqq.); Annual Reports of the State Education 
Department (Albany, 1904 sqq.); and Sidney Sherwood, History of 
Higher Education in the State of New York (Washington, 1900), Cir- 
cular of Information No. 3 of the United States Bureau of Education. 
History: E. H. Roberts, New York: The Planting and Growth of 
the Empire State (2 vols., Boston, 1896) is a popular but rather 
superficial treatment of the entire period. The early historical docu- 
ments of the state were collected by E. B. O'Callaghan in his Docu- 
mentary History of the State of New York (4 vols., Albany, 1849- 
1851); and more completely in Documents Relating to the Colonial 
History of the State of New York procured by J. R. Brodhead (15 vols., 
vols. i.-xi. edited by E. B. O'Callaghan and xii.-xv. by B. Fernow; 
Albany, 1853-1883). O'Callaghan edited A Calendar of Historical 
Manuscripts in the Office of the Secretary of State ef New York (2 vols., 
Albany, 1865-1866). E. B. O'Callaghan, History of New Netherland 
(2 vols., New York, 1846), and J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of 



New York (2 vols., New York, 1853 and 1871) are the standard works 
on the early history. Mrs Martha J. Lamb's History of the City of 
New York (2 vols., New York, 1877) and Mrs Schuyler Van 



Rensselaer's History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth 
Century (2 vols., New York, 1909) include the history of the province. 



William Smith's History of the Late Province of New York, from its 
Discovery to 1762 (ist part, 1757, reprinted in the 1st series of 
the New York Historical Society Collections, 2 vols., 1829-1830) is 
still the chief authority for the period from the English Revolution of 
1688 to the eve of the War of Independence. For the same period, 
lowever, consult C. W. Spencer, Phases of Royal Government in 
New York, 1691-1719 (Columbus, 1905). John Fiske, The Dutch and 
Quaker Colonies in America (2 vols., Boston, 1900) is admirable in 
ts generalizations but unreliable in its details. G. W. Schuyler, 
Colonial New York: Philip Schuyler and his Family (2 vols., New 
York, 1885) is a family history, but especially valuable in the study of 
Indian affairs and the intermarriages of the landed families. A. C. 
"lick's Loyalism in New York during the American Revolution (New 
York, 1901) and H. P. Johnston's Campaign of 1776 around New 
York and Brooklyn (Brooklyn, 1878) are thorough studies. For the 
military history of the War of Independence see also Justin Winsor's 
Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. vi. (Boston, 1888). 
For strictly political history see a series of articles by Carl Becker 
n the American Historical Review, vols. vi., vii. and ix., and the 
Political Science Quarterly, vol. xviii., J. D. Hammond's History of 
Political Parties in the State of New York (2 vols., Albany, 1842) and 
D. S. Alexander's Political History of the State of New York (3 vols., 
New York, 1906-1909). See also E. P. Cheney, The Anti-Rent 
Agitation in the State of New_ York (Philadelphia, 1887); Charles 
McCarthy, " The Anti-Masonic Party " in vol. i. pp. 365-574 of the 
Annual Report for 1902 of the American Historical Association; 
N. E. Whitford, History of the Canal System of the State of New York 
(Albany, 1906). (N. D. M.; W. T. A.) 

NEW YORK (CITY), the largest city of New York state, U.S.A., 
situated at the junction of the Hudson river, here called the North 
river, with the narrow East river (actually a strait connecting 
Long Island Sound with the Upper Bay), and between Long 
Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It is composed of five 
boroughs: the Borough of the Bronx on the south-easternmost 
part of the mainland of New York state; the Borough of Man- 
hattan on Manhattan Island (including also other small islands 1 ) 
immediately S. and S.W. of the Bronx, and bounded on the 
W. by the North river, on the E. by the East river, and on the 
S. by New York Bay; the Borough of Richmond (Staten 
Island, ?..), the southernmost and westernmost part of the city; 
and on the western end of Long Island, the Borough of Brooklyn 
(q.v.), and, N. of it, the Borough of Queens. The city hall, in 
the southern part of Manhattan Island, is in lat. 40 42' 43* N. 
and long. 74 o' 3" W. The greatest width of the city E. and 
W. is 1 6 m., and the greatest length N. and S. is 32 m.; its 
area is about 326-97 sq. m. (285-72 sq. m. more than in 1890), 
of which Manhattan Borough constitutes nearly 21-93 S Q- m -> 
the Borough of the Bronx about 41-7 sq. m., the Borough of 
Queens about 129-5 sq. m., the Borough of Brooklyn 77-6 sq. m., 
and the Borough of Richmond 55-2 sq. m. 2 The total waterfront 
of the city is 341-22 m., and much of it, especially on the lower 
part of Manhattan, is made ground. 

New York harbour is one of the most beautiful, largest and 
best of the world's great ports. Over the bar (Sandy Hook), 
about 20 m. S. of the S. end of Manhattan Island, is the " Main 
Ship Bayside-Gedney channel," 1000 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep; 
By 1909 the Federal government had completed 7^ m. of 
the Ambrose channel farther to the E. and 40 ft. deep, and 
950-1600 ft. wide (2200 ft. is the projected width). 3 A third 
'The more important of these small islands are: Blackwcll's 
(about 120 acres) in the East river, Ward's N. of Blackwell's, and 
Randall's N. of Ward's, separated from it by Little Hell Gate, and 
in the mouth of the Harlem river; in the Upper Bay, Governor's 
Island (originally 65 acres; enlarged by the addition of 101 acres 
to the southwest), a U.S. military reservation, about 1000 yds. S. of 
the Battery, the southernmost point of Manhattan Island; Bedloe's 
Island (sometimes called Liberty Island from the Bartholdi 
statue on it of " Liberty Enlightening the World "), with an area of 
13 J acres, lying 2 m. S.W. of the Battery; and Ellis Island, 1$ m. 
W.S.W. of the Battery, occupied by the Federal government as a 
landing-place for immigrants. In the Lower Bay, and a part of the 
Borough of Richmond, are the artificial islands, Swinburne (1866- 
1870; 8 m. S. of the Battery) and Hoffman (1868-1873; 7 m. S. of 
the Battery), constructed for quarantine stations. 

- Manhattan and Bronx boroughs compose New York county; the 
counties of Queens and Richmond are coterminous respectively with 
the boroughs of those names; Brooklyn Borough is coextensive with 
Kings county. 

3 The narrowness of the channel makes the tidal scour more 
effective, and it was little filled in even when sewage and garbage was 
dumped in the Bay itself. The river carries little silt and leaves most 
of it well above the harbour. The natural excellence of the harbour 
may be inferred from the following figures: in 1895-1903 the Federal 



Part of 

NEW YORK CITY 

Scale, 1:37,000 

Scale of i mile 
o V % * ' 



1. Custom House 
Z. Post Office 

3. City Hall 

4. Court House 

5. Hall of Records 
6- The Tombs 

7. Criminal Court 

8. Trinity Church 

9. Stock Exchange 



Railways 

Elevated Railways 

Subways 




NEW YORK (CITY) 



611 



channel, the South and Swash, is used by coasting vessels drawing 
about 20 ft. The harbour is divided into three parts: the 
Lower Bay, the Upper Bay and the North and East rivers. 
The Lower Bay (about 88 sq. m.) of which Raritan Bay on the 
S.W., Sandy Hook Bay on the S.E., and Gravesend Bay on 
the N.E. form parts, and to which the channels mentioned afford 
entrance from the ocean, has Staten Island to the W. and N., 
Brooklyn to the N. and E., and the New Jersey shore to the 
S. and VV. The Upper Bay has an area of 14 sq. m., is the 
immediate embouchure of the North and the East river, is 
connected with the Lower Bay by the Narrows (minimum 
width i m.) and with Newark Bay to the W. by Kill Van Kull, 
immediately N. of Staten Island, and, except for these four 
narrow water-ways, is enclosed by land. The North river 
(maximum depth, 60 ft.) is here about i m. wide and the East 
river (maximum depth more than 100 ft.; in Hell Gate channel 
about 200 ft.) is about J m. wide and, from the Battery to 
Throg's Neck and Willett's Point, where Long Island Sound 
proper begins, about 20 m. long. The north-east entrance 
to the harbour, from Long Island Sound by the East river, 
used principally by New England coasting vessels (especially 
coal barges), was made navigable for vessels of 25-27 ft. draft 
by the Federal government, which in 1870-1876 and in 1885 
widened and deepened the formerly dangerous narrows and 
removed the reefs of Hell Gate, between Manhattan Island 
(E. 88th Street), Blackwell's Island, Astoria (on the Long 
Island shore), and Ward's Island. The third great entry and 
commercial feeder to the harbour is the North river, by which 
the great inland water-borne traffic of the Hudson river and the 
Erie Canal is brought to the port of New York. On the North 
river are the piers of the transatlantic steamship companies, 
part of them on the New Jersey side at Hoboken (?..). The 
coastwise trade with New England, especially through Long 
Island Sound, is largely from the East river, to which a part 
of the Hudson river traffic makes its way by the Harlem river. 
The Harlem is a place of anchorage for small craft. 

The narrow approaches to the harbour from the ocean and from 
Long Island Sound make its fortification easy. On Sandy Hook, 
less than 8 m. from the nearest points of Rockaway Beach and Coney 
Island on the other side of the entrance, is Fort Hancock, established 
as a military reservation (1366 acres) in 1892; it received its present 
name in 1895, and has an artillery garrison. Between the lower 
and upper bays, on the Narrows, are Fort Wadsworth (1827; named 
in honour of General James S. Wadsworth (1807-1864), killed in the 
battle of the Wilderness), on the Staten Island side, a reservation of 
230 acres, including Fort Tompkins, on higher ground than Fort 
Wadsworth proper, and, across the Narrows, on the Long Island 
shore, Fort Hamilton (1831), with a reservation of 167 acres. 
Older fortifications are Fort Lafayette (1807; called Fort Diamond 
until 1823), between Forts Hamilton and Wadsworth on an artificial 
island, now used to store ordnance and supplies, and Fort Columbus 
(1806), South Battery (1812) and Castle Williams (built in 1811 by 
Jonathan Williams (1750-1815), who planned all the earlier forti- 
fications of New York harbour; it is now a military prison), all on 
Governor's Island, where are important barracks and the New York 
arsenal of the Ordnance Department. The north-eastern approach 
to the harbour, at the entrance to Long Island Sound, is protected 
by fortifications, Fort Totten, at Willett's Point (1862), and 
directly across from this battery by Fort Schuyler (1826; 
post established 1856) with a reservation of 52 acres on Throg's 
Neck. 

Geology. Manhattan Island 1 (iji m. long; maximum width 
at I4th Street 2j m.; average width about 2 m.) is a "group of 
gneissoid islands separated ... by low levels slightly elevated above 
tide and filled with drift and alluvium " (L. D. Gale in W. W. Mather's 
Geology of New York, 1843), with a steep west wall from Manhattan- 
ville (I25th Street W. of 8th Avenue) S. beyond 8lst Street, and a 
much steeper east wall. Upon its first occupation by the Dutch the 
island was rough and rocky with brooks, ponds, marshes and several 



expenses for important harbour improvements, principally dredging, 
were $1,035,300 for New York, $2,710,000 (exclusive of $1,185,000 
for the Delaware Breakwater) for Philadelphia, $1,501,169 for 
Boston, $1,404,845 for New Orleans, and $470,000 for Baltimore. 

1 See Wm. H. Hobbs, Configuration of the Rock Floor of Greater 
New York (Washington, 1905), Bulletin 270 of the U.S. Geological 
Survey, with an excellent summary of the earlier literature. The 
study of the underlying rock of Manhattan Island and its vicinity 
has been stimulated by the great engineering and building enter- 
prises in the city limits. 



swamps. 2 Superficially the island may be divided into: an area of 
drift, S. of 2 1st Street on the East river, of I3th street on Broadway 
and of 3ist Street on the North river; a second, narrow area of 
drift running from Hell Gate N.W.to Manhattanville in a line parallel 
to the Harlem; a limestone (Inwood limestone) area on the Harlem 
from its mouth to the sharp turn in its course ; a second and smaller 
limestone area on the Spuyten Duyvil in the north-westernmost part 
of the island ; and the remainder areas of gneiss, the larger part being 
in two great " islands," one between the line of E. 2ist Street, I3th 
Street and W. 3ist Street, already mentioned, and a line from Hell 
Gate to Manhattanville, and the other nearly joining the first at 
Manhattanville and covering all the narrow N.W. part of Manhattan 
Island except the second limestone area on the Spuyten Duyvil. 
These two gneiss areas have a southerly tilt; they are named re- 
spectively Washington and Morningside Heights. In all these areas, 
except the limestone, the underlying rock is what is styled Man- 
hattan schist (see U.S. Geologic Atlas, N.Y. City, folio No. 83). The 
waterfront of Manhattan does not correspond in direction with lime- 
stone belts, but is probably due to lines of fracture (see W. H. Hobbs, 
in Bulletin, Geological Society of America, xvi. 151-182). 

The Borough of the Bronx is made of high N.E. and S.W. ridges, 
sloping E. to the lower shores of Long Island Sound; and the 
Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens form part of the great terminal 
moraine. Low serpentine hills (300-380 ft.), with a N.E. and 
S.W. trend, occupy the central part of the northern end of Staten 
Island; W. of this is Jura-Trias formation, crossed in its centre by a 
narrow strip of igneous dike rock; the E. and S. part of the island is 
Cretaceous. Yellow gravel is one of the many evidences of glacial 
drift ; 'out the S.E. part of the island was not encroached upon by the 
moraine. 

Climate. A combination of marine and continental influences 
produces a humid climate subject to sudden changes of temperature. 
The temperature, however, rises above 90 F. only six days in a year 
on the average ; it rarely falls below zero ; and in a period of thirty- 
eight years, from 1871 to 1908, extremes ranged between 100, in 
September 1881, and -6 s , in February 1899. The mean winter 
temperature (December, January and February) is 32; the mean 
summer temperature (June, July and August) is 72; and the mean 
annual temperature is 52. The average monthly rainfall ranges 
from 3-2 in. in May to 4-5 in. in July and in August, and the mean 
annual precipitation is 4.4-8 in. The average annual fall of snow 
amounts 1037 in., of which 11-5 in. falls in February, 8-7 in. in January 
and 8-2 in. in March. The average number of hours of sunshine 
ranges from 150 in November to 271 in June. The prevailing winds 
are N.W., except in June when they are S.W. 

Streets. In the downtown portion of Manhattan Island, a strip 
about 2 m. long, some streets follow the irregular water-fronts 
and others cross these; and on the west side this irregularity 
extends farther N., in the former Greenwich village (W. and 
N.W. of Washington Square), where West 4th Street, running 
N.W., crosses West i2th Street, running S.W. north of Houston 
Street, then North Street, the northernmost limit of the occupied 
city; in 1807 a commission laid out the island into streets, which 
were numbered from S. to N. and were called East and West, as 
they were E. or W. of Broadway, below 8th Street, and of Fifth 
Avenue, above 8th, and into avenues, which were numbered 3 from 
E. to W., Twelfth Avenue being on the North river waterfront. 
East of First Avenue in a bulge of the Island S. of 23rd Street 
four additional avenues were named A, B, C, and D, Avenue 
A being one block E. of First Avenue. Afterwards Madison 
Avenue was laid out midway between Fourth and Fifth Avenues, 
N. from 23rd Street, and Lexington Avenue, midway between 
Third and Fourth Avenues, N. from 2ist Street. The most 
important of the avenues is Broadway, an unfortunately narrow 
street in the busy downtown part of its course. From Bowling 
Green, immediately N. of the Battery, it goes in a straight line 
(E. of N.) for about 2 m. to xoth Street; then bears off to 
the W. It is called the Boulevard from 78th Street to i62nd 
Street in its course between Amsterdam Avenue and West 
End (or Eleventh) Avenue (to io4th Street), and then as a 
continuation of West End Avenue; and thence to the Yonkers 
city line is called Kingsbridge Road. The monotonous regularity 
of the rectangular street plan of Manhattan above I4th Street 
is partly redeemed by this westward trend of Broadway, the only 

4 See a paper, " Old Wells and Water-Courses on the Island of 
Manhattan, by George Everett Hill and George E. Waring, Jr., in 
Historic New York: the First Series of the Half Moon Papers (New 
York, 1809). 

1 In the Borough of the Bronx the system of numbered avenues 
no longer holds, but the cross streets are numbered consecutively, 
W. 262nd Street being immediately S. of the Yonkers line and E. 
242nd and 243rd immediately S. of the Mt. Vernon boundary. 



6l2 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



old street in this part of the city. The Bowery, extending 
N. from Chatham Square to East 4th St. (practically con- 
tinued by Fourth Avenue), is not now a street of commercial 
importance, being largely taken up with Yiddish tenements'. 
Broadway, in its southernmost part, is a financial and business 
street; the financial interests centre particularly about Wall 
Street, 1 which is about one-third of a mile above the Battery, 
runs E. from Broadway, and was named from a redoubt built 
here by the Dutch in 1653 on news of a threatened attack 
by the English. The wholesale dry goods district is on 
Broadway and the side streets between Reade and Prince Streets 
and the wholesale grocery district immediately W. of this. In 
Maiden Lane is the wholesale jewelry trade. The leather and 
hide trade is centred immediately S. of the approaches to the 
Brooklyn Bridge. A little farther up-town on the East Side is 
the tenement district, one of the most crowded in the world. 
The principal shopping districts are on Broadway from i7th 
Street to 34th Street; on Sixth Avenue from I4th Street to 
34th Street; and to an increasing degree on Fifth Avenue 
from 23rd Street to 42nd Street, and on the cross-streets in this 
area, especially 23rd, 34th and 42nd Streets. Next to Broadway 
the best known of the avenues is Fifth Avenue, which extends 
from Washington Square to the Harlem river (i43rd Street) in a 
straight line. On Fifth Avenue there are a few residences in its 
lower part and between 34th and 4Sth Streets; but N. of soth 
and on the E. side of Central Park are many fine residences. 
The cross streets within one block to the W. and two blocks 
to the E. of Fifth Avenue, Central Park West, and in general 
the upper West Side and in particular Riverside Drive, high above 
the North river, are the newer residential parts of the city. 

Parks. The park system in 1908 included property valued at 
$501,604,188. The principal parks are: Central Park in Man- 
hattan; Prospect Park in Brooklyn (?..); and Bronx Park, Van 
Cortlandt Park and Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx. The first park 
(as distinguished from " square ") of any size in Manhattan was 
Central Park (840 acres; between sgth and noth Streets and 
between 5th and 8th Avenues; about 2} m. long and j m. wide), 
which was laid out (beginning in 1857) by F. L. Olmsted and Calvert 
Vaux. Nearly one-half is wooded, with a variety of native and 
foreign trees and shrubs. The park contains a large pond, the Mere, 
in the N.E. corner; the Croton retaining reservoir and the receiving 
reservoir, and other sheets of water. Near the 6sth Street entrance 
from 5th Avenue is the Arsenal, the executive quarters of the De- 
partment of Parks, with a meteorological observatory (1869). 

Pelham Bay Park (1756 acres), in the north-easternmost corner of 
the city, lies on Long Island Sound, includes Hunter's Island and 
Twin Islands, and has a total shore front of about 9 m. Bordering 
on the city of Yonkers, S. (from 262nd Street) to 242nd Street, is 
Van Cortlandt Park (1132 acres), in which are the Van Cortlandt 
Mansion (1748), fora time Washington's headquarters and now a 
Revolutionary Museum under the Colonial Dames, a parade-ground 
(75 acres), and Van Cortlandt Lake, a skating pond. East of Van 
Cortlandt Park is Woodlawn Cemetery. Mosholu Parkway (600 ft. 
wide and about 6000 ft. long) leads from Van Cortlandt Park to the 
S.E., and Bronx and Pelham Parkway (400 ft. wide and 12,000 ft. 
long) from Pelham Bay Park to the S.W. connecting these parks with 
Bronx Park (719 acres) on either side of the Bronx river, a small 
stream which here broadens into lakes and ponds and has a fall at 
the lower end of the park. Bronx Park reaches from i8oth Street to 
2O5th Street. The northern part is occupied by the New York 
Botanical Gardens and the southern part by the Zoological Park. 

Battery Park is at the southern end of Manhattan; here are the 
New York Aquarium (in what was until 1896 Castle Garden, on the 
site of Fort Clinton) and a children's playground (1903). In City 
Hall Park are the public buildings mentioned below. 

The other down-town open spaces are small ; many of them are 
recreation grounds, some, such as Mulberry Bend Park and Hamilton 
Fish Park, being on the site of former slums, condemned by the city 
at great expense. Especially in this part of the city municipal 
recreation piers and free baths have been constructed. Washington 
Square (1827), between Waverley Place, Wooster and Macdougal 
Streets, at the foot of 5th Avenue, became a pauper burial-ground 
about 1797, and was laid out as a park in 1827; on the N. side of the 
square there are still a few fine old residences. Union Square, 
between Broadway and 4th Avenue, is a favourite place for work- 
men's mass meetings. Madison Square is reclaimed swampy ground 
on which there was an arsenal in 1806-1815, then a parade-ground, 
and in 1825-1839 a municipal House of Refuge in the old barracks, 
and which was then laid out as a park and was a fashionable centre in 
1850-1875. Bryant Park on Sixth Avenue, between 4Oth and 42nd 
Streets, was a Potter's Field in 1813-1823, and in 1853 was the site of 



1 See F. T. Hill, Story of a Street (New York, 1908). 



a world's fair with Crystal Palace, which was destroyed in 1858. In 
De Witt Clinton Park between 52nd and 54th Streets on the North 
river, there was the first children's farm school 2 in New York. 
Riverside Park (140 acres; 1872), between 72nd and I29th Streets, 
on the North river front, is a finely wooded natural terrace with 
winding paths. Morningside Park (31^ acres), between W. noth 
and I23rd Streets, beautifully wooded, and Mount Morris Park 
(20$ acres) from i2Oth to I24th Streets, interrupting Fifth Avenue, 
are high rough ground, Mount Morris being the highest point on 
Manhattan Island. 

Among the other parks in the north part of Manhattan Island are: 
Roger Morris Park, between l6oth and i62nd Streets, containing the 
Roger Morris or Jumel Mansion (1763), Washington's headquarters 
for five weeks in 1776, then the headquarters of Sir Henry Clinton, 
and after 1777 of the Hessian officers; High Bridge Park (731 acres) 
at the Manhattan end of High Bridge, between W. I7oth and 175th 
Streets; Audubon Park between I55th and I58th Streets, from 
Broadway to the North river, the home in 1840-1851 of John James 
Audubon; and Ft. Washington (40! acres) from I7ist to i83rd 
Streets on the North river, the site of Ft. Washington in the War of 
Independence. Along the W. bank of the Harlem river for about 
3 m. N. and N.W. is the Harlem River Driveway (or speedway), 
about 95 ft. wide. Besides the large parks in the Bronx the more 
important are Crotona (154-6 acres), and Poe Park (2f acres) on E. 
1 92nd Street, the site of E. A. Poe's Fordham cottage. The great 
baseball grounds of the National and American leagues furnish 
amusement to the crowds interested in professional baseball. Coney 
Island (?..), similar resorts on Staten Island, on the shores of the 
North river and on Long Island on the Sound, and on the Hudson 
river are popular amusement places. 

Buildings. The city's sky-line is broken by the tall business 
buildings, known as " sky-scrapers," 3 the construction of which 
was made necessary by the narrowness of the down-town portion 
of the island in which the increasing business population had 
to be accommodated. The ten-storey Tower Building (1889; 
21 ft. wide; first 9 then n storeys; replaced in 1908-1910 by 
a taller and wider building) was the first of these, and was soon 
followed by much taller ones. 

The prominent business buildings include the Singer Sewing- 
Machine Company's Building 4 (612 ft. high, built in 1905-1908 
by Ernest Flagg); the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's 
Building (693 ft.; completed in 1909); the Produce Exchange 
(with a 2 2 s-f t. tower) ; the Manhattan Life Building (with a 36o-f t. 
tower); the Empire Building (20 storeys); on Wall Street, the 
Drexel Building, the Trust Company of America (23 storeys), 
and the National City Bank; on Broad Street, the white marble 
Stock Exchange (1903), the Broad Exchange Building (276 ft. 
high), and the Commercial Cable Building (317 ft. high) ; in Cedar 
Street, the New York Clearing House; in Liberty Street, the 
New York Chamber of Commerce (1903), built of white marble 
and granite, with Ionic columns, the Trinity Building (with a 
Gothic facade) and the United States Realty Building (both by 
F. H. Kimball), the City Investing Building (32 storeys; 
486 ft. high); in Church Street, the Hudson Terminal Buildings 
(1909, Clinton & Russell), 22 storeys high, with four storeys below 
ground (including the terminal of the down-town Hudson tunnels) , 
office buildings with a tenant population of 10,000; in Park 
Row, the Park Row Building (30 storeys; 390 ft. high), and 
the office building of the World (the Pulitzer Building, with a 
dome 310 ft. high); the white marble Home Life Insurance 
Building with its sloping red tiled roof; the Fuller (or " Flatiron ") 
Building (290 ft. high); and the New York Times Building (363 
ft. high) at 42nd Street and Broadway. 

The principal public buildings are: the Custom House (1902- 
1907; by Cass Gilbert), on the site of Fort Amsterdam, built of 
granite in the French Renaissance style; in Wall Street, the 
United States Sub-Treasury, on the site of Federal Hall, in 
which George Washington was inaugurated first president of 
the United States; and in and about City Hall Park, the Post 

2 See Jacob A. Riis, " City Farms and Harvest Dances," in the 
Century Magazine for September 1909. 

3 On the mechanical equipment of the New York " skyscraper " 
see R. P. Bolton, " High Office Buildings of New York," vol. 143 of 
Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (1901). 
See also Frank W. Skinner, " The Foundation of Lofty Buildings," 
in the Century Magazine for March 1909. 

4 See A History of the Singer Building Construction (New York, 
1908), edited by O. F. Semsch. The building's steel columns are 
carried on pneumatic caisson piers which reach bed rock 90 ft. below 
the street-level. 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



613 



Office, the Italian Renaissance City Hall by John McComb, Jr., 
1803-1812 (architecturally the best of the public buildings); the 
Court House, the Hall of Records (French Renaissance), and a 
new Municipal Building with a lantern 559 ft. high, the main 
building of 23 storeys being pierced by an arcade through which 
Chambers Street runs; a little farther N. and E. of Broadway, 
the Tombs (1898-1899), the city prison, connected by a flying 
bridge called " the Bridge of Sighs " with the Criminal Courts; 
at Madison Avenue and 2sth Street, the elaborate Appellate 
Court House (J. B. Lord); and on Fifth Avenue (4oth-42nd Sts.) 
the new Public Library (1911). There are several large armouries 
of the state militia in the city, the best known being those of 
the yth, 69th and yist regiments. 

Churches. Historically the foremost religious denomination in 
New York City is the Dutch Reformed. The consistory of the 
Collegiate Church, controlling several churches, is the oldest ecclesi- 
astical organization in the city, dating from 1628, when there was a 
Dutch church " in the Fort." After the city passed into the hands 
of the English the Protestant Episcopal Church rapidly increased in 
power, and in 1705 received the grant of the " Queen's Farm " 
between Christopher and Vesey streets. This immense wealth is 
held by the corporation of Trinity Church. Its present building 
(1839-1846; by R. M. Upjohn) is on the site of a church built in 
1696, at the head of Wall Street on Broadway. The bronze doors are 
a memorial to J. J. Astor, and- the altar and reredos, to W. B. Astor. 
In the churchyard are the graves of Alexander Hamilton, Robert 
Fulton, Captain James Lawrence, Albert Gallatin, William Bradford, 
the colonial printer, and General Phil Kearny. Many of the largest 
Episcopalian churches in the city were founded as its chapels, in- 
cluding St Paul's (1766), the oldest church building in the city. 
Trinity has several important chapels dependent on it. The Presby- 
terian Church is relatively stronger in New York than in any other 
city in the country with the possible exceptions of Philadelphia and 
Pittsburg. The first Methodist Episcopal society in the United 
States was formed in New York in 1766 and still exists as the John 
Street Church. The varied immigration to the city had brought in 
the other Protestant sects; the large Irish immigration of the first 
two- thirds of the igth century, and the great Hebrew migration of the 
last part of the same century, made the Roman Catholic and the 
Jewish denominations strong. The city became the see of a Roman 
Catholic bishop in 1808 and of an archbishop in 1850. The Roman 
Catholic Cathedral, St Patrick's (5Oth-5lst Streets; Fifth-Madison 
Avenues), is the head of the archdiocese of New York; it is the largest 
and one of the most elaborately decorated churches in the country, 
designed by James Renwick and erected in 18501879, with a Lady 
Chapel added in 1903. It is in Decorated style and is built princip- 
ally of white marble. Behind the Cathedral on Madison Avenue is 
the archiepiscopal residence. The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral 
of St John the Divine, on H2th Street near Morningside Park, was 
begun in 1892; the crypt and St Saviour's Chapel were completed 
in 1910. Other prominent Episcopalian churches are: Christ Church, 
organized in 1794, the second parish in age to Trinity; St Mark's, an 
old parish with a colonial church (1829); Grace Church (organized 
in 1808), since 1844 in a commanding position at Broadway and 
loth Street, at the first turn in Broadway, with a building of white 
limestone in Decorated style with a graceful stone spire ; the Church 
of the Ascension (1840) with John La Farge's mural painting of the 
Ascension, a chancel by Stanford White, and Sienese marble walls 
and pulpit ; and the Church of the Transfiguration (1849), nicknamed 
" The Little Church around the Corner, 1 ' and famous under the 
charge of Dr George H. Houghton (1820-1897) as the church attended 
by many actors. It has a memorial window to Edwin Booth by 
John La Farge. Of Presbyterian churches the First (organized in 
1719) long occupied a brick church on Wall Street, near the old City 
Hall, and since 1845 has been on Fifth Avenue between nth and 
I2th Streets; and the Madison Square Church was organized in 
1853, and after 1907 occupied one of the most striking ecclesiastical 
buildings in the city, in a quasi-Byzantine style, with a golden dome 
and a facade of six pale green granite Corinthian columns. The First 
Baptist Church (organized 1762; present building on Broadway and 
79th Street) is the oldest and the Fifth Avenue Baptist Church (1841 ) 
is the richest society of that denomination in the city; the Memorial 
Church (1838) is a memorial to Adoniram Judson. The first Congre- 
gational Church was built in 1809, but it was soon sold and the 
congregation disbanded; the Broadway Tabernacle on Broadway, 
near Worth Street, was a famous church in 1840-1857; the present 
church is at Broadway and 56th Street. St Peter's (Roman Catholic ; 
1785) is the oldest Catholic organization in the city; St Patrick's 
(1815) was formerly the cathedral church, and St Paul the Apostle 
(Paulist; 1859; rebuilt 1876-1885, with decorations by John La 
Farge) was established by Isaac Hecker. There are many Jewish 
synagogues and temples. 

Hotels. The principal hotels, clubs and theatres of New York 
City have steadily been making their way up-town. Both hotels and 
clubs had their origin in the taverns of the i?th and i8th centuries, 
such as Fraunces's Tavern, on the corner of Pearl and Broad Streets, 



built in 1719, used as a residence of the De Lancey family, sold in 
1762 to Samuel Fraunces (Washington's steward after 1789), who 
opened it as the Queen's Head or Queen Charlotte, used for a time 
(1768) as the meeting-place of the Chamber of Commerce, and the 
scene, in its assembly room, of Washington's farewell to his officers 
in 1783; it was restored in 1907 by the New York State Society of 
The Sons of the Revolution, which owns the building. There are 
now few first-class hotels in the down-town district, the Astor House 
being the principal exception to the rule that the hotel district is 
bounded by 23rd and 59th Streets, and by Fourth and Seventh 
Avenues. With the rapid increase in the value of New York City 
real estate many apartment-hotels have been built, especially on the 
upper west side. The most widely-known restaurants are Delmonico's 
and Sherry's, both at Fifth Avenue and 44th Street. 

Clubs. The clubs of New York are even more important to the 
social life than those of London, and most of them are splendidly 
housed and appointed. The oldest of the social clubs is the Union 
Club, organized in 1836. The Union League Club (organized 1863, 
incorporated 1865) was formed by members of the U.S. Sanitary 
Commission, and is the club of the leaders of the Republican party in 
the city. The Democratic organizations corresponding to it are the 
Manhattan Club (organized 1865, reorganized in 1877), and the 
Democratic Club, more closely allied with the local organization of 
Tammany Hall. The Metropolitan Club was formed in 1891 by 
members of the Union Club, with which the Calumet Club (1879) 
also is closely connected. The Knickerbocker Club was founded in 
1871 by descendants of early settlers; and the St Nicholas Club by 
descendants of residents of the city or state before 1785. The 
University Club (1865, for college graduates only) has one of the 
handsomest club-houses in the world. Among the special clubs 
chiefly for writers, artists, actors and musicians, are the Century 
Association (1847, membership originally limited to 100, devoted 
to the advancement of art and literature); the Lotos Club (1870, 
composed of journalists, artists, musicians, actors and " amateurs " 
of literature, science and fine arts); the Salmagundi Club (1871, 
artists); the Lambs' Club (1874, "for the social intercourse of 
members of the dramatic and musical professions with men of the 
world"); the Players' (1887, actors and authors, artists and 
musicians), whose building was the gift of Edwin Booth, its founder 
and first president; the Grolier Club (1884, bibliophiles) ; the Cosmos 
Club (1885, members must have read von Humboldt's Cosmos); 
and the New York Press Club (1872, journalists). The Sorosis 
(1868) is a women's club, largely professional. Other clubs are the 
New York Bar Association (1870), the Engineers' Club (1888), the 
New York Athletic Club (1868), the Racquet and Tennis Club, the 
New York Yacht Club (1844, incorporated 1865, the custodian of 
the " America's " cup) : and the Riding Club (1883) ; the Freundschaft 
Society (1879) and the Deutscher Verein (1874) f r Germans; the 
Army and Navy Club (1889); several Hebrew clubs, notably the 
Harmonic and the Progress (1864); the Catholic Club of New York, 
and the clubs of Harvard (1865), Yale, the University of Pennsylvania, 
Cornell University and Princeton. 

Theatres, &c. The first dramatic performances 1 in New York City 
were given in September and December 1732 by a company from 
London which played at Pearl Street and Maiden Lane; the first 
playhouse was opened on the 5th of March 1 750, but in 1 758 became a 
German Reformed Church ; and the second was opened with Rowe's 
Jane Shore on the 28th of December 1758, but remained a theatre 
only a little more than six years. What has been called the first 
New York theatre, opened on the 7th of December 1767 in John 
Street near Broadway, was the Royal Theatre during the British 
occupation in the War of Independence, and was destroyed in 1798. 
In that year was built on Park Row the Park Theatre (burnt 1820; 
rebuilt 1821; burnt 1848) in which George Frederick Cooke (1810), 
James W. Wallack (1818) and Junius Brutus Booth (1821) made 
their American debuts, in which Edmund Kean, Charles Kean, 
Fanny Kemble and Edwin Forrest played, and in which // Barbiere 
di Siviglia, the first Italian opera given in the United States, was 
rendered in 1825, and the first ballet was danced by Fanny Ellsler in 
1840, Rivals of the Park Theatre were: the Chatham Garden and 
Theatre in 1823-1831, and later the Bowery Theatre (opened in 
1826; burnt in 1828, 1836, 1838 and 1845; named the Thalia in 
1879, when it became a German theatre; and since 1892 Yiddish). 
Among famous theatres of the iQth century the following maybe 
mentioned: Niblo's Garden (built in 1829; burned in 1846; re- 
built in 1849; destroyed in 1895) was long owned by A. T. Stewart, 
and after 1866 was the scene of many spectacular shows. Palme's 
Opera House (1844-1857) was the home first of Italian opera and 
after 1848, under the management of William E. Burton (1802-1860), 
of comedy. In Mechanics' Hall (1847-1868) E. P. Christy's minstrels, 
George Christy's minstrels and the Bryant Brothers appeared. 
The Astor Place Opera House (on the present site of the Mercantile 
Library; 1847-1854) is best known because of the riot at Macready's 
appearance on the igth of May 1849, in which many were killed by 
the police and militia. Tripler Hall (1850-1867) was built for Jenny 
Lind's ddbut but not completed in time. Here Rache! played in 



1 See T. Allston Brown, A History of the New York Stage (3 vols., 
New York, 1903). 



614 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



1855, and Patti made .her debut in 1859. The hall was managed in 
1855 by Laura Keene and in 1856-1858 by William E. Burton, and 
in it in 1864 the three Booths played Julius Caesar, and Edwin Booth 
played Hamlet for one hundred nights. It was burned in March 
1867. In Booth's Theatre (1869-1882; managed and afterwards 
leased by Edwin Booth), Sarah Bernhardt made her American 
debut (November 1880); and in the Park Theatre (Broadway and 
2ist Street; 1875-1882) Stuart Robson and William H. Crane first 
played together. Light opera was first introduced in 1864, opera 
bouffe in 1867, and Gilbert and Sullivan light opera in 1879; and 
The Pirates of Penzance was produced in New York before it was seen 
in London. Most of the older theatres still in existence have become 
houses of vaudeville, melodrama or moving pictures, as, for example, 
the Academy of Music (i4th Street and Irving Place; opened in 
1854), until about 1883 the home of the best opera, in which Christine 
NiTsson, Parepa-Rosa, Salvini and Emma Nevada made their 
American debuts. The Broadway (1888) was the scene of Edwin 
Booth's last performance, as Hamlet, in March 1891. In connexion 
with the Empire Theatre (1893) is the Empire Dramatic School. 
The two largest places of a musement are the Madison Square Garden 
(opened in 1890) and the Hippodrome (Sixth Avenue and 43rd- 
*4th Streets). The principal concert halls are Carnegie Music Halt 
(1891; built by Andrew Carnegie for the Symphony and Oratorio 
Societies) and Mendelssohn Hall. The Metropolitan Opera House 
(1882; burnt 1892; immediately rebuilt) gave in 1884 the first 
season of German opera in America, under the direction of Leopold 
Damrosch. The Manhattan Opera House (built in 1903 by Oscar 
Hammerstein as the Drury Lane) was opened as an opera-house in 
December 1906. In 1910 grand opera ceased to be given except in the 
Metropolitan. Grand opera in New York has always been dependent 
for financial success on season subscriptions, and (like the great 
museums and the zoological and botanical gardens) has been sup- 
ported by millionaires. The New Theatre (1909) is practically an 
endowed house. 

Music. Musical societies were formed in the 1 8th century, an 
Apollo Society as early as 1 750, a St Cecilia Society, which lasted less 
than ten years, in 1791, and the Euterpean Society, which lived a 
half century, in 1799. A New York Choral Society was established 
in 1823, a Sacred Music Society in the same year and a Philharmonic 
Society in 1824, succeeded in 1828 by the Musical Fund Society. 
The present Philharmonic Society, composed of professional players, 
was organized in 1842 by a New York violinist, Uriah C. Hill (d. 
'875). In 1847 was formed the Deutscher Liederkranz, which has 
given much classical German music; a secession from the Lieder- 
kranz in 1854 formed the Arion Society, which has been more modern 
than the Liederkranz, furnished in 1859 the choruses for Tannhauser, 
the first Wagner opera performed in America, and brought from 
Breslau in 1871 Leopold Damrosch (1832-1885) as its conductor. 
He founded the Oratorio Society in 1873 anc ' tne Symphony Society 
in 1877, and was succeeded as conductor of each of these societies 
by his son Walter (b. 1862). Musical instruction in the public schools 
has been under the supervision of Frank Damrosch (b. 1859), 
another son of Leopold, who formed in 1892 the People's Singing 
Classes, picked voices from which form the People's Choral Union. 

Art. Many private collections have been given or lent to the 
public galleries of the city, in which are held from time to time 
excellent loan collections. The largest public art gallery is the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art, for which a committee, including art 
patrons and members of the National Academy of Design,' drew up 
a plan in 1869, and which was chartered in April 1870. General 
Luigi Palma di Cesnola (q.v.) became its director in 1 879 and was suc- 
ceeded (1905-1910) by Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, director of the South 
Kensington Museum, and in 1910 by Edward Robinson (b. 1858). 
In April 1871 the legislature appropriated $500,000 for a building for 
the Museum in Central Park: in 1878 the trustees took possession of 
the building in a tract of l8J acres in Central Park on Fifth Avenue 
between 8oth and 8sth Streets; and in March 1880 this building was 
opened. Additions were made to the south (1888) and the north 
(1894). In 1902 the central part of the E. front of a new building 
was opened, and under an appropriation of $1,250,000 in 1904 the 
building was again enlarged in 1908. Among the benefactors of the 
Museum have been : its presidents, John Taylor Johnston (1820-1893), 
Henry G. Marquand (q.v.), who gave it his collection (old masters 
and English school), and J. Pierpont Morgan, and Miss Catharine 
Lorillard Wolfe, who gave the Museum $200,000 and her collection of 
paintings, Jacob S. Rogers (1823-1901) who left the Museum about 
$5,000,000, Frederick T. Hewitt, who gave more than $1,600,000, 
and John S. Kennedy (1830-1909), who left it $2,500,000. Besides 
paintings and statuary the Museum has collections of glass, Egyptian 
antiques, Babylonian and Assyrian seals and cylinders, tapestries, 
ancient gems, porcehin and pottery, armour, musical instruments, 
laces and architectural casts. The New York Historical Society since 
1 858 has had the collection of the New York Gallery of the Fine Arts ; 
in its art gallery are several examples of Van Dyck and Velazquez, 
the best collection in the United States (except the Jarves collection 
at Yale) of the primitives and the early Renaissance of Italy and the 
Low Countries, and a good American collection, rich in portraits and 
in the work of Thomas Cole. There is a small collection of paintings 
with some statuary in the Lenox Library and there are many private 
collections of note. The National Academy of Design (organized in 



1826; incorporated in 1828) has an art library, and students' classes. 
The Society of American Artists (1877) was a secession from the 
.Academy which it rejoined in 1906. This Society with the Art Students' 
League (1875), and the Architectural League of New York (1881) 
formed in 1889 the American Fine Arts Society. In its building on 
W. 57th Street there are good galleries, it is the headquarters of the 
American Water Color Society (1866), the New York Water Color 
Club, the National ScWpture Society (1893). the National Society of 
Mural Painters and the New York Chapter of the American Institute 
of Architects; and the exhibitions of the National Academy of Design 
and of the Society of American Artists are held here. The National 
Arts Cluband the Municipal Art Society (i8o,3)have club houses in Gra- 
mercy Park. The Decorative Art Association (1878) has classes and 
sales-rooms for women artists. There are art classes at Cooper Union 
(g.v.). Columbia University has a School of Architecture (1881). 

Municipal Art, Monuments, Statuary, &fc. The city charter of 
1897 established an art commission consisting of the mayor, the 
president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the president of the 
New York Public Library, the president of the Brooklyn Institute 
of Arts and Sciences, one painter, one sculptor, one architect and 
three lay members, the last six to be appointed by the mayor from a 
list presented by the Fine Arts Federation of New York. Without 
the approval ot this commission no work of art can become the 
property of the city either by purchase or by gift. Whenever re- 
quested by the mayor and board of aldermen it must act in a similar 
capacity with respect to the design of any municipal building, bridge 
or other structure, and no municipal structure that is to cost more 
than one million dollars can be erected until it has approved the 
design. The City Hall contains a valuable collection of portraits. 
In front of the Custom House are groups symbolical of the continents 
by D. C. French. The Hall of Records has historic and allegorical 
statues by Philip Martiny, H. K. Bush-Brown and Albert Weinert. 
In the Criminal Courts Building are mural decorations by Edward 
Simmons. The statuary of the Appellate Court House is by T. S. 
Clarke, K. F. T. Bitter, M. M. Schwartzott, D. C. French, F. W. 
Ruckstuhl, C. H. Niehaus and others; and it has excellent mural 
paintings by E. H. Blashfield, Kenyon Cox, C. Y. Turner, H. S. 
Mowbray and others. Of the city's great monuments the greatest 
is the tomb (1897; designed by John H. Duncan) of General U. S. 
Grant (q.v.) ; this mausoleum is in Riverside Park, commanding the 
North river, at I22nd Street. In the same park at ox>th Street is the 
Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (1900; C. W. Stoughton, A. A. 
Stoughton and P. E. Dubpy) , a memorial to those who fought in the 
Union army during the Civil War; it has marble and granite stair- 
ways leading up to a pedestal on which are twelve fluted Corinthian 
pillars arranged in a circle and covered with a white marble canopy. 
On Bedloe's Island in the harbour is the colossal bronze " Liberty 
Enlightening the World " (F. Bartholdi; dedicated 1 886 ; presented 
to the people of the United States by the people of France), which is 
151 ft. 5 in. from its base to the top of the torch held in the uplifted 
hand of the female figure'. On the N. side of Washington Square at 
the foot of Fifth Avenue is the granite Washington Arch (1889; by 
Stanford White) commemorating the hundredth anniversary of the 
inauguration in New York City of George Washington as first 
president of the United States. Among other public statues and 
monuments are: Augustus St Gaudens's W. T. Sherman (1903), an 
equestrian statue in gilt bronze on a polished granite pedestal in 
Fifth Avenue at the S.E. entrance to Central Park, his D. G. Farragut 
(1880; with a granite exedra for pedestal, designed by Stanford 
White) in Madison Square, and his Peter Cooper (1894), a seated 
figure on a marble pedestal and beneath a marble canopy (designed 
by Stanford White) immediately below Cooper Union on the Bowery ; 
F. W. MacMonnies's Nathan Hale (1893) in City Hall Park; 
J. Q. A. Ward's William Shakespeare (1870), Seventh Regiment 
Memorial (1873), " Indian Hunter " (1868), and " Pilgrim " (1885) 
in Central Park, his George Washington (1882) on the steps of the 
sub-treasury, his Greeley in front of the Tribune building, and his 
William Earl Dodge (1885) at Broadway and 34th Street; E. 
Plassmann's Benjamin Franklin (1872) in Printing House Square; 
Alexander Doyle's Horace <~ 
Bitter's Franz Sigel (1907) 
French's Memorial to R. M. Hunt (1900), 
granite entablature at Fifth Avenue and 7Oth Street ; and a Columbus 
Memorial (1894; by Gaetano Russo; erected by the Italian residents), 
a tall shaft with a statue of Columbus, at 59th Street and Seventh 
Avenue. There are many other statues in the city, especially in 
Brooklyn (q.v.) and in Central Park. In Central Park on a knoll S.W. 
of the Metropolitan Museum stands the Egyptian obelisk, of rose-red 
Syene granite, the companion of that on the Thames embankment, 
London, and like it popularly called " Cleopatra's Needle," but 
actually erected by Thothmes III.; it was presented to the city by 
Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, in 1877, was brought to New York 
at the expense of W. H. Vanderbilt in 1880, and was erected in the 
park in 1881. 

Scientific Collections and Learned Societies. The New York 
Aquarium in Battery Park has excellent exhibits of marine life; 
since 1902 it has been under the direction of the New York Zoological 
Society (organized 1895), a private corporation which has relations 
with the Park Department and the city like those of the corporations 
in control of the Botanical Gardens, the Natural History Museum 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



615 



AI 

i 

Hi 



and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Its Zoological Park (opened 
1899) forms the southern part of Bronx Park, in which the animals 
(5528 individuals, 1146 species 246 mammals, 644 birds and 256 
reptiles in 1910) are almost perfectly housed in large houses, flying 
cages, pools, dens and ranges. The Botanical Gardens (incorporated 
in 1891 and 1894), occupying the N. part of Bronx Park, contains 
two large conservatories (the largest in America), the largest botanical 
museum in the world (1900), with lecture hall and museum of fossil 
botany in the basement, a collection of economic plants on the 
main floor, and a library, herbarium, laboratories, type exhibits of 
vegetation on the upper floors, and a natural hemlock grove and 
bog garden, pinetum, herbaceous grounds, flower garden, fruticetum 
and deciduous arboretum. The American Museum of Natural History 
was incorporated in 1869, and is governed by a board of trustees. On 
the ground floor of its building (77th-8ist Streets; Eighth-Ninth 
Avenues) are a lecture hall, meteorites, the Jesup collections ol the 
woods of North America and of building stones, and anthropological 
and ethnological collections, particularly rich in specimens from the 
North Pacific region, collected by an expedition sent out by Morris K. 
"esup (?.!>.). On the main floor are the mammals, insects and butter- 
lies ; on the second floor the palaeontological collections, the Cope col- 
lection of fossils and (presented by J. P. Morgan)the Bement collection 
of minerals and the Tiffany collection of gems ; and on the top floor are 
a collection of shells and the library, including that of the New York 
Academy of Sciences, which was founded in 1817 and incorporated 
in 1818 as the Lyceum of Natural History, received its present name 
in 1876, and publishes Annals (1824 sqq.) and Transactions (1881 
sqq.). Other learned societies are: the New York Historical Society 
(founded in 1804 and incorporated in 1809), which has a library rich 
in Americana, the Lenox collection of Assyrian marbles, and the 
Abbott collection of Egyptian antiquities; the American Geo- 
graphical Society (founded in 1 852 ; incorporated in 1854), which 
issues a Bulletin (1859 sqq.); the American Numismatic Society 
(1858), with an excellent numismatic library and collection; the 
American Society of Civil Engineers (1852; with a club house and 
library); the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1880), 
which occupies with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871) a building 
given by Andrew Carnegie; and the New York Academy of 
Medicine (1847), with a technical library. 

Literature. In literature 1 New York's position in America is 
largely due to the city's being the home of the principal publishing 
houses and, as the American metropolis, the home of many authors. 
Charles Brockden Brown, the first American professional " man-of- 
letters," although a Philadelphian by birth, was connected with 
New York City throughout his literary career; after him came the 
brilliant Knickerbocker school, including Irving, Cooper, Bryant, 
James Rodman Drake, Fitz Greene Halleck, Charles Fenno Hoff- 
man (who in 1833 established the Knickerbocker Magazine), N. P. 
Willis, Edgar Allan Poe, J. K. Paulding, George P. Morris and Gulian 
C. Verplanck. In this early period New York literature centred 
largely about the Knickerbocker and the Mirror; and in the later 
period the monthlies Harper's (1850), the Century (founded in 1870 
as Scribner's; present name i88i),and Scribner's (1887) were great 
literary influences under the editorship of such men as George 
William Curtis, Josiah Gilbert Holland, William Dean Howells, 
Henry Mills Alden (b. 1836) and Richard Watson Gilder. Richard 
Henry Stoddard, Richard Grant White, Bayard Taylor, Edmund 
Clarence Stedman, H. C. Bunner and John Bigelow are other literary 
names connected with New York City and with its periodical press. 
The success of the older magazines has brought into the field lower- 
priced monthlies. The oldest religious weekly still published is the 
New York Observer (1823; Presbyterian); its great editpts were 
Samuel Irenaeus Prime from 1840 to 1885 and afterwards his son-in- 
law Charles Augustus Stoddard. Others are the Churchman (1844; 
Protestant Episcopal), the Christian Advocate (1826; Methodist 
Episcopal), the Examiner (1823; Baptist), the Christian Herald 
(1878) famous for its various charities under the control (1892-1910) 
of Dr Louis Klopsch (1852-1910), the Outlook (founded in 1870 as 
the Christian Union by Henry Ward Beecher and carried on as a 
household magazine by Lyman Abbott), and the Independent (1846) 
after 1870 edited by William Hayes Ward. 

The city's cosmopolitan character is suggested by the great 
number of its newspapers published in other languages than English : 
in 1905 of all the periodical publications in New York City almost 
one-seventh (127 out of 893) were printed in languages other than 
English, 20 languages or dialects being represented. German, Yiddish 
and Italian newspapers have large circulations, and there are 
Bohemian, Greek, French, Croatian, Hungarian and Slavonic dailies. 
To a degree the New York press is metropolitan, also; but the 
American press is not dominated by the newspapers of New York 
as the English press is by that of London (see NEWSPAPERS: United 
States). 

Education? The Dutch West India Company was bound by its 
charter to provide schoolmasters. Its first schoolmaster emigrated 

1 See Charles Hemstreet, Literary New York, Its Landmarks and 
Associations (New York, 1903). 

2 See A. Emerson Palmer, The New York Public School (New York, 
1905). 



in 1633 and his school still exists in the Collegiate School, the pro- 
perty of the Collegiate (Dutch) Reformed Church. Down to the 
middle of the I7th century the support and control of the schools 
remained with the Dutch Church. Later the desire of the English to 
hasten the substitution of the English for the Dutch language in the 
colony led to an unsuccessful attempt by the colonial government to 
reserve to itself the appointment of the schoolmasters. An English 
public school was established in 1705 under an Act of 1702, and in 
1710 was first opened in connexion with the Anglican Church. It 
still exists as the Trinity School. In 1754 King's College, now 
Columbia University (<?..), was established; the Dutch Reformed 
Church made a vain effort to secure control of it, but it became 
Anglican in its sympathies and its teachers were mostly Loyalists. 
Before the War of Independence the English language had practic- 
ally carried the day, and taken possession of the schools and churches. 

In 1787 the Manumission Society established a free school for 
negroes, which was incorporated in 1794. A Quaker society (1798), 
the " Association of Female Friends for the Relief of the Poor," 
opened a school in 1801, which soon became a school for white girls 
only; until 1824 it shared in the school fund and it carried on an 
infant school only from 1824 to 1846. An association known in 
1805-1808 as the Society for Establishing a Free School in the City 
of New York (afterwards the "Free School Society," and after" 1826 
the " Public School Society ") opened its first school in May 1806; 
got an appropriation from the state legislature in 1807; in 1819 
brought from England a Lancasterian teacher for the sake of 
economy the society's schools had always been conducted under the 
Lancasterian system with student " monitors" or assistant teachers; 
until 1826 was largely under the control of the Friends, giving religious 
instruction; and was supported in part by voluntary contributions, 
in part by subscriptions from those who desired to share in its 
management, and in a small degree after 1815 by a contribution 
from the school fund of the state. For fifty years it did virtually all 
that was done for popular education in New York City, and for 
nearly thirty years caused the exemption of the city from the opera- 
tion of the common-school system of the state; and about 600,000 
children passed through its schools. 

The Roman Catholic parochial schools opposed the Protestant 
character of the text-books used in these public schools, and in 1840, 
followed by Hebrew and Presbyterian schools, attempted in vain to 
secure a part of the common-school fund. In 1842, as a result of this 
controversy, the city was brought under the general state system, 
but the Public School Society retained control of its own schools. 
The Board of Education opened its first schools in 1843. The right 
of the Public School Society to put up new buildings was definitely 
withdrawn in 1848; and in 1853 the Society was voluntarily dis- 
solved, and its seventeen schools and property (valued at $454,422) 
were handed over to the city authorities; from its trustees fifteen 
commissioners were appointed to hold office through 1854, and in 
each ward where there had been a school of the Society three trustees 
were chosen. After 1856 the control of the schools was entirely in the 
hands of the Board of Education. A compulsory education law came 
into effect in 1875. Since 1874 the Board hascontrolled a Nautical 
School, a training ship being lent to the city by the Federal Navy 
Department. The separate schools for negroes were abolished in 
1884; free lecture courses were established in 1888; in 1893 seven 
kindergarten classes were established, and after 1896 a supervisor of 
kindergartens was appointed by the Board; and in 1894 a teachers' 
retirement fund was established, the first in any American city. 

In Brooklyn also the early Dutch schools were under the clergy. 
In 1815 the schools first received a part of the state common-school 
fund. There were separate district schools until 1843 when a Board 
of Education was organized. 

By the consolidation of 1898 the Boroughs of Manhattan and the 
Bronx became a unit for school purposes, the former city Board of 
Education becoming the School Board for these two boroughs; 
the former Brooklyn Board remained in control in that borough; 
and there was a Central Board of Education for the entire city 
consisting of eleven delegates from the Manhattan and Bronx Board, 
six delegates from the Brooklyn Board, and one each (the president) 
from the Richmond Board and the Queens Board. The revised 
charter of 1001 : abolished the borough school boards and established a 
single board with 46 members (22 from Manhattan, 14 from Brooklyn, 
4 from the Bronx, 4 from Queens and 2 from Richmond), and 46 local 
school boards (distributed as above) of seven members each, who 
took the place of the former inspectors in Manhattan and the Bronx. 
In the City Board there is an executive committee of 15 members. 
The borough superintendents were done away with in 1901 ; the 
powers of the city superintendent were increased, and a board of 
superintendents (the city superintendent and eight associate super- 
intendents) was created. A board of examiners, nominated by the 
city superintendent and appointed by the Board of Education, 
supervises examinations taken by candidates for teaching positions, 
appointments to which are governed by rigid civil service rules. 
The development of public high schools has been rapid since the 
consolidation. In 1909-1910 trade schools and schools for the 
anaemic were established. There is an excellent system of evening 
and vacation schools. 

A Free Academy founded in 1848 for advanced pupils who had 
left the common schools was empowered to grant degrees in 1854, 



6i6 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



and in 1866 became the College of the City of New York, with the 
Board of Education as its Board of Trustees. In 1900 a separate 
Board of Trustees (nine members appointed by the mayor) was 
created. Before 1882 no one was eligible for entrance unless he had 
attended the city's public schools for one year. In 1907 the College 
removed to new buildings on St Nicholas Heights between I38th 
and I40th Streets, the old buildings at Lexington Avenue and 23rd 
Street being used for some of the lower classes of the seven years' 
course. The retention of the secondary school in connexion with 
college, although there are now well-equipped public high schools, is 
one of the anomalies of the New York educational system. In 1871 a 
Normal School for Girls, since 1910 the Woman's College of the City 
of New York, was established as a part of the public system. Since 
1888 public lectures for adults have been given under the auspices of 
the Board of Education, usually in school-houses; and in 1899 the 
Board opened evening recreation centres in school-houses, in which 
literary, debating and athletic clubs meet. For the charitable schools 
see Charities. 

The. oldest institution of higher education is Columbia University 
(q.v.). New York University was chartered in 1831 as the University 
of the City of New York, and in 1896 received its present name. 
The University Council is the corporation ; it consists of 32 members, 
eight going out of office annually. The University Senate has 
immediate control; it is composed of the chancellor, 1 two professors 
of the University College, and the dean and a professor from each 
of the following schools law, medicine, pedagogy, graduate and 
applied science. The work of the collegiate department was begun 
in 1832; a university building at Washington Square was erected 
in 1832-1835; a law school, on a plan submitted by B. F. Butler of 
New York, was established in 1835, a medical school in 1841, the 
School of Applied Science in 1862, a graduate school in 1886, a school 
of pedagogy in 1890, a veterinary college (formed by the union of two 
previously existing schools) in 1899, and a School of Commerce, 
Accounts and Finance in 1900. In 1894 the College of Arts and 
Pure Science and the School of Applied Science were removed 
to a commanding and beautiful site on Washington Heights (about 
E. i8ist Street) above the Harlem river, the schools of law and 
pedagogy remaining at Washington Square where a Collegiate 
Division was opened in 1903; in 1895 the Metropolis Law School 
was consolidated with the University; in 1898 the Bellevue Hospital 
Medical College became a part of the University school of medicine. 
On the Washington Heights Campus the principal buildings are the 
library (1900), around a part of which extends an open colonnade, 
500 ft. long, which is known as the Hall of Fame for Great Americans, 
and in which the names of great Americans (chosen at intervals by 
the ballots of loo prominent educators, historians, &c.) are inscribed 
on memorial tablets; and Gould Hall, a dormitory, which like the 
library and the Hall of Fame was the gift of Miss Helen Miller Gould. 
In 1909-1910 the University library contained about 65,000 vols. 
and the law library 22,000, and there were 254 instructors and 4036 
students (966 in the School of Commerce and 739 in the Law School). 

For Fordham University see FORDHAM. Other Roman Catholic 
colleges are: the College of St Francis Xavier (Society of Jesus; 
opened 1847; chartered 1861); and Manhattan College (Brothers 
of the Christian Schools ; opened 1853; chartered 1863) at Broadway 
and I3lst Street, in the district formerly known as Manhattanville. 

Among the technical and professional schools, excluding those of 
Columbia University and New York University, are: the General 
Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church (opened 
1819; in 1820-1822 in New Haven; then re-established in New 
York City), beautifully situated in "Chelsea Village " on a block 
(Ninth-Tenth Avenues and 2Oth-2lst Streets) given for the purpose 
by Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863)* in buildings largely the gift 
of Eugene Augustus Hoffman (1829-1902), dean of the Seminary in 
18791902, and of his family, who put it on a sound financial basis; 
the Union Theological Seminary (1836; Presbyterian), which is 
representative of the most liberal tendencies in American Presby- 
terianism (q.v.), especially in regard to text-criticism; the Jewish 
Theological Seminary of America (1886), chiefly supported by the 
synagogues of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore; the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York (1892; see 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY); the Cornell University Medical College 
(1897; see CORNELL UNIVERSITY); the Eclectic Medical College 
(1865); the New York Post-Graduate Medical School and Hospital 
(1882) ; the New York Polyclinic Medical School and Hospital (1882) ; 
the New York Medical College and Hospital for Women (1863) ; the 



The chancellors have been: in 1831-1839 James H. Mathews 
(d. 1870); in 1839-1850, Theodore Frelinghuysen (d. 1862); in 
1852-1870, Isaac Ferris (1798-1873); in 1870-1880, Howard 
Crosby; in 1881-1891, John Hall; and in 1891-1910, Henry 
Mitchell MacCracken (b. 1840). Dr Ferris was a minister of the 
(Dutch) Reformed Church and the three chancellors since his time have 
been Presbyterian clergymen ; but the University is not sectarian. 

8 C. C. Moore (1779-1863), son of Benjamin Moore (1748-1816), 
who was Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York and president of 
Columbia College in 1801-1811, was professor of Biblical learning in 
the Seminary in 1821-1850, compilecf a Hebrew and English Lexicon 
(1809) and wrote some poetry including the popular juvenile verses 
beginning " Twas the night before Christmas. 



New York College of Dentistry (1865); and the College of Dental 
and Oral Surgery of New York (1892). Among the normal schools 
are: the Teachers' College of Columbia University (q.v.) ; the 
School of Pedagogy and the kindergarten training school of New York 
University; the kindergarten training school of Pratt Institute in 
Brooklyn (q.v.); the Kraus Seminary for Kindergarteners; and the 
Kindergarten Normal Department of the Ethical Culture School 
under the Ethical Culture Society. Of the many private secondary 
schools in New York the oldest are the Collegiate School and Trinity 
School (see above). The Columbia Grammar School (1764) was 
originally a preparatory department of Columbia College. 



Union 

which holds its meetings and lectures in the Cooper Union Building. 
Its most active promoter and long its managing director was Charles 
Sprague Smith (1853-1910), who was professor of modern languages 
at Columbia University in 1880-1891, and in 1896 organized the 
Comparative Literature Society; he was especially assisted by 
Richard Heber Newton (b. 1840), a Protestant Episcopal clergyman 
of broad and radical religious and social views, and by Samuel 
Gompers. The aim was to supply a " continuous and ordered 
education in social science, history, literature and such other subjects 
as time and demand shall determine " and " to afford opportunities 
for the interchange of thought upon topics of general interest . . . 
to assist in the solution of present problems." The Institute is 
primarily a free evening school of social science and a forum for the 
discussion of questions of. the day. There are, besides, Sunday 
evening ethical services, " a people's church," which has attracted 
much attention, and several Institute Clubs " of a social nature, 
some of them for children. The People's Institute organized a 
censorship of " moving pictures " to which most American manu- 
facturers of these films voluntarily submit. Cheap concerts are 
given in Cooper Union by the People's Symphony Concert Associa- 
tion in conjunction with the People's Institute. 

For the Brooklyn Institute see BROOKLYN. The Young Men's 
and Young Women's Christian Associations have classes, especially 
for working people. 

Libraries. " The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and 
Tilden Foundations," was the result of the consolidation in May 
1895 of the Astor Library (founded by the bequest of $400,000 by 
John Jacob Astor; incorporated in 1849; opened in 1854; further 
endowed by William B. Astor, who gave it about $550,000 and by 
John Jacob Astor, the younger, who gave it about $800,000 and 
built the hall in Lafayette Street in which the library, for general 
reference, was housed until 1911), the Lenox Library (originally 
the private collection, particularly rich in incunabula, Americana, 
genealogy and music, of James Lenox (18001880), a bibliophile 
and art amateur, given by him to the city in 1870 and until 1911 
housed as a special reference library, in a building, designed by 
R. M. Hunt, on Fifth Avenue, between 7Oth and 7lst streets), and 
the Tilden Trust (to which Samuel J. Tilden left his private library 
and about $4,000,000 (most of his estate) for the establishment of a 
public library, but which, owing to a contest by the heirs, was unable 
to secure the entire bequest and received only about $2,000,000 
from one of the heirs). In 1902-1911 a new building was erected to 
house these collections. With the Public Library the New York 
Free Circulating Library (incorporated in 1880; re-incorporated in 
1884) was consolidated in 1901; and in the next two years several 
other free libraries, including one for the blind. In 1901 Andrew 
Carnegie gave more than $5,000,000 for about 65 branch libraries, 
the city to furnish sites for them and maintain them. The largest 
and best equipped of the college libraries is that of Columbia Uni- 
versity. The library of Cooper Union has a complete set of patent 
office reports and files of newspapers. The Mercantile Library ( 1 820 ; 
established by an association of merchants' clerks) is a subscription 
library at Astor Place; the New York Society Library 4 (on Uni- 
versity Place) is a subscription library, the oldest in the city, being 
the outgrowth of a reading room established in the City Hall in 1700 
by the earl of Bellomont; it was incorporated in 1754 as the City 
Library and in 1772 under its present name. The General Society 
of Mechanics and Tradesmen (founded in 1785) since 1820 has had a 
circulating library; which with the DeMilt (reference) and the 
Slade (architectural collections), contains about 99,000 volumes. 

Charities. The city has a commissioner and two deputy com- 
missioners of public charities, but this municipal department works 
largely through private organizations, the municipal appropriations 
to which exceed the amount actually expended through institutions 
controlled by the city.* Municipal institutions include: Bellevue 
Hospital (opened 1816), which in 1869 established the first hospital 
ambulance service in the world, near which there is an Emergency 
Hospital (1878) for maternity cases, and in connexion with which 

' See C. S. Smith, Working with the People (New York, 1904), and 
the Annual Reports of the Managing Director of the People's Institute. 

4 See A. B. Keep, History of the New York Society Library (New 
York, 1909). 

6 See H. R. Hurd (ed.) New York Charities Directory (i9th ed., 
1910), published annually by the Charity Organization Society; and 
W. H. Tolman and Charles Hemstreet, The Belter New York (1904), 
published by the American Institute of Social Service. 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



617 



are the Gouyerneur Reception Hospital (1885), the Harlem Re- 
ception Hospital and Dispensary (1887) ; and the Fordham Reception 
Hospital and Dispensary (1892); the City Hospital (1853) and the 
Metropolitan Hospita) (1875), both on Blackwell's Island; for 
contagious diseases Willard Parker Hospital (1866) and Riverside 
Hospital (1885; on North Brother Island in the East river); and 
for the sick, crippled and idiotic destitute children, the New York 
City Children's Hospitals and Schools (1837; on Randall's Island). 
The Manhattan State Hospital on Ward's Island (1871; now used 
for patients from New York and Richmond counties only) Central 
Islip State Hospital, on Long Island, in Suffolk county (for Queens 
county and outside of New York City, Suffolk county) and the Long 
Island State Hospital (for the county of Kings) are the state insane 
asylums for the population of New York City. 

The Charity Organization Society (organized and incorporated 
in 1882) investigates claims for charities and secures employment 
for applicants, has a bureau of information and a sociological 
library, has done much effective work through its Tenement House 
Committee and its Committee on Prevention of Tuberculosis, has a 
school of philanthropy begun as a summer school in 180.8 but with 
a two-year course since 1904, and publishes a weekly journal, the 
Survey. In the United Charities Building (1891-1893; in E. 22nd 
Street), a gift of John S. Kennedy, there is housed, besides the Charity 
Organization Society, the Children's Aid Society (1853), which was 
founded by Charles Loring Brace (i82fr-l89o), its first secretary, has 
established industrial schools and lodging houses (the earliest 1854, 
being a Newsboys' Lodging House in New Chambers Street) , vacation 
schools, kindergartens, evening classes, summer houses at Bath 
Beach (for crippled girls) and West Coney Island, and a farm school 
at Kensico, and finds homes for orphans and homeless children. In 
the same building are the New York City Mission and Tract Society 
(1822, incorporated in 1867; undenominational), the first American 
organization to introduce district nursing, whose work is all done 
below I4th street, and the Association for Improving the Condition 
of the Poor (1843; incorporated in 1848), which has a department of 
relief, does fresh-air work at West Coney Island, supports people's 
baths, and has founded the Hartley House (a memorial to Robert 
M. Hartley, who established the Association), a neighbourhood 
settlement. The Society of St Vincent de Paul in the City of New 
York (organized 1 835; chartered 1872) is the local Roman Catholic 
charitable organization. The United Hebrew Charities was formed 
in 1874 by the union of four Hebrew societies. The Russell Sage 
Foundation (1907) has headquarters in New York, but is not merely 
local in its work; it has a charity organization department, a child 
helping department, and a school hygiene department. " Insti- 
tutional work " by the churches is well developed. 

Trade and domestic schools include the Hebrew Technical Institute 
and the Hebrew Technical School for Girls; the New York Trade 
School; Grace Institute, endowed by W. R. Grace (twice Mayor of 
New York City) for the instruction of women in trades; the Man- 
hattan Trade School for Girls; the American Female Guardian 
Society and Home for the Friendless; the Baron de Hirsch Trade 
Schools, in connexion with which there are day and evening schools 
for the instruction of immigrants (Russian, Galician and Rumanian) 
in the English language, and a colony with an agricultural and 
industrial school at Woodbine, N.J. ; the Clara de Hirsch Home and 
Trade Training School for Working Girls; the New York Cooking 
School; and the Association of Practical Home Making Centres. 
The New York Diet Kitchen Association(i873) has established diet 
kitchens in connexion with many dispensaries. The City and 
Suburban Home Company (1896) provides good apartments at cheap 
rentals; the Society for Ethical Culture has promoted the same 
work; and the Mills Hotels, erected by D. O. Mills (1825-1910), are 
low-priced but self-supporting lodging houses. 

There are many orphanages and day nurseries and there are about 
thirty permanent homes for adults in the boroughs of Manhattan 
and the Bronx. The New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty 
to Children was incorporated in 1875, and the children's court 
movement in the city has been connected with this society; in its 
work and in that of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Animals Henry Bergh (1820-1888) was the American pioneer. The 
Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents (1824) maintains 
a House of Refuge on Randall s Island ; and the New York Catholic 
Protectory (1862), under the Brothers of the Christian Schools and 
the Sisters of Charity, is of a similar character. An important work 
has been done by the Society for the Suppression of Vice (1873), 
and by the Society for the Prevention of Crime, organized in 1877 
and re-organized in 1891 by its president Charles Henry Parkhurst 
(b. 1842), a Presbyterian clergyman. 

The New York Institution for the Blind was incorporated in 1831 
and originated the New York point system of tangible writing and 
printing for the blind; the Society for the Relief of the Destitute 
Blind (1869) and the New York Association for the Blind (1906) are 
noteworthy. The New York Institute for the Instruction of the Deaf 
and Dumb (1817), of which Harvey Prindle Peet (1794-1873) was 
principal in 1831-1867, is a free state school and the first oral school 
for the deaf in America ; the Institution for the Improved Instruction 
of Deaf Mutes (1867) is a free city school; St Joseph's Institute for 
the Improved Instruction of Deaf Mutes (Roman Catholic; 1869) 
has a school for boys and one for girls. 



Among special hospitals the foremost are: the NPW York Eye and 
Ear Infirmary (1820), the New York Ophthalmic Hospital (1852), 
the Manhattan Eye and Ear and Throat Hospital (1869), the New 
York Orthopaedic Dispensary and Hospital (1866), the New York 
Skin and Cancer Hospital (1882), the General Memorial Hospital 
for the Treatment of Cancer (1884), the New York Bacteriological 
Institute (1890; maintaining the New York Pasteur Institute), and 
the Neurological Institute (1909). Important research is undertaken 
by the richly endowed Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. 
The St John s Guild (1866, non-sectarian) maintains floating hospitals 
for tuberculosis patients and a sea-side hospital at New Dorp, 
Staten Island. There is a roof camp for tuberculous patients on the 
Vanderbilt Clinic (1886), a freedispensary, connected. with the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons. 

Many of the general hospitals have already been mentioned in the 
list of medical schools; others are: the New York Hospital (1771), 
St Luke's (1850), Mt. Sinai (1852), the Roosevelt (opened 1871), the 
Presbyterian (opened 1872; undenominational), the J. Hood Wright 
Memorial (1862; called the Manhattan Dispensary until 1895), the 
Hahnemann (1875), and the Flower (1890; homoeopathic; surgical). 

Population. New York is by far the largest city in the 
United States in population, the census of 1910 returning 
its numbers as 4,766,883, and in the whole world is second 
to London only. Seven-eighths of the present area was 
annexed in the decade 1800-1900; and in those years the 
population increased from 1,515,301 (for an area of which the 
population in i<joo was 2,050,600) to 3,437,202. In 1905 the 
population by the state census was 4,000,403; of the separate 
boroughs: Manhattan, 2,102,928 (in 1000, 1,850,093; in 1890, 
1,441,216); Bronx, 271,592 (in 1000, 200,507; in 1890,88,908); 
Brooklyn, 1,355,106 (in 1900, 1,166,582; in 1890, 838,547); 
Queens, 197,838 (in 1900, 152,999; in 1890, 87,050); Richmond, 
7 2 >939 ( m 1000, 67,021; in 1890, 51,693). In 1900 there was 
a slight preponderance of females (1,731,497 females; 1,705,705 
males); the ratio of native born to foreign born was about 
as 176 to loo (2,167,122 native born; 1,270,808 foreign born); 
less than 1-8% (60,666) were negroes; and less than 0-19% 
(6321) were Chinese. Of the native population seven-eighths 
(1,892,719 out of 2,167,122) were natives of New York state. 
Of the foreign-born population (1,270,080) in 1900, more than 
one-fourth (322,343) were Germans; more than one-fifth 
(275,102) were Irish, nearly one-eighth (i 55, 2oi)Jwere Russians, 
principally Jews; more than one-ninth (145,433) were Italians; 
and the next largest numbers were: 71,427 from Austria, 68,836 
from England, 31,516 from Hungary, 28,320 from Sweden, 
25,230 from Russian Poland, 1 19,836 from Scotland, 19,399 
English Canadians, 15,055 from Bohemia, 11,387 from Norway, 
10,499 from Rumania, 8371 from Switzerland and 5621 from 
Denmark. In i ooo more than two-thirds of the entire population 
was of foreign parentage, 2,643,957 being the number of all 
the persons of foreign parentage and 2,339,895 the number 
of persons having both parents foreign-born; of this latter 
number 658,912 were German, 595,267 were Irish, 257,875 were 
Russians, 214,799 were Italians and 103,497 were Austrians ^ 
these numbers as compared with the figures just given for the" 
foreign-born furnish a hint as to priority of the Irish and German 
immigration to that of the Russian Jews, who like the southern 
Europeans and the Slavs came to New York in comparatively 
few numbers more than a generation before 1900. There are in 
New York City more Germans than in any city of Germany, 
save Berlin, and more Irish than in Dublin. There are many 
well-defined foreign communities in the city, such as " Little 
Italy " about Mulberry Street, " Chinatown " on Mott, Pell 
and Doyers Streets, the Hebrew quarter on the Upper Bowery 
and east of it, a " German Colony " east of" Second Avenue 
below I4th Street, French quarters south of Washington Square 
about Bleecker Street and on the west side between 2oth 
and 34th Streets; a Russian quarter near East Broadway, a 
" Greek Colony " about Sixth Avenue in the 40*5, and negro 
quarters on Thompson Street and on the west side in the 50'$; 
and there are equally well-defined Armenian and Arab quarters. 
In 1900 35% of the total working population were employed 
in trade and transportation (in Boston 34%, in Chicago 32%, 
in Philadelphia 24%) and 37% in manufacturing and mechanical 

1 The immigrants from Russian Poland, from Austria Hungary, 
from Russia and Rumania are largely Jews, and it is estimated that 
one-fourth of the inhabitants of Manhattan are Jews. 



6i8 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



arts (in Philadelphia 41%; in Chicago 35%; in Boston 32%). 
In 1661 the population of Manhattan Island was about 1000. 
In 1700 it was probably about 5000, the Dutch and English 
being about equally divided, and there being a few French, 
Swedes and Jews. In 1732 the population was 8624. During 
the War of Independence the city lost heavily; but the recovery 
at the close of the war was rapid, and although the population 
probably fell during the war from 20,000 to 10,000, in 1790 it 
was 33,131, then first being greater than that of Boston. From 
60,515 in 1800 the population increased to 123,706 in 1820; 
to 312,710 in 1840; to 813,669 in 1860 and to 1,206,299 in 
1880. This rapid growth, the large part which immigration 
plays in the growth, the marked falling-off in the character 
of the immigrants, and the fact that it is usually the weaker and 
less enterprising immigrant who stays in New York while the 
more capable go West all these circumstances combine to 
make a serious social problem. The low scale of living of this 
poorer class operates with the peculiar physical character of the 
city, especially on the lower East Side, where so many of the 
more recent immigrants live, to make the question of housing 
difficult. In Manhattan and the Bronx 66-7 % of the population 
in 1890 and 72-6% in 1900 lived in dwellings in which the 
minimum number of dwellers was 21; for the whole city in 
1900 the percentage was 54-4, the corresponding percentage 
for Chicago in 1900 was 17-9. For the entire Borough of Man- 
hattan the average density was 149-0 inhabitants per acre; 
but in the Eighth Assembly District (98 acres; on the lower 
East Side, bounded S.E. by Henry Street, E. by Clinton Street, 
N. by Stanton Street, and W. by Chrystie Street), in which 
more than two-thirds of the population is foreign-born, the 
density in 1900 was 735-9 per acre, and in 1905 727-9 per acre. 
In twelve tenement blocks in Manhattan in 1905 the density 
was over 1000 per acre, the maximum being 1458 per acre in a 
block bounded by Cherry, Jefferson, Monroe and Rutgers Streets. 
A Citizens' Association with a " council of hygiene and public 
health " in 1865 employed sanitary experts to investigate the 
city's tenements. In 1879 a prize offered for the best plans for 
tenements was unfortunately awarded to the so-called " dumb 
bell " tenement, in which the court for air-space gives little air 
or light, and many of these tenements, which, however, were 
a great improvement on the older types, were built. In 1902 
the further building of " dumb bell " tenements was forbidden 
and a new Tenement House Commission was appointed. Model 
apartments have been built: in 1855 by the Workmen's Home 
Association, organized by the Association for Improving the 
Condition of the Poor; by the Improved Dwellings Company 
of Brooklyn and the Improved Dwellings Association of Man- 
hattan (1879); by the City and Suburban Homes Company 
(1896); and by some individuals. The city is comparatively 
healthy; for the five years 1901-1905 the average death rate 
was 18-99 P er thousand for the entire city, 20-96 for the Borough 
of the Bronx, 18-64 f r the Borough of Brooklyn, 10-49 for the 
Borough of Manhattan, 16-12 for the Borough of Queens and 
18-98 for the Borough of Richmond. 

Communications. The physical limitations of Manhattan Island 
and particularly the circumstance that the business area of the city 
is small and that the movement of passengers is almost entirely in 
one direction at any one time, have hindered the development of a 
simple and adequate system of local communications. Between 
Manhattan and Long Island there were in 1910 four bridges, three of 
them completed in the decade immediately before 1910, three of 
them to Brooklyn (g.v.) and one to Long Island City; the New York 
and Brooklyn Bridge (1872-1883), with a Manhattan terminus at 
Park Row, and the Williamsburg Bridge (1897-1903) from Clinton 
and Delancey Streets, Manhattan, to South 5th and 6th Streets, 
Brooklyn, are suspension bridges; for a technical description of them 
see BRIDGES, vol. iv. pp. 537-538. The Manhattan Bridge (1901-1909) 
is a wire cable suspension bridge situated between the two just 
mentioned; its Manhattan terminal is at Canal Street and the 
Bowery, and its Brooklyn terminal is at Nassau Street. It is the 
largest of all suspension bridges with a total roadway length of 
6855 ft. (Manhattan approach 2067 ft.; Brooklyn approach 1868 ft.; 
two land spans of 725 ft.; river span 1470 ft.) and a width of 122-5 
ft. It has a double deck, the lower for two surface car tracks and a 
wagon way, and the upper for footways and four elevated railway 
tracks. The Queensboro Bridge (1901-1909) is a cantilever from 
Second Avenue, between 59th and 6oth Streets, Manhattan, to Long 



Island City, with sustaining towers on Blackwell's Island. Its total 
length, including a plaza in Queens 1 152 ft. long, is 8601 ft. (Manhattan 
approach 1052 ft.; Queens approach 2672-5 ft.; west channel span 
1182 ft.; island span 630 ft.; east channel span 984 ft.) and its 
width is 89-5 ft. over all, the roadway being 53 ft. and the two side- 
walks each 1 6 ft. All of these bridges are crossed by electric cars, 
and on the bridges to Brooklyn there run surface cars and elevated 
trains. In 1909 an average of 4249 trolley cars and 3988 elevated 
cars crossed the Brooklyn Bridge every week day; for the Williams- 
burg Bridge the corresponding averages were 4473 trolley cars and 
918 elevated train cars. The Harlem river is crossed by about a 
dozen bridges, including High Bridge, which carries the city aque- 
duct. The ferries to Brooklyn are less important than in the days 
when there was only one bridge and no subway connexion between 
Manhattan and Brooklyn; the opening of the Pennsylvania-Long 
Island railway tube in 1910 in the same way made the ferry from 
34th Street, Manhattan, to Long Island City comparatively un- 
important; and the Pennsylvania and the Hudson river subways 
have to some degree taken the place of ferryboats on the North river 
for passenger traffic between Manhattan and railways in New 
Jersey. Between Manhattan and the various islands (to North 
Brother Island from E. l6th; to Ward's Island from E. Il6th; to 
Randall's Island from E. I25th and E. l2Oth) of the river and bay 
including Staten Island the only means of transportation is still by. 
ferryboats; the ferry line to Staten Island is owned and operated 
by the municipality. In Manhattan the first advance made on the 
horse car which was still used to some extent in 1910, especially on 
streets along the water front was the elevated railway; on great 
iron trestles of varying heights the first of these railways was built in 
1867-1872 on New Church Street.West Broadway and Ninth Avenue, 
from the Battery to 59th Street; in 1878 a line was built on Sixth 
Avenue, branching off on 53rd Street to Ninth Avenue, and on I loth 
Street to Eighth Avenue and running on Eighth Avenue to the 
Harlem river (i55th Street), a distance of iqf m.; soon afterwards 
the Second and Third Avenue lines were built from the Brooklyn 
Bridge to the Harlem river, and the line now extends to Fordham 
(igoth Street), a distance of 13 m. In 1902 the motive power of these 
elevated trains was changed from steam to electricity. In 1886 a 
cable car line was opened, the cars being operated by a clutch (or 
" grip ") seizing a moving endless cable in a slot beneath the road 
bed; but in 1898 the "underground trolley" system began to be 
substituted. Outside Manhattan the overhead trolley is prevalent. 
In 1900^1904 another era in " rapid transit " in New York was 
begun: in the latter year was opened the Broadway subway with 
electric trains from the City Hall, along Broadway (above 42nd Street) 
to Kingsbridge (23Oth Street) and by a branch line, turning to the E. 
from lO4th street and running, above lioth Street, on Lenox 
Avenue to the Harlem river and then through the Bronx to West 
Farms (iSoth Street) at the S.E. entrance to Bronx Park. In 1901- 
1906 the subway was continued to South Ferry and was carried 
under the East river to the junction of Atlantic and Flatbush 
Avenues in Brooklyn. The construction company received a fifty 
years' franchise for the operation of this subway. In 1908-1909 two 
more underground lines were opened connecting Manhattan with 
Hoboken (the terminus of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western) 
and Jersey City (the terminus of the Erie, the Pennsylvania and the 
Central of New Jersey railways) by tubes under the North river; one 
of these extends up Sixth Avenue to 33rd Street, nearthe new terminal 
of the Pennsylvania railway, from which by 1910 tubes had been 
carried immediately E. and under the East river to Long Island and 
immediately W. to the New Jersey side. The municipality in 1910 
contracted for the construction in Manhattan of lines on Broadway 
and Lexington Avenue and on Canal Street across town and for the 
continuation in Brooklyn of the subway to Coney Island and Fort 
Hamilton. 

The opening of the Erie Canal made the city the gateway for com- 
munication by water from the Atlantic Ocean to the interior of the 
continent, 1 and when the great railway lines were built westward it 
became the chief railway terminal on the Atlantic coast. Water 
communication up the Hudson river and through the canal is still of 
great importance. The New York Central & Hudson river and West 
Shore railways follow closely this water route to Buffalo. The Erie, 
the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania and the Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western railways reach Buffalo by routes across New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania and western New York. The New York, New Haven 
& Hartford railway affords communication with New England ; and 
the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio railways, with the middle 
western and south-eastern parts of the country. The Central Rail- 
road of New Jersey and the Long Island railway (belonging to the 
Pennsylvania) are more local. The New York Central & Hudson 
river and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways have a 
terminal in the borough of Manhattan, and the Pennsylvania has a 
terminal there also, since 1910, with tunnels to Long Island and New 



1 Between 1840 and 1858 the tonnage cleared at New York nearly 
quadrupled, the increase being from 408,768 to 1,460,998; at the 
close of the period of the predominance of the canal as a freight 
carrier, in the decade 1850-1860, New York City had, thanks to the 
Erie Canal and the canals of Ohio, a monopoly of the trade of the 
upper Mississippi basin. 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



619 



Jersey; but the other railways have their terminals on the New 
Jersey bank of the Hudson and are reached either by ferries or by 
subways under the river. The New York Central tracks are sunken 
from the Grand Central Station for about 50 blocks and then run on a 
trestle (like the " elevated " railways) for the rest of their course in 
Manhattan. Ten steamboat lines afford communication with the 
cities and towns on the Hudson. The Old Dominion, the Clyde and 
the Savannah are among the more important coastwise lines connect- 
ing the city with ports on the South Atlantic coast. The Metropolitan 
line connects it with Boston, and the Portland line with Portland ; 
and there are several lines to ports on Long Island Sound. Among 
great trans-Atlantic lines which serve the city are the Cunard and 
the White Star lines to English, French and Mediterranean ports; 
the North German Lloyd, and the Hamburg-American lines to 
English, French and German ports; the Compagnie Generale 
Transatlantique to French ports; and the Holland-American 
line to the Dutch port of Rotterdam; the docks of some of these 
lines are on the New Jersey side of the North river, in Hoboken. 
There are also lines to the West Indies, Central and South 
America. 

Commerce. The lack of railway lines direct to wharfs and piers in 
Manhattan is one of the commercial disadvantages of the city. 
The value of the imports received at the port of New York, which 
comprises New York Harbor and the Hudson river, increased from 
$518,796,561 in 1899 to $891,614,678 (or 60-4% of those of the entire 
country) in 1909; the value of the exports from $476,609,251 in 
1899 to $627,782,767 (or 36-3% of those of the entire country) in 
1909. The importations of works of art, furs, laces, diamonds, 
sugar, coffee, spices, cocoa, india-rubber, cigar wrappers, tin, cheese, 
hemp, hides of cattle and gloves of kid or other leather at New York 
are especially large as compared with the other ports of the country; 
and so are the exportations of chemicals and medicines, copper, 
machinery, illuminating oil and hardware. 

The city is the principal centre of the New World for the whole- 
sale grocery and dry-goods businesses. Here are the country's most 
important " exchanges," including the Stock Exchange (1792), the 
Produce Exchange (the New York Commercial Association in 1862- 
1868), the Cotton Exchange (1871) and the Consolidated Stock 
Exchange (1885); and here are the richest and most powerful 
banks and trust companies in the New World and the great New 
York Clearing House. The Chamber of Commerce of the city 
was first organized and was chartered in 1768, and was reorganized 
in 1784. 

Manufactures. Many of the manufacturing industries, notably 
the manufacture of clothing, are favoured by the abundance of 
immigrant labour. Others, such as the refining of sugar and molasses, 
derive an advantage from their position with respect to imported 
raw materials. Still others, e.g. the refining of petroleum, derive an 
advantage from their position with respect to the exportation of the 
finished products. The growth of manufactures was promoted by 
the rapid growth in commerce after the opening of the Erie Canal 
(1825) and by a great stream of immigration, and New York became 
the foremost manufacturing city in the United States about the 
middle of the igth century. The va'ue of its manufactured products 
increased from $1,084,850,236 in 1890 to $1,371,358,468 in 1900, 
and the total value of factory products 1 from $1,172,870,261 in 1900 
to $1,526,523,006 in 1905 (an increase of 30-2%). Clothing ranked 
first in value in 1905, and its value ($305,523,795) was greater than 
the total value of all factory products in any other city in the United 
States except Chicago and Philadelphia. Printing and publishing, 
with products valued at $116,877,59^, ranked second. In 1905 the 
highest degree of localization of any industry in the country was in 
lapidary work, of which 96-5 % of the entire output of the country was 
produced in New York City, more than 60 % of the total for the city 
being produced in Brooklyn. The boroughs of Manhattan and the 
Bronx produced in that year goods valued at $1,043,251,923, or a 
little more than two-thirds of that for the entire city; and in this 
part of the city is made more than 95 % of the clothing manufactured 
in all the city. The Borough of Brooklyn produced nearly three- 
fourths of the remainder. 

Water Supply. The water supply 2 of the colonial city was derived 
from wells and from the many fresh-water streams and ponds which 
have now almost without exception been filled in. A system, draw- 
ing water from Collect Pond, was installed in 1774-1776 by 
Christopher Colles (1738-1821), but this never was in actual opera- 
tion. In 1799 the Manhattan Company was incorporated ostensibly 
to supply the city with water, but under an omnibus clause in its 
charter it devoted itself to the banking business. In 1829 the city 
built a reservoir on I3th Street. In 1830 De Witt Clinton suggested 
the Croton river as a source of supply. Between 1837 and 1893 were 
constructed the first Croton Aqueduct, the Bronx river Conduit and 
the New Croton Aqueduct (see AQUEDUCT) .with maximum discharges 

1 The census of 1905 was confined to establishments under the 
factory system; the total for all manufactured products in 1900 
(the figure given in the 1900 census) is greater than the value of 
factory products only (the figure given for 1900 in the 1905 census, 
so that figures for 1900 and 1905 may be comparable). 

1 See Edward Wegmann, The Water Supply of the City of New 
York (New York, 1896). 



respectively of 95,000,000 gals., 28,000,000 gals, and 302,000,000 
gals, a day. In 1905 a new Water Supply Commission was created 
and immediately afterwards work was begun on a new aqueduct' 
to bring water from the Catskills; a great reservoir (the Ashokan) 
was built more than 85 m. N. of New York, W. of Kingston (on the 
W. side of the Hudson) ; thence an aqueduct was constructed which 
crossed under the Hudson river between Storm King and Bear 
Mountain to the Kensico storage reservoir at White Plains, to a 
filtration plant near Scarsdale and to the Hill View distributing 
reservoir in Yonkers, and from this reservoir to the five boroughs of 
Greater New York (Queens and Richmond boroughs both being 
supplied from Brooklyn) by tunnels, the supply for Staten Island only 
being pumped through pipes. One of the largest of the new reser- 
voirs within the city limits is the Jerome Park. The water supply 
for the typical New York City " sky-scraper " cannot be forced to 
the higher storeys of these buildings by the pumps of the municipal 
service, and such buildings must have each its own installation of 
engines for this purpose. In 1908 a high pressure water supply 
system was installed for fire-protection of a part of the city below 
23rd Street; induction motors driving multi-stage centrifugal pumps 
give sufficient power to force the water to a fire in the top of the 
highest buildings. (See FIRES AND FIRE EXTINCTION.) 

Administration. By the close of the Dutch period the city 
had become practically self-governing. But in the permanent 
form of English government that was established by the Dongan 
charter, granted in 1686 when the English crown was attacking 
the privileges of municipalities in the mother country, the mayor 
and sheriff were appointed by the governor and council; the 
recorder, town clerk and clerk of the market were appointed 
either by the king or by the governor; and although the alder- 
men and assistants were elected by the people no ordinances 
of the common council could remain in force more than three 
months unless they were confirmed by the governor and council. 
The Montgomerie charter of 1730 was mainly an enlargement 
of the Dongan charter. From 1777 to 1821 the mayor was chosen 
by the state council of appointment, consisting of the governor 
and four senators; from 1821 to 1834 he was elected by the 
common council; since 1834 he has been elected by the 
people. In 1730 the common council was divided into two 
chambers: the board of aldermen and the board of assistants; 
and the mayor and recorder were excluded from membership. 
In 1853 a board of sixty councilmen, in which was vested the 
sole right to originate acts appropriating money, was substituted 
for the board of assistants. The latter was restored in 1868, 
but was abolished in 1873 when the board of estimate and 
apportionment was created. Until 1849 the common council 
was an executive as well as a legislative body, and for many 
years the government was administered chiefly by its committees 
and by the heads of departments which it created and appointed; 
and the mayor's veto could be overcome by a bare majority vote 
of the members elected to each chamber. In 1849 the choice 
of the heads of departments was given to the people, and in 1853 
a two-thirds vote of the members elected to each chamber 
was required to pass an act over the mayor's veto. In 1857 
the state legislature began the appointment of boards and com- 
missions for the performance of various functions, and from this 
state interference and the popular election of the heads of depart- 
ments resulted a divided responsibility in the city government. 
The present state constitution (1894) affords some protection 
against state interference, and under the Consolidation Act of 
1882 and under the present charter of " Greater New York," 
granted in 1897 and revised in 1901, responsibility centres in 
the mayor. 

The mayor is elected for a term of four years. With the 
exception of that of finance he appoints the heads of all depart- 
ments: law, water supply, gas and electricity, fire, street 
cleaning, bridges, docks and ferries, parks, public charities, 
tenement house, health, correction, police, education, taxes and 
assessments. Even in the department of finance he appoints 
the chamberlain and two commissioners of accounts, who examine 
the receipts and disbursements in the office of the comptroller 
and chamberlain and may examine the affairs of such other 
offices or departments as the mayor may direct. All officers 
appointed by the mayor may be removed by him, except certain 
judicial officers and the members of the board of education. 

'See A. D. Flinn, "The World's Greatest Aqueduct" in the 
Century Magazine for September 1909. 



620 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



The aqueduct commissioners, the trustees of the College of the 
City of New York, and the trustees of Bellevue and allied 
hospitals, however, are removable only for cause and after a 
hearing. The mayor's veto of a franchise passed by the board 
of aldermen is final; his veto of an ordinance or resolution 
of the board which involves the expenditure of money, the 
creation of a debt or the laying of an assessment can be over- 
come only by a three-fourths vote; and his veto of any other 
measure of the board can be overcome only by a two-thirds 
vote. Special city legislation passed by the state legislature 
is referred to the mayor for his acceptance; if he does not 
accept it, it may be repassed by both branches of the legislature 
but must then be marked, when referred to the governor, 
" passed without the acceptance of the city." 

The department of finance is administered under the direction of 
the comptroller, who, like the mayor, is elected for a term of four 
years. He prescribes the manner in which the accounts in the other 
departments shall be kept and rendered, and all such accounts are 
subject to his inspection. His warrant, drawn on the chamberlain 
and countersigned by the mayor, is required in making a payment on 
behalf of the city. He settles claims in favour of or against the city. 
No real estate can be purchased or leased by the city without his 
consent. No contract, the expense for the execution of which is not 
in part covered by assessments on the property benefited, is valid 
without his signature. Legislation affecting the city's finances is 
determined mainly by the board of estimate and apportionment 
consisting of the mayor, comptroller, president of the board of 
aldermen, with three votes each ; the presidents of the boroughs of 
Manhattan and Brooklyn, with two votes each ; and the presidents 
of the boroughs of Queens, the Bronx and Richmond, with one vote 
each. Every October this board prepares the budget for the ensuing 
year. It is required to submit the same to the aldermen for approval, 
but the aldermen are not permitted to increase an aporopriation, to 
insert any new appropriation or to reduce that for the payment of 
state taxes, that for the payment of the interest on the city debt or 
any of those the amounts of which are fixed by law; and in case 
they reduce others their action is subject to the mayor's veto which 
they can overcome only by a three-fourths vote. 

The city's budget grew from $90,778,972 in 1900 $156,545,148 
in 1909; the assessed value of its taxable property, real and personal, 
from $3,654,122,193 in 1900 to $7,250,500,559 ($5,423,312,599 for 
Manhattan and the Bronx) in 1909, when the real estate was valued 
at $6,807,179,704. The net funded debt in December 1909 was 
$653,270,379, the gross bonded debt being $946,005,728; the floating 
debt was $60,367,290, and the sinking fund was $232,368,060. 
Among the large items of the 1909 budget were: $27,470,737 for 
education; $47,225,078 for redemption and interest of the city 
debt; $20,235,115 for miscellaneous city and county expenses; 
$14,160,202 for police; $8,428,596 for borough governments; 
$8,039,565 for fire protection; $7,418,299 for street cleaning; 
$6,511,143 for water supply and public lighting; $4,760,651 for 
charitable institutions; $3,319,065 for parks; $2,512,606 for 
public charities; and $2,484,859 for health. The state constitution of 
1894 fixed the debt limit of all municipalities at 10% of the assessed 
valuation of their real estate. An amendment of 1899 (in effect 
1900) excepted from the debt limit of New York City the previous 
debt of the counties now wholly included in the city; another 
amendment adopted in 1905 excepted from this limit debts 
incurred by the City of New York after the 1st of January 1004 
to provide for the supply of water; and an amendment, adopted in 
1909, excepted from the debt limit bonds issued after December 3ist 
1909 for such public improvements owned or to be owned by the 
city as yield a revenue in excess of what is required to meet the 
interest and principal of such bonds; also indebtedness incurred 
prior to January 1st 1910 for rapid transit or dock properties 
in proportion to the extent to which the revenue meets the interest 
and the instalments to be paid for the redemption of the bonds, such 
increase of the debt limit to be used, however, only for rapid transit 
or dock improvements. The same amendment (1909) also authorizes 
the city to issue, during any one year, in excess of its former debt limit, 
bonds to be redeemed out of the tax levy for the ensuing year to 
the extent of one-tenth of I % of the assessed value of the real estate 
of the city subject to taxation. 

The board of aldermen, whose power is less than formerly, is 
composed of a president, elected on the city ticket for a term of four 
years ; the five borough presidents, each elected by his borough for a 
term of four years ; and 73 aldermen, elected by districts for a term 
of two years. Each head of an administrative department is entitled 
to a seat in the board but no vote ; he is required to attend the board's 
meeting whenever it requests him to do so and must answer questions 
relating to his department. The board is required to meet once each 
month except in August and September. Each administrative 
department has a single head with the exception of the department 
of parks, the department of health and the department of educa- 
tion; and each head of a department has full power of appointing 
and removing subordinates except that a person holding a position 



in the classified civil service subject to competitive examination can 
be removed only for cause. The head of the department of parks 
is a board of three park commissioners: one for the boroughs of 
Manhattan and Richmond, one for the boroughs of Brooklyn and 
Queens and one for the Borough of the Bronx; one of the three is 
designated by the mayor as president of the board. The head of the 
department of health is also a board of three members; the com- 
missioner of health, who is president of the board, the police com- 
missioner and the health officer of the port. The department of 
education is described in the paragraph on education. Railway, gas 
and electric companies doing business within the city are subject to 
the extensive control of a public service commission of five members 
who are appointed by the governor of the state (see NEW YORK). 

In New York county, which comprises the boroughs of Manhattan 
and the Bronx, there is no county court, but in its place are a city 
court and a court of general sessions. The city court is a civil court, 
having jurisdiction over cases in which the amount involved does not 
exceed $2000, and is composed of seven justices elected for a term 
of ten years. The court of general session is a criminal court, having 
jurisdiction of all crimes including murder, and is composed of the 
city judge, the recorder and three justices of the sessions, each 
elected for a term of fourteen years. New York county elects a 
surrogate for a term of fourteen years, and Kings has two county 
judges; but in Queens and Richmond the county and surrogate 
courts are the same as in other counties of the state. In each of 
twenty-eight districts into which the city is divided a municipal- 
court justice is elected for a term of ten years and sessions of the 
municipal court, which has jurisdiction of civil cases in which the 
amount involved does not exceed $500, are held. For the adminis- 
tration of criminal justice by magistrates (justices of the peace) the 
boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx constitute the first division 
and the other three boroughs constitute the second division. In each 
division there is a board of magistrates appointed by the mayor for 
a term of ten years, and the magistrates hold the several courts of 
their division in rotation according to such rules as they themselves 
establish. There is also in each division a court of special sessions 
consisting of six justices appointed by the mayor for a term of ten 
years; it has jurisdiction in all misdemeanour cases except libel and 
must be held by three justices. In the first division both the 
magistrates and the justices of the court of special sessions are re- 
quired to hold a separate court for hearing charges against children 
under sixteen years of age. 

Each borough has a president with extensive power, and the city 
is divided into twenty-five local improvement districts, each having 
a board composed of the president of the borough and the alderman 
representing the district. The president appoints and removes at 
pleasure a commissioner of public works, who, subject to his control, 
directs his administration relating to streets, sewers, public buildings 
and supplies. The borough president prepares all contracts relating 
to his borough. In Queens and Richmond he directs the cleaning of 
the streets. In Manhattan, Brooklyn and the Bronx he is directed 
by the charter to appoint a superintendent of buildings, who, subject 
to him and with the aid of inspectors, enforces the ordinances of the 
aldermen relating to the construction, alteration and removal of 
buildings; in Queens and Richmond the borough president may 
appoint such an officer only when authorized to do so by the board of 
aldermen upon the recommendation of the board of estimate and 
apportionment. A borough president is chairman of each of the 
local improvement boards. 

History. The discovery of New York Bay and the Hudson 
river by Verrazano in 1524 was followed only by occasional 
visits of trading or exploring vessels until the arrival of Henry 
Hudson in 1609. Beginning with 1610, Dutch merchants 
despatched several vessels to engage in the fur trade with the 
Indians, and in 1614 a ship commander, Adriaen Block, having 
lost his vessel, built the " Onrust " or " Restless " on the shore 
of Upper New York Bay. About the same time a few huts 
were built at the south end of Manhattan Island. When New 
Netherland had been erected (1623) into a province of the 
West India Company (see NEW YORK), that body chose the 
south end of Manhattan Island for a trans-Atlantic shipping 
station and for the seat of government. In 1626 Peter Minuit, 
the director-general of the province, bought the entire island 
from the Indians for goods valued at 60 guilders (about $24) 
and at what was then its southern extremity began the erection 
of Fort Amsterdam; and at the close of the year the settlement, 
New Amsterdam, comprised thirty bark-covered dwellings. 
For several years it was maintained wholly in the interest of 
the Company, and to none of the inhabitants, all of whom were 
its agents or employees, were given any political rights, title to 
land or right to European trade on his own account. The 
company divided a large portion of the island into six farms of 
its own, and when by its Charter of Privileges and Exemption 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



621 



(1629) it attempted to encourage agriculture in other parts of 
the province (see NEW YORK STATE) it reserved to itself the whole 
island. In 1633 New Amsterdam received a grant of " staple 
right " by which it could compel any vessel passing the port 
either to offer its cargo for sale or pay a duty; in 1638 the Company 
extended to all friendly European countries the privilege of 
trading with the province, and about this time it opened town 
lots for sale. The town rapidly assumed the cosmopolitan 
character for which it has ever since been noted, there being, 
according to a contemporary report, eighteen languages spoken 
by its 400 or 500 inhabitants in 1643. In 1641, to gain the 
necessary support to fight the Indians, Kieft had to yield to the 
demand for a popular voice in the government, and permitted the 
heads of families to choose a board of Twelve Men to confer 
with him. In 1643 he permitted the choice of a board of Eight 
Men, and when he refused its demands it was largely instrumental 
in effecting his recall. Under his successor, Peter Stuyvesant, 
a board of Nine Men was chosen, and this body, objecting to 
the customs duties which he imposed, sent three of its number 
with a petition to the States-General with the result that in 
1653 New Amsterdam was made a city with a government 
administered by a schout, two burgomasters and five schepens. 

Chiefly with a view to protection from roving traders the great 
burgher-right and the small burgher-right were established in 
1657; the great burgher-right being conferred on all who had 
been magistrates as well as on those then in office, on clergymen, 
on militia officers and on the male descendants of all .such 
persons; and the small burgher-right being conferred on all 
native-born citizens, on the husbands of native-born women 
and on all who had been residents of the city for a year and six 
weeks. Other persons approved by the magistrates were 
allowed to buy the great burgher-right for 50 guilders ($20) 
or the small burgher-right for 20 guilders ($8). Only burghers 
and employees of the West India Company could engage in 
commerce, work at a trade or practise a profession, and only 
great burghers could hold the more important offices. Originally 
Stuyvesant appointed the city officers, but in 1658 he permitted 
them to nominate their own successors. Besides engaging in 
the fur trade, the city was now exporting considerable timber 
and food-stuffs; in the coast trade it was beginning to reap 
the advantages of its situation on the coast route through Long 
Island Sound; and its trade with the Dutch West Indies was 
of some importance. But the city and the Company were always 
at odds. The duties exacted by the Company were a heavy 
burden and yet the Company did not keep the fort in good 
repair. Stuyvesant's arbitrary rule primarily in the interests 
of the Company was another grievance, and when in August 
1664 there appeared in the harbour an English fleet sent by 
the duke of York for the conquest of the province, the city was 
in a defenceless condition. Richard Nicolis, the representative 
of the duke, easily won over the burgomasters and other 
prominent citizens; Stuyvesant, practically deserted, was 
driven to a formal surrender on the 8th of September; and 
New Amsterdam became New York. 

In June 1665 Nicolis reorganized the government, vesting 
it in a mayor, aldermen and sheriff, to be appointed by the 
governor of the province for a term of one year; and extended 
the city's limits to include the whole of Manhattan Island. In 
1666 he granted to New Harlem, founded in 1658, a charter 
which gave to it the status of a town within the city. Nicolis' 
successor, Governor Francis Lovelace, established a post-route 
from New York to Boston in 1673. On the 3Oth of July 1673 
the city was surprised and captured by a Dutch fleet under 
Cornells Evertsen and Jacob Binckes. The captors renamed 
the city New Amsterdam and in January 1674 Anthony Colve, 
the newly appointed governor of the province, re-established 
the Dutch city government, but under the treaty of Westminster 
the English again took possession in November. In 1678 
Governor Edmund Andros gave the city practically a monopoly 
within the province of commerce " over seas " and ordered 
that flour should be inspected nowhere else; two years later 
he required that all flour for export should be bolted and packed 



within the city. The duties established by order of the duke 
of York were still a grievance, and when, in 1681, Governor 
Andros had sailed for England without renewing the ordinance 
imposing them, the merchants refused payment and demanded 
that they should thereafter be imposed by a representative 
assembly. The duke yielded and the first New York Assembly, 
called by Governor Thomas Dongan, met in the city on the I7th 
of October 1683. Less than three years later, on the 2oth of 
April 1686, Dongan gave the city its first real charter, which 
is a historic instrument in the city government; it was super- 
seded only to a very small extent as late as 1830 (when there 
was a revision of the charter) and on it as a basis the later 
charters have been framed. 

New York City with its numerous artisans, small traders, 
sailors and common labourers, such as usually compose the party 
of discontent, was the centre of the Leisler uprising (see NEW 
YORK STATE) incited by the English Revolution of 1688, and 
it v/as here that Leisler in the spring of 1690 called the first 
intercolonial assembly to plan an expedition against Canada. 
During Leisler's rule, too, the freeholders of the city were for 
the first time permitted to elect their own mayor, a privilege 
not subsequently granted until 1834. Before the close of the 
1 7th century New York had become a favourite haunt of pirates; 
leading merchants assisted pirates as well as privateersmen 
in fitting out their vessels and shared in their plunder or at 
least welcomed them with their rich cargoes, and public officials, 
including one or more governors, were also implicated. The 
home government finally appointed Richard Coote, earl of 
Bellomont (1636-1/01), governor with explicit instructions 
to suppress the evil. Before he received his commission he and 
Robert Livingston sent out William Kidd (d. 1701) with a 
frigate to capture the pirates. Kidd himself turned pirate, but 
was arrested in Boston in July 1699, was sent to England for 
trial and was hanged in May 1701. Bellomont met determined 
opposition among New York officers and merchants; but by 
the close of his brief administration (1698-1701) he had caught 
a number of the pirates and broken up the corrupt system by 
which they had been protected. The importation of negro 
slaves was begun in 1725 or 1726 and was somewhat encouraged 
by the States-General. Becoming prized as household servants 
they so increased in number in the city that during the first 
half of the i8th century they were not greatly outnumbered 
by the whites; the whites early began to fear a slave insurrec- 
tion, and ordinances were passed forbidding negroes to gather 
on the Sabbath in groups of more than four, or to carry guns, 
swords or clubs; but one night in April 1712 some slaves met 
in an orchard near Maiden Lane, set fire to a building and killed 
nine men besides wounding several others who came to put 
out the fire. Soldiers then captured all the insurgents except 
six, who committed suicide, and after trial twenty-one were 
executed. When early in 1741 nine fires broke out within a few 
weeks and a negro was seen running from the last, the belief 
became general that the negroes had formed a plot to burn the 
town. A reward of 100 was offered for information exposing 
the plot, and the testimony of an indentured servant-girl, Mary 
Burton, that her master, mistress, a few other whites and a 
number of negroes were implicated in such a plot threw the 
city into a panic. Other confessions were extorted by threats, 
and on such worthless testimony four whites were executed, 
fourteen negroes were burned at the stake, twenty were hanged 
and seventy-one were transported. The frenzy was checked 
when Mary Burton began to accuse persons of consequence and 
above suspicion. The New York Gazette, the first newspaper 
of New York, established by William Bradford in 1725, was a 
semi-official organ. For criticizing the government in the 
New York Weekly Journal, which he established in 1733, John 
Peter Zenger was charged with libel in 1734, and by securing 
his acquittal in the following year the popular party established 
the freedom of the press (see NEW YORK). At the beginning 
of the Stamp-Act controversy John Holt's New York Gazette 
and Weekly Post-Boy, the successor of Bradford's Gazette, was 
the medium through which the popular leaders stirred the 



622 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



people to resistance. The Stamp-Act Congress, called at the 
suggestion of Massachusetts, sat in the city from the 7th to the 
28th of October 1765, and on the 3ist of October the New York 
merchants started the non-importation movement which spread 
to the other colonies. Lieut.-Governor Cadwallader Golden 
prepared for the enforcement of the Act by strengthening Fort 
George (a later name for Fort Amsterdam) and increasing its 
garrison. The ship with the stamps arrived in the evening of 
the 23rd of October and on the following night threatening 
notices were posted on the doors of every public office and at 
the corners of streets. When the day (ist of November) came 
for the Act to go into effect Governor Golden had retired within 
the fort. Major James, the commander of the garrison, had 
threatened to enforce the Act; but the Sons of Liberty gathered 
a mob, broke into the governor's coach-house, burned his coach 
and burned him in effigy, destroyed the furniture and other 
property of Major James and threatened to storm the fort. 
On the 5th, the governor delivered the stamps to the mayor 
and aldermen. No serious attempt was subsequently made 
to enforce the Act, and its repeal (i8th of March 1766) was 
celebrated on the city common with noisy demonstrations and 
the erection of a liberty pole. The Assembly also made appropri- 
ations for the erection of statues of the king and William Pitt. 
The Sons of Liberty opposed the passage by the Assembly of 
appropriations for the maintenance of the soldiers, and the 
latter retaliated by repeatedly cutting down liberty poles 
erected by the Sons of Liberty. Finally in a skirmish on the 
1 8th of January 1770 the soldiers killed one man and severely 
wounded several others, and this bloodshed is memorable as 
the first in the struggle which culminated in the independence 
of the colonies. The tea shipped to New York for testing the 
right of parliament to tax the colonies did not arrive until four 
months after that shipped to Boston had been thrown over- 
board, but when it did arrive (April 1774) the chests in one 
vessel were destroyed in the same manner as were those in 
Boston and the other vessel was forced to carry its cargo back 
to London. The Port Act for punishing Boston stirred the 
New York merchants as well as the Sons of Liberty (chiefly 
mechanics and artisans), and when the latter again threatened 
violence the merchants resolved to guide the movement, and 
called a mass meeting and named a committee of correspondence 
of fifty-one members. This committee, on the 23rd of May 1774, 
proposed a Continental Congress chiefly with a view to obtaining 
an effective regulation of non-importation from England; it 
also named the New York delegates to that body. 

During the greater part of the War of Independence the city 
was occupied by the British. Its capture was a part of the 
British plan to get control of the Hudson and separate New 
England from the southern colonies. Early in 1776 the Americans 
began to throw up fortifications at several points on both banks 
of the East river in the hope of closing the east water front to the 
enemy. Other fortifications were erected on Governor's Island 
and at some points along the west water front to the upper end 
of Manhattan Island, where an attempt was made to close the 
passage of the Hudson by building Fort Washington on the New 
York bank and Fort Lee on the New Jersey bank and connecting 
them with a line of sunken ships fastened together with chains. 
To the north of the city proper, also, defences were constructed 
along the line of the present Grand Street, and to prepare for a 
retreat from the north end of the island a redoubt, which the 
British later called Fort George, was built on the prominence 
overlooking Kingsbridge from the south, and Fort Independence, 
in what is now Bronx Borough, was built to command the 
approach from the mainland. After the battle of Long Island, 
fought within the present limits of Brooklyn Borough, Wash- 
ington, on the night of the 2gth of August 1776, crossed to 
Manhattan Island. As the city was no longer tenable, some of 
the generals proposed burning it, but Congress would not give 
its consent and Washington, although withdrawing the greater 
part of his army behind fortifications on Harlem (now Washing- 
ton) Heights, continued to occupy it with about 5000 men under 
General Israel Putnam until the British general, Sir William 



Howe, began to show signs of attack. Troops also remained 
behind the batteries along the east water front, and it was on 
this occasion that Nathan Hale went on his fatal errand to 
ascertain Howe's intentions, was discovered within the British 
lines and was hanged as a spy. On the isth of September 
several British ships which had some days before passed the 
American batteries, as far as Montressor's (now Randall's) 
Island, entered Kipp's Bay, at the foot of the present 34th 
Street, routed the militia posted behind the low breastworks 
there, and after landing narrowly missed cutting off the rear of 
Putnam's retreating army. One portion of Howe's army took 
possession of the city and another marched toward Harlem 
Heights along the east side of what is now Central Park while 
Putnam's men were marching in nearly parallel columns on the 
west side of the park. On the i6th, in the battle of Harlem 
Heights (on what is now Morningside Heights), about 1800 
Americans drove a somewhat smaller number of British troops 
from the field. In October Howe sailed up the East river, and 
Washington, to avoid being outflanked, retreated to the main- 
land, leaving only a garrison at Fort Washington. Howe landed 
at Pell's Point (now within Pelham Bay Park), and on the 28th, 
a few miles north of the present city limits, was fought the battle 
of White Plains. Howe then turned westward and southward 
and on the i6th of November captured Fort Washington. What 
is now Bronx Borough was .within the " Neutral Grounds " 
which suffered greatly from the foraging parties of both armies. 
Six days after the British entered the city proper about one- 
fourth of it was destroyed by fire, and the desolation was ex- 
tended by another large fire on the 3rd of August 1778. The 
British crowded their prisoners (who suffered terrible hardships) 
into several of the churches, the City Hall, the new gaol (later 
the Hall of Records), King's College, the Livingston sugar house, 
and a number of ships moored in the harbour. The city was a 
refuge for Loyalists, but even they were treated with contempt 
by the British. The homes of Loyalists and Whigs alike were 
plundered, and when the British finally evacuated (2$th of 
November 1783) they had robbed the city of its wealth and 
had destroyed its business. 

For the first three or four years after the return of peace 
recovery in some directions was very slow; but only a few 
months after the British had gone an American merchantman 
sailed from the port bound for China and opened trade with 
that country. Trade was speedily resumed with European ports, 
and by 1788 it was not uncommon to see 100 or mere vessels in 
the port either loading or unloading. On the question of enlarg- 
ing the powers of the Federal government in 1787-1788, the city 
strongly supported Alexander Hamilton and John Jay against a 
determined opposition in other parts of the state, and the ratifica- 
tion of the Federal constitution in the state convention at 
Poughkeepsie was a triumph for New York City. The city was 
the Federal capital in 1789-1790 and under its strong Federalist 
influence the new government of the nation was organized. 
During the colonial era New York was always the seat of the 
provincial government and for twenty years it was at times the 
seat of the state government, but in 1797 Albany was made the 
permanent capital. In 1807 the success of steam navigation was 
assured by the trial trip of Robert Fulton's " Clermont " from 
New York to Albany and return; but the city did not benefit 
immediately from this invention. On the contrary, the Embargo 
Act (1807-1809) threatened its commerce with ruin. It revived 
under the Non-Intercourse Act, but suffered again from the 
second war with Great Britain. In the first and second years of 
this war some merchants reaped profits from privateering against 
the enemy, but in December 1813 the British stopped privateering 
by a closer blockade of the harbour and in 1814 they threatened 
to attack the city. In preparing to resist, the city erected or 
assisted in erecting elaborate fortifications, and Robert Fulton 
was busy in New York building a steam frigate with cannon-proof 
sides and heavy guns, but the war closed without a test of the 
fortifications and before the frigate was ready for action. 

In 1817 the Erie Canal was begun and the first line of trans- 
Atlantic packet-ships was established. The canal, opened in 



NEW YORK (CITY) 



623 



1825, insured the commercial supremacy of New York among 
American cities. The years immediately following the close of 
the second war with Great Britain also mark the beginning of a 
rapid increase in the number of European immigrants, and this 
stream of immigration, rising to a flood in the fourth decade and 
continuing high throughout the century, has been a dominant 
force in determining the city's social and political conditions. 
Although the city was a stronghold of the Federalists at the time 
the National government was organized, the Democrats, owing 
to the dexterous management of Aaron Burr, were victorious 
in the elections of 1800 and 1801, and the city has continued to 
be normally Democratic owing largely to the activities of the 
Tammany Society or Tammany Hall (q.v.). This organization, 
founded in 1789, early espoused the cause of the unfranchised 
inhabitants, attended to the wants of the immigrants in various 
ways, led the movement for universal manhood suffrage and the 
election of city officers, and, after the office of mayor became 
elective (1834) and the last property qualifications for city voters 
were removed (1842), continued strong by reason of the support 
of the great mass of foreign-born citizens. Fraud and corruption 
were resorted to by Tammany, and offices were used for the good 
of the organization rather than for the good of the city. Socially, 
the immigrants deluged the city with vice, crime, misery and 
pauperism. The unsanitary conditions had already caused 
epidemics of yellow fever in 1795, 1798, 1822 and 1823, and the 
city was visited in 1832, 1834 and 1849 with epidemics of cholera 
in which several thousand lives were lost. These scourges 
together with a fire in 1835, which destroyed the East Side below 
Wall Street, hastened the construction of works for getting a 
supply of water from the Croton river. The immigrants repre- 
sented various nationalities and religious sects, and from 1830 
to 1871 the city was frequently disturbed by riots arising usually 
from national or religious antipathy. During the first mayoralty 
election (1834) there was rioting; and there were an abolitionist 
riot in the same year, a flour riot during the financial panic of 
1837, and labour riots from time to time which were suppressed 
by the police. In 1857 the state legislature established a state 
or " metropolitan " police for the better protection of the city. 
The mayor, Fernando Wood, contending that the act was 
unconstitutional, resisted with the old municipal police, and 
another serious riot had begun when the Seventh Regiment 
of state troops compelled obedience; later, too, the court of 
appeals decided against the mayor. 

Wood was still mayor at the outbreak of the Civil War, and 
in January 1861 he proposed to the Common Council that Man- 
hattan Island, Long Island and Staten Island should secede 
and constitute a free city, to be named Tri-Insula. The Council 
approved. But when, in April, the city had been aroused by 
the bombardment of Fort Sumter the majority of the Democrats 
joined with the Republicans in discarding the proposal and in 
support of the Union. The native-born and loyal citizens 
joined the Union army in such large numbers that the city was 
left with inadequate protection from such of its inhabitants 
as had often constituted the mob. In this state of affairs the 
drafting of men for the army was begun in July 1863 in con- 
formity with an act of Congress which exempted from its opera- 
tion all who should make a money payment of $300. The New 
York proletariat and unscrupulous politicians complained that 
the measure was peculiarly oppressive to the poor, and the rioting 
with which it was resisted was protracted and bloody. The 
rioting began the I3th of July and continued for nearly five days. 
More than fifty buildings were burned. The mob was especially 
furious against negroes, a number of whom were hanged 'or 
beaten to death. The police fought bravely but were unequal 
to the emergency, and order was restored only after several 
regiments had returned to the city and had killed at least 500 
of the rioters. In 1871 Irish Catholics threatened to prevent 
the Orangemen from parading the streets on the anniversary 
of the Battle of Boyne (i2th of July). The superintendent of 
police also issued an order on the preceding day prohibiting the 
parade. Public opinion, however, was so strong in favour of 
the Orangemen that the order was revoked, and five regiments of 



militia were called out to protect the parade before it started; 
at the first assault the mob was scattered by a volley which killed 
51 persons. The militia suffered a loss of three killed and several 
wounded. 

The character of the population did not improve speedily, 
for while immigrants were coming in great numbers a large 
portion of the saving middle class was removing to the suburbs; 
and although Tammany Hall was discredited during the Civil 
War, it gained control of the state as well as the city government 
soon after the war. William M. Tweed, its ruler, organized the 
" Tweed Ring " which was plundering the city on a gigantic scale, 
when in 1871 its operations were exposed by the New York 
Times. The thefts of the " Ring " amounted to many millions 
of dollars, those in the erection of the county court house alone 
to $8.000,000. Several of the malefactors were sent to prison 
and Tweed himself died there. Tammany, however, was 
victorious again in the second election (1874) after Tweed's 
fall, and in 1884, when rival companies were seeking to obtain 
a franchise for working a street railway on Broadway, this 
privilege, so valuable that the city could have sold it for millions 
of dollars, was given away by the aldermen; and it was after- 
wards proved that a number of them had shared a cash bribe 
of $500,000. Some of them were subsequently punished, but 
Tammany's power was not seriously impaired. In 1874 the 
city's corporate limits were extended to include about 13,000 
acres across the Harlem river: in 1895 there was a further 
extension in the same county to the southern borders of Yonkers 
and Mt. Vernon; and in 1898 all of Kings county, all of 
Richmond county (Staten Island) and a portion of Queens 
county were consolidated with it. As Tammany's stronghold 
was in Manhattan, the annexation of these districts diminished 
the difficulty of holding Tammany in check, or of defeating it 
at the polls whenever the anti-Tammany forces united as a 
consequence of a notoriously corrupt administration. In 1894 
an investigation of the state Senate brought to light some of the 
facts respecting an elaborate system of blackmail which had grown 
up under the joint protection of Tammany Hall and the city 
government. Under this system large sums were paid for 
appointments to office and promotions, and money was collected 
regularly from the keepers of gambling houses, houses of ill- 
fame and other disorderly resorts, and from liquor sellers for 
permission to violate certain details of the excise laws, such as 
midnight and Sunday closing. There followed a great outcry 
against Tammany and it was driven from power for three years. 
During the reform administration, Colonel George Edward 
Waring (1833-1898), as head of the street cleaning department, 
quite revolutionized New York as respects cleanliness. The 
police service and the school system were also much improved. 
Tammany was successful in the election of 1897 when the opposi- 
tion was divided. It again abused its power and was defeated 
in 1901. In 1903 and 1905 the Tammany ticket was elected, but 
the mayor, George Brinton McClellan, administered the govern- 
ment, especially during his second term (1906-1910), independ- 
ently of Tammany Hall. With the exception of the mayor the 
Tammany ticket was defeated in 1909, and the mayor, William 
Jay Gaynor(b. 1851), was little in sympathy with Tammany Hall, 
having been nominated apparently for the purpose of insuring 
the election of loyal Tammany men on the county ticket. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Special works have been mentioned in the body 
of the article. Among general descriptive works are Moses King's 
Handbook of New York (Boston, 1895), Rand McNally & Company's 
Handy Guide to New York Ci'y (Chicago, 2lst ed., 1907), Appleton's 
Dictionary of New York (New York, 1905); and of a more aesthetic 
quality, John C. van Dyke's The New New York (ib., 1909), with 
illustrations by Joseph Pennell. E. S. Martin edited (ib., 1909) 
The Wayfarer in New York, a book of selections. F. B. Kelley's 
Historical Guide to the City of New York (ib., 1909), compiled under the 
auspices of the City History Club, is the best summary of old land- 
marks, places of historical interest, &c. For administration sec The 
Charter of the City of New York with Amendments (New York, 1907); 
F. C. Seckerson, Manual of Civics: A Text-Book of Municipal 
Government for the City of Ne-iv York (New York, 1908) ; and G. A. 
Ingalls, An Outline of Municipal Government in the City of New York 
(Albany, 1904). For history see Mrs Schuyler van Rensselaer, 
History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols.. 



624 



NEW ZEALAND 



New York, 1909); J. H. Innes, New Amsterdam and its People (New 
York, 1902); Martha J. Lamb, History of the City of New York 
(2 vols., New York, 1877); Memorial History of the City of New 
York (4 vols.. New York, 1892), edited by J. G. Wilson; Theodore 
Roosevelt, New York (New York, 1895) in the " Historic Towns " 
series; R. R. Wilson, New York: Old and New; Its Story, Streets 
and Landmarks (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1902; new ed., 1909); D. T. 
Valentine, History of the City of New York (New York, 1853); and 
Historic New York, edited by Maud W. Goodwin et al. (2 vols., New 
York, 1899). 

NEW ZEALAND, a British colonial Dominion (so named in 
1907), consisting mainly of a group of islands lying in the south 
Pacific between 34 25' and 47 17' S., and between 166 26' 
and 1 78 36' E. The group is situated eastward of Tasmania 
and Victoria, and Wellington, its capital and central seaport, 
is 1204 m. distant from Sydney. Of certain outlying clusters 
of small islands belonging to the colony, the Chathams (356 m. 
E. of Cook Strait), Aucklands and Campbell Island are alone of 
any value. All these are grassy and the Chathams are inhabited 
by sheep-farming colonists. The Aucklands contain two of the 
finest harbours in the Pacific. Six hundred miles north of 
Auckland,, the volcanic Kermadecs, covering 8208 acres, are 
picturesquely clothed with vegetation. In Polynesia a number 
of inhabited islands were brought under New Zealand control 
in 1893. Raro tonga and Mangaia, in the Cook group, and 
Niu6 or Savage Island are the largest of these; Penrhyn and 
Suwarrow, though but small coral atolls, contain excellent 
harbours. Rarotonga is hilly, well watered, and very beautiful. 
Apart from these little tropical dependencies New Zealand has 
an area of 104,471 sq. m., of which its two important islands, 
called North and South, contain 44,468 and 58,525 respectively, 
while, divided from South Island by Foveaux Strait, Rakiura 
or Stewart Island, mountainous and forest-clad, contains 
621 sq. m. These three form a broken chain, North and South 
Islands being cut asunder by Cook Strait, a channel varying in 
width from 16 to 90 m. 

North Island is 515 m. long and varies in breadth from 6 to 
200 m. It is almost cleft in twain where the Hauraki Gulf 
penetrates to within 6 m. of Manukau Harbour. From the 
isthmus thus formed a narrow, very irregular peninsula reaches 
out northward for some 200 m., moist and semi-tropical, and 
beautiful rather than uniformly fertile. Rich strips of alluvial 
soil, however, seam a cold clay-marl, needing intensive cultivation 
to become highly productive. Buried in this clay-marl are found 
large deposits of the fossil resin which becomes the kauri gum 
of commerce; and on the surface extensive forests are still a 
great though diminishing source of wealth. Though a species 
of mangrove fringes much of this peninsula, its presence does 
not denote malaria, from which the islands are entirely free. 

South of the isthmus aforesaid, North Island rapidly 
broadens out. Its central physical feature is the unbroken 
mountain chains running N.E. from Cook Strait to East Cape 
on the Bay of Plenty, ranges seldom under 3000 ft., but never 
attaining 6000 ft. in height. Ikurangi, their highest summit, 
though a fine mass, does not compare with the isolated volcanic 
cones which, rising W. of the main mountain system and quite 
detached from it, are among the most striking sights in the island. 
Ruapehu (9100 ft.) is intermittently active, and Ngauruhoe 
(7515 ft.) emits vapour and steam incessantly. Egmont (8340 
ft.) is quiescent, but its symmetrical form and dense clothing 
of forest make it the most beautiful of the three. North of the 
two first-mentioned volcanoes Lake Taupo spreads over 238 sq. m. 
in the centre of a pumice-covered plateau from 1000 to 2000 ft. 
above the sea; and round and beyond the great lake the 
region of the thermal springs covers 5000 sq. m. and stretches 
from Mount Ruapehu to White Island, an ever-active volcanic 
cone in the Bay of Plenty. The most uncommon natural feature 
of the district, the Pink and White Terraces, was blown up in 
th,e eruption of Mount Tarawera in 1886, when for great distances 
the country was buried beneath mud and dust, and a chasm 9 m. 
long was opened in the earth. Fine lakes and waterfalls, in- 
numerable pools, in temperature from boiling-point to cold, 
geysers, solfataras, fumaroles and mud volcanoes still attract 
tourists in large numbers. The healing virtue of many of the 



springs is widely known. The government maintains a 
sanatorium at Lake Rotorua, and there are private bathing 
establishments in other places, notably near Lake Taupo. In 
South Island there are hot pools and a state sanatorium at 
Hanmer Plains. Experience shows that the most remarkable 
cures effected by the hot waters are in cases of gout, rheumatism, 
diseases of the larynx and in skin disorders. Though, thanks 
to the overlaying porous pumice, the Taupo plateau is not 
fertile, it has a good rainfall and is drained by unfailing rivers 
running through deep terraced ravines. The Waikato and 
Waihou flow N., the Rangitaiki N.E., and Mokau, Wanganui 
and Rangitikei W. or S.W. The first named, the longest river in 
the colony, though obstructed by a bar like all western, and 
most eastern, New Zealand rivers, is navigable for some 70 m. 
The Mokau and Wanganui run between ferny and forest-clad 
hills and precipices, often of almost incomparable beauty. 

East of the Taupo plateau and south of Opotiki on the Bay of 
Plenty the steep thickly-timbered ranges held by the Uriwera 
tribe still show scenery quite unspoiled by white intrusion. 
On the southern frontier of this mountainous tract Waikare 
Moana extends its arms, the deepest and most beautiful of the 
larger lakes of the island. 

From the mouth of the Waikato southward to about 25 m. 
from Cape Terawhiti on Cook Strait, and for a distance of from 
20 to 40 m. inland, the western coast skirts fertile country well 
fitted for grazing and dairy-farming, to which it is being 
rapidly turned as the timber and fern are cleared away from its 
low hills, downs and rich valleys. On the east coast the same 
fertih'ty is seen with less forest, and, round Hawkes Bay, a hotter 
and drier summer. In the south centre, the upland plain of 
the Wairarapa, ending in a large but commonplace lake, has a 
climate adapted for both grazing and cereals. The butt-end of 
the island, of poor, rough, wind-beaten hills, is redeemed by the 
fine harbour of Port Nicholson, which vies with the Waitemata 
in utility to New Zealand commerce. Broken as is the surface, 
poor as is the soil of certain tracts, there is but little of the island 
which will not ultimately be cultivated with profit as pumice 
and clay-marl yield to labour. Everywhere the settler may count 
on a sufficient rainfall, and except on the plateau and the 
mountain highlands mild winters and genial summers. The 
pleasant climate has certain drawbacks; the coastal farmer 
finds that blights and insect pests thrive in the comparative 
absence of hard frosts. Fortunately mosquitoes are not a serious 
plague outside a few marshy localities. To pass Cook Strait 
and land in the middle province of South Island is to pass from 
Portugal to Switzerland, a Switzerland, however, with a sea- 
coast that in the east centre is a dull fringe of monotonous sand 
dunes or low cliffs. As a rule, nevertheless, the shores of South 
Island are high and bold enough. They are not too well served 
with harbours, except along Cook Strait, in Banks Peninsula, and 
by the grand but commercially useless fjords of the south-west. 
In the last-named region some fifteen salt-water gulfs penetrate 
into the very heart of the mountains, winding amid steep, cloud- 
capped ranges, and tall, richly-clothed cliffs overhanging their 
calm waters. The dominating features of south New Zealand 
are not ferny plateaus or volcanic cones, but stern chains of 
mountains. There the Southern Alps rise range upon range, 
filling the whole centre, almost or quite touching the western 
shore, and stretching from end to end of the island. West of the 
dividing crest they are forest clad; east thereof their stony 
grimness is but slightly softened by growths of scrub and tussock 
grass. Nineteen-twentieths of the colonists, however, live east 
of the dividing range, for to that side settlement was attracted 
by the open, grassy character o* the country. The rivers are 
many, even on the drier eastern coast. But, as must be expected 
in an island but 180 m. across at the widest point and yet showing 
ridges capped with perpetual snows, the rivers, large or small, 
are mountain torrents, now swollen floods, anon half dry. Almost 
useless for communication or transport, they can be easily drawn 
upon for irrigation where, as in the east centre, water-races are 
useful. The largest river, the Clutha, though but 80 m. long 
in its course to the south-east coast, discharges a volume of water 



NEW ZEALAND 



625 



estimated at nearly 1,100,000 cubic ft. a minute. On the west 
the only two rivers of importance are the Buller and the Grey, 
the former justly famous for the grandeur of its gorges. Large 
and deep lakes fill many of the mountain valleys. Te Anau and 
Wakatipu (54 m. long) are the chief, though Manapouri is the 
most romantic. Aorangi (Mt. Cook) is easily first among the 
mountain peaks. Its height, 12,349 ft., is especially impressive 
when viewed from the sea off the west coast. On the north-east 
a double range, the Kaikouras, scarcely fall short of the Southern 
Alps in height and beauty. Apart from the fjords and lakes the 
chief beauties of the Alps are glaciers and waterfalls. The 
Tasman glacier is 18 m. long and has an average width of i m. 
15 chains; the Murchison glacier is 10 m. in length. To the west 
of Aorangi glaciers crawl into the forest as low as 400 ft. above 
sea-level. Among waterfalls the Sutherland is 1904 ft. high, 
but has less volume than the Bowen and others. The finest 
mountain gorge, the Otira, is also the chief route from the east 
to the west coast. It begins on the western side of Arthur's 
Pass, a gap the floor of which is 3100 ft. above the sea. Generally 
the open and readily available region of South Island extends 
from the Kaikouras along the east and south-east coast to th$ 
river Waiau in Southland. It has a mean breadth of some 30 m. 
In compensation the coal and gold, which form the chief mineral 
wealth, are found in the broken and less practicable west 
and centre, and these portions also furnish the water-power 
which may in days to come make the island a manufacturing 
country. (W. P. R.) 

Geology. New Zealand is part of the Australasian festoon, on the 
Pacific edge of the Australasian area. Unlike Australia, its geological 
structure is unusually varied, and owing to its instability, it includes, 
for its size, an unusually complete series of marine sedimentary rocks. 
It has, moreover, been a volcanic area of long-continued activity. 
The physical geography of New Zealand is closely connected with its 
geological structure, and is dominated by two intersecting lines of 
mountains and earth movements. The Southern Alps, the back- 
bone of the South Island, rest on a foundation of coarse gneisses 
and schists, that are quite unrepresented in the North Island. The 
continuatjon of this line of old rocks is occupied by the basins of the 
Wanganui river and Taupo. E. Suess therefore suggested that the 
northern continuation of the Alps had foundered, and its summits 
been buried beneath the Pliocene marine rocks of the Wanganui 
basin and the volcanic rocks of the Taupo area. 

The oldest rocks are Archean, represented by the band of gneisses 
and schists exposed along the western foot of the Southern Alps. 
To the south of the district in southern Westland, where the Alps 
have passed out to sea, the Archeans become more extensive; for 
they spread eastward and underlie the whole of the dissected table- 
land of Otago. It has been suggested that the jasperoids and 
diabases of the Tarawera Mountains on the North Island may be of 
Upper Archean age, from their resemblance to the Heathcotian 
rocks of Australia. No Cambrian rocks have as yet been discovered, 
but the Ordovkian system is represented by the Aorere beds in the 
north-western part of the South Island. Here they contain numerous 
graptolites, including Tetragraptus, Dichograptus and Didymograptus. 
The Silurian system is represented by the Baton river beds to the 
west of the Aorere beds, occurring in the basin of the Motueka river, 
which flows into Tasman Bay. The Devonian system is well ex- 
posed in the Reefton mining field. The Carboniferous system 
includes either the whoje or a large part of the Maitai beds. The 
Maitai beds include a thick mass of slates and sandstones, which form 
the bulk of the Southern Alps, whence branches extend south- 
eastward to the coast. The beds take their name from the Maitai 
river near Nelson; they are largely developed in the mountains of 
the Tararua-Ruahine-Raukumara chain, on the eastern side of the 
North Island ; they occur in the Kaikoura Mountains, and an outlier 
forms Mount Torlesse, near the eastern edge of the Southern Alps, 
west of Christchurch. The Maitai beds have generally been considered 
to be Carboniferous from the presence of species of Produclus found 
in the Permo-Carboniferpus of New South Wales. But Professor 
Park has obtained Jurassic fossils in the Maitai series; so that it will 
probably be ultimately divided between the Carboniferous and 
Jurassic. The two systems should, however, be separable by an 
unconformity, unless the Maitai series also includes representatives 
of the Kaihiku series (the New Zealand Permian), and of the Wairoa 
series, which is Triassic. 

New Zealand includes representatives of all the three Mesozoic 
systems. The Hokanui group comprises the Triassic Wairoa and 
Otapira beds, and the Jurassic Mataura beds. The Wairoa series 
includes marine limestones characterized by Monotis salinaria, and 
the Otapira series is characterized by Spiriferina spatulata. The 
Mataura beds are largely of estuarine formation; they contain oil 
shales and gas springs. 

The Cretaceous system includes the Waipara series, a belt of chalky 



limestones with some phosphate beds at Clarendon in eastern Otago. 
Their fossils include belemnites, ammonites, scaphites and marine 
saurians, such as Cimoliosaurus. These Cretaceous limestones are 
interbedded with glauconitic greensands, as at Moeraki Point in 
eastern Otago. The second type of Cretaceous is a terrestrial 
formation, and is important as it contains the rich coal seams of 
Greymouth, Westport and Seddonville, which yield a high quality 
of steam coal. Cretaceous coals have long been worked in the North 
Island, north of Auckland, on the shores of the Bay of Islands, where 
the age of the coal is shown by its occurrence under the Whangarei 
or Waimio limestone. 

The Cainozoic system is represented by Oligocene, Miocene, 
Pliocene and Pleistocene beds. The best-known Oligocene rocks 
are the limestones of Oamaru and the brown-coal measures of 
Waikato. The Oamaru limestones have been largely used for 
building stones; they are a pure white limestone, largely made up of 
foraminifera, bryozoa and shell fragments, and contain the teeth of 
sharks (e.g. Carcharodon) and of toothed whales such as Squalodon 
serratus._ In southern Otago the Oligocene beds are brown coals 
and lignites with oil shales, which, at Orepuki, contain 47% of oil 
and gas, with 8% of water. The Miocene Pareora beds occur to 



English Miles 
SQ 100 





Cainozoic volcanic 

Cainolofc sedimentary ^ 

Cretaceous (including MAW Lom*r Ceimetoia) 

Jurassic and Triassic 

Carboniferous (probably Including too* Jurtuic). 

Devonian and Lowtr Palaeozoic 

Archean 




the height of 3000 or 4000 ft. above sea-level, in both the 
North and South Islands. Some of its fossils also occur in the 
Oamaru series, but the two series are unconformable. In Westland 
the Miocene includes the Moutere gravels, which rest on the summit 
of Mount Greenland, 4900 ft. above sea-level. 

Marine beds of the Pliocene are best developed in the Wanganui 
basin. They consist of fine clays with nodular calcareous concretions 
rich in fossils. The Pleistocene system in the South Island includes 
glacial deposits, which prove a great extension of the New Zealand 
glaciers, especially along the western coast. The glaciers must have 
reached the sea at Cascade Point in southern Westland. On the 
eastern side of the Alps the glaciers appear to have been confined to 
the mountain valleys. The Pleistocene swamp deposits are rich in 
the bones of the moa and other gigantic extinct birds, which lived on 
until they were exterminated by the Maori. The Cainozoic volcanic 
history of New Zealand begins in the Oligocene, when the high 
volcanic domes of Dunedin and Banks Peninsula were built up. 
The Dunedin lavas including tephrites and kenytes correspond to 
the dacite eruptions in the volcanic history of Victoria. The building 
up of these domes of lavas of intermediate chemical type was followed 
by the eruption of sheets of andesites and rhyolites in the Thames 



626 



NEW ZEALAND 



Goldfield and the Taupo volcanic district. The volcanic activity of 
the Taupo district lasted into the Pleistocene, and the last eruptions 
contributed many of its chief geographical features. 1 (J. W. G.) 

Climate. Diversity of level and latitude cause many varieties 
of climate in the South Island provinces. The height and 
regularity of the mountain backbone increase the diversity. 
Only one pass, the Haast (1716 ft.), crosses from E. to W. 
at a less height than 3000 ft. Along the whole west coast the 
climate resembles nothing in the British Islands so much as 
Cork and Kerry, for there are the same wet gales from a western 
ocean, the same clouds gathering on the dripping sides of wild 
mountains, an equal absence of severe frosts and hot sunshine, 
and a rich and evergreen vegetation. Elsewhere, sheltered 
Nelson has a more genial air than the Wellington side of Cook 
Strait. Foveaux Strait is as cold and windy as the Strait of 
Dover. The Canterbury plain has but 26 ins. of annual 
rainfall, less than a fourth of that along the western littoral. 
Very seldom indeed is moisture excessive in the eastern half; 
there is even a deficiency in unfavourable years, and dry, 
warm winds do damage to crops. Insect life is relatively not 
abundant; the air is brisk and bright with ample sunshine. 
The snow-line, which is at 3000 ft. on the eastern flank of the 
Alps, is 3700 ft. on the western. 

The healthiness of the New Zealand climate in all parts is 
attested by the death-rate, which, varying (1896-1906) from 
9 to 10-50 per 1000, is the lightest in the world. In 1896 
it was as low as 9-10. In 1907, however, it was 10-91, the highest 
figure since the year 1883. Even in the boroughs the average 
is below 13. The rainfall in most of the settled districts ranges 
from 30 to 50 ins. a year. Meteorological statistics are collected 
at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and eight 
other stations; and observations of rainfall, temperature, 
and wind-directions are received from eighteen stations of the 
second class. From the data thus obtained an isobaric map 
and a report are prepared for each day; and weather warnings 
are telegraphed to any part of the coast when necessary. A 
system of inter-colonial weather exchanges has been agreed 
upon, and telegrams are daily exchanged between Sydney and 
Wellington. 

Flora. There are about one thousand species of flowering plants, 
of which about three-fourths are endemic. Most of those not 
peculiar to the country are Australian; others are South American, 
European, Antarctic; and some have Polynesian affinities. Ferns 
and other cryptogamic plants are in great variety and abundance. 
The New Zealand flora, like the fauna, has been cited in support of 
the theory of the remote continental period. In appearance the more 
conspicuous flora differs very greatly from that of Australia, Poly- 
nesia, and temperate South America, and helps to give to the 
scenery a character of its own. 

The early colonists found quite half the surface of the archipelago 
covered with dense, evergreen forest, a luxuriant growth of pines and 
beeches, tangled and intertwined with palms, ferns of all size^, wild 
vines and other parasites, and a rank, bushy, mossed undergrowth. 
Though much of the timber is of commercial value -notably the 
kauri, totara, puriri, rimu, matai and kahikatca this has not saved 
the forests from wholesale, often reckless, destruction. Two-fifths 
perhaps have already disappeared, and it is probable that in fifty 
years the only large tracts still standing will be sub-alpine woods and 
in state reserves. Meanwhile charred and rotting stumps give a 
melancholy and untidy air to valleys and denuded hillsides, for 
hard-wood stumps and most New Zealand trees are hard-wood 
take more than a generation to decay utterly. Compelled by the 
windy climate the colonists are doing something to repair these 
ravages by planting European, Californian and Australian shelter- 
trees; but it is only in the naturally open and grassy regions of the 
east and south-east that settlement as yet improves the landscape. 
There, before the colonists came, wide sweeps of dull green bracken 
or wiry yellow-green tussocks seemed bleak and monotonous enough. 
The swamps covered with flax and giant bulrushes were often re- 
deemed to the eye by sheets of golden-plumed to6-tod, a kind of 
pampas grass. 

Fauna. The destruction of the forest is telling fatally on the 



1 See the geological map of New Zealand by Sir James Hector 
(1884). A brief sketch of its geological history is given by Mutton, 
Trans. New Zealand Inst. (1899), xxxii. pp. 159-183. Fullest inform- 
ation about the geology of New Zealand is given in the Reports of 
Geological Explorations issued by the Geological Survey of New 
Zealand, and the Annual Reports of the mines department. A 
bibliography of the chief literature has been compiled by A. 
Hamilton, Trans. New Zealand Inst. (1903), xxxv. 489-546. 



native avifauna. In their natural state the islands were without 
land mammals, and the Polynesian immigrants brought but two in 
their canoes a dog, now extinct, and a black rat, now rarely seen. 
Until recent years the forest birds did much to atone for this de- 
ficiency, for among them the tui and makomako rank high as 
songsters, while the apteryxes, kakapo, weka and stitch-bird are of 
peculiar interest to science. The importation of stoats and weasels, 
ferrets and cats has resulted in a process of extermination which 
has already made it necessary to set aside the islets Resolution, 
Kapiti and Little Barrier as sanctuaries. The place of the vanishing 
native species is being taken by such European arrivals as sky-larks, 
finches, blackbirds, sparrows and rooks. Outside the forest country 
the weka, an almost wingless bird, is numerous, and in the Alps a 
hawk-like green parrot, the kea, has learned to kill sheep and holds 
its ground. The pukeko, a handsome rail, abounds in swamps. The 
native wild ducks are carefully preserved for sportsmen, in whose 
interests pheasants, red and fallow deer, and brown and rainbow 
trout have been very successfully acclimatized. Acclimatization, 
indeed, had played a chief part in the settlement of New Zealand. 
Coming to a country without useful animals, cereals, rich grasses 
or fruit trees, the colonists had to bring all these necessaries with 
them. So far acclimatizers note but few failures; the chief case is 
that of the salmon. Again and again salmon have been successfully 
hatched out into rivers, but the young fish hastening down stream 
to the sea never return thence. This is all the more unfortunate as 
eels were the only large edible creatures found in the fresh-water 
l<iites and rivers. Tidal waters furnish minute whitebait, and the 
mud-flats of salt or brackish lagoons and estuaries flounders both 
very delicate eating. Oysters, both mud and rock, are good and 
plentiful. A strange visitor, the frost-fish, never seen at sea, is 
picked up stranded on sandy beaches in cold weather, and is prized 
by epicures. The snapper is at once the handsomest and most 
palatable of a good variety of sea fish. Sharks are found everywhere 
and are common round the north, though they rarely attack man. 
The albatross is of course the most conspicuous sea bird. Penguins 
are found, confined to the islets of the far south. As some com- 
pensation for its paucity of useful animals and food plants, New 
Zealand was, of course, free from wild carnivora, has no snakes, and 
only one poisonous insect, the katipo, a timid little spider found on 
certain sea-beaches. Of poisonous plants only the berries of the 
tutu and the karaka are worth notice. The wild dogs and pigs 
which now sometimes prey on the sheep-farmers' lambs in outlying 
districts are the descendants of domestic animals which have 
escaped into the " bush." Among imported pests the rabbit and 
sparrow, and a numerous company of European and American 
thistles and other weeds, have to be systematically contended with. 
The formidable increase of the rabbit has been arrested, mainly by 
poison and wire-netting fences. 

Poprdation. In January 1840 there may have been 2000 
whites in New Zealand. By 1861 the number was still slightly 
under 100,000. During the next twenty years the gold dis- 
coveries, the public works expenditure, and the development 
of agriculture, multiplied the number of colonists five times 
to 498,000 in April 1881. Then increase slackened for many 
years, and was slowest between 1886 and 1891, when the ad- 
dition was but 48,000 in five years. In 1901 the whites numbered 
773,000; and between that year and the census computation 
in April 1906 the increase, 115,859, was the largest yet recorded 
in any quinquennium. In the middle of 1908 the official estimate 
of white inhabitants was 950,000. 

The white population, about nine to the square mile, is very 
unevenly distributed. In the South Island nine-tenths of the 
colonists live within 40 m. of the east and south-east coasts; 
in the North Island the eastern and northern parts of Wellington 
province, and the southern and broadest part of Auckland 
province are still very scantily peopled. For all that, Auckland 
and Wellington are the most populous of the larger districts, 
while Nelson, Westland and Marlborough have for a long time 
shown the slowest increase. 

Males still exceed females in the proportion of nine to eight. 
About 70% of the population is New Zealand born. The white 
foreign element is small; what there is is chiefly Scandinavian. 
German and Dalmatian. Among the foreigners males greatly 
outnumber females; even in the case of the German settlers 
the proportion is two to one. 

Between 1880 and 1892 the birth-rate fell by no less than 
12-95 points rather more than i a year. It continued to fall 
for seven years more, though at a much reduced rate, and 
finally reached 25-12 in the year 1899. In the next eight years 
there was a slow recovery to 27-30 in 1907. Thanks, however, 
to the low death-rate, elsewhere referred to, the margin of 



NEW ZEALAND 



627 



increase in New Zealand is over 17. To that, and to the annual 
gain by immigration, the fairly rapid rate of increase is due. 
Between 1885 and 1891 the colony lost more than it gained 
oversea; but from 1892 to 1908 the gain by immigration was 
90,000. Probably, at least half of these represent Australians, 
impelled to emigrate by years of drought. England and Scotland 
supply the bulk of the remainder. The government has aided 
immigrant farmers and farm labourers having a certain sum 
of money, also female domestics, by paying part of their passage 
money. 

The people of colour in 1906 numbered 53,000, including 
2300 Chinese and 6500 Maori half-castes. An apparent increase 
of 7000 in the Maori and half-castes between 1891 and 1906 
is, perhaps, partly due to more accurate computation. It seems 
probable that the number of Maori and half-castes taken together 
is about the same as it was thirty years ago, though the infusion 
of white blood is larger. The Public Health Department has 
exerted itself to improve the sanitation of native villages and 
combat the mischievous trickery of Maori wizards and 
" doctors." 

Wealth. The increase of wealth went on after 1879 in spite of dull 
times, and was only checked by the especially severe financial 
depression of 1893 and 1894, caused by low prices and the Australian 
bank panic. The estimated private wealth of colonists fell from 
236 per head in 1890 to 219 in 1895. It was computed in 1905 to 
have reached 292. After deducting debts owing abroad the public 
and private wealth of the colony is calculated to be about 
270,000,000. 

Of the five banks of issue doing business in the dominion three are 
Australian and New Zealand institutions. Their deposits exceeded 
21,000,000 in 1907, as against 12,250,000 in 1890. At the same 
date more than 10,000,000 stood to the credit of small depositors in 
post office and private savings banks, nine-tenths in the former. 
The gross amount insured by policies in life insurance offices 
(ordinary and industrial) was over 29,000,000, of which the state 
office claimed two-fifths. 

Trade. The growth of sea-trade in recent years is shown by the 
larger size of the ocean-going vessels trading with the colony. The 
number of these only advanced from 589 to 629 between 1896 and 
1906. But the increase of tonnage in the eleven years was from 
614,000 tons to 1,243,000; while the crews rose from 20,000 to 32,500. 
The coasting trade and trade with Australia are carried in New 
Zealand-owned vessels. 

External trade has risen from 13,111,000 in 1887 to 37,371,000 
in 1907. Before 1886 exports exceeded imports; but in the twenty 
subsequent years there was an invariable excess of exports, valued in 
all at 52,000,000. 

The re-export trade is stationary and extremely small. Trade with 
the United States grew from 877,000 in 1891 to 2,140,000 in 1907. 
Thanks to the tariff of the United States the balance of trade with 
North America is heavily against New Zealand. The same dis- 
parity is shown in her trade with Germany, which is, however, much 
smaller less than half a million. Trade with India and Ceylon 
reached 557,000 in 1906; that with Fiji and other Pacific islands 
was 622,000 in 1900. With these exceptions New Zealand trade is 
almost all done with Australia (5,348,000 in 1907) and the United 
Kingdom; the latter's share in 1906 was 26,811,000 of the whole. 

Production. -Wool (4,250,000 to 7,657,000 according to prices) 
remains at the head of the list of exports. The quantity grown in- 
creased by 70% in the twenty years 1887-1906. Moreover the 
export of sheep skins and pelts was valued at 680,000 in the last- 
mentioned year. But the description changes; there is much less 
merino, and more of the coarser and longer cross-bred. The number 
of sheep has increased from 16,564,000 in 1886 to 22,000,000 in 1908, 
though the increase has been almost all in North Island. The number 
of the flocks grows, and the average size diminishes even more rapidly. 
There were 9149 flocks in 1886; in 1906 the number had risen to 
18,500 average size of each flock about 1050. The smaller size of 
the flocks and the breeding of sheep for meat rather than for wool, 
the cultivation of English grasses and of extensive props of turnips 
and other roots on which to fatten sheep and lambs, all tend to 
change sheep-farming from the mere grazing of huge mobs on wide, 
unimproved runs held by pastoral licences. The " squatters " still 
occupy eleven million acres, but even these are more closely sub- 
divided than in former days. How much more extensive is grazing 
of the more scientific order than agriculture, is seen at once from 
the figures of the amount of land broken up, for crops or other 
purposes, and the amount under sown grasses. There were about 
1,600,000 acres under crop in 1899. This is exclusive of the vast area 
of native-grass land. The area now occupied and utilized by whites 
is about 38,000,000 acres. 

The character of the soil and the moist cool climate enable English 
grasses to be sown almost everywhere, and 13,000,000 acres are now 
laid down with these. The result is seen in the price obtained for 
New Zealand sheep in Smithfield Market, which is from Jd. to id. 



per Ib higher than that given for frozen mutton from other countries. 
The figures below show the growth 'of' the trade : 

Export of Frozen Meat. 



Year. 


Ib. 


Year. 


ft. 


1882 
1891 


1,707,328 
110,199,082 


1901 
1907 


208,045,000 
263.73S.496 



In the market for frozen lambs the colony remains at present without 
a rival. Frozen beef is also sent to England. In 1907 the export of 
frozen meat was valued at 3,420,000. The export of butter and 
cheese has risen in value from 207,687 in 1890, till in 1907 that of 
butter amounted to 1,615,000. In London, New Zealand cheese 
fetches as high a price as Canadian; the value of the cheese ex- 
ported was 662,000 in 1907. Though not yet quite equal in im- 
portance to wool or frozen meat, dairy-farming is almost entirely 
carried on by small farmers and their families, who supply milk to 
factories. Most of these are co-operative, their shareholders being 
the farmers themselves. The profits of the industry are thus widely 
distributed among the producers. The development of dairy- 
farming has led to the spread of settlement, especially in the west of 
North Island, where large tracts of fertile soil formerly covered with 
forest have now been cleared and converted into dairy-farms. Of 
1,850,000 cattle in the colony, two-sevenths are dairy cows. 

The importance of hemp as an export increasing from 26,000 in 
1898 to 832,000 in 1907 has led to improvements in cleaning and 
grading it. In consequence its price in London nearly approaches 
that paid for manila. 

Mining. The export of gold, which was 1,220,000 in 1880, 
did not exceed that figure until 1898, and, indeed, fell below three- 
quarters of a million in 1887. Then gold-mining, after being long at 
a standstill, began again to make headway. For many years the 
surface alluvial mining in South Island became less and less profitable. 
As in other countries, however, the working of quartz reefs gradually 
compensated for this. The cyanide process of gold extraction, and 
the returns obtained by its means from the great Waihi mine in the 
Upper Thames, caused an outbreak of gold fever, which led to the 
opening up of a few good and a great many worthless quartz-mines 
in the Auckland fields. In South Island the river-beds of Otago 
province have been successfully worked by means of dredges, and 
good returns secured. In 1907 the gold exported was valued at 
2,027,000. The total value of the gold exported from New Zealand 
from the discovery of the metal in 1857 to 1907 was, roundly, 
70,000,000. Kauri gum still holds its place as an export, over 
500,000 worth being dug up annually. The number of Istrians and 
Dalmatians who came from the Adriatic to dig for kauri gum led to 
the passing of restrictive laws. 
_The progressive output of coal from 1880 to 1900 is shown below. 



Year. 


Raised in 
the Colony. 


Imported. 


Exported. 1 


1880 
1890 
1900 
1907 
Foi 


Tons. 
299,923 

637,397 
1,093,990 
1,831,009 
ir-sevenths of 


Tons. 
123,298 
"0,939 
124,033 

the coal is 1 


Tons. 
7,021 

33,404 
36,699 

jituminous. 



1 Excluding Coal for Fuel by Ocean Steamers. 

Excellent as the quality of the best New Zealand coal is, the cost of 
mining and shipping it prevents the growth of any considerable 
export trade. Silver is chiefly extracted in the Thames district, 
but other mines containing silver ores have been found. There are 
many other valuable ores copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, chrome 
and manganese. Petroleum springs have been tapped near New 
Plymouth. Building stones of various lands and of excellent quality 
abound. Marble and cement stones occur in many places. There 
are extensive deposits of iron-sand on the west coast of the North 
Island, and of iron ore at Parapara in Nelson. 

Manufactures. Protected by a tariff wall which was repeatedly 
heightened between 1879 and 1907, manufactures made considerable 
progress. At the end of 1885 about 22,000 work-people were being 
employed in 1946 workshops, and the aggregate output was valued 
at six millions and three-quarters. Twenty years later the number 
of establishments was 4186; the number of hands 56,000; and the 
output twenty-three millions and a half. A small deduction should 
be made from this apparent increase to allow for a changed system 
of classification. Male factory hands greatly outnumbered female, 
standing in the ratio of four to one. Between 1879 and 1895 wages 
fell. Between 1895 and 1906 they rose 15% on the average among 
males of all ages, and as much as 30% among women and girl 
workers. The disproportionate rise in the case of females is probably 
due to the policy of the industrial arbitration court. The chief 
factory industries come under the following heads: meat-freezing 
and tallow; tanning and wool-scouring; flax mills, saw-mills and 
grain-mills; boots and shoes; woollen and clothing; butter and, 



628 



NEW ZEALAND 



cheese; breweries; printing houses; foundries; agricultural imple- 
ment and machine shops; soap and candle works; coach-building 
and furniture; gas-works. Except in meat-freezing, wool-scouring, 
butter- and cheese-making, flax-milling and timber-sawing, manufac- 
turing is almost entirely for consumption within the colony. 

Government. New Zealand was not colonized in the ordinary 
manner around one centre. There were in its early years six 
distinct settlements Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, New 
Plymouth, Canterbury and Otago between which communica- 
tion was for several years irregular and infrequent. To meet 
their political wants the Constitution Act of 1852 created 
them into provinces, with elective councils and superintendents 
respectively, subordinated to one colonial legislature. In 1876 
the provincial system was abolished. The general assembly, as 
it is called, is composed of the governor, the legislative council, 
and the House of Representatives. The governor is appointed 
by the crown, but his salary, 7500, is paid by the colony. The 
legislative council consists of members appointed for seven 
years by the governor in council; the number of legislative 
councillors stays at or near forty-five. The House of Repre- 
sentatives consists of eighty members chosen by the electors. 
The members of both houses are paid. The franchise is adult 
suffrage, conditional on a previous residence in the colony for 
a year, including six months in the electoral district for which 
a claim to vote is registered. Every elector is qualified for 
election. Four members of the house must be Maori elected 
by their own race. The duration of the house is for three years, 
but it is subject to re-election whenever the governor dissolves 
the general assembly. Legislation is subject to disallowance 
by the crown, but that power is seldom exercised. Executive 
administration is conducted on the principle of English re- 
sponsible or parliamentary government. The government is 
represented in England by a high commissioner. Local ad- 
ministration is vested in local elective bodies, such as municipal 
councils, county councils, road boards, harbour boards, charitable 
aid boards, and others, with power to levy rates. The colonial 
revenue is chiefly derived from customs, stamp duties, land tax, 
income tax, beer excise, postal and telegraphic services, railways, 
and crown land sales and rents. The proceeds of land sales 
are applied to surveys and public works. Customs duties, 
railways and stamps are by far the most important sources 
of revenue. They yielded 3,103,000, 2,765,000 and 1,550,000 
respectively out of a total revenue of 9,056,000 in the financial 
year 1907-1908. The gross public debt had reached 66,500,000 
in 1908. The money has chiefly been spent on railways, tele- 
graphs, roads, bridges, land purchase from the native tribes 
and private estate owners, on loans to settlers and on native 
wars. The state railways (2500 m.) return about 800,000 after 
paying working expenses. This does not quite defray the 
interest on the cost of their construction and equipment, inas- 
much as it barely comes to 35% thereon, but rates and fares 
are deliberately 'kept low to encourage settlement and com- 
munication. The debts of the local bodies amount to about 
nine millions. They raise rather more than a million a year 
by rates, licence fees and dues. 

Education, Under the Education Act of 1877 state schools are 
established, in which teaching is free, secular and compulsory, with 
certain exceptions, for children between the ages of seven and 
thirteen. A capitation grant is given for every child in average daily 
attendance at the schools. Grants are also made for scholarships 
from primary to secondary schools, for training institutions for 
teachers and for school buildings. Large reserves of public lands 
have been made for primary, secondary and university education. 
All primary and some secondary public schools are controlled by 
provincial education boards elected by school committees of the 
parents of pupils. The percentage of attendance has rivalled that in 
the primary schools of Scotland, and in 1905 attained to 86-9 %. 
Native village schools are also provided by the state in native 
districts. There are, moreover, industrial schools, orphanages and 
institutions for the deaf and dumb and blind. There are about 
ninety secondary schools, state-supported or aided by public endow- 
ments. The university of New Zealand is an examining body, and 
grants honours, degrees and scholarships. It is empowered by 
royal charter to confer degrees entitled to rank and consideration 
throughout the British dominions, as fully as if they were granted by 
any university in the United Kingdom. Colleges in the four chief 
towns and in Nelson are affiliated to the New Zealand University, 



which has about fifteen hundred undergraduates keeping terms. 
The state in no way controls or interferes with religious administra- 
tion. Each denomination attends to the religious instruction of its 
own adherents, chiefly by means of Sunday schools, which count 
108,000 pupils. Roman Catholics support about 150 clerical day 
schools attended by about 11,500 scholars. State school buildings 
can be, and sometimes are, used for religious instruction on days and 
at hours oth,er than those fixed by law for ordinary school work; 
but no child can be required to attend, except at the wish of its parent 
or guardian. The government spends 35,000 a year on manual and 
technical instruction, a branch of teaching which includes about 
two hundred cookery classes. A school of engineering and an agri- 
cultural college are attached to the university 'college in the province 
of Canterbury, and there are several schools of mines elsewhere. 

About 157,000 white children and 6500 Maori children attend 
schools of one degree or another. Private schools claim about 10% 
of these. The annual parliamentary expenditure on education 
exceeds 700,000. In this connexion it may be claimed that the 
proportion of policemen to population (i to 1375) is lower in New 
Zealand than in any other colony. The fixing of the legal minimum 
" factory age " for children at fourteen undoubtedly favours school 
attendance. 

Land. Apart from gold-mining, coal-mining and gum-digging, 
the industries are still mainly the growing of food and raw material; 
and the occupation of the land is easily the chief of all economic 
questions. Sixteen million acres were in 1907 already held in free- 
hold, as against about six million acres rented from the state on 
permanent leasehold. Crown lands are still alienated, though but 
little is now sold for cash outright. The number of holdings of one 
acre and upwards in size rose from 33,332 in 1886 to 58,904 in 1896, 
and 72,338 in 1906; but the area held in estates of 5000 acres and 
upwards remains very large and has diminished but slowly despite 
the severity of the graduated land-tax. Many interesting experi- 
ments in settling lands have been tried. The best known of these, 
perhaps, is the repurchase of large pastoral estates for subdivision 
and lease in perpetuity. In the fourteen years 1893-1907 about a 
million and a quarter acres were thus acquired at a cost of somewhat 
under five millions and a half. Over 13,000 souls had been settled in 
this area, and the yearly rent received from them, about 220,000, 
left a substantial balance to the credit of the enterprise in the books 
of the treasury. The tenants (who had been favoured with good 
years) were with very few exceptions prospering. 

Old Age Pensions. The Old Age Pensions law, enacted in 1898, 
provided for the free grant of pensions, not exceeding 18 a year, 
to persons of sixty-five years and upwards who had lived for twenty- 
five years in the colony. Pensioners must be British subjects, poor, 
and not ex-criminals or of notoriously bad character. In 1905 the 
maximum pension was raised to 26 a year. Official figures show 
that the total number of applications for pensions up to that date 
had been 31,271, of which 23,877 had been granted. The number 
of pensioners then on the books of the Pensions Office was 13,257. 
In the first three years after enactment of the law the growth of 
the number of pensioners was very rapid ; in the next five it was 
remarkably slow only 481 altogether. The proportion of whites 
qualified by age and residence who were actually drawing pensions 
was rather less than one-third (it had been 9 % more in 1902). The 
reduction was due to stricter administration. The total sum paid 
out in eight and a quarter years had been a million and three quarters. 
The amount paid in pensions in the financial year 1906-1907 was 
325,000. The money is found by the central government. The 
administration of the system, which is in the hands of a special 
department, costs a little over 5000. Frauds and evasions by 
applicants and pensioners, though they exist, are not believed to 
be numerous. Public thrift does not, so far, seem to have been 
diminished. Since the coming of the system the amount spent on 
outdoor relief in the colony had by 1906 diminished from 51,000 
to 36,500, in face of an increase of nearly 23% in the population. 

History. The date, even the approximate date, of man's 
arrival in New Zealand is uncertain. All tha't can be safely 
asserted is that by the I4th century A.D. Polynesian canoe-men 
had reached its northern shores in successive voyages. By 
1642 they had spread to South Island, for there Abel Jansen 
Tasman found them when, in the course of his circuitous voyage 
from Java in the" Heemskirk," he chanced upon the archipelago, 
coasted along much of its western side, though without venturing 
to land, and gave it the name it still bears. One hundred and 
thirty-seven years later, Cook, in the barque " Endeavour," 
gained a much fuller knowledge of the coasts, which he circum- 
navigated, visited again and again, and mapped out with fair 
accuracy. He annexed the country, but the British government 
disavowed the act. After him came other navigators, French, 
Spanish, Russian and American; and, as the i8th century 
neared its end, came sealers, whalers and trading-schooners 
in quest of flax and timber. English missionaries, headed by 
Samuel Marsden, landed in 1814, to make for many years but 



NEW ZEALAND 



629 



slow progress. They were hindered by murderous tribal wars 
in which imported muskets more than decimated the Maori. 
Still, cruel experience and the persevering preaching of the 
missionaries gradually checked the fighting, and by the year 
1839 it could be claimed that peace and Christianity were in 
the ascendant. So far the British government had resisted the 
considerable pressure brought to bear in Downing Street in 
favour of annexation. In vain Edward Gibbon Wakefield, 
organizer of colonizing associations, prayed and intrigued for 
permission to repeat in New Zealand the experiment tried by 
him in South Australia. Lord Glenelg, the colonial minister, had 
the support of the missionaries in withstanding Wakefield's 
New Zealand Company, which at length resolved in desperation 
to send an agent to buy land wholesale in New Zealand and 
despatch a shipload of settlers thither without official permission. 
Before, however, the " Tory " had thus sailed for Cook Strait, 
it had become known to the English government that a French 
colonizing company La Compagnie Nanto-Bordelaise was 
forming, under the auspices of Louis Philippe, to anticipate or 
oust Wakefield. Further obstruction was manifestly futile, and 
the British authorities reluctantly instructed Captain Hobson, 
R.N., to make his way to northern New Zealand with a dormant 
commission of lieutenant-governor in his pocket and authority 
to annex the country to Australia by peaceful arrangement with 
the natives. Hobson landed in the Bay of Islands on the 22nd 
of January 1840, hoisted the Union Jack, and had little difficulty 
in inducing most of the native chiefs to accept the queen's 
sovereignty at the price of guaranteeing to the tribes by the 
treaty of Waitangi possession of their lands, forests and fisheries. 
Some French settlers, convoyed by a man-of-war, reached 
Akaroa in South Island in the May following. But Hobson had 
forestalled them, and those who remained in the country became 
British subjects. Meanwhile, a week after Hobson's arrival, 
Wakefield's colonists had sailed into Port Nicholson, and proposed 
to take possession of immense tracts which the New Zealand 
Company claimed to have bought from the natives, and for which 
colonists had in good faith paid the company. Other bands of 
company's settlers in like manner landed at Nelson, Wanganui 
and New Plymouth, to be met with the news that the British 
government would not recognize the company's purchases. 
Then followed weary years of ruinous delay and official inquiry, 
during which Hobson died after founding Auckland. His 
successor, Fitzroy, drifted into " an unsuccessful native war. 
A strong man, Captain Grey, was at last sent over from Australia 
to restore peace and rescue the unhappy colony from bankruptcy 
and despair. Grey, much the best of the absolute governors, 
held the balance fairly bet ween the white and brown races, and 
bought large tracts of land for colonization, including the whole 
South Island, where the Presbyterian settlement of Otago and 
the Anglican settlement of Canterbury were established by 
the persevering Wakefield. 

In 1852 the mother-country granted self-government, and, 
after much wrangling and hesitation, a full parliamentary system 
and a responsible ministry were set going in 1856. For twenty 
years thereafter the political history of the colony consisted 
of two long, intermittent struggles one constitutional between 
the central government (first seated in Auckland, but after 
1864 in Wellington) and the powerful provincial councils, of 
which there were nine charged with important functions and 
endowed with the land revenues and certain rating powers. 
The other prolonged contest was racial the conflict between 
settler and Maori. The native tribes, brave, intelligent and 
fairly well armed, tried, by means of a league against land-selling 
and the election of a king, to retain their hold over at least the 
central North Island. But their kings were incompetent, their 
chiefs jealous and their tribes divided. Their style of warfare, 
too, caused them to throw away the immense advantages which 
the broken bush-clad island offered to clever guerrilla partisans. 
They were poor marksmen, and had but little skill in laying 
ambuscades. During ten years of intermittent marching and 
fighting between 1861 and 1871 the Maori did no more than 
prove that they had in them the stuff to stand up against fearful 



odds and not always to be worsted. Round Mount Egmont, 
at Orakau, at Tauranga and in the Wanganui jungles, they more 
than once held their own against British regiments and colonial 
riflemen. The storming of their favourite positions stockades 
strengthened with rifle-pits was often costly; and a strange 
anti-Christian fanaticism, the Hau-Hau cult, encouraged them 
to face the white men's bullets and bayonets. But even their 
fiercest fighting leaders, Rewi and Te Kooti, scarcely deserved 
the name of generals. Some of the best Maori fighters, such as 
the chiefs Ropata and Ke.mp, were enlisted on the white side, 
and with their tribesmen did much to make unequal odds still 
more unequal. Had General Pratt or General Cameron, who 
commanded the imperial forces from 1860 to 1865, had the 
rough vigour of their successor, General Chute, or the cleverness 
of Sir George Grey, the war might have ended in 1864. Even 
as it was the resistance of the Maori was utterly worn out 
at last. After 1871 they fought no more. The colonists too, 
taught by the sickening delay and the ruinous cost of the war 
to revert to conciliatory methods, had by this tune granted the 
natives special representation in parliament. A tactful native 
minister, Sir Donald McLean, did the rest. Disarmament, 
roads and land-purchasing enabled settlement to make headway 
again in the North Island after twelve years of stagnation. 
Grey quarrelled with his masters in Downing Street, and his 
career hi the imperial service came to an end hi 1868. His 
successors, Sir George Bowen, Sir James Ferguson, the marquess 
of Normanby and Sir Hercules Robinson, were content to be 
constitutional governors and to respect strictly the behests of 
the colonial office. Meanwhile the industrial story of New 
Zealand may be summed up in the words wool and gold. Ex- 
tremely well suited for sheep-farming, the natural pastures of 
the country were quickly parcelled out into huge pastoral crown 
leases, held by prosperous licensees, the squatters, who hi many 
cases aspired to become a country gentry by turning their leases 
into freeholds. So profitable was sheep-farming seen to be that 
energetic settlers began to burn off the bracken and cut and burn 
the forest hi the North Island and sow English grasses on the 
cleared land. In the South artificial grassing went on for a tune 
hand hi hand with cereal-growing, which by 1876 seemed likely 
to develop on a considerable scale, thanks to the importation 
of American agricultural machinery, which the settlers were 
quick to utilize. Even more promising appeared the gold-fields. 
Gold had been discovered hi 1853. Not, however, until 1861 
was a permanent field found that lighted upon by Gabriel 
Read at Tuapeka in Otago. Thereafter large deposits were 
profitably exploited in the south and west of South Island and 
in the Thames and Coromandel districts of the Auckland province. 
Gold-mining went through the usual stages of alluvial washing, 
deep sinking and quartz-reef working. Perhaps its chief value 
was that it brought many thousand diggers to the colony, 
most of whom stayed there. Pastoral and mining enterprise, 
however, could not save the settlers from severe depression in 
the years 1867 to 1871. War had brought progress hi the north 
to a standstill; hi the south wool-growing and gold-mining 
showed their customary fluctuations. For a moment it seemed 
as though the manufacture of hemp from the native Phormium 
tenax would become a great industry. But that suddenly 
collapsed, to the ruin of many, and did not revive for a number 
of years. 

In 1870 peace had not yet been quite won; industry was 
depressed; and the scattered and scanty colonists already 
owed seven millions sterling. Yet it was at this moment that 
a political financier, Sir Julius Vogel, at that moment colonial 
treasurer in the ministry of Sir William Fox, audaciously pro- 
posed that the central government should borrow ten millions, 
make roads and railways, buy land from the natives and import 
British immigrants. The House of Representatives, at first 
aghast, presently voted four millions as a beginning. Coinciding 
as the carrying out of Vogel's policy did with a rising wool 
market, it for a time helped to bring great prosperity, an influx 
of people and much genuine settlement. Fourteen millions 
of borrowed money, spent in ten years, were on the whole well 



630 



NEW ZEALAND 



laid out. But prosperity brought on a feverish land speculation; 
prices of wool and wheat fell in 1879 and went on falling. Faulty 
banking ended in a crisis, and 1879 proved to be the first of sixteen 
years of almost unbroken depression. Still, eight prosperous 
years had radically changed the colony. Peace, railways, 
telegraphs (including cable connexion with Europe), agricultural 
machinery and a larger population had carried New Zealand 
beyond the primitive stage. The provincial councils had been 
swept away in 1876, and their functions divided between the 
central authority and small powerless local bodies. Politics, 
cleared of the cross-issues of provincialism and Maori warfare, 
took the usual shape of a struggle between wealth and radicalism. 
Sir George Grey, entering colonial politics as a Radical leader, 
had appealed eloquently to the work-people as well as to the 
Radical " intellectuals," and though unable to retain office for 
very long he had compelled his opponents to pass manhood 
suffrage and a triennial parliaments act. A national education 
system, free, non-religious and compulsory, was established in 
1877. The socialistic bent of New Zealand was already dis- 
cernible in a public trustee law and a state life insurance office. 
But the socialistic labour wave of later years had not yet gathered 
strength. Grey proved himself a poor financier and a tactless 
party leader. A land-tax imposed by his government helped 
to alarm the farmers. The financial collapse of 1879 left the 
treasury empty. Grey was manoeuvred out of office, and Sir John 
Hall and Sir Harry Atkinson, able opponents, took the reins 
with a mission to reinstate the finances and restore confidence. 

Roughly speaking, both the political and the industrial 
history of the colony from 1879 to 1908 may be divided into two 
periods. The dividing line, however, has to be drawn in different 
years. Sixteen years of depression were followed, from 1895 
to 1908, by thirteen years of great prosperity. In politics 
nearly twelve years of Conservative government, or at least 
capitalistic predominance in public affairs, were succeeded by 
more than seventeen years of Radicalism. Up to January 
1891 the Conservative forces which overthrew Sir George Grey 
in 1879 controlled the country in effect though not always in 
name, and for ten years progressive legislation was confined to 
a mild experiment in offering crown lands on perpetual lease, 
with a right of purchase (1882), a still milder instalment of local 
option (1881) and an inoffensive Factories Act (1886). In 
September 1889, however, Sir George Grey succeeded in getting 
parliament to abolish the last remnant of plural voting. Finance 
otherwise absorbed attention; by 1880 the public debt had 
reached 25,000,000, against which the chief new asset was 
1300 m. of railway, and though the population had increased 
to nearly half a million, the revenue was stagnant. A severe 
property-tax and an increase of customs duties in 1879 only for a 
moment achieved financial equilibrium. Although taxation 
was seconded by a drastic, indeed harsh, reduction of public 
salaries and wages (which were cut down by one-tenth all round) 
yet the years 1884, 1887 and 1888 were notable for heavy 
deficits in the treasury. Taxation, direct and indirect, had to 
be further increased, and as a means of gaining support for this 
in 1888 Sir Harry Atkinson, who was responsible for the budget, 
gave the customs tariff a distinctly protectionist complexion. 

During the years 1879-1890 the leading political personage 
was Sir Harry Atkinson. He, however, withdrew from party 
politics when, in December 1890, he was overthrown by the 
Progressives under John Baliance. Atkinson's party never 
rallied from this defeat, and a striking change came over public 
life, though Baliance, until his death in April 1893, continued 
the prudent financial policy of his predecessor. The change 
was emphasized by the active intervention in politics of the 
trade unions. These bodies decided in 1889 and 1890 to exert 
their influence in returning workmen to parliament, and where 
this was impossible, to secure pledges from middle-class candi- 
dates. This plan was first put into execution at the general 
election of 1890, which was held during the industrial excitement 
aroused by the Australasian maritime strike of that year. It 
had, however, been fully arranged before the conflict broke out. 
The number of labour members thus elected to the general 



assembly was small, never more than six, and no independent 
labour party of any size was formed. But the influence of labour 
in the Progressive or, as it preferred to be called, Liberal party, 
was considerable, and the legislative results noteworthy. Baliance 
at once raised the pay of members from 150 to 240 a year, but 
otherwise directed his energies to constitutional reforms and 
social experiments. These did not interfere with the general 
lines of Atkinson's strong and cautious finance, though the first 
of them was the abolition of his direct tax upon all property, 
personal as well as real, and the substitution therefor of a land- 
tax of id. in the on capital value, and also of a graduated tax 
upon unimproved land values, and an income-tax also graduated, 
though less elaborately. The graduated land-tax, which has 
since been stiffened, rises from nothing at all upon the smaller 
holdings to 3d. in the upon the capital value of the largest 
estates those worth 2 10,000 and upwards. Buildings, improve- 
ments, and live stock are exempted. In the case of mortgaged 
estates the mortgagor is exempted from ordinary land-tax in 
proportion to the amount of his mortgage. On that the mortgagee 
pays at the rate of fd. in the . In 1896 municipal and rural 
local bodies were allowed to levy rates upon unimproved land 
values if authorized to do so by a vote of their electors, and by 
the end of 1901 some sixty bodies, amongst them the city of 
Wellington, had made use of this permission. The income-tax 
is not levied on incomes drawn from land. In 1891 the tenure 
of members of the legislative council or nominated Upper House, 
which had hitherto been for life, was altered to seven years. 
In 1892 a new form of land tenure was introduced, under which 
large areas of crown lands were leased for 999 years, at an 
unchanging rent of 4% on the prairie value. Crown tenants 
under this system had no right of purchase. In the same year 
a law was also passed authorizing government to repurchase 
private land for closer settlement. 

On Ballance's sudden death in April 1893 his place was taken 
by Richard Seddon, minister of mines in the Baliance cabinet, 
whose first task was to pass the electoral bill of his predecessor, 
which granted the franchise to all adult women. This was adopted 
in September 1893, though the majority for it in the Upper 
House was but two votes. In 1893 was enacted the Alcoholic 
Liquor Control Act, greatly extending local option. In 1894 
was passed the Advances to Settlers Act, under which state 
money-lending to farmers on mortgage of freehold or leasehold 
land was at once begun. The money is lent by an official board, 
which deals with applications and manages the finance of the 
system. In thirteen years the board lent out over five millions 
and a half, and received repayment of nearly two millions of 
principal as well as over one million in interest at 5 %. Borrowers 
must repay 5% of their principal half-yearly, and may repay as 
much more as they choose. Profits are paid over to an assurance 
fund. No losses were incurred during the thirteen years above 
mentioned. The net profit made by the board in 1906 was 
45,000. The same year also saw the climax of a series of laws 
passed by the Progressives affecting the relations of employers 
and workmen. These laws deal with truck, employers' liability, 
contractors' workmen, the recovery of workmen's wages, the hours 
of closing in shops and merchants' offices, conspiracy amongst 
trade unionists, and with factories, mines, shipping and seamen. 
In 1895 a law controlling servants' registry offices was added. 
In 1897 all shipowners engaging in the coasting trade of the colony 
were compelled to pay the colonial rate of wages. 

Meanwhile the keystone of the regulative system had been laid 
by the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 
under which disputes between employers and unions of workers 
are compulsorily settled by state tribunals ; strikes and lock-outs 
are virtually prohibited in the case of organized work-people, and 
the conditions of employment in industries may be, and in many 
cases are, regulated by public boards and courts. The years 
1896,1897 and 1898 were marked by struggles over the Old Age 
Pensions Bill, which became law in November 1898. In 1898 the 
divorce law was amended on the lines of the Stephen Act of New 
South Wales, a change which helped to treble the number of 
petitions for divorce in the next seven years. In 1898 also the 




NEXT FRIEND 



631 



municipal franchise, hitherto confined to ratepayers, was greatly 
widened; in 1900 the English system of compensation to work- 
men for accidents suffered in their trade was adopted with some 
changes, one of the chief being that contested claims are adjudi- 
cated upon cheaply and expeditiously by the same arbitration 
court that decides industrial disputes. In 1895 borrowing on 
a larger scale was begun, and in twelve years twice as many 
millions were added to the public debt. Before this the Ballance 
ministry had organized two new departments, those of labour 
and agriculture. The former supervises the labour laws and 
endeavours to deal with unemployment; the latter has done 
much practical teaching, inspection, &c. Butter, cheese and 
New Zealand hemp are by law graded and branded by depart- 
mental inspectors before export. For some years the government 
has worked two coal-mines profitably, chiefly to supply its 
railways. In 1907 the net profit on these was over 8000. The 
continued success of the government life insurance office led 
in 1899 to the setting up of an accidents insurance office, and, 
in 1903, of a state fire insurance office. 

The outbreak of the Boer War in October 1899 was followed 
in New Zealand by a prompt display of general and persistent 
warlike enthusiasm: politics ceased to be the chief topic of 
interest; the general election of 1899 was the most languid held 
for fifteen years. The desire of New Zealanders to strike a blow 
for the mother-country took the practical shape of despatching 
to South Africa ten successive contingents. 

After gaining office at the beginning of 1891 the Ballance- 
Seddon party had to struggle with the last four years of the 
period of depression. In 1895 began a marked commercial 
revival, mainly due to the steady conversion of the colony's 
waste lands into pasture; the development of frozen meat and 
dairy exports; the continuous increase of the output of coal; 
the invention of gold-dredging; the revival and improvement 
of hemp manufacture; the exploiting of the deposits of kauri 
gum; the reduction in the rates of interest on mortgage money; 
a general rise in wages, obtained without strikes, and partially 
secured by law, which has increased the spending power of the 
working classes. Undoubtedly also commercial confidence was 
restored by the reconstruction in 1895 of the Bank of New Zea- 
land, and activity has been stimulated by large public loans, 
.while more cautious banking and the systems of taxation and 
rating on land values, adopted in 1891 and 1896, have done 
something to check land speculation. 

Between 1879 and 1908 seven governors represented the crown 
in New Zealand. Of these Sir Hercules Robinson and Sir Arthur 
Gordon had but brief reigns; Sir Arthur Gordon quitted the 
colony in June 1882. His successor, Sir William Drummond 
Jervois, arrived in January 1883, and held office until March 1889. 
The earl of Onslow, who followed, landed in June 1889, and 
resigned in February 1892. The next governor, the earl of 
Glasgow, remained in the colony from June 1892 to February 
1897, and was succeeded in August of the last-mentioned year 
by the earl of Ranfurly, who did not retire until 1904. His place 
was then taken by Lord Plunket. The cabinets which adminis- 
tered the affairs of the colony during these years were those of 
Sir Frederick Whitaker, Sir Harry Atkinson (3), Sir Robert 
Stout (2), Mr Ballance, Mr Seddon, Mr Hall- Jones and Sir Joseph 
Ward. Mr Hall-Jones's short premiership was an interregnum 
made necessary by the absence of Sir Joseph Ward in England 
at the moment of Mr Seddon's death. Except in one disturbed 
month, August 1884, when there were three changes of ministry 
in eighteen days, executives were more stable than in the colony's 
earlier years. The party headed by Ballance, Seddon and Ward 
held office without a break for more than seventeen years, a result 
mainly due to the general support given to its agrarian and 
labour policy by the smaller farmers and the working classes. 
Sir Arthur Gordon differed from his ministers Hall and Atkinson 
on their native policy. Lords Onslow and Glasgow came into 
collision with Ballance over a proposal to nominate a large batch 
of Liberals to the then Conservative legislative council. The 
dispute was by consent referred to the secretary for the colonies, 
and the decision from Downing Street was in Ballance's favour. 



The governor's salary, reduced in 1887, was restored to 7500 
a year in 1900. An Immigrants Exclusion Act voted by the 
general assembly in 1896 did not receive the royal assent; but, 
by arrangement with the colonial office, another measure, giving 
power to impose a reading test on aliens landing in the colony, 
became law in 1899. 

The presence of New Zealand premiers at the imperial con- 
ferences in London in 1897, 1903 and 1907 helped to bring the 
colony into conscious touch with imperial public questions. 
Among the results were the increase of the naval contribution 
(first to 40,000 and then, in 1908, to 100,000), and the im- 
position in 1903 and again in 1907 of severe discriminating duties 
against imports from foreign countries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The only lengthy historical account of any note 
is Rusden's three-volume History of New Zealand (and ed., Melbourne, 
1896), chiefly valuable as a statement of the grievances of the 
Maori race. Short histories are: R. F. Irvine and O T. J. Alpers, 
The Progress of New Zealand in the Century (London, 1902), and 
W. P. Reeves, The Long White Cloud (2nd ed., London, 1900). Sir 
William Fox, The War in New Zealand (London, 1866) is the best 
account of any portion of the native wars. A. S. Thomson's Story 
of New Zealand (London, 1859) is historical as well as descriptive. 
William Gisborne's New Zealand Rulers and Statesmen, 1844-1897 
(London, 1897), gives many graphic portraits. For early accounts of 
the Maori race, see Cook's Voyage and Boost's translation of Crozet's 
Voyage. On the Maori also note, Sir G. Grey, Polynesian Mythology 
and Maori Legends (New Zealand, 1885); Edward Tregear, The 
Maori Race (New Zealand, 1704); S. Percy Smith, Hawaiki (New 
Zealand, 1903); John White, The Ancient History of the Maori 
(6 vols., London, 1889); and many papers especially by the three 
last-named, and Colenso, Stack, Wohlers, Best, von Haast, Travers 
and Shanil in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (New 
Zealand, annual), and the Journal of the Polynesian Society (New 
Zealand, annual). On early events of pioneering and colonization are : 
E. J. Wakefield, Adventure in New Zealand (new ed., New Zealand, 
1908); Hon. R. McNab, Murihuku (New Zealand, 1907); T. M. 
Hocken, Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand (London, 
1898); Samuel Butler, First Year in the Canterbury Settlement 
(1863). For later impressions note: Lady Barker, Station Life in 
New Zealand (London, 1869); Sir Charles Dilke, Greater Britain 
(London, new ed., 1885); Anthony Trollope, Australia and New 
Zealand (London, 1875); J. A. Froude, Oceana (London, 1886). 
The best-known poetic work produced is Domett's Ranolf and 
Amohia (London, 1867). An anthology of New Zealand verse 
appeared in London in 1907. Sir John Gorst, New Zealand Re- 
visited (London, 1908). Among scientific works come papers in the 
two societies above-mentioned and F. yon Hochstetter, New 
Zealand (translation, London, 1861); J. Kirk, The Forest Flora of 
New Zealand (New Zealand, 1889); Sir J. Hooker, Handbook of 
the New Zealand Flora (London, 1864); Laing and Blackwell, The 
Plants of New Zealand (New Zealand, 1906) ; Professor E. Hutton 
and James Drummond, The Animals of New Zealand (New Zealand, 
1905) ; Sir W. L. Bullcr, The Birds of New Zealand, finely illustrated 
(new ed., London, 1906); S. Percy Smith, The Eruption of Tarawera 
(New Zealand, 1887). On recent social and political changes and 
experiments there are: W. P. Reeves, State Experiments in Australia 
and New Zealand (2 vols., London, 1902); H. D. Lloyd, Newest 
England (London, 1901); Andr6 Siegfried, La Democratic en Nouvelle 
Zfiande (Paris, 1904). On Alpine climbing the best book is still The 
High Alps of New Zealand by W. S. Green (London, 1883). 

(W. P. R.) 

NEXT FRIEND, in law, the phrase used for a person who 
represents in an action another person who is under disability 
to maintain a suit on his own behalf. This disability arises from 
infancy or mental incapacity, consequently every application 
to the court on behalf of an infant or a lunatic must be made 
through a next friend (prochein amy, proximus amicus). Previous 
to the Married Women's Property Act 1882 it was also usual 
for a married woman to sue by a next friend, but that act, 
allowing a married woman to sue in all respects as a feme sole, 
has rendered a next friend unnecessary in her case. In the case 
of an infant the father is prima facie the proper person to act 
as next friend; in the father's absence the testamentary guardian 
if any; but any person not under disability may act as next 
friend so long as he has no interest in the action adverse to that 
of the infant. A married woman cannot, however, act as next 
friend. An infant defends a suit, not by a next friend, but by 
a guardian ad liltm. In the case of a lunatic, he sues by his 
committee, but if he has no committee, or if the committee has 
some interest adverse to the lunatic, he sues by his next friend. 
A next friend has full power over the proceedings in the action 



632 



NEY 



as if he were an ordinary plaintiff, but he is not entitled to be 
heard in person. 

NEY, MICHEL, duke of Elchingen, prince of the Moskowa 
(1760-1815), marshal of France, was born at Saarlouis on the 
loth of January 1769. His father was a cooper, and he received 
only a rudimentary education. In 1788 he went to Metz and 
enlisted in a regiment of hussars; in 1792 he was elected 
lieutenant; and in 1794 he became captain and was placed by 
Kleber at the head of a special corps of light troops. He was soon 
promoted chefde brigade, and in 1 796, after repeatedly distinguish- 
ing himself in action, general of brigade. He then commanded 
the right wing of Hoche's army up to the peace of Campo Formio. 
On the resumption of hostilities he again took the field, and for 
his surprise of Mannheim in 1799 received the grade of general 
of division. He distinguished himself and received three wounds 
in the Swiss campaign of Massena, and when Massena turned 
against the Russians, who were approaching from Italy, Ney 
was left in command of the holding detachment opposite the 
Austrians. He displayed great vigour and skill in this work, 
and was completely successful, although his opponent was 
the famous Archduke Charles. In 1800 he was present at 
Hohenlinden. In May 1802 he married Mademoiselle Auguie, 
whom Josephine had chosen for him at Bonaparte's request. 
This event marks a change in Ney's political opinions which can 
only be explained by reference to Napoleon's power of captivating 
men. He was henceforward as ardent and sincere an admirer 
of Napoleon as hitherto he had been of revolutionary principles, 
and was one of the very few officers of the Army of the Rhine 
who became a trusted lieutenant of the emperor. He soon 
afterwards carried out an important diplomatic mission in 
Switzerland, and in 1803 he was placed in command of the camp 
of Montreuil. It was while there that, in the name of the army, 
he begged Napoleon to declare himself emperor, and on the 
establishment of the empire he was made marshal of France, 
and received the grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. In 1805 
he commanded the VI. corps of the Grand Army, and his great 
victory at Elchingen (for which in 1808 he was made duke of 
Elchingen) practically secured the surrender of the Austrians 
at Ulm. He was then ordered to the upper Adige, and missed 
the battle of Austerlitz, but was present at Jena and Eylau and 
led the decisive attack at Friedland. His reputation for personal 
heroism was by now at its height, and after Friedland Napoleon 
gave him the title by which he is still known, " the bravest of 
the brave." 

In 1808, after the first disaster to the French arms in Spain, 
Ney accompanied Napoleon thither as commander of the VI. 
corps. He took part in the Peninsular War from 1808 to 1811, 
commanding his corps in Napoleon's own operations of 1808-09, 
in the irregular operations in Galicia 1809-10, and under Massena 
in the invasion of Portugal in 1810-11. In the last, however, 
he quarrelled bitterly with his former chief, and although he 
distinguished himself very greatly in command of the rearguard 
during the retreat from Torres Vedras notably at Redinha 
he was recalled to France by Napoleon and censured for his 
indiscipline. Almost immediately, however, he was re-employed 
with the Grande Armee in central Europe under Napoleon himself. 
In the 1812 expedition to Russia Ney commanded the centre 
at Borodino, and was created prince of the Moskowa on the 
evening of the victory. In the retreat he was a tower of strength, 
animating the rearguard with his own sublime courage, keeping 
the harassed and famished soldiers together under the colours 
and personally standing in the ranks with musket and bayonet. 
He himself was the last to recross the frontier, and threw the 
remaining muskets into the Niemen. In 1813 he commanded 
a corps in the German campaign, fought at Liitzen, Bautzen, 
Dennewitz and Leipzig, and in 1814 he shared in the victories 
and defeats of the campaign in France. At the fall of the Empire 
Ney was neither the first nor the last of the marshals to give 
up the struggle, but that he acted in the negotiations in concert 
with Macdonald and Caulaincourt is sufficient proof of his desire 
to avert the unreserved abdication that was forced upon Napoleon 
by other circumstances. Less satisfactory than his conduct at 



this crisis was his loud protestation of devotion to the Bourbons, 
when the Restoration was a fait accompli. But he was soon 
mortified by the disdain of the returned emigres, and retired 
to his country seat. While on his way thence to take up a 
command at Besanfon, he learned of the return of Napoleon. 
He hurried at once to pay his' respects to Louis XVIII. and to 
assure him of his fidelity. With the famous remark that the 
usurper ought to be brought to Paris in an iron cage, he proceeded 
to Lons-le-Saulnier to bar Napoleon's progress. But instead 
of doing so, he deserted with his troops, and Napoleon's march 
became a triumphal progress. Ney's act was undeniably 
treason to his sovereign, but it was hardly the calculated treason 
that his emigre detractors saw fit to imagine. The first violence 
of his language, his ineffective efforts to make constitutional 
guarantees the price of his adhesion to Napoleon, and his final 
surrender to the dominant personality of his old leader, all show 
him to have been " out of his depth " in this political crisis. 
Napoleon received him kindly, but did not give him a command 
at first. But when the Waterloo campaign was about to begin 
he summoned Ney to the northern frontier. The marshal 
gladly obeyed and took up the command of the left wing on 
June 13. The next day the army moved into Belgium. Ney 
took part in the campaign successively in the r61es of strategist, 
tactician and soldier (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). Much con- 
troversy has raged over his actions of the isth and i6th of June. 
At Waterloo he was of course subordinated to the personal com- 
mand of Napoleon, but his advice as to the conduct of the battle 
was often offered and sometimes accepted, and he personally led 
several charges of the French up to the British squares. But 
when all was lost, his courage, instead of burning brightly as 
in the Moscow retreat, was extinguished. He made no attempt 
to second Davout and Grouchy in the last days of Napoleon's 
reign, and in despair advocated the restoration of the Bourbons. 
Finding that Louis XVIII. and his allies ignored his advances, 
he resolved to escape from France, but afterwards, believing 
himself protected by the terms of the convention concluded 
on the 3rd of June, he gave up the idea. Soon a fresh order was 
issued denouncing him by name, and after a half-hearted attempt 
to conceal himself he was arrested on the 5th of August. King 
Louis and his minister Decazes realized to the full the lasting 
unpopularity that would fall on the monarchy in consequence; 
they had done their best to facilitate the escape of the " traitors " ; 
and when Louis heard of Ney's arrest he exclaimed, "By letting 
himself be caught he has done us more harm than he did on the 
I3th of March!" But neither king nor ministers were in a 
position to resist the clamour of the ultra-royalists for blood. 
Every fresh delay in the process of Ney's trial raised a new 
outcry at the court, in the salons and in the Chamber of Deputies; 
and fiercest of all in demanding immediate execution was the 
king's niece, the unhappy duchess of Angouleme, who lived 
to confess that had she known the record of Ney's services to 
France she would never have consented to his death. The 
king was powerless against this all but unanimous voice of 
royalist opinion, backed as it was by that of the powers to whom 
he owed his crown. Ney was placed on trial before a court- 
martial composed chiefly of his former brothers-in-arms, whose 
participation in the tragedy, slight as it was, was probably 
never forgiven them by their countrymen. Others of the 
marshal's old comrades refused to serve, and were disgraced 
in consequence, until public opinion forced their reinstatement. 
The court, once assembled, was only too glad to take advantage 
of the plea of Ney's counsel that he was entitled to be tried by 
his equals in the Chamber of Peers. In spite of the courageous 
and eloquent appeal of the young due de Broglie, the result 
of the trial before the latter body was a foregone conclusion; 
as to Ney's treason there could be no doubt, and de Broglie 
was alone in voting for his acquittal. In the early morning of 
the 7th of December 1815 Ney was shot in the Luxembourg 
gardens, near the Observatory. He met his death quietly and 
with a perfect soldierly dignity that effaced the memory of his 
political extravagance, s, and made him, next to Napoleon himself, 
the most heroic figure of the time. Much has been said as to 



NEZ PERCES NGAN-HUI 



633 



the share of the duke of Wellington in the trial and execution, 
and, rightly or wrongly, he has been blamed for allowing the 
Bourbons, when restored by the foreign bayonets that he con- 
trolled, to proscribe the soldiers who as soldiers had been included 
in the military capitulation to the Allies. 

Ney left materials for memoirs, but in an incomplete state. The 
Memoires du marechal Ney, published in 1833, were collected from 
these papers by his brother-in-law Gamot and by General Foy. 
They cover only the earlier part of his career, and end with the battle 
of Elchingen (October 1805). An edition in English was published 
the same year. 

See Rouval, Vie du marechal Ney (Paris, 1833); Dumoulin, 
Histoire du proces du marechal Ney (Paris, 1815, Eng. trans. 1816); 
Nollet-Fabert, ILloge du marechal Ney (Nancy, 1852); Welschinger, 
Le marechal Ney, 1815 (Paris, 1893); A. Delmas, Memoire sur la 
revision du proces du marechal Ney (1832); and Military Studies by 
Marshal Ney (Eng. trans. London, 1833) ; Vol. I. of General Bonnal's 
Life of Ney appeared in 1910. 

NEZ PERCES (in allusion to their custom of wearing nose- 
rings, &c.), a tribe of North American Indians of Sahaptian 
stock. They call themselves Shaptin (whence the stock name) 
but to other tribes were known as Chopunnish. Their former 
range was a large tract in eastern Washington and Oregon and 
central Idaho. Until 1877 they had been at peace with the whites. 
In 1875 a portion of their reservation having been taken from 
them, owing to the allegation that they had not carried out the 
treaty stipulations, difficulties arose which, two years later, 
caused the Nez Perces War. The disaffected portion of the tribe, 
numbering some 400 or 500, held out for several months against 
all the forces the government could bring up, but were finally 
captured on the Sweet Grass Hills, northern Montana. They 
were placed in Indian Territory, but in 1884 transferred, owing 
to their decrease through disease,to a healthier locality in northern 
Washington. The main tribe are on a reservation in northern 
Idaho. 

NGAMI, the central point of an inland water system of South 
Africa, once forming a lake 20 m. long and 10 wide, but now 
little more than an expanse of reeds growing in a soft treacherous 
soil, below which brackish water is found. It is cut by 205 S. 
and 23 E. Ngami is the lowest point of a large depression in 
the plateau which comprises nine-tenths of Africa south of the 
Zambezi. The area which drains to it is bounded S. by the basin 
of the Orange, E. by the Matabele hills, N. by the western affluents 
of the Zambezi. The greater part of the Ngami water-system 
lies, however, N.W. of the lake (which for convenience it may still 
be called) in the tableland of Angola and German South West 
Africa. On the high plateau of Bihe, in the hinterland of 
Benguella, rise two large rivers, the Okavango and the Kwito, 
which uniting discharged their waters into Ngami. From the 
N.E. end of Ngami issued the Botletle or Zuga, a stream which 
runsS.E. and drains to wards the Makarikari marsh, from which 
there is no outlet. 

Although Ngami has dried up since 1890 the Okavango and 
its tributary the Kwito remain large rivers. The Okavango 
is known in its upper course as the Kubango. Its most remote 
source lies in about 12^ S. and i6j E. and its length is over 
900 m. It flows first S. then S.E. and E. In about 18 S. and 
2o| E. it is joined on the north bank by the Kwito, a large 
navigable stream rising almost as far north as the Okavango. 
Its general course is S.E., but between 15 and 17 S. it flows 
S. and even S.W. Below the Kwito confluence the Okavango, 
which is also joined by various streams from the S.W. (German 
territory), is a rapid stream with an average breadth of over 100 
yds., and generally navigable as far as the Popa falls, in 21 50' 
E. In the dry season, the water-level is from 4 to 20 ft. below 
the banks, but these are overflowed during the rains. At this 
period, April- June, some of the surplus water finds its way (in 
about 19 S.) by the Magwekwana to the Kwando or Linyanti 
(Zambezi system), to which, it is conjectured, the whole body 
of water may have once flowed. Below the Magwekwana outlet 
the Okavango, now called the Taukhe or Tioghe, turns almost 
due S., enters a swampy reed-covered plain and is broken into 
several branches. In this region the effects of desiccation are 
marked. Through the swamps the river formerly entered Ngami. 



The last 20 m. of the old channel are now dry and devoted to 
grain crops. Above this point the waters of the Okavango are 
diverted eastward through a channel called Tamalakane to the 
Botletle, the river which, as stated above, formerly flowed out 
of Ngami. The point of confluence is in about 20 S. 23^ E., 
the Botletle above this point being merely a succession of pools. 
Below the junction the river bed is 150 to 200 yds. wide. The 
banks are 25 to 30 ft. high, and form steep white walls of sand 
compacted with lime, behind which the dark green forest rises. 
The stream is fringed with reeds harbouring countless water- 
fowl. The Botletle, whose bed is about 100 m. in length, loses 
itself in a system of salt-pans round or oval basins of varying 
size sunk to a depth of 30 to 45 ft. in the sandstone, and often 
bounded by steep banks. The outer pans are dry for a large 
part of the year, the whole system being filled only at the height 
of the flood-season in August. The Botletle, which receives in 
addition the scanty waters of the northern Kalahari, at this 
season reaches the Makarikari marsh. This marsh, occupying 
the N.E. corner of Bechuanaland, has also feeders from the 
Matabele hills in the direction of Bulawayo. During the rains 
the marsh is converted into a large lake. Much of the water is 
lost by evaporation; much of it sinks into some subterranean 
reservoir. 

The evidence ot travellers is conclusive that the country around 
Ngami is drying up. The desiccation appears to be rapid. In 1849 
when David Livingstone visited Ngami the lake though shallow was 
of considerable extent. Later travellers reported progressive 
decrease in the size of the lake and in 1896 Sir F. D. Lugard and Dr 
Siegfried Passarge found it dry. Dr Passarge was told by the natives 
that the cessation of the river's flow was caused, about 1890, by a 
blocking of the channel by thousands of rafts. 

Although the river system below the Magwekwana outlet of the 
Okavango is drying up, above that point there are long stretches of 
navigable water both on the Okavango and the Kwito, in all con- 
siderably over 1000 m. The Popa falls are the last of a series of six 
in a distance of 40 m., but none present serious engineering diffi- 
culties. The Magwekwana connexion with the Zambezi is a little 
over 100 m. long, and for more than half its course flows through a 
deep well-defined bed with a minimum width of 100 yards. The fall 
to the Linyanti affluent of the Zambezi is only a few feet and the 
country presents no obstacles to the construction of artificial 
channels. 

Ngami is within the (British) Bechuanaland protectorate, about 
50 m. E. of the frontier of German South-West Africa. The district 
is the home of the Batawana tribe of Bechuana, with whom is 
stationed a European magistrate. The tribes living along the lower 
Okavango are tributary to the Bechuana, and the blocking of the 
channel referred to was occasioned by their bringing to Ngami their 
annual tribute of corn. 

See BECHUANALAND and KALAHARI. An account of the Ngami 
district is given in Die Kalahari by Dr Siegfried Passarge (Berlin, 
1904). Of early books of travel consult C. J. Andersson's Lake 
Ngami (London, 1856) and The Okavango River (London, 1861). 

NGAN-HDI (AN-HWEI or GAN-HWUY), an eastern province of 
China, whicn, together with Kiang-su and Kiang-si, forms the 
vice-royalty of Kiang-nan. It is bounded N. by Ho-nan, E. 
by Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, S. by Kiang-si and W. by Hu-peh 
and Ho-nan. It covers an area of 48,461 sq. m., and contains a 
population of 23,600,000. Its principal city is Ngan-k'ing on 
the Yangtsze Kiang, besides which it numbers seven prefectural 
cities. One district city, Ho-fei, is noted as having been the 
birthplace of Li Hungchang (1822-1901). The southern half of 
the province, that portion south of the Yangtsze Kiang, forms 
part of the Nan-shan, or hilly belt of the south-eastern provinces, 
and produces, besides cotton, coal and iron ore, large quantities 
of green tea. There are also considerable forest areas. Ngan- 
hui is one of the most productive provinces of China. Over the 
whole of its southern portion tea is largely grown, notably in 
the districts of Hui-chow Fu, Tung-liu, Ta-tung and Wu-hu. 
The Yangtsze Kiang is the principal river of the province, and 
is of great importance for foreign commerce, supplying direct 
water communication between some of the principal tea-growing 
districts and the neighbourhood of Hang-chow. The only other 
river of importance is the Hwai-ho (see CHINA: The Country). 
Wu-hu on the Yangtsze Kiang is the only open port in this 
province. From this port a railway runs S.E. to Wen-chow an 
open seaport in Cheh-kiang province. 



634 



NIAGARA NIAGARA, FORT 



NIAGARA, a river of North America, running northward 
from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and carrying the discharge of 
all the Laurentian or Great Lakes, except Lake Ontario (see 
ST LAWRENCE RIVER). It constitutes part of the boundary 
between the United States and Canada, separating the state of 
New York from the province of Ontario. It is navigable from 
its head to Chippawa, 16 m., and from Queenston to its mouth, 
6 m. The intervening 9 m. include a series of rapids and the Falls 
of Niagara. On the right bank are Buffalo, Tonawanda, Niagara 
Falls, Lewiston and Youngstown, of New York; on the left 
bank, Chippawa, Niagara Falls, Queenston and Niagara-on-the- 
Lake, of Ontario. 

The Falls of Niagara are justly celebrated for their grandeur 
and beauty, and are viewed every year by from 800,000 to 
1,200,000 visitors. They are in two principal parts, separated 
by an island. The greater division, adjoining the left bank, is 
called the Horseshoe Fall; its height is 155 ft., and the length 
of its curving crest line is about 2600 ft. The American Fall, 
adjoining the right bank, is 162 ft. high and about 1400 ft. broad. 
The water, being supplied by a lake, is free from sediment, and 




Bird's-eye sketch of Niagara river and gorge, from the north. 
L.E., Lake Erie. EE, Escarpment. 

B, Buffalo. L, Lewiston. 

N, Niagara Falls, N.Y. ' Q, Queenston. 

F, Niagara Falls, Ont. D, St Davids. 

W, Whirlpool. 

its clearness contributes to the beauty of the cataract. In recog- 
nition of the importance of the waterfall as a great natural 
spectacle, the province of Ontario and the state of New York 
have retained or acquired title to the adjacent lands and con- 
verted them into parks, which are maintained at public expense 
for the convenience and pleasure of visitors. The cataract is 
thus a great aesthetic asset of the people of the world; but its 
perpetuity has been threatened because it is also a great economic 
asset of the bordering nations. The flow of water in the river 
at mean stage is 222,000 cub. ft. per second, at low stage 176,000 
cub. ft. The descent of this stream at the Falls, and in the rapids 
just above them, affords a theoretic water power equal to nearly 
four million horse power, and it is estimated that three-fourths 
of this is practically available. The annual value of the power 
must be reckoned in millions of pounds sterling, at least, and 
possibly in tens of millions. In the utilization of this natural 
power a beginning has been made; about 15,000 cub. ft. of water 
per second are now used for the development of electric power, 
and much larger appropriations have been authorized. As the 
full development of the economic value involves the diversion 
of the river from its channel and the destruction of the cataract 
as a scenic feature, the economic and aesthetic interests are 



antagonistic. An agitation started by the champions of scenic 
beauty led to negotiations looking to the regulation of economic 
exploitation by international agreement. 

The river has no valley. The belt of land it crosses consists 
of two plains separated by a high cliff or escarpment facing 
towards Lake Ontario. The stream runs half its length on the 
upper plain, drops at the falls into a narrow gorge through which 
it courses 7 m. to the escarpment, and then traverses the lower 
plain in a deep channel. Under the lower plain are soft shales. 
The crest of the escarpment is a bed of limestone, nearly level, 
and this bed is visible in both walls of the gorge to the falls, 
where it is 60 ft. thick. From this firm brink the cataract plunges 
down into a deep pool or basin hollowed from the soft shale, 
and the resulting agitation causes further wear of the shale and 
the continual undermining of the limestone, which breaks away 
in blocks. Thus the site of the cataract retreats up stream and 
the gorge is lengthened; the average rate, measured from 1842 
to 1905 being about 5 ft. a year. It is evident that the whole 
gorge has been dug out by the river, and many attempts have 
been made to determine the time consumed in the work. 

The problem of the river's age is of much interest to geologists, 
because its solution would aid in establishing a relation between the 
periods and ages of geologic time and the centuries of human chrono- 
logy. The great Canadian glacier, which in the Glacial period 
alternately crowded forward over the Great Lakes region and melted 
back again, so modified the face of the land by erosion and by the 
deposit of drift that the waters afterwards had to find new courses. 
The Niagara river came into existence when the waning of the glacier 
laid bare the western part of the Ontario basin, and the making of 
the gorge was then begun. If it were supposable that the lengthening 
of the gorge proceeded at a uniform rate, the computation of the time 
would be easy, but there are various modifying conditions. (l) The 
limestone is not equally thick all along the gorge ; in one place it is 
90 ft., and in several places as little as 35 ft. (2) The height of the 
cataract has varied from 155 ft. to more than 300 ft. (3) For a short 
distance at the whirlpool the limestone and shale were replaced by 
softer material, sand and clay. The river here touched a more ancient 
gorge, which had previously been concealed by drift except at the 
escarpment. The diagram shows the breach in the escarpment at 
St Davids directed towards the sharp turn of the river gorge at the 
whirlpool. (4) The size of the river has varied. While the glacier 
was gradually melting the lakes underwent a complicated series 
of metamorphoses, and there were two separate epochs when the 
discharge from all the basins beyond Lake Erie followed other routes, 
and during these epochs the Niagara drained only one-eighth of its 
present territory. The variation in the size of the river is the most 
important of the modifying conditions, and at the same time least 
amenable to computation. 

The parts of the gorge eroded by the full river are now marked by 
deep pools, the powerful cataract having dug far down into the shale. 
The parts eroded by the depleted river are comparatively narrow 
and shallow, the weaker cataract having been unable to clear away 
the fallen blocks of limestone. The work of the full river is illustrated 
by the main division of the present cataract, called the Horseshoe 
Fall, which wore its cliff back 335 ft. in 63 years. The work of the 
depleted river is less adequately represented by the narrower and 
shallower American Fall; where the present rate of recession is 
about one-twenty-fifth as fast. In making two-thirds of the gorge 
the full river probably consumed between 5000 and 15,000 years. 
If the depleted river worked one-tenth as fast, the period required for 
the remaining third was five times as long; but the relative rate is 
wholly conjectural. A weighing of the evidence now available 
indicates 25,000 years as a lower limit for plausible estimates of the 
age of the river, but yields no suggestion of an upper limit. 

AUTHORITIES. James Hall, Natural History of New York: 
Geology, Part IV. (Albany, 1843); Sir Charles Lyell, Travels in North 
America (London, 1845); John Tyndall, "Some Observations on 
Niagara," Pop. Sci. Mo. (1873); J. Pphlman, " The Life-History of 
Niagara," Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers (1888); G. K. 
Gilbert, " The History of the Niagara River, Sixth Ann. Rep. Com. 
Stale Reservation at Niagara (Albany, 1890), and Rate of Recession of 
Niagara Falls (Washington, 1907), being Bulletin 307 of the United 
States Geological Survey; A. S. Kibbe, " Report of the Survey to 
determine the Crest Lines of the Falls of Niagara in 1890," Seventh 
Ann. Rep. Com. State Reservation at Niagara (Albany, 1891); G. K. 
Gilbert, " Niagara Falls and their History," National Geographic 
Monographs (New York, 1895); " Niagara Number," Gassier' s 
Magazine (July, 1895); J- W. Spencer, " Niagara as a Timepiece," 
Pop. Sci. Mo. (May 1896); F. B. Taylor, " A Short History of the 
Great Lakes," Studies in Indiana Geography (Terre Haute, 1897); 
and " Origin of the Gorge of the Whirlpool Rapids at Niagara," Butt. 
Geol. Soc. Amer. (1898). (G. K. G.) 

NIAGARA, FORT, an American fortification, on the E. side 
and at the mouth of Niagara river, opposite the Canadian village 



NIAGARA FALLS NIAM-NIAM 



635 



of Niagara, or Niagara-on-the-Lake. Fort Niagara has a reser- 
vation of 288 acres, with fairly modern equipments, several 
historic buildings of the time of French and of British possession, 
in one of which, the old magazine (1737), William Morgan was 
imprisoned in 1826. Fort Niagara was long, especially during 
the French occupation of Canada, one of the most important 
forts in North America, being the key to the Great Lakes, beyond 
Lake Ontario. " This immense extent of inland navigation," 
says Parkman, " was safe in the hands of France so long as she 
held Niagara. Niagara lost not only the lakes but also the 
valley of the Ohio was lost with it." Rene Robert Cavelier, 
Sieur de La Salle, wintered here in 1678-9, built his ship the "Grif- 
fon, "and established a trading post and Fort Conti, destroyed not 
long afterwards. Fort Denonville, built in 1687 by Jacques Rene 
de Bresay, marquis de Denonville, governor-general of Canada, 
in his cruel campaign against the Iroquois, was abandoned in 
1688, after the garrison, commanded by Pierre de Troyes 
(d. 1687), had been wiped out by an epidemic. The first Fort 
Niagara, to be so named, was built in 1725-1727 at the instance 
of Charles le Moyne, ist baron of Longueil (1656-1729), and 
became a very important military and trading post; the fort 
was rebuilt by Francois Pouchot (1712-1769) in 17 56, but in July 
1759, after a siege of about sixteen days, it was surrendered to 
Sir William Johnson by Pouchot, who wrote a Memoir upon the 
Late War (translated and edited by F. B. Hough; 2 vols., 1866). 
On the i4th of September 1763 a British force marching from 
Fort Schlosser (about 2 m. above the Falls; built 1750) to Fort 
Niagara was ambushed by Indians, who threw most of their 
captives into Devil's Hole, along the Niagara river. In July 
1764 a treaty with the Indians was signed here, which detached 
some of them from Pontiac's conspiracy. Joseph Brant, John 
Butler, and, in general, the Indians of north-western New York 
favouring the British during the American War of Independence, 
made Fort Niagara their headquarters, whence they ravaged the 
frontier, and many loyalists and Indians took refuge here at the 
time of General Sullivan's expedition into western New York 
in 1779. The fort was not surrendered to the United States until 
August 1796. In the War of 1812 it was bombarded by the guns 
of Fort George (immediately across the river in the town now 
called Niagara, then Newark 1 ) on the i3th and I4th of October 
1812; was the starting-point of the American expedition which 
took Fort George on the 27th of May 1813; and on the igth of 
December 1813 was surprised and taken by assault most of 
the garrison being killed or taken prisoners by British troops 
under John Murray (1774-1862), who had previously retaken 
Fort George. After the close of the war, on the 27th of March 
1815, Fort Niagara was restored to the United States, and a 
garrison was kept there until 1826. The fort was regarrisoned 
about 1836. 

See F. H. Severance, Old Trails on the Niagara Frontier (Buffalo, 
1903), Parkman's works, especially Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols., 
Boston, 1884), and The Conspiracy ofPontiac(2vo\s., Boston, 1851), 
and a pamphlet by Peter A. Porter, A Brief History of Old Fort 
Niagara (Niagara Falls, 1896). 

NIAGARA FALLS (formerly Clifton or Suspension Bridge), a 
town and port of entry of Welland county, Ontario, Canada, 
40 m. S.S.E. of Toronto, on the west bank of the Niagara river 
and opposite the Falls. Pop. (1901) 4244. It is a station on the 
Grand Trunk, Michigan Central and St Catharines & Niagara 
Central railways, and has electric railway communication with 
the chief towns in the neighbourhood. Three large steel bridges 
connect it with the American town of Niagara Falls on the 
opposite bank. Its importance is chiefly due to the tourist 
traffic, but the unrivalled water power is being more and more 
employed. Factories have sprung up, and power is transmitted 
to Toronto and other cities. A beautiful park, named after 

1 On the night of the loth of December 1813 the American general 
George McClure (1771-1851), upon abandoning Fort George, set fire 
to Newark, almost destroying the town and causing great suffering 
among the inhabitants. McClure attempted to justify this act by a 
strained construction of a letter to him from the secretary of war, 
but it was promptly disavowed by the United States government. 
The burning of Newark led to severe reprisals on the part of the 
British. 



Queen Victoria, extends along the bank of the river for 2$ m. 
above the Falls. 

NIAGARA FALLS, a city of Niagara county, New York, 
U.S.A., on the E. side of the Niagara river, at the Falls, 22 m. 
N.N.W. of Buffalo. Pop. (1900) 19,457, of whom 7326 were 
foreign-born, (1910 census) 30,445. The city is served by 
the New York Central & Hudson River, the Wabash, the Erie, 
the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore and the Michigan Central 
railways, and by the International Electric railway and the 
Niagara, St Catharines & Toronto (electric) railway. The city 
extends along the level summit of the cliffs from above the Falls 
to some 3 m. below. The river is here crossed by three bridges; 
the (upper) steel arch bridge, built (1895) on the site of the former 
suspension bridge (built in 1869; blown down in 1889; rebuilt as 
a suspension bridge) near the Falls, is crossed by double carriage- 
ways and footpaths and by an electric railway, and is pro- 
bably the longest bridge of the kind in the world, being 1240 ft. 
long with an arch span of 840 ft.; and 15 m. farther down the 
river are two railway bridges, the Michigan Central's cantilever 
bridge, completed in 1883, and the (lower) single steel arch bridge 
(completed in 1897, on the site of John A. Roebling's suspension 
bridge built in 1851-1856) of the Grand Trunk railway, which 
has a terminus at Niagara Falls (Clifton), Ontario, and connects 
here with the New York Central & Hudson River and the Lehigh 
Valley railways. 

The principal buildings of the city are the Niagara Falls 
Memorial Hospital, the Federal Building and the Niagara Falls 
Power Co. Building. The city has a Carnegie library, De Veaux 
College (Protestant Episcopal, chartered in 1853), and Niagara 
University, a Roman Catholic institution, founded in 1856 by 
the priests of the Congregation of the Mission and incorporated 
in 1863 as the Seminary of Our Lady of Angels, a name still 
used for the theological department, but displaced, since the 
charter of the university in 1883, by the present name. In the 
extreme S.W. part of the city is Prospect Park, which with Goat 
Island immediately S., and several smaller islands, has been, 
since 1885, the " New York State Reservation at Niagara Falls." 
From the Falls, which gave the city its first importance as a 
stopping place for tourists, valuable electric and hydraulic 
power is derived (by a tunnel 29 ft. deep and 18 ft. wide, passing 
about 200 ft. under the surface of the city, from the upper steel 
arch bridge to a point i j m. above the Falls, and by the canal of 
the Niagara FallsHydraulic Power and Manuf acturingCompany ) . 
Niagara Falls is an important manufacturing city; the value 
of the factory products increased from $8,540,184 in 1900 to 
$16,915,786 in 1905, or 98-1%. The city is the shipping centre 
for the W. part of Niagara county. The village of Niagara Falls 
was for a time called Manchester. In 1892 the village of Sus- 
pension Bridge (formerly Niagara City) was joined with it under 
a city charter, which has been frequently amended. 

NIAM-NIAM (Zandeh, A-Zandeh), a people of Central Africa, 
of mixed Negroid descent. With kindred tribes, they stretch 
from the While Nile above the Sobat confluence to the Shari 
affluent of Lake Chad, and from the Bahr-el-Arab, about ioN., 
nearly to the equator. Their political ascendancy, weakened 
by the incessant attacks of the Arab-Nubian slave-raiders before 
the rise of the Sudanese mahdi in 1882, was afterwards broken 
by the forces of the Congo Free State and the Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan. 

The term Niam-Niam appears to be of Dinka origin, meaning 
in that language " great eaters," with reference, as is supposed, 
to their cannibalistic propensities. They are called Babungera 
by the Mangbettu (Monbuttu), A-Madyaka by the Diur, Mundo 
or Manyanya by the Bongo, Makaraka or Kakaraka by the 
Mittu. But Niam-Niam has been adopted and generalized by 
the Sudan and Nubian Mahommedans. Their native name is 
Zandeh (pi. A-Zandeh), which is current throughout the eastern 
Niam-Niam domain, a region estimated by Georg Schweinfurth, 
who visited the country in 1870, at about 48,000 sq. m., with 
a population of at least two millions. But these by no means 
constitute a uniform ethnical group, for within this area is the 
large Madi nation, differing altogether in speech and even 



6 3 6 



NIAS 



in some respects physically from the ordinary Niam-Niam type. 
Apart also from numerous tribal divisions, the eastern Niam- 
Niam proper form three very distinct branches. The bleak 
northern highlands bordering east on the Bongo and north on 
Dar-Fertit are occupied by the Banda Niam-Niam. To the 
southwards are the more civilized Belanda Niam-Niam, who 
hold the fertile hilly territory of the Nile-Congo watershed. 
Very different from either are the so-called " White " Niam- 
Niam, neighbours of the Madi of the Makua-Welle river basin. 
Their complexion is of a lighter bronze tint, and they are dis- 
tinguished from the other branches of the family by their tall 
stature, symmetrical figure, long kinky hair and beard and 
higher social culture. They wear cotton garments, obtained by 
barter for ivory, copper and iron, and have a tendency to political 
unity under one chief. 1 

There is, however, a very distinct Niam-Niam type, one of the 
most marked in the whole of Africa. " These beings," remarks 
Schweinfurth, on his first introduction to them, " stood out like 
creatures of another world ... a people of a marked and most 
distinct nationality, and that in Africa and amongst Africans is 
saying much." They are of medium height and powerful build. 
The great space between the eyes, which are almond-shaped and 
slightly slanting, gives them a peculiar expression. They have 
a very short nose, with correspondingly long upper lip; woolly 
hair; a very round head, agreeing in this respect with the Bongo 
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal but differing from the great majority of 
the other African dark races; features generally round, with less 
jaw-projection and altogether more regular than the typical 
Negro; of a ruddy brown or chocolate colour, scarcely ever 
black, but occasionally bronze and even olive. 

The average Niam-Niam is distinguished by some excellent 
qualities, such as frankness, courage, an instinctive love of art, 
and above all a genuine and lasting affection for his women, such 
as is betrayed by no other African race. By tribal custom the 
men are all hunters, armed with long knives and spears and 
carrying oblong shields of wicker-work; the women all tillers 
of the soil, which with little toil yields abundant crops of cereals, 
yams, manioc, colocasia and Virginian tobacco. Both sexes 
wear large pins of ivory, iron, monkey or human bone stuck in 
their hair, and stain their skin with red camwood and the oil 
of a wild berry. The Niam-Niam are intelligent, skilful builders, 
and proficient in many native industries. Prominent among 
these are their earthenware vessels, which display considerable 
symmetry; iron smelting and metal work, such as swords, 
knives and spears; wood carvings, such as stools, benches, 
bowls and tobacco pipes, of varied and intricate design and often 
admirable works of art. They are great smokers, and very fond 
of music. Of the ox, horse, ass or camel they have no knowledge; 
the only domestic animals are 'poultry, and a breed of dogs, like 
small wolf-hounds, with smooth red hair, twisted tail like a 
porker's, large ears, pointed nose and four-clawed hind feet. 
These curious little " greyhounds " join in the chase with small 
wooden bells round the neck, and are thus soon found when lost 
in the woods. 

The Niam-Niam are distinguished by their elaborate head- 
dresses (they formerly wore a sort of big full-buttomed wig, and 
Dr W. Junker actually saw elderly people in these), and peculiar 
tattoo markings square patterns on forehead, temples or cheeks, 

1 About the middle of the igth century, most of the eastern Niam- 
Niam lands appear to have been subject to Yapaty, son of Mabengeh. 
But after his death they were distributed amongst his seven sons, 
Renjy, Balia, Perkye, Tombo, Bazimbey, Manuba; and in 1870 
there were already fourteen reigning princes of this dynasty, besides 
several of doubtful relationship with the line of Mabengeh. In the 
Niam-Niam districts visited by the traders from the Egyptian Sudan 
there were at that time altogether as many as thirty-five independent 
chiefs. But reports were current of a very powerful " sultan " 
named Mofio, whose empire lay some 300 m. farther west. Another 
large state, founded in the Welle region by Kipa (Kifa), brother of 
Yapaty, also fell to pieces after his death in 1868. The powerful 
chiefs Bakangoi and Kanna, visited in 1883 by G. Casati, were sons 
of this Kipa, whose grave near Kanna's village was still watched by 
twenty-five " vestals," bound, under penalty of death, to keep a fire 
constantly burning, and to preserve their chastity inviolate 
(Esploratore, August 1883). 



an X-shaped figure in a cartouche below the chest, and various 
zigzag, straight or dotted lines on the upper arm and breast. 
Most of them file the incisors. From the malted grain of a species 
of eleusine they brew good beer, of a sparkling brown or reddish 
colour and pleasant bitter taste, derived from the stalk of the 
same cereal. 

In this widespread Negroid family are now provisionally grouped 
the Makaraka, intermingled with the Mundu, and the Babukur in 
the north-east (Bahr-el-Ghazal) ; the Krej, Banda and N'Sakkara in 
the north-west (Dar-Fertit, and thence to the upper Shari) ; the 
Banziri, Ndris, Togbo, Languassi, Dakoa, Ngapu, Wia-Wia, Manja, 
Awaka, Akunga and others about both slopes of the Congo-Chad 
water-parting. These last, who give such an enormous westward 
extension to the family, present much the same physical characters 
as the Zandeh proper, and speak dialects of the widely diffused Ndris 
language, which is not Bantu, but appears to show affinities with 
Zandeh. 

This great division ethnologists are even disposed to connect with 
the Fula of west and central Sudan, and to substitute for the now 
exploded " Nuba-Fula " a " Zandeh-Fula " family, resulting from 
various secular interminglings between the true negroes and the 
Berbers of North Africa. Such crossings have undoubtedly been in 
progress since prehistoric times over an enormous area south of the 
Sahara (AFRICA: Ethnology), and are almost everywhere marked by 
certain constant characters, such as long ringlety or kinky black hair, 
coppery, reddish or bronze shades of complexion, brachycephalic 
(round) head, often highly pronounced, and indicated outwardly by 
an unusually wide space between the orbits, and generally by some- 
what softened negro features. But, owing to the different environ- 
ments and to the different initial ratios of intermixture, the transi- 
tional forms are almost endless, so that it becomes difficult to consti- 
tute distinct ethnical groups without calling in the aid of language. 
Where type and speech correspond, as to a large extent is the case 
with most of the above-mentioned tribes, even strict systematists 
will be disposed to constitute separate ethnical groups, at least as 
working hypotheses, always allowing for the somewhat untrust- 
worthy nature of the linguistic factor. In the case under con- 
sideration Fula has no kind of connexion with Zandeh speech, but 
this by no means precludes the possibility of racial connexion. 

Beyond a few meagre vocabularies no materials have yet been 
collected for the study of the Zandeh language, which, except in the 
Madi country, appears to be everywhere spoken with considerable 
uniformity in the eastern Niam-Niam lands. Its phonetic system, 
such as initial mb and vowel auslaut, affiliates it, not to the Libyan, as 
has been asserted, but to the Negro linguistic type. Within this order 
of speech its pronominal prefix inflection points to affinity rather with 
the southern Bantu than with the Sudan group of languages. Thus 
the personal plural a-, as in A-Zandeh, A-Madi, A-Banga, &c., would 
appear to be identical in origin and meaning with the Bantu wa-, as 
in Wa-Ganda, Wa-Swaheli, Wa-Sambara, &c. There is also the same 
dearth of abstract terms, which renders the translation of Scripture 
into the Negro tongues such a difficult task. Compare gumbah, an 
expression for the Deity, really meaning " lightning,' with the 
Chinyanja chuuta = thunder = God (?) and the Zuju Unkulunkulu = 
great-grandfather, also adopted by the missionaries as the nearest 
equivalent for the Deity in that language. 

Politically the dismembered Zandeh empire and dependent 
principalities are divided up between France, which claims the 
" sultanates " of Rafai, Dinda, Zemio and Tambura in the Mbpmu 
valley, with all the peoples in Fertit and the Shari basin; Belgium, 
which administers the eastern section between the Mbomu and the 
upper Welle; and Great Britain, to whose share have fallen the 
Makaraka and other Niam-Niam groups of the Bahr-el-Ghazal region. 

See John Petherick, Egypt, the Soudan and Central Africa (1861); 
Carlo Piaggia's " Account of the Niam-Niam," communicated by the 
Marchese O. Antinori to the Bolletino of the Italian Geographical 
Society (1868), pp. 91-168; G. A. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa 
(English edition, 1873); G. Casati, "Journey to the Niam-Niam 
Country," in Esploratore for August 1883, and Ten Years in 
Equatoria (1891); F. R. Bohndorff, Reisen in Central Africa (1885); 
Dr W. Junker, " Rundreise in dem siidlichen Niamniam-Lande," in 
Petermann's Mittheilungen for May 1883, English edition, Travels in 
Africa (1890). 

NIAS, the largest island in the chain off the west coast of 
Sumatra, Dutch East Indies, lying about i N., 97 30' E. It 
is roughly oblong in form, measuring about 80 m. by 28, and 
appears to be partly of volcanic origin and to consist partly of 
older rocks corresponding with those of Sumatra. Its extreme 
elevation is about 2300 ft. A number of islets (Nako, Bunga, &c.) 
lie off the west and north coasts. The island is thickly populated 
by a pagan people, who by some authorities, including F. Jung- 
huhn, have been associated with the Battas, but are probably 
a distinct branch of the pre-Malayan or Indonesian race. Slavery 
and head-hunting are universal, despite the efforts of Dutch 
and German missionary societies. The natives are skilled in 



NIBELUNGENLIED 



637 



such crafts as weaving and metal-work, as well as in agriculture 
and road-making. Coco-nut oil is produced on Nias and also 
more especially on the Nako group. A Dutch commissioner is 
established at Gunong Sitoli on the east coast, a settlement of 
Malay and Chinese traders. 

NIBELUNGENLIED, or DER NIBELUNGE N6i, an heroic epic 
written in a Middle High German dialect. The story on which 
the poem is based belongs to the general stock of Teutonic saga 
and was very widespread under various forms, some of which are 
preserved. Thus it is touched upon in Beowulf, and fragments 
of it form the most important part of the northern Eddas, the 
poets of which evidently assumed that the tale as a whole was 
well known and that their hearers would be able to put each 
piece in its proper place. In the prose Edda, or Volsungasaga, 
which, though largely primitive in spirit, dates from the i3th 
century, it is set forth in full. The substance of this Norse 
version is as follows: 

The three Arises Odin, Loki and Hornir saw an otter devouring 
a salmon beside a waterfall. They killed and skinned the otter and, 
taking the skin with them, sought shelter for the night with Rodmar 
the giant. But Rodmar recognized the skin as that of his son, and 
demanded as weregild gold enough to cover it completely. Loki 
thereupon went back to the stream, where Andvari in the form of a 
pike was guarding a great treasure, caught him in a net, and forced 
him to surrender his hoard. But the piled-up gold left one hair 
exposed; in order to cover it Loki returned to Andvari and forced 
him to surrender a magic ring which had the virtue of breeding gold. 
Thereupon Andvari, enraged, laid upon the hoard and all who 
should possess it a curse. This curse, the Leitmotif of the whole story, 
began to operate at once. Rodmar, for the sake of the treasure, was 
slam by his sons Fafnir and Regin; and Fafnir, seizing the whole, 
retired to a desolate heath and, in the form of a snake or dragon, 
brooded over the hoard. Regin, cheated of his share, plotted 
vengeance and the conquest of the treasure. 

To Regin, a notable smith, was sent Sigurd son of the slaip hero 
Sigmundr the Volsung and his wife Hiortis, now wife of the Danish 
king Alf to be trained in his craft. To him Regin told of Fafnir 
and the hoard, and the young hero offered to go out against the 
dragon it Regin would weld him a sword. But every brand forged by 
the smith broke under Sigurd's stroke; till at last he fetched the 
fragments of the sword Gram, Odin's gift to his father, which Hiortis 
had carefully treasured. These Sigurd forged into a new sword, so 
hard that with it he could cleave the anvil and so sharp that it would 
sever a flock of wool floating against it down stream; and, so armed, 
he sought and slew the dragon. But while roasting Fafnir's heart, 
which Regin had cut out, Sigurd burned his finger with the boiling 
fat and, placing it to his lips, found that he could understand the 
language of birds, and so learned from the chattering of the wood- 
peckers that Regin was planning treachery. Thereupon he slew the 
smith and loading the treasure on the magic steed Grani, given to him 
by Odin, set out upon his travels. 

On the summit of a fire-girt hill Sigurd found the Valkyrie Brunhild 
in an enchanted sleep, and ravished by her beauty awakened her; 
they plighted their troth to each other and, next morning, Sigurd left 
her to set out once more on his journey. Coming to the court of 
Giuki, a king in the Rhine country, Sigurd formed a friendship with 
his three sons, Gunnar, Hogni and Guthorm; and, in order to retain 
so valuable an ally, it was determined to arrange a match between 
him and their sister Gudrun. Queen Grimhild, skilled in magic, 
therefore gave him an enchanted drink, which caused him to forget 
Brunhild. Gunnar, on the other hand, wished to make Brunhild his 
wife, and asked Sigurd to ride with him on this quest, which he con- 
sented to do on condition of receiving Gudrun to wife. They set out ; 
but Gunnar was unable to pass the circle of fire round Brunhild's 
abode, the achievement that was the condition of winning her hand. 
So Sigurd, assuming Gunnar's shape, rode through the flames on his 
magic horse, and in sign of troth exchanged rings with the Valkyrie, 
giving her the ring of Andvari. So Gunnar and Brunhild were 
wedded, and Sigurd, resuming his own form, rode back with them to 
Giuki's court where the double marriage was celebrated. But 
Brunhild was moody and suspicious, remembering her troth with 
Sigurd and believing that he alone could have accomplished the quest. 

One day the two queens, while bathing in the river, fell to quarrel- 
ling as to which of their husbands was the greater. Brunhild taunted 
Gudrun with the fact that Sigurd was Gunnar's vassal, whereupon 
Gudrun retorted by telling her that it was not Gunnar but Sigurd 
who rode through the flames, and in proof of this held up Brunhild's 
ring, which Sigurd had given to her. Then Brunhild " waxed as wan 
as a dead woman, and spoke no word the day long." Maddened by 
jealousy and wounded pride, she now incited the three kings to 
murder Sigurd by exciting their jealousy of his power. The two 
elder, as bound to him by blood-brotherhood, refused; but the 
youngest, Guthorm, who had sworn no oaths, consented to do the 
deed. Twice he crept into Sigurd's chamber, but fled when he found 
the heio awake and gazing at him with flashing eyes. The third 



time, finding him asleep, he stabbed him ; but Sigurd, before he died, 
had just strength enough to hurl his sword at the murderer, whom it 
cut in two. Brunhild, when she heard Gudrun wailing, laughed aloud. 
But her love for Sigurd was great as ever, and she determined not to 
survive him; distributing her wealth to her hand-maidens, she 
mounted Sigurd's funeral pyre, slew herself with his sword, and was 
burnt with him. 

In course of time Gudrun married Atli (Attila), king of the Huns, 
Brunhild's brother. Atli, intent on getting hold of the hoard, which 
Gudrun's brothers had seized, invited them to come to his court. In 
spite of their sister's warnings they came, after sinking the treasure 
in the Rhine. On their refusal to surrender the hoard, or to say 
where it was concealed, a fierce fight broke out, in which all the 
followers of Gunnar and Hogni fell. Atli then once more offered to 
spare Gunnar's life if he would reveal his secret; but Gunnar refused 
to do so till he should see the heart of Hogni. The heart of a slave 
was laid before him, but he declared that that could not be Hogni's, 
since it quaked. Hogni's heart was then cut out, the victim laughing 
the while; but when Gunnar saw it he cried out that now he alone 
knew where the hoard was and that he would never reveal the secret. 
His hands were then bound, and he was cast into a den of venomous 
serpents ; but he played so sweetly on the harp with his toes that he 
charmed the reptiles, except one adder, by which he was stung to 
death. Gudrun, however, avenged the death of her brothers by 
slaying the sons she had borne to Atli and causing him unwittingly 
to drink their blood and eat their hearts. Finally, in the night, 
she killed Atli himself and burned his hall; then, leaping into the 
sea, she was carried by the waves to new scenes, where she had 
adventures not connected with those recorded in the Nibclungenlied. 

This story, in spite of the late date of the Volsungasaga and 
of added elements due to the imagination of its author, evidently 
represents a very primitive version. In the Nibelungen story, 
on the other hand, though its extant versions are of much earlier 
date, and though it contains elements equally primitive not found 
in the other, the spirit and the motives of the earlier story have 
to a large extent been transmuted by later influences, the setting 
of the story being though by no means consistently medieval 
rather than primitive. Thus the mysterious hoard is all but lost 
sight of; no mention is made of the curse attached to it; and 
it is only as an afterthought that Siegfried (Slfrit) is described 
as its master. Everywhere the supernatural elements are elimin- 
ated or subordinated, and the story becomes a drama of human 
motives, depending for its development on the interplay of 
human passions and activities. 

To us in ancient story wonders great are told 

Of heroes rich in glory and of adventures bold, 

Of feast and joyous living, of wailing and of woe, 

Of gallant warriors striving may ye now many marvels know. 1 

That is all he gives by way of preface. The gods have vanished 
from the scene; there is nothing of Loki and his theft of Andvari's 
hoard, nothing of Odin and his gifts of the sword Gram and 
the magic horse Grani; and not till the third Aventiure, when 
Siegfried comes to Worms, are we given even a hint that such 
things as the sword and treasure exist. On the other hand, in 
the very next stanza we are introduced to what is to be the 
leading motive of the plot: Kriemhild, the Burgundian princess, 
on whose account " many a noble knight was doomed to perish." 
For, as in the legend of Sigurd the Volsung, the plot had turned 
upon the love and vengeance of Brunhild, so in the song of the 
Nibelungs it is the love and vengeance of Kriemhild, the Gudrun 
of the northern saga, that forms the backbone of the story and 
gives it from first to last an artistic unity which the Volsungasaga 
lacks. Of the story itself it is impossible here to give anything 
but the barest outline, sufficient to show its contrast with the 
northern version. We may note at the outset the spirit of 
pessimism which, like the curse on the hoard, pervades the 
whole. It appears in the very first Aventiure, when Kriemhild, 
in answer to her mother's interpretation of her dream, declares 
that she will never marry, since " it has been proved by the 
experience of many women that joy is in the end rewarded by 
sorrow "; it is repeated in the last stanza but one of the long 
poem: " As ever joy in sorrow ends and must end alway." 
This tragic contrast is emphasized by the pomp and circumstance 
that surround the ill-fated hero of the story at the beginning. 

1 Uns ist in alten maeren wunders vil geseit 
Von heleden lobebaeren von gr6zer arebeit 
Von freude unt hfichgeziten von weinen unde klagen 
Von kiiener reckon striten muget ir nun wunder hoeren sagen. 



6 3 8 



NIBELUNGENLIED 



The primitive setting of the northern version has vanished utterly. 
Sigmund is king of the Netherlands; the boy Siegfried is brought 
up by " wise men that are his tutors " (Avent. ii.) ; and when, 
attracted by the fame of Kriemhild's beauty, he rides to Worms 
to woo her, it is as the typical handsome, accomplished and 
chivalrous king's son of medieval romance. 

It is at this point (Avent. iv.) that some of the primitive 
elements of the story are suddenly and awkwardly introduced. 
As Siegfried approaches Worms, Kriemhild's brothers, the 
Burgundian kings Gunther, Giselher and Gernot watch his 
coming, and to them their faithful retainer, " the grim Hagen," 
explains who he is. This, he exclaims, can be no other than the 
hero who slew the two kings of the Nibelungs, Schilbunc and 
Nibelunc, and seized their treasure, together with the sword 
Balmunc and the tarnkappe, or cape of darkness, which has the 
virtue of making him who wears it invisible. Another adventure, 
too, he can tell of him, namely, how he slew a dragon and how by 
bathing in its blood his skin became horny, so that no weapon 
could wound him, save in one place, where a linden leaf had 
fallen upon him as he stooped, so that the blood did not touch 
this spot. 1 In spite of Hagen's distrust and misgivings, Siegfried 
now fights as the ally of the Burgundians against the Saxons 
(Avent. iv.), and undertakes, on condition of receiving Kriemhild 
to wife, to help Gunther to woo Queen Brunhild, who can only 
be won by the man who can overcome her in three trials of 
strength (Avent. vi.). Siegfried and Gunther accordingly go 
together to Brunhild's castle of Isenstein in Iceland, and there the 
hero, invisible in his tarnkappe, stands beside Gunther, hurling 
the spear and putting the weight for him, and even leaping, 
with Gunther in his arms, far beyond the utmost limit that 
Brunhild can reach (Avent. vii.). Brunhild confesses herself 
beaten and returns with the others to Worms, where the double 
marriage is celebrated with great pomp (Avent. x.). But Brunhild 
is ill content; though she saw Siegfried do homage to Gunther 
at Isenstein she is not convinced, and believes that Siegfried 
should have been her husband; and on the bridal night she 
vents her ill humour on the hapless Gunther by tying him up 
in a knot and hanging him on the wall. " I have brought the 
evil devil to my house! " he complains to Siegfried next morning; 
and once more the hero has to intervene; invisible in his tarn- 
kappe he wrestles with Brunhild, and, after a desperate struggle, 
takes from her her girdle and ring before yielding place to 
Gunther. The girdle and ring he gives to his wife Kriemhild 
(Avent. x.). 

One day, while Siegfried and his wife were on a visit to the 
Burgundian court, the two queens fell to quarrelling on the 
question of precedence, not in a river but on the steps of the 
cathedral (Avent. xiv.). Kriemhild was taunted with being the 
wife of Gunther's vassal; whereupon, in wrath, she showed 
Brunhild the ring and the golden girdle taken by Siegfried, proof 
that Siegfried, not Gunther, had won Brunhild. So far the story 
is essentially the same as that in the Volsungasaga; but now the 
plot changes. Brunhild drops out, becoming a figure altogether 
subordinate and shadowy. The death of Siegfried is compassed, 
not by her, but by the " grim " Hagen, Gunther's faithful 
henchman, who thinks the glory of his master unduly over- 
shadowed by that of his vassal. Hagen easily persuades the 
weak Gunther that the supposed insult to his honour can only 
be wiped out in Siegfried's blood; he worms the secret of the 
hero's vulnerable spot out of Kriemhild, on pretence of shielding 
him from harm (Avent. xv.), and then arranges a great hunt in 
the forest, so that he may slay him when off his guard. 

The i6th Aventiure, describing this hunt and the murder of 
Siegfried, is perhaps the most powerful scene in all medieval 
epic. To heighten the effect of the tragic climax the poet 
begins with a description of the hunting, and describes the 
high spirits of Siegfried, who captures a wild boar, rides back 
with it to camp, and there lets it loose to the great discomfiture 
of the cooks. 

When the hunters sat down to feast, it was found that the wine 
had been forgotten. Hagen thereupon proposed that they should 
1 Compare the heel of Achilles. 



race to a spring of which he knew some way off in the forest. 
Siegfried readily agreed, and though handicapped by carrying 
shield, sword and spear, easily reached the goal first, but waited, 
with his customary courtesy, until the king had arrived and 
drunk before slaking his own thirst. Then, laying aside his 
arms, he stooped and drank. Hagen, seizing the spear, thrust 
it through the spot marked by Kriemhild on Siegfried's surcoat. 
The hero sprang up and, finding that his sword had been removed, 
attacked Hagen with his shield. 

Though to death he was wounded he struck so strong a stroke 
That from the shattered shield-rim forthwith out there broke 
Showers of flashing jewels; the shield in fragments lay. 2 

Then reproaching them for their cowardice and treachery, 
Siegfried fell dying " amid the flowers," while the knights 
gathered round lamenting. At this point two stanzas may be 
quoted as well illustrating the poet's power of dramatic 
characterization : 

The king of the Burgundians he too bewailed his death : 
Then spake the dying hero: " Nay, now you waste your breath! 
You weep for an ill fortune that you yourself have wrought : 
That is a shameful sorrow : it were better you said nought ! " 
Then out spake the grim Hagen: " I know not why ye plain: 
This is for us the ending of sorrow and of pain. 
Full few are left of foemen that dare withstand us now. 
Glad am I that the hero was by this hand of mine laid low ! " 

This account of the death of Siegfried, which embodies the 
ancient German tradition, is far finer than the northern version, 
according to which Hogni murders the hero in his bed. The 
whole spirit of this Aventiure, too, is primitive Teutonic rather 
than medieval. The same is true, indeed, of the whole of the 
rest of the poem. Siegfried, to be sure, is buried with all the 
pomp of medieval Catholic rites; but Kriemhild, while praying 
for his soul like a good Christian, plots horrible vengeance like 
her pa'gan prototype. With this significant difference, however: 
Gudrun revenged upon her husband the death of her brothers; 
Kriemhild seeks to revenge upon her brothers the death of her 
husband, The Catholic bond of marriage has become stronger 
than the primitive Teutonic bond of kinship. Mistress now of 
the inexhaustible hoard of the Nibelungs, Kriemhild sought 
to win a following by lavish largesses; but this Hagen frustrated 
by seizing the treasure, with the consent of the kings, and sinking 
it in the Rhine, all taking an oath never to reveal its hiding- 
place, without the consent of the others, so long as they should 
live (Avent. xix.). At last, however, after thirteen years, 
Kriemhild's chance came, with a proposal of marriage from 
Etzel (Attila) king of the Huns, whom she consented to marry 
on condition that he would help her to vengeance (Avent. xx.). 
Then more years passed; old feuds seemed to be forgotten; 
and the Burgundian kings, in spite of Hagen's warnings, thought 
it safe to accept their sister's invitation to visit her court (A vent. 
xxiii. xxiv.). 

The journey of the Burgundians into Hunland is described 
by the poet at great length (Avent. xxv.-xxvii.). 'The story is 
full of picturesque detail and stirring incident, full also of interest- 
ing problems in folk-lore and mythology; and throughout it 
is dominated by the figure of the grim Hagen, who, twitted with 
cowardice and his advice spurned, is determined that there shall 
be no turning back and that they shall go through with it to the 
bitter end. With his own hands he ferries the host over the 
Danube and then, when the last detachment has crossed, destroys 
the boat, so that there may be no return. At Attila's court 
(Avent. xxviii.) it is again Hagen who provokes the catastrophe 
by taunting Kriemhild when she asks him if he has brought 
with him the hoard of the Nibelungs: 

" The devil's what I bring you ! " Hagen then replied, 

" What with this heavy harness and my shield beside, 

I had enough to carry : this helmet bright I brought ; 

My sword is in my right hand, and that, be sure, I bring you not! " 

The sword was Siegfried's. It is Hagen, too, who after the 

1 This last fight with the shield seems to have belonged to the 
common stock of heroic story. Cf. the account of the death of 
Hereward " the Wake " given by Geoffrey Gaimar in the Chronicon 
Anglo-Norm, and adopted by Freeman in his Norman Conquest 
(1871), iv. 486. 



NIBELUNGENLIED 



639 



first onslaught of the Huns strikes off the head of Ortlieb, the 
son of Etzel and Kriemhild, and who, amid the smoke and 
carnage of the burning hall, bids the Burgundians drink blood if 
they are thirsty. 

Besides Hagen, during the ride into Hunland and in the 
final fight, another figure comes to the front, that of Volker 
the Fiddler, so far only mentioned as a hero of the Saxon war 
in Avent. ii. He rides fiddling at the head of the host; he plays 
to the weary warriors in the intervals of the battle in the court 
of Etzel's palace; but he is also expert at performing other 
music, with " a strong fiddle-bow, mighty and long, like to a 
sword, exceeding sharp and broad." He is the type' of the 
medieval knightly minstrel of the age of the Minnesang. 

But for all their prowess, after a prolonged struggle {Avent. 
xxix.-xxxvii.), the Burgundians were at last overwhelmed. 
Most of the chief figures of heroic saga had come up against 
them: Attila, Hildebrand, the Ostrogoth Theodoric (Dietrich 
von Bern). To the last-named even Hagen armed with Sieg- 
fried's sword had to yield (Avent. xxxviii.). Kriemhild came to 
him as he lay in bonds and demanded the Nibelung treasure. He 
refused to reveal its hiding-place so long as Gunther, also a 
prisoner, should live. Gunther was accordingly slain by the 
queen's orders and his head was brought to Hagen, who cried out 
when he saw it that all had been accomplished as he had foretold: 

" Now none knows where the hoard is save God and I alone: 
That to thee, devil-woman, shall nevermore be known ! " 

Whereupon Kriemhild slew him with Siegfried's sword. But 
Kriemhild was not destined, like Gudrun, to set out on further 
adventures. Hildebrand, horrified at her deed, sprang forward 
and cut her to pieces with his sword. 

In sorrow now was ended the king's high holiday, 
As ever joy in sorrow ends and must end alway. 

To some MSS. of the Nibelungenlied is added a supplementary 
poem called the Klage or Lament, a sequel of 2160 short-line 
couplets, describing the lament of the survivors notably Etzel 
over the slain, the burying of the dead, and the carrying of the 
news to the countries of the Burgundians and others. At the end 
it is stated that the story was written down, at the com- 
mand of Bishop Pilgrim of Passau, by a writer named Konrad 
(Kuonrat) in Latin, and that it had since been sung (getichlet) 
often in the German tongue. 

Sources of the Story. The origin and nature of the various 
elements that go to make up the story of the Nibelungen- 
lied have been, and continue to be, .the subject of very lively 
debate. The view at one time most generally accepted was 
that first propounded by Karl Lachmann in his. " Kritik der 
Sage von den Nibelungen " (Rlieinisches Museum fur Philologie, 
Num. 249, -250, 1829, republished in his Zu den Nibelungen . . . 
Anmerkungen in 1836), namely, that the story was originally a 
myth of the northern gods, modified into a heroic saga after 
the introduction of Christianity, and intermingled with historical 
elements. This view is maintained by Richard von Muth in 
his Einleitung in das Nibelungenlied (Paderborn, 1877), who 
thus sums up the result of his critical researches: " The basis 
of all is an old myth of a beneficent divine being (Siegfried), 
who conquers daemonic powers (the Nibelungen), but is slain 
by them (the Burgundians turned Nibelungen); with this 
myth was connected the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom, 
ascribed to Attila, between 437 and 453, and later the legend 
of Attila's murder by his wife; in this form, after Attila and 
Theodoric had been associated in it, the legend penetrated, 
between 555 and 583, to the North, where its second part was 
developed in detail on the analogy of older sagas, while in Germany 
a complete change of the old motif took place." To this theory 
the objection is raised that it is but a theory; that it is un- 
supported by any convincing evidence; and that the process 
which it postulates, that, namely, of the transformation of the 
gods into heroes by the popular imagination, is contrary to all 
that we know of the fate of dethroned deities, who are apt to 
live on in fairy stories in very unheroic guise. So early as 1783 
Johannes von Miiller of Gottingen had called attention to the 
historical figures appearing in the Nibelungenlied, identifying 



Etzel as Attila, Dietrich of Bern as Theodoric of Verona, and the 
Burgundian kings Gunther, Giselher and Gernot as the Gun- 
daharius, Gislaharius and Godomar of the Lex Burgundiorum; 
in 1820 Julius Leichtlen (Neuaufgefundenes Bruchstiick des 
Nibelungenliedes, Freiburg-im-Breisgau) roundly declared that 
" the Nibelungenlied rests entirely on a historical foundation, 
and that any other attempt to explain it must fail." This view 
was, however, overborne by the great authority of Lachmann, 
whose theory, in complete harmony with the principles popular- 
ized by the brothers Grimm, was accepted and elaborated by 
a long series of critics. It is only 6f late years that criticism 
has tended to revert to the standpoint of Muller and Leichtlen 
and to recognize in the story of the Nibelungen as a whole a 
misty and confused tradition of real events and people. Mythical 
elements it certainly contains; and to those figures which 
like Siegfried, Brunhild, Hagen and the " good margrave " 
Ruedeger of Bechlaren cannot be traced definitively to historical 
originals, a mythical origin is still provisionally ascribed. But 
criticism is still busy attempting to trace these also to historical 
originals, and Theodor Abeling (Das Nibelungenlied, 1907) 
makes out a very plausible case for identifying Siegfried with 
Segeric, son of the Burgundian king Sigimund, Brunhild with 
the historical Brunichildis, and Hagen with a certain Hagnericus, 
who, according to the Life of St Columban, guided the saint 
(the chaplain of the Nibelungenlied), who had incurred the 
enmity of Brunichildis, safe to the court of her grandson Theu- 
derich, king of the West Franks. 

Herr Abeling's theory of the sources of the Nibelungen story 
is one among many; but, as it is one of the latest and not the 
least ingenious, it deserves mention. That the Icelandic Eddas 
contain the oldest versions of the legend, though divided and 
incomplete, is universally admitted. It is equally well established, 
however, that Iceland could not have been its original home. 
This Herr Abeling locates among the Franks of what is now 
southern France, whence the stories spread, from the 6th century 
onwards, on the one hand across the Rhine into Franconia, 
on the other hand westwards and northwards, by way of Ireland 
at that' time in close intercourse with continental Europe and 
the northern islands, to Iceland. Hence the two traditions, 
the German and the Icelandic, of which the latter alone is 
preserved in something of its primitive form, 1 though primitive 
elements survive in the Nibelungenlied. 

The basis of the story is then, according to this view, historical, 
not mythical: a medley of Franco-Burgundian historical 
traditions, overlaid with mythical fancies. 2 The historical 
nucleus is the overthrow of the Burgundian kingdom of Gun- 
dahar by the Huns in 436; and round this there gathered 
an accretion of other episodes, equally historical in their origin, 
however distorted, with a naive disregard of chronological 
possibility: the murder of Segeric (c. 525), the murder of 
Sigimund by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis (identified 
by Abeling with Kriemhild), the murder of Attila by his Bur- 
gundian wife Ildico (see KRIEMHILD). In the Eddas the identity 
of the original Franco-Burgundian sagas is fairly preserved. 
In the Nibelungenlied, on the other hand, the influence of other 
wholly unconnected stories is felt: thus Hildebrand appears 
during the final fight at Etzel's court, and Theodoric the Great 
(Dietrich von Bern; see THEODORIC), for no better reason than 
that the Dietrich legend had sent him into exile there, and that 
he must have been there when the Burgundians arrived. 

Origin of the Poem. The controversy as to the underlying 
elements of the Nibelung legend extends to the question of the 
authorship and construction of the poem itself. Was it from 
the first whatever additions and interpolations may have 

1 The Eddas were first written down, as is commonly assumed, by 
Bishop Saemund Sigfusson (1056-1133). 

2 The process of this overlaying is easy to realize if we remember 
how usual it was to transfer characteristics and episodes drawn from 
immemorial folk-lore to successive historical personages. A good 
example is the " Swan-maiden " myth connected with the house of 
Bouillon (see LOHENGRIN). See also other interesting cases cited 
in the chapter on the " Geste of John de Courci " in Mr J. H. 
Round's Peerage and Pedigree (London, 1910). 



640 



NICAEA NICAEA, COUNCIL OF 



followed conceived as a single, coherent story, or is it based 
on a number of separate stories, popular ballads akin to the 
Eddas, which the original author of the Nibelungenlied merely 
collected and strung together? The answer to these questions 
has been sought by a succession of scholars in a critical com- 
parison of the medieval MSS. of the poem still surviving. Of 
these 33 are now known, of which 10 are complete, the rest being 
more or less fragmentary. The most important are those 
first discovered, viz. the MSS. lettered C (Hohenems, 1755). 
B (Schloss Werdenberg, 1769), A (Hohenems, 1779); and 
round these the others more or less group themselves. They 
exhibit many differences: put briefly, C is the most perfectly 
finished in language and rhythm; A is rough, in places barbarous; 
B stands half-way between the two. Which is nearest to the 
original? Karl Lachmann (Zu den Nibelungen und zur Klage, 
Anmerkungen, 1836) decided in favour of A. He applied to the 
Nibelungenlied the method which Friedrich August Wolf had 
used to resolve the Iliad and Odyssey into their elements. The 
poem, according to Lachmann, was based on some twenty 
popular ballads, originally handed down orally, but written 
down about 1190 or 1200. This original is lost, and A as its 
roughness of form shows is nearest to it; all other MSS., 
including B and C, are expansions of A. The great authority 
of Lachmann made this opinion the prevalent one, and it still 
has its champions. It was first seriously assailed by Adolf 
Holtzmann (Untersuchungen iiber das Nib., Stuttgart, 1854), 
who argued that the original could not have been strophic in 
form the fourth lines of the strophes are certainly often of the 
nature of " padding" that it was written by Konrad (Kuonrat 
of the Klage), writer to Bishop Pilgrim of Passau about 9703-984, 
and that of existing MSS. C is nearest to this original, B the 
copy of a MS. closely akin to C, and A an abbreviated, corrupt 
copy of B. This view was adopted by Friedrich Zarncke, who 
made C the basis of his edition of the Nibelungenlied (Leipzig, 
1856). A new hypothesis was developed by Karl Bartsch in 
his Untersuchungen iiber das Nibelungenlied (Leipzig, 1865). 
According to this the original was an assonance poem of the i2th 
century, which was changed between 1190 and 1200 by two 
separate poets into two versions, in which pure rhymes were 
substituted for the earlier assonances: the originals of the 
Nibelungenlied and Der Nibelunge Ndt respectively. Bartsch's 
subsequent edition of the Nibelunge Not (ist ed., Leipzig, 1870) 
was founded on B, as the nearest to the original. To this view 
Zarncke was so far converted that in the 1887 edition of his 
Nibelungenlied he admitted that C shows signs of recension and 
that the B group is purer in certain details. 

As a result of all this critical study Herr Abeling comes to the 
following conclusions. The poem was first written down by a 
wandering minstrel about 971 to 991, was remodelled about 
1140 by Konrad, 1 who introduced interpolations in the spirit 
of chivalry and was perhaps responsible for the metre; during 
the wars and miseries of the next fifty years manners and taste 
became barbarized and the fine traditions of the old popular 
poetry were obscured, and it was under this influence that, 
about 1190, a jongleur (Spielmann) revised the poem, this re- 
cension being represented by group B. After 1190, during the 
Golden Age of the art poetry (Kunstdichlung) of the Minnesingers 
(q.v.), a professional poet (Rudolf von Ems?) again remodelled 
the poem, introducing further interpolations, and changing the 
title from Der Nibelunge Ndt into Das Nibelungenliet, this 
version being the basis of the group C. The MS. A, as proved 
by its partial excellence, is based directly on Konrad's work, 
with additions borrowed from B. 

l Bartsch and others ascribe its authorship, with much plausi- 
bility, to an Austrian knight of the race of Kurenberg, the earliest 
of the courtly lyric poets, whose lyrics are written in the Nibelung 
strophe. Thus compare Kurenberg's lyric (Lachmann and Haupt, 
Des Minnesangs Fruhling, 4th ed., F. Vogt, Leipzig, 1888) 

" Ich z6ch mir einen valken mere danne ein jar " 
with the Nibelungen Not (Bartsch) Av. i. 13 

" troumte Kriemhilde. 
Wie sie ziige einen valken, stare scoen' und wilde." 



Theodor Abeling (Das Nibelungenlied und seine Literatur (Leipzig, 
I97) gives a full bibliography, embracing 1272 references from 1756 
to 1905. There are English translations of the poem by A. G. Foster- 
Barham (1887), Margaret Armour (prose, 1897) and Alice Horton 
(1898). (W. A. P.) 

NICAEA, or NICE [mod. Isnik, i.e. NtKaiav] an ancient 
town of Asia Minor, in Bithynia, on the Lake Ascania. Antigonus 
built the city (316 B.C. ?) on an old deserted site, and soon after- 
wards Lysimachus changed its name from Antigonia to Nicaea, 
calling it after his wife. Under the Roman empire Nicaea and 
Nicomedia disputed the title of metropolis of Bithynia. Strabo 
describes the ancient Nicaea as built regularly, in the form of 
a square, with a gate in the middle of each side. From a monu- 
ment in the centre of the city all the four gates were visible 
at the extremities of great cross-streets. After Constantinople 
became the capital of the empire Nicaea grew in importance, 
and after the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders 
became the temporary seat of the Byzantine emperor; the double 
line of walls with the Roman gates is still well preserved. The 
possession of the city was long disputed between the Greeks 
and the Turks. It remained an important city for some time 
after its final incorporation in the Ottoman empire; but became 
subsequently an insignificant village. 

NICAEA, COUNCIL OF. The Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) is 
an event of the highest importance in the history of Christianity. 
Its convocation and its course illustrate the radical revolution 
which the position of this reh'gion, within the confines of the 
Roman empire, had undergone in consequence of the Edict of 
Milan. Further, it was the first oecumenical council, and this 
fact invested it with a peculiar halo in the eyes of subsequent 
ages; while among its resolutions may be found a series of 
decisions which acquired a lasting significance for the Christian 
Church. This applies more especially to the reception of the 
doctrine of the Trinity; for though, immediately after the close 
of the synod, it was exposed to a powerful opposition, it gained 
the day, and, in the form which it received at Nicaea and at 
the council of Constantinople (381), still enjoys official validity 
in the principal churches of Christendom. Finally, the council 
marks an epoch in the history of the conception of the Christian 
reh'gion, in that it was the first attempt to fix the criteria of 
Christian orthodoxy by means of definitely formulated pro- 
nouncements on the content of Christian belief the acceptance 
of these criteria being made a sine qua non of membership of the 
Church. Moreover, it admitted the principle that the state 
might employ the secular arm to bring the Christian subjects 
of the Roman world-empire under the newly codified faith. 
Thus the Nicene Council is an important stage in the develop- 
ment of the state-church, though the completion of that edifice 
was delayed till the reign of Theodosius the Great. The relation 
of the emperor Constantine to the assembly was in itself a step 
in the direction of that independent treatment of ecclesiastical 
affairs, which, in the following centuries, created the peculiar 
type of the Byzantine state-church. 

From his accession Constantine had shown himself the friend 
of the Christians; and, when his victory over Licinius (A.D. 323) 
gave him undisputed possession of the crown, he adhered to 
this religious policy, distinguishing and fortifying the Christian 
cause by gratuities and grants of privilege. This propitiatory 
attitude originated in the fact that he recognized Christianity 
which had successfully braved so many persecutions as the 
most vital and vigorous of religions, and as the power of the 
future. Consequently he directed his energies toward the 
establishment of a positive relationship between it and the 
Roman state. But the Church could only maintain its great value 
for the politician by remaining the same compact organism which 
it had proved itself to be under the stormy reign of Diocletian. 
Scarcely, however, did it find itself in the enjoyment of external 
peace, when violent feuds broke out in its midst, whose extent, 
and the virulence with which they were waged, threatened to 
dismember the whole religious body. Donatism in the West was 
followed by the Arian struggle in the East. The former move- 
ment had been successfully arrested, though it survived in North 
Africa till the sth century. The conflict kindled by the 



NICAEA, COUNCIL OF 



641 



Alexandrian presbyter Arius (q.v.) assumed greater dimensions 
and a more formidable character. Constantine at first attempted 
to restore quiet in Alexandria by transmission of an epistle by 
Bishop Hosius of Cordova, but his admonitions were fruitless. 
Accordingly, since other debatable points' were at issue, he had 
recourse to an institution previously evolved by the Christian 
Church the convocation of a synod to pronounce on burning 
questions qualifying it, however, to correspond with the 
altered circumstances. He convened a council, designed to 
represent the whole Church of the empire, at Nicaea in Bithynia, 
a town situated no great way from the imperial summer-residence 
of Nicomedia and within easy reach by sea of the Oriental 
bishops. Among the various estimates of the number of dele- 
gates, the statement of Athanasius, who speaks of 318 members, 
has dominated the tradition. In consequence of the vast dis- 
tances, the West was but weakly represented. From Spain, 
Hosius the above-mentioned bishop of Cordova made his 
appearance; from Gaul, Nicasius of Dijon; from Dalmatia, 
Domnus of Stridon; from Italy, Marcus of Calabria with two 
presbyters as deputies of the Roman bishop Silvester; and from 
North Africa, Caecilian of Carthage. Thus an immense majority 
of the synod hailed from the East. The bishops of the three 
most important metropolises were present Alexander of 
Alexandria, Eustathius of Antioch and Macarius of Jerusalem 
while a prominent role was also played by Eusebius, bishop of 
the imperial city Nicomedia, and his erudite namesake, Eusebius 
of Caesarea. Of the other prelates not a few had distinguished 
themselves as confessors in the later persecution, and still bore 
the honourable traces of their sufferings. Since the bishops 
were accompanied by priests, Nicaea witnessed an array of 
clerics such as had never before been mustered in a single place. 
Among the attendant clergy, the still youthful deacon Athanasius, 
destined to succeed Alexander in the see of Alexandria, was 
prominent as the most powerful antagonist of Arianism (see 
ATHANASIUS). The synod met in the imperial palace from the 
2oth of May to the 2$th of July. What order of procedure 
obtained, and in whom the presidency was vested, are problems 
which admit of no certain solution: the one indisputable fact is 
that Constantine who, at his appearance, was accorded a 
ceremonious reception, and himself delivered an address on the 
occasion exercised a decided influence on the discussions. 

The deliberations on the Arian question passed through several 
distinct stages before the final condemnation of Arius and his 
doctrines was reached. A clearly defined standpoint with regard 
to this problem the relationship of Christ to God was held 
only by the attenuated group of Arians and a far from numerous 
section of delegates, who adhered with unshaken conviction to 
the Alexandrian view. The bulk of the members occupied a 
position between these two extremes. They rejected the 
formulae of Arius, and declined to accept those of his opponents; 
that is to say, they were merely competent to establish negations, 
but lacked the capacity, as yet, to give their attitude of com- 
promise a positive expression. In the main they perpetuated 
the line of Origen. That the majority of the council should 
have adopted this neutral tendency is easily intelligible when 
we consider the state of theology at that period. True, at Nicaea 
this majority eventually acquiesced in the ruling of the Alex- 
andrians; yet this result was due, not to internal conviction, 
but partly to indifference, partly to the pressure of the imperial 
will a fact which is mainly demonstrated by the subsequent 
history of the Arian conflicts. For if the Nicaean synod had 
arrived at its final decision by the conscientious agreement of all 
non-Arians, then the confession of faith there formulated might 
indeed have evoked the continued antagonism of the Arians, 
but must necessarily have been championed by all else. This, 
however, was not the case; in fact, the creed was assailed by 
those very bodies which had composed the laissez-faire centre at 
Nicaea; and we are compelled to the conclusion that, in this 
point, the voting was no criterion of the inward convictions of 
the council. 

In the synod, an Arian confession of faith was first brought 
forward and read; but it aroused such a storm of indignation 

XIX. 21 



that obviously, in the interests of a restoration of ecclesiastical 
peace, there could be no question of its acceptance. On this, 
Eusebius of Caesarea submitted the baptismal creed of his 
community; and this met with the imperial approval. Since 
the creed dated from a period anterior to the outbreak of the 
Arian struggle, its reception would have been equivalent to a 
declaration on the part of the council that it declined to define 
its position with reference to the controversy of the hour. 
That the greater number of delegates were not disinclined to 
adopt this subterfuge, so congenial to their standpoint, and to 
shelve the actual solution of the whole problems by recognition 
of this or some similar neutral formula, is extremely probable. 
But the emperor manifestly saw that, if the difficulties were 
eluded in any such mode, it was inevitable from the very nature 
of the case, that they should rise again in an accentuated form, 
and that consequently no pacification could be expected from 
this policy. Since the Eastern Church subscribed to the Alex- 
andrian solution of the question, he drew the natural deduction 
and concluded that he had here a genuine presentment of the 
feeling of the Church, which, if it received official sanction, 
might be justly expected to restore peace to the Christian 
community. But, in pronouncing for this view, he was careful 
to dissociate himself from the formulation of a new confession: 
for it was imperative to avoid even an apparent innovation in 
the articles of faith. Accordingly he proposed that the Caesarean 
creed should be modified by the insertion of the Alexandrian 
passwords as if for the purpose of more accurate definition 
and by the deletion of certain portions. That he appreciated the 
import of these alterations, or realized that this revision was 
virtually the proclamation of a new doctrine, is scarcely probable. 
The creed thus evolved the expression OJUOOIKUOS is of Western 
origin was finally signed by all the deputies with the exception 
of the bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais: 
even the Arians had submitted. The two recalcitrant prelates, 
with the presbyter Arius, were banished to Illyria; Eusebius of 
Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea were also driven into exile, 
and at the same time the works of Arius were condemned to 
be burned under pain of death. 

But this artificial unity was no ratification of peace: in fact, 
it paved the way for a struggle which convulsed the whole 
empire. For it was the proclamation of the Nicene Creed that 
first opened the eyes of many bishops to the significance of the 
problem there treated; and its explanation led the Church to 
force herself, by the arduous .path of theological work, into 
compliance with those principles, enunciated at Nicaea, to 
which, in the year 325, she had pledged herself without genuine 
assent. 

In addition to the Arian impasse, there was the schism of 
Bishop Meletius of Lycopolis in the Thebaid, whose settlement 
Constantine had added to the programme of the council. He 
and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, had come into conflict over the 
treatment of the " backsliders " (lapsi) in the Diocletian persecu- 
tion; and their strife acquired additional bitterness from the 
fact that it was extended to cover the prerogatives of the 
Alexandrian bishopric. Peter had composed a treatise advocat- 
ing moderate principles and censuring the courtship of martyrdom 
for its own sake, then gone so far as to save himself by flight. 
Meletius, on the other hand, represented the most rigorous 
school, and allowed himself high-handed infringements of the 
law. When this had resulted in his deposition by a synod, a 
faction still adhered to him, and the Meletians became a schis- 
matic community; and such they remained even after the death 
of Peter (311), who demonstrated by his martyrdom that his 
counsels of moderation were not prompted by cowardice. This 
Meletian schism made for disorder in the ecclesiastical life of 
Egypt all the more because its followers sided with Arius. The 
Nicene Council broke the strength of the movement by great 
concessions to the Meletian bishops, and, at the same time, 
expressly recognized the supreme rights of the Alexandrian see 
over Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis. Since, in the resolution 
dealing with this point (canon vi.), reference was made to the 
analogous and undisputed suzerainty of the Roman see over 



642 



NICANDER NICARAGUA 



the ten suburbican provinces, attached to the diocese of Rome 
and including middle and lower Italy, with the islands of Sicily, 
Corsica and Sardinia this decision enshrines an important 
piece of evidence for the history of the papacy. On this oppor- 
tunity, his ancient privileges were restored to the bishop of 
Jerusalem, who, in consequence of the political history of 
the Holy Land, had been subordinated to the metropolitan 
of Caesarea (canon vii.). The path was smoothed for the 
readmittance of the Novatians (Cathari) into the church, by 
recognizing, in this case, their clergy, with the bare stipulation 
that the laying-on of hands should follow their written promise 
to be faithful to the doctrine of the Catholic Church (canon viii.). 

With regard to the much-debated question as to the termina- 
tion of the Easter festival, the synod committed itself so far 
as to pronounce in favour of the Alexandrian cycle a settle- 
ment which entailed such important results in practical life 
that it was communicated to the Christian churches by Con- 
stantine in a circular letter. The problem, whether a 
baptism, performed by heretics in the name of Christ or the 
Trinity, should rank as a baptism or not, had given rise to an 
animated controversy between the Roman bishop Stephen, 
who answered in the affirmative, and Cyprian of Carthage, who 
gave an equally decided negative. The council followed the 
Roman practice, merely declaring the nullity of baptisms 
imparted by the adherents of Paul of Samosata (canon xix.). 
An important provision, in point of ecclesiastical law, was that 
the chirotony of a bishop required the presence of at least three 
other bishops of his province, while the confirmation of the 
choice remained at the disposal of the metropolitan (canon iv.). 
A further regulation was that two provincial synods should be 
held annually (canon v.) ; but a law enacting the celibacy of the 
clergy was rejected at Nicaea, since Paphnutius, an aged bishop 
of Egypt who had been tested in persecution, warned his col- 
leagues against the danger of imposing too arduous a yoke upon 
the priesthood, and defended the sanctity of marriage. 

As Constantine had convened the synod, so he determined 
its conclusion. A brilliant banquet in the imperial palace of 
which Eusebius of Caesarea gives an enthusiastic account- 
marked its close, after which the bishops were granted their 
return. The admonitions to peace with which he dismissed 
them proved unavailing for the reasons indicated above: but 
the reputation of the first oecumenical council suffered no 
abatement in consequence. 

See F. v. Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, \. (ed. 2, Freiburg, 1873), 
pp. 282-443. A catalogue of the special literature will be found in 
Loofs's article " Arianismus " in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie f. 
protestantische Theologie, i. (ed. 3, Leipzig, 1897); also Bernoulli, 

Nicaenisches Konzil," ib., vol. xiv. (1904), pp. 9 sqq. (C. M.) 

NICANDER (2nd cent. B.C.), Greek poet, physician and 
grammarian, was born at Claros, near Colophon, where his 
family held the hereditary priesthood of Apollo. He flourished 
under Attalus III. of Pergamum. He wrote a number of works 
both in prose and verse, of which two are preserved. The longest, 
Tberiaca, is an hexameter poem (958 lines) on the nature of 
venomous animals and the wounds which they inflict. The 
other, Alexipharmaca, consists of 630 hexameters treating of 
poisons and their antidotes. In his facts Nicander followed 
the physician Apollodorus. Among his lost works may be 
mentioned: Aetolica, a prose history of Aetolia; Heteroeumena, 
a mythological epic, used by Ovid in the Metamorphoses and 
epitomized by Antoninus Liberalis; Georgica and Melissourgica, 
of which considerable fragments are preserved, said to have 
been imitated by Virgil (Quintilian x. i. 56). The works of 
Nicander were praised by Cicero (De oratore, i. 16), imitated by 
Ovid, and frequently quoted by Pliny and other writers. His 
reputation does not seem justified; his works, as Plutarch 
says (De audiendis poetis, 16), have nothing poetical about 
them except the metre, and the style is bombastic and obscure; 
but they contain some interesting information as to ancient 
belief on the subjects treated. 

Editions.]. G. Schneider (1792, 1816); O. Schneider (1856) 
(with the Scholia) ; H. Klauser, " De Dicendi Genere . . . 
Nicandri " (Dissertationes PhUologicae Vindobonenses, vi. 1898). 



The Scholia (from the Gottingen MS.) have been edited by G. 
Wentzel in Abhandlungen der k. Gesellschaft der Wiss. zu Gottingen, 
xxxviii. (1892). See also W. Vollgraff, Nikander und Ovid (Groningen, 
1909 foil.). 

NICANOR, Greek grammarian, son of Hermeias of Alexandria 
(or Hierapolis), lived during the reign of Hadrian. He chiefly 
devoted himself to the study of punctuation and the difference 
of meaning caused by it. Hence he was nicknamed " the 
Punctuator " (6 OTfy/iaTias). He is known to have written 
on the punctuation of Homer and Callimachus. He was possibly 
the author of a work Ilept MerovofiaaiSiv (On the Change of 
Names of Places), of which some fragments are preserved in 
C. W. Miiller, Fragmenla Historicorum Graecorum, iii. 632. 

Edition of the Iliad and Odyssey fragments by L. Friedlander (1850) 
and O. Carnuth (1875) respectively. 

NICARAGUA, a republic of Central America, bounded on the 
N. by Honduras, E. by the Caribbean Sea, S. by Costa Rica, 
and W. by the Pacific Ocean (for map, see CENTRAL AMERICA). 
Pop. (1905), about 550,000; area, 49,200 sq. m. Nicaragua 
forms an irregular equilateral triangle with its base stretching 
for 280 m. along the Caribbean Sea from Cape Gracias a Dios 
southwards to the San Juan delta, and its apex at the Coseguina 
volcano, on the Bay of Fonseca, which separates Nicaragua 
on the Pacific side from Salvador. The frontier which separates 
the republic from Honduras extends across the continent from 
east-north-east to west-south-west. It is defined by the river 
Segovia for about one-third of the distance, or from Cape Gracias 
a Dios to 86 W.; it then deflects across the watershed on the 
east and south of the Hondurian river Choluteca, crosses the 
main Nicaraguan cordillera (mountain chain), and follows the 
river Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. In accordance with the 
treaty of 1858, which was confirmed in 1888 by the United States 
president, acting as arbitrator, and more fully defined in 1896, 
the boundary towards Costa Rica is drawn 2 m. S. of the San 
Juan river and Lake Nicaragua, as far as a point parallel to the 
centre of the western shore of the lake. It is then continued 
south-westward for the short distance which intervenes between 
this point and the northernmost headland of Salinas Bay, on 
the Pacific. 

Physical Features. The coasts of Nicaragua are strikingly 
different in configuration. Tbe low, swampy and monotonous 
shore of the Caribbean, with its numerous lagoons and estuaries, 
and its fringe of reefs and islets, contains only three harbours: 
Gracias a Dios, Bluefields or Blewfields, and Greytown (San 
Juan del Norte). Its length, from Cape Gracias a Dios to the 
San Juan delta, is nearly 300 m. The Pacific coast, measuring 
some 200 m. from the Bay of Fonseca to Salinas Bay, is bold, 
rocky and unbroken by any great indentation; here, however, 
are the best harbours of the republic the southern arm of the 
Bay of Fonseca (<?..), Corinto, Brito and San Juan del Sur. 

The surface of the country is naturally divided into five clearly 
distinct zones: (i) the series of volcanic peaks which extend parallel 
to the Pacific at a little distance inland ; (2) the plains and lakes of 
the great depression which lies to the east of these mountains and 
stretches from sea to sea, between the Bay of Fonseca and the 
mouths of the San Juan; (3) the main cordillera, which skirts the 
depression on the east, and trends north-west from Monkey Point or 
Punta Mico on the Caribbean Sea, until it is merged in the ramifica- 
tions of the Hondurian and Salvadorian highlands; (4) the plateaus 
which slope gradually away from the main cordillera towards the 
Caribbean ; (5) the east or Mosquito coast.with its low-lying hinter- 
land. The last-named region has to a great extent had a separate 
history ; and it was only in 1894 that the Mosquito Reserve, a central 
enclave which includes more than half of the littoral and hinterland, 
was incorporated in the republic and renamed the department of 
Zelaya. (See MOSQUITO COAST.) 

Though situated almost on the western edge of the country, and 
greatly inferior, both in continuity and in mean altitude, to the main 
cordillera, the chain of volcanic cones constitutes a watershed quite 
equal in importance to the cordillera itself. It consists for the most 
part of isolated igneous peaks, sometimes connected by low interven- 
ing ridges. It terminates in the extreme north-west with Coseguina 
(2831 ft.), and in the extreme south-east with the low wooded archi- 
pelagos of Solentiname and Chichicaste near the head of the San 
Juan river. Between these two extremes the chief cones, proceeding 
southwards, are: the Maribios chain, comprising El Viejo (5840 ft.), 
Santa Clara. Telica, Orota, Las Pilas, Axosco, Momotombo (4127 ft.), 
all crowded close together between the Bay of Fonesca and Lake 






NICARAGUA 



6 43 



Managua; Masaya or Popocatepac (which was active in 1670, 1782, 
1857 and 1902, and attains a height of 2972 ft.), and Mombacho 
(4593 ft.), near Granada; lastly, in Lake Nicaragua the two islands 
of Zapatera and Ometepe or Omotepec with its twin peaks Ometepe 
(5643 ft.) and Madera. On the 2Oth of January 1835 Coseguina was 
the scene of one of the most tremendous eruptions on record. The 
outbreak lasted four days and the volcanic dust and ashes erupted fell 
over a vast area, which comprised Jamaica, southern Mexico and 
Bogota. After a long repose Ometepe also burst into renewed 
activity on the igth of June 1883, when the lavas from a new crater 
began to overflow and continued for seven days to spread in various 
directions over the whole island. In the Maribios district occur 
several volcanic lakelets, such as that of Masaya, besides numerous 
infernillos, low craters or peaks still emitting sulphurous vapour and 
smoke, and at night often lighting up the whole land with bluish 
flames. 

In the great lacustrine depression of Nicaragua is collected all the 
drainage from the eastern versant of the volcanic mountains, from 
the sheer western escarpment of the main cordillera, and from a large 
area of northern Costa Rica. The only river which flows out of the 
depression on the north enters the Bay of Fonseca at Tempisque. 
The accumulated waters which pour down into the depression are 
gathered into the two basins of Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. 
Both basins have a maximum depth of some 260 ft. Lake Managua, 
the more northerly, has a length of 30 m. and varies in breadth from 
8 to 16 m. Its area is about 575 scj. m. After the rains a portion of 
its overflow escapes southwards into the lower and larger Lake 
Nicaragua, through the Panaloya channel. Steamers ply on both 
lakes, but the channel is rendered impassable by a rapid near the 
town of Tipitapa, at its northern extremity. Here there is a water- 
fall of 13 ft. The existence of ancient lacustrine beaches, upheaved 
between the two basins by volcanic agencies or left dry by some 
enlargement of the San Juan outfall, and a consequent subsidence of 
the water-level, seems to indicate that the lakes were formerly united. 
Now, however, Lake Managua is almost a closed basin in the dry 
season, when the stream in parts of the Panaloya channel sinks to a 
mere rivulet. The surface of Lake Nicaragua after the rains is 1 10 f t. 
above sea-level. The lake is 100 m. long, and has a maximum 
breadth of 45 m. and an area of 2970 sq. m. It is thus the largest 
sheet of fresh water between Lake Michigan and Lake Titicaca on the 
borders of Bolivia and Peru. Towards the San Juan outlet its depth 
decreases to 6 or 8 ft., owing to the vast accumulation of the silt 
washed down into the lake by its principal Costa Rican affluent, the 
Rio Frio. Much of this silt is again carried away by the San Juan. 
Under the influence of the intermittent trade-winds Lake Nicaragua 
rises and falls regularly, whence the popular notion that it was a 
tidal lake. It is also exposed to the dangerous Papagayos tornadoes, 
caused by the prevailing north-easterly winds meeting opposite 
currents from the Pacific. It is drained on the south by the San 
Juan river, which flows generally east by south to the Caribbean Sea. 
The distance from the lake to the principal or Colorado mouth of the 
river is 95 m., and the average width of the channel 1500 ft. Near its 
mouth the main stream branches out into a wide delta. Navigation 
is greatly impeded by shifting banks of silt, and especially by five 
rapids which can only be traversed when the river is in full flood. 
It is often asserted that these rapids were artificially formed by the 
Spaniards themselves to prevent the buccaneers from penetrating to 
Lake Nicaragua. But Herrera (Dec. iii. book 2, chap. 3) speaks of 
the " great rocks and falls " which prevented Cordova, the first 
circumnavigator of the lake, from descending the San Juan in 1522 ; 
and although the English traveller Gage states that in his time (ijth 
century) vessels reached Granada direct from Spain, there can be 
little doubt that the rapids are natural obstructions. The various 
schemes which have been put forward for the conversion of the San 
Juan and the lacustrine depression into an interoceanic waterway are 
fully discussed under PANAMA CANAL. 

The main Nicaraguan Cordillera, which flanks the depression on 
the east, has often been called the Cordillera de los Andes, from its 
supposed continuity with the mountain-chains of Panama and the 
west coast of South America. There is in fact no such continuity, for 
the San Juan valley completely separates the mountains of Panama 
from the main Nicaraguan system. This severance, it is true, may 
be geologically recent, and some geologists see, in the five rapids of 
the San Juan, remnants of a connecting ridge which the river has 
swept away. But the evidence for past continuity is inconclusive, 
while there can be no doubt about the present severance of the two 
mountain systems. The main cordillera bears different names in 
different parts of Nicaragua. Thus the important section which 
terminates at Monkey Point is commonly called the Cordillera de 
Yolaina. The summits of the main cordillera seem nowhere to 
exceed 7000 ft. in altitude; the mean elevation is probably less 
than 2000 ft. ; the declivity is sheer towards the lakes, and gradual 
towards the Caribbean. Along the shores of the lakes the cordillera 
may be described as a double range, consisting of two series of ridges 
divided by a great longitudinal valley. The lower series, which 
adjoins the lakes, rises near Lake Managua, and marches parallel to 
the main crest of the cordillera as far as the northern base of the 
Yolaina section; it then diverges, trending south-east nearly as far 
as Greytown, while the axis of the Yolaina section has a more easterly 
direction. 



On the cast, the main cordillera abuts upon the region of plateaus 
and savannas, which occupies nearly half of the area of Nicaragua. 
It is likely that this region was once a single uniform tableland, 
sloping by degrees to the flat Mosquito Coast, in which direction its 
level still sinks. But the relief of the tableland has been wholly 
changed by fluvial action. The great rivers which flow eastward to 
the sea have fissured and moulded the surface into deep ravines alter- 
nating with high plateaus, ridges and isolated hills. Large tracts of 
these uplands nave never been adequately explored, and consist of 
virgin forest and prairie. The principal river is the Segovia, which 
rises in the main cordillera due north of Lake Managua, winds E.N.E. 
as far as 85 W., and constitutes the frontier until it reaches the sea 
at Cape Gracias & Dios, after a course of more than 450 m., during 
which it receives many tributaries. Its basin is narrow and its 
volume not remarkable, but in length it surpasses all other Central 
American rivers. Its nomenclature, like that of many lesser streams 
in the plateau region, is somewhat confusing; for while the Spanish 
colonists were settling beside its headwaters the mid-stream was 
hardly known except to the native Indians, and the lower reaches 
were frequented by buccaneers, often of British or Dutch origin. In 
addition to the three names of Segovia, Coco or Cocos, and Wanks, 
which are applicable to the whole river, different parts have from 
time to time received the names of Cabullal, Cabrugal, Cape River, 
Encuentro, Gracias, Herbias, Oro, Pantasma, Portillo Liso, Tapacac, 
Telpaneca, Somoro, Yankes, Yare and Yoro. Other important 
streams, all flowing to the Caribbean in a direction E. by S., are the 
Hueso, Wawa, Cuculaia, Prinzapolca, Rio Grande, Bluefields and 
Rama. The Rio Grande or Amaltara, which receives one large 
tributary, the Tuma, is navigable for about 100 m. The Bluefields, 
Blewfields, Escondida, or Rio del Desastre, which derives its best- 
known name from that of Blieveldt, a Dutch corsair, is navigable for 
65 m. The hydrography of Nicaragua is curious in two respects: 
as in the Amazonian region all the large rivers flow east, none escap- 
ing to the Pacific; and the main watershed does not correspond with 
the main cordillera, which is inferior in this particular both to the 
volcanic mountains and to the plateau region. 

The geology, fauna and flora of Nicaragua may be studied in 
connexion with those of the neighbouring countries (see CENTRAL 
AMERICA). 

Climate. The climate is mild and healthy for Europeans on the 
uplands, such as those of Segovia and Chontales, which have a mean 
elevation of 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level. But elsewhere it is 
distinctly tropical, with two seasons wet from May to November 
on the Pacific slope, and from June to December on the Caribbean, 
and dry throughout the winter months. The mean annual tempera- 
ture is about 80 Fahr., falling to 70 at night and rising to 90 at 
noon in summer. Nicaragua comes within the zone of the wet north- 
east trade-winds, which sweep inland from the Atlantic. The rain- 
fall is heavy along the west side of the lacustrine basin, with an annual 
mean at Rivas of 102 in., but this figure is sometimes greatly exceeded 
on the east coast, where rain is common even in the dry season. 
Observations made at Greytown in 1890 showed the extremes of 
temperature to be 89 Fahr. in September for the maximum and 
70 Fahr. in January for the minimum ; the rainfall for the whole 
year amounted to 297 in., the riiniest month having been July 
(52-5 in.) and the driest, May (4-9 in.). Earthquakes are felt at times 
on the Pacific slope, but in Nicaragua they are less violent than in the 
neighbouring countries. 

Inhabitants. Accurate statistics as to the growth and distri- 
bution of the population cannot be obtained, and the figures 
given below are based on estimates which can only be approxi- 
mately correct. The census of 1882 gave the total as 275,816; 
this appears to have risen in 1890 to 375,000, in 1900 to 500,000, 
and in 1905 to 550,000, or n inhabitants per sq. m. There can 
thus be no doubt that the population is increasing with extra- 
ordinary rapidity, although there is hardly any immigration. 
The number of Europeans and their pure-blooded descendants 
is about 1 200, and tends to increase. Spanish and German 
elements preponderate in the foreign colonies. The most densely 
peopled region and the focus of civilization is the lacustrine 
depression and the surrounding uplands. Here are all the large 
towns, and hither European settlers were attracted from the 
first by the temperate climate, rich soil, and natural waterways. 
The development of Nicaragua, unlike that of most American 
countries (notably Brazil and the United States), has been from 
west to east. The great mass of the population is a composite 
race, descended chiefly from the native " Indians," their Spanish 
conquerors, many of whom were Galicians, and the negro slaves 
introduced during the colonial period. Intermarriage with 
British, Dutch, and French with Caribsand Creoles has further 
complicated the ethnology of the country, producing " Indians " 
with fair hair and blue eyes, and half-castes with European 
features and Indian or negroid coloration, or with European 



644 



NICARAGUA 



coloration and Indian or negroid features. The prevailing 
language is a degenerate form of Spanish, nearer to Galician than 
to Castilian. Most of the native dialects have ceased to exist, 
but a corrupt form of English is spoken on parts of the east 
coast. All who speak Spanish are classed as Ladinos; the 
half-castes generally are termed Mestizos; and the name of 
Sambos or Zambos is confined to the descendants of Indian and 
negro parents; these are also incorrectly called Caribs. The 
number of the uncivilized Indians, whose camps or villages are 
situated in open glades among the forests of the plateau region, 
is usually estimated at 30,000; but this would seem to be an 
exaggeration. Pure-blooded Indians are not numerous, as whole 
districts were depopulated and whole tribes exterminated by the 
Spanish colonists and the buccaneers. A few may be descendants 
of the Aztecs and Mayas, whose temples, sculptures, burial- 
grounds, &c., have not yet been fully explored. For a general 
account of this ancient civilization and of the Indian tribes see 
CENTRAL AMERICA and MEXICO: Archaeology. A collection of 
Nicaraguan antiquities is preserved in the National Museum 
at Washington, U.S.A.; and the archaeological collection 
brought to Europe by Dr W. Lehmann in 1910 was exhibited in 
the Berlin Museum of Fine Arts. 

Chief Towns and Communications. The capital is Managua (pop. 
1905, about 30,000); other important towns are Leon (45,000), 
Granada (25,000), Masaya (20,000), Chinandega (12,000), and the 
seaports of Corinto (3000) and Grey town (2500). These are de- 
scribed in separate articles. At the beginning of the 2Oth century, 
Nicaragua had few good roads, and none at all east of the mam 
Cordillera. Transport in the plateau region was mainly effected by 
means of pack mules, over the roughest of tracks. But between 
1900 and 1905 contracts were signed for the construction of three 
highways, leading respectively from Matagalpa, from Nueva Segovia 
and from the Pis Pis mining district to the head of steam navigation 
on the Segovia, about 1 60 m. above Cape Gracias. These highways 
were to be linked to the western system by 79 m. of road connecting 
Matagalpa with Momotombo. For the construction and upkeep of 
roads a tax varying from one to ten pesos is levied on all males over 
eighteen years old. There are 160 m. of state railways, running from 
Corinto to Leon, Managua, Granada and Diriamba, with branches to 
El Viejo and Momotombo. Contracts for additional lines were signed 
between 1900 and 1905. The steamers which ply on the great lakes 
and the San Juan, besides other vessels which visit the principal 
Caribbean and Pacific ports, are national property; but from the 1st 
of January 1905 all the state railways were leased to a syndicate for 
fifteen years and the steamers for twenty-five years. There are also 
20 m. of private railway near the mouth of the Rio Grande, and 
private steam tramways on the western shore of Lake Nicaragua. 
Corinto is the headquarters of shipping; it is visited by two-thirds 
of the 2 100 vessels of 550,000 tons (including coasters) which annually 
enter the ports of the republic. The coasting trade is restricted to 
vessels under the Nicaraguan flag. At the beginning of the 2Oth 
century most of the ocean-going steamers were owned in Germany 
or the United States; British enterprise being chiefly represented 
by schooners trading from Jamaica to Bluefields and Greytpwn. 
Nicaragua joined the postal union in 1882, and the western provinces 
have a fairly complete telegraphic and telephonic system. 

Industries and Commerce. -The principal agricultural product is 
coffee, the yield of which increased from 4,528,300 ft in 1880 to 
11,382,000 ft) in 1-890, and 26,400,000 Ib in 1900. Coffee is grown 
principally in the Matagalpa region, on the uplands of the interior. 
The plantations are chiefly owned and managed by Germans, and 
the product is of good quality; but coffee-planting, like most 
Nicaraguan industries, suffers from the scarcity of labour. On the 
Caribbean coast bananas are cultivated and largely exported to the 
United States. In 1903 more than 2,000,000 bunches were consigned 
to New Orleans. The cultivation of cotton has been often attempted, 
but with little success. Sugar is grown and there are many small 
sugar factories, but little of the output is exported. The cocoa 
export is also small ; tobacco, rice, beans and other crops are grown 
for local use. Rubber is collected in the forests, and plantations 
have been formed. Dye-woods and indigo are exported, but the 
demand for vegetable dyes has decreased. Cattle-rearing is success- 
fully pursued, live cattle and hides being important articles of 
export. Cheese and butter are manufactured in large quantities 
for home consumption. Horses and pigs are also reared, but not 
sheep. In 1899 the government sold about 52,000 acres of public 
land lying about 18 m. E. of Lake Nicaragua for the purpose 
of colonization. The purchaser undertook to introduce settlers from 
northern Europe, to import cattle for the improvement of the 
Nicaraguan breed, to plant rubber and vanilla, and to provide 
schools for agricultural instruction. The sale of Nicaraguan spirits is 
a state monopoly. From the 1st of January 1904 it was leased to a 
syndicate of distillers for six years. Gold-mining is carried on along 
the Caribbean littoral. In 1898 the gold dust and bar exports from 



Bluefields were of the value of 25,760; in 1900, 62,000; and in 
I 97- 65,000. Copper, coal, petroleum, silver and precious stones 
are also found, and there seems little reason to doubt that the mineral 
resources of Nicaragua, though undeveloped, are nearly as rich as 
those of Honduras. Other industries include manufactures of 
leather, boots and shoes, furniture, bricks and pottery, cigars and 
cigarettes, beer, wine and spirits, candles and soap. The largest and 
most numerous commercial firms are German, but there are also 
French, British, and even Chinese establishments, although the im- 
migration of Chinese is prohibited by law. The principal exports are 
(in order of value) coffee, bananas, gold, rubber, cattle and hides, 
dye-woods and cabinet woods. The principal imports are cotton 
and woollen goods, machinery and hardware, flour, beer, wine, 
spirits and drugs. The United States and Great Britain send 
respectively 60% and 20% of the imports, receiving 60% and 
8 % of the exports. The average yearly value of the foreign trade 
is about 1,200,000 exports, 700,000; imports, 500,000. 

Money, Weights and Measures. There is one bank of issue, the 
Bank of London and Central America, which has a capital of 
260,000 (130,300 paid). The monetary unit is the silver peso or 
dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, -900 fine. The current 
coin consists largely of Mexican and Central and South American 
dollars; but little coin is in circulation. The currency is mostly 
paper, notes being issued directly by the treasury and by the bank. 
The notes issued by the bank must be covered to the extent of 40% 
by gold and silver; the actual bank reserve is stated to be from 65 
to 100 % of the notes issued. The value of the paper peso fluctuates ; 
in 1904 the premium on gold stood at 640 %. The value of the silver 
peso in fractional silver money is about nineteen pence; in a single 
coin about twenty pence. The exportation of silver pesos is pro- 
hibited. In 1899 a nickel coinage was introduced. The metric 
system of weights and measures was legalized in January 1893. 

Finance. The revenue of the republic is derived mainly from 
customs duties, liquor, tobacco and slaughter- taxes, railways and 
steamers, the postal and telegraph services, and the gunpowder 
monopoly. The principal spending departments are those of war 
and marine, internal development, and finance. The published 
accounts, however, present no continuous or clear view of the 
national receipts and disbursements. Revenue and expenditure vary 
considerably, but neither often falls below 300,000 or rises above 
500,000. In 1886 the republic contracted a railway loan in London 
to the amount of 285,000 at 6% interest, and in July 1894 the 
interest fell into default. In 1895 an arrangement was made for the 
reduction of interest to 4%, the beginning of amortization, and the 
creation of " coffee warrants " to be used in the payment of export 
duties on coffee assigned for the service of the debt. In the four years 
18971900 the sales of these warrants amounted to 1,028,990 gold 
pesos or (at 23d., the average rate for this period) 98,610. In July 
1905 the outstanding amount of the debt was 253,600. In 1905 a 
further loan of 12,500,000 francs (500,000) was raised in Paris at 
5 %. The internal debt amounts to about 400,000. 

Constitution and Administration. The former constitution, 
proclaimed on the 4th of July 1894 and amended on the loth of 
December 1896, was superseded on the 3oth of March 1905, 
when a new constitution was promulgated. By this instrument 
the legislative power is vested in a single chamber of 36 members 
(instead of 40, as under the old constitution), elected by universal 
male suffrage for six years (instead of two). The executive is 
entrusted to a president similarly chosen for six years (instead of 
four) and aided by a cabinet representing the five ministries of 
foreign affairs and education, finance, internal administration 
and justice, war and marine, and public works. For adminis- 
trative purposes the republic is divided into 13 departments and 
2 comarcas, each under a political head who acts as military 
commandant and controls education, finance, &c. The ad- 
ministration of justice is entrusted to numerous courts of first 
instance, three courts of appeal, and a supreme court. The 
active army of 4000 men can be increased to 40,000 in war. 
All able-bodied citizens between the ages of seventeen and fifty- 
five are compelled to serve one year with the colours and are 
then enrolled in the reserve. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing 
creed, but all religions are tolerated, and none receives any en- 
dowment or other special privilege from the state. The bishop 
of Leon, whose diocese is included in the archiepiscopal province 
of Guatemala, is the spiritual head of the Roman Catholics. 
There are numerous elementary schools, at which the teaching is 
free and compulsory, besides ten colleges for secondary or 
technical education, and two universities. 

History. For a general account of the Spanish administration 
during the colonial period, i.e. up to 1821, and of the subsequent 
attempts to unite all the Central American republics in a single 



NICASTRO 



645 



federal state, see CENTRAL AMERICA. The history of the Mosquito 
Reserve and of the relations between Nicaragua and Great 
Britain is told in full under MOSQUITO COAST. 

First discovered by Columbus in 1502, Nicaragua was not 
regularly explored till 1522, when Gil Gonzalez Davila pene- 
trated from the Gulf of Nicoya to the western provinces 
and sent his lieutenant Cordova to circumnavigate the great 
lake. The country is said to take its name from Nicaras or 
Nicaragua (also written Micaragua), a powerful Cholutec chief, 
ruling over most of the land between the lakes and the Pacific, 
who received Davila in a friendly spirit and accepted baptism 
at his hands. Nicaragua's capital seems to have occupied the 
site of the present town of Rivas. The Spaniards overran the 
country with great rapidity, both from this centre northwards, 
and southwards from the Honduras coast. The occupation 
began with sanguinary conflicts between the two contending 
waves of intrusion. Granada was founded in 1524 on the 
isthmus between the two lakes as the capital of a separate 
government, which, however, was soon attached as a special 
province to the captaincy general of Guatemala, which comprised 
the whole of Central America and the present Mexican state of 
Chiapas. Hence, during the Spanish tenure, the history of 
Nicaragua is merged in that of the surrounding region. Of its 
five earliest rulers " the first had been a murderer, the second 
a murderer and rebel, the third murdered the second, the fourth 
was a forger, the fifth a murderer and rebel " (Boyle). Then came 
the hopeless revolts of the Indians against intolerable oppression, 
the abortive rebellions of Hernandez de Contreras and John 
Bermejo (Bermudez) against the mother country (1550), the 
foundation, of Leon, future rival of Granada, in 1610, its sack 
by the buccaneers under William Dampier in 1685, and, lastly, 
the declaration of independence (1821), not definitively acknow- 
ledged by Spain till 1850. 

In 1823 Nicaragua joined the Federal Union of the five Central 
American states, which was dissolved in 1839. While it lasted 
Nicaragua was the scene of continual bloodshed, caused partly 
by its attempts to secede from the confederacy, partly by its 
wars with Costa Rica for the possession of the disputed territory 
of Guanacaste between the great lake and the Gulf of Nicoya, 
partly also by the bitter rivalries of the cities of Leon and 
Granada, respective headquarters of the Liberal and Conservative 
parties. During the brief existence of the Federal Union no 
fewer than three hundred and ninety-six persons exercised the 
supreme power of the republic and the different states. The 
independent government of Nicaragua was afterwards dis- 
tinguished almost beyond all other Spanish-American states by 
an uninterrupted series of military or popular revolts, by which 
the whole people was impoverished and debased. One out- 
standing incident was the filibustering expedition of William 
Walker (q.v.), who was at first invited by the Liberals of Leon to 
assist them against the Conservatives of Granada, and who, 
after seizing the supreme power in 1856, was expelled by the 
combined forces of the neighbouring states, and on venturing 
to return was shot at Trujillo in Honduras on the I2th of 
September 1860. 

Under the administration of Chamorro, who became president 
in 1875, a difficulty with Germany occurred. The German 
government asserted that one of its consuls had been insulted, 
l and demanded an indemnity of $30,000 (about 2800), a demand 
to which Nicaragua only submitted after all her principal ports 
had been blockaded. The successor of President Chamorro was 
General Zavala, whose administration brought Nicaragua to a 
higher degree of prosperity than she had ever known. He was 
succeeded in 1883 by Dr Cardenas, during whose presidency the 
attempt of General Barrios to unite the five Central American 
states was a cause of war between Guatemala and Honduras on 
one side, and Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica on the other. 
Cardenas had taken command of the united Nicaraguan and Costa 
Rican army when Barrios died, and on the nth of April 1885 
a treaty of peace was signed. Don Evaristo Carazo succeeded 
Dr Cardenas as president of the republic in 1887, but died when 
he had served a little over two years, and was succeeded by 



Dr Roberto Sacasa. Under Carazo's administration the boundary 
question between Nicaragua and Costa Rica had been settled 
by arbitration, the president of the United States acting as arbi- 
trator. While Dr Sacasa was president of Honduras, Salvador 
and Guatemala signed a treaty, under which the United States of 
Central America were to be formed. The president of Nicaragua 
adhered to this treaty, but the National Congress refused to 
ratify it. Sacasa was overthrown by a revolution in 1893, and 
was succeeded by a provisional government, which in its turn 
was deposed soon after by another uprising, at the head of 
which was General Jose Santos Zelaya. His position was 
regularized by the constitution of 1894, and he was re-elected 
president in 1898 for another term of four years. Under his 
government the incorporation of the Mosquito Reserve into the 
territory of Nicaragua took place. In 1895 occurred the Hatch 
incident, which led to the occupation of the port of Corinto by a 
British fleet. Mr Hatch, British pro-vice-consul at Bluefields, 
being accused of conspiracy against the Nicaraguan government, 
was arrested, along with other British subjects, and expelled. 
For this action Nicaragua was required to pay an indemnity of 
$15,000. An attempt to overthrow Zelaya was made in February 
1896, but it was crushed after several months of severe fighting. 
There were occasional disturbances subsequently, but none 
sufficient to overturn President Zelaya, who was again re- 
elected in 1902 and 1906. In 1907 he carried to a successful 
issue the war which broke out in that year between Nicaragua 
and Honduras (?..). But he was believed to be planning the 
conquest of other Central American states, and his policy of 
granting monopolies and commercial concessions to his own 
supporters aroused widespread discontent. In October 1909 
an insurrection broke out in the Atlantic departments. The 
execution (after alleged torture) of two citizens of the United 
States named Grace and Cannon, who were said to have fought 
in the revolutionary army under General Estrada, led to the 
despatch of United States warships to Nicaragua; but in the 
absence of full evidence President Zelaya 's responsibility for the 
execution could not be proved. 1 On the ist of December the 
United States broke off diplomatic relations with Nicaragua, 
and in an official note Secretary Knox described the Zelayan 
administration as a " blot on the history " of the republic. Fight- 
ing at Bluefields was prevented by the U.S. cruiser " Des Moines" 
(i8th December), an example followed at Greytown by the 
British cruiser "Scylla"; but elsewhere along the Atlantic 
coast the insurgents gained many victories. In the battle of 
Rama (23rd December) they captured the greater part of the 
government troops. On the following day Zelaya took refuge 
on board a Mexican gunboat, and sailed for Mexico. Dr Madriz, 
one of his supporters, had already succeeded him as president. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fora general account of Nicaragua, see F. Boyle, 
A Ride across a Continent (2 vols., London, 1868); E. G. Squier, 
Nicaragua, Sfc. (and ed., London, 1871); I. W. Bodham, Whetham, 
Across Central America (London, 1877); T. Belt, The Naturalist in 
Nicaragua (London, 1888); A. R. Colquhoun, The Key of the Pacific 
(London, 1895) ; G. Niederlein, The State of Nicaragua (Philadelphia, 
1898); A. P. Davis, Hydrography of Nicaragua (U.S.A. Geological 
Survey report, No. 20) (iqoo); C. Medina, Le Nicaragua en IQOO 
(Paris, 1900) ; J. W. G. Walker, Ocean to Ocean: an Account, Personal 
and Historical, of Nicaragua and its People (Chicago, 1902). For 
commerce, finance and administration, see the annual Reports of the 
Committee of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders (London) ; D. 
Pector, tude economique sur la republique de Nicaragua (Neuchatel, 
1893) ; Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington) ; 
U.S.A. Consular and British Foreign Office Reports; official reports 
issued periodically at Managua, in Spanish. For history, M. M. de 
Peralta, Nicaragua y Panama en el siglo XVI (Madrid, 1883); J. D. 
Gamez, Archive historico de la Republica de Nicaragua (Managua, 
1896) ; F. Ortega, Nicaragua en los primeros anos de su emancipation 
politico. (Paris, 1894); D. B. Lucas, Nicaragua: War of the Fili- 
busters (Richmond, Va., 1896); C. Bovallius, Nicaraguan Antiquities 
(Stockholm, 1886). 

NICASTRO, a town and episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, in 
the province of Catanzaro, 17 m. W.N.W. of Catanzaro by rail, 
and s| m. E. of S. Eufemia, a station on the line along the 

1 General Medina and other officers were tried by a Nicaraguan 
court-martial for the murder of Grace and Cannon, but were acquitted 
on the 28th of January 1910. 



NICCOLI NICE 



west coast from Naples to Reggio di Calabria. Pop. (1001) 
13,671 (town), 18,150 (commune). It issituated on the isthmus 
between the gulfs of S Eufemia and of Squillace, the narrowest 
part of Calabria, 970 ft. above sea-level, and commands a fine 
view. The ruined castle served as the place of imprisonment 
of Frederick II. 's son Henry. The place suffered greatly from 
the earthquake of 1638, which also destroyed the Benedictine 
abbey of S Eufemia, founded by Robert Guiscard. 

NICCOLI, NICCOLO DE' (1363-1437), Italian humanist, 
was born and died at Florence. He was one of the chief figures 
in the company of learned men which gathered round Cosimo 
de' Medici,who played the part of Augustus to Niccoli's Maecenas. 
Niccoli's chief services to classical literature consisted in his 
work as a copyist and collator of ancient MSS.; he corrected 
the text, introduced divisions into chapters, and made tables 
of contents. His lack of critical faculty was compensated by 
his excellent taste; in Greek (of which he knew very little) 
he had the assistance of Ambrogio Traversari. Many of the 
most valuable MSS. in the Laurentian library are by his hand, 
amongst them those of Lucretius and of twelve comedies of Plautus. 
Niccoli's private library was the largest and best in Florence; 
he also possessed a small but valuable collection of ancient 
works of art, coins and medals. He regarded himself as an 
infallible critic, and could not bear the slightest contradiction; 
his quarrels with Filelfo, Guarino and especially with Traversari 
created a great sensation in the learned world at the time. His 
hypercritical spirit (according to his enemies, his ignorance of 
the language) prevented him from writing or speaking in Latin ; 
his sole literary work was a short tract in Italian on Latin 
Orthography, which he withdrew from circulation after it had 
been violently attacked by Guarino. 

Sec the Life in Traversarii Epistolae (ed. L. Mehus, 1759); G. 
Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterlums (1893); G. 
Zippel, Nicold Niccoli (Florence, 1890). 

NICCOLITE, a mineral consisting of nickel arsenide, NiAs, 
containing 43-9% nickel and 56-1% arsenic. Crystals are hex- 
agonal, but are rare and indistinct. It usually occurs as 
compact masses. A characteristic feature is the pale copper- 
red colour, with metallic lustre, on the uneven fractured surfaces. 
It is opaque and brittle, and the streak is brownish-black. The 
specific gravity is 7-5, and the hardness s|. Small quantities 
of sulphur, iron and cobalt are usually present, and sometimes 
the arsenic is largely replaced by antimony. Antimonial varieties 
are known as arite, and form a passage to the isomorphous 
species breithauptite (nickel antimonide). Niccolite occurs with 
ores of cobalt, silver and copper at Annaberg and Schneeberg 
in Saxony, at Sangerhausen and Mansfeld in Prussian Saxony 
and other localities; it has occasionally been found in Cornwall 
and Scotland. The original arite (aarite) is from Mount Ar 
(Aar) near Pic du Midi d'Ossau in the Pyrenees. 

The names niccolite (J. D. Dana, 1868) and nickeline (F. 
S. Beudant, 1832) refer to the presence of nickel (Lat. niccolum). 
Owing to its copper-red colour the mineral is commonly called 
" copper-nickel," the German equivalent of which, Kupfernickel, 
was used as early as 1694. (L. J. S.) 

NICE, a city of France, the chief town of the department 
of the Alpes Maritimes, and previous to 1860 the capital of 
the county of Nice (Nizza) in the kingdom of Sardinia, 739 m. 
by rail from Paris. Pop. (1001) 127,027, of whom 105,109 
were permanent residents; in winter-time there is a large 
influx of visitors. It occupies a fine position at the mouth of 
the Paillon (Paglione); a stream (often dried up in summer) 
which, after a course of 20 m., enters the northern end of the 
Baie des Anges. A steep isolated limestone hill, 308 ft. in 
height, running back for some distance from the shore, forms 
the historical nucleus of the town. Formerly crowned by a 
castle, which, previous to its destruction by the duke of Berwick 
in 1706, was one of the strongest fortresses on the coast, it is 
now laid out as a public pleasure-ground, and planted with 
aloe, cactus, agave and palm. Towards its south-west corner 
stands a tower (Tour Bellanda or Clerissy) dating, it is said, 
from the 5th century. The old town stretches along the western 



base of the hill; the " town of the i8th century " occupies the 
ground farther west, which slopes gently towards the Paillon; 
and away to the north-east and north and west beyond the 
stream lie the ever-growing quarters of the modern city. To 
the east of the hill, and thus out of sight of the more fashionable 
districts, the commercial quarter surrounds the port. The 
whole frontage of Nice is composed of fine embankments: the 
Quai des Ponchettes, constructed in 1770 round the base of 
the castle hill, is continued westward by the Quai du Midi to the 
public gardens and the municipal casino, whence the Promenade 
des Anglais (so called because it was begun in 1822-1824 a t 
the cost of the English colony), a boulevard 85 ft. wide, extends 
for more than a mile to the mouth of the Magnan, and in 
1904 was prolonged to the Var. A pier projecting into the 
sea from the promenade contains a " crystal palace." The 
course of the Paillon also is embanked on both sides, and at 
one part the Place Massena, one of the largest public squares 
in the city, and the principal resort of foreign visitors, and the 
Avenue Massena (leading thence to the Promenade des Anglais) 
have been laid out across the stream. Besides a Roman Catholic 
cathedral Ste Reparate, dating from 1650 Nice possesses 
two Russian churches, two synagogues and an Anglican chapel. 
Architecturally the most remarkable church is Notre Dame 
du Voeu, a modern Gothic building with two towers 213 ft. 
high, erected by the town in 1835 to commemorate its preserva- 
tion from cholera. The secular buildings include the town 
hall, the prefecture, the theatres, the hospitals, the lycee (founded 
by the Jesuits in the i7th century), the natural history museum, 
the library (especially rich in theology), and, at some distance 
from the town, the astronomical and meteorological observatory 
on Mont Gros (i 220 ft.). The industrial establishments comprise 
perfumery factories, distilleries, oil-works, furniture and wood- 
work factories, confectionery works, soap-works, tanneries 
and a national tobacco factory employing several hundred 
persons. Besides the vine, the trees principally cultivated 
in the neighbourhood are the olive, the orange, the mulberry 
and the carob; and the staple exports are oil, agricultural 
produce, fruits and flowers. 

Nice now joins on the north-east the ancient episcopal town 
of Cimiez, in which are situated the largest and most elegantly 
appointed hotels. Reckoning from east to west the town is sur- 
rounded by a girdle of beautiful towns Carabacel, St Etienne, 
St Philippe and Les Beaumettes. On the east of the port lie 
Montboron, Riquier and St Roch, the last partly occupied 
by barracks. The entrances to the port of Nice and the outer 
pier have been improved; that of the outer port is 300 ft. 
wide, and that of the inner 220 ft. The area of the port is about 
15 acres, the length of quayage available 3380 ft., the depth 
of water 20 ft., its trade, mostly coastal, being shared principally 
between French and Italian vessels, the arrivals being about 
1235 vessels of some 300,000 tons annually. Nice is an episcopal 
see (first mentioned at the end of the 4th century) which since 
1860 is in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence. It 
is the headquarters of a military division forming part of the 
corps d'armee of Marseilles. Protected towards the north by 
hills which rise stage behind stage to the main ridge of the Alps, 
Nice is celebrated for the mildness of its climate. The mean 
temperature is 60 Fahr., that of winter being 49, of spring 
56, of summer 72 and of autumn 63. For a few nights in 
winter the meicury sinks below freezing point, but snow is 
practically unknown, falling, on an average, only half a day in 
the year. The highest reading of the thermometer is rarely 
above 90. There are sixty-seven days with rain in the course 
of the year; but it usually falls in heavy showers which soon 
leave the sky clear again, though the whole annual amount 
exceeds 32 in. Fine days and rainy days are almost equally 
distributed throughout the different seasons. The winds are 
very variable, sometimes changing several times a day. Apart 
from the ordinary land and sea breezes, the most frequent is 
the east wind, which is especially formidable during autumn. 
The south-west wind (called Libeccio, or wind of Lybia) is moist 
and warm; the north-east (or Gregaou, Greek), which is happily 



NICE NICEPHORUS 



647 



rare, brings storms of hail and even snow in winter. The mistral 
(from the north-west) and the tramontane (from the north) 
are generally stopped by the mountains; but when they do 
reach the city they raise intolerable dust-storms. For two 
thousand years the climate of Nice has been considered favour- 
able in chest complaints. Those who are requiring rest, and those 
suffering from gout, asthma, catarrhs, rachitic affections, 
scrofula, stone, also experience benefit; but the reverse is the 
case when heart disease, nervous disorders or ophthalmia are 
concerned. Autumn is the best season; in spring the sudden 
changes of temperature demand great care. Means of passing 
the time pleasantly are fairly abundant. The city is at its 
liveliest during the carnival festivities, in which, as at Rome, 
battles are waged with sweetmeats and flowers. 

History. Nice (Nicaea) was founded about two thousand years 
ago by the Phocaeans of Marseilles, and received its name in 
honour of a victory (PIKTJ) over the neighbouring Ligurians. It 
soon became one of the busiest trading stations on the Ligurian 
coast; but as a city it had an important rival in the town of 
Cemenelum, which continued to exist till the time of the Lombard 
invasions, and has left its ruins at Cimiez, 2\ m. to the north. 
In the yth century Nice joined the Genoese league formed by the 
towns of Liguria. In 729 it repulsed the Saracens; but in 859 
and 880 they pillaged and burned it, and for the most of the loth 
century remained masters of the surrounding country. During 
the middle ages Nice had its share in the wars and disasters of 
Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, and both 
the king of France and the emperor endeavoured to subjugate 
it ; but in spite of all it maintained its municipal liberties. In the 
course of the i3th and I4th centuries it fell more than once into 
the hands of the counts of Provence; and at length in 1388 it 
placed itself under the protection of the counts of Savoy. The 
maritime strength of Nice now rapidly increased till it was able to 
cope with the Barbary pirates; the fortifications were largely 
extended and the roads to the city improved. During the struggle 
between Francis I. and Charles V. great damage was caused by 
the passage of the armies invading Provence; pestilence and 
famine raged in the city for several years. It was in Nice that 
the two monarchs in 1538 concluded, through the mediation of 
Paul III., a truce of ten years; and a marble cross set up to 
commemorate the arrival of the pope still gives its name, Croix de 
Marbre, to part of the town. In 1543 Nice was attacked by the 
united forces of Francis I. and Barbarossa; and, though the 
inhabitants, with admirable courage, repulsed the assault which 
succeeded the terrible bombardment, they were ultimately 
compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa was allowed to pillage 
the city and to carry off 2500 captives. Pestilence appeared 
again in 1550 and 1380- In 1600 Nice was taken by the duke of 
Guise. By opening the ports of the countship to all nations, and 
proclaiming full freedom of trade, Charles Emmanuel in 1626 
gave a great stimulus to the commerce of the city, whose noble 
families took part in its mercantile enterprises. Captured by 
Catinat in 1691, Nice was restored to Savoy in 1696; but it was 
again besieged by the French in 1705, and in the following year 
its citadel and ramparts were demolished. The treaty of Utrecht 
in 1713 once more gave the city back to Savoy; and in the 
peaceful years which followed the " new town " was built. 
From 1744 till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French 
and Spaniards were again in possession. In 1775 the king of 
Sardinia destroyed all that remained of the ancient liberties of 
the commune. Conquered in 1792 by the armies of the French 
Republic, the county of Nice continued to be part of France till 
1814; but after that date it reverted to Sardinia. By a treaty 
concluded in 1860 between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III. 
it was again transferred to France, and the cession was ratified 
by over 25,000 electors out of a total of 30,700. 

See L. Durante, Histoire de Nice (3 vols., Turin, 1823-1824) ; J. N. 
Fcrvel, Histoire de Nice et des Alpes Maritime! depuis 21 siecles 
(Paris, 1862); E. Tisserand, Histoire civile et religieuse de la cite de 
Nice (2 vols., Nice, 1862); Cartitlaire de I'ancienne cathedrale de Nice 
(Turin, 1888). 

NICE, an adjective which in present usage has two main 
meanings: (i) fastidious, particular, precise or scrupulous, and 



(2) pleasant, kind or agreeable. The first meaning has been 
common since the i6th century, the second only since the end 
of the i8th. In O. Fr., from which the English form was adapted, 
the word is niche or nice, which are derivatives of Lat. nescius, 
not knowing, ignorant. The development in meaning is doubt- 
ful; some authorities take it as (i) foolish, (2) foolishly precise, 

(3) delicate, (4) pleasant. Skeat suggests an early confusion 
with the word " nesh," soft, delicate, still surviving dialectically. 

NICEPHORUS, the name of three emperors of the East. 

NICEPHORUS I., emperor 802-811, was a native of Seleucia in 
Pisidia, who was raised by the empress Irene to the office of 
logotheies or lord high treasurer. With the help of the patricians 
and eunuchs he contrived to dethrone and exile Irene, and to be 
elected emperor in her stead. His sovereignty was endangered 
by Bardanes, one of his ablest generals, who revolted and received 
support from other commanders, notably the later emperors Leo 
the Armenian and Michael the Amorian. But Nicephorus gained 
over the latter two, and by inducing the rebel army to disperse 
achieved the submission of Bardanes, who was relegated to a 
monastery. A conspiracy headed by the patrician Arsaber had 
a similar issue. Nicephorus, who needed large sums to strengthen 
his military force, set himself with great energy to increase the 
empire's revenue. By his rigorous imposts he alienated the 
favour of his subjects, and especially of the clergy, whom he 
otherwise sought to control firmly. In 803 and 810 He made a 
treaty with Charlemagne, by which the limits of the two empires 
were amicably fixed. Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast and 
South Italy were assigned to the East, while Rome, Ravenna and 
the Pentapolis were included in the Western realm. By with- 
holding the tribute which Irene had agreed to pay to Harun 
al-Rashid, Nicephorus committed himself to a war with the 
Saracens. Compelled by Bardanes's disloyalty to take the field 
himself, he sustained a severe defeat at Crasus in Phrygia (805), 
and the subsequent inroads of the enemy into Asia Minor induced 
him to make peace on condition of paying a yearly contribution 
of 30,000 gold pieces. By the death of Harun in 809, Nicephorus 
was left free to deal with the Bulgarian king, Krum, who was 
harassing his northern frontiers. In 811 Nicephonis invaded 
Bulgaria and drove Krum to ask for terms, but in a night attack 
he allowed himself to be surprised and was slain along with a 
large portion of his army. Krum is said to have made a drinking- 
cup of Nicephorus's skull. 

NICEPHORUS II. (Phocas), emperor 963-969, belonged to a 
Cappadocian family which had produced several distinguished 
generals. He was born about 912, joined the army at an early 
age, and, under Constantine VII., became commander on the 
eastern frontier. In the war with the Saracens he began with a 
severe defeat (956), which he retrieved in the years following by 
victories in Syria. In 960 he led an expedition to Crete, stormed 
Candia after a ten months' siege, and wrested the whole island 
from the Saracens. After receiving the unusual honours of a 
triumph, he returned to the east with a large and well-equipped 
army. In the campaigns of 962-63 by brilliant strategy he forced 
his way through Cilicia into Syria and captured Aleppo, but 
made no permanent conquests. Upon the death of Romanus II. 
he returned to Constantinople to defend himself against the 
intrigues of the minister Bringas. With the help of the regent 
Theophano and the patriarch, he received supreme command 
of the eastern forces, and being proclaimed emperor by these 
marched upon the capital, where meanwhile his partisans had 
overthrown his enemy Bringas. Thanks to his popularity with 
the army, Nicephorus was crowned emperor by the side of 
Romanus's infant sons, and in spite of the patriarch's opposition 
married their mother Theophano. During his reign he continued 
to wage numerous wars. In 964-966 he definitely conquered 
Cilicia and again overran Mesopotamia and Syria, while the 
patrician Nicetas recovered Cyprus. In 968 he reduced most of 
the fortresses in Syria, and after the fall of Antioch and Aleppo 
(969), which were recaptured by his lieutenants, secured his 
conquests by a peace. On his northern frontier he began a war 
against the Bulgarians, to whom the Byzantines had of late been 
paying tribute (967), and by instigating an attack from the 



NICEPHORUS CALLISTUS NICHOLAS, ST 



Russians distracted their attention effectively. Nicephorus was 
less successful in his western wars. After renouncing his tribute 
to the Fatimite caliphs, he sent an expedition to Sicily under 
Nicetas (964-65), but was forced by defeats on land and sea to 
evacuate that island completely. In 967 he made peace with the 
Saracens of Kairawan and turned to defend himself against their 
common enemy, Otto I. of Germany, who had attacked the 
Byzantine possessions in Italy; but after some initial successes 
his generals were defeated and driven back upon the southern 
coast. Owing to the care which he lavished upon the proper 
maintenance of the army, Nicephorus was compelled to exercise 
rigid economy in other departments. He retrenched the court 
largesses and curtailed the immunities of the clergy, and although 
himself of an ascetic disposition forbade the foundation of new 
monasteries. By his heavy imposts and the debasement of the 
coinage he forfeited his popularity with the rest of the community, 
and gave rise to riots. Last of all, he was forsaken by his wife, 
and, in consequence of a conspiracy which she headed with his 
nephew John Zimisces, was assassinated in his sleeping apart- 
ment. Nicephorus was the author of an extant treatise on 
military tactics which contains valuable information concerning 
the art of war in his time. 

NICEPHORUS III. (Botaniates), emperor 1078-1081, belonged 
to a family which claimed descent from the Roman Fabii and 
rose to be commander of the troops in Asia. He revolted in 1078 
from Michael VII., and with the connivance of the Turks marched 
upon Nicaea, where he assumed the purple. In face of another 
rebellious general, Nicephorus Bryennius, his election was ratified 
by the aristocracy and clergy. With the help of Alexius Com- 
nenus he drove out of the field Bryennius and other rivals, but 
failed to clear the invading Turks out of Asia Minor. Nicephorus 
ultimately quarrelled with Alexius, who used his influence with 
the army to depose the emperor and banish him to a monastery. 
In the years of his reign he had entirely given himself over to 
debauchery. 

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall (ed. Bury, 1896); Finlay, Hist, of 
Greece; G. Schlumberger, Nicephore Phocas (Paris, 1890); K. 
Leonardt, Kaiser Nicephorus II. (Halle, 1887). 

NICEPHORUS CALLISTUS XANTHOPOULOS, of Constan- 
tinople, the last of the Greek ecclesiastical historians, flourished 
1320-1330. His Historia Ecclesiastica, in eighteen books, 
brings the narrative down to 610; for the first four centuries 
the author is largely dependent on his predecessors, Eusebius, 
Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Evagrius, his additions 
showing very little critical faculty; for the later period his 
larjours, based on documents now no longer extant, to which he 
had free access, though he used them also with small discrimina- 
tion, are much more valuable. A table of contents of other 
five books, continuing the history to the death of Leo the 
Philosopher in 911, also exists, but whether the books were ever 
actually written is doubtful. Some modern scholars are of 
opinion that Nicephorus appropriated and passed off as his own 
the work of an unknown author of the loth century. The plan 
of the work is good and, in spite of its fables and superstitious 
absurdities, contains important facts which would otherwise 
have been unknown. The history of the Latin Church receives 
little attention. Only one MS. of the history is known; it was 
stolen by a Turkish soldier from the library at Buda during the 
reign of Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and taken to Constan- 
tinople, where it was bought by a Christian and eventually reached 
the imperial library at Vienna. Nicephorus was also the author 
of lists of the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople, of a 
poem on the capture of Jerusalem, and of a synopsis of the 
Scriptures, all in iambics; and of commentaries on liturgical 
poems. 

Works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxlv.-cxlvii. ; see also 
F. C. Baur, Die Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852); 

. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Lilteratur (1897); 
Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, ix. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1895). 

NICEPHORUS PATRIARCHA (c. 758-829), Byzantine 
historian and patriarch of Constantinople (806-815). His father 
Theodorus, one of the secretaries of the emperor Constantino 
Copronymus, had been scourged and banished for his zealous 



support of image-worship, and the son inherited the religious 
convictions of the father. He was secretary to the imperial 
commissaries at the council of Nicaea in 787, which witnessed 
the triumph of his opinions; but, feeling dissatisfied with court 
life, he retired into a convent. In 806 he was suddenly raised 
by the emperor Nicephorus I. to the patriarchate of Constan- 
tinople, and this office he held until 815, when he accepted deposi- 
tion rather than assent to the iconoclastic edict promulgated by 
Leo the Armenian in the previous year. He retired to the 
cloister of StQTheodore, which he himself had founded, and 
died there in 829. After his death he was included among the 
saints of the orthodox church. 

Nicephorus is the author of a valuable compendium (Breviarium 
historicum) of Byzantine history from 602 to 770, of a meagre 
Chronologia compendiaria from Adam to the year of his own death. 
The former contains an interesting account of the origin and migra- 
tions of the Bulgarians. Both will be found, together with some 
controversial writings and his biography by his pupil Ignatius, 
also patriarch of Constantinople, in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, 
c.; edition of the compendia and life by C. de Boor (1880, 
Teubner series); see also F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien (1876); 
J. Hergenrother, Photius (1867); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der 
byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); Wetzer and Welte's Kirchen- 
lexikon, ix. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1895). 

NICHE (through Fr. niche from Ital. nicchia, nicchio, shell; 
possibly from Lat. milulus, a sea-mussel; cf. " napkin " from 
tnappa), in architecture a recess sunk in a wall, generally for the 
reception of a statue. The niche is sometimes terminated by 
a simple label, but more commonly by a canopy, and with a 
bracket or corbel for the figure, in which case it is often called 
a " tabernacle." 

NICHOL, JOHN (1833-1894), Scottish man of letters, son of 
the astronomer J. P. Nichol (1804-1859), was born on the 8th 
of September 1833, and educated at Glasgow and Balh'ol College, 
Oxford, where he had a brilliant career. After taking his first- 
class in classics, he remained at Oxford as a coach. With Albert 
Venn Dicey, Thomas Hill Green, Swinburne and others, he formed 
the Old Mortality Society for discussions on literary matters. 
In 1862 he was made professor of English literature at Glasgow. 
He had already made a reputation as an acute critic and a suc- 
cessful lecturer, and his influence at Glasgow was very marked. 
He visited the United States in 1865, and in 1882 he wrote 
the article on American literature for the ninth edition of the 
Encyclopaedia Brilannica an article which is a good example 
of his pungent (sometimes unduly pungent) style. He left 
Glasgow for London in 1889, and died on the nth of October 
1894. Among his best works were his drama Hannibal (1873), 
The Death of Themistocles, and other Poems (1881), his Byron 
in the " English Men of Letters " series (1880), his Robert Burns 
(1882) and Carlyle (1892). 

A Memoir by Professor Knight was published in 1896. 

NICHOLAS, ST, bishop of Myra, in Lycia, a saint honoured 
by the Greeks and the Latins on the 6th of December. His 
cult is as celebrated as his history is obscure. All the accounts 
that have come down to us are of a purely legendary character, 
and it is impossible to find any single incident confirmed historic- 
ally. The main facts of his life are usually given as follows. 
He was bishop of Myra in the time of the emperor Diocletian, 
was persecuted, tortured for the faith, and kept in prison until 
the more tolerant reign of Constantine, and was present at the 
council of Nicaea. It should be observed that this last circum- 
stance is ignored by all the historians, and that St Athanasius, 
who knew all the notable bishops of the period, never mentions 
Nicholas, bishop of Myra. The oldest known monument of the 
cult of St Nicholas seems to be the church of SS Priscus and 
Nicholas built at Constantinople by the emperor Justinian (see 
Procopius, De aedif. i. 6). In the West, the name of St 
Nicholas appears in the 9th century martyrologies, and churches 
dedicated to him are to be found at the beginning of the nth 
century. It is more especially, however, from the time of the 
removal of his body to Bari, in Apulia, that his cult became 
popular. The inhabitants of Bari organized an expedition, 
seized his remains by means of a ruse, and transported them to 
Bari, where they were received in triumph on the pth of May 






NICHOLAS 



649 



1087, and where the foundations were laid of a new basilica in 
his honour. This was the origin of a famous and still popular 
pilgrimage. There are nearly 400 churches in England dedicated 
to St Nicholas. He is the patron saint of Russia; the special 
protector of children, scholars, merchants and sailors; and is 
invoked by travellers against robbers. In art St Nicholas is 
represented with various attributes, being most commonly 
depicted with three children standing hi a tub by his side. Of 
the various interpretations of this, none is absolutely certain. 
One explanation has been sought hi the legend of St Nicholas 
miraculously restoring to life three rich youths, who had been 
murdered, cut up and concealed in a salting tub by a thievish 
innkeeper or butcher, in whose house they had taken lodging. 

A legend of his surreptitious bestowal of dowries upon the 
three daughters of an impoverished citizen, who, unable to 
procure fit marriages for them, was on the point of giving them 
up to a life of shame, is said to have originated the old custom of 
giving presents in secret on the Eve of St Nicholas, subsequently 
transferred to Christmas Day. Hence the association of Christmas 
with " Santa Claus," an American corruption of the Dutch 
form " San Nicolaas," the custom being brought to America 
by the early Dutch colonists. (For the ceremony of the boy- 
bishop elected on St Nicholas's Day see BOY-BISHOP.) __ M 

See N. C. Falconius, Sancti Nicolai acta primigenia (Naples, 1751) ; 
Bibliotheca hagiographica Graeca (Brussels, 1895), {>. 96; Bibl. 
hagiogr. Latino, (Brussels, 1899), n. 6104-6221; F. Nitti di Vito, Le 
Pergamene di S. Nicola di Bari (Bari, 1901); Charles Cahier, 
Caracteristiques des saints (Paris, 1867), p. 354; Frances Arnold- 
Forster, Studies in Church Dedications (London, 1899), i. 495-501 and 
iii. 21. 

NICHOLAS, the name of five popes, and one anti-pope. 

NICHOLAS I., sometimes called The Great, and certainly the 
most commanding figure in the series of popes between Gregory 
I. and Gregory VII., succeeded Benedict III. in April 858. 
According to the annalist Prudentius of Troyes, " he owed his 
election less to the choice of the clergy than to the presence and 
favour of the emperor Louis II. and his nobles" who can 
hardly have foreseen with what ability and persistency the rights 
of the Holy See as supreme arbiter of Christendom were to be 
asserted even against themselves by the man of their choice. 
Of the previous history of Nicholas nothing is recorded. His 
pontificate of nine years and a half was marked by at least 
three memorable contests which have left their mark in history. 
The first was that in which he supported the claims of the 
unjustly degraded patriarch of Constantinople, Ignatius; the 
history of the conflict cannot be related here, but two of its 
incidents, the excommunication of Photius, the rival of Ignatius, 
by the pope in 863, and the counter-deposition of Nicholas 
by Photius hi 867, were steps of serious moment towards the 
permanent separation between the Eastern and the Western 
Church. The second great struggle was that with Lothair, 
the king of Lorraine (second son of the emperor Lothair I., 
and brother of the emperor Louis II.), about the divorce of his 
wife Theutberga or Thietberga. The king, who desired to marry 
his mistress Waldrada, had brought a grave charge against the 
life of his queen before her marriage; with the help of Arch- 
bishops Gunther of Cologne and Thietgaud of Treves, a confession 
of guilt had been extorted from Thietberga, and, after the matter 
had been discussed at more than one synod, that of Aix-la- 
Chapelle finally authorized Lothair, on the strength of this 
confession, to marry again. Nicholas ordered a fresh synod 
to try the cause over again at Metz in 863; but Lothair, who 
was present with his nobles, anew secured a judgment favourable 
to himself, whereupon the pope not only quashed the whole 
proceedings, but excommunicated and deposed Gunther and 
Thietgaud, who had been audacious enough to bring to Rome 
in person the " libellus " of the synod. The archbishops appealed 
to Louis II., then at Benevento, to obtain the withdrawal of 
their sentence by force; but, although he actually occupied 
the Leonine city (864), he was unsuccessful hi obtaining any 
concession, and had to withdraw to Ravenna. Thietberga 
herself was now induced to write to the pope a letter in which she 
declared the invalidity of her own marriage, and urged the cause 



of Lothair, but Nicholas, not without reason, refused to accept 
statements which had too plainly been extorted, and wrote 
urging her to maintain the truth steadfastly, even to the death 
if need were, " for, since Christ is the truth, whosoever dies 
for the truth assuredly dies for Christ." The imminent humilia- 
tion of Lothair was prevented only by the death of Nicholas. 
The third great ecclesiastical cause which marks this pontificate 
was that in which the indefeasible right of bishops to appeal 
to Rome against their metropolitans was successfully maintained 
in the case of Rothad of Soissons, who had been deposed by 
Hincmar of Reims. It was in the course of the controversy 
with the great and powerful Neustrian archbishop that papal 
recognition was first given (in 865) to the False Decretals, 
which had probably been brought by Rothad to Rome hi the 
preceding year (see DECRETALS). At an early period in his reign 
it also became necessary for Nicholas to administer discipline 
to John of Ravenna, who seems to have relied not only on the 
prestige of his famous see but also on the support of Louis II. 
After lying under excommunication for some time he made a 
full submission. Nicholas was the pope to whom Boris, the 
newly converted king of Bulgaria, addressed himself for practical 
instruction in some of the difficult moral and social problems 
which naturally arise during a transition from heathenism to 
Christianity. The pope's letter in reply to the hundred and 
six questions and petitions of the barbarian king is perhaps the 
most interesting literary relic of Nicholas I. now extant. He 
died on the i3th of November 867, and was succeeded by 
Adrian II. 

The epislolae of Nicholas I. are printed in Migne, Patrologia Lai. 
vol. 119, p. 769 seq. See F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, 
vol. iii. (Eng. trans., London, 1900-1902); H. Lammer, Nikolaus 1. 
und die byzantinische Staatskirche seiner Zeit (Berlin, 1857); J. Roy, 
Saint-Nicolas I. (Paris, 1900); J. Richterich, Papst Nikolaus I. 
(Bern, 1903); A. Greinacher, Die Anschauungen des Papstes 
Nikolaus I. uber das Verhallnis von Slaat und Kirche (1909). (X.) 

NICHOLAS II., pope from December 1058 to July 1061, was a 
Burgundian named Gerard, who at the time of his election was 
bishop of Florence. He was set up by Hildebrand, with the 
support of the empress-regent Agnes and of the powerful Duke 
Godfrey of Lorraine, against Benedict X., the nominee of the 
Roman nobles, and was crowned at Rome, after the expulsion 
of Benedict, on the 24th of January 1059. His pontificate was 
signalized by the continuance of the policy of ecclesiastical 
reform associated with the name of Hildebrand (afterwards 
Gregory VII.). To secure his position he at once entered into 
relation with the Normans, now firmly established hi southern 
Italy, and later in the year the new alliance was cemented at 
Melfi, where Nicholas II., accompanied by Hildebrand, Cardinal 
Humbert and the abbot Desiderius of Monte Cassino, solemnly 
invested Robert Guiscard with the duchies of Apuh'a, Calabria 
and Sicily, and Richard of Aversa with the principality of Capua, 
in return for oaths of fealty and the promise of assistance in 
guarding the rights of the Church. The first fruits of this 
arrangement, which was based on no firmer foundation than the 
forged " Donation of Constantine " (q.v.), but destined to eive 
to the papacy a position of independence towards both the 
Eastern and Western Empires, was the reduction in the autumn, 
with Norman aid, of Galera, where the anti-pope had taken 
refuge, and the end of the subordination of the papacy to the 
Roman nobles. 

Meanwhile, Peter Damian and Bishop Anselm of Lucca had 
been sent by Pope Nicholas to Milan to adjust the difference 
between the Patarenes and the archbishop and clergy. The 
result was a fresh triumph for the papacy, Archbishop Wido, 
in face of the ruinous conflict in the Church of Milan, being 
forced to submit to the terms proposed by the legates, which 
involved the principle of the subordination of Milan to Rome; 
the new relation was advertized by the unwilling attendance of 
Wido and the other Milanese bishops at the council summoned 
to the Lateran palace hi April 1059. This council not only 
continued the Hildebrandine reforms by sharpening the discipline 
of the clergy, but marks an epoch in the history of the papacy 
by its famous regulation of future elections to the Holy See (sec 



650 



NICHOLAS 



LATERAN COUNCILS, and CONCLAVE). Its most important 
immediate result was the revival of strained relations with the 
empire, due to the fact that the emperor's traditional rights in 
the matter of papal elections had been completely ignored. 
Stephen, cardinal priest of S. Chrysogonus, was sent to the 
German court to attempt to allay the consequent ill-feeling, but 
was not received. Pope Nicholas, moreover, had offended the 
German bishops by what they regarded as arbitrary interference 
with their rights: he had refused to send the pallium of Arch- 
bishop Siegfried of Mainz; he had sent a sharp letter of 
admonition to Archbishop Anno of Cologne. The resulting 
opposition culminated in a synod of German bishops, perhaps 
early in 1061 (its date and place of meeting are unknown), at 
which the decrees of the pope, including the new electoral law, 
were annulled, while he himself was deposed and his name 
ordered to be expunged from the canon of the Mass. That these 
resolutions were not followed by any further action was due to 
the war of parties in Germany, which enabled the papacy to 
ignore a demonstration of opinion to which no effect could be 
given. 

Nicholas II. died at Florence in July 1061. Personally he 
was one of the least important of the popes, and the great 
importance of the events of his pontificate is due to the fact 
that, as Peter Damian wrote (Epist. i. 7), he possessed in Hilde- 
brand, Cardinal Humbert and Bishop Boniface of Albano 
acutissimi el perspicacis oculi. 

His Diplomata, epistolae, decreta are in Migne, Patrolog. Lot. 
143, pp. 1301-1366. See the article " Nikolaus II." by C. Mirbt 
in Herzog-Hauck, ReaJencyklopddie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1904), with 
bibliography. Other lists of authorities are in Potthast, Biblioth. 
Hist. Med. Aev. (and ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 854; and Ulysse Chevalier, 
Repertoire des sources hist, biobibliosr. (Paris, 1905), vol. 3347, s.v. 
" Nicolas II." (X.) 

NICHOLAS III. (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini), pope from the 
25th of November 1277 to the 22nd of August 1280, was a 
Roman nobleman who had served under eight popes, been made 
cardinal-deacon of St Nicola in carcere Tulliano by Innocent IV., 
protector of the Franciscans by Alexander IV., inquisitor-general 
by Urban IV., and succeeded John XXI., largely through family 
influence, after a six-months' vacancy in the Holy See. His 
brief pontificate was marked by several important events. A 
born politician, he greatly strengthened the papal position in 
Italy. He concluded a concordat with Rudolph of Habsburg in 
May 1278, by which the Romagna and the exarchate of Ravenna 
were guaranteed to the pope; and in July he issued an epoch- 
making constitution for the government of Rome, which forbade 
foreigners taking civil office. Nicholas issued the bull Exiit 
on the I4th of August 1279 to settle the strife within the 
Franciscan order between the parties of strict and loose observ- 
ance. He repaired the Lateran and the Vatican at enormous 
cost, and erected a beautiful country house at Soriano near 
Viterbo. Nicholas, though a man of learning and strength of 
character, brought just reproach on himself for his efforts to 
found principalities for his nephews and other relations. He 
died from a stroke of apoplexy and was succeeded by Martin IV. 

See " Les Registres de Nicolas III.," published by Jules Gay in 
Bibliotheque des ecoles franfaises d'Athenes et de Rome (Paris, 1898- 
1905); A. Potthast, Regesla pontif. Roman, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); 
A. Demski, " Papst Nikolaus III. in Kirchengesckichtliche Studien 
(Miinster, 1903) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, 
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); Fr. Wertsch, 
Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburi zur rom. Kurie bis zum Tode 
Nikolaus III. (Bochum, 1880); G. Palmieri, Introiti ed esiti di Papa 
Niccold III. (Rome, 1889). (C. H. HA.) 

NICHOLAS IV. (Girolamo Masci), pope from the 22nd of 
February 1288 to the 4th of April 1292, a native of Ascoli and a 
Franciscan monk, had been legate to the Greeks under Gregory X. 
in 1272, succeeded St Bonaventura as general of his order in 
1274, was made cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede and Latin 
patriarch of Constantinople by Nicholas III., cardinal-bishop of 
Palestrina by Martin IV., and succeeded Honorius IV. after a 
ten-months' vacancy in the papacy. He was a pious, peace- 
loving monk with no ambition save for the church, the crusades 
and the extirpation of heresy. He steered a middle course 
between the factions at Rome, and sought a settlement of the 



Sicilian question. In May 1289 he crowned Charles II. king of 
Naples and Sicily after the latter had expressly recognized papal 
suzerainty, and in February 1291 concluded a treaty with 
Alphonso III. of Aragon and Philip IV. of France looking toward 
the expulsion of James of Aragon from Sicily. The loss of 
Ptolemais in 1291 stirred the pope to renewed enthusiasm for 
a crusade. He sent the celebrated Franciscan missionary, John 
of Monte Corvino, with some companions to labour among the 
Tatars and Chinese. He issued an important constitution on 
the i8th of July 1289, which granted to the cardinals one-half 
of all income accruing to the Roman see and a share in the 
financial management, and thereby paved the way for that 
independence of the college of cardinals which, in the following 
century, was to be of detriment to the papacy. Nicholas died in 
the palace which he had built beside Sta Maria Maggiore, and 
was succeeded by Celestine V. 

See " Les Registres de Nicolas IV.," ed. by Ernest Langlois in 
Bibliotheque des ecoles franqaises d'Athenes et de Rome (Paris, 1886- 
1893); A. Potthast, Regesta pontif. Roman, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); 
F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W. 
Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; O. Schiff, " Studien zur Geschichte 
Papst Nikolaus IV. in Historische Studien (1897); W. Norden, 
Das Papsttum u. Byzanz (Berlin, 1903); R. Rohricht, Geschichte 
des Konigreichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898); J. B. Sagmiiller, 
Die Thatigkeit u. Stellung der Kardinale bis Papst Bonifaz VIII. 
(Freiburg-i.-B., 1896); J. P. Kirsch, " Die Finanzverwaltung des 
Kardinalkollegiums :m 13. u. 14. Jahrhunderte " in Kirchen- 
geschichtliche Studien (1895). (C. H. HA.) 

NICHOLAS V. (Tomaso Parentucelli or Tomaso da Sarzana), 
pope from the 6th of March 1447 to the 24th of March 1455, 
was born at Sarzana, where his father was a physician, in 
1398. He early studied at Bologna, where the bishop, Nicholas 
Albergati, was so much struck with his ardour for learning that 
he gave him the chance to pursue his studies further, by sending 
him on a tour through Germany, France and England. He 
distinguished himself at the council of Ferrara-Florence, and in 
1444 was made bishop of Bologna by Pope Eugenius IV., who 
soon afterwards named him as one of the legates charged to 
negotiate at the convention of Frankfort an understanding 
between the Holy See and the Empire with regard to the re- 
forming decrees of the council of Basel. His successful diplomacy 
was rewarded, on his return to Rome, with the title of cardinal 
priest of Sta Susanna (December 1446). He was elected pope in 
succession to Eugenius IV. on the 6th of March of the following 
year, taking the name of Nicholas in honour of his early bene- 
factor. 

The eight years of his pontificate were important in the 
political, scientific and literary history of the world. With the 
German king, Frederick III., he made the Concordat of Vienna, 
or Aschaffenburg (February 17, 1448), by which the decrees 
of the council of Basel against papal annates and reservations 
were abrogated so far as Germany was concerned; and in the 
following year he secured a still greater triumph when the 
resignation of the anti-pope Felix V. (April 7), and his own 
recognition by the rump of the council of Basel, assembled at 
Lausanne, put an end to the papal schism. The next year, 
1450, Nicholas held a jubilee at Rome; and the offerings of the 
numerous pilgrims who thronged to Rome gave him the means 
of furthering the cause of culture in Italy, which he had so 
much at heart. In March 1452 he crowned Frederick III. as 
emperor in St Peter's, the last occasion of the coronation of an 
emperor at Rome. 

Under the generous patronage of Nicholas humanism made 
rapid strides. He employed hundreds of copyists and scholars, 
giving as much as ten thousand gulden for a metrical translation 
of Homer, and founded a library of nine thousand volumes. 
Nicholas himself was a man of vast erudition, and his friend 
Aeneas Silvius (later Pope Pius II.) said of him that " what 
he does not know is outside the range of human knowledge." 
He was compelled, however, to add that the lustre of his 
pontificate would be for ever dulled by the tragic fall of Con- 
stantinople, which the Turks took in 1453. The pope bitterly 
felt this catastrophe as a double blow to Christendom and to 
Greek letters. " It is a second death," wrote Aeneas Silvius, 



NICHOLAS NICHOLAS I. 



651 



" to Homer and Plato." Nicholas preached a crusade, and en- 
deavoured to reconcile the mutual animosities of the Italian 
states, but without much success. 

Nicholas conceived great plans for beautifying and developing 
Rome. He restored the walls and numerous churches, and 
began the rebuilding of the Vatican and St Peter's. In under- 
taking these works Nicholas was moved by no vulgar motives, 
his idea being " to strengthen the weak faith of the people by 
the greatness of that which it sees." The Romans, however, 
appreciated neither his motives nor their results, and in 1452 
a formidable conspiracy for the overthrow of the papal govern- 
ment, under the leadership of Stefano Porcaro, was discovered 
and crushed. This revelation of disaffection, together with the 
fall of Constantinople, darkened the last years of Nicholas; 
" As Thomas of Sarzana," he said, " I had more happiness in a 
day than now in a whole year." He died on the 24th of March 

1455- 

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie 
and Kirche, vol. xiv. (1904), with full references; Cambridge Modern 
History, i. 76-78; and M. Creighton, History of the Papacy (London, 
1882), vol. ii. 

NICHOLAS V. (Pietro Rainalducci), antipope in Italy from 
1328 to 1330 during the pontificate of John XXII. at Avignon, 
was a native of Corbara in the Abruzzi. He joined the Franciscan 
order after separating from his wife in 1310, and became famous 
as a preacher. He was elected through the influence of the 
excommunicated emperor, Louis the Bavarian, by an assembly 
of priests and laymen, and consecrated at St Peter's on the 
I2th of May 1328 by the bishop of Venice. After spending 
four months in Rome, he withdrew with Louis to Viterbo and 
thence to Pisa, where he was guarded by the imperial vicar. 
He was excommunicated by John XXII. in April 1329, and 
sought refuge with Count Boniface of Donoratico near Piombino. 
Having obtained assurance of pardon, he presented a confession 
of his sins first to the archbishop of Pisa, and then (25th of 
August 1330) to the pope at Avignon. He remained in honour- 
able imprisonment in the papal palace until his death in October 

1333- 

See F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 6, trans, by 
Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); Baluzius, Vitae paparum 
Avenionensium, vol. I (Paris, 1693); I. B. Christophe, Histoire de la 
papaute pendant le XIV""" siecle, vol. I (Paris, 1853); E. Marcour, 
Anteil der Minoriten am Kampfe zwischen Konig Ludivig IV. von 
Bayern und Papst Johann XXII. (Emmerich, 1874); Eubel, " Der 
Gegenpapst Nicolaus V. u. seine Hierarchic," in Hist. Jahrbuch, 
vol. 12 (1891). (C. H. HA.) 

NICHOLAS (1841- ), King of Montenegro and the Berda, 
was born at the village of Niegush, the ancient home of the 
reigning family of Petrovitch-Niegush, on the 2 5th of September 
1841. His father, Mirko Petrovitch, a celebrated Montenegrin 
warrior, was elder brother to Danilo II., who left no male off- 
spring. After 1696, when the dignity of vladika, or prince- 
bishop, became hereditary in the Petrovitch family, the sovereign 
power had descended from uncle to nephew, the vladikas belong- 
ing to the order of the " black clergy " who are forbidden to 
marry. A change was introduced by Danilo II., who declined the 
episcopal office, married and declared the principality hereditary 
in the direct male line. Mirko Petrovitch having resigned his 
claim to the throne, his son was nominated heir, and the old 
system of succession was thus accidentally continued. Prince 
Nicholas, who had been trained from infancy in martial and 
athletic exercises, spent a portion of his early boyhood at Trieste 
in the household of the Kuetitch family, to which his aunt, the 
princess Darinka, wife of Danilo II., belonged. The princess was 
an ardent advocate of French culture, and at her suggestion the 
young heir of the vladikas was sent to the academy of Louis 
le Grand in Paris. Unlike his contemporary, King Milan of 
Servia, Prince Nicholas was little influenced in his tastes and 
habits by his Parisian education; the young mountaineer, 
whose keen patriotism, capability for leadership and poetic 
talents early displayed themselves, showed no inclination for 
the pleasures of the French capital, and eagerly looked forward 
to returning to his native land. He was still in Paris when, 
in consequence of the assassination of his uncle, he succeeded 



as prince (August 13, 1860). In 1862 Montenegro was engaged 
in an unfortunate struggle with Turkey; the prince distin- 
guished himself during the campaign, and on one occasion 
narrowly escaped with his life. In the period of peace which 
followed he carried out a series of military, administrative and 
educational reforms. In 1867 he met the emperor Napoleon III. 
at Paris, and in 1868 he undertook a journey to Russia, where 
he received an affectionate welcome from the tsar, Alexander II. 
He afterwards visited the courts of Berlin and Vienna. His 
efforts to enlist the sympathies of the Russian imperial family 
were productive of important results for Montenegro; consider- 
able subventions were granted by the tsar and tsaritsa for 
educational and other purposes, and supplies of arms and 
ammunition were sent to Cettigne. In 1871 Prince Dolgorouki 
arrived at Montenegro on a special mission from the tsar, and 
distributed large sums of money among the people. In 1869 
Prince Nicholas, whose authority was now firmly established, 
succeeded in preventing the impetuous mountaineers from 
aiding the Krivoshians in their revolt against the Austrian 
government (see CATTARO); similarly in 1897 he checked the 
martial excitement caused by the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish 
War. In 1876 he declared war against Turkey; his military 
reputation was enhanced by the ensuing campaign, and still 
more by that of 1877-78, during which he captured Nikshitch, 
Antivari and Dulcigno. The war resulted in a considerable 
extension of the Montenegrin frontier and the acquisition of 
a seaboard on the Adriatic. In 1883 Prince Nicholas visited 
the sultan, with whom he subsequently maintained the most 
cordial relations; in 1896 he celebrated the bicentenary of the 
Petrovitch dynasty, and in the same year he attended the 
coronation of the tsar Nicholas II.; in May 1898 he visited Queen 
Victoria at Windsor. In 1900 he assumed the title of " Royal 
Highness." On the 28th of August 1910, during the celebration 
of his jubilee, he assumed the title of king, in accordance with 
a petition from the Skupshtina. He was at the same time 
gazetted field-marshal in the Russian army, an honour never 
previously conferred on any foreigner except the great duke of 
Wellington. The descendant of a long line of warriors, gifted 
with a fine physique and a commanding presence, a successful 
military leader and a graceful poet, King Nicholas possessed 
many characteristics which awoke the enthusiasm of the im- 
pressionable Servian race, while his merits as a statesman 
received general recognition. His system of government, which 
may be described as a benevolent despotism, was perhaps that 
best suited to the character of his subjects. His historical 
dramas, poems and ballads hold a recognized place in contem- 
porary Slavonic literature; among them are Balkanska Tzarilza 
and Kniaz Arvaniii (dramas); Hatdana, Polini Abenserage and 
Pesnik i Vila (poems); Skupliene Pesme and Nova Kola (mis- 
cellaneous songs). In November 1860 Prince Nicholas married 
Milena, daughter of the wievode Petar Vukotitch. Of his three 
sons, the eldest, Prince Danilo, married (July 27, 1899) Duchess 
Jutta (Militza) of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; of his six daughters, 
Princess Militza married the Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch, 
Princess Stana, Duke George of Leuchtenberg, Princess Helena, 
King Victor Emmanuel III. of Italy, and Princess Anka, Prince 
Francis Joseph of Battenberg. (J. D. B.) 

NICHOLAS I. [NIKOLAI PAVLOVICH], emperor of Russia (1796- 
1855), eighth child of the emperor Paul I. and his wife Maria 
Feodorovna, was born at Tsarskoe-Selo on the 25th of June 
(July 6, N.S.) 1796. He was only five years old when his 
father's murder brought his brother Alexander I. to the throne 
(1801). In the following year his education was entrusted to 
M. von Lambsdorff, director of the ist cadet corps and ex- 
governor of Courland, a man of character and wide knowledge, 
who superintended it for the next fifteen years. But Nicholas 
had as little taste for learning as his brother Constantine. The 
royal pupils spent their lesson hours, as Nicholas afterwards 
confessed, " partly in dreaming, partly in drawing all sorts of 
nonsense," in the end " cramming " just enough to scrape 
through their examinations without discredit. Their chief bent 
was in the direction of everything connected with military 



652 



NICHOLAS I. 



matters. Religious training was confined to instruction in the 
forms of the Orthodox Church and the repetition of prayers by 
rote; dogmatic questions Nicholas neither understood nor 
cared about; and, in spite of his reverence for his brother 
Alexander, the latter's mysticism had not the faintest influence 
upon him. 

Though a colonel in his cradle and a general since 1808, the 
grand-duke Nicholas did not see any active service until 1814, 
when he was allowed to join the Russian head-quarters in France 
but not to take part in any fighting. It is characteristic of him 
that from this time onwards he never wore civilian dress. In 
1815 he was with the Allies in Paris, and in the following year 
set out on the grand tour, visiting Moscow and the western 
provinces of Russia, Berlin (where his engagement to Princess 
Charlotte Louise, daughter of Frederick William III., was 
arranged) and England, where his handsome presence and 
charming address created a profound impression. 1 On the 
i/i3th of July 1817 took place at St Petersburg his marriage to 
Princess Charlotte (Alexandra Feodorovna), the beginning of 
those intimate relations between the courts of Berlin and St 
Petersburg which were later to become of great international 
importance. On the 17 /29th of April 1818 their first child, the 
future emperor Alexander II., was born. In the autumn Nicholas 
was placed in command of the 2nd brigade of the ist division of 
the Guard. In 1819 the emperor Alexander first mentioned his 
intention to abdicate in favour of Nicholas, Constantine consent- 
ing to stand aside; but he took no steps to initiate his prospective 
heir in affairs of state, and the grand-duke continued to be 
confined to his military duties. In 1820 a further important 
step in the matter of the succession was taken in the divorce of 
Constantine from the grand-duchess Anne and his re-marriage 
to Johanna Grudzinska (see CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH). In 
January 182 2 it was decided in a family council, with the know- 
ledge though not in the presence of Nicholas, that Constantine's 
petition to be relieved of the burden of the crown, for which he 
felt himself unfitted, should be granted. It was not, however, 
until August 1823 that the emperor drew up the necessary papers, 
in the presence of the metropolitan Philaret and other witnesses, 
and deposited them in sealed packets, to be opened at his death, 
with the council of state, the senate and the holy synod. For 
some reason, which can only be conjectured, Constantine was 
not made a party to this proceeding. 

Alexander I. died at Taganrog on the ist of December 1825. 
When, some days later, the news reached St Petersburg, all 
was confusion and uncertainty. Constantine was at Warsaw; 
Nicholas, who on the 3rd of May of the same year had become 
chief of the 2nd division of the infantry of the Guard, was too 
conscious of his unpopularity in the army the fruit of his 
drastic discipline to dare to assume the crown without a public 
abdication on the part of the legitimate heir. No steps were 
taken to open the sealed packets, and he himself took the oath 
to Constantine, and, with characteristic contempt for constitu- 
tional forms, usurped the functions of the senate and council of 
state by himself ordering its imposition on the regiments stationed 
in St Petersburg. But Constantine refused to come to St Peters- 
burg, or to do more than himself take the oath to Nicholas as 
emperor, and write assuring him of his loyalty. The result was 
a three weeks' interregnum, of which the discontented spirits 
in the army took advantage to bring to a head a plot that had 
long been hatching in favour of constitutional reform. When 
on the i4th of December the troops who had already taken the 
oath to Constantine were ordered to take another to Nicholas, 
it was easy to persuade them that this was a treasonable plot 
against the true emperor. The Moscow regiment refused to take 
the oath, and part of it marched, shouting for Constantine and 
"Constitution," 2 to the square before the Senate House, where 
they were joined by a company of the Guard and the sailors 
from the warships. In this crisis Nicholas showed high personal 

'See Stockmar, Denkwiirdigkeiten (Brunswick, 1872), p. 98 seq.; 
and, for a later impression, Queen Victoria to the king of the 
Belgians, 4th of June 1844, in Queen Victoria's Letters. 

1 They had been told that this was the name of Constantine's wife. 



courage, if little decision and initiative. It was entirely uncertain 
how many, and which, regiments could be trusted. For hours 
he stood, or sat on horseback, amid the surging crowd, facing 
the mutinous soldiers who had loaded their muskets and 
formed square while effort after effort was made to bring them 
to reason, sometimes at the cost of life as in the case of Count 
Miloradovich, military governor of St Petersburg, who was 
mortally wounded by a pistol shot while arguing with the 
mutineers. Nicholas was saved by the very belief of the cpn- 
spirators in the universal sympathy of the army with their aims. 
Had the mutinous troops early in the day received the order to 
attack, they would have carried the waverers with them; but 
they hesitated to fire on comrades whom they expected to see 
march over to their side; and when at last the emperor had 
steeled his heart to use force, a few rounds of grape-shot sufficed 
to quell the mutiny. The chief conspirators Prince Shchepin- 
Rostovski, Suthoff, Ryleyev, Prince Sergius Trubetskoi, Prince 
Obolenski and others were arrested the same night and inter- 
rogated by the emperor in person. A special commission, con- 
sisting entirely of officers, was then set up; and before this, for 
five months, the prisoners were subjected to a rigorous inquisition. 3 
It was soon clear that the Decabrist 4 rising was but one manifesta- 
tion of a vast conspiracy permeating the whole army. A military 
rising on a large scale in the south was only averted by the news 
of the failure of the mutiny at St Petersburg; and at Moscow 
there were many arrests, including that of Colonel Paul Pestel, 
the chief of the revolutionary southern league. The prisoners 
were finally brought to trial before a supreme criminal court 
established by imperial ukaz on the ist of June 1826; there were 
121 of them and their trial had concluded by the i2th of June. 
Some were condemned to death, others to solitary confinement 
in fortresses, others to the Siberian mines and colonies. Of the 
latter many were accompanied by their wives, though the Russian 
law allows divorce in the case of such sentences; the emperor 
unwillingly allowed the devoted women to go, but decreed that 
any children born to them in Siberia would be illegitimate. 

Firmly seated on his throne, Nicholas proceeded to fill up the 
gaps in his education by studying the condition of his empire. 
In spite of his reverence for his brother's memory, he made a 
clean sweep of " the angel's " Bible Society, 6 and other para- 
phernalia of official hypocrisy; as for Alexander's projects of 
reform, the pitiful legacy of a life of unfulfilled purposes, these 
were reported upon by committees, considered and shelved. 
Nicholas too saw the need for reform; the Decabrist conspiracy 
had burnt that into his soul; but he had his own views as to the 
reform needed. The state was corrupt, disorganized; what was 
wanted was not more liberty but more discipline. So he put 
civil servants, professors and students into uniform, and for 
little offences had them marched to the guard-house; thought 
was disciplined by the censorship, the army by an unceasing 
round of parades and inspections. The one great gift of 
Nicholas I. to Russia, a gift which he really believed would be 
welcome because it would bring every subject into immediate 
contact with the throne, was the secret police, the dreaded 
Third Section. 6 

The crowning fault of Nicholas was, however, that he would 
not delegate his authority; whom could he trust but himself? 
In this he resembled his contemporary the emperor Francis I. 
But Francis would " sleep upon" a difficult problem; Nicholas 
never slept. His constitution was of iron, his capacity for work 
prodigious; reviews and parades, receptions of deputations, 
visits to public institutions, then eight or nine hours in his 

' The prisoners were kept in solitary confinement in the casemates 
of the inner fortress of St Peter and St Paul. They were brought 
blindfolded before the commission, and then suddenly confronted 
with their interrogators. Many went mad under the ordeal, one 
died, and one starved himself to death (Schiemann, ii. 73). 

4 From Russ. Dckabr, December. 

6 " The Holy Scriptures distributed with an absurd profusion in a 
country where the clergy itself is hardly able to understand and 
explain them " had been the " prime source of all the secret societies 
established in the empire." Piece remise par S.M. I'Empereur 
Nicolas, in Nesselrode vi. 275. 

' I.e. of the Private Chancery of the emperor. 



NICHOLAS I. 



653 



cabinet reading and deciding on reports and despatches such 
was his ordinary day's work. Yet, in spite of all this, his activity 
could not but prove the narrow limits of autocratic power. 
Under the " Iron Tsar " the outward semblance of authority 
was perfectly maintained; but behind this imposing facade 
the whole structure of the Russian administrative system con- 
tinued to rot and crumble. The process was even hastened; 
for the emperor's stern discipline crushed out all independence 
of initiative and silenced all honest criticism. The secret police 
provided but a poor substitute for the assistance which an 
argus-eyed and articulate public opinion gives to the efficient 
working of a constitutional system; for the greatest of autocrats 
has but two eyes, and it is no difficult task to deceive him. 
Thus it came about that, as Professor Schiemann puts it, 
" Potemkin's scenery was brought out again," and Nicholas 
walked with conscious self-approval through a Russia seemingly 
well ordered, but in fact merely temporarily prepared for each 
stage of his progress. 

War is the ultimate and sharpest test of the soundness of a 
state, and to this test Russia was submitted soon after the 
accession of Nicholas, who could not be blind to the revelations 
that resulted, though he drew the wrong moral. These re- 
velations had, indeed, begun before the outbreak of the war 
with Turkey in 1828. The new tsar had devoted especial 
attention to the reform and reconstruction of the navy, which 
under Alexander I. had been suffered to decay. Yet the newly 
organized squadron which in 1827 set out on the cruise which 
ended at Navarino only reached Plymouth with difficulty, and 
there had to be completely refitted. The disastrous Balkan 
campaign of 1828 was an even more astounding revelation of 
corruption, disorganization and folly in high places; and the 
presence of the emperor did nothing to mitigate the attendant 
evils. He was indefatigable, in war as in peace, in parading and 
inspecting; the weary and starving soldiers were forced to turn 
out amid the marshes of the Dobrudscha as spick and span as on 
the parade grounds of St Petersburg; but he cculd do nothing 
to set order in the confusion of the commissariat, which caused 
the troops to die like flies of dysentery and scurvy; or to remedy 
the scandals of the hospitals, which inflicted on the wounded 
unspeakable sufferings. On the other hand, his presence was 
sufficient to hamper the initiative of Prince Wittgenstein, the 
nominal commander-in-chief ; for Nicholas was constitutionally 
incapable of leaving him a free hand. This was one reason for 
the failure of the opening campaign. 1 Another was more 
creditable to the tsar's heart than to his head; he turned from 
the sight of wounds and blood, and would not make up his 
mind to sanction operations which, at the cost of a few hundred 
lives, would have saved thousands who perished miserably of 
disease. 2 

These then were the leading principles which underlay 
Nicholas's domestic and foreign policy from first to last: to 
discipline Russia, and by means of a disciplined Russia to 
discipline the world. So far as the latter task was concerned, 
he again sharply divided the issues which Alexander had con- 
fused. The mission of Russia in the West was, in accordance 
with the principles of the Holy Alliance as Nicholas interpreted 
them, to uphold the cause of legitimacy and autocracy against 
the Revolution; her mission in the East was, with or without 
the co-operation of " Europe," to advance the cause of Orthodox 
Christianity, of which she was the natural protector, at the 
expense of the decaying Ottoman empire. The sympathy of 
Europe with the insurgent Greeks gave the tsar his opportunity. 
The duke of Wellington was sent to St Petersburg in 1826 to 

1 Nicholas remained in Russia in 1829, and Diabitsch had a free 
hand. 

* He once sentenced an unhappy Jew to run the gauntlet of 10,000 
strokes, exclaiming as he signed the warrant, " Thank God, we have 
no capital punishment in Russia ! " Yet his nature had its kindly 
side: " He feels kindness deeply and his love for his wife and 
children, and for all children, is very great " (Queen Victoria, loc. cit). 
He also spent much personal effort in organizing the charitable 
institutions of the dowager empress Maria, and founded a great 
number of institutions for technical education. 



congratulate the new tsar on his accession and arrange a concert 
in the Eastern Question. The upshot proved the diplomatic 
value of Nicholas's apparent sincerity of purpose and charm of 
manner; the "Iron Duke" was to the "Iron Tsar" as soft 
iron to steel; Great Britain, without efficient guarantees for the 
future, stood committed to the policy which ended in the de- 
struction of the Ottoman sea-power at Navarino and the march 
of the Russians on Constantinople. By the treaty of Adrianople 
in 1829 Turkey seemed to become little better than a vassal 
state of the tsar, a relation intensified, after the first revolt of 
Mehemet AH, by the treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi in 1833 (see 
MEHEMET ALI). In the West, meanwhile, the revolutions of 
1830 had modified the balance of forces. Nicholas himself 
proposed an armed intervention of the Alliance in order " to 
restore order" in Belgium and France;* and when his allies 
held back even proposed to intervene alone, a project rendered 
impossible by the outbreak of the great insurrection in Poland, 
which tied the hands of all three powers (see POLAND: History). 
In the circumstances, Nicholas was forced to give a grudging 
recognition to the title of Louis Philippe as king of the French; 
his recognition of that of Leopold, king of the Belgians, was 
postponed until King William of the Netherlands had finally 
resigned his rights. Then, the insurrection in Poland once 
crushed, and Poland itself scarce surviving even as a geographical 
expression, 4 he drew the three eastern autocratic powers together 
in a new " Holy Alliance " by the secret convention of Berlin 
(3rd Oct. 1833) reaffirming the right and duty of intervention at 
the request of a legitimate sovereign. The cordial understanding 
with Austria, cemented at Munchengratz and Berlin, was 
renewed, after the accession of the emperor Ferdinand, at 
Prague and Toplitz (1835); on the latter occasion it was decided 
" without difficulty " to suppress the republic of Cracow, as 
a centre of revolutionary agitation. 6 The Triple Alliance was 
now, in the tsar's opinion, " the last anchor of safety for the 
monarchical cause." To its maintenance he had sacrificed " his 
religious convictions" and " the traditions of Russian policy " 
in consenting to uphold the integrity of Turkey; a sacrifice 
perhaps the less hard to make since, as he added, the Ottoman 
empire no longer existed.* He allowed himself to be persuaded 
by Metternich to support the cause of Don Carlos in Spain, 7 
and so early as May 1837, in view of the agitation in Hungary, 
he announced that " in every case " Austria might count on 
Russia. 

These cordial ties were loosened, however, by the fresh crisis 
in the Eastern Question after 1838. Metternich was anxious to 
summon a European conference to Vienna, with a view to placing 
Turkey under a collective guarantee. To Nicholas this seemed 
to be a blow aimed at Russia, and he refused to be a party to it.* 
Moreover, in view of the tendency of Austria to forget the con- 
ventions of Miinchengratz and Toplitz, and to approach the 
maritime powers, he determined to checkmate her by himself 
coming to an agreement with Great Britain, in order to settle the 
vEastern Question according to his own views: a double gain, 
if by this means Queen Victoria (a " legitimate " sovereign) could 
be drawn away from her unholy alliance with the Jacobin Louis 
Philippe. This is the explanation of those concessions in the 
Eastern Question which ended in the Quadruple Alliance of 
1840 and the humiliation of Louis Philippe's government (see 
MEHEMET ALI). 

The new Anglo-Russian entente led in 1844 to a visit of the 

8 Martens, Recueil, viii. 164, &c., especially the autograph mem. 
of the tsar on the situation (p. 168): " But apart from honour, is 
it to our interest to consent to this fresh iniquity? .... Even if 
France invade Austria, Prussia says she will give her moral support! 
Is that Great God! the alliance created by the immortal emperor? 
.... Let us preserve the sacred fire for the moment of the struggle 
with the infernal powers! " 

4 Nicholas himself ascribed his hatred of Poles and Jews to the 
stories told him by his English nurse, Miss Lyon, of her sufferings 
during the siege of Warsaw in 1794. Schiemann, i. 181. 

6 This convention was not acted upon till 1846. 

Conversation with Count Ficquelmont (Feb. 13, 1833) in Martens 
Recueil, iv. pt. i. p. 443. 

'/6. p. 475. *Ib. p. 481. 



654 



NICHOLAS I. 



tsar to the English court. This visit, in spite of the favourable 
personal impression made by the emperor, was the starting-point 
of a fresh and fateful divergence; for it was now that the tsar 
first openly raised the question of the eventual partition of the 
inheritance of the " Sick Man," as he called Turkey. The whole 
question, however, was indefinitely postponed by the events 
culminating in the revolutions of 1848. Nicholas foresaw the 
troubles brewing, and warned Frederick William IV. of Prussia, 
in a tone of lofty and paternal remonstrance, of the inevitable 
results of his constitutional experiments. When the storm burst, 
he remained entrenched behind the barriers of his own disciplined 
empire ; sovereigns truckling in a panic to insurgent democracies 
he would not lift a finger to help; 1 it was not till Francis Joseph 
of Austria in 1849 appealed to him in the name of autocracy, 
reasserting its rights, that he consented to intervene, and, true 
to the promise made at Munchengratz in 1833, crushed the 
insurgent Hungarians and handed back their country as a free 
gift to the Habsburg king. Scarcely less valuable to Austria was 
the tsar's intervention in the quarrel between Austria and Prussia 
arising out of the Hesse incident and the general question of the 
hegemony of Germany. In October 1850 he had a meeting with 
Francis Joseph at Warsaw, at which Count Brandenburg and 
Prince Schwarzenberg were present. Prussia, he declared, must 
in the German question return to the basis of the treaties of 1815 
and renew her entente with Austria; this was the only way of 
preserving the old friendship of Prussia and Russia. In face 
of the threat conveyed in this, the Prussian government decided 
to maintain peace (Nov. 2), Radowitz resigning as a protest. 
Thus Nicholas, who refused to believe in the perfidy ascribed by 
Frederick William to Austria, 2 was the immediate cause of 
Prussia's humiliation at Olmiitz. 

Nicholas was soon to have personal experience of the perfidy 
of Austria. It was a small matter that Count Prokesch-Osten, 
the Austrian ambassador, was discovered to be supplying a 
" foul Jew " editor with copy; more serious was Austria's 
attitude in the troubles that led up to the Crimean War. Grati- 
tude, in the tsar's opinion, should have made her neutral if not 
friendly; the revelation of her ingratitude came upon him 
with the shock of a painful surprise. The first cause of all the 
evils that followed was his attitude towards Napoleon III. He 
was forced to recognize the new French empire, but he would 
recognize no more than the fact of its existence (du fait en lui- 
meme); he refused to address the emperor of the French as a 
brother sovereign. He attempted, moreover, to revive the 
function of the triple alliance as guardian of Europe against 
French aggression. The resentment of Napoleon awakened the 
slumbering Eastern Question by reviving the obsolescent 
claims of France to the guardianship of the Holy Places, and 
this aroused the pride of the Orthodox tsar, their guardian by 
right of faith and in virtue of a clause of the treaty of Kuchuk 
Kainardji (1774), as interpreted in the light of subsequent events. 
Nicholas could not believe that Christian powers would resent 
his claim to protect the Christian subjects of the sultan; he 
believed he could count on the friendship of Austria and Prussia; 
as for Great Britain, he would try to come to a frank under- 
standing with her (hence the famous conversations with Sir 
Hamilton Seymour on the gth and I4th of January 1853, reviving 
the " Sick Man" arguments of 1844), but in any case he had the 
assurance of Baron Brunnow, his ambassador in London, that the 
influence of Cobden and Bright, the eloquent apostles of peace, 
was enough to prevent her from appealing to arms against him. 

The disillusionment that followed was profound. In October 
1853 Nicholas met his brother monarchs of the triple alliance 
at Warsaw for the last time. In December, at the conference 
of Vienna, Austria had already passed over to the enemy. 
Prussia was wavering, neutral indeed, but joining the other 
powers in a guarantee of the integrity of Turkey (gth April 
'^Russia cannot aid a power which has abjured its traditions 
and is under the empire of revolutionary institutions." Nicholas 
to Frederick William IV., Sept. 26, 1848. Martens, Recueil, viii. 
376. 

1 See Frederick William's letter to the tsar (Nov. 4) and the latter's 
reply. Martens, viii. 384, 386. 



1854), urging the tsar to accept the decisions of the Vienna 
conference, and on his refusal signing a defensive alliance with 
Austria (April 20, 1854), which included among the casus belli 
the incorporation in Russia of the banks of the Danube and a 
Russian march on Constantinople. Thus Nicholas, the pillar 
of the European alliance, found himself isolated and at war, 
or potentially at war, with all Europe. The invasion of the 
Crimea followed, and with it a fresh revelation of the corruption 
and demoralization of the Russian system. At the outset 
Nicholas had grimly remarked that " Generals January and 
February " would prove his best allies. These acted, however, 
impartially; and if thousands of British and French soldiers 
perished of cold and disease in the trenches before Sevastopol, 
the tracks leading from the centre of Russia into the Crimea 
were marked by the bones of Russian dead. The revelation of 
his failure broke the spirit of the Iron Tsar, and on the 2nd of 
March 1855 he threw away the life which a little ordinary care 
would have saved. 

The character of the emperor Nicholas was summed up with 
great insight by Queen Victoria in a letter to the king of the 
Belgians, written during the tsar's visit to England (June n, 
1844). " He is stern and severe with fixed principles of duty 
which nothing on earth will make him change; very clever I do 
not think him, and his mind is an uncivilized one; his education 
has been neglected; politics and military concerns are the only 
things he takes great interest in; the arts and all softer occupa- 
tions he is insensible to, but he is sincere, I am certain, sincere 
even in his most despotic acts, from a sense that that is the only 
way to govern; he is not, I am sure, aware of the dreadful cases 
of individual misery which he so often causes, for I can see by 
various instances that he is kept in utter ignorance of many 
things, which his people carry out in most corrupt ways, while he 
thinks that he is extremely just . . . and I am sure much never 
reaches his ears, and (as you observed) how can it? He is, I 
should say, too frank, for he talks so openly before people, 
which he should not do, and with difficulty restrains himself. 
His anxiety to be believed is very great, and I must say his personal 
promises I am inclined to believe; then his feelings are very 
strong; he feels kindness deeply. . . . He is not happy, and 
that melancholy which is visible in the countenance made me 
sad at times; the sternness of the eyes goes very much off 
when you know him, and changes according to his being put out 
or not. ... He is bald now, but in his chevalier Garde uniform 
he is magnificent still, and very striking." 

The emperor was a kind husband and father, and his domestic 
life was very happy. He had seven children: (i) the emperor 
Alexander II. (q.v.); (2) the grand-duchess Maria (1819-1876), 
duchess of Leuchtenberg; (3) the grand-duchess Olga (1822- 
1892), consort of King Charles of Wurttemberg; (4) the grand- 
duchess Alexandra (1825-1844), married to Prince Frederick of 
Hesse-Cassel; (5) the grand-duke Constantine Nikolayevich 
(1827-1892); (6) the grand-duke Nicholas Nikolayevich (1831- 
1891); (7) the grand-duke Michael Nikolayevich (b. 1832). 
The second son of the latter, the grand-duke Michael Mikhaflovich 
(b. 1861), who was morganatically married, his wife bearing the 
title of Countess Torby, took up his residence in England. 

AUTHORITIES. All other works on Nicholas I. have been more or 
less superseded by Professor Theodor Schiemann's Geschichte 
Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I., of which the 1st vol., Kaiser 
Alexander I. und die Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit, was published at 
Berlin in 1904; the 2nd, carrying the history of Nicholas's reign down 
to the revolutions of 1830, in 1908. It is based on a large mass of 
unpublished material, and considerably modifies, e.g. the account of 
the accession of Nicholas and of the Decabrist conspiracy given in 
chapter xiii. of vol. x. of the Cambridge Modern History, and tells for 
the first time the secret history of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828- 
29. The great Recueil des traites conclus par la Russie of T. T. de 
Martens (St Petersburg, 1874-1909) contains admirable introductory 
essays, based on the unpublished Russian archives, and giving much 
material for the study of Nicholas's character and policy^ Many 
documents are published for the first time in Schiemann's work; 
some, from the archives of Count Nesselrode, are published in the 
Lettres et papiers du Chancelier Comte de Nesselrode, t. vi. seq. For 
other works see bibliographies attached to the chapters on Russia 
in vol. x. and xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. (W. A. P.) 



NICHOLAS II. NICHOLAS OF GUILDFORD 



655 



NICHOLAS II. (1868- ), emperor of Russia, eldest son 
and successor of Alexander III., was born at St Petersburg on 
the i8th of May 1868. He received the ordinary education of 
Russian grand-dukes, under the direction of General Danilovitch, 
assisted by M. Pobedonostsev and other eminent professors. 
Among these was an Englishman, Mr Charles Heath, for whom 
he had great respect and affection. By the death of his grand- 
father, Alexander II., in 1881, he became heir-apparent 
(cesarevich) . Though he received, like all the heirs-apparent 
to the Russian throne, a certain amount of military training, 
his personal tastes did not lie in that direction, nor did he show 
any inclination for the boisterous amusements of the jeunesse 
doree of St Petersburg. Like his father, he was nowhere happier 
than in the family circle, and he was particularly attached to 
his sister, the grand-duchess Xenia, who was seven years younger 
than himself. In .1890-1891 he made a tour in Greece, Egypt, 
India, Ceylon and Japan, where he narrowly escaped assassina- 
tion at the hands of a Japanese fanatic. On the return journey 
by Siberia, at Vladivostok, he turned the first sod of the eastern 
section of the Siberian railway, and two years afterwards (1893) 
he was appointed president of the imperial committee for that 
great undertaking. By the death of his father on the ist of 
November 1894 he became emperor, and on the 26th of that 
month he married Princess Alix of Hesse (a grand-daughter of 
Queen Victoria), to whom he had been betrothed in the presence 
of his father during the latter's last illness. Eighteen months 
later the coronation took place at Moscow with great pomp, 
but a gloom was thrown over the festivities by the unfortunate 
incident of the Khodinskoe Polye, a great open space near the 
city, where a popular fete had been prepared and where, from 
defective police arrangements, a large number of men, women 
and children, roughly estimated at 2000, were crushed and 
trampled to death. Nicholas II. followed in the footsteps of 
his father, seeking to preserve peace in foreign relations, and 
continuing in home affairs, though in a much milder form, the 
policy of centralization and Russification which had characterized 
the previous reign. His pacific tendencies were shown by his 
systematic opposition to all bellicose excitement, by his maintain- 
ing M. de Giers in the post of minister of foreign affairs, by his 
offering the post, on the death of that statesman, to M. de Staal, 
by his restraining France from dangerous adventures, and by 
initiating the Peace Conference at the Hague. To these ought 
perhaps to be added the transformation of the Franco-Russian 
entente cordiale into a formal alliance, since the alliance in question 
might be regarded as favourable to the preservation of the 
status quo in Europe. In the internal administration during 
the first years of his reign he introduced by his personal influence, 
and without any great change in the laws, a more humane 
spirit towards those of his subjects who did not belong by 
language and tradition to the dominant nationality, and who 
were not members of the Eastern Orthodox Church; but he 
disappointed the men of liberal views by giving it to be clearly 
understood soon after his accession that he had no intention 
of circumscribing and weakening the autocratic power by 
constitutional guarantees or parliamentary institutions. In 
spite, however, of his desire for peace he let his country drift 
into the disastrous war with Japan; and notwithstanding 
his sincere attachment to the principles of bureaucratic autocracy, 
it was he who granted the constitutional reforms which altered 
the whole political outlook in Russia (see RUSSIA). 

NICHOLAS OF BASEL (d. 1397), a prominent member of the 
Beghard community, who travelled widely as a missionary 
and propagated the teachings of his sect. Though vigorously 
sought after by the Inquisition he eluded its agents for many 
years until in 1397 he was seized in Vienna, and burned at 
the stake as a heretic, together with two of his followers, 
John and James. A considerable legend has attached itself to 
Nicholas through the persistent but mistaken identification of 
him with the mysterious " Friend of God from the Oberland," 
the " double" of Rulman Merswin, the Strassburg banker who 
was one of the leaders of the 14th-century German mystics 
known as the Friends of God. In Merswin 's Story of the First 



Four Years of a New Life, he writes: " Of all the wonderful 
works which God had wrought in me I was not allowed to tell 
a single word to anybody until the time when it should please 
God to reveal to a man in the Oberland to come to me. When 
he came to me God gave me the power to tell him everything." 
The identity and personality of this " Friend of God," who 
bulks so largely in the great collection of mystical literature, 
and is everywhere treated as a half supernatural character, is 
one of the most difficult problems in the history of mysticism. 
The tradition, dating from the isth century and supported 
by the weighty authority of the Strassburg historian Karl 
Schmidt (Nicolaus von Basel, Vienna, 1866), identified him 
with Nicholas, but is now discredited by all scholars. A. Jundt 
(Les Amis de Dieu, 1879) shared Preger's view that the Friend 
was a great unknown who lived in or near Chur (Coire) in 
Switzerland. But since Denifle's researches (see especially 
Der Gottesfreund im Olerlande und Nikolaus von Basel, 1870) 
the belief has gained ground that the " Friend " is not a historical 
personage at all. Apart from the collection of literature ascribed 
to him and Merswin there is no historical evidence of his existence. 
The accounts of his life say that about 1343 he was forbidden 
to reveal his identity to anyone save Rulman Merswin. And 
as all the writings bear the marks of a single authorship it has 
been assumed, especially by Denifle, that " the Friend of God " 
is a literary creation of Merswin and that the whole collection 
of literature is the work of Merswin (and his school), tendency- 
literature designed to set forth the ideals of the movement to 
which he had given his life. Thus " the great unknown" from 
the Oberland is the ideal character, " who illustrates how God 
does his work tor the world and for the church through a divinely 
trained and spiritually illuminated layman," just as William 
Langland in England about the same time drew the figure of 
Piers Plowman. 

To rescue Merswin from the charge of deceit involved in 
this theory, Jundt puts forward the suggestion, more ingenious 
than convincing, that Merswin was a " double personality," 
who in his primary state wrote the books ascribed to him, and 
in his secondary state became " the Friend of God from the 
Oberland," writing the other treatises. A third hypothesis 
is that advanced by Karl Rieder (Der Gottesfreund von Oberland, 
Innsbruck, 1905), who thinks that not even Merswin himself 
wrote any of the literature, but that his secretary and associate 
Nicholas of Lowen, head of the House of St John at Griinen worth, 
the retreat founded by Merswin for the circle, worked over all 
the writings which emanated from different members of the 
group but bore no author's names, and to glorify the founder 
of the house attached Merswin's name to some of them and out 
of his imagination created " the Friend of God from the 
Oberland," whom he named as the writer of the others. As his 
design took shape he expanded the supernatural element and 
made the narratives autobiographical. There is much in this 
contention that is sound, but Rieder seems to go unnecessarily 
far in denying altogether that Merswin wrote any of the mystical 
books. The conclusion remains that the literature must be 
treated as tendency-writing and not as genuine biography and 
history. 

See besides the works cited, Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical 
Religion, ch. xiii. (London, 1909). (A J. G.) 

NICHOLAS OF GUILDFORD (fl. 1250), English poet, the 
supposed author of The Owl and the Nightingale, an English 
poem of the i3th century. This work, which displays genuine 
poetical and imaginative qualities, is written in the south- 
western dialect, and is one of the few 13th-century English poems 
not devoted entirely to religious topics. The nightingale sitting 
on a branch covered with blossom sees the owl perched on a 
bough overgrown with ivy, and proceeds to abuse him for his 
general habits and appearance. The birds decide to refer the 
consequent dispute to Master Nicholas de Guildford, who is 
skilled in such questions, but they first of all engage in a regular 
debat in the French fashion. The owl is the best logician, but the 
nightingale has a fund of abuse that equalizes matters. Finally, 
when the argument threatens to become a fight, the wren 



656 



NICHOLAS, SIR E. NICHOLS 



interferes, and the two go to the house of Master Nicholas at Por- 
tisham in Dorset. He judges, they say, many right judgments, 
and composes and writes much wisdom, and it is lamentable that 
so learned and worthy a man should gain no preferment from 
his bishop. The poet, whoever he was, wrote the octosyllabic 
couplet with ease and smoothness. He borrows something from 
Alexander of Neckham's De naturis rerum, and was certainly 
familiar with contemporary French poetry. The piece is a 
general allegory of the contest between asceticism and a more 
cheerful view of religion, and is capable of a particular application 
to the differences between the regular orders and the secular 
clergy. The nightingale defends her singing on the ground 
that heaven is a place of song and mirth, while the owl maintains 
that much weeping for his many sins is man's best preparation 
for the future. 

There are two MSS. of the Hide amd the Nightingale, MS. Cotton 
Caligula A ix. (British Museum), dating from the first half of the 
I3th century, and MS. Arch. I. 29, Jesus College, Oxford, written 
about half a century later. In the Jesus College MS. the poem is 
immediately preceded by a religious poem entitled La Passyun Jhu 
Christ, which, according to a note on it, once possessed an additional 
quatrain implying that it was written by John of Guildford, perhaps 
a relation of Nicholas. 

The Owl and the Nightingale has been edited from the Cotton MS. 
chiefly for the Roxburghe Club (1838) by Joseph Stevenson, and for 
the Percy Society (1843) by T. Wright; the best edition is by F. H. 
Stratmann (Krefeld, 1868), who collated the two MSS. See also B. 
Ten Brink, Early English Literature (trans. H. M. Kennedy, pp. 214- 
218); Courthope, History of English Poetry; and J. W. H. Atkins 
in the Cambridge History of Literature, vol. i. For some textual 
criticism see A.E. Egge in Modern Language 7V0tes(BaItimore,January, 
1887). 

NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669), English statesman, 
eldest son of John Nicholas, a member of an old Wiltshire family, 
was born on the 4th of April 1593. He was educated at Salisbury 
grammar school, Winchester College and Queen's College, 
Oxford. After studying law at the Middle Temple, Nicholas 
became secretary to Lord Zouch, warden and admiral of the 
Cinque ports, in 1618, and continued in a similar employment 
under the duke of Buckingham. In 1625 he became secretary 
to the admiralty; shortly afterwards he was appointed an extra 
clerk of the privy council with duties relating to admiralty 
business, and from 1635 to 1641 he was one of the clerks in 
ordinary to the council. In this situation Nicholas had much 
business to transact in connexion with the levy of ship-money; 
and in 1641, when Charles I. went to Scotland, a heavy responsi- 
bility rested on the secretary who remained in London to keep 
the king informed of the proceedings of the parliament. On 
the return of Charles to the capital Nicholas was knighted, and 
appointed a privy councillor and a secretary of state, in which 
capacity he attended the king while the court was at Oxford, 
and carried out the business of the treaty of Uxbridge. Through- 
out this troubled period he was one of Charles's wisest and most 
loyal advisers; he it was who arranged the details of the king's 
surrender to the Scots, though he does not appear to have 
advised or even to have approved of the step; and to him also 
fell the duty of treating for the capitulation of Oxford, which 
included permission for Nicholas himself to retire abroad with 
his family. He went to France, being recommended by the 
king to the confidence of the prince of Wales. After the king's 
death Nicholas remained on the continent concerting measures 
on behalf of the exiled Charles II. with Hyde and other royalists, 
but the hostility of Queen Henrietta Maria deprived him of any 
real influence in the counsels of the young sovereign. He lived 
at the Hague and elsewhere in a state of poverty which hampered 
his power to serve Charles, but which the latter did nothing 
to relieve. He returned to England at the Restoration; but 
although Charles had formally appointed him secretary of state 
in 1654, this office was now conferred on another, and Nicholas 
had to content himself with a grant of money and the offer of 
a peerage, which his poverty compelled him to decline. He 
retired to a country seat in Surrey which he purchased from a 
son of Sir Walter Raleigh, and here he lived till his death in 
1669. By his wife Jane, a daughter of Henry Jay, an alderman 
of London, he had several sons and daughters; his younger 



brother MATTHEW NICHOLAS (1594-1661) was successively dean 
of Bristol,' canon of Westminster and dean of St Paul's. 

See The Nicholas Papers, edited by G. F. Warner (Camden Society, 
London, I88&-I897), containing Nicholas's correspondence and some 
autobiographical memoranda. Private correspondence between 
Nicholas and Charles I. will be found in the Memoirs of John Evelyn, 
edited by W. Bray (London, 1827); The Edgerton MSS. and the 
Ormonde Papers contain many references to Nicholas. 

NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-0. 
1 580), founder of the sect called" the Family of Love," was born 
in 1501 or 1502, at Miinster, where he was married and carried on 
the business of a mercer. As a boy he was subject to visions, 
and at the age of twenty-seven charges of heresy led to his 
imprisonment. About 1530 he removed with his family to 
Amsterdam, where he was again imprisoned on a charge of 
complicity in the Miinster revolution of 1534-1535. About 1539 
he experienced a call to found his " Familia Caritatis." Remov- 
ing to Embden, he lived there and prospered in business for 
twenty years, though he travelled with commercial as well as 
missionary objects into the Netherlands, England and elsewhere. 
The date of his sojourn in England has been placed as early as 
1552 and as late as 1569. In 1579 he was living at Cologne, 
where probably he died a year or two later. His doctrines seem 
to have been derived largely from the Dutch Anabaptist David 
Joris or George, who died in 1556; but they have mainly to be 
inferred from the jaundiced accounts of hostile writers. The 
outward trappings of his system were merely Anabaptist; but 
he anticipated a good many later speculations, and his followers 
were accused of asserting that all things were ruled by nature 
and not directly by God, of denying the dogma of the Trinity, 
and repudiating infant baptism. They held that no man should 
be put to death for his opinions, and apparently, like the later 
Quakers, they objected to the carrying of arms and to anything 
like an oath; and they were quite impartial in their repudiation 
of all other churches and sects, including Brownists and 
Barrowists. 

Nicholas's principal disciple in England was one Christopher 
Vitel, and towards 1579 the progress of the sect especially in the 
eastern counties provoked literary attacks, proclamations and 
parliamentary bills. But Nicholas's followers escaped the 
gallows and the stake, for they combined with some success the 
wisdom of the serpent and the harmlessness of the dove. They 
would only discuss their doctrines with sympathizers; they 
showed every respect for authority, and considered outward con- 
formity a duty. This quietist attitude, while it saved them from 
molestation, hampered propaganda; and though the " Family " 
existed until the middle of the 1 7th century, it was then swallowed 
up by the Quakers, Baptists and Unitarians, all of which de- 
nominations may have derived some of their ideas through the 
" Family " from the Anabaptists. 

The list of Nicholas's works occupies nearly six columns in 
the Diet. Nat. Biogr. See also Belfort Bax, Rise and Fall of the 
Anabaptists, pp. 327-380 (1903); and Strype's Works, General 
Index. (A. F. P.) 

NICHOLS, JOHN (1745-1826), English printer and author, 
was born at Islington on the 2nd of February 1745. He edited 
the Gentleman's Magazine from 1788 till his death, and in the 
pages of that periodical, and in his numerous volumes of Anecdotes 
and Illustrations, he made invaluable contributions to the personal 
history of English men of letters in the i8th century. He was 
apprenticed in 1757 to " the learned printer," William Bowyer, 
whom he eventually succeeded. On the death of his friend and 
master in 1777 he published a brief memoir, which afterwards 
grew into the Anecdotes of William Bowyer and his Literary 
Friends (1782). As his materials accumulated he compiled a sort 
of anecdotical literary history of the century, based on a large 
collection of important letters. The Literary Anecdotes of the 
i8th Century (1812-1815), i nto which the original work was 
expanded, forms only a small part of Nichols's production. It 
was followed by the Illustrations of the Literary History of the 
i8th Century, consisting of Authentic Memoirs and Original 
Letters of Eminent Persons, which was begun in 1817 and com- 
pleted by his son John Bowyer Nichols (1779-1863) in 1858. 



NICHOLSON, H. A. NICHOLSON, J. 



657 



The Anecdotes and the Illustrations are mines of valuable in- 
formation on the authors, printers and booksellers of the time. 

Nichols's other works include: A Collection of Royal and 
Noble Wills (1780); Select Collection of Miscellaneous Poems 
(1782), with subsequent additions, in which he was helped by 
Joseph Warton and by Bishops Percy and Lowth; Bibliotheca 
Topographica Britannica (1780-1790); with Richard Gough, 
The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth (1788); 
and the important History and Antiquities of the Town and County 
of Leicester (1795-1815). Nichols was a fellow of the Society of 
Antiquaries, a trustee of many city institutions, and in 1804 he 
was master of the Stationers' Company. He died on the 26th 
of November 1826. JOHN BOWYER NICHOLS continued his father's 
various undertakings, and wrote, with other works, A Brief 
Account of the Guildhall of the City of London (1819). His eldest 
son, JOHN GOUGH NICHOLS (1806-1873), was also a printer and a 
distinguished antiquary, who edited the Gentleman's Magazine 
from 1851 to 1856, and the Herald and Genealogist from 1863 to 
1874, and was one of the founders of the Camden Society. 

A full Memoir of John Nichols by Alexander Chalmers is contained 
in the Illustrations, and a bibliography in the Anecdotes (vol. vi.) is 
supplemented in the later work. See also R. C. Nichols, Memoirs of 
J. G. Nichols (1874). 

NICHOLSON, HENRY ALLEYNE (1844-1899), British palaeon- 
tologist and zoologist, son of Dr John Nicholson, a biblical 
scholar, was born at Penrith on the nth of September 1844. 
He was educated at Appleby Grammar School and at the uni- 
versities of Gottingen (Ph.D., 1866) and Edinburgh (D.Sc., 
1867; M.D., 1869). Geology had early attracted his attention, 
and his first publication was a thesis for his D.Sc. degree On the 
Geology of Cumberland and Westmoreland (1868). In 1871 he was 
appointed professor of natural history in the university of 
Toronto, in 1874 professor of biology in the Durham College of 
Science and in 1875 professor of natural history in the university 
of St Andrews. This last post he held until 1882, when he became 
regius professor of natural history in the university of Aber- 
deen. He was elected F.R.S. in 1897. His original work was 
mainly on fossil invertebrata (graptolites, stromatoporoids and 
corals); but he did much field work, especially in the Lake 
district, where he laboured in company with Professor R. 
Harkness and afterwards with Dr J.E. Marr. He was awarded 
the Lyell Medal by the Geological Society in 1888. He died at 
Aberdeen on the igth of January 1899. 

PUBLICATIONS. Ancient Life-History of the Earth (1877); Manual 
of Zoology (of which there were 7 editions) and other text-books of 
Zoology; Manual of Palaeontology (1872, 3rd ed., 2 vols., with R. 
Lydekker, 1889); Monograph of the Silurian Fossils of the Girvan 
District in Ayrshire (with R. Etheridge, jun.) (1878-1880); Mono- 
graph of the British Stromatoporoids in Palaeontograph. Soc. (1886- 
1892). 

Obituary, with portrait, by Dr G. J. Hinde, in Geol. Mag. (March 
1809). 

NICHOLSON, JOHN (1822-1857), Anglo-Indian soldier and 
administrator, son of Alexander Nicholson, a north of Ireland 
physician, was born on the nth of December 1822 and educated 
at Dungannon College. He was presented with a cadetship in 
the Bengal infantry in 1839 by his uncle Sir James Hogg, and 
served in the first Afghan War of 1839-42; he distinguished 
himself in the defence of Ghazni, and was one of the prisoners 
who were carried to Bamian and escaped by bribing the guard 
upon General Pollock's successful advance. It was in Afghanistan 
that Nicholson first met Sir Henry Lawrence, who got him the 
appointment of political officer in Kashmir and subsequently 
on the Punjab frontier. In 1847 he was given charge of the Sind 
Sagar district, and did much to pacify the country after the first 
Sikh War. On the seizure of Multan by Mulraj, he rendered 
great service in securing the country from Attock, and was 
wounded in an attack upon a tower in the Margalla Pass, where 
a monument was subsequently erected to his memory. On the 
outbreak of the second Sikh War he was appointed political 
officer to Lord Cough's force, when he rendered great service in 
the collection of intelligence and in furnishing supplies and boats. 

On the annexation of the Punjab he was appointed deputy 
commissioner of Bannu. There he became a kind of legendary 



hero, and many tales are told of his stern justice, his tireless 
activity and his commanding personality. In the course of five 
years he reduced the most turbulent district on the frontier 
to such a state of quietude that no crime was committed or even 
attempted during his last year of office, a condition of things 
never known before or since. On one occasion, being attacked 
by a ghazi, he snatched the musket from the hand of a sentry 
and shot the man dead; on another occasion he put a price 
on the head of a notorious outlaw, and finding every one afraid 
to earn it, rode single-handed to the man's village, met him in 
the street and cut him down. But besides being a severe ruler, 
Nicholson was eminently just. A criminal had no chance of 
escaping him, so able and determined was his investigation; 
and a corrupt official could not long evade his vigilance; but he 
was deliberate in his punishments, and gave offenders a chance 
to redeem their character. He would go personally to the scene 
of a crime or a legal dispute and decide the question on the spot. 
Every man in his district, whether mountain tribesman or 
policeman, felt that he was controlled by a master hand, and the 
natives said of him that " the tramp of his war-horse could be 
heard from Attock to the Khyber." Lord Roberts says of him 
in Forty -One Years in India: " Nicholson impressed me more 
profoundly than any man I had ever met before, or have ever 
met since. I have never seen any one like him. He was the 
beau ideal of a soldier and a gentleman." It is little wonder that 
the natives worshipped him as a god under the title of Nikalsain. 
Nicholson, however, had a fiery temper and a contempt for red 
tape, which made him a somewhat intractable subordinate. 
He had a serious quarrel with Sir Neville Chamberlain, and was 
continually falling out with Sir John Lawrence, who succeeded 
his brother Henry as ruler of the Punjab. 

It was when the Mutiny broke out in May 1857 that Nicholson 
was able to show the metal that was in him, and he did more 
than any other single man to keep the Punjab loyal and to bring 
about the fall 6f Delhi. When the news of the rising at Meerut 
arrived, Nicholson was with Edwardes at Peshawar, and they 
took immediate steps to disarm the doubtful regiments in that 
cantonment. Together they opposed Sir John Lawrence's 
proposal to abandon Peshawar, in order to concentrate all their 
strength on the siege of Delhi. In June Nicholson was appointed 
to the command of a movable column, with which he again 
disarmed two doubtful regiments at Phillaur. In July he made 
a forced march of 41 m. in a single day in the terrific heat of the 
Punjab summer, in order to intercept the mutineers from Sialkot, 
who were marching upon Delhi. He caught them on the banks 
of the Ravi near Gurdaspur, and utterly destroyed them, thus 
successfully achieving what hardly any other man would have 
attempted. In August he had pacified the Punjab and was free 
to reinforce General Wilson on the Ridge before Delhi. An officer 
who served in the siege gives the following word picture of him 
as he appeared at this time: 

" He was a man cast in a giant mould, with massive chest and 
powerful limbs, and an expression ardent and commanding, with a 
dash of roughness; features of stern beauty, a long black beard, and 
a deep sonorous voice. There was something of immense strength, 
talent and resolution in his whole frame and manner, and a power of 
ruling men on high occasions which no one could escape noticing. 
His imperial air, which never left him, and which would have been 
thought arrogant in one of less imposing mien, sometimes gave 
offence to the more unbending of his countrymen, but made him 
almost worshipped by the pliant Asiatics." 

Before Nicholson's arrival the counsels of the commanders 
before Delhi, like those at Meerut, suffered from irresolution 
and timidity. As General Wilson's health declined, his caution 
became excessive, and Nicholson was specially sent by Sir John 
Lawrence to put more spirit into the attack. His first exploit 
after his arrival was the victory of Najafgarh, which he won 
over the rebels who were attempting to intercept the British 
siege train from Ferozepore. After marching through a flooded 
country scarcely practicable for his guns, Nicholson, with a 
force of 2500 troops, defeated 6000 disciplined sepoys after an 
hour's fighting, and thenceforth put an end to all attempts 
of the enemy to get in the rear of the British position on the 
Ridge. Nicholson grew fiercely impatient of General Wilson's 



658 



NICHOLSON, W. NICKEL 



procrastination, and at one time was thinking of appealing to 
the army to set Wilson aside and elect a successor; but at last, 
on the 1 3th of September, he forced Wilson to make up his mind 
to the assault, and he himself was chosen to lead the attacking, 
column. On the morning of the uth he led his column, 1000 
strong, in the attack on the Kashmir gate, and successfully 
entered the streets of Delhi. But in trying to clear the ramparts 
as far as the Lahore Gate, he undertook a task beyond the powers 
of his wearied troops. In encouraging them as they hesitated, 
he turned his back on the enemy and was shot in the back. The 
wound was mortal, but his magnificent physique allowed him 
to linger for nine days before finally succumbing on the 23rd of 
September. 

His best epitaph is found in the words of Sir John Lawrence's 
Mutiny Report: 

" Brigadier-General John Nicholson is now beyond human praise 
and human reward. But so long as British rule shall endure in India, 
his fame can never perish. He seems especially to have been raised 
up for this juncture. He crowned a bright, though brief, career by 
dying of the wound he received in the moment of victory at Delhi. 
The Chief Commissioner does not hesitate to affirm that without 
John Nicholson Delhi could not have fallen." 

See J. L. Trotter, Life of John Nicholson (1904) ; Sir John Kaye, 
Lives of Indian Officers (1889); Bosworth Smith, Life of Lord 
Lawrence (1883) ; Lady Edwardes, Memorials of Sir Herbert Edwardes 
(1886); and S. S. Thorburn, Bannu (1876). 

NICHOLSON, WILLIAM (1753-1815), English writer on natural 
philosophy, was born in London in 1753, and after leaving school 
made two voyages as midshipman in the East India service. 
He subsequently entered an attorney's office, but, having become 
acquainted, in 1775, with Josiah Wedgwood, he lived for some 
years at Amsterdam as agent for the sale of pottery. On his 
return to England he was induced by Thomas Holcroft to devote 
himself to the composition of light literature for periodicals, 
assisting that writer also with some of his plays and novels. 
Meanwhile he employed himself on the preparation of An Intro- 
duction to Natural Philosophy, which was published in 1781 and 
was at once successful. A translation of Voltaire's Elements of 
the Newtonian Philosophy soon followed, and he now entirely 
devoted himself to scientific pursuits and philosophical journalism. 
In 1784 he was appointed secretary to the General Chamber of 
Manufacturers of Great Britain, and he was also connected with 
the Society for the Encouragement of Naval Architecture, estab- 
lished in 1791. He bestowed much attention upon the construc- 
tion of various machines for comb-cutting, file-making, cylinder 
printing, &c.; he also invented an areometer. In 1800 he began 
in London a course of public lectures on natural philosophy and 
chemistry, and about this period he made the discovery of the 
decomposition of water by the voltaic current. In 1797 the 
Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, generally 
known as Nicholson's Journal, the earliest work of the kind in 
Great Britain, was begun; it was carried on till 1814. During 
the later years of his life Nicholson's attention was chiefly directed 
to waterworks engineering at Portsmouth, at Gosport and in 
Southwark. He died in London on the 2ist of May 1815. 

Besides considerable contributions to the Philosophical Trans- 
actions, Nicholson wrote translations of Fourcroy's Chemistry (1787) 
and Chaptal's Chemistry (1788), First Principles of Chemistry (1788) 
and a Chemical Dictionary (1795) ; he also edited the British Encyclo- 
paedia, or Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (6 vols., 8vo, London, 1809). 

NICHOLSON, WILLIAM (1784-1844), Scottish painter, was 
born at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Having settled in Edinburgh, he 
painted portraits both in oil and water-colour; and along with 
Thomas Hamilton the architect he was one of the founders and 
most vigorous promoters of the Scottish Academy, of which 
he became the first secretary (1826-1833). In 1818 he published 
a series of etchings entitled Portraits of Distinguished Living 
Characters of Scotland, including Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey, 
Robert Burns and Professor Wilson. 

NICIAS (d. 414 B.C.), a soldier and statesman in ancient Athens, 
inherited from his father Niceratus a considerable fortune in- 
vested mainly in the silver mines of Laurium. Evidence of his 
wealth is found in the fact that he had no less than 1000 slaves 
whom he hired out. He gravitated naturally to the aristocratic 
party, and was several times colleague with Pericles in the 



strategia. On the death of Pericles he was left leader of the 
aristocrats against the advanced party of Cleon (q.v.). He 
made use of his wealth both to buy off enemies (especially in- 
formers) and to acquire popularity by the magnificent way in 
which he discharged various public services, especially those 
connected with the state religion, of which he was a strong 
supporter. In the field he displayed extreme caution, and prior 
to the great Sicilian expedition achieved a number of minor 
military successes. In 421 he took a prominent part in the 
arrangement of the " Peace of Nicias," which terminated the 
first decade of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). He now entered 
with varying success upon a period of rivalry with Alcibiades, 
the details of which are largely matters of conjecture. So bitter 
was the strife that the ostracism of one seemed inevitable, but 
by a temporary coalition they secured instead the banishment 
of the demagogue Hyperbolus (417). In 415 he was appointed 
with Alcibiades and Lamachus to command the Sicilian ex- 
pedition, and, after the flight of Alcibiades (q.v.) and the death 
of Lamachus, was practically the sole commander, the much 
more capable Demosthenes, who was sent to his aid, being 
apparently of comparatively little weight. How far it is just to 
at'cirinjte to his excessive caution and his blind faith in omens 
the disastrous failure it is difficult to say. At all events it is 
clear that the management of so great an enterprise was a task 
far beyond his powers. He was a man of conventional respect- 
ability and mechanical piety, without the originality which was 
required to meet the crisis which faced him. His popularity 
with the aristocratic party in Athens is, however, strikingly 
shown by the lament of Thucydides over his death: " He 
assuredly, among all Greeks of my time, least deserved to come 
to so extreme a pitch of ill-fortune, considering his exact per- 
formance of established duties to the divinity " (vii. 86, Crete's 
version). 

Besides Thucydides see Plutarch's Nicias and Diod. xii. 83; also 
the general authorities on the history of Greece, and the article 
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

NICIAS, son of Nicomedes, an Attic painter of the 4th century 
B.C. Pliny (xxxv. 131) gives a list of his works. He was associ- 
ated with Praxiteles, whose statues he coloured, thus adding to 
their value. 

NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58-68 (O=i6)),a metallic 
element. It has been known from the earliest times, being 
employed by the Chinese in the form of an alloy called pakfong. 
It was first isolated in an impure condition in 1751 by A. F. 
Cronstedt from niccolite, and his results were afterwards con- 
firmed by T. O. Bergman in 1775 (De niccolo,opusc. 2, p. 231; 
3, p. 459; 4, p. 374). It occurs in the uncombined condition 
and alloyed with iron in meteorites; as sulphide in millerite 
and nickel blende, as arsenide in niccolite and cloanthite, and 
frequently in combination with arsenic and antimony in the form 
of complex sulphides. In recent years it has been found in 
considerable quantities in New Caledonia in the form of a 
hydrated silicate of nickel and magnesia approximating to the 
constitution (NiO, MgO)SiO 2 -nH 2 O (J. Gamier, 1865), and in 
Canada in the form of nickeliferous pyrrhotines, which consist 
of sulphides of iron associated with sulphides of nickel and 
copper, embedded in a matrix of gneiss. At the present time 
nickel is obtained practically entirely from garnierite and the 
nickeliferous pyrrhotines. When the former is used it is roasted 
with calcium sulphate or alkali waste to form a matte which is 
then blown in a Bessemer converter or heated in a reverberatory 
furnace with a siliceous flux with the object of forming a rich 
nickel sulphide. This sulphide is then by further heating con- 
verted into the oxide and finally reduced to the state of metal 
by ignition with carbon in clay crucibles. The process adopted 
for the Canadian ores, which are poor in copper and nickel, 
consists in a preliminary roasting in heaps and smelting in a blast 
furnace in order to obtain a matte, which is then further smelted 
with a siliceous flux for a rich matte. This rich matte is then 
mixed with coke and salt-cake and melted down in an open 
hearth furnace. The nickel sulphide so obtained is then roasted 
to oxide and reduced to metal. For a wet method of extraction 



NICKEL 



659 



of the matte see Christofle and Bouilhet, French Patent 111591 
(1876). L. Mond (Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1895, p. 945) has 
obtained metallic nickel from the Canadian mattes by first 
roasting them and then eliminating copper by the action of 
sulphuric acid, the product so obtained being then exposed to 
the reducing action of producer gas at about 350 C. The 
reduced metal is then passed into a " volatilizer " and exposed 
to the action of carbon monoxide at about 80 C., the nickel 
carbonyl so formed being received in a chamber heated to 
180-200 C., where it decomposes, the nickel being deposited and 
the carbon monoxide returned to the volatilizer. For an electro- 
lytic method of treating mattes, see T. Ulke, Moniteur scient., 
1897, 49, p. 450. The metal as obtained by industrial methods 
rarely contains more than about 99-99-5% of nickel, the chief 
impurities being copper, iron, cobalt, silicon and carbon. 

The following tables show the output of nickel from Canada 
and the shipments of nickel ore from New Caledonia in recent 
years: 

CANADA 





Production 
(ft). 


Export 

(ft). 




Production 
(ft). 


Export 
(ft). 


1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 


7,080,227 
9,189,047 
10,693,410 
12,505,510 
10,547,883 


13-493.239 
9-537.558 
3,883,264 

9-032,554 
14,229,973 


1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 


18,876,315 
21,490,955 
21,189,793 
19,143,111 


11.970,557 
20,653,845 

19.376,335 
19,419,893 



NEW CALEDONIA 





1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905- 


1906. 


1907. 


1908. 


Metric tons . 


100,319 


133.676 


129.653 


77.360 


98,665 


125,289 


130,688 


101,708 


120,028 



(See Rothwell's Mineral Industry (1908), pp. 666, 670). 



The metal may also be obtained on the small scale by the 
reduction of the oxide by hydrogen or by carbon, by ignition 
of the oxalate or of nickel ammonium oxalate (J. J. Berzelius), 
by reduction of the chloride in a current of hydrogen (E. Peligot), 
by electrolysis of nickel ammonium sulphate (Winkler, Zeit. 
anorg. Chem. 1894, 8, p. i), and by reduction of the chloride 
with calcium carbide. 

It is a greyish white metal, and is very malleable and ductile. 
Its specific gravity varies according to the method employed for 
its preparation, the extreme values being 8-279 and 9-25. It 
melts between 1400-1600 C. Its specific heat increases with 
rise of temperature, the mean value from 15 to 100 C. being 
0-1084 (A. Naccari, Gazz., 1888, 18, p. 13). It is magnetic, but 
loses its magnetism when heated, the loss being complete at about 
340-350 C. On the physical constants see H. Copaux, Comptes 
rendus, 1005, 140, p. 651. Nickel occludes hydrogen readily, is 
attacked by the halogen elements, and oxidizes easily when 
heated in air. In the massive state it is unacted upon by dry air, 
but if moistened with acidified water, oxidation takes place slowly. 
When obtained by reduction processes at as low a temperature 
as possible the finely divided metal so formed is pyrophoric, and 
according to P. Schutzenberger (Comptes rendus, 1891, 113, p. 177) 
dry hydrochloric acid gas converts this form into nickel chloride 
and a volatile compound of composition NiHCl. It decomposes 
water at a red heat. According to E. St Edme (Comptes rendus, 
1886, 106, p. 1079) sheet nickel is passive to nitric acid, and 
the metal remains passive even when heated to redness in a 
current of hydrogen. On the reduction of organic compounds by 
hydrogen in the presence of metallic nickel see P. Sabatier and 
J. B. Senderens, Ann. Chim. Phys., 1905 [8], 4, pp. 319, 433. 

It rapidly oxidizes when fused with caustic soda, but is 
scarcely acted upon by caustic potash (W. Dittmar, Jour. Soc. 
Chem. Ind., 1884, 3, p. 103). Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids 
are almost without action on the metal, but it dissolves readily 
in dilute nitric acid. Nickel salts are antiseptic; they arrest 
fermentation and stop the growth of plants. Nickel carbonyl, 
however, is extremely poisonous. On the toxic properties of 



nickel salts see A. Riche and Laborde, Jour. Pharm. Chem., 1888, 

Isli '7, PP- i, 59, 97- 

Nickel is used for the manufacture of domestic utensils, for 
crucibles, coinage, plating, and for the preparation of various 
alloys, such as German silver, nickel steels such as invar (nickel, 
35-7%; steel, 64-3%), which has a negligible coefficient of 
thermal expansion, and constantan (nickel, 45%; copper, 55%), 
which has a negligible thermal coefficiejit of its electrical resist- 
ance. 

Compounds. 

Nickel Oxides. Several oxides of nickel are known. A suboxide, 
NiiO (?), described by W. Muller (Pogg. Ann., 1869, 212, p. 59), is 
not certainly known. The monoxide, NiO, occurs naturally as 
bunsenite, and is obtained artificially when nickel hydroxide, 
carbonate, nitrate or sulphate is heated. It may also be prepared by 
the action of nickel on water, by the reduction of the oxide NiiOi 
with hydrogen at about 200 C. (H. Moissan, Ann. Chim. Phys., 
l5lt 21, p. 199), or by heating nickel chloride with sodium carbonate 
and extracting the fused mass with water. It is a green powder 
which becomes yellow when heated. It dissociates at a red heat, and 
is readily reduced to the metal when heated with carbon or in a 
current of hydrogen. It is readily soluble in acids, forming salts, the 
rate of solution being rapid if the oxide is in the amorphous condition, 
but slow if the oxide is crystalline. The hydroxide, Ni(OH), is 
obtained in the form of a greenish amorphous powder when nickel 
salts are precipitated by the caustic alkalis. It is readily soluble in 
acids and in an aqueous solution of ammonia. Nickel sesquioxide, 
NijOj, is formed when the nitrate is decomposed by heat at the lowest 
possible temperature, by a similar decomposition of the chlorate, or 
by fusing the chloride with potassium chlorate. It is a black powder, 
the composition of which is never quite definite, but approximates 

to the formula given above. When 
heated with oxy-acids it dissolves, 
with evolution of oxygen, and 
with hydrochloric acid it evolves 
chlorine. Numerous hydrated 
forms of the oxide have been de- 
scribed (see W. Wernicke, Pogg. 
Ann., 1870, 217, p. 122). A 
peroxide, NiOi, has been obtained 
in the form of dinickelite of 
BaO-2NiOj, by heating the monoxide with anhydrous 



barium, 

baryta in the electric furnace (E. Dutau, Comptes rendus, 1896, 123, 
P- 495)- G. Pellini and D. Meneghini (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1908, 60, 
p. 178) obtained a greyish green powder of composition NiOj-xHiO, 
by adding an alcoholic solution of potassium hydrate to nickel- 
chloride and hydrogen peroxide at 50'. It has all the reactions of 
hydrogen peroxide, and S. Tanatar (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 1516) regards 
it as NiO-H^. An oxide, NiaO, has been obtained by heating nickel 
chloride in a current of moist oxygen at about 400" C. (H. Baubigny, 
Comptes rendus, 1878, 87, p. 1082), or by heating the sesquioxide in 
hydrogen at 190 C. (H. Moissan, Ann. Chim. Phys., 1890 [5], 21, 
p. 199). The former method yields greyish, metallic-looking, 
microscopic crystals, the latter a grey amorphous powder. A 
hydrated form, NijO^HaO, is obtained when the monoxide is fused 
with sodium peroxide at a red heat and the fused mass extracted 
with water. 

Nickel Salts. Only one series of salts is known, namely those 
corresponding to the monoxide. In the anhydrous state they are 
usually of a yellow colour, whilst in the hydrated condition they are 
green. They may be recognized by the brownish violet colour they 
impart to a borax bead when heated in an oxidizing flame. The 
caustic alkalis added to solutions of nickel salts give a pale green 
precipitate of the hydroxide, insoluble in excess of the precipitant. 
This latter reaction is hindered by the presence of many organic 
acids (tartaric acid, citric acid, &c.). Potassium cyanide gives a 
greenish yellow precipitate of nickel cyanide, Ni(CN)j, soluble jn 
excess of potassium cyanide, forming a double salt, Ni(CN)z-2KCN, 
which remains unaltered when boiled with excess of potassium 
cyanide in presence of air (cf. COBALT). Ammonium sulphide pre- 
cipitates black nickel sulphide, which is somewhat soluble in excess 
of the precipitate (especially if yellow ammonium sulphide be used), 
forming a dark-coloured solution. Ammonium hydroxide gives a 
green precipitate of the hydroxide, soluble in excess of ammonia, 
forming a blue solution. Numerous methods have been devised for 
the separation of nickel and cobalt, the more important of which are : 
the cobaltinitrite method by which the cobalt is precipitated in the 
presence of acetic acid by means of potassium nitrite (the alkaline 
earth metals must not be present); the cyanide method (J. v. 
Liebig, A nn., 1 848, 65, p. 244 ; 1 853, 87, p. 128) , in which the two metals 
are precipitated by excess of potassium cyanide in alkaline solution, 
bromine being afterwards added and the solution warmed, when the 
nickel is precipitated. The latter method has been modified by 
adding potassium cyanide in slight excess to the solution of the 
mixed salts, heating for some time and then adding mercuric oxide 
and water, the whole being then warmed on the water bath, when a 
precipitate of mercuric oxide and nickel hydroxide is obtained 



66o 



NICKNAME NICOBAR ISLANDS 



(Lkbig). M. Ilinski and G. v. Knorre (Ber., 1885, 18, p. 169) 
separate the metals by adding nitroso-/3-naphthol in the presence 
of 50% acetic acid, a precipitate of cobalt! nitroso-/3-naphthol, 
[CioHO(NO)]iCo, insoluble in hydrochloric acid, being formed, whilst 
the corresponding nickel compound dissolves in hydrochloric acid. 
E. Pinerua separates the metals by taking advantage of the fact that 
cobalt chloride is soluble in ether which has been saturated with 
hydrochloric acid gas at low temperature. For an examination of 
the above and other methods see E. Hintz, Zeit. anal. Chem., 1891, 
30, p. 227. 

Nickel fluoride, NiF s , obtained by the action of hydrofluoric acid 
on nickel chloride, crystallizes in yellowish green prisms which 
volatilise above 1000 C. It is difficultly soluble in water, and com- 
bines with the alkaline fluorides to form double salts. Nickel chloride, 
NiClj, is obtained in the anhydrous condition by heating the hydrated 
salt to 140 C., or by gently heating the finely divided metal in a 
current of chlorine. It readily sublimes when heated in a current of 
chlorine, forming golden yellow scales. It is easily reduced when 
heated in hydrogen. It forms crystalline compounds with ammonia 
and the organic bases. It is soluble in alcohol and in water. Three 
hydrated forms are known, viz. a mono-, di-, and hexa-hydrate ; the 
latter being the form usually obtained by the solution of the 
oxide or carbonate in hydrochloric acid. Nickel chloride ammonia, 
NiCI*6NH, is obtained as a white powder when anhydrous nickel 
chloride is exposed to the action of ammonia gas (H. Rose, Pogg. 
Ann., 1830, 96, p. 155), or in the form of blue octahedra by evaporat- 
ing a solution of nickel chloride in aqueous ammonia. When heated 
to 100 C. it loses four molecules of ammonia. Two hydrated forms 
have been described, one containing three molecules of water and 
the other half a molecule. Numerous double chlorides of nickel and 
other metals are known. The bromide and iodide of nickel resemble 
the chloride and are prepared in a similar fashion. 

Several sulphides of the element have been obtained. A sub- 
sulphide, Ni 2 S(?), results when the sulphate is heated with sulphur 
or when the precipitated monosulphide is heated in a current of 
hydrogen. It forms a light yellow amorphous mass which is almost 
insoluble in acids. The monosulphide, NiS, is obtained by heating 
nickel with sulphur, by heating the monoxide with sulphuretted 
hydrogen to a red heat, and by heating potassium sulphide with 
nickel chloride to 160-180 C. When prepared by dry methods it is 
an exceedingly stable, yellowish, somewhat crystalline mass. When 
prepared by the precipitation of nickel salts with alkaline sulphide 
in neutral solution it is a greyish black amorphous compound which 
readily oxidizes in moist air, forming a basic nickel sulphate. The 
freshly precipitated sulphide is soluble in sulphurous acid and some- 
what soluble in hydrochloric acid and yellow ammonium sulphide 
(see H. Baubigny, Compies rendus, 1882, 94, pp. 961, 1183; 95, p. 
34). Nickel sulphate, NiSCh, is obtained anhydrous as a yellow 
powder when any of its hydrates are heated. When heated with 
carbon it is reduced to the metal. It forms hydrates containing one, 
two, five, six and seven molecules of water. The heptahydrate is 
obtained by dissolving the metal or its oxide, hydroxide or carbonate 
in dilute sulphuric acid (preferably in the presence of a small quantity 
of nitric acid), and allowing the solution to crystallize between 15 
and 20 C. It crystallizes in emerald-green rhombic prisms and is 
moderately soluble in water. It effloresces gradually on exposure to 
air and passes into the hexahydrate. It loses four molecules of water 
of crystallization when heated to 100 C. and becomes anhydrous at 
about 300 C. The hexahydrate is dimorphous, a tetragonal form 
being obtained by crystallization of a solution of the heptahydrate 
between 20 and 30 C., anda monoclinic form between 50 and 70 C. 
Nickel sulphate combines with many metallic sulphates to form 
double salts, and also forms addition compounds with ammonia 
aniline and hydroxylamine. The nitrate, Ni(NOj)j.6H2O, is obtained 
by dissolving the metal in dilute nitric acid and concentrating the 
solution between 40 and 50 C. It crystallizes in green prisms which 
deliquesce rapidly on exposure to moist air. 

Nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, is obtained as a colourless mobile liquid 
by passing carbon monoxide over reduced nickel at a temperature 
01 about 60 C. (L. Mond, Langer and Quincke, Jour. Chem. Soc., 
l8 9. 57. P- 749)- It boils at 43 C. (751 mm.), and sets at -25 C. 
to a mass of crystalline needles. It is readily soluble in hydrocarbon 
solvents, in chloroform and in alcohol. Its critical pressure is 
30 atmospheres and its critical temperature is in the neighbourhood 
of 195 C. (J. Dewar, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 71, p. 427). It decom- 
poses with explosive violence when heated rapidly. Dewar and 
Jones (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, p. 203) have made an exhaustive 
study of its reactions, and find that it is decomposed by the halogens 
(dissolved in carbon tetrachloride) with liberation of carbon mon- 
oxide and formation of a nickel halide. Cyanogen iodide and 
iodine mono- and tri-chloride effect similar decompositions with 
simultaneous liberation of iodine; sulphuric acid reacts slowly, 
forming nickel sulphate and liberating hydrogen and carbon mon- 
oxide. Hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids are without action; 
hydriodic acid only reacts slowly. With aromatic hydrocarbons in 
the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, in the cold, there is 
a large evolution of hydrochloric acid gas, and an aldehyde is formed ; 
at loo C., on the other hand, anthracene derivatives are produced. 
Thus by using benzene, benzaldehyde and anthracene are obtained. 
Dewar and Jones suggest that in the latter reaction it is the 



metallic nickel which is probably the reducing agent effecting the 
change, since it is only dissolved in any quantity when the anthracene 
hydrocarbon is produced. When mesitylene is used, the reaction 
does not proceed beyond the aldehyde stage since hydrocarbon 
formation is prevented by the presence of a methyl group in the 
ortho-position to the -CHO group. Acids and alkalis are in general 
without action on nickel carbonyl. The vapour of nickel carbonyl 
burns with a luminous flame, a cold surface depressed in the flame 
being covered with a black deposit of nickel. It is an extremely 
powerful poison. Mond and his assistants have discovered several 
other carbonyls. For example cobalt gives Co(CO)4, as orange 
crystals which melt at 51, decomposing at a higher temperature, 
giving Co(CO)j and CO at 60; Co(CO)j forms jet black crystals. 
For iron carbonyls see IRON; also L. Mond, H. Hirtz and M. D. 
Cowap, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1910, 97, p. 798. Nickel carbonate, NiCOt, 
is obtained in the anhydrous state by heating nickel chloride with 
calcium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150 C. (H. de Senarmont, Ann. 
Chim. Phys., 1850 [3], 30, 138). It crystallizes in microscopic rhombo- 
hedra insoluble in cold acids. By precipitation of nickel salts with 
solutions of the alkaline carbonates, basic carbonates of variable 
composition are obtained. 

Numerous determinations of the atomic weight of nickel have been 
published, the values obtained varying from 58-0 to approximately 
59-5. The more recent work of T. W. Richards and Cushman (Chem. 
News, 1899, 79, 163, 174, 185) gives for the atomic weight of the 
metal the values 58-69 and 58-70. 

NICKNAME, a name given to a person in addition to his 
personal names, Christian and surname, either as a playful or 
familiar form of address or as a mark of ridicule, contempt or 
hatred. The Middle English form of the word, nekename, shows 
that it is a corruption of " an ekename " (i.e. " added " name; 
eke, earlier eche, from the root seen in Lat. augere, Gr. av^avftv), 
and is therefore equivalent to the Lat. agnomen. 

There is an interesting list of national nicknames m*Notes and 
Queries, gth series, 4, 212-214. 

NICOBAR ISLANDS, a British group of twelve inhabited and 
seven uninhabited islands in the Bay of Bengal, between Sumatra 
and the Andaman Islands, to which latter they are administra- 
tively appended. They have an aggregate area of about 635 
sq. m., Great Nicobar (Lodng), the largest and southernmost 
of any size, covering 333 sq. m. Six others range in area from 
about 20 sq. m. to 62 sq. m.; the rest are mere islets. A careful 
census of the natives, taken by Mr E. H. Man in 1901, gave a 
total population of some 6700, at about which figure the estimates 
of the number of inhabitants have always stood. Car Nicobar 
(Ptt), the most northerly island, with an area of 49 sq. m., was 
by far the most densely populated, and had 3500 inhabitants, 
Great Nicobar containing only 450. The marine surveys of 
these islands are still meagre and unsatisfactory, but the whole 
of the Nicobars and outlying islands were surveyed topographi- 
cally by the Indian Survey Department in 1886-1887, when a 
number of maps on the scale of 2 in. to the mile were produced, 
giving an accurate coast-line. Some of the islands have mere 
flat, coral-covered surfaces; others, again, are hilly, the Great 
Nicobar rising to 2105 ft. On that island there are considerable 
and beautiful streams, but the others generally are badly off 
for fresh surface water. There is one good harbour, a magnificent 
land-locked shelter called Nancowry Harbour, formed by the 
islands of Camorta and Nancowry (both known to natives as 
Nankauri). 

Geology. The Nicobars form part of a great submarine chain, of 
which the Andamans are a continuation. Elaborate geological 
reports were issued by a Danish scientific expedition in l846*andan 
Austrian expedition in 1858. Dr Rink of the former found no trace 
of true volcanic rocks, though the chain as a whole is known for its 
volcanic activity, but features were not wanting to indicate con- 
siderable upheavals in the most recent periods. He considered that 
the islands belonged to the Tertiary age. Von Hochstetter of the 
Austrian expedition classified the most important formations thus: 
eruptive, serpentine and gabbro; marine deposits, probably late 
Tertiary, consisting of sandstones, slates, clay, marls, and plastic 
clay; recent corals. He considered the whole group connected 
geologically with the great islands of the Malay Archipelago farther 
south. The vexed question of the presence of coal and tin in the 
Nicobars has so far received no decided scientific support. The white 
clay marls of Camorta and Nancowry have become famous as being 
true polycistinan marls like those of Barbados. Earthquakes of 
great violence were recorded in 1847 and 1881 (with tidal wave), and 
mild shocks were experienced in December 1899. 

Meteorology. It has always been held to be important to main- 
tain a meteorological station on the Nicobars, for the purpose of 



NICOL, J. NICOL, W. 



66 1 



supplementing the information obtained from the Andamans regard- 
ing cyclones in the Bay of Bengal. From 1869 to 1888 an observatory 
was properly maintained in Nancowry harbour, but after the latter 
year observations were recorded only in a more or less desultory way 
until 1897, when the station was removed to Mus in Car Nicobar. 
The climate is unhealthy for Europeans. The islands are exposed 
to both monsoons, and smooth weather is only experienced from 
February to April, and in October. Rain falls throughout the year, 
generally in sharp, iieavy showers. During the five years ending 
1888 the annual rainfall varied from 91 in. to 133 in., and the number 
of wet days per annum from 148 to 222. The highest temperature in 
the shade was 98-2 F., and the lowest 64 F. 

Flora and Fauna. Although the vegetation of the Nicobars has 
received much desultory attention from scientific observers, it has 
not been subjected to a systematic examination by the Indian Forest 
Department like that of the Andamans, and indeed the forests are 
quite inferior in economic value to those of the more northerly 
group; besides fruit trees such as the coco-nut (Cocos nucifera), 
the betel-nut (Areca catechu), and the mellori (Pandanus leeram) a 
thatching palm (Nipa fruticans) and various timber trees have some 
commercial value, but only one timber tree (Myristica irya )would be 
considered first -class in the Andamans. The palms of the Nicobars 
are, however, exceedingly graceful. Instances of the introduction 
of foreign economic plants are frequently mentioned in the old 
missionary records, and nowadays a number of familiar Asiatic 
fruit-trees are carefully and successfully cultivated. As with the 
geology and the flora, certain phases of the fauna of the islands 
have been extensively reported. The mammals are not numerous. 
In the southernmost islands are a small monkey, rats and mice, tree- 
shrews (Cladobates nic.), bats, and flying-foxes, but it is doubtful 
if the " wild " pig is indigenous; cattle, when introduced and left, 
have speedily become " wild." There are many kinds of birds, 
notably the megapod (Megapodius nic.), the edible-nest-building 
swift (Collocalia mdifica), the hackled and pied pigeons (Calaenas 
nic. and Carppphaga tricolor), a paroquet (Palaeornis caniceps) and 
an oriole (Oriolus macrourus). Fowls, snipe and teal thrive after 
importation or migration. Reptiles snakes, lizards and chame- 
leons, crocodiles, turtles and an enormous variant of the edible 
Indian crab are numerous; butterflies and insects, the latter very 
troublesome, have not yet been systematically collected. The fresh- 
water fish are reported to be of the types found in Sumatra. 

Natives. The Nicobarese may be best described as a Far 
Eastern race, having generally the characteristics of the less 
civilized tribes of the Malay Peninsula and the south-eastern 
portion of the Asiatic continent, and speaking varieties of the 
Mon-Annam group of languages, though the several dialects 
that prevail are mutually unintelligible. Their figure is not 
graceful, and, owing to their habit of dilating the lips by betel- 
chewing, the adults of both sexes are often repulsive in appear- 
ance. Though short according to the standard of whites (average 
height, man, 5 ft. 3! in.; woman, 5 ft.), the Nicobarese are a fine, 
well-developed race, and live to seventy or eighty years of age. 
Their mental capacity is considerable, though there is a great 
difference between the sluggish inhabitant of Great Nicobar and 
the keen trader of Car Nicobar. The religion is an undisguised 
animism, and all their frequent and elaborate ceremonies and 
festivals are aimed at exorcising and scaring spirits. Though 
for a long time they were callous wreckers and pirates, and cruel, 
and though they show great want of feeling in the " devil 
murders " ceremonial murders of one of themselves for grave 
offences against the community, which are now being gradually 
put down still on the whole the Nicobarese are a quiet, inoffen- 
sive people, friendly to each other, and not quarrelsome, and by 
inclination friendly and not dangerous to foreigners. The 
old charge of cannibalism may be generally said to be quite 
untrue. Tribes can hardly be distinguished, but there are dis- 
tinctions, chiefly territorial. All the differences observed in the 
several kinds of Nicobarese may with some confidence be referred 
to habitat and the physical difficulties of communication. Such 
government as there is, is by the village; but the village chiefs 
have not usually much power, though such authority as they 
have has always been maintained by the foreign Powers who have 
possessed the islands. The clothing, when not a caricature of 
European dress, is of the scantiest, and the waggling tags in 
which the loin-cloths are tied behind early gave rise to fanciful 
stories that the inhabitants were naked and tailed. The houses 
are good, and often of considerable size. The natives are skilful 
with their lands, and though they never cultivate cereals, exercise 
some care and knowledge over the coco-nut and tobacco, and 
have had much success with the foreign fruits and vegetables 



introduced by the missionaries. The staple article of trade has 
always been the ubiquitous coco-nut, of which it is computed 
that 15 million are produced annually, 10 million being taken by 
the people, and 5 million exported about equally from Car 
Nicobar and the rest of the islands. The usual cheap European 
goods are imported, the foreign trade being carried on with the 
native traders of the neighbouring Asiatic countries. There is 
an old-established internal trade, chiefly between the older islands 
and Chowra, for pots (which are only made there) and racing 
and other canoes. 

History. The situation of the Nicobars along the line of a very 
ancient trade route has caused them to be reported by traders 
and seafarers through all historical times. In the lyth century 
the islands began to attract the attention of missionaries. At 
various times France, Denmark, Austria and Great Britain all 
had more or less shadowy rights to the islands, the Danes being 
the most persistent in their efforts to occupy the group, until in 
1869 they relinquished their claims in favour of the British, who 
at once began to put down the piracies of the islanders, and 
established a penal settlement, numbering in all about 350 
persons, in Nancowry harbour. The health of the convicts was 
always bad, though it improved with length of residence and 
the adoption of better sanitary measures; and an attempt to 
found a Chinese colony having failed in 1884 through mis- 
management, the settlement was withdrawn in 1888. There are 
native agencies at Nancowry harbour and on Car Nicobar, both 
of which places are gazetted ports. At the latter is a Church of 
England mission station under a native Indian catechist attached 
to the diocese of Rangoon. 

AUTHORITIES. E. H. Man, Dictionary of the Central Nicobarese 
Language (London, 1889); F. Maurer, Die Nikobaren (Berlin, 1867); 
Dr Svoooda, Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels (Leiden, 1893); 
F. A. De Roepstorff, Dictionary of the Nancowry Dialect (Calcutta, 
1884); Vocabulary of Dialects in the Nicobar and Andaman Islands 
(2nd ed., Calcutta, 1875) ; Prevost and Heing, Report on Preliminary 
Tour through the Nicobar Islands (Government, Rangoon, 1897); 
J. B. Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars (London, 1902); A. 
Alcock, A Naturalist in the Indian Seas (London, 1902). (R. C. T.) 

NICOL, JAMES (1810-1879), Scottish geologist, was born at 
Traquair, near Innerleithen, in Peeblesshire, on the I2th of 
August 1810. His father, the Rev. James Nicol (1769-1819), 
was minister of Traquair, and acquired some celebrity as a 
poet. Educated at Edinburgh University (1825), James Nicol 
attended the lectures of Jameson, and thereby gained a keen 
interest in geology and mineralogy; and he pursued their study 
in the universities of Bonn and Berlin. After returning home 
he worked zealously at the local geology and obtained prizes 
from the Highland Society for essays on the geology of Peebles- 
shire and Roxburghshire; he subsequently extended his re- 
searches over various parts of Scotland, and in 1844 published 
his able Guide to the Geology of Scotland. In 1847 he was ap- 
pointed assistant secretary to the Geological Society of London, 
in 1849 professor of geology in Queen's College, Cork, and in 
1853 professor of natural history in the University of Aberdeen, 
a post which he retained until a few months before he died, on 
the 8th of April 1879. During these years he carried out im- 
portant researches on the southern uplands of Scotland and on 
the structure of the Highlands. In the former region he gave 
the first clear account of the succession of the fossiliferous 
Lower Palaeozoic rocks (1848-1852) ; and when he came to deal 
with the still older Highland rocks he made out the position of 
the Torridon sandstone and Durness limestone and their re- 
lations to the schists and gneisses. His matured views, although 
contested by Murchison, have subsequently been substantiated 
by Professor C. Lapworth and others. 

The more important of his papers were: " On the Structure of the 
North- Western Highlands " (Quart. Journ. Ceol. Soc., 1861), and " On 
the Geological Structure of the Southern Grampians " (ib., 1863). 
He contributed the article " Mineralogy " to the ninth edition of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica. Among his other works were Manual of 
Mineralogy (1849); Elements of Mineralogy (1858, 2nd ed., 1873); 
Geological Map of Scotland (1858); and Geology and Scenery of the 
North of Scotland (1866). 

NICOL, WILLIAM (? 1768-1851), Scottish physicist, was born 
about 1768, and died at Edinburgh on the 2nd of September 



662 



NICOLAI NICOLAUS OF LYRA 



1851. Nothing is known of his early history beyond the fact 
that, after amassing a small competence as a popular lecturer 
on natural philosophy, he settled in Edinburgh to live a very 
retired life in the society of his apparatus alone. Besides the 
invention of the prism known by his name (" A method of 
increasing the divergence of the two rays in calcareous spar, 
so as to produce a single image," New Edin. Journ., 1828), he 
devoted himself chiefly to the examination of fluid-filled cavities 
in crystals, and of the microscopic structure of various kinds of 
fossil wood. His skill as a working lapidary was very great; 
and he prepared a number of lenses of garnet and other precious 
stones, which he preferred to the achromatic microscopes of 
the time. 

NICOLAI, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1733-1811), German 
author and bookseller, was born on the i8th of March 1733 at 
Berlin, where his father, Christoph Gottlieb Nicolai (d. 1752), 
was the founder of the famous Nicolaische Buchhandlung. He 
received a good education, and in 1749 went to Frankfort-on- 
Oder to learn his father's business, finding time also to become 
acquainted with English literature. In 1 7 5 2 he returned to Berlin, 
and began to take part in literary controversy by defending Milton 
against the attacks of J. C. Gottsched. His Briefe tiber den 
jetzif.cn Zustand der schonen Wissenschaften in Deutschland, pub- 
lished anonymously in 1755 and reprinted by G. EUinger in 1894, 
were directed against both Gottsched and Gottsched's Swiss 
opponents, Johann Jakob Bodmer and Johann Jakob Breitinger; 
his enthusiasm for English literature won for him the friendship 
of Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn. In association with Mendels- 
sohn he established in 1757 the Bibliothek der schonen Wissen- 
schaften, a periodical which he conducted until 1760. With 
Lessing and Mendelssohn Nicolai founded in 1759 the famous 
Briefe, die neueste Literatur betrefend; and from 1765 to 1792 
he edited the Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek. This latter period- 
ical served as the organ of the so-called " popular philosophers," 
who warred against authority in religion and against what they 
conceived to be extravagance in literature. The new move- 
ment of ideas represented by Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Kant 
and Fichte, Nicolai was incapable of understanding, and he 
made himself ridiculous by foolish misrepresentation of the aims 
of these writers. Of Nicolai's independent works, perhaps the 
only one which has some historical value is his Anekdoten von 
Friedrich II. (1788-1792). His romances are forgotten, although 
Das Leben und die Meinungen des Herrn Magister Sebaldus 
Nothanker (1773-1776), and his satire on Goethe's Werther, 
Freuden desjungen Werthers (1775), had a certain reputation in 
their day. Between 1788 and 1796 Nicolai published in 12 vols. 
a Beschreibung einer Reise. durch Deutschland und die Schweiz, 
which bears witness to the narrow conservatism of his views in 
later life. He died in Berlin on the nth of January 1811. 

Nicolai's Bildniss und Selbstbiographie was published by M. S. 
Lowe in the Bildnissejetzt lebender Berliner Gelehrter, in 1806. See 
also L. F. G. von Gockingk, F. Nicolai's Leben und literarischer 
Nachlass (1820); J. Minor, Lessings Jugendfreunde,in J. Kurschner's 
Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. Ixxii. (1883); O. Hoffmann, Herders 
Brief wechsel mil Nicolai (1887); E. Friedel, Zur Geschichte der 
Nicolaischen Buchhandlung (1891); and E. Altenkruger, F. Nicolais 
Jugendschriften (1894). 

NICOLAI, OTTO (1810-1849), German composer, was born on 
the 9th of June in Konigsberg. He studied music in Berlin and 
in 1833 became organist to the German embassy in Rome. 
There his operas Enrico II (1839) and II Templario (1840) 
were produced, besides some church music, a series of songs, and 
a number of compositions for the pianoforte. He was subse- 
quently appointed Hof Kapellmeister at the Berlin Opera House; 
and there, only two days before he died (on the nth of March 
1849), was performed his brilliant opera, The Merry Wives of 
Windsor, the work by which he is now remembered. 

NICOLAS, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS (1799-1848), English 
antiquary, fourth son of John Harris Nicolas (d. 1844), was born 
at Dartmouth on the loth of March 1799. Having served in the 
navy from 1812 to 1816, he studied law and was called to the bar 
at the Inner Temple in 1825. His work as a barrister, however, 
was confined principally to peerage cases before the House of 



Lords, and his time was mainly devoted to genealogical and his- 
torical studies. In 1831 he was made a knight of the order of 
the Guelphs, and in 1832 chancellor and knight-commander of 
the order of St Michael and St George, being advanced to the 
grade of the grand cross in 1840. He became a member of the 
council of the Society of Antiquaries in 1826, but soon began to 
criticize the management of the society's affairs, and withdrew 
in 1828. He then criticized the Record Commission, which he 
regarded as too expensive. These attacks, which brought him 
into controversy with Sir Francis Palgrave, led in 1836 to the 
appointment of a select committee to inquire into the public 
records. He was also responsible for several reforms at the 
British Museum. In 1822 Nicolas married Sarah (d. 1867), 
daughter of John Davison of Loughton, Essex, a reputed de- 
scendant of the Tudor statesman William Davison. By her he 
left two sons and six daughters. Pecuniary difficulties compelled 
him to leave England, and he died near Boulogne on the 3rd 
of August 1848. Although a sharp and eager controversialist 
Nicolas was a genial and generous man, with a great knowledge 
of genealogical questions. 

The most important of the works of Nicolas is his History of the 
Orders of Knighthood of the British Empire; of the Order of the 
Guelphs; and of Medals, Clasps, &c.,for Naval and Military Services 
(London, 1841-1842). Among his numerous other writings are, The 
Chronology of History (London, 1833); Life of William Davison 
(London, 1823); Synopsis of the Peerage of England (London, 1825); 
Life and Times of Sir Christopher Hatton (London, 1847); and an 
uncompleted History of the Royal Navy (London, 1847). He edited 
Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council of England, 1386 
1542 (London, 1834-1837), and Despatches and Letters of Lord 
Nelson (London, 1844-1846) ; wrote lives of Chaucer, Burns, Cowper, 
Thomson, Collins, Kirke White and others for Pickering's Aldine 
edition of the poets; lives of Izaak Walton and Charles Cotton for an 
edition of the Compleat Angler; and several elaborate works on 
genealogical and kindred subjects printed for private circulation only. 

NICOLAUS DAMASCENUS, Greek historian and philosopher 
of Damascus, flourished in the time of Augustus and Herod the 
Great, with both of whom he was on terms of friendship. He 
instructed Herod in rhetoric and philosophy, and had attracted 
the notice of Augustus when he accompanied his patron on a 
visit to Rome. Later, when Herod's conduct aroused the sus- 
picions of Augustus, Nicolaus was sent on a mission to bring 
about a reconciliation. He survived Herod, and it was through 
his influence that the succession was secured for Archelaus; 
but the date of his death, like that of his birth, is unknown. 
Fragments of his universal history (Toropia (catfoXiKi?) , from the 
time of the Assyrian empire to his own days, his autobiography, 
and bis life of Augustus (Bios Kcuo-apos) have been preserved, 
chiefly in the extracts of Constantino Porphyrogenitus. Nicolaus 
also wrote comedies and tragedies, paraphrased and wrote com- 
mentaries on parts of Aristotle, and was himself the author of 
philosophical treatises. 

Fragments in C. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, iii. ; 
see also F. Navet, Nikolaus von Damascus (1853), containing an 
account of his life and writings, and translation of the fragments. 

NICOLAUS OF LYRA (c. 1265-1349), French commentator, 
was born in Lire, now Vieille-Lyre, in the department of Eure, 
Normandy. He entered the Franciscan order at Verneuil about 
1300, and studied at Paris, where, becoming a doctor some time 
before 1309, he taught for many years. From 1319 he was 
provincial of his order in France, and was present in that capacity 
at the general chapter at Perouse (1321). In 1325 he was 
provincial of Burgundy, and as executor of the estate of Jeanne 
of Burgundy, widow of King Philip VI., he founded the college 
of Burgundy at Paris, where he died in the autumn of 1349, 
being buried in the chapter hall of the convent of the Cordeliers. 
Among the authentic works of Nicolaus of Lyra are: (i) two 
commentaries on the whole Bible, one (PostUla litteralis, 1322- 
1331) following the literal sense, the other (PostUla mystica 
seu moralis, 1339) following the mystic sense. There are 
numerous editions (Rome, 1471-1472; Douai, 1617; Antwerp, 
1634). (2) Tractatus de differentia nostrae translations (i.e. 
Vulgate) ab Hebraica veritate, 1333. (3) Two treatises against 
the Jews. (4) A theological treatise on the Beatific Vision, 
directed against pope John XXII. (1334), unpublished. (5) 



NICOLA YNICOLLS 



663 



Contemplalio de vita S. Francisci, a book of devotions. Nicolaus 
was above all a commentator. His exegesis, which was dominated 
by his polemics against the Jews, is characterized by a fidelity 
to the literal sense, the comparison with the Hebrew text, the 
direct use of Jewish commentators, a very independent attitude 
towards traditional interpretations, and a remarkable historical 
and critical sense. In all this he resembled Roger Bacon. His 
works, especially the Postilla litteralis, were very popular in the 
I4th and isth centuries, but produced few imitators. 

In addition to the notices in Wadding, du Mpustier, Sbaraglia and 
Fabricius, see C. Siegfried, in Archiv. f. iviszenschaftliche Erfor- 
schung des A.T., vols. i., ii. ; A. Merx, Die Prophetic des Joel und 
ihre Ausleger (1879, pp. 305-366); M. Fischer in Jahrbucher f. 
protestantische Theologie, xv. ; F. Maschkowski, in Zeitschrift f. 
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, xv. ; Neumann in Revue des etudes 
juives, vols. 26 and 27 ; H. Labrosse in Positions des theses de I'Ecole 
des Charles (1906). 

NICOLAY, the name of a French family of Vivarais which 
came rapidly into legal prominence at the end of the i $th century. 
Jean Nicolay (d. 1527), son of a bailli of Bourg Saint-Andeol, 
became councillor at the parlement of Toulouse and afterwards 
at the Grand Council, chancellor of the kingdom of Naples, 
Maitre des Requetes, and, finally, first president of the Chambre 
des Comptes of Paris ( 1 506) . This last post was filled continuously 
up to the Revolution by his descendants. Antoine Chretien 
de Nicolay (1712-1777) became marshal of France in 1775. 
His brother, Aymar Chretien Francois Michel (1721-1769), 
bishop of Verdun, was first almoner of Marie Josephe of Saxony, 
wife of the dauphin Louis (d. 1765), and her influential counsellor. 

See A. de Boislisle, Pieces justificatives pour servir a I'histoire des 
premiers presidents de la Chambre des Comptes (1873), an d Histoire de 
la maison de Nicolay (1875). 

NICOLE, PIERRE (1625-1695), one of the most distinguished 
of the French Jansenists, was the son of a provincial barrister, 
and was born at Chartres. Sent to Paris in 1642 to study 
theology, he soon entered into relations with the Jansenist 
community at Port Royal (q.v.) through his aunt, Marie des 
Anges Suireau, who was for a short time abbess of the convent. 
Some scruple of conscience forbade him to proceed to the priest- 
hood, and he remained throughout life a " clerk in minor orders," 
although a profound theological scholar. For some years he 
was a master in the " little school " for boys established at 
Port Royal, and had the honour of teaching Greek to young 
Jean Racine, the future poet. But his chief duty was to act, 
in collaboration with Antoine Arnauld, as general editor of the 
controversial literature put forth by the Jansenists. He had a 
large share in collecting the materials for Pascal's Provincial 
Letters (1656); in 1658 he translated the Letters into Latin, under 
the pseudonym of Nicholas Wendrock. In 1664 he himself 
began a series of letters, Les Imaginaires, intended to show 
that the heretical opinions commonly ascribed to the Jansenists 
really existed only in the imagination of the Jesuits. His 
letters being violently attacked by Desmaretz de Saint-Sorlin, 
an erratic minor poet who professed great devotion to the 
Jesuits, Nicole replied to him in another series of letters, Les 
Visionnaires (1666). In the course of these he observed that 
poets and dramatists were no better than " public poisoners." 
This remark stung Racine to the quick; he turned not only 
on his old master, but on all Port Royal, in a scathing reply, 
which as Boileau told him did more honour to his head 
than to his heart. About the same time Nicole became involved 
in a controversy about transubstantiation with the Huguenot 
Claude; out of this grew a massive work, La Perpetuiti de la 
foi de I'fglise catkolique touchant I'eucharistie (1669), the joint 
effort of Nicole and Antoine Arnauld. But Nicole's most 
popular production was his Essais de morale, a series of short 
discussions on practical Christianity. The first volume was 
published in 1671, and was followed at irregular intervals by 
others; altogether the series numbers fourteen volumes. In 
1679, on the renewal of the persecution of the Jansenists, Nicole 
was forced to fly to Belgium in company with Arnauld. But 
the two soon parted. Nicole was elderly and in poor health; 
the life of a fugitive was not to his taste, and he complained that 
he wanted rest. " Rest," answered Arnauld, " when you have 



eternity to rest in!" In 1683 Nicole made a rather ambiguous 
peace with the authorities, and was allowed to come back to 
Paris. There he continued his literary labours up to the last; 
he was writing a refutation of the new heresy of the Quietists, 
when death overtook him on the i6th of November 1695. 

Nicole was one of the most attractive figures of Port Royal. 
Many stories are told of his quaint absent-mindedness and unreadi- 
ness in conversation. His books are distinguished by exactly 
opposite qualities; they are neat and orderly to excess. Hence they 
were exceedingly popular with Mme de SeVign6 and readers of her 
class. No other Jansenist writer, not even Pascal, was so successful 
in putting the position of Port Royal before the world. And although 
a modern appetite quails before fourteen volumes on morality, there 
is much solid sense and practical knowledge of human nature to be 
found in the Essais de morale. Several abridgments of the work 
exist, notably a Choix des essais de morale de Nicole, ed. Silvestre de 
Saci (Paris, 1857). 

Nicole's life is told at length in the 4th volume of Sainte Beuve's 
Port-Royal. (ST. C.) 

NICOLL, ROBERT (1814-1837), Scottish poet, was born 
on the 7th of January, 1814, at the farm of Little Tullybeltane, 
in the parish of Auchtergaven, Perthshire. When Robert was 
five years old his father was reduced to poverty. He became 
a day-labourer, and was only able to give his son a very slight 
education. At sixteen the boy was apprenticed to a grocer and 
wine-merchant at Perth. In 1833 he began to contribute to 
Johnstone's Magazine (afterwards Tail's Magazine), and in 
the next year his apprenticeship was cancelled. He visited 
Edinburgh, and was kindly received there, but obtained no 
employment. He opened a circulating library at Dundee, 
but in 1836 he became editor of the Leeds Times. He held 
pronounced Radical opinions, and overtaxed his slender physical 
resources in electioneering work for Sir William Molesworth 
in the summer of 1837. He was obliged to resign his editorship, 
and died at the house of his friend William Tait, at Trinity, near 
Edinburgh, on the 7th of December 1837, in his twenty-fourth 
year. He had published a volume of Poems in 1835; and in 
1844 appeared a further volume, Poems and Lyrics, with an 
anonymous memoir of the author by Mrs C. I. Johnstone. 
The best of his lyrics are those written in the Scottish dialect. 
They are simple in feeling and expression, genuine folk-songs. 

An eloquent appreciation of his character and his poetry was 
included in Charles Kingsley's article on " Burns and his School " in 
the North British Review for November 1851. See also P. R. 
Drummond, Life of Robert Nicoll, Poet (1884). 

NICOLL, SIR WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1851- ), Scottish 
Nonconformist divine and man of letters, was born at Auchindoir, 
Aberdeenshire, on the loth of October 1851, the son of a Free 
Church minister. He graduated M.A. at Aberdeen in 1870, 
and studied for the ministry at the Free Church College there 
until 1874, when he was ordained minister of the Free Church 
at Dufftown. Three years later he moved to Kelso, and in 
1884 became editor of the Expositor. In 1886 he founded 
the British Weekly, a Nonconformist organ which obtained 
great influence over opinion in the free churches. Robertson 
Nicoll secured many writers of exceptional talent for his paper, 
to which he was himself a considerable contributor, the papers 
signed " Claudius Clear " being among those from his hand. 
He also founded and edited the Bookman (1891, &c.), and acted 
as chief literary adviser to the publishing firm of Hodder & 
Stoughton. Among his other enterprises were The Expositor's 
Bible and The Theological Educator. He edited The Expositor's 
Greek Testament (1897, &c.), and a series of Contemporary Writers 
(1894, &c.), and of Literary Lives (1904, &c.). He wrote a history 
of The Victorian Era in English Literature, and edited, with 
T. J. Wise, Literary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth Century. The 
knighthood bestowed on him among the birthday honours in 
1909 was an apt recognition of his long and able devotion to 
the " journeyman work " of literature. 

A list of his publications is included in a monograph on Dr Nicoll 
by Jane T. Stoddart (" New Century Leaders," 1903). 

NICOLLS. RICHARD (1624-1672), American colonial governor, 
was born probably at Ampthill, Bedfordshire, England, in 1624. 
He commanded a royalist troop of horse during the Civil War, 
and on the defeat of the king went into exile. Soon after the 
Restoration he became groom of the bedchamber to the duke of 



NICOLSON NICOMEDIA 



York, through whose influence he was appointed in 1664 on a 
commission with Sir Robert Carr (d. 1667), George Cartwright 
and Samuel Maverick, to conquer New Netherland from the 
Dutch and to regulate the affairs of the New England colonies 
and settle disputes among them. The expedition set sail from 
Portsmouth on the 25th of May 1664, and New Amsterdam was 
surrendered to Nicolls on the 8th of September. Under authority 
of a commission from the duke of York, Nicolls assumed the 
position of deputy-governor of New Netherland (New York) . His 
policy was vigorous but tactful, and the transition to the new 
regime was made smoothly and with due regard to the interests 
of the conquered people. They were guaranteed in the possession 
of their property rights, their laws of inheritance, and the enjoy- 
ment of religious freedom. The English system of law and 
administration was at once introduced into Long Island, Staten 
Island and Westchester, where the English element already 
predominated, but the change was made much more slowly in 
the Dutch sections. A code of laws, known as the " Duke's 
Laws," drafted by the governor with the help of his secretary, 
Matthias Nicolls 1 (c. 1630-1687), and dated the I2th of March, 
was proclaimed at Hempstead, Long Island, on the ist of March 
1665 and continued in force until 1683; the code was compiled 
from the codes of the New England colonies, and it provided for 
trial by jury, for proportional taxation on property, for the 
issuance of new patents for land and for land tenure only by 
licence from the duke. Nicolls returned to England in the summer 
of 1668 and continued in the service of the duke of York. He 
was killed in the naval battle of Southwold Bay on the 28th of 
May 1672. 

See J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York (2 vols., rev. 
ed., 1872). For the " Duke's Laws " see Laws of Colonial New York, 
i. 6-100. 

NICOLSON, WILLIAM (1655-1727), English divine and 
antiquary, was educated at Queen's College, Oxford (M.A., 1679; 
fellow, 1670-1682). After visiting Leipzig to learn German he 
was made prebendary of Carlisle in 1681, archdeacon in 1682. 
Twenty years later he was appointed bishop of the same diocese, 
where he remained until his translation to Deny in 1718. In 
1727 he was nominated archbishop of Cashel and Emly, but died 
before he could assume charge. Nicolson is remembered by the 
impulsiveness of his temperament, which led him into a good 
deal of strife as a bishop, and more happily by his zeal in collecting 
and guarding manuscripts and other official documents. For this 
purpose he had special rooms built at Deny. His chief works 
were the Historical Library (English, 1696-97-99; Scottish, 
1702; Irish, 1724; complete later editions, 1732 and 1776), 
and Leges Marchiarum or Border Laws (1705, new ed., 1747). 

NICOHACHUS, a Neo-pythagorean philosopher and mathe- 
matician, born at Gerasa in Arabia Petraea, flourished about 
A.D. 100. In his musical treatise he mentions Thrasyllus (d. 36), 
the astrologer and confidant of Tiberius, and his Arithmetic was 
translated by Apuleius, who wrote under Antoninus Pius and 
Marcus Aurelius. He is the author of two extant treatises: 
(i) 'Api0/w/Tt/ci7 eio-o.-ywy^ (Introduction to Arithmetic), a meta- 
physical account of the theory and properties of numbers, and 
the first work in which arithmetic was treated quite independently 
of geometry. It was extremely popular, was the subject of 
commentaries by lamblichus (ed. H. Pistelli, 1894) and others, 
was translated into Latin by Apuleius (according to Cassiodorus, 
the translation itself being lost) and Boetius, and used as a 
schoolbook down to the Renaissance. (2) 'EfYX fL P^ ou)V apuovtiajs 
(Manual of Harmony), complete in one book, to which are 
erroneously appended as a second book some fragments probably 
belonging to a larger treatise On Music now lost. It is the oldest 
authority on the Pythagorean theory of music. Photius (cod. 
187) also mentions a work by Nicomachus called 'Api0/?T(.Ka 

1 Matthias may have been a cousin of Richard Nicolls; his family 
were of_ Islip, Oxford; he was secretary of the province, held 
various judicial positions, and was mayor of New York City in 1672. 
Matthias's son William (1657-1723), a lawyer, was a member of the. 
New York Assembly from 1702 until his death and was speaker in 
1702-1718; he received a royal patent for what is now the town 
of Islip on Long Island. Descendants of Richard and of Matthias 
Nicolls spell the name " Nicoll." 



6to\oyoviJ.(va (The Theology of Arithmetic), written in a spirit of 
Pythagorean mysticism and Oriental superstition, and setting 
forth the application of arithmetic, or rather of the first ten 
numbers, to the origin and attributes of the gods. But the 
extracts in Photius are now generally attributed to lamblichus. 
Other works of Nicomachus were: a Life of Pythagoras and a 
Collection of Pythagorean Doctrines, the chief source of the life of 
Pythagoras and the account of his philosophy by lamblichus. 

EDITIONS. Introd. to Arith., by R. Hoche (1866); Manual of 
Harmony, by C. de Jan in Musici scriptores Graeci (1895), with 
account of Nicomachus and his works, and French translation, with 
bibliography and notes, by C. E. Ruelle (1881); Theology of Arith- 
metic, by F. Ast (1817); see W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen 
Literatur (1898); M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathe- 
matik, i. (1894) p. 400, and J. Gow, A Short History of Greek Mathe- 
matics (1884), p. 88, both of whom give summaries of the Arithmetic. 

NICOMACHUS, of Thebes, Greek painter, of the early part of 
the 4th century, was a contemporary of the greatest painters of 
Greece; Vitruvius observes that if his fame was less than theirs, it 
was the fault of fortune rather than of demerit. Pliny (xxxv. 108) 
gives a list of his works; among them a " Rape of Persephone," 
" Victory in a Quadriga," a group of Apollo and Artemis, and 
the " Mother of the Gods seated on a Lion." Pliny tells us that 
he was a very rapid worker and used but four colours (the last 
seems impossible). Plutarch mentions his paintings as possessing 
the Homeric merit of ease and absence of effort. 

NICOMEDES I., son of Zipoetes, king of Bithynia (c. 278- 
248 B.C.). He made himself master of the whole country and put 
to death his brother, who had set himself up as an independent 
ruler. He enlarged and consolidated the kingdom, founded the 
great city of Nicomedia as the capital, and fought successfully 
for some time with Antiochus of Syria. His reign seems to have 
been prosperous and uneventful; the year of his death is 
uncertain. 

Livy xxxyiii. 16; Justin xxv. 2; Memnon in C. Miiller, Frag, 
hist. Graec. iii. 535. 

NICOMEDES II., Epiphanes, king of Bithynia, 140-91 B.C., 
fourth in descent from Nicomedes I., was the son of Prusias II. 
He was so popular with the people that his father sent him to 
Rome. Here he was so much favoured by the senate that Prusias 
sent an emissary to Rome with secret orders to assassinate him. 
But the emissary revealed the plot, and persuaded the prince to 
rebel against his father. Supported by Attalus II., king of 
Pergamum, he was completely successful, and ordered his father 
to be put to death at Nicomedia. During his long reign Nico- 
medes adhered steadily to the Roman alliance, and assisted them 
against Aristonicus of Pergamum. He made himself for a time 
master of Paphlagonia, and in order to have a claim on Cappa- 
docia married Laodice (the widow of Ariarathes VI.), who had 
fled to him when Mithradates the Great endeavoured to annex 
the country. When her two sons died, Nicomedes brought 
forward an impostor as a claimant to the throne; but the plot 
was detected. The Romans refused to recognize the claim, and 
required Nicomedes to give up all pretensions to Cappadocia and 
to abandon Paphlagonia. 

Appian, Mithrad. 4-7; Strabo xiii. 624, 646; Diod. Sic. xxxii. 
20, 21 ; Justin xxxiv. 4, xxxvii. 4, xxxviii. I, 2. 

NICOMEDES III., Philopator, king of Bithynia, 91-74 B.C., 
was the son and successor of Nicomedes II. His brother Socrates, 
assisted by Mithradates, drove him out, but he was reinstated by 
the Romans (90). He was again expelled by Mithradates, who 
defeated him on the river Amneus (or Amnias) in Paphlagonia. 
This led to the first Mithradatic War, as the result of which 
Nicomedes was again restored (84). At his death he bequeathed 
his kingdom to the Romans, a legacy which subsequently brought 
about the third Mithradatic War. 

Justin xxxvii. 4, xxxviii. I, 2; Appian, Mithrad. 7, 10-20, 57, 
60; Memnon in C. Miiller, Frag. hist. Graec. iii. 541; Plutarch, 
Sulla, 22, 24; Eutropius vi. 6. 

NICOMEDIA [mod. Ismid], an ancient town at the head of the 
Gulf of Astacus, which opens on the Propontis, was built in 264 
B.C. by Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, and has ever since been one 
of the chief towns in this part of Asia Minor. It was the metro- 
polis of Bithynia under the Roman empire (see NICAEA), and 



NICOPOLIS NICOTINE 



665 



Diocletian made it the chief city of the East. Owing to its 
position at the convergence of the Asiatic roads to the new 
capital, Nicomedia retained its importance even after the 
foundation of Constantinople and its own capture by the Turks 
(1338). 

See C. Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1839); V. Cuenct, Turquie 
d'Asie (Paris, 1894). 

NICOPOLIS, or ACTIA NICOPOLIS, an ancient city of Epirus, 
founded 31 B.C. by Octavian (Augustus) in memory of his victory 
over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. The colony, composed 
of settlers from a great many of the towns of the neighbouring 
countries (Ambracia, Anactorium, Calydon, Argos Amphilo- 
chicum, Leucas, &c.), proved highly successful, and the city 
was considered the capital of southern Epirus and Acarnania, 
and obtained the right of sending five representatives to the 
Amphictyonic council. On the spot where Octavian's own tent 
had been pitched he erected a sanctuary to Neptune adorned 
with the beaks of the captured galleys; and in further cele- 
bration of his victory he instituted the so-called Actian games 
in honour of Apollo Actius. The city was restored by the 
emperor Julian, and again after the Gothic invasion by Justinian; 
but in the course of the middle ages it was supplanted by the 
town of Prevesa. The ruins of Nicopolis, now known as Palaeo- 
prevesa (Old Prevesa), lie about 3 m. north of that city, on a 
small bay of the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) at the narrowest 
part of the isthmus of the peninsula which separates the gulf 
from the Ionian Sea. Besides the acropolis, the most conspicuous 
objects are two theatres (the larger with twenty-seven rows of 
seats) and an aqueduct which brought water to the town from 
a distance of 27 m. 

Nicopolis was also the name of (i) a city in Cappadocia in the 
valley of the Lycus, founded by Pompey on the spot where he 
defeated Mithradates; (2) a city in Egypt, founded by Octavian 
24 B.C. to commemorate his final victory over Antony; and (3) a city 
in Thrace (Nikup) at the junction of the latrus with the Danube, 
founded by Trajan in memory of his victory over the Dacians. 

NICOSIA, the capital of Cyprus, situated in the north central 
part of the island. Pop. (1901) 14,752 (Moslem, 6013; Christian, 
8739). Its earliest name was Ledra, but Leucos, son of Ptolemy 
Soter (280 B.C.), is said to have restored it and changed its name 
to Leuteon, Leucotheon or Levcosia. A mile S.W. of the town 
lies the very large Bronze Age necropolis known as Hagia 
Paraskevi, which has been repeatedly explored with valuable 
results. The circuit of the city was reduced in 156 7 Bunder the 
direction of the Venetian engineer G. Savorgnano, from 9 m. 
to 3 m.; eighty churches and a number of fine houses were 
sacrificed. The new walls were given a circular shape, with 
eleven bastions and three gates. Water is supplied by two 
aqueducts. Government House, the residence of the high 
commissioner, the government offices, hospital, central prison 
and the new English church are without the walls. The fosse 
has been planted, and part of it used as an experimental garden. 
Carriage roads have been completed to Kyrenia, Kythraia, 
Famagusta, Larnaca, Limasol and Morphou. The principal 
monuments of the Lusignan period are the fine cathedral church 
of St Sophia, an edifice of French Gothic, at once solid and 
elegant (the towers were never completed); the church of St 
Catherine, an excellent example of the last years of the I4th 
century (both these are now mosques); and the church of St 
Nicolas of the English (now a grain store), built for the order of 
the Knights of St Thomas of Acre. A gateway of no great 
importance is nearly all that remains of the palace last used by 
the Venetian provueditori. It dates from the end of the isth 
century. There is a museum, with a valuable catalogue. The 
chief industries are tanning and hand weaving, both silk and 
cotton. 

NICOSIA, a city and episcopal see (since 1816) of Sicily, in the 
province of Catania, 21 m. by road N. of the railway station of 
Leonforte (which is 49 m. W. of Catania) and 42 m. W.N.W. of 
Catania direct, 2840 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 16,004. 
The town retains a thoroughly medieval appearance, with a fine 
Norman cathedral and some other interesting churches, among 
them S. Maria Maggiore, with a reredos by Antonio Gagini. 



A Lombard dialect is still spoken here, and the town is less 
modernized in every respect than any other in Sicily. The Sicel 
town of Herbita is usually placed here, but without sufficient 
reason, and the origin of Nicosia is unknown. It was destroyed 
by the Saracens and repopulated by the Normans. 

NICOTERA, GIOVANNI (1828-1894), Italian patriot and 
politician, was born at San Biagio on the gth of September 
1828. Joining the party of young Italy he was among the 
combatants at Naples in May 1848, and was at San Pancrazio 
with Garibaldi during the defence of Rome. After the fall of 
Rome he fled to Piedmont, where he organized the expedition 
to Sapri in 1857, but shortly after his arrival there he was 
defeated and severely wounded by the Bourbon troops. Con- 
demned to death, but reprieved through the intervention of 
the British minister, he remained a prisoner at Naples and at 
Favignana until 1860, when he joined Garibaldi at Palermo. 
Sent by Garibaldi to Tuscany, he attempted to invade the Papal 
States with a volunteer brigade, but his followers were disarmed 
and disbanded by Ricasoli and Cavour. In 1862 he was with 
Garibaldi at Aspromonte; in 1866 he commanded a volunteer 
brigade against Austria; in 1867 he invaded the Papal States 
from the south, but the defeat of Garibaldi at Mentana put an 
end to his enterprise. His parliamentary career dates from 1860. 
During the first ten years he engaged in violent opposition, but 
from 1870 onwards he joined in supporting the military reforms 
of Ricotti. Upon the advent of the Left in 1876, Nicotera 
became minister of the interior, and governed with remarkable 
firmness. He was obliged to resign in December 1877, when he 
joined Crispi, Cairoli, Zanardelli and Baccarini in forming the 
" pentarchy " in opposition to Depretis, but he only returned to 
power thirteen years later as minister of the interior in the 
Rudini cabinet of 1891. On this occasion he restored tne system 
of uninominal constituencies, resisted the socialist agitation, 
and pressed, though in vain, for the adoption of drastic measures 
against the false bank-notes put in circulation by the Roman 
bank. He fell with the Rudini cabinet in May 1892, and died 
at Vico Equense, near Naples, on the I3th of June 1894. 

See V. Giordano, La Vita ed i discorsi di Giovanni Nicolera (Salermo, 
1878); Mauro, Biografia di Giovanni Nicotera (Rome, 1886; German 
trans., Leipzig, 1886); and Mario, In memoria di Giovanni Nicolera 
(Florence, 1894). 

NICOTINE, CioHuNj, an alkaloid, found with small quantities 
of nicotimine, C 19 H U N 2 , nicoteine, Ci H 12 N 2 , and nicotelline, 
CioH 8 N 2 , in tobacco. The name is taken from Nicoliana, the 
tobacco plant, so called after Jean Nicot (1530-1600), French 
ambassador at Lisbon, who introduced tobacco into France in 
1560. These four alkaloids exist in combination in tobacco 
chiefly as malates and citrates. The alkaloid is obtained from 
an aqueous extract of tobacco by distillation with slaked lime, 
the distillate being acidified with oxalic acid, concentrated to a 
syrup and decomposed by potash. The free base is extracted 
by ether and fractionated in a current of hydrogen. It is a 
colourless oil, which boils at 247 C. (745 mm.), and when pure is 
almost odourless. It has a sharp burning taste, and is very 
poisonous. It is very hygroscopic, dissolves readily in water, 
and rapidly undergoes oxidation on exposure to air. The free 
alkaloid is strongly laevo-rotatory. F. Ratz (Monats., 1905, 26, 
p. 1241) obtained the value [o] D = 169-54 at 20; its salts are 
dextro-rotatory. It behaves as a di-acid as well as a di-tertiary 
base. 

On oxidation with chromic or nitric acids, or potassium per- 
manganate, it yields nicotinic acid or 0-pyridine carboxylic acid, 
C 6 HN-COH; alkaline potassium ferricyanide gives nicotyrine, 
CioHioNj, and hydrogen peroxide oxynicotine, CioHnNjO. Oxida- 
tion of its isomethylhydroxide with potassium permanganate yields 
trigonelline, C 7 H 7 NO2 (A. Pictet and P. Genequand, Ber., 1897, 30, 
p. 2117). It gives rise to various decomposition products such as 
pyridine, picoline, &c., when its vapour is passed through a red-hot 
tube. The hydrochloride on heating with hydrochloric acid gives 
methyl chloride (B. Blau, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 631). Hydriodic acid 
and phosphorus at high temperature give a dihydro-compound, 
whilst sodium and alcohol give hexa- and octo-hydro derivatives. 
Nicotine may be recognized by the addition of 'a drop of 30 % 
formaldehyde, the mixture being allowed to stand for one hour 
and the solid residue then moistened by a drop of concentrated 



666 



NICTHEROY NIDIFICATION 



sulphruic acid, when an intense rose-red colour is produced (I. 
Schindelmeiser, Pharm. Zentralhalle , 1899, 40, p. 74)- 

The constitution of nicotine was established by A. Pinner (see 
papers in the Berichle, 1891 to 1895). With bromine in acetic acid 
solution at ordinary temperature, nicotine yields a perbromide, 
CioHioBr 2 N 2 OHBr 3 , which with sulphur dioxide, followed by 
potash, gives dibromcotinine, CioHioBr 2 N 2 O, from which cotinine, 
CuHijNtO, is obtained by distillation over zinc dust. By heating 
nicotine with bromine in hydrobromic acid solution for some hours 
at 100 C., dibromticonine hydrobromide, CioH e N 2 Br 2 O2-HBr, 
results. Dibromcotinine on hydrolysis yields oxalic acid, methy- 
lamine and /3-methyl pyridyl ketone: CioHioBr 2 N 2 O-|-3H 2 O+O = 
H 2 C 2 O4-l-CH3NH 2 +C 6 H 4 N-CqCH3+2HBr; whilst dibromticonine 
yields methylamine, malonic acid and nicotinic acid : CioHgBr 2 N 2 O 2 + 
4H 2 O = CH 3 NH 2 +CH 2 (CO 2 H) 2 +C 6 H 4 N-CO 2 H+2HBr, or if heated 
with zinc and caustic potash, methylamine and pyridyl-/37-dioxy- 
butyric acid. Thus the groupings 



(T 

N 



C 



C-C >N-CH 8 and C-C-C 



exist in the molecule, and the alkaloid is to be represented as 
-pyridyl-N-methyl-pyrollidine. 

This result has been confirmed by its synthesis by A. Pictet and 
P. Crepieux (Comptes rendus, 1903, 137, p. 860) and Pictet and 
Rotschy (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1225) : /S-aminppyridine is converted 
into its mucate, which by dry distillation gives N-/3-pyridylpyrrol. 
By passing the vapour of this compound through a red-hot tube, 
it yields the isomeric o/3-pyridylpyrrol, the potassium salt of which 
with methyl iodide gives a substance methylated both in the pyridine 
and pyrrol nuclei. By distillation over lime, the methyl group is 
removed from the pyridine ring, and the resulting a-pyridyl-N- 
methylpyrrol gives i-nicotine on reduction. This base is resolved into 
its active components by <i-tartaric acid, J-nicotine-d-tartrate 
crystallizing out first. The natural (laevo) base is twice as toxic as 
the dextro. The following formulae are important : 

A N CH S\- C =CH f\- CH-CH 2 

U CH CH U N'H CH U N CH 2 

N \/ H \/ N -\S 
CH CH H 3 C CH 2 

N-/3-Pyridylpyrrol, o/3-pyridylpyrrol, nicotine. 

Acetyl and benzoyl derivatives of nicotine on hydrolysis do not 
yield nicotine, but an isomeric, inactive oily liquid (metanicotine). 
It is a secondary base, and boils at 275-278 C. 

Nicotimine is a colourless liquid which boils at 250 "-255 C. Its 
aqueous solution is alkaline. Nicoteine is a liquid which boils at 
267 C. It is separated from the other alkaloids of the group by 
distilling off the nicotine and nicotimine in steam and then fraction- 
ating the residue. It is soluble in water and is very poisonous. 
Nicotelline crystallizes in needles which melt at 147 C. and is readily 
soluble in hot water. 

NICTHEROY, or NITEROY, a city of Brazil and capital of 
the state of Rio de Janeiro, on the E. shore of the Bay of Rio 
de Janeiro, opposite the city of that name. Pop. (1890) 34,269, 
(1900 estimate) 35,000. A railway connects the city with 
the interior the old Cantagallo line, now a part of the Leo- 
poldina system, a branch of which runs north-eastward to 
Macah6, on the coast, and another northward from Nova 
Friburgo to a junction with the railway lines of Minas Geraes. 
Nictheroy is practically a residential suburb of Rio de Janeiro. 
It occupies, in great part, the low alluvial plain that skirts the 
shores of the bay and fills the valleys between numerous low 
wooded hills. The site is shut off from the sea coast by a range 
of high rugged mountains. The shore line of the bay is broken 
by large, deeply indented bays (that of Jurujuba being nearly 
surrounded by wooded hills), shallow curves and sharp pro- 
montories. Within these bays are beaches of white sand, called 
praias, such as the Praia da Icarahy, Praia das Flechas and 
Praia Grande, upon which face low tile-covered residences 
surrounded with gardens. The city consists of a number of 
these partially separated districts Praia Grande, Sao Domingos, 
Icarahy, Jurujuba, Santa Rosa, Sao Lourenco, Ponta d'Areia 
and Barreto all together covering 8 or 9 m. of the shore. 
An electric street railway connects all the outlying districts 
with the ferry stations of Praia Grande and Sao Domingos. 
The city is characteristically Portuguese in the construc- 
tion and style of its buildings low, heavy walls of broken 
stone and mortar, plastered and coloured outside, with an 
occasional facing of glazed Lisbon tiles, and covered with 
red tiles. Among the public buildings are several churches 



and hospitals (including the Jurujuba yellow-fever hospital 
and the Barreto isolation hospital), the government palace, 
a municipal theatre and a large Salesian college situated in the 
suburbs of Santa Rosa on an eminence overlooking the lower 
bay. Several large islands fill the upper bay near the eastern 
shore; some are used as coal deposits for the great steamship 
companies, and one (Flores) is used as an immigrants' depot. 
There is a small, rocky and picturesque island nearer the 
harbour entrance, which is crowned by a small chapel, dedicated 
to Nossa Senhora da Boa Viagem. Manufactures include 
cotton and woollen fabrics, tobacco, spirits, soap and tiles. 

The first settlement on the east side of the Bay of Rio de 
Janeiro dates from 1671, when a chapel was erected at Praia 
Grande, in the vicinity of an Indian village. The settlement 
did not become a village until 1819, when it was named Villa 
Real da Praia Grande. In 1834 the city and municipal district 
of Rio de Janeiro was separated from the province, and Praia 
Grande became the capital of the latter in the following year. 
In 1836 it was raised to the dignity of a city and received the 
appropriate name of Nictheroy, from the Indian name Nyteroi, 
" hidden water." In the naval revolt of 1893-94 the older 
districts of the city suffered much damage from desultory 
bombardments, but the insurgents were too few to take possession. 
Soon afterwards the seat of government was removed to 
Petropolis, where it remained until 1903, when Nictheroy 
again became the capital of the state. 

NIDIFICATION (from Lat. nidus), the process of making a 
nest (<?..). Nidification is with most birds the beginning of the 
breeding season, but with many it is a labour that is scamped 
if not shirked. Some of the auk tribe place their single egg on 
a bare ledge of rock, where its peculiar conical shape is but 
a precarious safeguard when rocked by the wind or stirred 
by the thronging crowd of its parents' fellows. The stone-curlew 
and the goatsucker deposit their eggs without the slightest 
preparation of the soil on which they rest; yet this is not done 
at haphazard, for no birds can be more constant in selecting, 
almost to an inch, the very same spot which year after year 
they choose for their procreant cradle. In marked contrast 
to such artless care stand the wonderful structures which others, 
such as the tailor-bird, the bottle-titmouse or the fantail-warbler, 
build for the comfort or safety of their young. But every variety 
of disposition may be found in the class. The apteryx seems 
to entrust its abnormally big egg to an excavation among the 
roots of a tree-fern; while a band of female ostriches scrape 
holes in the desert-sand and therein promiscuously drop their 
eggs and leave the task of incubation to the male. Some 
megapodes bury their eggs in sand, leaving them to come to 
maturity by the mere warmth of the ground, while others 
raise a huge hotbed of dead leaves wherein they deposit theirs, 
and the young are hatched without further care on the part 
of either parent. Some of the grebes and rails seem to avail 
themselves in a less degree of the heat generated by vegetable 
decay and, dragging from the bottom or sides of the waters 
they frequent fragments of aquatic plants, form of them a rude 
half-floating mass which is piled on some growing water-weed 
but these birds do not spurn the duties of maternity. 

Many of the gulls, sandpipers and plovers lay their eggs in a 
shallow pit which they hollow out in the soil, and then as incuba- 
tion proceeds add thereto a low breastwork of haulm. The 
ringed plover commonly places its eggs on shingle, which they 
so much resemble in colour, but when breeding on grassy uplands 
it paves the nest-hole with small stones. Pigeons mostly make 
an artless platform of sticks so loosely laid together that their 
pearly treasures maybe perceived from beneath by the inquisitive 
observer. The magpie, as though self-conscious that its own 
thieving habits may be imitated by its neighbours, surrounds 
its nest with a hedge of thorns. Very many birds of almost 
every group bore holes in some sandy cliff, and at the end of 
their tunnel deposit their eggs with or without bedding. Such 
bedding, too, is very various in character; thus, while the 
sheldduck and the sand-martin supply the softest of materials 
the one of down from her own body, the other of feathers collected 



NIDIFICATION 



667 



by dint of diligent search the kingfisher forms a couch of the 
undigested spiny fish bones which she ejects in pellets from her 
own stomach. Other birds, such as the woodpeckers, hew holes 
in living trees, even when the timber is of considerable hardness, 
and therein establish their nursery. Some of the swifts secrete 
from their salivary glands a fluid which rapidly hardens as it 
dries on exposure to the air into a substance resembling isinglass, 
and thus furnish the " edible birds' nests " that are the delight 
of Chinese epicures. In the architecture of nearly all the 
passerine birds, too, some salivary secretion seems to play an 
important part. By its aid they are enabled to moisten and 
bend the otherwise refractory twigs and straws, and glue them 
to their place. Spiders' webs also are employed with great 
advantage for the purpose last mentioned, but perhaps chiefly 
to attach fragments of moss and lichen so as to render the whole 
structure less obvious to the eye of the spoiler. The tailor-bird 
deliberately spins a thread of cotton and therewith stitches 
together the edges of a pair of leaves to make a receptacle 
for its nest. Beautiful, too, is the felt fabricated of fur or hairs 
by the various species of titmouse, while many birds ingeniously 
weave into a compact mass both animal and vegetable fibres, 
forming an admirable non-conducting medium which guards 
the eggs from the extremes of temperature outside. Such a 
structure may be open and cup-shaped, supported from below 
as that of the chaffinch and goldfinch, domed like that of the 
wren and bottle-titmouse, slung hammock-wise as in the case 
of the golden-crested wren and the orioles, or suspended by a 
single cord as with certain grosbeaks and humming-birds. 

Certain warblers (Aedon and Thamnobia) invariably lay a 
piece of snake's slough in their nests to repel, it has been 
suggested, marauding lizards who may thereby fear the neigh- 
bourhood of a deadly enemy. The clay-built edifices of the 
swallow and martin are known to everybody, and the nuthatch 
plasters up the gaping mouth of its nest-hole till only a postern 
large enough for entrance and exit, but easy of defence, is left. 
In South America the oven-birds (Furnariidae) construct on the 
branches of trees globular ovens, so to speak, of mud, wherein 
the eggs are laid and the young hatched. The flamingo erects 
in the marshes it frequents a mound of earth sometimes 2 ft. in 
height, with a cavity atop. The females of the hornbills submit 
to incarceration during this interesting period, the males im- 
muring them by a barrier of mud, leaving only a small window to 
admit air and food. 

But though in a general way the dictates of hereditary instinct 
are rigidly observed by birds, in many species a remarkable 
degree of elasticity is exhibited, or the rule of habit is rudely 
broken. Thus the falcon, whose ordinary eyry is on the beetling 
cliff, will for the convenience of procuring prey condescend to 
lay its eggs on the ground in a marsh, or appropriate the nest 
of some other bird in a tree. The golden eagle, too, remarkably 
adapts itself to circumstances, now rearing its young on a 
precipitous ledge, now on the arm of an ancient monarch of the 
forest and again on a treeless plain, making a humble home 
amid grass and herbage. Herons will breed according to circum- 
stances in an open fen, on sea-banks or (as is most usual) on lofty 
trees. Such changes are easy to understand. The instinct of 
finding food for the family is predominant, and where most food 
is there will the feeders be gathered together. This explains, in 
all likelihood, the associated bands of ospreys or fish-hawks, 
which in North America breed (or used to breed) in large 
companies where sustenance is plentiful, though in the Old 
World the same species brooks not the society of aught but its 
mate. Birds there are of eminently social predilections. In 
Europe, apart from sea-fowls whose congregations are universal 
and known to all only the heron, the fieldfare and the rook 
habitually flock during the breeding season; but in other parts 
of the world many birds unite in company at that time, and in 
none possibly is this habit so strongly developed as in the anis 
of the neotropical region, the republican swallow of North 
America and the sociable grosbeak of South Africa, which last 
joins nest to nest until the tree is said to break down under the 
accumulated weight of the common edifice. 



In the strongest contrast to these amiable qualities is the 
parasitic nature of the cuckoos of the Old World and the cow- 
birds of the New. The egg of the parasite is introduced into the 
nest of the dupe, and after the necessary incubation by the fond 
fool of a foster-mother the interloper successfully counterfeits 
the heirs, who perish miserably, victims of his superior strength. 
The whole process has been often watched, but the reflective 
naturalist will pause to ask how such a state of things came 
about, and there is not much to satisfy his inquiry. Certain it 
is that some birds whether by mistake or stupidity do not 
infrequently lay their eggs in the nests of others. It is within the 
knowledge of many that pheasants' eggs and partridges' eggs 
are often laid in the same nest, and gulls' eggs have been found 
in the nests of eider-ducks and vice versa; a redstart and a pied 
flycatcher will lay their eggs in the same convenient hole the 
forest being rather deficient in such accommodation; an owl 
and a duck will resort to the same nest-box, set up by a scheming 
woodsman for his own advantage; and the starling, which 
constantly dispossesses the green woodpecker, sometimes dis- 
covers that the rightful heir of the domicile has to be brought 
up by the intruding tenant. In all such cases it is not possible 
to say which species is so constituted as to obtain the mastery, 
but it is not difficult to conceive that in the course of ages that 
which was driven from its home might thrive through the foster- 
ing of its young by the invader, and thus the abandonment of 
domestic habits and duties might become a direct gain to the 
evicted householder. (A. N.) 

Nests and Coloration. The correlation between nests and the 
coloration of the birds has been investigated by A. R. Wallace. 
Accordingly he divides birds into two main groups, first those in 
which the sexes are alike and of conspicuous or showy colours, 
and which nidificate in a covered site; secondly, those in which the 
males are showy and the females sombre, and which use open sites 
for their nests. The many exceptions to these generalizations caused 
J. A. Allen (Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1878) to write an adverse criticism. 
C. Dixon (H. Seebohm's Hist. Brit. Birds, ii., 1884, introduction) 
has reviewed the question from Wallace's point of view. He 
established the following categories. 

1. Birds in which the plumage of the male is bright and conspicuous 
in colour, and that of the female dull and sombre, and which nidificate 
in open sites. In these very common cases, the female alone in- 
cubates, and obviously derives protection from its inconspicuous 
plumage. 

2. Birds in which the plumage of both sexes is showy or brilliant 
in colour, and which nidificate in open nests. This group forms one 
of those exceptions which at first sight appear seriously to affect the 
validity of Wallace's theory. In most of the cases, however, the 
birds, as, for instance, crows, gulls, herons, are either well able to 
defend themselves and their nests or, as, for instance, the sandpipers, 
they seek safety for themselves in flight, relying upon the protective 
tints of their eggs or young. 

3. Birds in which the male ts less brilliant than the female, and 
which nidificate in open nests. Such birds are exceedingly few, e.g. 
the Phalaropes, the common cassowary, the emu, a carrion hawk 
(Milvago leucurus) from the Falkland Islands, an Australian tree- 
creeper (Climacleris erythrops) and an Australian goatsucker (Eury- 
stopodus albigtdaris). In all these cases the male performs the duty 
of incubation. The male tinamous do the same, although they do 
not differ from their mates, but the conspicuously coloured male 
ostrich takes this duty upon himself during the night. 

4. Birds in which both sexes are brightly coloured, and which rear 
their young in holes or covered nests. For instance, the gaudy 
coloured rollers, bee-eaters, kingfishers, the hoopoe, hornbills. 
toucans, parrots, tits, the sheldrake and many others. 

5. Birds in which both sexes are dull in colour, and which build 
covered nests from motives of safety other than concealment. For 
example, the swifts (Cypselus), the sand-martin (Cotyle riparia), 
wrens, dippers and owls. 

6 Birds in which the female is duller in colour than the male, 
and which nidificate in covered nests; e.g. the redstart (Ruticilla 
phoenicura), the pied flycatcher (Muscicapa atricapilla), rock- 
thrushes (Monticola), chats (Saxicola,) and robin-chats (Thamnobia), 
and birds of the genus Malwus. In some of these cases the showy 
male bird assists in incubation, the kind of nest allowing him to do 
so with safety. 

Similar difficulties beset the generalizations concerning the 
correlation of the colour ot the eggs and the exposed or hidden 
condition of the nest. The eggs of most birds which breed in holes, 
or even in covered nests, are white, but the number of exceptions 
is so great that no general rule can be laid down to this effect. Con- 
versely the number of birds which lay purely white eggs in open 
nests, e.g. pigeons, is also large. The eggs of owls are always white. 



668 



NIEBUHR, B. G. 



whether they be deposited in holes on the bare ground or in open 
nests in a tree. The eggs of the goshawk are white, but those of 
its small relation, the sparrowhawk, are always blotched, the nest of 
both being built precisely in the same kind of position, &c. In 
regard to the almost countless cases of spotted eggs in holes or covered 
nests, of which so many groups of birds furnish examples either 
wholly or in part, it has been suggested that the species in question 
has taken to hiding its eggs in times comparatively recent, and has 
not yet got rid of the ancestral habit of secreting and despositing 
pigment. 

Length of Time of Incubation. Most of the smaller Passeres seem 
to hatch their young in from 13-15 days. The shortest period, only 
10 days, is recorded of the small Zosterops coerukscens ; the largest, 
amounting to about 8 weeks, is that of some of the larger Ratitae, 
penguins and the condor. The best list, comprising birds of most 
groups, is that by W. Evans (Ibis, 1891, pp. 52-93; and 1892, pp. 
55-58). Speaking broadly, the largest birds lay the largest eggs and 
require the longest time for incubation, but there are very many 
exceptions, and only birds of the same group can be compared with 
each other. The domestic fowl takes 21 days, but the pheasant, 
though so very nearly allied, takes 2 or 3 days longer, and even the 
small partridge requires 24 days. The mallard takes 26, the domestic 
duck 27, the musk duck 35 days, like most of the swans. The cuckoo, 
with 13 to 14 days, seems to have adapted itself to the short period 
of its foster parents. 

The whole question still affords ample opportunities of experimental 
investigation and comparison. The condition of the newly hatched 
birds also varies extremely. The Nidifugae are born with their eyes 
open, are thinly clothed with neossoptiles of simple structure, leave 
the nest on the first day and feed themselves. The Nidicolae are 
born blind, remain a long time in the nest and have to be fed by their 
parents. Taken as a whole, the Nidifugae comprise most of the 
phylogenetically older groups; but many of these may include some 
closely allied members which have reached the developmental level 
of the Nidicolae: for instance, some Alcidae, the pigeons, Sphenisci, 
Tubinares, Ciconiae. For detail see BIRDS: Classification. While in 
the first category the sense organs, tegumentary and locomotory 
organs are far advanced, these are retarded in the Nidicolae, the 
development of these structures being shifted on to the postembryonic 
period. Yet the length of the incubation is by no means always 
longer in the Nidifugae, when compared with equal-sized Nidicolae. 

For further information the reader may be referred to: A. R. 
Wallace, " A Theory of Birds' Nests," Journ. of Travel and Nat. 
Hist., 1868, p. 73, reprinted in his Contributions to the Theory of 
Nqtural Selection (London, 1870); A. McAldpwie, " Observations on 
the Development and the Decay of the Pigment Layer in Birds' 
Eggs," Journ. An. Phys. xx., 1886, pp. 225-237; W. Hewitson, 
Coloured Illustrations of the Eggs of British Birds (3rd ed., London, 
1856); T. M. Brewer, North American Oology (410, Washington, 
1857); A. Lefevre, Atlas des asufs des oiseaux d'Europe (8vo, Paris, 
1845); F. W. Baedeker, Die Eier der europaischen Vogel (fol., 
Leipzig, 1863); E. Rey, Eier d. Vogel Mittel-Europa's (Gera, 1905); 
A. Newton, Ootheca Wolleyana (8vo, London, 1864-1907); and 
articles on " Eggs " and " Nidification " in Diet. Birds (London, 
1893-1896). (H. F. G.) 

NIEBUfiR, BARTHOLD GEORG (1776-1831), German states- 
man and historian, son of Karsten Niebuhr (?..), was born at 
Copenhagen on the 27th of August 1776. From the earliest age 
young Niebuhr manifested extraordinary precocity, and from 
1794 to 1796, being already a finished classical scholar and 
acquainted with several modern languages, he studied at the 
university of Kiel. After quitting the university he became 
private secretary to Count Schimmelmann, Danish minister of 
finance. But in 1798 he gave up this appointment and travelled 
in Great Britain, spending a year at Edinburgh studying agri- 
culture and physical science. In 1799 he returned to Denmark, 
where he entered the state service; in 1800 he married and 
settled at Copenhagen. In 1804 he became chief director of the 
National Bank, but in September 1806 quitted this for a similar 
appointment in Prussia. He arrived in Prussia on the eve of 
the catastrophe of Jena. He accompanied the fugitive govern- 
ment to Konigsberg, where he rendered considerable service 
in the commissariat, and was afterwards still more useful as 
commissioner of the national debt and by his opposition to ill- 
considered schemes of taxation. He was also for a short time 
Prussian minister in Holland, where he endeavoured without 
success to contract a loan. The extreme sensitiveness of his 
temperament, however, disqualified him for politics; he proved 
impracticable in his relations with Hardenberg and other ministers, 
and in 1810 retired for a time from public life, accepting the 
more congenial appointment of royal historiographer and 
professor at the university of Berlin. 



He commenced his lectures with a course on the history of 
Rome, which formed the basis of his great work Romische 
Geschichle. The first two volumes, based upon his lectures, 
were published in 1812, but attracted little attention at the time 
owing to the absorbing interest of political events. In 1813 
Niebuhr's own attention was diverted from history by the 
uprising of the German people against Napoleon; he entered 
the Landwehr and ineffectually sought admission into the 
regular army. He edited for a short time a patriotic journal, 
the Prussian Correspondent, joined the headquarters of the 
allied sovereigns, and witnessed the battle of Bautzen, and was 
subsequently employed in some minor negotiations. In 1815 he 
lost both his father and his wife. He next accepted (1816) the 
post of ambassador at Rome, and on his way thither he discovered 
in the cathedral library of Verona the long-lost Institutes of 
Gaius, afterwards edited by Savigny, to whom he communicated 
the discovery under the impression that he had found a portion 
of Ulpian. During his residence in Rome Niebuhr discovered 
and published fragments of Cicero and Livy, aided Cardinal Mai 
in his edition of Cicero De Republica, and shared in framing the 
plan of the great work on the topography of ancient Rome by 
Christian C. J. von Bunsen and Ernst Plainer (1773-1855), to 
which he contributed several chapters. He also, on a journey 
home from Italy, deciphered in a palimpsest at St Gall the frag- 
ments of Flavius Merobaudes, a Roman poet of the sth century. 
In 1823 he resigned the embassy and established himself at Bonn, 
where the remainder of his life was spent, with the exception of 
some visits to Berlin as councillor of state. He here rewrote 
and republished (1827-1828) the first two volumes of his Roman 
History, and composed a third volume, bringing the narrative 
down to the end of the First Punic War, which, with the help of 
a fragment written in 1811, was edited after his death (1832) 
by Johannes Classen (1805-1891). He also assisted in August 
Bekker's edition of the Byzantine historians, and delivered 
courses of lectures on ancient history, ethnography, geo- 
graphy, and on the French Revolution. In February 1830 his 
house was burned down, but the greater part of his books and 
manuscripts were saved. The revolution of July in the same year 
was a terrible blow to him, and filled him with the most dismal 
anticipations of the future of Europe. He died on the 2nd of 
January 1831. 

Niebuhr's Roman History counts among epoch-making histories 
both as marking an era in the study of its special subject and for 
its momentous influence on the general conception of history. 
" The main results," says Leonhard Schmitz, " arrived at by the 
inquiries of Niebuhr, such as his views of the ancient popula- 
tion of Rome, the origin of the plebs, the relation between the 
patricians and plebeians, the real nature of the ager publicus, and 
many other points of interest, have been acknowledged by all 
his successors." Other alleged discoveries, such as the con- 
struction of early Roman history out of still earlier ballads, 
have not been equally fortunate; but if every positive conclusion 
of Niebuhr's had been refuted, his claim to be considered the 
first who dealt with the ancient history of Rome in a scientific 
spirit would remain unimpaired, and the new principles intro- 
duced by him into historical research would lose nothing of their 
importance. He suggested, though he did not elaborate, the 
theory of the myth, so potent an instrument for good and ill in 
modern historical criticism. He brought in inference to supply 
the place of discredited tradition, and showed the possibility 
of writing history in the absence of original records. By his 
theory of the disputes between the patricians and plebeians arising 
from original differences of race he drew attention to the immense 
importance of ethnological distinctions, and contributed to the 
revival of these divergences as factors in modern history. More 
than all, perhaps, since his conception of ancient Roman story 
made laws and manners of more account than shadowy lawgivers, 
he undesignedly influenced history by popularizing that con- 
ception of it which lays stress on institutions, tendencies and 
social traits to the neglect of individuals. 

Niebuhr's personal character was in most respects exceedingly 
attractive. His heart was kind and his affections were strong; 



NIEBUHR, K. NIEDERWALD 



669 



he was magnanimous and disinterested, simple and honest. 
He had a kindling sympathy with everything lofty and generous, 
and framed his own conduct upon the highest principles. His 
chief defect was an over-sensitiveness, leading to peevish and 
unreasonable behaviour in his private and official relations, to 
hasty and unbalanced judgments of persons and things that had 
given him annoyance, and to a despondency and discouragement 
which frustrated the great good he might have effected as a philo- 
sophic critic of public affairs. 

The principal authority for Niebuhr's life is the Lebensnachrichten 
uber B. G. Niebuhr, aus Briefen desselben und aus Erinnerungen 
einiger seiner nachsten Freunde, by Dorothea Her.sler (3 vols., 1838 
1839). In the English translation by Miss Winkworth (1852) a 
great deal of the correspondence is omitted, but the narrative is 
rendered more full, especially as concerns Niebuhr's participation 
in public affairs. It also contains interesting communications from 
Bunsen and Professor Loebell, and select translations from the 
Kleine Schriften. See also J. Classen, Barthold Georg Niebuhr, eine 
Geddchtnisschrift (1876), and G. Eyssenhardt, B. G. Niebuhr (1886). 
The first edition of his Roman History was translated into English 
by F. A. Walter (1827), but was immediately superseded by the 
translation of the second edition by Julius Hare and Connop Thirwall, 
completed by William Smith and Leonhard Schmitz (last edition, 
1847-1851). The History has been discussed and criticized in a great 
number of publications, the most important of which, perhaps, is 
Sir George Cornwall Lewis's Essay on the Credibility of the Early 
Roman History. See further J. E. Sandys, History of Classical 
Scholarship (1908), iii., pp. 78-82. 

NIEBUHR, KARSTEN (1733-1815), German traveller, was 
born at Ludingworth, Lauenburg, on the southern border of 
Holstein, on the i7th of March 1733, the son of a small farmer. 
He had little education, and for several years of his youth had 
to do the work of a peasant. His bent was towards mathematics, 
and he managed to obtain some lessons in surveying. It was 
while he was working at this subject that one of his teachers, in 
1760, proposed to him to join the expedition which was being sent 
out by Frederick V. of Denmark for the scientific exploration 
of Egypt, Arabia and Syria. To qualify himself for the work 
of surveyor and geographer, he studied hard at mathematics 
for a year and a half before the expedition set out, and also 
managed to acquire some knowledge of Arabic. The expedition 
sailed in January 1761, and, landing at Alexandria, ascended the 
Nile. Proceeding to Suez, Niebuhr made a visit to Mount Sinai, 
and in October 1762 the expedition sailed from Suez to Jeddah, 
journeying thence overland to Mocha. Here in May 1763 the 
philologist of the expedition, van Haven, died, and was followed 
shortly after by the naturalist Forskil. Sana, the capital of 
Yemen, was visited, but the remaining members of the expedition 
suffered so much from the climate or from the mode of life that 
they returned to Mocha. Niebuhr seems to have saved his own 
life and restored his health by adopting the native habits as to 
dress and food. From Mocha the ship was taken to Bombay, 
the artist of the expedition dying on the passage, and the surgeon 
soon after landing. Niebuhr was now the only surviving member 
of the expedition. He stayed fourteen months at Bombay, and 
then returned home by Muscat, Bushire, Shiraz and Persepolis, 
visited the ruins of Babylon, and thence went to Bagdad, Mosul 
and Aleppo. After a visit to Cyprus he made a tour through 
Palestine, crossing Mount Taurus to Brussa, reaching Con- 
stantinople in February 1767 and Copenhagen in the following 
November. He married in 1 7 73 , and for some years held a post in 
the Danish military service which enabled him to reside at 
Copenhagen. In 1778, however, he accepted a position in the 
civil service of Holstein, and went to reside at Meldorf, where he 
died on the z6th of April 1815. 

Niebuhr was an accurate and careful observer, had the in- 
stincts of the scholar, was animated by a high moral purpose, 
and was rigorously conscientious and anxiously truthful in 
recording the results of his observation. His works have long 
been classics on the geography, the people, the antiquities 
and the archaeology of much of the district of Arabia which he 
traversed. His first volume, Beschreibung von Arabien, was 
published at Copenhagen in 1772, the Danish government de- 
fraying the expenses of the abundant illustrations. This was 
followed in 1774-1778 by two other volumes, Reisebeschreibung 



von Arabien und anderen umliegenden Landern. The fourth 
volume was not published till 1837, long after his death, under 
the editorship of Niebuhr's daughter. He also undertook the 
task of bringing out the work of his friend Forskal, the naturalist 
of the expedition, under the titles of Descriptiones animalium, 
Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica, and Iconesrerum naturalium (Copen- 
hagen, 1775-1776). To a German periodical, the Deulsckes 
Museum, Niebuhr contributed papers on the interior of Africa, 
the political and military condition of the Turkish empire, and 
other subjects. 

French and Dutch translations of his narratives were published 
during his lifetime, and a condensed English translation, by Robert 
Heron, of the first three volumes in Edinburgh (1792). His son 
Barthold (see above) published a short Life at Kief in 1817; an 
English version was issued in 1838 in the Lives of Eminent Men, 
published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 
See D. G. Hogarth, The Penetration of Arabia (" Story of Ex- 
ploration " series) (1904). 

NIEDERBRONN, a town of Germany, in the imperial province 
Alsace-Lorraine, on the Falkensteiner Bach, situated under the 
eastern slope of the Vosges, 12 m. N.W. from Hagenau by rail. 
Pop. (1005) 3120. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman 
Catholic church, a convent of the Sisters of the Divine Redeemer, 
and a high-grade and other schools. Niederbronn is one of the 
best-known watering-places in the Vosges. Its brine springs, 
with a hydropathic establishment attached, are specific in cases 
of gout, obesity and liver disorders. Here, on the z6th of July 
1870, the first engagement between the Germans and the French 
in the Franco-German war took place. There are several ruined 
castles in the neighbourhood, the most noteworthy of which is one 
on the Wesenburg (1415 ft. high) erected in the i4th century. 
Various Celtic and Roman antiquities have been found around 
Niederbronn. 

See Kuhn, Les Eaux de Niederbronn (3rd ed., Strassburg, 1860); 
Mathis, Aus Niederbronns alien Zeiten (Strassburg, 1901); and 
Kirstein, Das Wasgaubad Niederbronn (Strassburg, 1902). 

NIEDERLAHNSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Hesse-Nassau, situated on the right bank of the Rhine 
at the confluence of Lahn, 3 m. S.E. from Coblenz by the railway 
to Ems, and at the junction of lines to Hochheim and Cologne. 
Pop. (1905) 4351. It has two Roman Catholic churches. The 
chief industries are the making of machinery and shipbuilding. 
Niederlahnstein obtained civic rights in 1332, and was until 1803 
on the territory of the electors of Trier. Here on the ist of 
January 1814 a part of the Russian army crossed the Rhine. 
In the vicinity are the Johanniskirche, a Romanesque church 
restored in 1857, and the Allerheiligenberg, whereon stands a 
chapel, once a famous place of pilgrimage. 

NIEDER-SELTERS, a village of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Hesse-Nassau, situated in a well-wooded country on 
the Ems, 12 m. S.E. from Limburg by the railway to Frankfort- 
on-Main. Pop. (1900) 1339. Here are the springs of the famous 
Sellers or Seltzer water, employed as specific in cases of catarrh 
of the respiratory organs, the stomach and bladder. Until 1866 
the springs belonged to the duke of Nassau; since this date they 
have been the property of Prussia. They became famous in the 
earlier part of the igth century, although they had been known 
many years previously. 

See Grossmann, Die Heilquetten des Taunus (Wiesbaden, 1887). 

NIEDERWALD, a broad hill in Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 
between that river and the Wisper, opposite Bingen, forming 
the south-western apex of the Taunus range. Its summit is 
clothed with dense forests of oak and beech, while its southern 
and western sides, which descend sharply to Rudesheim and 
Assmannshausen on the Rhine, are covered with vineyards, and 
produce some of the finest wines of the district. At the edge of 
the forest, on the crest of the hill above Riidesheim, stands the 
gigantic " Germania " statue, the national monument of the war 
of 1870-71, which was unveiled on the 28th of September 1883 
by the emperor William I., in the presence of all the rulers in 
Germany or their representatives. It was designed by Johannes 
Schilling, and the bronze figure of Germania is 33 ft. high; the 



670 



NIEHAUS NIELLO 



pedestal is adorned with allegorical figures and portraits of 
German princes and generals. Cogtooth mountain railways 
run up the hill from Riidesheim and Assmannshausen. 

See Spielmann, Niederwald und Nationaldenkmal (Wiesbaden, 
1898). 

NIEHAUS, CHARLES HENRY (1855- ), American sculptor, 
of German parentage, was born at Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 24th 
of January 1855. He was a pupil of the McMichen School of 
Design, Cincinnati, and also studied at the Royal Academy, 
Munich, returning to America in 1881; in 1885, after several 
years in Rome, he established his studio in New York City. In 
1906 he became a National Academician. His principal works 
are: a statue of President Garfield, for Cincinnati; the Hahne- 
mann Memorial, in Washington; " Moses " and " Gibbons," 
for the Congressional Library, and " James A. Garfield," " John 
J. Ingalls," " William Allen," and " Oliver P. Morton," for 
Statuary Hall, Capitol, Washington; " Hooker " and " Daven- 
port," State House, Hartford, Connecticut; the Astor Memorial 
doors, Trinity Church, New York; " General Forrest," Memphis, 
Tennessee; Generals Sherman and Lee, and William the Silent; 
" The Scraper; or Greek Athlete using a Strigil "; statues of 
Lincoln, Farragut and McKinley, at Muskegon, Michigan; a 
statue of McKinley and a lunette for McKinley's tomb, at Canton, 
Ohio; and " The Driller," at Titusville, Pennsylvania, in memory 
of Colonel E. L. Drake, who, in 1859, sank the first oil well in 
Pennsylvania. 

NIEL, ADOLPHE (1802-1869), marshal of France, was born 
at Muret on the 4th of October 1802, and entered the Ecole 
Poly technique in 1821, whence he passed to the engineer school 
at Metz, becoming lieutenant in the Engineers in 1827 and 
captain in 1833. At the storming of Constantine he led the 
engineer detachment with one of the storming parties, and his 
conduct gained for him the rank of chef de bataillon (1837). 
In 1840 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel, and in 1846 colonel, 
and his next war service was as chief of staff to General Vaillant 
during the siege of Rome (1849), a f ter which he was made general 
of brigade and director of engineer services at headquarters. 
In 1851 he became a member of the Committee of Fortifications, 
in the following year a member of the council of state, and in 
1853 general of division. In the first part of the Crimean War 
he was employed in the expedition to the Baltic, and directed 
engineer operations against Bomarsund, but early in 1855 he 
was sent to the Crimea, where he succeeded General Bizot as 
chief of engineers. For some years he had been the most trusted 
military adviser of Napoleon III., and he was now empowered to 
advise the generals on the spot in accordance with the wishes of 
the sovereign and the home government. This delicate and 
difficult task Niel managed to carry out with as much success 
as could be expected, and he had the credit of directing the siege 
operations against the Malakoff (see CRIMEAN WAR). His 
reward was the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. From 1855 
to 1859 he was employed at headquarters, and also served in the 
senate. In the war against the Austrians in the latter year (see 
ITALIAN WARS) Niel commanded the IV. corps, and took a 
brilliant part in the battles of Magenta and Solferino. On the 
field of battle of Solferino he was made a marshal of France. 
After service for some years in a home command, he became 
minister of war (1867). In this capacity he drafted and began 
to carry out a far-reaching scheme of army reform, based on 
universal service and the automatic creation of large reserves, 
which needed only time to mature. He also rearmed the whole 
of the army with the chassep&t rifle. But he did not live to 
complete the development of his system. He died on the I3th 
of August 1869 in Paris, and a year later the Franco-German War 
destroyed the old imperial army upon which the new formations 
were to have been grafted. 

NIELLO (the Italian form of Lat. nigellum, diminutive of 
niger, " black "; Late Gr. /wXawSv), a method of producing 
delicate and minute decoration on a polished metal surface by 
incised lines filled in with a black metallic amalgam. In some 
cases it is very difficult to distinguish niello from black enamel; 
but the black substance differs from true enamel in being metallic, 



not vitreous. Our knowledge of the process and materials 
employed in niello-work is derived mainly from four writers, 
Eraclius the Roman (a writer probably of the nth century), 
Theophilus the monk, who wrote in the izth or I3th century, 1 
and, in the i6th century, Benvenuto Celh'ni 2 and Giorgio Vasari.' 
The design was cut with a sharp graving tool on the smooth 
surface of the metal, which was usually silver, but occasionally 
gold or even bronze. An alloy was formed of two parts silver, 
one-third copper and one-sixth lead; to this mixture, while 
fluid in the crucible, powdered sulphur in excess was added; and 
the brittle amalgam, when cold, was finely pounded, and sealed 
up in large quills for future use. A solution of borax to act as a 
flux was brushed over the metal plate and thoroughly worked 
into its incised lines. The powdered amalgam was then shaken 
out of the quills on to the plate, so as to completely cover all the 
engraved pattern. The plate was now carefully heated over a 
charcoal fire, fresh amalgam being added, as the powder fused, 
upon any defective places. When the powder had become 
thoroughly liquid, so as to fill all the lines, the plate was allowed 
to cool, and the whole surface was scraped, so as to remove the 
superfluous niello, leaving only what had sunk into and filled up 
the engraved pattern. Last of all the nielloed plate was very 
highly polished, till it presented the appearance of a smooth 
metal surface enriched with a delicate design in fine grey-black 
lines. This process was chiefly used for silver work, on account 
of the vivid contrast between the whiteness of the silver and the 
darkness of the niello. As the slightest scratch upon the metal 
received the niello, and became a distinct black line, ornament 
of the most minute and refined description could easily be pro- 
duced. 

The earliest specimens of niello belong to the Roman period. 
Two fine examples are in the British Museum. One is a bronze 
statuette of a Roman general, nearly 2 ft. high, found at Barking 
Hall in Suffolk. The dress and armour have patterns partly 
inlaid in silver and partly in niello. The dark tint of the bronze 
rather prevents the niello from showing out distinctly. This 
statuette is apparently a work of the ist century. 4 The other 
example is not earlier than the 4th century. It is a silver casket 
or lady's toilet box, in which were found an ampulla and other 
small objects, enriched with niello-work. 6 

From Roman times till the end of the i6th century the art of 
working in niello seems to have been constantly practised in 
some part at least of Europe, while in Russia and India it has 
survived to the present day. From the 6th to the I2th century 
a large number of massive and splendid works in the precious 
metals were produced at Byzantium or under Byzantine influence, 
many of which were largely decorated with niello; the silver 
dome of the baldacchino over the high altar of S. Sophia was 
probably one of the most important of these. Niello is frequently 
mentioned in the inventories of the treasures belonging to the 
great basilicas of Rome and Byzantium. The Pala d'Oro at S. 
Mark's, Venice, loth century, owes much of its refined beauty 
to niello patterns in the borders. This art was also practised by 
Bernward, artist-bishop of Hildesheim -(ob. 1023) ; a fine silver 
paten, decorated with figures in niello, attributed to his hand, 
still exists among the many rich treasures in the church of Han- 
over Palace. Other nielli, probably the work of the same bishop, 
are preserved in the cathedral of Hildesheim. In France, too, 
judging both from existing specimens of ecclesiastical plate and 
many records preserved in church inventories, this mode of 
decoration must have been frequently applied all through the 
middle ages: especially fine examples once existed at Notre 
Dame, Paris, and at Cluny, where the columns of the sanctuary 
were covered with plates of silver in the nth century, each plate 
being richly ornamented with designs in niello. Among the 
early Teutonic and Celtic races, especially from the 8th to the 
nth centuries, both in Britain and other countries, niello was 

1 Din. Art. Sched. iii. 27-29 (see Hendrie's edition, 1847). 
1 Trattalo dell' oreficeria. 

' Tre arti del disegno. 

4 See Soc. Ant. Vet. Man. iv. pis. 11-15. 

6 See Visconti, Una Antica Argentaria (Rome, 1793). 



NIEM NIEMCEWICZ 



671 




frequently used to decorate the very beautiful personal orna- 
ments of which so many specimens enrich the museums of Europe. 
The British Museum possesses a fine fibula of silver decorated 
with a simple pattern in niello and thin plates of repoussfe gold 
This, though very similar in design to many fibulae from Scandi- 
navia and Britain, was found in a tomb at Kerch (Panticapaeum). 
Several interesting gold rings of Saxon workmanship have been 
found at different times, on which the owner's name and orna- 
mental patterns are formed in gold with 
a background of niello. One with the 
name of Ethelwulf, king of Wessex 
(836-838), is now fn the British Museum 
(see figure). Another in the Victoria 
and Albert Museum has the name of 
Alhstan, who was bishop of Sherborne 
from 823 to 867. The metal-workers of 
Ireland, whose skill was quite unrivalled, 
practised largely the art of niello from 

== ^ == __ tne lot h to ^e 1 2th century, and pos- 

Gold and Niello Ring, **& even earlier. Fine croziers, shrines, 
fibulae, and other objects of Irish work- 
manship, most skilfully enriched with elaborate niello-work, 
exist in considerable numbers. From the I3th to the i6th 
century but little niello-work appears to have been produced in 
England. Two specimens have been found, one at Matlask, 
Norfolk, and the other at Devizes, which from the character of 
the design appear to be English. They are both of gold, and 
seem to be the covering plates of small pendant reliquaries 
about i in. long, dating about the end of the isth century. One 
has a crucifix between St John the Baptist and a bishop; the other, 
that found at Devizes, has the two latter figures, but no crucifix. 1 
It is, however, in Italy that the art of niello- work was brought to 
greatest perfection. During the whole medieval period it was 
much used to decorate church plate, silver altar-frontals, and the 
like. The magnificent frontals of Pistoia cathedral and the 
Florence baptistery are notable instances of this. During the 
1 5th century, especially at Florence, the art of niello- work was 
practised by almost all the great artist-goldsmiths of that period. 
Apart from the beauty of the works they produced, this art had 
a special importance and interest from its having led the way to 
the invention of printing from engravings on metal plates (see 
LINE-ENGRAVING). Vasari's account of this invention, given in 
his lives of Pollaiuolo and Maso Finiguerra, is very interesting, 
but he is wrong in asserting that Maso was the first worker in 
niello who took proofs or impressions of his plates. An important 
work of this sort, described at length by Vasari and wrongly 
ascribed by him to Maso Finiguerra (q.v.), still exists in the 
Opera del Duomo at Florence. It is a pax with a very rich and 
delicate niello picture of the coronation of the Virgin; the 
composition is very full, and the work almost microscopic in 
minuteness; it was made in 1452. Impressions from it are 
preserved in the British Museum, the Louvre and other col- 
lections. The British Museum possesses the finest existing 
example of 15th-century German niello. It is a silver beaker, 
covered with graceful scroll-work, forming medallions, in 
which are figures of cupids employed in various occupations 
(see Shaw's Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages, 1858, 
vol. ii.). 

AUTHORITIES. The Archaeological Journal of 1862 (vol. xix. p. 323) 
has an excellent monograph on the subject, see also vol. xii. 
p. 79 and vol. iv. p. 247; Archaeologia, xxxi. 404; Merrifield, 
Ancient Practice of Painting, vol. i. (1849) (gives MSS. of Eraclius and 
other early writers) ; Catalogue of Museum of Royal Irish Academy; 
Les Nielles a la cath. d'Aix-la-Chapelle (Paris, 1859); Alvin, Nielles 
de la bibliotheque roy. de Belgique (1857); Duchesne, Nielles des 
orfevres florentins (1826); Passayant, Le Peintre-graveur (1860- 
1864); Ottley, History of Engraving (1816) and Collection of Fac- 
similes of Prints (1826); Cicognara, Storia della scultura,m. p. 168 
(Prato, 1823), and Storia delta calcografia (Prato, 1831); Lanzi, 
Storia pittorica, ep. i. sec. iii. (1809); Baldinucci, Professori del 
disegno (1681-1728) and L'Arte di intagliare in rame (1686); Zani, 
Origine dell' incisione in rame (1802); Labarte, Arts of the Middle 
Ages (1855); Texier, Dictionnaire de I'orfevrerie p. 1822 (Paris, 



1 See Proc. Norfolk Archaeo. Soc. iii. p. 97. 



1857); Bartsch. Le Peintre-graveur, xiii. 1-35; Rumohr, Unter- 
suchung der Grunde fur die Annahme, &c. (Leipzig, 1841); Lessing, 
Collectaneen zur Literaiur (vol. xii. art. " Niellum "); C. Davenport, 
in Journal of Soc. of Arts (1901), vol. xlviii. (J. H. M.) 

NIEM [NYEM, or NIEHEIM], DIETRICH OF (c. 1345-1418), 
medieval historian, was born at Nieheim, a small town subject 
to the see of Paderborn. He became a notary of the papal court 
of the rota at Avignon, and in 1376 went with the Curia to Rome. 
Urban VI. here took particular notice of him, made him an 
abbreviator to the papal chancery, and in 1383 took him with him 
on his visit to King Charles at Naples, an expedition which led 
to many unpleasant adventures, from which he escaped in 1385 
by leaving the Curia. In 1387 he is again found among the 
abbreviators, and in 1395 Pope Boniface IX. appointed him to 
the bishopric of Verden. His attempt to take possession of the 
see, however, met with successful opposition; and he had to 
resume his work in the chancery, where his name again appears in 
1403. In the meantime he had helped to found a German 
hospice in Rome, which survives as the Institute dell' Anima, 
and had begun to write a chronicle, of which only fragments are 
extant. His chief importance, however, lies in the part he took 
in the controversies arising out of the Great Schism. He accom- 
panied Gregory XII. to Lucca in May 1408, and, having in vain 
tried to make the pope listen to counsels of moderation, he joined 
the Roman and Avignonese cardinals at Pisa. He adhered to the 
pope elected by the council of Pisa (Alexander V.) and to his 
successor John XXIII., resuming his place at the Curia. In view 
of the increasing confusion in the Church, however, he became 
one of the most ardent advocates of the appeal to a general 
council. He was present at the council of Constance as adviser 
to the German " nation." He died at Maastricht on the 22nd of 
March 1418. 

Niem wrote about events in which he either had an intimate 
personal share or of which he was in an excellent position to obtain 
accurate information. His most important works are the Nemus 
unionis and the De schismate. Of these the first, compiled at Lucca 
after the breach with Gregory XII., is a collection of documents 
which had fallen into his hands during the negotiations for union : 
papal pronouncements, pamphlets, letters written and received by 
himself, and the like. The De schismate libri III., completed on 
the 25th of May 1410, describes the history of events since 1376 
as Niem himself had seen them. It was continued in the Historia 
de vita Johannis XXIII. Other works are De bono regimine Rom. 
pontificis, dedicated to the new pope (John XXIII.); De modis 
uniendi ac reformandi ecclesiam and De difficidtaU reformationis in 
concilia universali, advocating the convocation of a council, to which 
the pope is to bow; Contra dampnatos Wiclivitas Pragae, against the 
Hussites; Jura ac privilegia imperil, a glorification of the empire in 
view of the convocation of the council of Constance; Avisamenta 
pulcherrima de unione el reformatione membrorum et capitis fienda, a 
programme of church reform based on his experiences of the evils 
of the papal system. 

For bibliography see Potthast, Bibl. hist, medii aevi (2nd ed., 
Berlin, 1896), p. 1051, s.v. " Theodoricus de Niem "; and generally 
see the article on Niem by Theodor Lindner in Allgemeine deutsche 
Biographie (Leipzig, 1886); and Erler, Dietrich von Nieheim (Leipzig, 
1887). 

NIEMCEWICZ, JULIAN URSIN (1758-1841), Polish scholar, 
poet and statesman, was born in 1757 in Lithuania. In the 
earlier part of his life he acted as adjutant to Kosciusko, was 
taken prisoner with him at the fatal battle of Maciejowice (1794), 
and shared his captivity at St Petersburg. On his release he 
travelled for some time in America, where he married. After 
the Congress of Vienna he was secretary of state and president 
of the constitutional committee in Poland, but in 1830-1831 he 
was again driven into exile. He died in Paris on the 2ist of April 
1841. Niemcewicz tried many styles of composition. His 
comedy The Return of the Deputy (1790) enjoyed a great reputa- 
tion, and his novel, John of Tenczyn (1825), in the style of Scott, 
gives a vigorous picture of old Polish days. He also wrote a 
History of the Reign of Sigismund III. (3 vols., 1819), and a 
collection of memoirs for ancient Polish history (6 vols., 1822- 
1823). But he is now best remembered by his Historical Songs 
of the Poles (Warsaw, 1816), a series of lyrical compositions in 
which the chief heroes are of the golden age of Sigismund I., 
and the reigns of Stephen Bathori and Sobieski. 

His collected works were published in 12 vols. at Leipzig (1838- 
1840). 



672 



NIENBURG ON THE SAALE NIETZSCHE 



NIENBURG ON THE SAALE, a town of Germany, in the duchy 
of Anhalt, situated at the influx of the Bode into the Saale, 
6 m. N. of Bernburg on the railway Calbe-Konnern. Pop. (1905) 
5748. It contains a beautiful Gothic Evangelical church, an 
old castle, once a monastery (founded 975, dissolved 1546), and 
now devoted to secular uses, and a classical school. The in- 
dustries embrace iron-founding and machine-making, malting 
and tanning. 

NIENBURG ON THE WESER, a town of Germany, in the 
Prussian province of Hanover, situated on the Weser, 33 m. 
N.W. from Hanover by the railway to Bremen. Pop. (1905) 
9638. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, 
a classical school and an agricultural college. Its industries 
consist chiefly in glass-blowing, distilling, biscuit-making and 
the manufacture of manures. The town is mentioned as early 
as 1025. It was fortified in the I2th century, obtained municipal 
rights in 1569, and passed in 1582 to the house of Luneburg. 
It was occupied by the imperialists from 1627 to 1634, and by 
the French during the Seven Years' War. The walls were dis- 
mantled by order of Napoleon I. in 1807. 

See Gadc, Geschichte der Sladt Nienburg an der Weser (1862). 

NIEPCE, JOSEPH NICEPHORE (1765-1833), French physicist, 
and one of the inventors of photography, was born at Chalon- 
sur-Saone on the 7th of March 1765. In 1792 he entered the 
army as a sub-lieutenant, and in the following year he saw active 
service in Italy. Ill-health and failing eyesight compelled him to 
resign his commission before he had risen above the rank of 
lieutenant; but in 1795 he was nominated administrates of 
the district of Nice, and he held the post until 1801. Returning 
in that year to his birthplace, he devoted himself along with 
his elder brother Claude (1763-1828) to mechanical and chemical 
researches; and in 1811 he directed his attention to the rising 
art of lithography. In 1813 the idea of obtaining sun pictures 
first suggested itself to him in this connexion; and in 1826 
he learned that L. J. M. Daguerre was working in the same direc- 
tion. In 1829 the two united their forces, " pour cooperer au 
perfectionnement de la decouverte inventee par M. Niepce 
et perfectionnee par M. Daguerre" (see also PHOTOGRAPHY). 
Niepce died at Gras, his property near Chalon, on the 3rd of 
July 1833. A nephew, CLAUDE FELIX ABEL NIEPCE DE SAINT- 
VICTOR (1805-1870), served with distinction in the army, and 
also made important contributions towards the advancement 
of the art of photography; he published Recherches photo- 
graphiques (Paris, 1855) and Traite pratique de gravure helio- 
graphique sur acier et sur verre (Paris, 1866). 

NIEREMBERG, JUAN EUSEBIO (1595-1658), Spanish 
Jesuit and mystic, was born at Madrid in 1595, joined the 
Society of Jesus in 1614, and subsequently became lecturer on 
Scripture at the Jesuit seminary in Madrid, where he died on 
the 7th of April 1658. He was highly esteemed in devout circles 
as the author of De la aficidn y amor de Jesus (1630), and De la 
aficidn y amor de Maria (1630), both of which were translated 
into Arabic, Flemish, French, German, Italian and Latin. 
These works, together with the Prodigios del amor divino (1641), 
are now forgotten, but Nieremberg's version (1656) of the 
Imitation is still a favourite, and his eloquent treatise, De la 
hermosura de Dios y su amabilidad (1649), is the last classical 
manifestation of mysticism in Spanish literature. Nieremberg 
has not the enraptured vision of St Theresa, nor the philosophic 
significance of Luis de Le6n, and the unvarying sweetness of 
his style is cloying; but he has exaltation, unction, insight, 
and his book forms no unworthy close to a great literary 
tradition. 

NIERSTEIN, a village of Germany, in the grand duchy of 
Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 8 m. S. from 
Mainz by the railway to Worms. Pop. (1905) 4445. It contains 
a Romaa Catholic and a Protestant church, an old Roman 
bath Sironabad and sulphur springs. It is famous for its 
wines, in which a large export trade is done. Nierstein was 
originally a Roman settlement, and was a royal residence under 
the Carolingian rulers. Later it passed from the emperor to 
the elector palatine of the Rhine. 



NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1844-1900), German 
philosopher, was the son of the pastor at Rocken, near Leipzig, 
where he was born on i5th October 1844. He was educated 
at Schulpforta, and studied the classics at the universities of 
Bonn and Leipzig. In 1869, while still an undergraduate, he 
was, on F. W. Ritschl's recommendation, appointed to an extra- 
ordinary professorship of classical philology in the university 
of Basel, and rapidly promoted to an ordinary professorship. 
Here he almost immediately began a brilliant literary activity, 
which gradually assumed a more and more philosophical char- 
acter. In 1876 eye (and brain) trouble caused him to obtain 
sick leave, and finally, in 1879, to be pensioned. For the next 
ten years he lived in various health resorts, in considerable 
suffering (he declares that the year contained for him 200 days 
of pure pain), but dashing off, at high pressure, the brilliant 
essays on which his fame rests. Towards the end of 1888, after 
recovering from an earlier attack, he was pronounced hopelessly 
insane, and in this condition he remained until he died on the 
25th of August 1900. Nietzsche's writings must be understood 
in their relation to these circumstances of his life, and as the 
outcome of a violent revolt against them on the part of an 
intensely emotional and nervous temperament. His philosophy, 
consequently, is neither systematic in itself nor expounded in 
systematic form. It is made up of a number of points of view 
which successively appeared acceptable to a personality whose 
self-appreciation verges more and more upon the insane, and 
exhibits neither consecutiveness nor consistency. Its natural 
form is the aphorism, and to this and to its epigrammatic 
brilliance, vigour, and uncompromising revolt against all con- 
ventions in science and conduct it owes its persuasiveness. 
Revolt against the whole civilized environment in which he was 
brought up is the keynote of Nietzsche's literary career. His 
revolt against Christian faith and morals turns him into a proudly 
atheistic " free-thinker," and preacher of a new " master " 
morality, which transposes the current valuations, deposes 
the "Christian virtues," and incites the "over-man" ruthlessly 
to trample under foot the servile herd of the weak, degenerate 
and poor in spirit. His revolt against the theory of state 
supremacy turns him into an anarchist and individualist; his 
revolt against modern democracy into an aristocrat. His revolt 
against conventional culture leads him to attack D. F. Strauss 
as the typical " Philistine of culture " ; his revolt against the 
fashion of pessimism to demand a new and more robust affirma- 
tion of life, not merely although, but because, it is painful. Indeed, 
his very love of life may itself be regarded as an indignant 
revolt against the toils that were inexorably closing in around 
him. He directs this spirit of revolt also against the sources 
of his own inspiration; he turns bitterly against Wagner, 
whose intimate friend and enthusiastic admirer he had been, 
and denounces him as the musician of decadent emotionalism; 
he rejects his " educator " Schopenhauer's pessimism, and 
transforms his will to live into a " Will to Power."] Nevertheless 
his reaction does not in this case really carry him beyond the 
ground of Schopenhauerian philosophy, and his own may 
perhaps be most truly regarded as the paradoxical development 
of an inverted Schopenhauerism. ) Other influences which may 
be traced in his writings are those of modern naturalism and of 
a somewhat misinterpreted Darwinism (" strength " is generally 
interpreted as physical endowment, but it has sometimes to 
be reluctantly acknowledged that the physically feeble, by their 
combination and cunning, prove stronger than the " strong "). 
His writings in their chronological order are as follows: Die 
Geburl der Tragodie aus dem Geiste der Musik (1872); Unzeit- 
gemdsse Betrachtungen (1873-1876) (Strauss Vom Nutzen und 
Nachteil der Historic fur das Leben Schopenhauer als Enieher 
Richard Wagner in Bayreuth); Menschliches, Allzumenschliches 
(1876-1880); Morgenrote (1881); Die frohliche Wissenschaft 
(1882); Also sprach Zarathustra (1883-1884); Jenseits von 
Gut und Base (1886); Zur Genealogie der Moral (1887); Der 
Fall Wagner (1888); Gotzendiimmerung (1888); Nietzsche contra 
Wagner, Der Antichrist, and Poems first appeared in the complete 
edition of his works, which also contains the notes for Wille 



NIEUPORT NIGDEH 



6 73 



swr Macht, in which Nietzsche had intended to give a more 
systematic account of his doctrine (1895-1901). (F. C. S. S.) 
An edition of Nietzsche's complete works began to appear in 1895 ; 
there are also two popular editions, 1899 ff. (15 vols. have been pub- 
lished) and 1906 (10 yols.)- In 1900 Nietzsche's Briefe began to be 
published. An English translation in 18 vols., edited by Oskar 
Levy, reached the I3th vol. in 1910. His biography, by his sister, 
Elisabeth Forster-Nietzsche (Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsches, 1895 ff.), 
reached its third volume in 1907. There are also lives by D. HaleVy 
(1909) and M. A. Mugge (F. Nietzsche: his Life and Work, 1908), 
the latter of a somewhat popular character. G. Brandes first drew 
European attention to Nietzsche by his famous essay in 1889; since 
then an enormous literature has grown up round the subject. See 
especially L. Andreas Salome 1 , F. Nietzsche in seinen Werken (1894); 
A. Riehl, F. Nietzsche (1897; 3rd ed., 1901); F. Tonnies, Nietzsche- 
Kultus (1897); H. Ellis, F. Nietzsche (in Affirmations, 1898); H. 
Lichtenberger, La Philosophic de Nietzsche (1895; German trans., 
1899); E. Horncffer, Vortrage uber F. Nietzsche, (1900); T. Ziegler, 
F. Nietzsche (1900); J. Zeitler, Nietzsches Asthetik (1900); P. 
Deussen, Erinnerungen an F. Nietzsche (1901); R. Richter, F. 
Nietzsche, sein Leben und sein Werk (1903) ; G. Simmel, Schopenhauer 
und Nietzsche (1907). For an estimate of his moral theory see 
ETHICS, ad fin. 

NIEUPORT (Flem. Nieuwpoort), a town of Belgium in the 
province of West Flanders. Pop. (1904) 3780. It was the 
port of Ypres, and is situated on the Yser about 10 m. S. of 
Ostend. It was strongly fortified in the middle ages and its siege 
by the French in 1488-1489 is an episode of its heroic period. 
Under its walls in 1600 Maurice of Nassau defeated the Archduke 
Albert and the Spaniards. It contains an ancient cloth market, 
a fine town-hall and an old church, and outside is a lighthouse 
dating from 1289. Nieuport Bains, 2 m. from the town, is a 
fashionable seaside resort dating only from 1869. It has a fine 
pier extending 1500 yds. out to sea and flanking the entrance 
to the Yser, which has been canalized. The bathing is excellent, 
and in the season the place is largely frequented by visitors. 

NIEVRE, a department of central France, formed from the 
old province of Nivernais with a small portion of the Orleanais. 
It is bounded N.W. by Loiret, N. by Yonne, E. by C&te d'Or, 
E. and S.E. by Sa6ne-et-Loire, S. by Allier and W. by Cher. 
Pop. (1906) 313, 972. Area, 2659 sq. m. Nievre falls into three 
regions differing in elevation and in geological formation. In 
the east are the granitic mountains of the Morvan, one of the 
most picturesque portions of France, containing Mont Prenelay 
(2789 ft.) and several lesser heights. The north and centre are 
occupied by plateaus of Jurassic limestone with a maximum 
elevation of 1400 ft. The west and south-western part of the 
department is a district of plains, composed mainly of tertiary 
formations with alluvial deposits, and comprising the valleys 
of the Loire and the Allier. The lowest level of the department 
is 446 ft., at the exit of the Loire. Nievre belongs partly to the 
basin of the Loire, partly to that of the Seine. The watershed 
dividing these two basins follows the general slope of the depart- 
ment from S.E. to N.W. from Mont Prenelay to the Puisaye, 
the district in the extreme north-west. Towards the west the 
limits of Nievre are marked by the Allier-Loire valley the 
Loire striking across the south-west corner of the department 
by Decize and Nevers and then continuing the line of its great 
affluent the Allier northwards by Fourchambault, La Charite, 
Pouilly and Cosne. Secondary feeders of the Loire are the 
Nievre, which gives its name to the department, and the Aron, 
whose valley is traversed by the Nivernais Canal. The largest 
tributary of the Seine in Nievre is the Yonne, which rises in 
the south-east, passes by Clamecy, and carries along with it 
the northern part of the Nivernais Canal. The Cure, the principal 
affluent of the Yonne (with which, however, it does not unite 
till after it has left the department), is the outlet of a lake, Lac 
des Settons, which serves as a reservoir for the regulation of 
the river and the canal. Owing to its greater elevation and the 
retention of the rain-water on its impermeable surface in the 
shape of ponds and streams, Morvan shows a mean temperature 
6 F. lower than that of the western district, which, in the valley 
of the Loire, is almost identical with that of Paris (52 F.). 
At Nevers the annual rainfall amounts to only 21 in., but 
in Morvan it is nearly three times as great. 

The principal cereals are oats and wheat; potatoes are 

XIX. 22 



also largely grown. Much land is given over to pasture and 
the cultivation of various kinds of forage, and the fattening 
of cattle is a thriving agricultural industry. The Nivernais 
and Charolais are the chief breeds. The rearing of sheep and 
draught-horses is also of importance. Vines are grown in the 
valley of the Loire and in the neighbourhood of Clamecy. The 
white wines of Pouilly on the Loire are widely known. Nievre 
abounds in forests, the chief trees being the oak, beech, hornbeam, 
elm and chestnut. Coal is mined at Decize, and gypsum, building 
stone, and kaolin are among the quarry products. The best- 
known mineral springs are those of Pougues and St Honored 
Of the iron-works for which Nievre is famous, the most important 
are those of Fourchambault. At Imphy there are large steel- 
works. The government works of La Chaussade at Guerigny 
make chain-cables, anchors, armour-plates, &c. There are also 
manufactories of agricultural implements and hardware, potteries, 
manufactories of porcelain, and faience (at Nevers), tile- works, 
chemical works, paper-mills and saw-mills, as well as numerous 
tanneries, boot and shoe factories, cask manufactories and oil 
works (colza, poppy and hemp). In the Morvan district a large 
part of the population is engaged in the timber industry; the 
logs carried down by the streams to Clamecy are then put into 
boats and conveyed to Paris. 

A great deal of the traffic is by water: the canal along the 
left bank of the Loire runs through the department for 38 m., 
and the Nivernais canal for 78 m. The chief railway is that 
of the Paris-Lyons-Mediterran6e Company, whose main line 
to Nimes follows the valley of the Loire and Allier throughout 
the department. NiSvre is divided into 4 arrondissements 
(Nevers,Chateau-Chinon,Clamecy and Cosne being their capitals), 
25 cantons, 313 communes. It forms the diocese of Nevers, 
and part of the educational district of Dijon and of the region 
of the VIII. corps d'armee. Its court of appeal is at Bourges. 
The most noteworthy towns are Nevers, the capital, Clamecy, 
Fourchambault, Cosne, La Charite and Decize. Varzy and 
Tannay have fine churches of the i4th, and the i2th, i3th and 
i6th centuries respectively, and there is an interesting church, 
chiefly Romanesque in style, at St Pierre-le-Moutier. 

NIFO, AGOSTINO [AucusTiNus NIPHUS] (c. 1473-1538 or 
1545), Italian philosopher and commentator, was born at Japoli 
in Calabria. He settled for a time at Sezza and subsequently 
proceeded to Padua, where he studied philosophy. He lectured 
at Padua, Naples, Rome and Pisa, and won so high a reputation 
that he was deputed by Leo X. to defend the Catholic doctrine 
of Immortality against the attack of Pomponazzi and the 
Alexandrists. In return for this he was made Count Palatine, 
with the right to call himself by the name Medici. In his early 
thought he followed Averroes, but afterwards modified his 
views so far as to make himself acceptable to the orthodox 
Catholics. In 1495 he produced an edition of the works of 
Averroes; with a commentary compatible with his acquired 
orthodoxy. In the great controversy with the Alexandrists 
he opposed the theory of Pomponazzi that the rational soul 
is inseparably bound up with the material part of the individual, 
and hence that the death of the body carries with it the death 
of the soul. He insisted that the individual soul, as part of 
absolute intellect, is indestructible, and on the death of the 
body is merged in the eternal unity. 

His principal philosophical works are De immortalitate animi 
(1518 and 1524); De intellectu et daemonibus; De infinitate primi 
motoris qitaestio and Opuscula moralia et politica. His numerous 
commentaries on Aristotle were widely read and frequently reprinted, 
the best-known edition being one printed at Paris in 1654 in fourteen 
volumes (including the Opuscula). 

NIGDEH (Arab. Nakidah), the chief town of a sanjak of the 
same name in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on the 
Kaisarieh-Cilician Gates road. It is remarkable for the beauty 
of its buildings, dating from almost all ages of the Seljuk period. 
After the fall of the sultanate of Rum (of which it had been 
one of the principal cities), Nigdeh became independent, and, 
according to Ibu Batuta, ruinous, and did not pass into Ottoman 
hands till the time of Mahommed II. It represents no classical 
town, but, with Bor, has inherited the importance of Tyana, 



674 



NIGEL NIGER 



whose site lies aboutio m. S.W. A Hittite-inscribed monument, 
brought perhaps from Tyana, has been found at Nigdeh. The 
population (20,000) includes a large Greek and a small Armenian 
community. The Orthodox metropolitan of Iconium resides 
here. 

NIGEL (d. 1169), bishop of Ely, head of the exchequer in the 
reigns of Henry I. and Henry II., was brought into the exchequer 
in early life (1130). Soon after his uncle Roger of Salisbury 
secured him the bishopric of Ely, much to the disgust of the 
monks. Nigel was at first retained in Stephen's service; but, 
like his uncle and his brothers, incurred the suspicion of leaning 
towards the Angevin interest, when Roger of Salisbury and 
Alexander of Lincoln were arrested by Stephen (January 1139). 
Nigel attempted to maintain himself in his see by force of arms, 
but he was forced to fly to the empress at Gloucester. He 
was reconciled to Stephen in 1142 and restored to his see; but 
he now became involved in a quarrel with the powerful Henry 
of Winchester. Ranulph, his first treasurer and representative 
at Ely, had been extortionate and dishonest, and the monks 
accused Nigel, probably with some justification, of spending 
the estates and treasures of the see in maintaining knights and 
gaining court influence. Henry of Winchester, who can have 
had little sympathy with bishops of Nigel's type, took up their 
quarrel, and Nigel was forced to go to Rome. Fortunately, 
both in these quarrels and in all his difficulties with Stephen, 
he secured the strong and uniform support of the Roman Curia. 
At the accession of Henry II. (1154) Nigel was summoned to 
reorganize the exchequer. He was the only surviving minister 
of Henry I., and his knowledge of the exchequer business was 
unrivalled. This was the great work of his life. It is to the work 
of his son Richard, the Dialogtts de Scaccario, that we are indebted 
for our knowledge of the procedure of the exchequer as it was 
left by Nigel. The bishop took little part in politics, except 
as an administrator. In 1 166 his health was broken by a paralytic 
seizure. Except for another quarrel with his monks, who 
accused him of despoiling their church and gained the ear of 
Pope Adrian, the last part of his life was laborious and uneventful. 

See Dr Liebermann's Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario; 
J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville. 

NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS, governor of Syria under the 
emperor Commodus. On the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193), 
he was saluted emperor by the troops at Antioch, but unaccount- 
ably delayed marching on Rome until he learned that Septimius 
Severus, one of the rival claimants, had assumed the offensive. 
He then strongly garrisoned Byzantium and the principal 
towns of Asia Minor, but after his legate Aemilianus had been 
defeated and slain near Cyzicus he himself was driven from 
Nicaea and routed near the Cilician Gates. Having failed in 
an effort to escape towards the Euphrates, he was brought back 
and put to death in 194. 

Aelius Spartianus, Pescennius Niger; Dio Cassius Ixxii. 8; Ixxiii. 
13. '4- 

NIGER, a great river of West Africa, inferior only to the 
Congo and Nile among the rivers of the continent, and the only 
river in Africa which, by means of its tributary the Benue, 
affords a waterway uninterrupted by rapids, and available 
for shallow-draught steamers, to the far interior. Rising within 
130 m. of the sea in the mountainous zone which marks the 
N.E. frontiers of Sierra Leone and French Guinea, it traverses 
the interior plateaus in a vast curve, flowing N.E., E. and S.E., 
until it finally enters the Gulf of Guinea through an immense 
delta. Its total length is about 2600 m. About 250 m. from 
its mouth it is joined by the Benue, coming from the east from 
the mountainous region of Adamawa. From its mouth to the 
limit of navigability from the sea the river is in British territory; 
above that point it flows through French territory. 

The source of the Niger lies in 9 5' N. and 10 47' W., and 
the most northerly point of the great bend is about 17 N. The 
area of the Niger basin, excluding the arid regions with a 
slope towards the stream, has been calculated by Dr. A. Bludau 
at 584,000 sq. m. The river is known locally under various 
names, the most common being Joliba (a Mandigo word meaning 



Great River) and Kworra or Quorra. By the last name the Niger 
was known in its lower reaches before its identity with the upper 
river was established. The stream considered the chief 
source of the Niger is called the Tembi. A narrow 
watershed separates it from the headwaters of the 'tbe'river. 
streams flowing south-west through Sierra Leone. The 
birthplace of the Niger is in a deep ravine 2800 ft. above sea- 
level. From a moss-covered rock a tiny spring issues and has 
made a pool below. This little stream is the Tembi, which 
within a short distance is joined by two other rivulets, the 
Tamincono and Falico, which have their origin in the same 
mountainous district. After flowing north for about 100 m., 
the river turns eastward and receives several tributaries from 
the south. At its confluence with the Tankisso (a northern' 
tributary), 210 m. from its source, the river has attained dimen- 
sions sufficient to earn for itself the title Joliba. Taking at 
this point a decided trend northward, the Niger, 100 m. lower 
down, at Bamako the first considerable town on its banks 
has a depth of 6 ft. with a breadth of 1300 ft. Seven or eight 
miles below Bamako the Sotuba rocks mark the end of what may 
be considered the upper river. From this point the navigable 
portion of the Niger begins. Thirty miles below Sotuba are the 
rapids of Tulimandio, but these are navigable when the river 
is at its highest, namely from July to October. A little lower 
down is Kulikoro, from which point the bed of the stream for 
over looo m. is fairly free from impediments. 

The river here turns more directly to the east and increases 
in volume and depth. At Sansandig the stream is deep enough 
to permit of steamers of considerable size plying upon 
the river. After Sansandig is passed the banks of The 
the stream become low and the Niger is split up into middle 
a number of channels. Mopti is at the junction of Niger and 
the main stream with a large right-hand backwater ^ e iga 
or tributary, the Bani or Mahel Balevel, on which 
is situated the important town of Jenne. The banks of the 
Niger below Mopti become swampy and treeless, and the first 
of a series of lakes (Debo) is reached. These lakes are chiefly 
on the left of the main stream, with which they are connected 
by channels conveying the water in one direction or the other 
according to the season. At high water most of these are united 
into one general inundation. The largest lake, Faguibini, is 
nearly 70 m. long by 12 m. broad, has high shores and reaches 
a depth exceeding, in parts, 160 ft. It is not until Kabara, 
the port of Timbuktu, is reached, a distance of 450 m. from 
Sansandig, that the labyrinth of lakes, creeks and backwaters 
ceases. Below Kabara the river reaches its most northerly 
point. At Bamba it is shut in by steep banks and narrows 
to 600 to 700 yds., again spreading out some distance down. 
At Barka (200 m. from Timbuktu) the stream turns south-east 
and preserves that direction throughout the remainder of its 
course. At Tosaye, just before the bend becomes pronounced, 
the Baror and Chabar rocks reduce the width of the river to 
less than 500 ft., and at low water the strength of the current 
is a serious danger to navigation. Below Timbuktu for a con- 
siderable distance the Niger receives no tributaries; from 
the north none until the region of the Sahara is passed. In 
places the desert approaches close to the river on both banks 
and immense sand dunes fill the horizon. 

At Ansongo, 430 m. below Timbuktu, the navigable reach 
of the middle Niger, in all 1057 m., ends. Four huge flint rocks 
bar the river at Ansongo and effectually prevent Bussa 
further navigation except in very small vessels. From rapid* 
Ansongo to Say, some 250 m., the river flows through aad 
several rocky passes, the current attaining great 
velocity. Throughout this distance the river is a 
hopeless labyrinth of rocks, islands, reefs and rapids. From 
Say, where the stream is about 700 yds. in breadth, to Bussa, 
there is another navigable stretch of water extending 300 m. 
After the desert region is past the Niger receives the waters 
of the river Sokoto, a considerable stream flowing from the north- 
east. Some distance below this confluence are the Bussa rapids, 
which can only be navigated with considerable difficulty. These 



lower 
river. 



NIGER 



675 



The Delta. 



rapids though not such a hindrance to navigation are of a 
more dangerous character than any encountered between Ansongo 
and Say. " In one pass, some 54 yds. wide, shut in between 
two large reefs, a good half of the waters of the Niger flings 
itself over with a tremendous roar " (Hourst). The rapids 
extend for 50 m. or more; in a less obstructive form they 
continue to Rabba, but light-draught steamers ascending the 
stream during flood season experience little difficulty in reaching 
Bussa. A little above Rabba the river makes a loop south-west, 
at the head of the loop being (right bank) Jebba. Here the 
river is bridged by the railway from Lagos. Sixty miles lower 
down is the mouth of the (left hand) tributary the Kaduna, a 
river of some magnitude which gives access to Zungeru, 
the headquarters of the British administration in Northern 
Nigeria. The head waters of the Kaduna are not far from Kano. 
Below the mouth of the Kaduna, on the right bank of the Niger, 
is Ba.ro, the starting-point of a railway to Kano. In 7 50' N. 
6 45' E. the Niger is joined by its great tributary the Benue. 
At their confluence the Niger is about three-quarters of a mile 
broad and the Benue rather more than a mile. The united stream 
forms a lake-like expansion about 2 m. in width, dotted with 
islands and sandbanks; the peninsula at the junction is low, 
swampy, and intersected by numerous channels. On the 
western bank of the Niger at this point is situated Lokoja 
(q.v.), an important commercial centre. The stream, as far 
south as Iddah (Ida), a town on the east bank, rushes through 
a valley cut between the hills, the sandstone cliffs at some 
places rising 150 ft. high. Between Iddah and Onitsha, 80 m., 
the banks are lower and the country flatter, and to the south 
of Onitsha the whole land is laid under water during the annual 
^ s - Here may be said to begin the great delta 
of the Niger, which, extending along the coast for 
about 1 20 m., and 140 or 150 m. inland, forms one of the most 
remarkable of all the swampy regions of Africa. The river 
breaks up into an intricate network of channels, dividing and 
subdividing, and intercrossing not only with each other but with 
the branches of other streams, so that it is exceedingly difficult 
to say where the Niger delta ends and another river system begins. 
The Rio Nun is a direct continuation of the line of the undivided 
river, and is thus the main mouth of the Niger. 

From the sea the only indication of a river mouth is a break 
in the dark green mangroves which here universally fringe 
the coast. The crossing of the bar requires considerable care, 
and at ebb tide the outward current runs 55 knots per hour. 
For the first 20 m. (or as far as Sunday Island, the limit of the 
sea tide in the dry season) dense lines of mangroves 40, 50, or 
60 ft. in height shut in the channel; then palm and other trees 
begin to appear, and the widening river has regular banks. 
East of the Nun the estuaries known as the Brass, Sombrero, 
New Calabar, Bonny, Opcbo (or Imo), &c. (with the exception, 
perhaps, of the first-named) , seem to derive most of their water 
from independent streams such as the Orashi, rising in about 
6 N., which is, however, linked with the Niger by the Onita 
Creek in 5! N. Behind the town of Okrika, some 30 m. up 
the Bonny river, the swampy ground gives place to firm land, 
partially forest-clad. West of the Nun all the estuaries up to 
the Forcados seem to be true mouths of the great river, while 
the Benin river, though linked to the others by transverse 
channels, may be more properly regarded as an independent 
stream. (See BENIN.) In this direction the largest mouth 
is the Forcados, a noble stream with a safe and relatively deep 
bar. Its banks in its lower course are densely wooded, but the 
beach is sandy and almost free from marsh and malaria. The 
mouth is 2 m. wide. It has supplanted the Nun river as the 
chief channel of communication with the interior. There 
are 17 to 19 ft. of water over the Forcados bar, as against 13/1. 
at the Nun mouth. Moreover the Forcados bar shifts little 
laterally, and within the bar is a natural harbour with an area 
of 3 to 4 sq. m. having a depth of 30 ft. at low water spring 
tides. From the mouth of the Forcados to the main stream 
is 105 m., with a minimum depth in the dry season of 7 ft. A 
northern arm affords ocean-going vessels access to Wari and 



Sapele. The other western mouths of the Niger have as a rule 
shallow and difficult bars. The delta is the largest in Africa 
and covers 14,000 sq. m. 

The Benue is by far the most important of the affluents of the Niger. 
The name signifies in the Batta tongue " Mother of Waters." The 
river rises in Adamawa in about 7 40' N. and 13 15' E., rtle Bfnut 
a. little north of the town of Ngaundere, at a height of 
over 3000 ft. above the sea, being separated by a narrow water 
parting from one of the headstreams of the Logone, whose waters 
flow to Lake Chad. In its upper course the Benue is a mountain 
torrent falling over 2000 ft. in some 150 m. With the Chad system 
it is connected by the Kebbi o' Mayo Kebbi, a right-hand tributary 
whose confluence is in about 9$ N., 13$ E. The Kebbi, fed by many 
torrents rising in the eastern versant of the Mandara Hills, issues 
from the S.W. end of the Tuburi marshes. These marshes occupy 
an extensive depression in the moderately elevated plateau east of 
the Mandara Hills, and are cut by 10 N., 15 E. The central part 
of the marshes forms a deep lake, whence there is a channel going 
northward to the Lojjone and navigable for some months during 
the year. The Kebbi flows west, and soon after leaving Tuburi 
passes through a rocky barrier marked by a series of rapids and a fall 
at Lata of 165 ft. Below these obstructions the Kebbi to its junction 
with the Benue has a depth of not less than 6 ft. In places, as at 
Lere and Bifara, it widens into lake-like dimensions. 

Below the Kebbi confluence the Benue, now a considerable river, 
turns from a northerly to a westerly direction and is navigable all 
the year round by boats drawing not more than 2} ft. For some 
40 m. below the confluence the river has an average width of 180 to 
200 yds., and flows with a strong steady current, although a broad 
strip of country on each side is swampy or submerged. It is here 
joined by the Faro, which, rising in the Adamawa Mountains S.E. 
of Ngaundere, flows almost due north. About 50 m. below the 
junction of the Faro is Yola, the capital of Adamawa. It lies on the 
southern side of the Benue, some 850 m. by river from the sea and 
at an altitude of 600 ft. Here the width of the stream increases at 
flood time to 1000 or 1500 yds., and though it narrows at the some- 
what dangerous rapids of Rumde Gilla to 150 or 180 yds., it soon 
expands again. About 50 m. below Yola the Benue receives, on the 
right bank, the Gongola, which rises in the Bauchi highlands and 
after a great curve north-east turns southward. It is over 300 m. 
long, and at flood time is navigable for about half of its course. 
The Benue receives several other tributaries both from the north and 
the south, but they are not of great importance. It flows onwards 
to the Niger with comparatively unobstructed current, its valleys 
marked for the most part by ranges of hills and its banks diversified 
with forests, villages and cultivated tracts. But though exception- 
ally free from obstruction by rapids, the river falls very low in the 
dry season, and for seven to eight months is almost useless for navi- 
gation. The Benue lies within British territory to a point 3 m. below 
the mouth of the Faro, in about 13 8' E. East of that point the 
river is in the German colony of Cameroon. 

As the Niger and the Benue have different gathering grounds, 
they are not in flood at the same time. The upper Niger rises in 
June as the result of the tropical rains, and decreases in p, oodand 
December, its breadth at Turella expanding from between JQW 
2000 and 2500 ft. to not less than ij m. The middle ^^0,,^ 
Niger, however, reaches its maximum near Timbuktu 
only in January; in February and March it sinks slowly above the 
narrows of Tosaye, and more rapidly below them, the level being 
'-.ept up by supplies from backwaters and lakes; and by April 
there is a decrease of about 5 ft. In August the channel near Tim- 
buktu is again navigable owing to rain in the southern highlands. 
The Benue reaches its greatest height in August or September, 
begins to fall in October, falls rapidly in November and slowly in 
the next three months, and reaches its lowest in March and April, 
when it is fordable in many places, has no perceptible flow and at 
the confluence begins to be covered with the water-weed Pistia 
Stratiotes. The flood rises with great rapidity, and reaches 50, 60, 
or even 75 ft. above the low-water mark. 

The two confluents being so unlike, the united river differs from 
each under the influence of the other. Here the river is at its lowest 
in April and May; in June it is subject to g_reat fluctuations; about 
the middle of August it usually begins to rise; and its maximum is 
reached in September. In October it sinks, often rapidly. A slight 
rise in January, known as the yangbe, is occasioned by water from 
the upper Niger. Between high- and low-water mark the difference 
is as much as 35 ft. 

The geological changes which have taken place in the Niger basin 
are imperfectly known. The French scientists E._F. Gautier and 
R. Chudeau, summing up the evidence available in 1909, 
set forth the hypothesis that the existing upper Niger Oeohxical 
and the existing lower Niger were distinct streams. <./,,,*. 
According to this theory the upper Niger, somewhat above 
where Timbuktu now stands, went north and north-west and emptied 
into the Juf, which in the beginning of the quaternary age was a 
salt-water lake, the remnant of an arm of the sea which in the 
tertiary age covered the northern Sudan and southern Sahara as 
far east as Bilma. Lake Fagubini is regarded as a remnant of the 



NIGER 



ancient course of the upper river. When the upper Niger had this 
direction, the Wadi Taffassassent, now a dried-up river of the central 
Sahara, which rose in the Ahaggar mountains, is believed to have 
formed the upper course of the existing lower Niger. While the 
upper and lower parts of the Niger have all the appearance of ancient 
streams, the middle Niger is the result of a ' recent" capture; 
" it has no past, it scarcely has a present " (see R. Chudeau, Sahara 
soudanais, Paris, 1909). 

Vague ideas of the existence of the river were possessed by 
the ancients. The great river flowing eastward reached by the 
Nasamonians as reported by Herodotus can be no 
History other than the Niger. Pliny mentions a river Nigris, 
"plontioa. of the same nature with the Nile, separating Africa 
and Ethiopia, and forming the boundary of Gaetulia; 
and it is not improbable that this is the modern Niger. In 
Ptolemy, too, appears along with Gir (possibly the Shari) a 
certain Nigir (Nfyeip) as one of the largest rivers of the interior; 
but so vague is his description that it is impossible definitely 
to identify it with the Niger. 1 Arabian geographers, such as 
Ibn Batuta. who were acquainted with the middle course of 
the river, called it the Nile of the Negroes. At the same time 
contradictory opinions were held as to the course of the stream. 
It was supposed by some geographers to run west, an opinion 
probably first stated by Idrisi in the I2th century. Idrisi 
gave the Nile of Egypt and the Nile of the Negroes a common 
source in the Mountain of the Moon. Fountains from the 
mountain formed two lakes, whence issued streams which 
united in a very large lake. From this third lake issued two 
rivers the Nile of Egypt flowing north, and that of the Negroes 
flowing west (see R. Dozy and M. J. de Goeje's Edrisi, Leiden, 
1866: Premier Climat, ist 4 sections). From Idrisi's description 
it would appear that he regarded the Shari, Lake Chad, the 
Benue, Niger and Senegal as one great river which emptied 
into the Atlantic. 2 That the Niger flowed west and reached 
the ocean was also stated by Leo Africanus. The belief that a 
western branch of the Nile emptied itself into the Atlantic was 
held by Prince Henry of Portugal, who instructed the navigators 
he despatched to Guinea to look for the mouth of the river, 
and when in 1445 they entered the estuary of the Senegal the 
Portuguese were convinced that they had discovered the Nile 
of the Negroes (see Azurara's Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, 
Beazley and Prestage's translation, vol. ii., London, 1899, chaps. 
Ix. and Ixi., and introduction and notes). The Senegal being 
proved an independent river and the eastward flow of the 
Niger assumed, the theory that it ran into the Nile was revived, 
and almost to the very year in which the course of the river 
was actually demonstrated geographers and travellers, such 
as J. G. Jackson in his Empire of Marocco, first published in 
1809, fought zealously for the identity of the Nile of the Negroes 
with the river of Egypt. The highest scientific authority of the 
day, Major James Rennell, believed, however, that the Niger 
ended, by evaporation, in the country of " Wangara " a region 
located by him, through a misreading of Idrisi, far too much 

1 Sir Rufane Donkin in a curious and learned work, A Dissertation 
on ... the Niger (1829), made the Niger join the Gir, which last 
stream he calls the Nile of Bornu. The united river ran north, 
disappeared underground in the Sahara and reached the Mediter- 
ranean at " the quicksands of the gulph of Sidra." Donkin believed 
that the desert, advancing eastwards, would overwhelm the Egyptian 
Nile also in its lower course. " The Delta," he exclaims, " shall 
become a plashy quicksand, a second Syrtis ! and the Nile shall 
cease to exist from the Lower Cataract downwards." 

! The hydrography of northern central Africa as now known 
largely explains the medieval belief in a connexion between the 
western rivers and the Egyptian Nile. Leaving out of account the 
Welle-Ubangi (and Idrisi's description of the two Niles may infer a 
knowledge of that stream, which was supposed by Schweinfurth to 
form part of the Chad system), there is an almost continuous water- 
way from the mouth of the Senegal to that of the Nile. The upper 
waters of the Bakoy branch of the Senegal and those of the navigable 
Niger are less than 40 m. apart; the Niger communicates directly 
through the Benue, Lake Tuburi and the Logone with the Shari; 
the easternmost affluents of the Shari and the most western tribu- 
taries of the Bahr el Ghazel affluent of the Nile are within 20 m. 
of one another. With but three short porterages a boat could be 
navigated the whole of this distance. Moreover, from the confluence 
of the Ghazel the Nile is navigable (at high water) the entire distance 
to the Mediterranean. (See also SHARI.) 



to the east, between 15 and 20 E. (see RennelPs map in Horne- 
mann's Travels, 1802). To Rennell the Benue was an east- 
flowing continuation of the Niger. 3 The imagined existence 
of mountains called Kong in the west and Komri (Lunar) in the 
east stretching in a high and unbroken chain across Africa 
about 10 N. long prevented geographers from thinking of a 
possible southern bend to the Niger. 

That the vast network of rivers on the Guinea coast, of which 
the Nun was the chief, known as the Oil Rivers, formed the delta 
of the Niger does not appear to have been suspected before the 
beginning of the igth century. Consequently it was from the 
direction of its source that the river was first explored in modern 
times. In 1795 Mungo Park (q.v.) was sent out by the African 
Association, and was the first European to see and describe 
the upper river. Park landed at the Gambia, and struck the 
Niger near Segu (a town some distance above Sansandig) on the 
2oth of July 1796, where he beheld it " glittering in the morning 
sun as broad as the Thames at Westminster and flowing slowly to 
the eastward " (Travels, ist ed. p. 194). He descended the 
river some distance, and on his return journey went up stream 
as far as Bamako. In 1805 Park returned to Africa for the 
purpose of descending the Niger to its mouth. He started as 
before from the Gambia, reached the Niger, sailed down the 
river past Timbuktu, and on the eve of the successful accomplish- 
ment of his undertaking lost his life during an attack on his boat 
by the natives at Bussa (Nov. or Dec. 1805). Park held to the 
opinion that the Niger and Congo were one river, though in 1802 
C. G. Reichard, a German geographer, had suggested that the 
Rio Nun was the mouth of the Niger. 4 Owing to Park's death the 
results of his second journey were lost, and the work had to be 
begun afresh. In 1822 Major A. G. Laing (who had reached 
Timbuktu by way of Tripoli) obtained some accurate information 
concerning the sources of the river, and in 1828 the French 
explorer Rene Caillie went by boat from Jenne to the port of 
Timbuktu. In 1826 Bussa was reached from Benin by Hugh 
Clapperton, and his servant Richard Lander. On Clapperton's 
death Richard Lander and his brother John led in 1830 an 
expedition .which went overland from Badagry to the Niger. 
Canoeing down the river from Yawri 60 m. above Bussa to 
the mouth of the Rio Nun they finally settled the doubt as to the 
lower course of the stream. In 1832 Macgregor Laird established 
the African Steamship Company, and Richard Lander and 
R. A. K. Oldfield (as members of its first expedition) ascended 
the Niger to Rabba, and the Benue as far as Dagbo (80 m.). 
In 1841 an expedition, consisting of three steamers of the British 
navy, under Captain (afterwards Admiral) H. D. Trotter, went 
up to Egga (Egam), but was forced to return owing to sickness 
and mortality. 

Heinrich Barth (1851-1854) made known to Europe the 
course of the river from Timbuktu to Say. Barth sailed down 
from Saraiyamo (situated on a tributary stream south-west of 
Timbukutu) to Kabara; then skirted the left bank to a small 
town called Bornu in 16 N., and the right thence to Say. In 
1880-1881 the German E. R. Flegel ascended the Niger to 
Gomba opposite the confluence of the Sokoto river with the 
main stream, and about 70 m. below Earth's southmost point. 
Zweifel and Moustier, sent out by M. Verminck, a Marseilles 
merchant, discovered (1879) the sources of the Falico, &c., and 
in 1885 the Tembi source was visited by Captain Brouet, a French 
officer. Indeed the additions to the knowledge of the Niger 
during the last two decades of the igth century were largely 
the work of French officers engaged in the extension of French 
influence throughout the western Sudan. From 1880 onwards 
Colonel (afterward General) Gallieni took a leading part in the 
operations on the upper river, wherein 18833 small gunboat, the 
Niger, was launched for the protection of the newly established 
French posts. In 1885 a voyage was made by Captain Delanneau 

1 In 1816 James McQueen correctly divined that there was a 
great west-flowing tributary (the Benue) to the Niger, and that after 
its confluence the river ran south to the Atlantic. See his View of 
Northern Central Africa (1821) and Geographical Survey of Africa 
(1840). 

* See Ephemerides geographiques, vol. xii. (Weimar, Aug. 1803). 



NIGERIA 



677 



past the ruins of Sansandig, as far as Diafarabe. In 1887 the 
gunboat made a more extended voyage, reaching the port of 
Timbuktu, and correcting the mapping of the river down to that 
point. In 1894-1895 attention was directed to the middle and 
lower Niger, to which several expeditions started from the coast 
of Guinea. A still more important expedition was that of 
Lieutenant Hourst, who, starting from Timbuktu in January 
1896, navigated the Niger from that point to its mouth, executing 
a careful survey of the river and the various obstructions to 
navigation. A voyage made in 1897 by Lieutenant de Chevigne 
showed that at low water the section between Timbuktu and 
Ansongo presents great difficulties, but the voyage from 
Timbuktu to Say was again successfully accomplished in 1899 
by Captain Granderye. In 1901 Captain E. Lenfant ascended 
the river with a flotilla from its mouth to Say, and he demon- 
strated the " normal practicability " of the route, despite the 
Bussa rapids. The delta of the Niger has been partially surveyed 
since it became British territory by various ship captains, 
officials of the Royal Niger Company and others, including Sir 
Harry Johnston, sometime British consul for the Oil Rivers. 

In addition to the main stream, the Niger basin was made 
known by exploration during the last quarter of the igth century 
and the early years of the 2Oth. The journeys of the German 
traveller G. A. Krause (north from the Gold Coast, 1886-1887) 
and the French Captain Singer (Senegal to Ivory Coast, 1887- 
1889) first denned its southern limits by revealing the unexpected 
northward extension of the basins of the Guinea coast streams, 
especially the Volta and Komoe, a fact which explained the 
absence of important tributaries within the Niger bend. This 
was crossed for the first time, in its fullest extent, by Colonel P. L. 
Monteil (French) in 1890-1891. At the eastern end of the basin 
much light h^s been thrown on the system of the Benue. In 1851 
Barth crossed the Benue at its junction with the Faro, but the 
region of its sources was first explored by Flegel (1882-1884), 
who traversed the whole southern basin of the river and reached 
Ngaundere. Other German travellers added to the knowledge 
of the southern tributaries, the Tarabba, Donga and others, 
which in the rains bring down a large body of water from the 
highlands of southern Adamawa. British travellers who have 
done work in the same region are Sir W. Wallace, L. H. Moseley, 
W. P. Hewby, P. A. Talbot and Captain Claud Alexander. 
The last-named two were members of an expedition led by 
Lieut. Boyd-Alexander, who himself crossed Africa from the 
Niger to the Nile. Messrs Talbot and Claud Alexander surveyed 
the country between Ibi on the Benue and Lake Chad, mapping 
(1904) a considerable part of the Gongola. 1 In 1854 the Benue 
itself was ascended 400 m. by the " Pleiad " expedition, and in 
1889 to 135 E., and the Kebbi to Bifara by Major (afterwards 
Sir Claude) Macdonald, further progress towards the Tuburi 
marsh being prevented by the shallowness of the water. The 
upper basin of the Benue was also traversed by the French 
expeditions of Mizon (1892) and Maistre (1892-1893), the latter 
passing to the south of the Tuburi marsh without definitely 
settling the hydrographical question connected with it. This 
was accomplished by Captain Lenfant in 1903. He ascended the 
Kebbi and discovered the Lata Fall, continuing up the river to its 
point of issue from Tuburi. Crossing the marshes he found and 
navigated the narrow river leading to the Logone. Save for the 
porterage round the Lata Fall the whole journey from the mouth 
of the Niger to Lake Chad was made by water. The Benue in 
the neighbourhood of Yola was mapped in 1903-1904 by an 
Anglo-German boundary commission. 

From 1904 onwards the French undertook works on the Niger 
between Bamako whence there is railway communication with 
the Senegal and Ansongo with a view to deepening the channel 
and removing obstructions to navigation. In 1910 the British 
began dredging with the object of obtaining from the mouth of 
the river to Baro a minimum depth of 6 ft. of water. 

1 Captain Claud Alexander died of fever in northern Nigeria on 
the 3Oth of November 1904. His brother, Lieut. Boyd Alexander, 
in a subsequent expedition across Africa was murdered in Wadai on 
the 2nd of April 1910. 



AUTHORITIES. Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of 
Africa . . . in the Years 1795, 1796 and 1797 (London, 1799). A 
geographical appendix by Major James RenneH summarizes the 



information then available about the Niger. R. and J. Lander, 
Journal of an Expedition to explore the Course and Termination of 
the Niger ... (3 vols. London, 1833); H. Barth, Travels and 
Discoveries in North and Central Africa . . ., vols. iv. and v. (London, 
1857-1858); Gen. J. S. Gallieni, Mission d'exploration du Haul 
Niger . . . (Paris, 1885); E. Caron, De Saint Louis au Port de 
Timbouktou; Voyage a'une cannoniere fran$aise (Paris, 1891); 
M. Hourst, Sur le Niger et au pays des Touaregs (Paris, 1898), English 
translation, French Enterprise in Africa . . . Exploration of the 
Niger (London, 1898). The political references in this book are 
marked by jealous hostility to the British. Col. J. K. Trotter, The 
Niger Sources . . . (London, 1897); Sir H. H. Johnston," The Niger 
Delta," Proc. R.G.S. (December 1888); Sir F. Lugard, "An Ex- 
pedition to Borgu on the Niger," Geo. Jnl. (September 1895); E. 
Lenfant, Le Niger; vote ouverte a noire empire afrtcain (Paris, 1903), 
chiefly a demonstration that the Bussa rapids are not an absolute 
bar to navigation. 

The foregoing books deal almost entirely with the Niger. For the 
Benue see, oesides Earth's Travels, A. F. Mockler Ferryman, Up the 
Niger; Narrative of Major Claude Macdonald 's Mission to the Niger 
and Benue Rivers . . . (London, 1892); L. Mizon, " Itineraire de la 
source de la Benoue au confluent des rivieres Kadei et Mambere" 
and other papers in the Bull. Soc. Geog. Paris for 1895 and 1896; 
C. Maistre, A trovers I'Afrique central du Congo au Niger (Paris, 1895) ; 
E. Lenfant, La Grande Route du Chad (Paris, 1905) ; Col. L. Jackson, 
" The Anglo-German Boundary Expedition in Nigeria," Geo. Jnl. 
(July 1905) ; P. A. Talbot, " Survey Work by the Alexander Gosling 
Expedition: Northern Nigeria 1904-1905," idem (February 1906); 
Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, vol. i. (London, 1907). 
The British Blue Books, Correspondence relating to Railway Con- 
struction in Nigeria (1905) and Further Correspondence, &c. (1909), 
contain information about the navigability of the lower Niger and 
of the Kaduna. The best maps are those published by the French 
and British War Offices; an Atlas du cours du Niger de Tombouctou 
aux rapides de Boussa in 50 sheets on the scale of 1 : 50,000, by Lieut. 
Hourst and others, was published in Paris in 1899. (F. R. C.) 

NIGERIA, a British protectorate in West Africa occupying the 
lower basin of the Niger and the country between that river and 
Lake Chad, including the Fula empire (i.e. the Hausa States) 
and the greater part of Bornu. It embraces most of the territory 
in the square formed by the meridians of 3 and 14 E. and the 
parallels of 4 and 14 N., and has an area of about 338,000 sq. m. 
The protectorate is bounded W. , N. and N.E. by French possessions 
(Dahomey, Upper Senegal and Niger colony, and Chad territory), 
S.E. by the German colony of Cameroon and S. by the Atlantic. 

Physical Features. The country is divisible, broadly, into 
three zones running parallel with the coast: (i) the delta, (2) 
forest region, giving place to (3) the plateau region. The coast 
line, some 500 m. in length, extends along the Gulf of Guinea 
from 2 46' 55* E. to 8 45' E. ending at the Rio del Rey, the point 
where the great bend eastwards of the continent ceases and the 
land turns south. The Niger (?..), which enters the protectorate 
at its N.W. corner and flows thence S.E. to the Atlantic, receives, 
250 m. from the sea, the Benue, which, rising in the mountains of 
Adamawa south of Lake Chad, flows west across the plateau. 
Into the huge delta of the Niger several other rivers (the " Oil 
Rivers ") empty themselves; the chief being, on the west, 
the Benin (<?..), and on the east the Brass. East of the Niger 
delta is that formed by the Imo or Opobo, Bonny and other 
streams, and still farther east is the Calabar estuary, mainly 
formed by the Cross river (q.v.). West of the Niger delta are 
several independent streams discharging into lagoons, which 
here line the coast. The most westerly of these streams, the 
Ogun, enters the Lagos lagoon, which is connected by navigable 
waterways with the Niger (see LAGOS). 

The delta region is swampy, and forms, for a distance of from 
40 to 70 m. inland, a network of interlacing creeks and broad 
sluggish channels fringed with monotonous mangrove forests. 
The main rivers are navigable for ocean-going steamers for a 
distance of from 15 to 40 m. from their mouths. Beyond the 
delta firm ground takes the place of mud and the mangroves 
disappear. The land rises gradually at first, becoming, however, 
in many districts very hilly, and is covered with dense forests. 
The Niger at its confluence with the Benue is not more than 
250 ft. above the sea. North of this point are hills forming 
the walls of the plateau which extends over the centre of the 



NIGERIA 



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NIGERIA 



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protectorate and is part of the great plateau of North Africa. 
This plateau, broken only by the valleys of the rivers, does 
not attain an elevation approaching that of the plateaus of the 
southern half of the continent, the culminating point (apart from 
particular mountain districts), situated in about 10 N., reaching 
a height of 3000 ft. only. The valleys of the Niger and Benue, 
especially the latter, are very much lower, the town of Yola 
on the Benue, some 400 m. inland, lying at an altitude of little 
over 600 ft. The surface is generally undulating, with isolated 
" table mountains " of granite and sandstone often rising 
abruptly from the plain. It is clothed largely with thin forest, 
but becomes more open to the north until, near the French 
frontier, the arid steppes bordering the Sahara are reached. 
Much of the country north of Zaria (11 N.) is covered with 
heavy loose sand. The most mountainous districts are northern 
Bauchi (a little north of 10), where heights of 6ooc to 7000 ft. 
occur; parts of Muri, along the north bank of the Benue; 
and the southern border of the Benue basin, where the hills 
(consisting of ironstone, quartz and granite) appear rich in 
minerals. The mountainous area covers some 50,000 sq. m. 
On the east the plateau sinks to the plains of Bornu (?..), which 
extend to Lake Chad. Tributaries of the Niger traverse the 
western portion of the country, the most noteworthy being 
the Gulbin Kebbi or Sokoto river and the Kaduna, which flows 



through a valley not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The 
north-eastern part of the country drains to Lake Chad by the 
Waube or Yo, an intermittent stream, which in its lower course 
forms the Anglo-French boundary. The western portion of 
Lake Chad (q.v.) belongs to the protectorate, which contains 
no other large lake. The water parting between the Chad and 
Niger systems runs N.W. and S.E. from about Katsena in 
13 N. to the Bauchi hills. Of the tributaries of the Benue 
the most important is the Gongola. During the dry season most 
of the small rivers cease running and the water in the larger 
streams is low. The great rise of the Niger within the pro- 
tectorate takes place in August and September and there is a 
second rise about the beginning of the year. 

Geology. The fundamental formation consists of crystalline rocks. 
From the edge of the coast belt to near the confluence of the Benue 
and Niger they are overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones, lying un- 
disturbed and possibly of the age of the sandstones of the Congo basin. 
Limestones, with fossils indicating a Tertiary age, have been found 
near Sokoto. Superficial deposits occupy the coast belt. Recent 
alluvium and a thick deposit of black earth border the upper reaches 
of the Benue and cover wide areas around Lake Chad. 

Climate. The country lies wholly within the tropics. The 
climate of the coast-lands is moist and hot, and extremely unhealthy, 
malarial fever being prevalent and deadly. The annual rainfall in the 
delta regions varies between 100 and 140 or more inches; the mean 
temperature is over 80 F. The heat does not vary greatly, rarely 



NIGERIA 



679 



sinking below 70, and not often exceeding 100 in the shade. The 
direction of the prevailing wind is S.W. Though unfavourable for 
the permanent residence of white men, the interior is much less 
deadly than the coast-lands. The northern part is a land of tornadoes. 
At the close of the dry season (end of February) cyclones from the 
N.E., usually accompanied by rain and thunder, burst over the land. 
They increase in frequency until they merge in the heavy rains 
which last from July to October. Then the " hamattan," or hot, dry 
wind from the Sahara, begins and brings with it clouds of impalpable 
dust. At this period the nights are cold, and in the north January 
and February are cold even in the day-time, while frosts are ex- 
perienced in the neighbourhood of Lake Chad. The temperature in 
the central part of the protectorate is much the same average as at 
the coast, but the range is far greater, varying from a shade minimum 
of 59 to a shade maximum of 107. l The rainfall is much scantier 
on the plateaus than in the maritime regions, averaging in Northern 
Nigeria about 5 in- a year. There is evidence of the increasing 
desiccation of the whole country north of the forest belt. This 
desiccation is partly attributable to the unrestricted felling of wood 
practised for many centuries by the inhabitants. Along the northern 
border of the protectorate this has resulted in the encroachment of 
the Saharan desert over once fertile districts. 

The natives of the northern regions do not suffer to any extent 
from fever unless they move to a part of the country some distance 
from their home. Leprosy is common, especially in the inland towns ; 
while ophthalmia is prevalent in the north, especially among the 
poorer classes, who are compelled to expose themselves to the 
blinding dust from the deserts and the excessive glare of the sun 
reflected from the burning sand. 

Fauna and Flora. The animals of Nigeria include the elephant, 
lion, leopard, giraffe, hyena, West-African buffalo, many kinds of 
antelope and gazelle and smaller game. Monkeys are numerous in 
the forests, and snakes are common. The camel is found in the 
northern regions bordering the Sahara. In the rivers are rhinoceros, 
hippopotamus and crocodile. The manatus is also found. The birds 
include the ostrich, marabout, vultures, kites, hawks, ground horn- 
bill, great bustard, guinea fowl, partridge, lesser bustard, quail, 
snipe, duck, widgeon, teal, geese of various kinds, paraquets, doves, 
blue, bronze and green pigeons, and many others. Domestic animals 
include the horse and donkey in the plateaus, but baggage animals 
are rare in the coast-lands, where the tsetse fly is found. Mosquitoes' 
are also abundant throughout the delta. Herds of cattle and flocks 
of sheep and goats are numerous throughout the country. 

The mangrove is the characteristic tree of the swamps. North 
of the swamps the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) flourishes abundantly. 
It is common as far as about 7 N. Rubber vines, mahogany, ebony 
and many valuable timber trees are found in the forest zone. Other 
trees, found chiefly on the plateaus, are the baobab, the shea-butter 
tree, the locust tree, gambier, palms, including the date and dum 
palm (Hyphaene), the tamarind, and, in the arid regions, the acacia 
and mimosa. 

Inhabitants. The population of Nigeria is estimated at 
15,000,000. The Europeans (mostly British) number about a 
thousand, and are civil servants, soldiers, traders or missionaries. 
In the delta district and the forest zone the inhabitants are 
typical negroes. Besides the people of Benin, the coast tribes 
include the Jekri, living on the lower part of the Benin river 
and akin to the Yoruba, the Ijos, living in the delta east of the 
main mouth of the Niger, and the Ibos, occupying a wide tract 
of country just above the delta and extending for 100 m. east 
from the Niger to the Cross river. South of the Ibos live the 
Arcs, a tribe of relatively great intelligence, who dominated 
many of the surrounding tribes and possessed an oracle or ju-ju 
of reputed great power. On the middle Cross river live the 
Akuna-kunas, an agricultural race, and in the Calabar region 
are the Efiks, Ibibios and Kwas. All these tribes are fetish 
worshippers, though Christian and Moslem missionaries have 
made numerous converts. The Efiks, a coast tribe which has 
come much into contact with white men, have adopted several 
European customs, and educated Efiks are employed in 
government service. The great secret society called Egbo (q.v.) 
is an Efik institution. Each tribe has a different ju-ju, and 
each speaks a separate language or dialect, the most widely 
diffused tongues being the Ibo and Efik, which have been 
reduced to writing. In general little clothing is worn, but none 
of the tribes go absolutely nude. In colour the majority are 
dark chocolate, others are coal-black (a tint much admired by 
the natives themselves) or dark yellow-brown. Cannibalism, 
human sacrifices and other revolting practices common to the 
tribes, are being gradually stamped out under British control. 

1 Returns at Zungeru for 1903. 



Trial by ordeal and domestic slavery are still among the recog- 
nized institutions. 

In the northern parts of Nigeria the inhabitants are of more 
mixed blood, the negro substratum having been to a great 
extent driven out by the northern races of the continent. The 
most important race in Northern Nigeria is that of the Hausa 
(q.v.), among whom the superior classes adopted Mahommedanism 
in the I3th and I4th centuries. While the lower classes remained 
pagan, a fairly civilized system of administration, with an 
efficient judicial and fiscal organization, was established in the 
Hausa territories. The Hausa are keen traders and make ex- 
cellent soldiers. 

At the beginning of the ipth century the Hausa territories 
were conquered by another dominant Mahommedan race, the 
Fula (q.v.), who form a separate caste of cattle-rearers. Arab 
merchants are settled in some of the larger Hausa towns. 

In general the people living in the river valleys have been 
unaffected by Moslem propaganda either in blood or religion. 
Thus along the banks of the Niger, Benue and other streams, 
the inhabitants are negro and pagans, and generally of a purely 
savage though often rather fine type. Of these the Munshi, 
who inhabit the district nearest the junction of the Benue with 
the Niger, were long noted for their intractability and hostility 
to strangers, whom they attacked with poisoned arrows. The 
Yoraghums, their neighbours, were cannibals. Nearer Yola 
live the Battas, who also had a bad reputation. These tribes, 
under British influence, are turning to trade and agricultural 
pursuits. In the central hilly region of Kachia are other pagan 
tribes. They wear no clothes and their bodies are covered with 
hair. South of the Benue, near the Niger confluence, dwell 
the savage and warlike Okpotos, Bassas and other tribes. In 
the districts of Illorin and Borgu, west of the Niger, the inhabit- 
ants are also negroes and pagan, but of a more advanced 
type than the tribes of the river valleys. To attempt any 
complete h'st of the tribes inhabiting Northern Nigeria would 
be vain. In the one province of Bauchi as many as sixty native 
languages are spoken. 

In Bomu (q.v.) the population consists of (i) Berberi or 
Kanuri, the ruling race, containing a mixture of Berber and 
negro blood, with many lesser indigenous tribes; (2) so-called 
Arabs, and (3) Fula. The country to the back of Lagos is largely 
inhabited by Yorubas (q.v.), and the people of Borgu according 
to some native traditions claim to have had a Coptic origin. 

Towns. A large proportion of the population dwells in towns. 
The chief ports are Lagos (q.v.), capital of Southern Nigeria, 
with a population of about 50,000; Calabar (q.v.), pop. about 15,000, 
known as Old Calabar and Duke Town, on the Calabar river; Opobo, 
Bonny Town and Brass Town, all on the rivers of the same name. 
Brass Town contains a fine church, the gift of a native chief. These 
places are east of the Nun or main mouth of the Niger, where, on 
the western bank, is Akassa. Here are important engineering works 
and a slip for repairing ships. Further west at the Forcados mouth 
of the Niger is a town of the same name, which is the principal port 
of entry for the river. Benin (q.v.), about 60 m. inland from the 
mouth of the Benin river, and Bende, about 50 m. N.W. of Calabar, 
were noted ju-ju towns and have large populations. Wari and 
Sapele are towns in the Benin district. Owo, some 50 m. N. of Benin 
city, is an important trade centre for the Yoruba country, in which 
are the large cities of Abeokuta, Ibadan and Illorin, all separately 
noticed. On the Niger at the head of the delta are Asaba (west 
bank) and Onitsha (east bank); Iddah (Ida), in the palm-oil zone; 
Lokoja on the west bank opposite the confluence with the Benue, 
and the headquarters of the protectorate's military force; Baro, 
on the east bank, 70 m. above Lokoja, the river terminus of the 
Northern Nigeria railway; Egga, Mureji (at the Kaduna confluence), 
Tebba and Bussa (q.v.). The administrative headquarters of Northern 
Nigeria are at Zungeru, on the Kaduna river, in 6 09' 40" E., 
9 48' 32" N. 

Apart from the sea and river ports and the towns in Yorubaland, 
the chief centres of population are in the open plains east of the 
Niger. They are trie capitals of various states founded by the 
Hausa. Of these cities the most important is Kano (q.v.), the great 
emporium of trade for the central Sudan, where Tuareg and Arab 
from the north meet merchants from the Niger, Lake Chad and 
the far southern regions. It is situated in 12 N. and 8 32' E. 
Some 220 m. W.N.W. of Kano is Sokoto, on a tributary of the Niger 
of the same name. Sokoto is the religious and political centre of the 
Fula. Next in importance among the Hausa towns are Bauchi (or 
Yakoba), pop. over 50,000, 140 m. S.E. of Kano; Zaria (q.v.), pop. 



68o 



NIGERIA 



about 60,000, 82 m. S.S.W. of Kano; Katsena (q.v.), 84 m. N.W. 
of Kano; Hadeija, near the N. eastern frontier; Gando,6o m. S.W. 
of Sokoto; Bida (q.v.), 25 m. N.W. of Egga on the Niger; and Yola 
(q.v.) on the Benue near the German frontier. Jegga, 85 m. S.W. of 
Sokoto, is an important entrep&t for tiade from the hinterland of 
the Guinea coast and the Hausa states. The chief towns of Bornu 
are Kuka (q.v.) on Lake Chad, and Maidugari, some 70 m. S.W. of 
that lake. Nlost of these towns are capitals of provinces and resi- 
dences of native princes subordinate to the British administration. 
They are nearly all surrounded by strong mud walls and outer dry 
moats. Their interior is divided into a series of compounds, each 
entered through a flat-roofed audience chamber. Inside are the 
beehive-shaped huts of the household. The gateways are strongly 
fortified. In addition to the towns mentioned there are many others 
containing populations of from 10,000 to 20,000, the bulk of the 
inhabitants of the Hausa countries being town dwellers. 

Communications. The rivers are the great highways of com- 
munication, but, in consequence of the lowness of the water between 
October and May, navigation is then only possible for shallow draught 
stern-wheel steamers and launches. From the Forcados mouth of 
the Niger steamers can ascend the main stream as far as Jebba, 
a distance of 530 m. and, at some risk, to Fort Goldie, 30 m. farther 
up at the foot of the Bussa rapids. Steamers can also ascend the 
Benue to Yola, 480 m., above the confluence of that river with the 
Niger at Lokoja. It is also possible by this route to proceed by 
small boat via the Shari system to Lake Chad. The Kaduna from 
its confluence with the Niger can be ascended by steamer 50 m. to 
Barijuko, which is 22 m. by rail from Zungeru. The Gongola is 
navigable at high water for 130 m. from its junction with the Benue. 

In the delta region every place of importance is easily reached by 
river steamers, and there is a regular service between Forcados and 
Lagos by the lagoons. The Cross river is navigable 240 m. up to and 
beyond the frontier of Cameroon. 

A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway from the port of Lagos to Ibadan was 
completed in 1900, the distance by rail being 123 m. Only about half 
that distance intervenes between Ibadan and the sea. This line was, 
during 1906-1910, extended via Oshogbo, Illorin and Jebba to 
Zungeru, whence it is continued to She, 40 m. E. of Zungeru and 
about ^.50 m. from Lagos, where a junction is effected with the Baro- 
Kano line. A small light surface line 22 m. long, 2 ft. 6 in. gauge was 
built(i9Oi-i9O2)in Northern Nigeria between Barijuko on theKaduna 
and the capital, Zungeru, and proved most successful and lucrative. In 
1907 the construction was begun of a 3 ft. 6 in. railway from Baro on 
the Niger via Bida and Zaria to Kano a distance of about 400 m. 

Good roads connect some of the great Hausa cities, and Kano and 
Kuka are starting-points for caravans across the Sahara to the 
Mediterranean. There are also old established caravan routes from 
Kano to Ashanti and neighbouring countries. 

Regular communication is maintained with Europe by steamers 
running between Liverpool and Forcados, Bonny and Calabar, the 
steamers calling at other West African ports en route. The time 
occupied between Liverpool and Forcados is about seventeen days. 
Other steamers ply between the ports named (and others in the pro- 
tectorate) and London and Hamburg. There is telegraphic com- 
munication between Brass and Bonny and Europe by submarine 
cable, and land lines from Calabar to Lagos and from Lagos to Jebba, 
Lokoja, Zungeru, Kano, &c., a connexion being also effected with the 
telegraph system of French West Africa. 

Agriculture. The natives of the coast region cultivate yams and 
other food plants, but in that district agnculture proper scarcely 
exists, the fruit of the oil-palm supplying an easy means of obtaining 
almost everything that the natives require. In the plains of the 
north, inhabited by Hausa and by agricultural pagan tribes, and in 
the fertile river valleys, agriculture is regularly carried on. Rice and 
wheat are cultivated in many parts, though the staple food is guinea 
corn. Sweet potatoes, ground nuts, yams, onions and other vege- 
tables are largely grown. Of fruits, dates, pomegranates, citrons 
and bananas abound in certain areas. The shea-butter tree supplies 
an excellent oil for lamps, and also for cooking, though it is only used 
by the poorer classes. The most important vegetable products are 
cotton and indigo, which are universally grown. Tobacco and kola 
n uts are also grown. 

Mineral Products^. Tin ore of excellent quality is found in the 
province of Bauchi, alkali salts are abundant in Kano province, 
iron ore and red and yellow ochres are found in Kontagora and other 
provinces, kaolin (china clay) and limestone in the west central 
regions. Silver and lead have been found in the Benue area. 1 

Trade. Throughout Nigeria local trade is active and has shown 
rapid increase under British rule. Its further development will be 
fostered by the improvement of communications which is taking 
place. Export trade in the delta and forest regions is almost entirely 
confined to " jungle produce," the most important articles being 
palm oil and palm kernel. Rubber, ebony and other timber, cocoa 
and gum copal, come_next in importance. Cotton is also grown for 
export. The quantity of palm oil exported annually exceeds 
2^000,000 gallons, and is worth over 600,000. Of palm kernels 

1 See Colonial Office Reports, Northern Nigeria Mineral Survey 
I(.o6-ioo7; Southern Nigeria Mineral Survey 1005-1007 (Miscella- 
neous, Nos. 59, 67, 68). 



50,000 to 70,000 tons are shipped yearly, with an average value of 
500,000 a year. The principal imports are cotton goods (nearly all 
from the United Kingdom), and in the southern region spirits gin 
and geneva almost wholly from Holland and Germany, salt, rice 
and other provisions, tobacco, hardware, cutlery and building 
material, &c., mostly from the United Kingdom. The value of the 
trade (imports and exports) of Southern Nigeria (exclusive of Lagos) 
increased from 1,566,000 in 1894-1895 to 3,464,000 in 1905. In 
1906 the total trade, inclusive of Lagos, was valued at 6,299,000 
imports, 3,148,000; exports, 3,151,000. 

In Northern Nigeria up to ttie moment of the British occupation 
the foreign trade was chiefly in the hands of Tripoli Arabs whose 
caravans crossed the desert at great risk and expense, and carried 
to the markets of Kuka and Kano tea, sugar and other European 
goods, taking away the skins and feathers which constituted the 
principal articles of export to the Mediterranean coast. There was 
also a very considerable caravan trade in native goods which the 
industrious Hausa population carried for great distances through the 
western and central states of the Sudan. The principal articles of 
this trade are salt, kola nuts, ivory, leather, sodium carbonates and 
spices. The centre of the cloth manufacture is Kano. The cloth, is 
made of the cotton grown in the country, woven on small hand- 
looms and dyed either with indigo or with a magenta dye obtained 
from the bark of a tree. If the Hausa history, which exists in written 
form, be correct, the manufacture of this cloth has been carried on 
in Kano since the 9th century. Kano and the district around it 
clothes half the population of the Sudan. The kola nut, chewed by 
almost every native of the country, is brought from west of the 
Niger, traders from Ashanti, Accra and Yorubaland frequenting the 
markets of Jegga. Salt and " potash " are imported from Absen 
in the Sahara; and ivory, ostrich feathers and leather goods are 
exported to Tripoli. The principal exports to Great Britain have 
come hitherto from the forest regions, and are of the same class 
as the forest products of the south. Rubber constitutes at present 
the most important export. The cultivation of cotton is however 
indigenous to the country. Inquiries made under the auspices of 
the British Cotton Growing Association have led to the conclusion 
that Northern Nigeria offers the most promising field contained 
within the empire for the growth of cotton required to render 
Lancashire looms independent of foreign supplies. Steps have been 
taken to stimulate the native industry, and it is hoped that cotton 
may take the place in Northern Nigeria which palm oil and kernels 
occupy in the coast zone. Any great expansion in the cotton trade 
is however dependent on the development of cheap and efficient 
means of transport hence the importance, commercially, of the 
Baro-Kano railway, with its base on the navigable Niger. With 
the increase of transport facilities it is probable that the trade with 
the Mediterranean coasts will also be diverted to the south, and profit- 
able minor branches of trade would be formed in leather, ostrich 
feathers, gums, fibres, &c. The imports from Great Britain, which 
come via Forcados, are mostly cotton goods, provisions and hard- 
ware. The importation of spirits is prohibited north of 7 N. 

Currency and Banking. The legal currency, and that in general 
use, is British sterling. There is a subsidiary coinage (introduced in 
1908) consisting of a nickel penny and a nickel tenth of a penny 
(the last-named was first coined in aluminium, but this metal proved 
unsuitable and was withdrawn). Cowries (iooo = 3d.) are still 
occasionally employed, and on the coast, accounts are sometimes kept 
in gallons of palm oil. Banking is in the hands of the Bank of 
British West Africa and the Bank of Nigeria. There is also a 
government savings bank. 

History. 

Of the early history of the races inhabiting the coast lands 
little is known. The Beni appear to have been the most powerful 
race at the time of the discovery of the coast by the Portuguese 
in the isth century, and the kings of Benin in the I7th century 
ruled a large part of the south-western portion of the existing 
British protectorate (see BENIN). The Benin influence does 
not seem to have reached east of the Forcados mouth of the 
Niger. In the greater part of the delta region each town owned 
a different chief and there was no one dominant tribe. Among 
these people, who occupied a low position even among the de- 
generate coast negroes, and who were constantly raided by the 
more virile tribes of the interior, trading stations were established 
by the Portuguese, and later on by other Europeans, British 
traders appearing as early as the I7th century. There was no 
assertion of political rights by the white men, who were largely 
at the mercy of the natives, and who rarely ventured far from 
their ships or the " factories " established on the various rivers 
and estuaries. 

By the end of the i8th century British enterprise had almost 
entirely displaced that of other nations on the Niger coast. 
But the principal trade of all Europeans was still in slaves. 



NIGERIA 



681 



After the abolition of the slave-trade in the igih century palm 
oil formed the staple article of commerce, and the various 
streams which drain the Niger coast near the mouth of the 
great river became known as the " Oil Rivers." The opening 
up of the interior was in the meantime promoted, chiefly by the 
efforts of British travellers and merchants. Mungo Park traced 
the Niger from Segu to Bussa, where he lost his life in 1805. 
From Bussa to the sea the course of the river was first made 
known in 1830 by the L brothers Richard and John Lander. 
Major Dixon Denham and Captain Hugh Clapperton entered 
the country now known as Northern Nigeria from the north 
in 1823, crossing the desert from Tripoli. Clapperton in 1826- 
1827 made a second journey, approaching the same territory 
from the Guinea coast. Dr Earth, travelling under the auspices 
of the British government, entered the country from the north 
and made the journeys, lasting over two years between 1852 
and 1855, of which he has left the record that still remains 
the principal standard work for the interior. Macgregor Laird 
first organized in 1832 the navigation of the river Niger from 
its mouth to a point above the Benue confluence. During the 
next twenty-five years expeditions were despatched into the 
interior, and a British consul was posted at Lokoja. Possession 
was also taken, in 1861, of Lagos island, with the object of 
checking the slave trade still being carried on in that region. 
But the deadly climate discouraged the first efforts of the British 
government, and, after the parliamentary committee of 1865 
had recommended a policy which would render possible the 
ultimate withdrawal of British official influence from the coast, 
the consulate of Lokoja was abandoned. 

It was re-established a few years later to meet the still steadily 
growing requirements of British trade upon the river. In 1880 
the influence of the international " scramble for Africa " made 
itself felt by the establishment under the recognized protection 
of the French government of two French firms which opened 
upwards of thirty trading stations on the Lower Niger. The 
establishment of these firms was admittedly a political move 
which coincided with the extension of French influence from 
Senegal into the interior. Nearly at the same time a young 
Englishman, George Goldie-Taubman, afterwards better known 
as Sir George Goldie (?..), having some private interests on 
the Niger, conceived the idea of amalgamating all local British 
interests and creating a British province on the Niger. To 
effect this end the United African Company was formed in 
Formation J ^7' an( * trade was pushed upon the river with 
of the an energy which convinced the French firms of the 
Royal futility of their less united efforts. They yielded 
Mger the field and allowed themselves to be bought out 

ompany. ^ ^ Un j ted African Company in 1884. At the 
Berlin Conference held in 1884-1885 the British representative 
was able to state that Great Britain alone possessed trading 
interests on the Lower Niger, and in June 1885 a British pro- 
tectorate was notified over the coast lands known as the Oil 
Rivers. Germany had in the meantime established itself 
in Cameroon, and the new British protectorate extended along 
the Gulf of Guinea from the British colony of Lagos on the 
west to the new German colony on the east, where the Rio del 
Rey marked the frontier. In the following year, 1886, the 
United African Company received a royal charter under the 
title of the Royal Niger Company. The territories which were 
placed by the charter under the control of the company were 
those immediately bordering the Lower Niger in its course from 
the confluence at Lokoja to the sea. On the coast they extended 
from the Forcados to the Nun mouth of the river. Beyond 
the confluence European trade had not at that time penetrated 
to the interior. 

The interior was held by powerful Mahommedan rulers who 
had imposed a military domination upon the indigenous races 
and were not prepared to open their territories to European 
intercourse. To secure British political influence, and to preserve 
a possible field for future development, the Niger Company 
had negotiated treaties with some of the most important of these 
rulers, and the nominal extension of the company's territories 



was carried over the whole sphere of influence thus secured. 
The movements of Germany from the south-east, and of France 
from the west and north, were thus held in check, and by securing 
international agreements the mutual limits of the three European 
powers concerned were definitely fixed. The principal treaties 
relating to the German frontiers were negotiated in 1886 and 
1893: the Anglo-French treaties were more numerous, those 
of 1890 and 1898, which laid down the main b'nes of division 
between French and British possessions on the northern and 
western frontiers of Nigeria, having been supplemented by many 
lesser rectifications of frontier. (See AFRICA, 5.) It was not 
until 1909 that the whole of the frontier between Nigeria and the 
French and German possessions had been definitely demarcated. 
Thus, mainly by the action of the Royal Niger Company, a 
territory of vast extent, into which the chartered company 
itself was not able to carry either administrative or trading 
operations, was secured for Great Britain. In 1897, at a time 
when disputes with France upon the western frontier had 
reached a very active stage,* the company entered upon a 
campaign against the Mahommedan sovereign of Nupe. This 
campaign would, no doubt, have led to important results had 
the company retained its administrative powers. In the ex- 
pedition a force of 500 Hausa, drilled and trained by the company, 
and led by thirty white officers of whom some were lent for 
the occasion by the War Office decisively defeated a force 
of some thousands of native troops, led by the emir of Nupe 
himself. The capital town of Bida was taken and the emir 
deposed. From Bida the expedition marched to Illorin, where 
again the whole district submitted to the authority of the 
company. In Illorin the campaign had some lasting effect. 
In Nupe, on the northern side of the river, as the company 
was unable to occupy the territory conquered, things shortly 
reverted to their previous condition. When the company's 
troops were withdrawn the deposed emir returned and reoccupied 
the throne, leaving the situation to be dealt with after the 
territories of the company had been transferred to the crown. 

The complications to which the pressure of foreign nations, 
and especially of France, on the frontiers of the territories 
gave rise, became at this period so acute that the fransferof 
resources of a private company were manifestly authority 
inadequate to meet the possible necessities of the to the 
position. Relations with France on the western crowa - 
border became so strained that in 1897 Mr Chamberlain, 
who was then secretary of state for the colonies, thought it 
necessary to raise a local force, afterwards known as the West 
African Frontier Force, for the special defence of the frontiers 
of the West African dependencies. In these circumstances 
it was judged advisable to place the territories of the Royal 
Niger Company, to which the general name of Nigeria had been 
given, under the direct control of the crown. It was therefore 
arranged that in consideration of compensation for private 
rights the company should surrender its charter and transfer 
all political rights in the territories to the Crown. The transfer 
took place on the ist of January 1900, from which date the 
company, which dropped the name of " royal," became a purely 
trading corporation. The southern portion of the territories 
was amalgamated with the Niger Coast Protectorate, the whole 
district taking the name of the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, 
while the northern portion, extending from a line drawn slightly 
above 7 N. to the frontier of the French possessions on the north 
and including the confluence of the Niger and the Benue at 
Lokoja, was proclaimed a protectorate under the name of 
Northern Nigeria. 

The company, during its tenure of administrative power 
under the charter, had organized its territories south of the 
confluence, into trading districts, over each of which there 
was placed a European agent. The executive powers in Africa 
were entrusted to an agent general with three provincial 
and twelve district superintendents. There was a small judicial 
staff directed by a chief justice, and there was a native con- 
stabulary of about 1000 men, trained and drilled by white 
officers. The company kept also upon the river a fleet of about 



682 



NIGERIA 



thirty steamers. Thft entire direction of the proceedings of the 
company was, however, in the hands of the council in London, 
and the administrative control of the territories was practically 
from first to last vested in the person of Sir George Goldie. The 
local work of the representatives of the company was mainly 
commercial. When, on the surrender of the charter, Sir George 
Goldie withdrew from the company, the administrative element 
disappeared. No administrative records were handed over, 
and very little machinery remained. Two enactments, however, 
bore testimony to the legislation of the company. One, which 
by force of circumstances remained inoperative, was the abolition 
of the legal status of slavery, proclaimed in the year of Queen 
Victoria's jubilee (1897). The other, more practical, which has 
remained in operation to the present day, confirmed and enforced 
by the succeeding administration, was the absolute prohibition 
of the trade in spirits beyond the parallel of 7 N. 

While the development of the Royal Niger Company's terri- 
tories was proceeding in the manner described, the regions 
Progress un der direct British control were also being opened up 
i n and law and order introduced. In 1893, when the title 

Southern Oil Rivers Protectorate was changed to that of Niger 
Nigeria, Coast Protectorate, a regular administration was 
established (subject to the Foreign Office in London) 
under Sir Claude Macdonald, who was succeeded as 
commissioner and consul-general in 1896 by Sir Ralph Moor 
(1860-1909). Under these officials peace was gradually estab- 
lished between various tribes, trade routes opened and progress 
made in civilization. The work was one of extreme difficulty, 
largely because there was no central native authority with which 
to deal. Small military expeditions had constantly to be 
employed to break up slave-raiding gangs or reduce to order 
tribes which blocked trade routes or made war on other tribes 
living peaceably under British protection. The most serious 
military operations were against the Beni, a peaceful mission to 
the king of Benin having been massacred in the bush in January 
1897. The operations were completely successful and the Benin 
country was added to the protectorate (see BENIN). In 1900, as 
stated, the southern portion of the Niger Company's territories 
was added to the protectorate, the change in administration 
being effected without difficulty of any kind. Sir Ralph Moor 
continued until 1904 to govern the country under the style of 
high commissioner. The efforts of the administration to better 
the condition of the natives without undue interference with 
customary law met with encouraging results, and the sub- 
mission of the Aros to the government in 1902 brought to an 
end the system of tribal warfare for the purpose of making 
slaves, while the enforcement of a proclamation of 1901 prohibit- 
ing the buying, pawning or selling of slaves had a salutary effect. 
Trade steadily developed, and owing to the large sums paid 
as duty on imported spirits, the revenue of the protectorate was 
sufficient to cover the expenditure. 

In Northern Nigeria in 1900 the establishment of British 
authority remained still to be effected. The man selected for the 
post of first high commissioner was Colonel afterwards better 
known as Sir Frederick Lugard, who had conducted one of the 
Royal Niger company's most successful expeditions into the 
western portion of the interior and had already been employed 
by the British government to raise and organize the West 
African Frontier Force. 

The transference of influence from the company to the govern- 
ment was officially effected on the ist of January 1900, on which 
Northern ^ av t ' le Union Jack was hoisted at Lokoja, and the 
Nigeria formation of a local administration was entered upon. 
brought The number of civilians in the employ of the govern- 
under ment was very small, and the administrative machinery 
had to be evolved under the pressure of a somewhat 
acute military situation. The headquarters of the West African 
Frontier Force had been at Jebba, not far from the point at 
which Mungo Park had lost his life upon the river. Neither 
Jebba nor Lokoja was considered suitable for the permanent 
capital of the protectorate, and survey parties were sent out, 
with strict orders to avoid conflict with the nominally friendly 



natives, to find a more suitable site. This was selected on a 
branch of the Kaduna river in the south-western corner of the 
province of Zaria, at a place of which the native name of Zungeru 
was retained. The ruler of Zaria, while professing friendliness, 
was, however, unable or unwilling to restrain the rulers of Konta- 
gora and Nupe from aggression. These two potentates raided 
for slaves to the borders of the rivers and openly threatened the 
British position on the Niger. The Ashanti War of 1900 claimed 
the despatch of a strong detachment of the West African Frontier 
Force, and it was not until the return of the troops in February 

1901 that Nupe and Kontagora could be effectively dealt with. 
In that year both provinces were subdued, their emirs deposed, 
and letters of appointment given to new emirs, who undertook 
to rule in accordance with the requirements of humanity, to 
abolish slave-raiding and slave dealing, and to acknowledge 
the sovereignty of Great Britain. Illorin and Borgu with a 
portion of Kabba were already under British rule. The rulers 
of other neighbouring provinces offered their allegiance, and 
by the end of the year 1901 nine provinces, Illorin, Kabba, 
Middle Niger, Lower Benue, Upper Benue, Nupe, Kontagora, 
Borgu and Zaria had accepted the British occupation. These 
territories, with the exception of Zaria, were all in the more or 
less immediate neighbourhood of the valleys of the Niger and 
the Benue, and Zaria bordered upon the Kaduna. For all these 
territories an initial system of administration was organized, 
and British residents were appointed to each province. Seven- 
teen legislative proclamations were enacted in the first year 
dealing with the immediate necessities of the position, and 
providing for the establishment of a supreme and provincial 
court of justice, for the legalization of native courts of justice, 
and dealing with questions of slavery, importation of liquor 
and firearms, land titles, &c. In the autumn of 1901 the emir 
of Yola, the extreme eastern corner of the territories bordering 
upon the Benue, was, in consequence of the aggressions upon 
a trading station established by the Niger Company, dealt with 
in the same manner as the emirs of Nupe and Kontagora, and a 
new emir was appointed under British rule. In 1902 Bauchi and 
Bornu were brought under British rule. In Bauchi the emir was 
deposed and a new emir was appointed. In Bornu the extension 
of British authority was very willingly accepted as a guarantee 
against other European encroachments, and the legitimate Shehu 
was restored to the throne under British protection. Military 
stations were established in Bornu and in Bauchi, and both 
provinces were included in the system of British administration. 
Later in the same year an act of treachery culminating in the 
murder of a British resident, Captain Moloney, in the province 
of Nassarawa, led to the military subjugation of that province. 
The murderer fled northwards through Zaria to Kano, which 
was still an independent Mahommedan state. The emir of Zaria 
was found to be in treasonable correspondence with the emir 
of Kano. It was thought desirable to arrest and dethrone him, 
and his prime minister was temporarily appointed to administer 
the province under British protection. To all these provinces 
British residents were appointed, and British legislative enact- 
ments became applicable to them all. By the end of the year 

1902 British administration had been extended to the whole of 
the provinces in the south, east and west of the protectorate. The 
important Mahommedan states of Sokoto, Gando, Kano and 
Katsena remained independent. These states were regarded as 
the stronghold of Fula supremacy. The emir of Sokoto held the 
position of religious as well as political head of all the lesser 
states of Northern Nigeria, and in response to friendly overtures 
on the part of the British administration had declared that 
between Sokoto and Great Britain there could be nothing but 
war. Katsena was the centre of local learning, while Kano was 
at once the commercial and the military centre of power. By 
the end of 1902 it had become evident that a trial of strength 
between the Mahommedan powers and the new British admin- 
istration was inevitable. The Mahommedan rulers were them- 
selves of comparatively recent date. In fighting them there was 
no question of fighting the whole country. On the contrary it 
was presumed with justice that their overthrow would be hailed 



NIGERIA 



683 



with satisfaction by many of the subject peoples. Every attempt 
was made to settle the question at issue by conciliatory methods, 
but these having failed, a campaign against Kano and Sokoto 
was entered upon in January 1903. It was entirely successful. 
The capital of Kano, a walled and fortified town of great extent 
and formidable strength, fell to a British assault in February of 
1903. Sokoto submitted after a battle which took place on the 
1 7th of May. The sultan fled, and on the 2ist of May a new 
sultan, chosen by the council of elders, was installed by the 
British high commissioner, after he had publicly accepted the 
conditions imposed by the British government. These conditions 
were that all rights of conquest acquired by the Fulani throughout 
Northern Nigeria passed to Great Britain, that for the future 
every sultan and emir and principal officer of state should 
be appointed by Great Britain, that the emirs and chiefs so 
appointed should obey the laws of the British government, that 
they should no longer buy and sell slaves, nor enslave people, 
that they should import no firearms, except flint-locks, that 
they should enforce no sentences in their courts of law which were 
contrary to humanity, and that the British government should 
in future hold rights in land and taxation. When these con- 
ditions were accepted by the Fulani chiefs the supremacy of 
Great Britain was established over the entire country. Katsena 
and Gando followed the example set to them by Kano and 
Sokoto. Throughout Northern Nigeria all chiefs, Mahommedan 
and Pagan, now hold their appointments under the British 
crown and take the oath of allegiance to the British sovereign. 

It remained to organize the territories for British rule, to 
institute a reformed system of taxation, to establish courts of 
justice, and to open the country to civilized occupation. 

The following account of the legislation carried into force up 
to 1907 shows in effect what was done in that direction. After 
the conquest of the Hausa States in 1902-1903 the king's writ 
ran with the exception of a few districts inhabited by primitive 
savages through the whole area known as Northern Nigeria. 
The temporary enactments of the earlier days were then super- 
seded by laws based upon a more accurate knowledge of local 
conditions and rendered possible by the effective administration 
which had been set up throughout the country. 

Courts of Law and Administration of Justice. A superior court 
was set up with jurisdiction over all non-natives and government 
employes. Its jurisdiction over natives was limited to the two 
centres of administration named " cantonments," and to such neigh- 
bouring territories as might be included by regulation within a 
feasible distance of those centres. It could, however, try any case 
in any province by special warrant of the high commissioner. The 
whole country was divided into seventeen provinces, in each of which 
there was a provincial court presided over by the resident in charge, 
whose assistants were commissioners of the court. They submitted 
their lists of criminal trials to the high commissioner, who, advised 
by the attorney-general, acted as a court of appeal, and no sentence 
exceeding six months could take effect without his confirmation. 
Cases could be referred by him for re-trial in the superior court if 
he so decided. A criminal code was drawn up, together with a 
criminal procedure proclamation. Native courts were established 
by warrant at all the chief native towns with varying powers. 
They were of two classes, the " Alkalis' Court," presided over by 
trained Mahommedan jurists, and " Judicial Councils," under the 
leading chiefs and natives presided over by the emir or other native 
ruler. In these courts native law and customs (principally the 
Mahommedan law) were administered with the proviso that no 
penalty could be enforced which was contrary to the laws of humanity 
or opposed to any specific proclamation of the protectorate. With 
the exception of two or three of the most enlightened courts, the 
criminal powers of these courts were restricted, but in civil actions 
they had full scope. No native court could carry a sentence of 
death into execution without the concurrence of the resident. 

Cantonment courts were also set up in the two chief government 
centres (Zungeru and Lokoja), chiefly for the purpose of enforcing 
sanitary and municipal regulations. These were affiliated to the 
superior courts. 

Lands and Minerals. These constitute the main asset of the 
government. In the first instance, as following upon conquest or 
potential conquest, the Fulani emirs who were appointed by 
government to each of the great native states were installed under a 
letter of appointment in which (in addition to rights of legislation, 
taxation and other powers inherent in suzerainty) the ultimate 
title to all land was transferred from the Fulani dynasty and vested 
in the British. Private ownership was not interfered with, but all 
waste lands became the property of the crown, and no non-native 



could acquire title except as from the government^ Similarly the 
sole title to minerals (subject to the share of profits assigned to the 
Niger Company by the deed of transfer) was vested in the govern- 
ment, and the terms upon which licences to prospect or mine could 
be acquired, together with full regulations regarding mining, were 
enacted by law. The right of natives to smelt iron and the question 
of compensation for any other existing mining industry or for surface 
disturbance was left to the discretion of government. 

Slavery. Practical effect was given to the abolition of the legal 
status of slavery, in so far as all British courts were concerned. 
This decree had been promulgated before the transfer of the ad- 
ministration, but had existed merely on paper. Every slave could 
thereby assert his freedom if he desired to do so, but it was not made 
illegal for a native to own a slave, and no penalty attached to mere 
possession in such a case. Slave-dealing and transactions of every 
kind in slaves were now made illegal. Civil questions arising from 
the institution of domestic slavery remained justiciable by the native 
courts; which in this matter were very carefully supervised by the 
British administration. 

Taxation. In the earlier years of the administration the tolls 
upon trade in transit, which had existed from time immemorial and 
had become the means of much extortion, were made a monopoly 
of the government, and were reorganized on an equitable and popular 
basis. To these were added certain licences (e.g. on canoes, &c.). 
In 1905 a complete reorganization of the direct taxation of the country 
was introduced. The innumerable taxes upon agriculture and in- 
dustry of all kinds were consolidated into two principal taxes, viz. 
the land and general tax in its nature an income tax and the 
jangali or cattle tax upon nomad herdsmen. The imposition of this 
tax involved a rough and ready assessment of every village in the 
protectorate. Under this system the oppression and extortion 
practised under native rule gave place to a carefully regulated 
method of assessment. At its initiation the proceeds were divided 
in approximately equal shares between the central government and 
the native administration, and a means was thus found of creating 
a legitimate revenue for the native chiefs to supersede the proceeds 
of slave-raiding and slave-dealing, and of oppression and extortion, 
by which they had hitherto supplied their needs. As in India, the 
village with its lands and cultivation was constituted the unit of 
assessment, and the provinces were divided into districts under 
native headmen responsible for the collection of the tax, and its 
payment to the paramount chief, who in turn rendered the assigned 
share to district and village chiefs, to the officers of state recognized 
by government and to the government itself. The administrative 
officers were entrusted with the assessment and acted as arbitrators 
and referees in case of illegal exactions. In the Pagan districts 
where no native machinery existed and no previous taxation had 
been in force, a nominal impost was levied>nd collected by the 
officers of the government through the ageifcy of the village chiefs. 
The taxation of the great cities formed a separate and very difficult 
problem. The law laid down the method to be employed in this 
case, but 'pending the completion of the rural taxation this detailed 
application of the system was allowed to remain in suspense. Ij was 
hoped that^S*^ soon as the scheme could be effectively put into opera- 
tion the taxes on trade in transit could be largely if not completely 
abolished, and the traders and merchants the wealthiest class of 
the community would be assessed in their city domiciles. By 
these means a large and rapidly increasing revenue is being secured 
to government; while the condition of the peasantry and people is 
being greatly ameliorated, an adequate but not excessive income is 
being secured to the native rulers; and the class of middlemen 
who lived by extortion and absorbed a great part of the wealth of 
the country is being abolished. 

Native Rulers. By the operation of the native courts proclamation, 
the taxation proclamation, and finally by the enforcement of native 
authority proclamations, the status of the native rulers, their powers 
and authority, were defined and legalized. They receive the support 
of the government within the limits of their recognized sphere of 
action. The great chiefs are appointed by the government in 
consultation with the principal men, and in accordance with native 
customs and laws of succession. Minor chiefs are nominated by 
their paramount chiefs, subject to the approval of the high com- 
missioner. 

Military and Police. The defensive force the Northern Nigeria 
Regiment of the West African Frontier Force is constituted by 
law, and the proclamation contains a military code based on the 
Army Act with modifications necessary in local circumstances. 
A police force is similarly organized and controlled by a second 
enactment. The military force is divided into three regiments 
and two batteries of artillery under the supreme command of a 
commandant. The distribution of the garrisons is under the direc- 
tion of the high commissioner. The police, on the other hand, are 
more or less equally divided between the provinces (including the 
establishment at each cantonment), and while their interior economy 
and organization rests in the hands of a commissioner, they are 
for purposes of duty under the control of the resident of the province. 
A district superintendent is appointed to each province. 

Miscellaneous Enactments. A variety of other enactments deals 
with minor matters of administration. Commissions of inquiry may 
be appointed by the high commissioner to investigate the conduct 



68 4 



NIGHT NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE 



of an individual or department and take evidence on oath. Discipline 
on board of steamers is prescribed by the Marine Discipline Act. 
The preservation of wild animals and birds in accordance with 
international agreements is enforced by law. The importation or 
possession of arms of precision is forbidden, except by permits in 
conformity with the Brussels Act, and in further application of that 
act the importation of spirits for sale to natives is wholly prohibited. 
The cantonments are regulated by a municipal ordinance, establish- 
ing rates and laying down various regulations for order and sani- 
tation. In order to prevent hydrophobia dogs may only be kept 
under certain restrictions. Patents, marriages (of non-natives), &c., 
&c., form the subject of other laws. 

Administrative Divisions. For administrative purposes the 
territories were at first divided into seventeen provinces: Sokoto, 
Gando, Kano, Katsena, Bornu East, Bornu West, Zaria, Bauchi, 
Borgu, Kontagora, Nassarawa, Muri, Yola, Bassa, Kabba, Illorin, 
Nupe. Of these Sokoto and Gando, Kano and Katsena, Bornu East 
and Bornu West have been carried a step further in organization 
and now form three double provinces, each under the charge of a 
first-class resident. Illorin, Nupe and Kabba have been formed 
into one province called the Niger province, and also placed under 
the charge of a first-class resident, and it is intendea to continue 
this process so as to make finally eight first-class provinces of the 
whole territory. The first-class residents of the double provinces 
are assisted by about twelve residents and assistant residents of 
subordinate rank. In the Mahommedan states the native system 
of administration remains intact, and is carried on under British 
supervision by native emirs and officials. In the Pagan states there 
is no organized system of native administration, and the British 
residents are responsible for good government. 

Amalgamation of Lagos and Southern Nigeria. The political 
reasons which had resulted in the Nigerian territories being 
divided into three distinct administrations no longer existing, 
it was decided to unite them under one government, and as a 
first step in that direction Sir Walter (then Mr) Egerton was in 
1904 appointed both governor of Lagos and high commissioner 
of Southern Nigeria. This was followed in February 1906 by 
the amalgamation of the two administrations under the style of 
" the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria," with head- 
quarters at Lagos town. The former colony and protectorate 
of Lagos (q.v.) became the western or Lagos province of the new 
administration. In the year the amalgamation was effected 
the revenue reached a record figure, the amount collected being 
1,088,000, to which Lagos province contributed 424,000. 
Over 80% of the revenue was derived from customs. In the 
same year the expenditure from revenue was 1,056,000. 

Northern Nigeria Railway. In Northern Nigeria, which con- 
tinued for the time to be a separate protectorate, Sir Frederick 
Lugard was, at the beginning of 1907, succeeded as high com- 
missioner by Sir Percy Girouard. In August of that year the 
British government, on administrative, strategic and commercial 
grounds, came to a decision to build a railway which should place 
the important cities of Zaria and Kano in direct communication 
with the perennially navigable waters of the Lower Niger. In 
view of the approaching unification of Southern and Northern 
Nigeria, the money needed, about 1,250,000, was raised as a loan 
by Southern Nigeria. The route chosen for the line was that 
advocated by Sir Frederick Lugard. This important work, 
essential for the welfare of the northern territories, was begun 
under the superintendence of Sir Percy Girouard, 1 the builder 
of the Wadi Haifa-Khartum railway. At the same time the 
decision was taken to continue the Lagos railway till it effected 
a junction with the Kano line near Zungeru, the Niger being 
bridged at Jebba. 

Land Tenure. Sir Percy Girouard devoted much attention to 
land tenure, probably the most important of the questions 
concerning imperial policy in West Africa. He adopted the land 
policy of Sir F. D. Lugard, and recommended " a declaration in 
favour of the nationalization of the lands of the Protectorate." 
This was in accord with native laws that the land is the pro- 
perty of the people, held in trust for them by their chiefs, who 
have not the power of alienation. Thereafter the secretary for 
the colonies appointed a strong committee, which, after hearing 
much evidence, issued a report in April 1910 in substantial 
agreement with the governor's recommendations. This policy 
1 In 1909 Sir Percy Girouard was succeeded by Sir H. H. J. Bell. 
The title High Commissioner had meantime been changed to that of 
Governor. 



was adopted by the Colonial Office. By this means the natives 
of Nigeria were secured in the possession of their land the 
government imposing land taxes, which are the equivalent of rent. 
This exclusion of the European land speculator and denial of 
the right to buy and sell land and of freehold tenure was held by 
all the authorities to be essential for the moral and material 
welfare of the inhabitants of a land where the duty of the white 
man is mainly that of administration and his material advantages 
lie in trade. (See an article on " Land Tenure in West Africa " 
in The Times, May 24, 1910.) 

AUTHORITIES. Of early books dealing with large areas of Nigeria, 
H. Earth's Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa 
(London, 1857-1858) is a standard authority. See also Lady Lugard, 
A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905); Boyd Alexander, From the 
Niger to the Nile (London, 1907) ; C. Larymore, A Resident's Wife in 
Nigeria (London, 1908); the annual Reports on Southern and 
Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office ; E. D. Morel, Affairs 
of West Africa (London, 1902) ; C. H. Robinson, Hausaland (London, 
1896); S. Vandeleur, Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger 
(London, 1898), with introduction by Sir George Goldie; Major 
A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (London, 1906); 
C. Partridge, The Cross River Natives (London, 1905) ; E. Dayrell, 
Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria (London, 1910). Maps of the 
country on the scale of T.ouiflBo and SES'JJTO are published by the 
War Office. The Blue Books, Cd. 2325 (1904), 2787 (1905) and 
45 2 3 (i99)> deal with railway construction, harbours and river 
navigation. (F. L. L.) 

NIGHT, that part of the natural day of twenty-four hours 
during which the sun is below the horizon, the dark part of the 
day from sunset to sunrise (see DAY). The word in O. Eng. takes 
two forms, neaht and night, the latter form apparently being 
established by about the loth century. The word is common 
in varying forms to Indo-European languages. The root is 
usually taken to be nak-, to perish, the word meaning the time 
when the light fails (cf. Gr. yeww, Lat. nex, death, nocere, to hurt). 
It was customary to reckon periods of time by nights, and we still 
use " fortnight " (O. Eng. feouierlyne niht, fourteen nights), but 
" se'n-night " (seven nights) has been displaced by " week " (q.v.). 

NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE (1820-1910), younger daughter 
of William Edward Nightingale of Embley Park, Hampshire, 
and Lea Hurst, Derbyshire, was born at Florence on the isth 
of May 1820, and named after that city, but her childhood was 
spent in England, chiefly in Derbyshire. From her earliest years 
her strong love of nature and animals manifested itself. Her 
games, too, were characteristic, for her great delight was to 
nurse and bandage her dolls. Her first living patient was a 
shepherd's dog. From tending animals she passed to human 
beings, and wherever there was sorrow or suffering she was sure 
to be found. Her most ardent desire was to use her talents for 
the benefit of humanity. She had a natural shrinking from 
society; and though her social position necessitated her presenta- 
tion at Court, her first season in town was spent in examining 
into the working of hospitals, reformatories and other charitable 
institutions. This was followed by a tour of inspection of foreign 
hospitals. At that time England was sadly behind-hand in 
matters of nursing and sanitation, and Miss Nightingale, who 
desired to obtain the best possible teaching for herself, went 
through a course of training in the Institute of Protestant 
Deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. She remained there six months, 
learning every detail of hospital management with a thoroughness 
rarely equalled. Miss Nightingale neglected nothing that could 
make her proficient in her self-chosen task. From Kaiserswerth 
she went to Paris, where she studied the system of nursing and 
management in the hospitals under the charge of the sisters of 
St Vincent de Paul. After her return to England she devoted 
herself to reorganizing the Governesses' Sanatorium in Harley 
Street (now the Home for Gentlewomen during Temporary 
Illness), which was at that time badly managed and in great 
need of funds. Miss Nightingale grudged neither time nor money 
to this work, and she had the satisfaction of placing it on a 
thoroughly satisfactory basis. 

In the year 1854 England was stirred to its depths by the 
report of the sufferings of the sick and wounded in the Crimea. 
There was an utter absence of the commonest preparations to 
carry out the first and simplest demands in a place set apart 



NIGHTINGALE NIGHTSHADE 



685 



to receive the sick and wounded of a large army. - The condition 
of the large barrack-hospital at Scutari was deplorable. A royal 
commission of inquiry was appointed, a patriotic fund opened, 
and money flowed in fast. To Miss Nightingale this proved the 
trumpet-call of duty. She wrote to Sidney Herbert, secretary 
at war, and offered her services. Her letter crossed with one 
from him inviting her to proceed to the Crimea. She set out on 
the 24th October with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, partly 
volunteers, partly professionals trained in hospitals. They 
reached Scutari on tie 4th of November, in time to receive the 
Balaklava wounded. A day or two later these were joined by 
600 from Inkerman. The story of Miss Nightingale's labours at 
Scutari is one of the brightest pages in English annals. She gave 
herself, body and soul, to the work. She would stand for twenty 
hours at a stretch to see the wounded accommodated. She 
regularly took her place in the operation-room, to hearten the 
sufferers by her presence and sympathy, and at night she would 
make her solitary round of the wards, lamp in hand, stopping 
here and there to speak a kindly word to some patient. Soon she 
had 10,000 men under her charge, and the general superintendence 
of all the hospitals on the Bosporus. Gradually the effects of 
the measures adopted were seen in a lowered death-rate. In 
February 1855 it was as high as 42%, before many months it had 
sunk to 2. For a time Miss Nightingale was herself prostrated 
with fever, but she refused to leave her post, and remained at 
Scutari till Turkey was evacuated by the British in July 1856. 
The enthusiasm aroused in England by Miss Nightingale's 
labours was indescribable. A man-of-war was ordered to bring 
her home, and London prepared to give her a triumphant 
reception; but she returned quietly in a French ship, crossed 
to England, and escaped to her country home before the news 
of her return could leak out. The experiences of those terrible 
months permanently affected Miss Nightingale's health, but the 
quiet life she afterwards led was full of usefulness. With the 
50,000 raised in recognition of her services she founded the 
Nightingale Home for training nurses at St Thomas's and King's 
College Hospitals. She also turned her attention to the question 
of army sanitary reform and army hospitals, and to the work 
of the Army Medical College at Chatham. In 1858 she published 
her Notes on Nursing, which gave an enormous stimulus to the 
study of this subject in England. According to Miss Nightingale 
nursing ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, 
cleanliness, quiet, and the selection and administration of diet 
all at the least expense of vital force to the patient. 

Miss Nightingale followed with interest all the later improve- 
ments in sanitation, and was frequently consulted about hospital 
plans both at home and abroad. With the help of the County 
Council Technical Instruction Committee she organized in 1892 
a health crusade in Buckinghamshire. Teachers were sent 
round among the cottagers to give practical advice on such 
points as ventilation, drainage, disinfectants, cleanliness, &c., 
a plan which, if widely carried out, would bring the most valuable 
knowledge to every home in England. She is understood to have 
drawn up a confidential report for the government on the working 
of the Army Medical Corps in the Crimea, and to have been 
officially consulted during the American Civil War and the 
Franco-German War. In 1007 she received the Order of Merit 
from King Edward VII. She died in London on the I3th of 
August 1910. She is the subject of a beautiful poem by 
Longfellow, " Santa Filomena," and the popular estimate of 
her character and mission was summed up in a particularly 
felicitous anagram, Flit on, cheering angel. 

NIGHTINGALE (O. Eng. Nihtegde, literally "singer of the 
night "), the bird celebrated beyond ali others by European 
writers for the admirable vocal powers which, during some weeks 
after its return from its winter-quarters in the south, it exercises 
at all hours of the day and night. The song itself is indescribable, 
though several attempts, from the time of Aristophanes to the 
present, have been made to express in syllables the sound of its 
many notes. Poets have descanted oh the bird (which they 
nearly always make of the feminine gender) leaning its breast 
against a thorn and pouring forth its melody in anguish. But 



the cock alone sings, and there is no reason to suppose that the 
cause and intent of his song differ in any respect from those of 
other birds' songs (see SONG). In great contrast to the nightin- 
gale's pre-eminent voice is the inconspicuous coloration of its 
plumage, which is alike in both sexes, and is of a reddish-brown 
above and dull greyish-white beneath, the breast being rather 
darker, and the rufous tail showing the only bright tint. 

The range of the European nightingale, Daulias luscinia, is 
peculiar. In Great Britain it is abundant in suitable localities 
to the south-east of a line stretching from the valley of the Exe, 
in Devonshire, to York, but it does not visit Ireland, its occur- 
rence in Wales is doubtful or intermittent, and it is extremely 
improbable that it has ever reached Scotland. On the continent 
of Europe it does not occur north of a line stretching irregularly 
from Copenhagen to the northern Urals, and it is absent in 
Brittany; over south Europe otherwise it is abundant. It 
reaches Persia, and is a winter visitor to Arabia, Nubia, Abyssinia, 
Algeria and as far south as the Gold Coast. The larger eastern 
D. philomela, sometimes called the thrush-nightingale or Sprosser 
of German bird-catchers, is russet-brown in both sexes, and is 
a native of eastern Europe. D. hafizi of Persia, a true nightingale, 
is probably the Perso-Arabic bulbul of poets. 

The nightingale reaches its English home about the middle 
of April, 1 the males (as is usual among migratory birds) arriving 
some days before the females. On the cocks being joined by 
their partners, the work for which the long and hazardous journey 
of both has been undertaken is speedily begun, and before long 
the nest is completed. This is of a rather uncommon kind, being 
placed on or near the ground, the outworks consisting chiefly 
of a great number of dead leaves ingeniously applied together 
so that the plane of each is mostly vertical. In the midst of the 
mass is wrought a deep cup-like hollow, neatly lined with fibrous 
roots, but the whole is so loosely constructed, and depends for 
lateral support so much on the stems of the plants, among which 
it is generally built, that a very slight touch disturbs its beautiful 
arrangement. Herein from four to six eggs of a deep olive colour 
are duly laid, and the young hatched. The nestling plumage of 
the nightingale differs much from that of the adult, the feathers 
above being tipped with a buff spot, just as in the young of the 
redbreast, hedge-sparrow and redstart, thereby showing the 
natural affinity of all these forms. Towards the end of summer 
the nightingale disappears to its African winter haunts. 

The name nightingale has been vaguely applied to several other 
birds. The so-called " Virginian nightingale is a species of gros- 
beak (q.v.); the " Pekin nightingale" or "Japanese nightingale" 
is a small babbler (Liothrix luteus) inhabiting the Himalayas and 
China, not Japan at all. 

The nightingale holds a place in classical mythology. Procne 
and Philomela were the daughters of Pandion, tang of Attica, who 
in return for warlike aid rendered him by Tereus, king of Daulis in 
Thrace, gave him the first-named in marriage. Tereus, however, 
being enamoured of her sister, feigned that his wife was dead, and 
induced Philomela to take her place. On her discovering the truth 
he cut out her tongue to hinder her from revealing his deceit ; but 
she depicted her sad story on a robe which she sent to Procne; and 
the two sisters then contrived a horrible revenge for the infidelity 
of Tereus, by killing and serving to him at table his son Itys. There- 
upon the gods interposed, changing Tereus into a hoopoe, Procne 
into a swallow, and Philomela into a nightingale, while Itys was 
restored to life as a pheasant, and Pandion (who had died of grief at 
his daughters' dishonour) as a bird of prey (see OSPREY). The fable 
has several variants. Ovid's version may be seen in the 6th book of 
his Metamorphoses (lines 412-676). (A. N.) 

NIGHTSHADE, a general term for the genus of plants known 
to botanists as Solatium. The species to which the name of 
nightshade Is commonly given in England is Solanum Dulcamara 
which is also called bittersweet or woody nightshade (see fig. i). 
It is a common plant in damp bedgebanks and thickets, scram- 
bling over underwood and hedges. It has slender slightly woody 
stems, with alternate lanceolate leaves more or less heart-shaped 
and auriculate at the base. The flowers are arranged in drooping 
clusters and resemble those of the potato in shape, although 

_ ' Poets and novelists are apt to command at will the song of this 
bird, irrespective of season. If the appearance of truth is to be 
regarded, it is dangerous to introduce a nightingale as singing in 
England before the igth of April or after the i$th of June. The 
" early nightingale " of newspaper paragraphs is generally a thrush. 



686 



NIGRA NIHILISM 



much smaller. The flower clusters spring from the stems at the 
side of, or opposite to, the insertion of a leaf. The corolla is 
rotate, of a lilac-blue colour with a green spot at the base of each 
segment, or sometimes white, and bears the yellow sessile anthers 

united at their 
margins so as 
to form a cone 
in the centre of 
the flower. The 
flowers are suc- 
ceeded by ovate 
scarlet berries, 
$ in. long, which 
in large doses 
appear to be 
poisonous or, to 
say the least, 
dangerous to 
children, cases 
of poisoning by 
them having 
occurred. Sola- 
tium Dulcamara 
is subject to the 
same parasitic 
L fungus (Phyto- 
]phthora infcst- 
ans) as the 
potato, and 
as 
for 

communicating 
the spores to the potato if not removed from the hedges of 
the fields where potatoes are grown. The plant derives its 
names of " bittersweet " and Dulcamara from the fact that its 

taste is at first bitter 
and then sweet. It 
is a native of 
Europe, North 
Africa and temper- 
ate Asia, and has 
been introduced 
into North America. 
The dried young 
branches are known 
in pharmacy under 
the name dulca- 
mara. 




FIG. i. Bittersweet (Solatium Dulcamara), f may serve 
nat. size, i, Flower; 2, fruits, J nat. size; 3, berry, a medium 
cut across, enlarged; 4, seed, much enlarged. 




Dulcamara con- 
tains a bitter prin- 
ciple yielding 
by decomp o s i t i o n 
a sugar dextrose 
and the alkaloid 
>solanine. It also 
contains another 
glucoside dulca- 
marin, which when 
boiled with dilute 
acid splits up into 
sugar and dulcama- 
retin. So la nine 
appears to exert a 
depressant action on 
the vagus nerve and 

FIG. 2. Deadly Nightshade (Atropa bella- an excitan t action 
donna). Flowering branch, J nat. size. I, . 
Flower, after removal of the corolla, f nat. size ; lor| gata. 
2, corolla, with stamens, cut open and flattened, g olanum nigrum 
|, nat. size; 3, cross section of ovary, much dlffer ^ tmS.Dulca- 
rnlaiwH mara in having white 

<~niiii tCU. n . 

flowers in small 

umbels and globose black berries. It is a common weed in 
gardens and waste places, growing about 12 or 18 in. high, and has 
ovate, entire or sinuate or toothed leaves. Two varieties of the 
plant, one with red and the other with yellow berries, are sometimes 
met with, but are comparatively rare. The berries have been known 



on the medulla ob- 



to produce poisonous effects when eaten by children, and owe their 
properties to the presence of solanine. In Reunion and Mauritius the 
leaves are eaten like spinach. 

Deadly nightshade, dwale or belladonna (Atropa belladonna) 
is a tall bushy herb of the same natural order (fig. 2). It grows 
to a height of 4 or 5 ft., having leaves of a dull green colour, 
with a black shining berry fruit about the size of a cherry, and a 
large tapering root. The plant is a native of central and south 
Europe, extending into Asia, and is found locally in England, 
chiefly on chalk and limestone, from Westmorland and south- 
wards. The entire plant is highly poisonous, and accidents not 
infrequently occur through children and unwary persons eating 
the attractive-looking fruit. Its leaves and roots are largely 
used in medicine, on which account the plant is cultivated, chiefly 
in south Germany, Switzerland and France (see BELLADONNA). 

The name nightshade is applied to plants of different genera in 
other countries. American nightshade is Phytolacca decandra (poke- 
weed, q.v.). The three-leaved nightshade is an American species of 
Trillium. The Malabar nightshade is Basella, which is widely used 
as a pot-herb in India. Enchanter's nightshade is Circaea lutetiana, 
a small, glandular, softly-hairy plant, common in damp woods, 
with slender, erect or ascending stems, paired ovate leaves with long 
stalks, and small white flowers in terminal racemes, succeeded by a 
small fruit covered with hooked bristles; it is a member of the 
natural order Onagraceae, and is not known to possess any 
poisonous property; the name seems to have been given to it 
in the first place in mistake for a species of Mandragora (see 
MANDRAKE). 

NIGRA, COSTANTINO, COUNT (1828-1907), Italian diplo- 
matist, was born at Villa Castelnuovo, in the province of Turin, 
on the nth of June 1828. During the war of 1848 he interrupted 
his studies to serve as a volunteer against Austria, and was 
wounded at the battle of Rivoli. On the conclusion of peace he 
entered the Piedmontese foreign office; he accompanied Victor 
Emmanuel and Cavour to Paris and London in 1855, and in the 
following year he took part in the conference of Paris by which 
the Crimean War was brought to an end. After the meeting at 
Plombieres between Cavour and Napoleon III. Nigra was sent 
to Paris again to popularize a Franco-Piedmontese alliance, 
Nigra being, as Cavour said, " the only person perhaps who knows 
all my thoughts, even the most secret." He was instrumental 
in negotiating the marriage between Victor Emmanuel's daughter 
Clothilde and Napoleon's nephew, and during the war of 1859 
he was always with the emperor. He was recalled from Paris 
when the occupation of the Marche and Umbria by the Pied- 
montese caused a breach in Franco-Italian relations, and was 
appointed secretary of state to the prince of Carignano, viceroy 
of the Neapolitan provinces. When Napoleon recognized the 
kingdom of Italy in 1861, Nigra returned to France as minister- 
resident, and for many years played a most important part in 
political affairs. In 1876 he was transferred to St Petersburg with 
the rank of ambassador, in 1882 to London, and in 1885 to Vienna. 
In 1899 he represented Italy at the first Hague Peace Conference. 
In 1904 he retired, and he died at Rapallo on the ist of July 
1907. He was created count in 1882 and senator in 1890. Nigra 
was a sound classical scholar, and published translations of many 
Greek and Latin poems with valuable comments; he was also 
a poet and the author of several works of folk-lore and popular 
poetry, of which the most important is his Canti popolari del 
Piemonte. 

NIHILISM, the name commonly given to the Russian form of 
revolutionary Socialism, which had at first an academical 
character, and rapidly developed into an anarchist revolutionary 
movement. It originated in the early years of the reign of 
Alexander II., and the term was first used by Turgueniev in his 
celebrated novel, Fathers and Children, published in 1862. 
Among the students of the universities and the higher technical 
schools Turgueniev had noticed a new and strikingly original 
type young men and women in slovenly attire, who called in 
question and ridiculed the generally received convictions and 
respectable conventionalities of social life, and who talked of 
reorganizing society on strictly scientific principles. They 
reversed the traditional order of things even in trivial matters 
of external appearance, the males allowing the hair to grow long 
and the female adepts cutting it short, and adding sometimes the 



NIHILISM 



687 



additional badge of blue spectacles. Their appearance, manners 
and conversation were apt to shock ordinary people, but to this 
they were profoundly indifferent, for they had raised themselves 
above the level of so-called public opinion, despised Philistine 
respectability, and rather liked to scandalize people still under the 
influence of what they considered antiquated prejudices. For 
aesthetic culture, sentimentah'sm and refinement of every kind 
they had a profound and undisguised contempt. Professing 
extreme utilitarianism and delighting in paradox, they were 
ready to declare that a shoemaker who distinguished himself in 
his craft was a greater man than a Shakespeare or a Goethe, 
because humanity had more need of shoes than of poetry. 
Thanks to Turgueniev, these young persons came to be known 
in common parlance as " Nihilists," though they never ceased 
to protest against the term as a caluminous nickname. According 
to their own account, they were simply earnest students who 
desired reasonable reforms, and the peculiarities in their appear- 
ance and manner arose simply from an excusable neglect of 
trivialities in view of graver interests. In reality, whatever 
name we may apply to them, they were the extreme repre- 
sentatives of a curious moral awakening and an important 
intellectual movement among the Russian educated classes (see 
ALEXANDER II., of Russia). 

In material and moral progress Russia had remained behind 
the other European nations, and the educated classes felt, after 
the humiliation of the Crimean War, that the reactionary regime 
of the emperor Nicholas must be replaced by a series of drastic 
reforms. With the impulsiveness of youth and the recklessness of 
inexperience, the students went in this direction much farther than 
their elders, and their reforming zeal naturally took an academic, 
pseudo-scientific form. Having learned the rudiments of 
positivism, they conceived the idea that Russia had outlived 
the religious and metaphysical stages of human development, 
and was ready to enter on the positivist stage. She ought, 
therefore, to throw aside all religious and metaphysical con- 
ceptions, and to regulate her intellectual, social and political 
life by the pure light of natural science. Among the antiquated 
institutions which had to be abolished as obstructions to real 
progress, were religion, family life, private property and central- 
ized administration. Religion was to be replaced by the exact 
sciences, family life by free love, private property by collectivism, 
and centralized administration by a federation of independent 
communes. Such doctrines could not, of course, be preached 
openly under a paternal, despotic government, but the press 
censure had become so permeated with the prevailing spirit of 
enthusiastic liberalism, that they could be artfully disseminated 
under the disguise of literary criticism and fiction, and the public 
very soon learned the art of reading between the lines. The work 
which had perhaps the greatest influence in popularizing the 
doctrines was a novel called Shto Dyelati? (What is to be done?), 
written in prison by Tchernishevski, one of the academic 
leaders of the movement, and published with the sanction of the 
authorities! 

Since the time of Peter the Great, Russia had been subjected 
to a wonderful serie's of administrative and social transformations, 
and it seemed to many people quite natural that another great 
transformation might be effected with the consent and co- 
operation of the autocratic power. The doctrines spread, there- 
fore, with marvellous rapidity. In the winter of 1861-1862 a 
high official wrote to a friend who had been absent from Russia 
for a few months: " If you returned now you would be astonished 
at the progress which the opposition one might say, the 
revolutionary party has made. . . . The revolutionary ideas 
have taken possession of all classes, all ages, all professions, and 
they are publicly expressed in the streets, in the barracks, and in 
the government offices. I believe the police itself is carried away 
by them." Certainly the government was under the influence of 
the prevailing enthusiasm for reform, for it liberated all the 
serfs, endowed them liberally with arable land, and made their 
democratic communal institutions independent of the landed 
propnetors; and it was preparing other important reforms in a 
similar spirit, including the extension of self-government in the 



rural districts and the towns, and the reorganization of the 
antiquated judicial system and procedure according to the 
modern principles adopted in western Europe. 

The programme of the government was extensive enough and 
liberal enough to satisfy, for the moment at least, all reason- 
able reformers, but the well-intentioned, self-confident young 
people to whom the term Nihilists was applied were not reason- 
able. They wanted an immediate, thorough-going transforma- 
tion of the existing order of things according to the most advanced 
socialistic principles, and in their youthful, reckless impatience 
they determined to undertake the work themselves, indepen- 
dently of and in opposition to the government. As they had no 
means of seizing the central power, they adopted the method of 
endeavouring to bring about the desired political, social and 
economic changes by converting the masses to their views. 
They began, therefore, a propaganda among the working popula- 
tion of the towns and the rural population in the villages. The 
propagandists were recruited chiefly from the faculty of physical 
science in the universities, from the Technological Institute, 
and from the medical schools, and a female contingent was 
supplied by the midwifery classes of the Medico- Surgical 
Academy. Those of each locality were personally known to each 
other, but there was no attempt to establish among them 
hierarchical distinctions or discipline. Each individual had 
entire freedom as to the kind and means of propaganda to be 
employed. Some disguised themselves as artisans or ordinary 
labourers, and sought to convert their uneducated fellow- 
workmen in the industrial centres, whilst others settled in the 
villages as school-teachers, and endeavoured to stir up dis- 
affection among the recently emancipated peasantry by telling 
them that the tsar intended they should have all the land, and 
that his benevolent intentions had been frustrated by the selfish 
landed proprietors and the dishonest officials. Landed pro- 
prietors and officials, it was suggested, should be got rid of, and 
then the peasants would have arable, pastoral and forest land 
in abundance, and would not require to pay any taxes. To 
persons of a certain education the agitators sought to prove 
that the general economic situation was desperate, that it was 
the duty of every conscientious citizen to help the people in such 
a dilemma, and that the first step towards the attainment of 
this devoutly to be wished consummation was the limitation 
or destruction of the uncontrolled supreme power. On the whole 
the agitators had very little success, and not a few of them fell 
into the hands of the police, several of them being denounced 
to the authorities by the persons in whose interest they professed 
to be acting; but the great majority were so obstinate and so 
ready to make any personal sacrifices, that the arrest and punish- 
ment of some of their number did not deter others from con- 
tinuing the work. Between 1861 and 1864 there were no less 
than twenty political trials, with the result that most of the 
accused were condemned to imprisonment, or to compulsory 
residence in small provincial towns under police supervision. 

The activity of the police naturally produced an ever-increas- 
ing hostility to the government, and in 1866 this feeling took a 
practical form in an attempt on the part of an obscure individual 
called Karakozov to assassinate the emperor. The attempt failed, 
and the judicial inquiry proved that it was the work of merely 
a few individuals, but it showed the dangerous character of the 
movement, and it induced the authorities to take more energetic 
measures. For the next four years there was an apparent 
lull, during which only one political trial took place, but it was 
subsequently proved that the Nihilists during this time were 
by no means inactive. An energetic agitator called Netchaiev 
organized in 1869 a secret association under the title of the 
Society for the Liberation of the People, and when he suspected 
of treachery one of the members he caused him to be assassinated. 
This crime led to the arrest of some members of the society, but 
their punishment had very little deterrent effect on the Nihilists in 
general, for during the next few years there was a recrudescence 
of the propaganda among the labouring classes. Independent 
circles were created and provided with secret printing-presses in 
many of the leading provincial towns notably in Moscow, 



688 



NIIGATA 



Nijni-Novgorod, Penza, Samara, Saratov, Kharkof, Kiev, 
Odessa, Rostov-on-the-Don and Taganrog; and closer relations 
were established with the revolutionary Socialists in western 
Europe, especially with the followers of Bakunin, who considered 
that a great popular rising should be brought about in Russia as 
soon as possible. Bakunin's views did not, it is true, obtain 
unanimous acceptance. Some of the Nihilists maintained that 
things were not yet ripe for a rising of the masses, that the pacific 
propaganda must be continued for a considerable time, and that 
before attempting to overthrow the existing social organization 
some idea should be formed as to the order of things which 
should take its place. The majority, however, were too im- 
patient for action to listen to such counsels of prudence, and 
when they encountered opposition on the part of the govern- 
ment they urged the necessity of retaliating by acts of terrorism. 
In a brochure issued in 1874 one of the most influential leaders 
(Tkatchev) explained that the object of the revolutionary party 
should be, not the preparation of revolution in general, but the 
realization of it at the earliest possible moment, that it was a 
mistake to attach great importance to questions of future social 
organization, and that all the energies of the party should be 
devoted to " a struggle with the government and the established 
order of things, a struggle to the last drop of blood and to the last 
breath." In accordance with the fashionable doctrine of evolu- 
tion, the reconstruction of society on the tabula rasa might be left, 
it was thought, to the spontaneous action of natural forces, or, 
to use a Baconian phrase, to natura naturans. 

To this and similar declarations of irreconcilable hostility 
the government replied by numerous arrests, and in the winter of 
1877-1878 no less than 193 agitators, selected from 2000 arrested 
on suspicion, were tried publicly in St Petersburg by a tribunal 
specially constituted for the purpose. Nearly all of them were 
condemned to imprisonment or exile, and the revolutionary 
organization in the northern provinces was thereby momentarily 
paralysed, but a few energetic leaders who had escaped arrest 
reorganized their scattered forces and began the work anew. 
They constituted themselves into a secret executive Committee, 
which endeavoured to keep in touch with, and partially direct, 
the independent groups in the provincial towns. Though they 
never succeeded in creating an efficient centralized administra- 
tion, they contrived to give to the movement the appearance of 
united action by assuming the responsibility for terrorist crimes 
committed by persons who were in reality not acting under 
their orders. During the years 1878, 1879 and 1880 these 
terrorist crimes were of frequent occurrence. General Trepov, 
prefect of St Petersburg, was shot by Vera Zasulitch under 
pretence of presenting a petition to him; General Mezentsov, 
chief of the political police, was assassinated in broad daylight 
in one of the principal streets of St Petersburg, and an attempt 
was afterwards made on the life of his successor, General 
Drenteln; Prince Rrapotkin, governor of the province of 
Kharkof, was assassinated for having introduced stricter prison 
discipline with regard to political prisoners; a murderous attack 
was made on the emperor in front of the Winter Palace by an 
ex-student called Soloviev; repeated attempts were made to 
blow up the train conveying the Imperial family from the 
Crimea to St Petersburg; and a dynamite explosion, by which 
ten people were killed and thirty-four wounded, took place in 
the Winter Palace, the Imperial family owing their escape to the 
accident of not sitting down to dinner punctually at the usual 
hour. Assassination was used also by the agitators against 
confederates suspected of giving information to the police, ani a 
number of gendarmes were murdered when effecting arrests. 
After each of these crimes a proclamation was issued by the 
executive committee explaining the motives and accepting the 
responsibility. 

. When repressive measures and the efforts of the police were 
found insufficient to cope with the evil, Alexander II. deter- 
mined to try a new system. Count Loris Melikof was entrusted 
with semi-dictatorial powers, relaxed the severity of the police 
regime, and endeavoured to obtain the support of all loyal 
Liberals by holding out the prospect of a series of reforms in a 



liberal sense. His conciliatory methods failed signally, and were 
repaid by an attack on his life. A semblance of parliamentary 
institutions was not what the Anarchists wanted. They simply 
redoubled their activity, and hatched a plot for the assassination 
of the emperor. In March 1881 the plot was successful. Alex- 
ander II., when driving in St Petersburg, was mortally wounded 
by the explosion of small bombs, and died almost as soon as he 
had reached the Winter Palace. On the following day the 
executive committee issued a bombastic proclamation, hi which it 
declared triumphantly that the tsar had been condemned to 
death by a secret tribunal on 26th August 1879, and that two years 
of effort and painful losses had at last been crowned with success. 

These facts put an end to the policy of killing Anarchism by 
kindness, and one of the first acts of the new reign was a manifesto 
in which Alexander III. announced very plainly that he had no 
intention of limiting the autocratic power, or making concessions 
of any kind to the revolutionary party. The subsequent history 
of the movement presents little that is interesting or original, 
merely a continual but gradually subsiding effort to provoke 
local disturbances with a view to bringing about sooner or 
later a general rising of the masses and the overthrow not only 
of the government, but also of the existing social and economic 
regime. A serious manifestation on the part of the terrorists 
took the shape of a plot to assassinate the emperor by bombs 
in the streets of St Petersburg in March 1887. It was the work 
of a very small group, the members of which were being watched 
by the police, and were all arrested on the day when the crime 
was to be perpetrated. The movement afterwards showed 
occasionally signs of revival. In 1901, for example, there were 
troubles in the universities, and in 1902 there were serious 
disturbances among the peasantry in some of the central rural 
districts; and the assassination of M. Sipiaguine, the minister 
of the interior, was a disquieting incident; but the illusions and 
enthusiasm which produced Nihilism in the young generation 
during the early years of the reign of Alexander II. had been 
largely shattered and dispelled by experience. The revolutionary 
propaganda temporarily led to a serious situation in the early 
years of the reign of Tsar Nicholas II., but a new era opened for 
Russia with the inauguration of parliamentary government. 

The following criminal statistics of the movement during six 
and a half years of its greatest activity (from ist July 1881 to 1st 
January 1888) are taken from unpublished official records: 
Number of affairs examined in the police department 1500 
Number of persons punished 3046 

These 3046 punishments may be divided into the following 
categories : 

Death 20 



Penal servitude 

Exile in Siberia 

Exile under police supervision in European Russia 
Lesser punishments 



128 

68 1 

150 

717 

3046 



From the beginning of the movement up to 1902 the number 
of Anarchists condemned to death and executed was forty-eight, 
and the number of persons assassinated by the Anarchists was 
thirty-nine. There is no reason to suspect the accuracy of these 
statistics, for they were not intended for publication. They are 
taken from a confidential memorandum presented to the emperor. 

(D. M. W.) 

NIIGATA, the chief town of the province of Echigo, Japan. 
Pop. (1903) 58,821. It lies on the west coast of the island of 
Nippon, on a narrow strip of sandy ground between the left bank 
of the Shinano and the sea, which though dose at hand is shut 
out from view by a low range of sandhills. It occupies an area 
of rather more than i sq. m., and consists of five long parallel 
streets intersected by cross-streets, which in most cases have 
canals running down the middle and communicating with the 
river, so that the internal traffic of the city is mainly carried 
on by water. The houses are usually built with gables to the 
street, and roofs and verandas project so as to keep the windows 
and footpaths from being blocked up by the heavy winter snows. 
Niigata was originally chosen as one of the five open ports 
Nagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, Niigata and Hakodate but it 
failed, chiefly owing to a bar which prevents the entry of vessels 



NIJAR NIKE 



689 



of any size. The town has been brought within the railway 
circuit, and the production of petroleum has been developed in 
the district. Ebisa, on the island of Sado, was opened as a 
supplementary harbour of refuge, but not as a trading port. 
There is a large manufacture of lacquer- ware in the town. 
The foreign trade is entirely in the hands of Japanese merchants. 
During winter Niigata suffers from a terribly severe climate; 
the summers, moreover, are excessively hot. 

NIJAR, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of 
Almeria; on the southern slope of the Sierra Alhamilla, and 
on the small river Artal, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea 
6 m. S.W. Pop. (1900) 12,497. Diespite the lack of railway 
communication, Nijar is a place of some commercial importance. 
Lead, iron and manganese are mined in the neighbouring moun- 
tains; the fertile plain watered by the Artal yields an abundance 
of wheat, fruit, olives and esparto grass; and fine porcelain and 
woollen and cotton goods are manufactured in the town. 

NIJMWEGEN, NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN or NIMWEGEN, a town 
in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the left bank of the 
Waal, 24^ m. by rail E. by S. of Tiel. It has regular steamboat 
communication with Rotterdam, Cologne and Arnhem, and steam- 
tramways connect it with the popular resorts of Neerbosi. ; , 
Beek and Berg -en -Dal in the vicinity. Pop. (1904) 49,342. 
Nijmwegen is very prettily -situated on the slopes of five low 
hills rising from the river-side. It stands up with a boldness quite 
unusual in a Dutch town, and steps are even necessary to lead 
to the higher portions of the town. In 1877-1884 the old town 
walls were demolished, a promenade and gardens taking their 
place, and since then a new quarter has grown up on the south 
side with a fine open place called the Emperor Charles's Plain. 
On the east of the town is the beautiful park called the Valkhof , 
which marks the site of the old palace of the Carolingian emperors. 
The palace was still inhabitable in 1787, but was ruined by the 
French bombardment of 1794, and only two portions of it 
remain. These are a part of the choir of the 1 2th-century palace- 
church, and a sixteen-sided baptistry originally consecrated 
by Pope Leo III. in 799 and rebuilt in the I2th or I3th century. 
Close by is the lofty tower of the Belvedere, dating from 1646. 
The Groote Kerk of St Stephen forms with its tall square tower 
one of the most striking features in the general views of the town. 
Originally built about 1272, it dates in its present condition 
mainly from the isth and i6th centuries. In the choir is the 
fine monument of Catherine of Bourbon (d. 1469), wife of 
Adolphus of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, with a brass of the 
duchess, and the heraldic achievements of the house of Bourbon. 
There is also a fine organ. The interesting Renaissance town- 
hall was built in 1554 (restored in 1879). It is adorned with the 
effigies of kings and emperors who were once benefactors of 
Nijmwegen. Inside are to be found some fine wood -carving, 
tapestries, pictures and a cumbrous safe in which the town 
charters were so jealously preserved that the garrison used to be 
called out and the city gates closed whenever they were con- 
sulted. There is also an interesting museum of antiquities. 
Other buildings of note are the theatre (1839), the Protestant 
hospital, the Roman Catholic or Canisius hospital (1866), and the 
old weigh-house and Flesher's Hall, probably built in 1612 and 
restored in 1885. Between 1656 and 1678 Nijmwegen was the 
seat of a university. Beer, Prussian blue, leather, tin, pottery, 
cigars, and gold and silver work are the chief industrial products, 
and there is a considerable trade by rail and river. 

NIKAYA (" collection "), the name of a division of the Bud- 
dhist canonical books. There are four principal Nikayas, making 
together the Sutta Pitaka (" Basket of Discourses "), the second 
of the three baskets into which the canon is divided. The fifth or 
miscellaneous Nikaya is by some authorities added to this Pitaka, 
by others to the next. The first two Nikayas, called respectively 
Digha and Majjhima (Longer and Shorter), form one book, a 
collection of the dialogues of the Buddha, the longer ones being 
included in the former, the shorter ones in the latter. The third, 
called the Anguttara (Progressive Addition), rearranges the 
doctrinal matter contained in the Dialogues in groups of ethical 
concepts, beginning with the units, then giving the pairs, then the 



groups of three, four, five, &c., up to ten. In the Dialogues the 
arrangement in such numbered groups is frequent. In an age 
when books, in our modern sense, were unknown, it was a 
practical necessity to invent and use aids to memory. Such were 
the repetition of memorial tags, of cues (as now used for a pre- 
cisely similar purpose on the stage), to suggest what is to come. 
Such were also these numbered lists of technical ethical terms. 
Religious teachers in the West had similar groups the seven 
deadly sins, the ten commandments, the four cardinal virtues, 
the seven Sacraments, and many others. These are only now, 
since the gradual increase of books, falling out of use. In the 
5th century B.C. in India it was found convenient by the early 
Buddhists to classify almost the whole of their psychology and 
ethics in this manner. And the Anguttara Nikaya is based on 
that classification. In the last Nikaya, the Sar/iyulla (The 
Clusters), the same doctrines are arranged in a different set of 
groups, according to subject. All the Logia (usually of the mast er 
himself, but also of his principal disciples) on any one point, 
or in a few cases as addressed to one set of people, are here 
brought together. That was, of course, a very convenient 
arrangement then. It saved a teacher or scholar who wanted to 
find the doctrine on any one subject from the trouble of repeating 
over, or getting some one else to repeat over for him, the whole 
of the Dialogues or the Anguttara. To us, now, the Satrtyutta 
seems full of repetitions; and we are apt to forget that they are 
there for a very good reason. 

During the time when the canon was being completed there 
was great activity in learning, repeating to oneself, rehearsing 
in company and discussing these three collections. But there 
was also considerable activity in a more literary direction. 
Hymns were sung, lyrics were composed, tales were told, the 
results of some exciting or interesting talk were preserved in 
summaries of exegetical exposition. A number of these have 
been fortunately preserved for us in twenty-two collections, 
mostly of very short pieces, in the fifth or miscellaneous Nikaya, 
the Khuddaka Nikaya. 

The text of the Dialogues fills about 2000 pages 8vo in the edition 

Crepared for the Pali Text Society, of which five vols. out of six 
ad been published in 1909, and the first had been translated into 
English. The Samyutta, of about the same size, and the Anguttara, 
which is a little smaller, have both been edited. Of the twenty-two 
miscellaneous books twenty have been edited (see Rhys Davids, 
American Lectures (1896), pp. 66-79), nve have been translated into 
English and two more into German. 

See Digha Nikaya, ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter (3 vols.); 
Samyutta Nikaya (5 vols.), ed. Leon Peer, vol. vi. by Mrs Rhys Davids, 
containing indices; Anguttara NikSya, ed. R. Morris and E. Hardy 
(5 vols.); all published by the Pali Text Society. Also Rhys 
Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. i. (Oxford, 1899); A. J. 
Edmunds, " Buddhist Bibliography," in Journal of the Pali Text 
Society (1903), pp. 5-12. (T. W. R. D.) 

NIKE, in Greek mythology, the goddess of victory (Gr. KCTJ). 
She does not appear personified in Homer; in Hesiod (Theog. 
384) she is the daughter of the giant Pallas and Styx, and is sent 
to fight on the side of Zeus against the Titans. Nike does not 
appear to have been the object of a separate cult at Athens. 
She was at first inseparably connected and confounded with 
Pallas Athena, the dispenser of victory, but gradually separated 
from her. As an attribute of both Athena and Zeus she is repre- 
sented as a small figure carried by those divinities in their hand. 
Athena Nike was always wingless, Nike as a separate goddess 
winged. In works of art she appears carrying a palm branch 
or a wreath (sometimes a Hermes staff as the messenger of 
victory) ; erecting a trophy or recording a victory on a shield ; 
frequently hovering with outspread wings over the victor in a 
competition, since her functions referred not only to success in 
war, but to all other human undertakings. In fact, Nike gradu- 
ally came to be recognized as a sort of mediator of success between 
gods and men. 

At Rome the goddess of victory (Victoria) was worshipped 
from the earliest times. Evander was said to have erected a 
temple in her honour on the Palatine before the foundation of 
Rome itself (Dion. Halic. i. 32, 33). With the introduction of the 
Greek gods, Victoria became merged in Niks. She always had a 



NIKISCH NIKOLAYEV 



firm hold over the Roman mind, and her popularity lasted till 
the end of paganism. Special games were held in her honour 
in the circus, and generals erected statues of her after a successful 
campaign. She came to be regarded as the protecting goddess 
of the senate, and her statue (originally brought from Tarentum 
and set up by Augustus in memory of the battle of Actium) in 
the Curia Julia (Dio Cassius li. 22; Suetonius, Aug. 100) was 
the cause of the final combat between Christianity and paganism 
towards the end of the 4th century. Victoria had altars in 
camp, a special set of worshippers and colleges, a festival on the 
ist of November, temples at Rome and throughout the empire. 
The Sabine goddess Vicuna and Vica Pota, one of the dii indigeles 
(both of them goddesses of victory), are earlier varieties of Vic- 
toria (Livy xxix. 14). Representations of Nike- Victoria in 
Greek and Graeco-Roman art are very numerous. The statue of 
Nike at Olympia by Paeonius has been in great part recovered. 

See A. Baudrillart, Les Divinites de la victoire en Grece et en Italie 
(1894), whose view that in the 5th ce_ntury Nike became detached 
from Athena, although Athena Nike still continued to exist, is 
supported by Miss J. E. Harrison (Classical Review, April 1895) 
and L. R. Farnell (Cults of the Greek States, i., 1896), but_opposed by 
E. Sikes (C.R., June 1895), who holds that " while Nike was a late 
conception, Athena Nike was still later, and that the goddess of , 
victory cannot have originated, either at Athens or elsewhere, 
from an aspect of Athena , F. Studniczka, Die Siegesgottin (Leipzig, 
1898); Preller- Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894); O. Benndorf, 
Vber das Culttisbild der Athena Nike (Vienna, 1879); G. Boissier, 
La fin du paganisms (1891); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 28. 

In the article GREEK ART, fig. 32 represents Nike pouring water 
over a sacrificial ox; fig. 36 the floating Nike of Paeonius; figs. 61, 
62 (PL iii.), the winged Nike of Samothrace; the running or flying 
figure (fig. 19) is also possibly a Nike. 

NIKISCH, ARTHUR (1855-- ), Hungarian conductor, 
became known as a musical prodigy at an early age, making a 
public performance as a pianist at eight years old. He studied 
at the Vienna Conservatoire from 1866 to 1873, and while there 
he composed a symphony and other works. For a time he was 
engaged as a violinist, but in 1877 he began as assistant conductor 
at the Leipzig opera and two years later became chief conductor. 
His success there, and his reputation as the producer of the 
more modern types of music as well as of classical masterpieces 
led to his being appointed conductor of the symphony orchestra 
at Boston, U.S.A., from 1889 to 1893; and subsequently, after 
having been director at the Budapest opera, he was made 
conductor at the Leipzig Gewandhaus. His fame was now wide- 
spread, and he made successful visits to London, Paris and other 
capitals, his ability as a pianoforte accompanist being recog- 
nized as no less marked than his brilliance as director of an 
orchestra. 

NIKITIN, ATHANASIUS, of Tver (fl. 1468-1474), Russian 
merchant, traveller and writer, the earliest known Russian visitor 
to India. He started in 1468 on his " wanderings beyond the 
Three Seas " (Caspian, Euxine and Indian Ocean), a.nd descended 
the Volga, passing by Uglich, Kostroma, Nizhniy Novgorod, 
Kazan, Sarai and Astrakhan. Near the latter he was attacked 
and robbed by Tatars; but he succeeded in reaching Derbent, 
where he joined Vasili Papin, the envoy of Ivan III. of Moscow 
to the shah of Shirvan; from Nizhniy Novgorod he had travelled 
with Hasan Bey, the Shirvan shah's ambassador, returning to his 
master with a present of falcons from Ivan. At Derbent Nikitin 
vainly endeavoured to get means of returning to Russia; failing 
in this, he went on to Batu, where he notices the " eternal fires," 
and thence over the Caspian to Bokhara. Here he stayed six 
months, after which he made his way southward, with several 
prolonged stoppages, to the Persian Gulf, through Mazandaran 
province and the towns of Amul, Demavend, Ray (near Tehran), 
Kashan, Nain, Yezd, Sirjan, Tarun, Lar and Bandar, opposite 
New (or insular) Hormuz. From Hormuz he sailed by Muscat to 
Gujarat, Cambay and Chaul in western India. Landing at Chaul, 
he seems to have travelled to Umrut in Aurangabad province, 
south-east of Surat, and thence to Beder, the modern Ahmedabad. 
Here, and in adjacent regions, Nikitin spent nearly four years; 
from the little he tells us, he appears to have made his living by 
horse-dealing. From Beder he visited the Hindu sanctuary 
(" their Jerusalem ") of Perwattum. He returned to Russia by 



way of Calicut, Dabul, Muscat, Hormuz, Lar, Shiraz, Yezd, 
Isfahan, Kashan, Sultanieh, Tabriz, Trebizond and Kaffa 
(Theodosia) in the Crimea. He has left us descriptions of 
western Indian manners, customs, religion, court-ceremonies, 
festivals, warfare and trade, of some value; but the text is 
corrupt, and the narrative at its best is confused and meagre. 
His remarks on the trade of Hormuz, Cambay, Calicut, Dabul, 
Ceylon, Pegu and China; on royal progresses and other functions, 
both ecclesiastical and civil, at Beder; and on the wonders of 
the great fair at Perwattum as well as his comparisons of things 
Russian and Indian deserve special notice. 

Two MSS. are known: (i) in the library of the cathedral of St 
Sophia in Novgorod; (2) in the library ot the Troi'tsa Monastery 
(Troitsko-Sergievskaya Lavra) near Moscow. See also the edition 
by Pavel Mikhailovich Stroev in Sofiiskii Vremennik (A.D. 862-1534), 
pt. ii. pp. 145-164 (Moscow, 1820-1821); and the English version in 
India in the Ifth Century, pp. Ixxiv.-lxxx. ; 1-32 (separately paged, 
Nikitin's being the third narrative in the volume, translated and edited 
by Count Wielhorski; London, Hakluyt Society, 1857). (C. R. B.) 

NIKKO, one of the chief religious centres of Japan. The 
name belongs properly to the district, but is as commonly 
applied to the principal village, Hachi-ishi, which is QI m. N. 
.) a* Tokyo by rail. The district is high-lying, mountainous and 
beautiful, and is in favour for summer residence. The chief 
mountain range is known as Nikko-Zan (Mountains of the Sun's 
Brightness). A Shinto temple seems to have existed at Nikko 
from time immemorial, and in 767 its first Buddhist temple was 
founded by Shodo Sho-nin (the subject of many strange legendary 
adventures); but the main celebrity of the place is due to the 
sepulchres and sanctuaries of lyeyasu and lyemitsu, the first 
and third shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty. lyeyasu was 
buried with amazing pomp in 1617, and lyemitsu, his grandson, 
was slain in 1650 while visiting his tomb. From 1644 to 1868 
the " abbots " of Nikko were always princes of the imperial 
blood; thirteen of them are buried within the sacred grounds. 
Though the magnificent abbots' residence was destroyed by fire 
in 1871, and the temples have lost most of their ritual and much 
of their material splendour, enough remains to astonish by 
excellence and bewilder by variety of decorative detail. Of the 
numerous structures which cluster round the shrine of lyeyasu, 
it is sufficient to mention the cylindrical copper column (1643), 
a guardian against evil influences, 42 ft. high, adorned at the 
top with a series of lotus flowers, from the petals of which hang 
small bells; a five-storied pagoda (1659), 104 ft. high, with the 
signs of the zodiac carved round the base; the gate of the Two 
Kings, with its figures of unicorns, lions, tigers, elephants, 
mythical animals and tree-peonies; the vermilion-coloured 
timber enclosure to which this gate gives entrance, with three 
great storehouses, a sumptuous stable for the sacred horses, and 
a finely fashioned granite cistern (1618) for holy water; and the 
Yo-mei-mon gate, which with the contiguous cloister is covered 
with the most elaborate carving, and gives access by way of 
another gate (Kara-Mon) to the court in the midst of which stands 
the last and most sacred enclosure. This, known as the Tama- 
gaki, is a quadrangle of gilt trellis-work 50 yds. square; within it 
stands the " chapel " or oratory (or rather a series of chambers), 
in the decoration of which gilding and black lacquer have been 
lavishly employed. The tomb of lyeyasu lies apart about two 
hundred steps higher up the hills, in the shadow of tall crypto- 
merias a single light-coloured bronze urn or casket standing on 
a circular base of three steps with a stone table in front on which 
rest a censer, a lotus-cluster and a stork with a candlestick in its 
mouth, the whole enclosed by a high stone wall. Somewhat similar 
are the tomb of lyemitsu and its surroundings; and though the 
art displayed is of an inferior character, the profusion of buildings 
and embellishments is even more remarkable. Hotokfi Iwa, the 
hill on which the tomb stands, is completely covered to the summit 
with trees of various tints. There are numerous temples and 
shrines of minor interest in the locality. 

NIKOLAYEV, a town, seaport and chief naval station of 
Russia on the Black Sea, in the government of Kherson, 40 m. 
N.W. of the city of Kherson. Pop. (1881) 35,000; (1891) 
77,210; (1897) 92,060. Nikolayev stands a little above the 



NIKOLAYEVSK NIKON 



691 



confluence of the Ingul with the Bug, at the head of the liman, 
or estuary, of the Bug, and is the natural outlet for the basin of 
that river. The estuary, which is 25 m. long, enters that of the 
Dnieper. The entrance to the double estuary is protected by 
the fortress of Ochakov and by the fort of Kinburn, erected on a 
narrow headland opposite, while several forts surround Nikolayev 
on both sides of the Bug and protect it from an attack by land. 
Over the bar at Ochakov the water has been deepened to 25 ft., 
and over the bar of the Dnieper to 20 ft. by dredging. The town, 
which occupies two flat peninsulas between the Bug and the Ingul, 
extends up the banks of the latter, while its suburbs reach still 
farther out into the steppe. The streets are wide, and intersect 
one another at right angles. The bank of the Ingul is taken up 
with shipbuilding yards, docks, slips and various workshops of 
the admiralty for the construction of armour-plates, guns, boilers, 
&c. On the river there is a floating dock for armoured ships. 
Before the Crimean War the activity of the dockyards was very 
great; the suburbs which belong to the admiralty were 
bound to supply the necessary hands to the number of 3000 
every day, and all the inhabitants had to perform compulsory 
service. Since 1870 the construction of armoured ships and 
torpedo-boats has been carried on here. From 1893 Nikolayev 
was the chief port for the Russian volunteer fleet, which sailed 
to and fro between this port and Vladivostok until the Russo- 
Japanese War of 1904-05. Nikolayev has steam flour-mills, 
iron and machinery works, saw-mills, soap, tobacco, vinegar, 
carriage and agricultural machinery works. The foreign exports 
consist almost entirely of cereals, especially wheat and rye, 
with a little sugar, iron and manganese ore and oilcake. The 
total value reaches 7,000,000 to 9,000,000 annually. Navi- 
gation is maintained during the whole winter by the aid of a 
powerful ice-breaker. Nikolayev is the chief market for the 
governments of Kherson, Poltava, Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav and 
parts of Kiev, Kursk and Podolia. In addition to the naval 
harbour, there are the harbour of the Russian Steamship 
Company and the coasting harbour, made in 1893; while large 
storehouses stand close to the commercial port, 2 m. from the 
town, at Popovaya-Balka on the Bug. The educational in- 
stitutions include an artillery school, a school of navigation, 
two technical schools, an astronomical and meteorological 
observatory, museums and libraries, and a hydrographical 
institute. Amongst the public buildings, the cathedral, which 
contains some good Italian pictures, the theatre, the artillery 
arsenal, the admiralty and other state buildings are worthy of 
mention. 

The remains of the Greek colony Olbia have been discovered 
close to the confluence of the Ingul with the Bug, 10 m. S. of 
Nikolayev. In medieval times the country was under the 
Lithuanians, and subsequently under the Zaporogian Cossacks. 
Russian colonists settled in the locality about the end of the 
1 8th century, and after the fall of Ochakov, Prince Potemkin 
established (1789) a wharf on the Ingul which received the name 
of Nikolayev. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

NIKOLAYEVSK, a town of East Siberia, in the Maritime 
province, on the left bank of the Amur, 20 m. above its outflow 
into the Gulf of Amur, in 53 8' N. Pop. (1897) 8200. It is 
defended by a fort and batteries. Founded in 1851, Nikolayevsk 
was formerly the capital of the Maritime province. 

NIKOLAYEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Samara, on the right bank of the Irgiz, 40 m. from the Volga 
and too m. S.W. of the town of Samara. Pop. (1897) 12,524. 
Its inhabitants are mostly Raskolniks (i.e. Nonconformists), 
who have numerous monasteries along the river, and members 
of the United Greek Church, with about 2000 Tatars. The chief 
occupations are agriculture and live stock breeding. 

Under the name of Mechetnoye, Nikolayevsk was founded in 
1762 by Raskolniks who had fled to Poland and returned when 
Catherine II. undertook to grant them religious freedom. In 
1828 serious persecutions began, with the result that the 
monasteries were closed with the exception of three, which were 
handed over in 1829 and 1836 to the United Greek Church. 
In 1835 the name of the town was changed to Nikolayevsk. 



NIKOLAYEVSKAYA, SLOBODA, a town of Russia in the 
government of Astrakhan, 3 m. from the left bank of the Volga, 
opposite Kamyshin, and no m. N. of Tsaritsyn. Pop. (1897) 
20,000. It dates from the end of the i8th century, when a 
number of Little Russians settled there for the transport of salt 
from Lake Elton. It is one of the chief centres on the lower 
Volga for the trade in corn and salt. 

NIKOLSBURG (Czech, Mikulov),a town of Austria, in Moravia, 
53 m. S. of Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900) 8091. It is situated at 
the foot of the Polau Mountains and near the border of Lower 
Austria. It possesses a chateau of Prince Dietrichstein-Mens- 
dorff, which contains an extensive library, with some valuable 
manuscripts. The Heiliger Berg, in the immediate vicinity, 
has sixteen chapels, and a church in the Byzantine style. The 
principal resources are viticulture, the manufacture of cloth, 
and trade in lime and limestone. On the 3ist of December 1621 
peace was concluded here between the emperor Ferdinand II. 
and Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania; and on the z6th 
of July 1866 a preliminary treaty of peace between the Prussians 
and the Austrians was signed here. 

NIKON [NIKITA MINIM] (1605-1681), 6th patriarch of Moscow, 
Russian reformer and statesman, son of a peasant farmer 
named Mina, was born on the 7th of May 1605 in the village of 
Valmanovo, 90 versts from Nizhny Novgorod. Misery pursued 
the child from his cradle, and prematurely hardened a character 
not naturally soft; he ran away from home to save his life 
from an inhuman stepmother. But he gave promise betimes of 
the energy and thoroughness which were to distinguish him 
throughout life, and contrived to teach himself reading and 
writing. When he was but twenty his learning and talents 
obtained for him a cure of souls. His eloquence attracted atten- 
tion, and, through the efforts of some Moscow merchants, he 
was transferred to a populous parish in the capital. Shortly 
afterwards, seeing in the loss of his three little children a provi- 
dential warning to seek the higher life, he first persuaded his 
wife to take the veil and then withdrew himself first to a desolate 
hermitage on the isle cf Anzersky on the White Sea, and finally 
to the Kozhuzersky monastery, in the diocese of Novgorod, 
of which he became abbot in 1643. On becoming a monk he 
took the name of Nikon. In his official capacity he had frequently 
to visit Moscow, and in 1646 made the acquaintance of the pious 
and impressionable Tsar Alexius, who fell entirely under his 
influence. Alexius appointed Nikon archimandrite, or prior, 
of the wealthy Novospassky monastery at Moscow, and in 1648 
metropolitan of Great Novgorod. Finally (ist of August 1652) 
he was elected patriarch of Moscow. It was only with the utmost 
difficulty that Nikon could be persuaded to become the arch- 
pastor of the Russian Church, and he only yielded after imposing 
upon the whole assembly a solemn oath of obedience to him in 
everything concerning the dogmas, canons and observances of 
the Orthodox Church. 

Nikon's attitude on this occasion was not affectation, but the 
wise determination of a would-be reformer to secure a free hand. 
Ecclesiastical reform was already in the air. A number of 
ecclesiastical dignitaries, known as the party of the protopopes 
(deans), had accepted the responsibility for the revision of the 
church service-books inaugurated by the late Patriarch Joasaf, 
and a few other very trivial rectifications of certain ancient 
observances. But they were far too timid to attempt anything 
really effectual. Nikon was much bolder and also much more 
liberal. He consulted the most learned of the Greek prelates 
abroad; invited them to a consultation at Moscow; and finally 
the scholars of Constantinople and Kiev opened the eyes of Nikon 
to the fact that the Muscovite service-books were heterodox, 
and that the ikons actually in use had very widely departed from 
the ancient Constantinopolitan models, being for the most part 
imitations of later Polish and Prankish (West European) models. 
He at once (1654) summoned a properly qualified synod of 
experts to re-examine the service-books revised by the Patriarch 
Joasaf, and the majority of the synod decided that " the Greeks 
should be followed rather than our own ancients." A second 
council, held at Moscow in 1656, sanctioned the revision of the 



692 



NIKOPOL NILE 



service-books as suggested by the first council, and anathe- 
matized the dissentient minority, which included the party 
of the protopopes and Paul, bishop of Kolomna. Heavily 
weighted with the fullest ecumenical authority, Nikon's patriarchal 
staff descended with crushing force upon the heterodox. His 
scheme of reform included not only service-books and ceremonies 
but the use of the " new-fangled " ikons, for which he ordered 
a house-to-house search to be made. His soldiers and servants 
were charged first to gouge out the eyes of these " heretical 
counterfeits " and then carry them through the town in derision. 
He also issued a ukaz threatening with the severest penalties 
all who dared to make or use such ikons in future. This ruthless- 
ness goes far to explain the unappeasable hatred with which the 
" Old Ritualists " and the " Old Believers," as they now began 
to be called, ever afterwards regarded Nikon and all his works. 

From 1652 to 1658, Nikon was not so much the minister as 
the colleague of the tsar. Both in public documents and in 
private letters he was permitted to use the sovereign title. 
Such a free use did he make of his vast power, that some Russian 
historians have suspected him of the design of establishing " a 
particular national papacy "; and he himself certainly main- 
tained that the spiritual was superior to the temporal power. 
He enriched the numerous and splendid monasteries which he 
built with valuable libraries. His emissaries scoured Muscovy 
and the Orient for precious Greek and Slavonic MSS., both sacred 
and profane. But his severity raised up a whole host of enemies 
against him, and by the summer of 1658 they had convinced 
Alexius that the sovereign patriarch was eclipsing the sovereign 
tsar. Alexius suddenly grew cold towards his " own familiar 
friend." Nikon thereupon publicly divested himself of the 
patriarchal vestments and shut himself up in the Voskresensky 
monastery (iQth of July 1658). In February 1660 a synod was 
held at Moscow to terminate " the widowhood " of the Muscovite 
Church, which had now been without a pastor for nearly two 
years. The synod decided not only that a new patriarch should 
be appointed, but that Nikon had forfeited both his archi- 
episcopal rank and his priest's orders. Against the second part 
of this decision, however, the great ecclesiastical expert Epifany 
Slavenitsky protested energetically, and ultimately the whole 
inquiry collapsed, the scrupulous tsar shrinking from the enforce- 
ment of the decrees of the synod for fear of committing mortal 
sin. For six years longer the Church of Muscovy remained 
without a patriarch. Every year the question of Nikon's 
deposition became more complicated and confusing. Almost 
every contemporary orthodox scholar was consulted on the sub- 
ject, and no two authorities agreed. At last the matter was 
submitted to an ecumenical council, or the nearest approach to it 
attainable in the circumstances, which opened its sessions 
on the i8th of November 1666 in the presence of the tsar. On 
the 1 2th of December the council pronounced Nikon guilty of 
reviling the tsar and the whole Muscovite Church, of deposing 
Paul, bishop of Kolomna, contrary to the canons, and of beating 
and torturing his dependants. His sentence was deprivation of all 
his sacerdotal functions; henceforth he was to be known simply 
as the monk Nikon. The same day he was put into a sledge and 
sent as a prisoner to the Therapontov Byelozersky monastery. 
Yet the very council which had deposed him confirmed all his 
reforms and anathematized all who should refuse to accept them. 
Nikon survived the tsar (with whom something of the old 
intimacy was resumed in 1671) five years, expiring on the i;th 
of August 1 68 1. 

See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905) ; S. M. 
Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. x. (St Petersburg, 1895, &c.); 
A. K. Borozdm, The Protopope Awakum (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 
1898); V. S. Ikonnikov, New Materials concerning the Patriarch 
Nikon (Rus.) (Kiev, 1888); William Palmer, The Patriarch and the 
Tsar (London, 1871-1876). (R. N. B.) 

NIKOPOL, a town of Russia, in the government of Ekaterino- 
skv, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 70 m. S.S.W. of the town 
of Ekaterinoslav. It was formerly called Nikitin Rog, and 
occupies an elongated peninsula between two arms of the 
Dnieper at a point where its banks are low and marshy, and has 
been for centuries one of the places where the middle Dnieper 



can most conveniently be crossed. Its inhabitants, 21,282 in 
1900, are Little Russians, Jews and Mennonites, who carry on 
agriculture and shipbuilding. The old secha, or fortified camp 
of the Zaporogian Cossacks, brilliantly described in N. V. Gogol's 
novel Taras Bulba (1834), was situated a little higher up the 
river. Numbers of graves in the vicinity recall the battles which 
were fought for the possession of this important strategic point. 
One of them, close to the town, contained, along with other 
Scythian antiquities, the well-known precious vase representing 
the capture of wild horses. Even now Nikopol, which is situated 
on the highway from Ekaterinoslav to Kherson, is the point 
where the " salt-highway " of the Chumaks (Little Russian 
salt-carriers) to the Crimea crosses the Dnieper. Nikopol is, 
further, one of the chief places on the lower Dnieper for the 
export of corn, linseed, hemp and wool. 

NIKOPOLI, or NICOPOLIS (Turkish, Nighebolu or Nebul), 
the chief town of a sub-prefecture in the district of Plevna 
(Pleven), Bulgaria. Pop. (1908) 5236, including 3339 Turks 
and 1615 Bulgarians. Nikopoli is picturesquely situated on the 
south bank of the Danube, where it receives the Osem. Until the 
creation of a new port at Somovit, in the neighbourhood, Nikopoli 
served as an outlet for the trade of Plevna, Lovtcha and other 
towns in the interior, the principal export being cereals. The 
chief industries are tanning and fishing. As a military post the 
town has for centuries been important. A ruined castle still 
dominates the place, and fortifications stretch down to the river. 

Nikopoli occupies the site of the ancient Asamus, but by some 
medieval confusion bears the name of Nicopolis ad Istrum, which 
was founded by Trajan several miles down the river, at the inflow 
of the latrus or Yantra, at the spot still called Nikup. The 
following are the chief points in the modern history of the place: 
capture of the fortress by Sigismund of Hungary in 1392 and 
1395; defeat of Sigismund and his hosts in 1396 by Bayezid I.; 
siege of the town by King Ladislaus I. of Hungary in 1444; 
defeat of the Turks by Bathori in 1595 and by Michael of Walachia 
in 1598; capture of the town by Pasvan-oglu in 1797; occupa- 
tion of the fortress by the Russians under Kamensky in 1810; 
destruction of the Turkish flotilla and storming of the Turkish 
camp by Govarov in 1829; capture and burning of the town 
by the Russians under Kriidener on the isth of June 1877. 

NIKSHICH (also written NIKSHITCH and NIKSHITI; Croatian, 
NikSic), a town of Montenegro, lying in a flat plain enclosed by 
lofty mountains on the north-west, and watered by the river 
Zeta. Pop. ( 1 900) about 3 500. Owing to the prevalence of floods, 
a long viaduct, a gift from Russia, was raised between the town 
and the mountain road which leads to Podgoritsa, 60 m. S.E. 
Nikshich consists of a mass of white houses, dominated by the 
belfry and the pale yellow cupola of its cathedral, another gift 
from Russia. This building is chiefly Byzantine in style, and, 
though hardly beautiful, is the most impressive and by far the 
largest of Montenegrin churches. Close by stands a barrack-like 
royal palace; and a little beyond the town are the ruins of an old 
castle. As Nikshich possesses a brewery and a clothmill, besides 
being the chief mart of Western Montenegro for timber, hides, 
farm-produce and livestock, it ranks second in commercial 
importance to Podgoritsa. About 12 m. S.E. is the celebrated 
shrine of Ostrog (see MONTENEGRO). Nikshich was included in 
the Turkish province of Herzegovina until 1876, in which year it 
was stormed by the Montenegrins, led by Prince Nicholas in 
person. In 1878 the Montenegrin possession was ratified by the 
treaty of Berlin. 

NILE, the longest river of Africa, and second in length of all 
the rivers of the globe, draining a vast area in north-east Africa, 
from the East African lake plateau to the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean. Although falling short of the length of the Mississippi- 
Missouri (4194 m. according to the estimate of General Tillo 1 ), 
the Nile is at the head of all rivers as regards the length of its 
basin, which extends through 35 of latitude or 2450 m. in a 
direct line, with a waterway of about 4000 m. The Nile proper, 
i.e. from the outlet at Victoria Nyanza to the sea, is 3473 m. long. 

"General Alexi A. Tillo (1839-1900), Russian scientist and 
geographer, author of works on geodesy, meteorology, &c. 



NILE 



693 



EDI TERRAH..EAN S E A 

' 



A S B Longitude East 30 of Greenwich 




The Name. The early Egyptians called 
this river by a name which was probably 
pronounced Hap. It seems to be con- 
nected with a root meaning " concealed," 
" mysterious." This survived as a religious 
designation down to the fall of paganism. 
The " great river " was also a frequent 
name for the main stream, and this 
became the usual name of the Nile in 
late times as ler-'o and continued in use 
amongst the Copts. In the Bible the 
Nile is regularly named Ye5r 0*', *:), 
from the contemporary Egyptian Yor, 
" river." The origin of the Greek and 
Roman name NeTXos, Nilus, is quite 
unknown. Atywros in the Odyssey is 
the name of the Nile (masc.) as well as 
of the country (fern.). The Arabs pre- 
served the classical name of the Nile in 

V 

the proper name En-Nfl 3-**J' > or NJ 1- 



Misr 



the Nile of Misr (Egypt). 



Emery W*lter K. 



The same word signifies indigo. 1 

The modern Egyptians commonly 
call the river El-Bahr, " the sea," a term 
also applied to the largest rivers, and the 
inundation " the Nile," En-Nil; and the 
modern Arabs call the river Bahr-en-Nll, 
" the river Nile." 

Basin of the River. The Nile system is 
a simple one with three principal divisions: 
(i) the main stream running souih_to north, 
and fed by the great lakes of East Central 
Africa; (2) the equatorial tributary rivers 
draining the country north-east of the 
Congo basin; (3) the Abyssinian affluents. 
The extent of the basin of the Nile is 
clearly indicated on the map. Its area is 
estimated at 1,107,227 sq. m., which com- 
pares with the 1,425,000 sq. m. area of 
the Congo basin. The smaller basin of 
the longer river is due to its narrowness 
when passing through the Sahara. South- 
ward the basin includes the northern part 
of the plateau between the two " Rift " 
valleys which traverse that part of Africa, 
and also that portion of the Albertine (or 
western) " Rift " valley which lies north 
of the Mfumbiro mountains. That part 
of the plateau within the Nile basin is 
occupied by the Victoria Nyanza and its 
affluents. These affluents drain a compara- 
tively small part of this plateau, which 
stretches south to Lake Nyasa. The most 
remote feeder of the Nile in this direction 
does not extend farther than 3 20' S. 
West and W.S.W. of Victoria Nyanza, 
however, the Nile basin reaches 3 50' S. 
(264 m. south of the equator) and 29 15' E., 
following the crest of the hills which 
dominate the north-eastern shores of Lake 
Tanganyika and the eastern shores of 
Lake Kivu. Turning north-westward from 
this point the Nile basin crosses the 
mountainous region of Mfumbiro and in- 
cludes that of Ruwenzori. Its limit is 
marked by the western wall of the 

1 "En-Nil is the river G't. the inundation) 
of Egypt : Es-Saghanl says ' But as to the 
nil [indigo] with which one dyes, it is an 
Indian word Arabicized ' " (The Misbdh of 
El-Fayumi). 



694 



NILE 



Albertine Rift valley, in which lie the Albert Edward and 
Albert Nyanzas. For a considerable distance the water-parting 
between the Congo and the Nile is close to the Albert Nyanza 
and to the Nile as it flows from that lake, but not far north 
of Wadelai (2 46' N.) the hills recede and the Nile basin 
expands westward, over the wide area drained by the Bahr- 
el-Ghazal and its tributaries. In this region there is no well- 
marked watershed between the Congo and Nile systems, which 
interlace. Farther north the limit of the valley is marked by 
the hills of Darfur. Below that point the valley of the Nile 
extends but a mile or two into the desert. 

The south-eastern limits of the Nile basin extend nearly to 
the western escarpment of the eastern Rift valley the dividing 
plateau being a narrow one. North of the equator a bend is 
made westward to Mt. Elgon, which on the north-east sends 
its water towards Lake Rudolf. From Mt. Elgon the Nile 
watershed is some distance to the west of that lake, while to its 
north a turn is made again, the watershed including a great part 
of the Abyssinian highlands. Beyond 15 N. it follows a line 
generally parallel to the west shore of the Red Sea, except where 
diverted to the west by the basin of the Khor Baraka. 

Sources of the Nile. The question of the sources of the Nile opens 
up a time-honoured controversy (see under Story of Discovery below). 
Victoria Nyanza (q.v.) is the great reservoir whence issues the Nile 
on its long journey to the Mediterranean. But if the source of the 
river be considered to be the most remote headstream (measured by 
the windings of the stream), the distinction belongs to one of the 
upper branches of the Kagera. Among the feeders of Victoria Nyanza 
the Kagera is by far the most important, both for length of course 
and volume of water carried, draining the region of greatest rainfall 
round Lake Victoria. Three chief branches unite to form the Kagera, 
and of these the most important for the volume of water carried is 
said to be the Nyavarongo. The Nyavarongo is formed by the 
union of various mountain streams, the Rukarara and the Mhogo 
being the chief. The Rukarara rises in about 2 20' S., 29 20' E., 
at an elevation of some 7000 ft., in a picturesque and bracing region 
immediately east of the Albertine Rift valley. The Nyavarongo first 
flows north to about i 40' S., then turning in a sharp bend east and 
south, and on again reaching 2 20' S., unites with the Akanyaru 
just west of 30 E. The Akanyaru, which comes from the south- 
west, has been sometimes considered the larger stream, but according 
to Dr Richard Kandt it carries decidedly less water, while its course 
is shorter than that of the Nyavarongo. The combined stream 
takes an easterly and southerly direction, flowing in a swamp valley 
and joining a little west of 31 E. the third branch of the Kagera, 
the Ruvuvu, coming from the south. The source of the Ruvuvu is 
in about 2 55' S., 29! E., but its most southern tributary, and the 
most distant stream sending its waters towards the Nile, is the 
Lavironza. The Layironza rises in about 3 45' S., 29 50' E., and 
flows north-east, joining the Ruvuvu, which has hitherto had an 
easterly direction, in about 30 25' E., 3 10' S. From this point the 
Ruvuvu flows east and north to its junction with the Nyavarongo. 
From this confluence the combined stream of the Kagera flows north 
and north-west in a level valley strewn with small lakes until almost 
1 S., when it turns east, and finally empties itself into Victoria 
Nyanza just north of 1 S., the mouth forming a small projecting 
delta. Its lower course is navigable by shallow draught steamers. 
The total length of the Kagera, reckoning from the source of the 
Nyavarongo, is some 430 m. Its volume is stated to vary between 
21,000 and 54,000 cub. ft. per second. All the other feeders of 
Victoria Nyanza are small and often intermittent rivers, the largest 
being probably the Nzoia, which enters on the north-east from the 
plateaus south of Mount Elgon. (The rivers which enter Albert 
Edward and Albert Nyanzas and, with those lakes, form the western 
sources of the Nile, are dealt with under ALBERT NYANZA and ALBERT 
EDWARD NYANZA.) 

The Victoria or Somerset Nile. The ridge of high land which forms 
the northern shore of Victoria Nyanza is broken at its narrowest 
part, where the pent-up waters of the lake through which a drift 
from the Kagera inlet to the Nile outlet is just perceptible have 
forced a passage at the northern end of a beautiful bay named 
Napoleon Gulf. At thjs spot, 30 m. north of the equator, at an alti- 
tude of 3704 ft., the Nile issues from the lake between cliffs 200 and 
more ft. high with a breadth of some 500 yds. The scene is one of 
much grandeur. The escaping water precipitates itself over a rocky 
ledge with a clear fall of l6i ft. The falls, some 300 yds. across, 
and divided into three channels by two small wooded islands, are 
.named the Ripon Falls, after Earl de Grey and Ripon (afterwards 
1st marquess of Ripon), president of the Royal Geographical Society 
in 1859. The Victoria or Somerset Nile, as this section is called, has 
at first the character of a mountain stream, racing swiftly through a 
rocky channel often walled in by cliffs (at times 180 ft. high) and 
broken by picturesque islands and countless rapids. It receives the 
waters of several streams, which, rising within a few miles of the 
Victoria Nyanza, flow north. For 133 m. its course is N.N.W., 



when, on being joined by the river Kafu (on which Fort Mruli stands), 
about 1 39' N., 32 20' E., it takes the north-east direction of that 
channel, and it is not till 2 N. that the river again turns westward 
towards the Albert Nyanza. Seventy miles below the Ripon Falls 
the Nile enters a marshy lake of irregular outline, running mainly 
east and west, and known as Kioga (or Choga). The current of the 
Nile is clearly discernible along the western shore of this lake, which 
is 3514 ft. above the sea. Eastwards the lake breaks into several 
long arms, which receive the waters of other lakes lying on the plain 
west of Mount Elgon. One of these, named Lake Salisbury, lies in 
I 40' N. and 34 E. ; east of this lake and connected with it is Lake 
Gedge. Lake Kioga also receives the Mpologoma, a river which 
rises in the foothills of Elgon and flows east and north, attaining 
a width of ij m. ; and from the south (west of the Nile) a broad 
lacustrine river, the Seziwa. The Kioga lake system, lying north of 
the ridge which separates it from Victoria Nyanza, owes its formation 
in part to the waters pouring down from the Nyanza, and is in the 
nature of a huge Nile backwater. The lake itself is rarely more than 
20 ft. deep; its greatest length is 85 m. ; its greatest width 10 m. 
Below Mruli, the fall in the bed levels of the Nile, which up to this 
point has been comparatively gradual, increases considerably. At 
Karuma, where the western bend to the Albert Nyanza is made, 
the river falls over a wall-like ledge of rock, 5 ft. high, which extends 
across its bed. But the great feature of the Victoria Nile are the 
Murchison Falls (named by Sir Samuel Baker, their discoverer, after 
Sir Roderick Murchison, the geologist), situated in 2 18' N. and 
31 50' E. At this point the river rages furiously through a rock- 
bound pass, and, plunging through a cleft less than 18 ft. wide, leaps 
about 130 ft. into a spray-covered abyss. Downstream from these 
falls the river flows for some 14 m. between steep forest-covered 
hills, a wide and noble stream with a current so slow and steady that, 
at certain seasons, it is only from the scarcely perceptible drifting 
of the green water-plants called Pistia Stratiotes that it can be 
observed. About 24 m. below the Murchison Falls and 254 m. 
from the Victoria Nyanza the river enters, through a wide delta, 
and across a formidable bar, the N.E. end of Albert Nyanza. In its 
passages from the one lake to the other the Nile falls altogether 
about 1400 ft. Taking its name from a fort which once existed 
there, the delta district is known as Magungo. 

From Albert Nyanza to the Plains. Issuing from the north-west 
corner of Albert Nyanza some 5 m. from the spot where it entered 
that lake, the Nile, which is now known as the Bahr-el-Jebel, or 
Mountain river, flows in a generally northerly direction. As far as 
Dufile, 130 m. below Magungo, it has a gentle slope, a deep channel 
and a current generally slight. It forms a series of lake-like reaches 
often studded with reedy islands. .Immediately below Dufile the 
Kuku mountains on the west and the Arju range on the east close in 
upon the river, which, from an average width of 700 yds., narrows 
to 230 yds. Here the hills cause the stream to make a sharp bend 
from the north-east to the north-west. Four or five miles lower 
down the river widens to 400 yds., and a large island divides the 
stream, the eastern channel carrying the main volume of water. 
This island marks the beginning of the Fola Rapids. At its southern 
end the water falls some 20 ft., and then, like a gigantic mill-race, 
rushes through a gorge 330 ft. long and nowhere more than 52 ft. 
wide, to leap into a deep cavity not more than 40 ft. across. Escaping 
from this " cauldron " the waters thunder on in a succession of 
rapids, which extend beyond the northern end of the island. In all 
the Fola Rapids are nearly 2 m. long. For the next 80 m. the Nile, 
save for the great volume of water, resembles a mountain torrent, 
its course interrupted by continual rapids. The last of these occurs 
at Bedden, where the river breaks through a line of low hills running 
athwart its channel. One of these hills forms an island in mid- 
stream. Below Bedden various stations are established upon the 
river. Fort Berkeley, in 4 40' N. (on the right bank), is the nearest 
to the rapids. Then follow Rejaf (left bank), Gondokoro (right 
bank) and Lado (left bank), all within 30 m. of one another. A 
striking feature of the scenery at Rejaf is a cone-shaped hill, about 
370 ft. high, crowned by rocks which have the appearance of the 
ruins of an ancient castle. At Gondokoro the Nile is clear of the hill 
country, and enters a vast swamp-like expanse through which it 
flows with a very low slope and a very tortuous channel. 

Between Albert Nyanza and the swamp region the Bahr-el-Jebel 
is joined by many streams. The most important of these affluents 
is the Asua (nearly 200 m. long), which enters the main stream from 
the east in 3 50' N. (19 m. N. of Dufile), but has little water in the 
dry season. The Asua and its subsidiary streams rise on the western 
versant of the Karamojo plateau and among the mountain ranges 
which run off from that plateau to the north-west, the most remote 
head-stream running originally due south. 

The Region of Swamps. The wide valley which the Nile enters at 
Gondokoro slopes so gradually towards the north that the river falls 
only some 182 ft. in a stretch of 475 m. Through this valley the 
river winds in an extremely tortuous course. Its channel has no 
banks, and the overflow has caused extensive swamps which are 
covered by a mass of papyrus and tall reeds, and are traversed by 
numerous shallow lagoons or " mayyas." The shape of these lagoons 
is constantly altering, as also is that of the channels connecting them 
with the river. About 8 m. below Bpr, many of the eastern " spills " 
unite and form a stream of considerable breadth, with a strong 



NILE 



current. This stream, which is known to the Dinkas as the Atem, 
follows a course generally parallel to the Jebel, being bounded east- 
ward by forest land. Opposite Kanisa (6 46' N.), on the main river, 
the Atem divides into two channels, marshy land extending at this 
point a great distance to the east. The western branch, or Awai, 
rejoins the Jebel near Shamb 7 6' N. The eastern branch or 
Myding continues through the marshes, eventually joining the Bahr- 
el-Zeraf (see below) in its lower course. 

Except for the Atem divergence the Nile, despite the swamps 
through which it passes, maintains a fairly definite course, with a 
considerable depth of water as far as Shambc, where, to the west, 
is a large lagoon. Five miles lower down the river splits into two 
great channels. That to the left, the main stream, continues to be 
known as Bahr-el-Jebel, but is sometimes called by its Dinka name 
Kir. The right branch, or Bahr-el-Zeraf (Giraffe river), has a more 
easterly direction, and does not rejoin the main river until 50 m. 
below its confluence with the Bahr-el-Ghazal (q.v.). From the point 
of bifurcation the Bahr-el-Jebel flows for 230 m. in a general north- 
westerly direction until it is joined by the Bahr-el-Ghazal coming 
from the south-west. The whole region is a vast expanse of low land 
crossed by secondary channels, and flooded for many miles in the 
rainy season. At the junction of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Bahr- 
el-Jebel in 9 29' N. the permanently submerged area is usually 
named Lake No, but the Arabs call it Moghren-el-Bohur (meeting of 
the rivers). Lake No in the rains covers about 50 sq. m. In the 
Bahr-el-Jebel occur the great accumulations of " sudd " (q.v.), 
masses of floating vegetation which obstruct and, if not removed, 
prevent navigation. The aspect of the river throughout the sudd 
region is monotonous and depressing. On all sides stretch reaches 
of the reed known as um suf or mother of wool (Vossia procera), 
ambach, Bus and papyrus. These grasses rise 15 to 20 ft. above the 
water, so as often to close the view like a thick hedge. The level 
of the flat expanse is broken only at intervals by mounds of earth, 
erected by the white ants and covered with a clump of brushwood or 
trees; the moisture in the air is excessive; mosquitoes and other 
swamp flies swarm in myriads. And yet touches of beauty are not 
wanting. Water-lilies (Nymphaea steuata and Nymphaea Lotus) 
white, blue and crimson often adorn the surface of the stream. 
Occasionally the rare and odd-looking whale-headed stork or Balae- 
niceps rex is met with among the reeds, and at night the scene is lit 
up by innumerable fire-flies. 

The White Nile. From the confluence with the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
at Lake No, the main stream, which here takes the name of Bahr-el- 
Abiad, or White river, adopts the easterly course of the tributary 
stream. Forty miles below the point where the Bahr-el-Zeraf 
reunites with the main branch, the Nile receives its first great eastern 
affluent the Sobat (q.v.), whose head-streams rise in the mountains 
of south-west Abyssinia and the region north of Lake Rudolf. 
Just above the Sobat junction the Nile resumes its northern course. 
It passes through a great alluvial plain, stretching from the spurs of 
the Abyssinian highlands in the east, to the hilly districts of Kordofan 
in the west, and covered with high grass and scattered bush. The 
swamps still bound it on either bank, but the river again flows 
in a well-marked channel with defined banks. About 56 m. below 
the Sobat mouth, in 9 55' N., lies (on the left bank) Fashoda (re- 
named in 1904 Kodok), an Egyptian town founded in 1867 on the site 
of Denab, the old " capital " of the Shilluks, and famous for the 
crisis between England and France in 1898 through its occupation 
by the French officer Marchand. For the next 270 m. the scenery is 
very monotonous. The river flows in a wide channel between broad 
swamps bordered by a belt of forest on either bank. At Abu Zeid 
(about 13 ' N.) for a distance of nearly 4 m. the river is extremely 
broad and shallow, being fordable at low water. Fifteen miles lower 
down, at Goz Abu Goma which is the northern limit of the sudd 
vegetation the river is divided into two channels by Abba Island, 
wooded, narrow and 28 m. long. On Abba Island_ lived, for some 
years before 1881, Mahommed Ahmed, the Mahdi. 

The Blue Nile. Five hundred and twenty miles below the Sobat 
mouth and 1652 m. from Ripon Falls, in 15 37' N., the White Nile 
is joined by its greatest eastern confluent the Bahr-el-Azrak or Blue 
Nile. In the fork of the two rivers stands Khartum, 1 the capital of 
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whilst on the western bank of the White 
Nile is Omdurman, the former Mahdist capital. The Blue Nile, or 
Abai as it is called in Abyssinia, rises in the Gojam highlands in 
11 N. and 37 E., and flowing northwards 70 m. enters Lake Tsana 
(q.v.) near its south-west corner, to issue again at the south-east end. 
The Abai and its tributaries drain a great part of the Abyssinian 
plateau. The complicated river system is best understood by a study 
of the map. The Abai itself on leaving Lake Tsana makes a gjreat 
semicircular sweep S.E. to N W., from the highlands of Ethiopia to 
the plains of Sennar. In this section of its course its swirling waters 
rush over a long series of cataracts and rapids, descending from a 
height of 5770 ft. at the outlet to about 1400 ft. at Fazokl or Famaka 
(n 17' N., 35 10' E.), where it crosses the Abyssinian frontier, 
and flows through the plains of Sennar to its confluence with the 
White Nile at Khartum, 1300 ft. above sea-level. Of the tributaries 

l At Khartum the water of the one river is of a greenish-grey 
colour, that of the other is clear and blue, er.cept when in flood, 
when it gains a chocolate brown from its alluvial burden. 



of the Abai the majority join it on its left bank. The Bashilo, Jamma 
and Muger, which reach the Abai in the order named, drain the 
country east of the main stream between the basins of the Takazze 
and the Hawash. The Guder, with a south to north course, rises 
in the mountains which form the watershed between the Nile and 
the Lake Rudolf basin. Next comes the Didessa, a large stream 
rising near the head-waters of the Baro (the main upper branch of 
the Sobat) and flowing N.W. to the Abai, the confluence being 
in about 10 N., 35 40' E. It has an early rise and a long flood 
period, being by far the most important tributary of the Blue Nile. 
The Dabus or Yabus rises about 9 N., 34 50' E., and flowing north 
joins the Abai near the spot where that river breaks through the 
Abyssinian hills. All these affluents are perennial, as is the Bolassa 
or Yesien, a right-hand tributary which reaches the Abai below the 
Yabus. Four miles below Famaka the river is joined on its left bank 
by the auriferous Tumat, an intermittent stream. In Sennar it 
receives on its right bank two considerable tributaries from the 
Abyssinian heights, the Dinder, a very long but not perennial 
stream, and the Rahad, waterless in the dry season, copious and 
richly charged with sediment during the rains from June to Sep- 
tember. At this period the discharge of the Blue Nile rises from 
less than 200 to over 10,000 cub. metres per second, thus greatly 
exceeding that of the White Nile itself, which is only about 800 cub. 
metres during the floods above the confluence. The length of the 
Blue Nile is about 850 m. The country, El Gezira, enclosed in the 
triangle formed by the junction of the White and Blue Niles forms 
the most fertile portion of the Sudan. It only requires irrigation to 
render it one of the finest grain-producing areas in the world. 

The Atbara. Two hundred miles below Khartum at Ed-Damer 
the Nile is joined by the last of its tributary streams the Atbara 
or Bahr-el-Aswad (Black river). The Atbara, some 800 m. long, 
rises in the tableland north of Lake Tsana, being formed by the 
junction of the Angreb, Salaam, Aradeb, Goang and other mountain 
streams. Making its way towards the Nubian plains, the river flows 
in a north-westerly direction, joining, in 14 10 N., 36 E., the Bahr 
Setit or Takazze (see ABYSSINIA), a river coming from the east and 
having a volume of water as large as, if not larger than, the Atbara. 
The united stream preserves, however, the name of Atbara, and at 
its confluence with the Nile has a breadth in flood time of over 
600 yds. The Atbara and its tributaries, like many of those which 
feed the Blue Nile, rapidly dwindle after the rains into the smallest 
limits. In its lower course the Atbara runs completely dry. but 
higher up water may be found in deep pools, hollowed out of the 
sand bed of the stream by the river when in flood. These pools are 
full of fish, turtles, crocodiles and hippopotami, which remain im- 
prisoned until the return of the flood. The country comprised 
between the Nile proper, the Atbara and the Blue Nile is identified 
with the island of Meroe of ancient history. 

The Cataracts. Downstream of the Atbara junction the Nile 
continues its course to the Mediterranean, traversing a distance of 
over 1600 m. without receiving a single tributary on either bank. 
Below Khartum the river makes a great S-shaped bend, and leaving 
behind the cultivable land pierces the Nubian desert. In its progress 
the volume of water suffers continual diminution from evaporation, 
owing to the extreme dryness of the air. The valley of the river is 
here very narrow, and the desert land in places comes right to the 
water's edge. Elsewhere high and barren cliffs shut in the valley. 
Between Khartum and Wadi Haifa (the northern end of the great 
bend), a distance of over 900 m., occurs a series oJ cataracts, known 
as the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th (the ist cataract is lower down the 
river at Assuan). That first met with on descending the river from 
Khartum is the 6th (or Shabluka) cataract. The river here (53 m. 
below Khartum) is narrow and picturesque. The rapid is 1 1 m. in 
length, in which distance the Nile falls some 20 ft. 2 After 188 m. 
of smooth water the 5th cataract is reached. It begins 28 m. below 
Berber (a town on the right bank at the head of a caravan route to 
the Red Sea), and with three principal rapids extends for 100 m. 
the drop in this distance being rather more than 200 ft. At the foot 
of this cataract is the town of Abu Hamed, at the eastern end of 
the middle of the S bend. The 4th cataract begins 60 m. down 
stream from Abu Hamed. It is 69 m. long and has a drop of 160 ft. 
Between the 4th and 3rd cataracts there is a stretch of 194 m. on a 
very gentle slope (rin)- This reach constitutes the province of 
Dongola, and here the cultivable land on the western side of the river 
is of greater extent than usual in the desert zone. The 3rd cataract, 
45 m. long, has a drop of some 36 ft. After another smooth reach 
extending 73 m. the 2nd cataract, which ends just above Wadi 
Haifa, the northern frontier town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is 
reached. This cataract is 124 m. long and has a fall of 216 ft. 
Between the 2nd cataract and Assuan are 214 m. of smooth water 
with a scarcely perceptible slope, nhir- The average breadth of 
the river here is 1640 ft. It runs through a sandstone bed, and the 
current is guided in many places by spurs of masonry built by the 
ancient Egyptians. 

Lower River and Delta. For some distance above Assuan the river 
is studded with islands, including those of Philae and Elephantine. 
The rapids south of the town used to form the 1st cataract, where, 



1 The fall in the river-bed, as given in these pages, is an approxi- 
mation derived from barometric readings only. 



6 9 6 



NILE 



in a length of 3 m., the river fell l6j ft. Since the completion of the 
great dam and locks at the head of these rapids (Dec. 1902) they 
have to a certain extent disappeared, and a navigable channel has 
been formed. The dam, pierced by 180 sluices, stretches across the 
river a wall 2000 yds. long and 26 ft. wide at the top. Below the 
water rushes between rocks in many channels (this being the relics 
of the cataract). Upstream from the dam a lake some 100 m. in 
length has been formed. The Assuan Dam was opened on the loth 
of December 1902 (see under IRRIGATION). A ladder of four locks on 
the western side of the dam permits navigation between the upper 
and lower reaches. At Assuan the banks of the river are bordered 
by high granite hills. From this point to the apex of the delta the 
length of the Nile is 605 m. with a slope (njW) even slighter than 
that above Assuan. The valley is comparatively narrow, being an 
almost level depression in a limestone plateau the area of fertility 
ends where the land ceases to be irrigated by the river. At Edfu, 
68 m. below Assuan, a barrage, known as the Esna barrage, regulates 
the flow of the water, and at Assiut, 274 m. below Edfu, is another 
barrage fulfilling the same purpose. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is 
built on the eastern bank of the Nile 12 m. north of the apex of the 
delta. 

At the beginning of the delta the Nile separates into two channels, 
the Rosetta and the Damietta, which join the Mediterranean at its 
south-east angle. At the bifurcation is a double barrage, by means 
of which the water can be dammed to the height required for forcing 
the river into the canals which irrigate the delta. Of the two 
branches the Damietta is the more easterly. Both are about the 
same length 146 m. 1 Behind the coast-line, which is low and sandy, 
are a number of salt marshes or lagoons. Whilst the Damietta 
branch is gradually silting up, the Rosetta branch is scouring out 
a wider channel. In time of full flood the depth of the water in 
either branch is about 23 ft. 

Hydrography. The fertility and prosperity of Egypt and the 
northern part of the Sudan being entirely dependent on the irrigation 
of the land by the waters of the Nile, the variation in the supply at 
different seasons of the year is of vital importance. (In Egypt the 
height of the flood has been recorded annually, as the chief event of 
the year, since at least 3600 B.C.) Above the Sobat confluence the 
Nile traverses a region of heavy rainfall and the water-supply is super- 
abundant. It is from Victoria, Albert and Albert Edward Nyanzas 
and their feeders, and in a lesser degree from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, that 
this river obtains its constant supply of water throughout the year. 
The great lakes and the region of swamps, retaining a large propor- 
tion of the water they receive, act as natural reservoirs and prevent 
the lower Nile from ever running dry in summer. The Abyssinian 
affluents are the chief cause of the Nile flood. In the equatorial 
regions rainfall varies from 30 to 80 in. during the year with a mean 
of about 50. It is heaviest in the months of January, February, 
March and April, and again in October and November. The most 
rainy portions of the lake plateau (where alone occurs a rainfall of 
60 in. and over) lie along the eastern edge of the Albertine Rift 
valley, and west and north of Victoria Nyanza. These rains feed 
Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas, and, through the Kagera, 
supply a great part of the water of Victoria Nyanza. The water in 
the Victoria Nyanza begins to rise in January, the rise becomes 
marked in June, is at its height in July, the level of the water reaching 
its lowest at the end of November. The Bahr-el-Jebel is at its lowest 
in March and April and at its highest in September. The seasonal 
supply of the Bahr-el-Ghazal does not vary very greatly, the maxi- 
mum levels occurring in November and December. The Ghazal 
has but a slight discharge. The Sobat, from December to March, 
is at its lowest, and is in flood from June to October, during which 
period the water (milky coloured) which it pours into the Nile equals 
in volume that of the main stream. It is the colour of the Sobat 
water which gives its name to the White Nile. The Blue Nile, at 
its confluence at Khartum, begins to rise in June and is in flood from 
July to October; the Atbara is also in flood during the same months. 
The great difference in the supply of water from the equatorial 
regions and from Abyssinia arises from the fact that the first-named 
district is one of heavy rain practically all the year round ; whereas 
in Abyssinia the season of heavy rain is usually limited to the 
months of June to September. Reduced to its simplest expression, 
the Nile system may be said to consist of a great steady flowing river 
fed by the rains of the tropics, controlled by the existence of a vast 
head reservoir and several areas of repose, and annually flooded by 
the accession of a great body of water with which its eastern tribu- 
taries are flushed. 

At Khartum the Nile is lowest in April and May and highest in 
August and September. Its minimum depth is 18 ft. and its maxi- 
mum depth 25 ft. At Assuan the Nile is at its lowest at the end of 
May, then rises slowly until the middle of July, and rapidly through- 
put August, reaching its maximum at the beginning of September; 
ft then falls slowly through October and November. At Cairo the 

1 In ancient times the delta was watered by seven branches; five 
of these branches are now canals not always navigable. The ancient 
branches were, beginning at the west, the .Canopic, Bolbitine, 
Sebennytic, Phatnitic, Mendesian, Tanitic and Pelusiac, of which the 
modern Rosetta and Damietta branches represent the Bolbitine 
and Pathnitic. 



lowest level is reached about the middle of June, after which the rise 
is slow in July and fairly rapid in August, reaching the maximum at 
the beginning of October. By using the water stored by the Assuan 
dam in the months following high Nile, the river lower down has been, 
since 1902, replenished at times of low water to meet the needs of 
cultivators (see IRRIGATION: Egypt). At Assuan the average rise 
of the Nile is 26 ft., at Cairo it is 23 ft. A rise of 21 ft. only at Assuan 
is a " bad Nile " ; on the other hand, a rise of 30 ft. causes a danger 
of flood, or rather it used to do so previous to the building of the 
dam. When the Nile below the swamps is at its lowest, the water 
acquires a green colour and a putrid taste and smell. This is caused 
by innumerable microscopic green algae, which are brought into the 
White Nile from the marshes of the Bahr-el-Jebel and Bahr-el- 
Ghazal, and descend the river when it is clear of all suspended matter. 
This " green water " is seen at Cairo about the end of June or 
beginning of July, and passes away with the first rise in the later 
month, the algae being unable to live in turbid water. By August 
the river in lower Egypt is full of dark red-brown sediment brought 
down by the Blue Nile and the Atbara from the plateaus of Abys- 
sinia. It is estimated to be then carrying 8 cub. yds. per second; 
by September this has been reduced to half the amount, and then 
diminishes rapidly. It has been calculated 1 that the time taken by 
the water to travel from Khartum to the delta barrage varies from 
14 days in September to 42 in May. On the island of Elephantine 
at Assuan is the famous Nilometer, dating from ancient Egyptian 
times, altered and extended in Roman times and repaired in 1870 by 
the Khedive Ismail. It is a well built of hewn stones, marked with 
scales to record the level of the water, which rises and falls with that 
of the river. The remains of other ancient Nilometers exist at Philae, 
Edfu and Esna, together with inscriptions recording about forty 
high Niles in the XXVth Dynasty, discovered on a quay wall of the 
temple of Karnak. The data furnished by these give about 4$ in. 
per century as the rate at which the Nile is silting up its bed north 
of the 1st cataract. The level of high Nile at the Semna rapids, 
between the 2nd and 3rd cataracts, is 24 ft. lower than that indicated 
by the marks sculptured c. 2500 B.C. This fall is attributed to the 
erosive action of the water as it passes over the hard gneiss which at 
Semna forms a barrier across the stream. The vertical extent of 
such erosion is equal to about two millimetres a year. 

It is noteworthy that from the mouth of the Sobat to the Mediter- 
ranean the current of the Nile is generally deepest and strongest 
on its right (eastern) bank; the Nile in this respect resembling other 
great rivers of the northern hemisphere. The pressure of the water 
on the right bank is attributed to the prevailing N.W. winds.* 

There are now gauges for registering the rise of the water at Cairo, 
Assuan, Berber and Khartum on the main river; at Wad Medani, 
Sennar and Roseires on the Blue Nile; El Duem and Taufikia on 
the White Nile; Nasser on the Sobat; Gondokoro on the Bahr-el- 
Jebel; and Ugowe, Jinja and Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza. 

Navigation. At high Nile there is uninterrupted water- 
communication from the sea to Fort Berkeley in 4 40' N. a 
distance of 2900 m. Owing to the cataracts, navigation between 
Assuan and Khartum is impossible during low Nile, and from the 
ist of March to the ist of August the upper courses of the 
Damietta and Rosetta branches are closed to navigation; the 
water being utilized for summer irrigation in the delta. As far 
as Mansura (60 m.) on the Damietta branch and Kafr-el-Zayat 
(70 m.) on the Rosetta branch, and between Khartum and Fort 
Berkeley (1090 m.) the river is navigable all the year round, 
though between the Sobat confluence and Bor, navigation is 
dependent on the channel being kept clear of sudd. Above Fort 
Berkeley navigation is interrupted by the rapids and cataracts 
which extend to Dufile, but from the last-named town to Fajao 
at the foot of the Murchison Falls (a distance of 150 m.) the river 
is navigable throughout the year. There is a further navigable 
stretch between Foweira (just above the Karuma rapids) and 
the southern end of Lake Kioga. The Blue Nile is navigable 
for steamers during flood time from its confluence at Khartum 
to Roseires at the foot of the Abyssinian hills, a distance of 
426 m. At low water small boats only can go up stream. The 
Atbara is never navigable, the current during flood time being 
too swift for boats. Including the Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
the navigable waters of the Nile and its affluents exceed 4000 m. 

Owing to the cataracts and the partial closing of the Damietta 
and Rosetta branches for irrigation purposes, the Nile below 
Khartum is subsidiary, as a means of communication, to 
the railways and highroads. 4 Above Khartum the river is 

* By Sir Hanbury Brown, inspector-general of irrigation, Lower 
Egypt, 1892-1903. 

3 Egyptian Irrigation (p. 29), by Sir W. Willcocks (London, 1899). 

* Between Assuan (Shellal) and Wadi Haifa the river is, however, 
the main highway, there being no railway between the places named. 



NILE 



697 



the chief channel of trade and commerce. Steamers first 
ascended the Nile above the cataracts (to Korosko) in 1820. 
It was not till 1846 that a steamboat was placed on the White 
Nile. (W.E.G.; F.R.C.) 

Story of Discovery. Few problems in geographical research 
exercised for so long a period so potent an influence over the 
imaginations of man as that of theorigin of theNile. Theancient 
Egyptians, as is apparent from the records on their monuments, 
were acquainted with the main stream as far south as the junction 
of the White and Blue Niles. They appear also to have known 
the Blue Nile up to its source and the White Nile as far south 
as the Bahr-el-Ghazal confluence. Beyond that point the sudd 
probably barred progress. The knowledge acquired by the 
Egyptians passed to the Persians and Greeks. Herodotus (about 
457 B.C.) ascended the Nile as far as the First Cataract. He was 
led to believe that the source of the river was far to the west 
in the region of Lake Chad. Eratosthenes, superintendent of the 
Alexandrian library, in a map made about 250 B.C., showed, 
with fair accuracy, the course of the river as far as where Khartum 
now stands. He showed also the Atbara and Blue Nile. Eratos- 
thenes was the first writer to hint at equatorial lakes as the 
sources of the river. Juba II., king of Mauretania (who died 
about A.D. 20), in his Libyca, quoted by Pliny, makes the Nile 
rise in western Mauretania, not far from the ocean, in a lake 
presenting characteristic Nile fauna, then pass underground for 
several days' journey to a similar lake in Mauretania Caesariensis, 
again continue underground for twenty days' journey to the 
source called Nigris on the borders of Africa and Ethiopia, and 
thence flow through Ethiopia as the Astapus. This remarkable 
story received considerable credence, and may be connected 
with the theory which made the Niger a branch of the Nile (see 
below). Strabo (a contemporary of Juba), who ascended the 
river as far as Syene, states that very early investigators had 
connected the inundation of the Lower Nile with summer rains 
on the far southern mountains, and that their theory had been 
confirmed by the observations of travellers under the Ptolemies. 
About the same time Dalion, a Greek, is believed to have ascended 
the White Nile. Nero despatched two centurions on an ex- 
pedition for the express purpose of exploring the Nile, and Seneca 
states that they reached a marshy impassable region, which may 
be easily identified with the country of the White Nile above the 
mouth of the Sobat. To what they referred when they reported 
a great mass of water falling from between two rocks is not so 
readily determined. During this period more accurate knowledge 
concerning the Nile sources was obtained from the reports of 
Greek traders who visited the settlements on what is now called 
the Zanzibar coast. A merchant named Diogenes returning 
(about A.D. 50) from the east coast of Africa told a Syrian 
geographer, Marinus of Tyre, that journeying inland for twenty- 
five days he reached the neighbourhood of two great lakes and 
a range of snow mountains whence the Nile drew its sources. 
Marinus published this report in his geographical works. This 
book is lost, but the information is incorporated in the writings 
of Ptolemy, who in his book and map sums up all that was 
known or surmised of the Nile in the middle of the 2nd century 
of the Christian era. Ptolemy writes that two streams issuing 
from two lakes 1 (one in 6 and the other in 7 S.) unite in 2 N. 
to make the Nile, which, in 12 N., receives the Astapus, a river 
flowing from Lake Coloe (on the equator). His two southern 
lakes, he conceived, were fed by the melting of snows on a 
range of mountains running east and west for upwards of 500 m. 
the Mountains of the Moon, rb TJJS (reXi^s 5pos, Lunae 
Mantes. It will be seen that, save for placing the sources too 
far to the south, Ptolemy's statements were a near approximation 
to the facts. The two southern lakes may be identified with 
Victoria and Albert Nyanzas, and Lake Coloe with Lake Tsana. 
The snow-capped range of Ruwenzori occupies at least in part 
the position assigned to the Mountains of the Moon, with which 
chain Kilimanjaro and Kenya may also be plausibly identified. 
On all the subsequent history of the geography, of the Nile 

1 The two lakes afterwards received the names Lake of Crocodiles 
and Lake of Cataracts. 



Ptolemy's theory had an enormous influence. Medieval maps 
and descriptions, both European and Arabian, reproduce the 
Mountains of the Moon and the equatorial lakes with a variety of 
probable or impossible modifications. Even Speke (see below) 
congratulated himself on identifying the old Ptolemian range 
with the high lands to the north of Tanganyika, and connected 
the name with that of Unyamwezi, the " country of the moon." 

In the fourteen centuries after Ptolemy virtually nothing was 
added to the knowledge of the geography of the Upper Nile. 
Arab writers of the izth and I3th centuries make mention of the 
great lakes, and their reports served to revive the interest of 
Europe in the problem of the Nile. Idrisi made both the Nile 
and the Niger issue from a great lake, the Niger flowing west, 
the Nile north. Hence arose much confusion, th; Senegal 
estuary being regarded by its discoverers (1445) as the mouth of 
a western branch of the Nile. Even until the early years of the 
1 9th century the belief persisted in a connexion between the Nile 
and the Niger (see further NIGER). Portuguese explorers and 
missionaries, who in the isth and i6th centuries visited the east 
coast of Africa and Abyssinia, gained some information about 
the equatorial lake region and the Nile, 2 the extent of the know- 
ledge thus acquired being shown in the map of Africa of Filippo 
Pigafetta, Italian traveller and historian (1533-1603) published 
in 1580. It was not, however, till the I7th century that the 
sources of the Blue Nile were visited by Europeans. In 1615 
Pedro Paez, a Portuguese priest, was shown them by the 
Abyssinians. Ten years later another Portuguese priest, 
Jeronimo Lobo, also visited the sources and left a vivid descrip- 
tion of the rise of the river and its passage through Lake Tsana. 
An English version of the accounts of Paez and Lobo written by 
Sir Peter Wyche was published in 1669 by order of the Royal 
Society, of which Sir Peter was an original Fellow. Between 
1625 (the date of Lobo's visit) and 1770, some attempts were 
made by French and other travellers to explore the Blue Nile, but 
they ended in failure. In the last-named year James Bruce (q.v.) 
reached Abyssinia, and in November 1772 he arrived in Egypt, 
having visited the source of the Blue Nile and followed it, in 
the main, to its confluence with the White Nile. On returning 
to Europe Bruce was mortified to find that whilst he was still in 
Egypt the French geographer D'Anville had (1772) issued a new 
edition of his map of Africa in which by a careful study of the 
writings of Paez and Lobo he had anticipated Bruce's discoveries, 
D'Anville's map is singularly accurate, if we remember the 
scanty information at his disposal. To Bruce, nevertheless, 
belongs the honour of being the first white man to trace the 
Blue Nile to its confluence with the White Nile. He himself, 
considering that he Blue Nile was the main branch of the river, 
claimed to be the discoverer of the long-sought capitt Nili? 

From the time of Bruce, interest in the Nile problem grew 
rapidly. The Englishman W. G. Browne (g.v.) when in Darfur 
(1794-1796) heard that the Abiad rose far south in the Mountains 
of the Moon, but he makes no mention of the great lakes, and in 
Major Rennell's map of 1802 there is no hint of equatorial lakes 
at the Abiad sources. During the French occupation of Egypt 
the river from the sea to Assuan was accurately surveyed, the 
results being embodied in Jacotin's Atlas de l'gypte (1807). 
In 1812-1814 J- L. Burckhardt, the Orientalist, went up the 
Nile to Korosko, travelled thence across the desert to Berber 
and Shendi, and crossing the Atbara made his way to the Red 
Sea. It was, however, due to the initiative of Mehemet Ali, 
Pasha of Egypt, that the While Nile was explored. In 1820- 
22 a military expedition under Ismail Pasha, a son of Mehemet 
Ali, which was joined by the French scientist Frederic Cailliaud 
(who had visited Meroe in 1819) ascended the river to the 

2 Francisco Alvarez, a priest, who was in Abyssinia 1520-^1526, 
afterwards wrote (about 1550) an account of Abyssinia in which he 
refers to the Atbara as the main Nile. 

1 Bruce, however, acknowledged in his Travels that the Abiad 
(White Nile) at its confluence with the Blue Nile was the larger river. 
The Abiad, he writes, " preserves its stream always undiminished, 
because rising in latitudes where there are continual rains, it 
therefore suffers not the decrease the Nile does by the six months' dry 
weather." 



6 9 8 



NILE 



confluence of the White and Blue Niles, founded the city of 
Khartum, and ascended the Blue Nile to Fazokl. In 1827 Adolphe 
Linant, a Belgian in the service of the British African Association, 
ascended the White Nile 132 m. above Khartum, being the first 
white man to do so since the ist century A.D. Then followed 
three Egyptian expeditions sent in 1830-41 and 1842 by 
Mehemet Ali up the White Nile. The first expedition reached, 
on the 28th of January 1840, a point 6 30' N., the second and 
third pressed further south, reaching 4 42' N. or the foot of the 
rapids above Gondokoro. A Turkish officer, Selim Bimbashi, 
commanded the expeditions, and among the members were the 
Frenchmen Thibaut (a convert to Islam and for nearly forty 
years French consular agent at Khartum), D'Arnaud and 
Sabatier, and a German, Ferdinand Werne. The last-named 
wrote a scientific account of the second expedition and drew 
a map of the Nile between Khartum and Gondokoro. An 
Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established in the Sudan, 
and in 1850 one of its members, Dr Ignatz Knoblecher, sent to 
Europe reports, gleaned from the natives, of the existence of 
great lakes to the south. About the same time two Protestant 
missionaries, Ludwig Krapf and John Rebmann, stationed on the 
Zanzibar coast, sent home reports of a vast inland sea in the 
direction where the Nile sources were believed to be. This sea 
was supposed to extend from o 30' N. to 13 30 ' S. These 
reports revived interest in Ptolemy's Geography. The exploration 
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal by John Petherick, Miss Tinne and her 
companions, and others followed the opening up of the White Nile 
(see BAHR-EL-GHAZAL). The general result of the work carried 
on from the north was that by 1858 the Nile system was known 
as far south as the rapids at Bedden. 

On the 3rd of August 1858 the English explorer J. H. Speke 
(q.v.) discovered the large nyanza (lake), which he rightly con- 
ceived to be the head reservoir of the White Nile, and which in 
honour of the queen of England be named Victoria Nyanza. 
Captain (Sir Richard) Burton and Speke had gone inland from 
Zanzibar to investigate the reports concerning the vast lake 
which Rebmann and Krapf had called the Sea of Unyamwezi. 
These reports proved To be- exaggerated accounts of three dis- 
tinct lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza. In 
1860 Speke returned to Zanzibar accompanied by J. A. Grant 
(q.v.), bent on solving the problem of the Nile. In spite of great 
difficulties he made his way to Uganda, on the north-west of 
Victoria Nyanza, and (without exploring the lake) succeeded 
in reaching its outlet. On the 28th of July 1862 Speke stood by 
the Ripon Falls the birthplace of the Nile. In his journey he 
had discovered the Kagera river, now known to be the most 
remote headstream of the Nile, a fact of which Speke was un- 
certain, though he recognized that it was the largest river entering 
the nyanza. Speke and Grant paddled down the Nile a short 
distance, but before reaching Lake Kioga they were stopped 
by hostile natives and compelled to go westward to Unyoro. 
There they heard of another great lake further west, but the king 
of Unyoro refused them permission to visit it. In the end they 
descended the Kafu river to its confluence with the Nile and then 
down the main stream to the Karuma Rapids. Here Speke and 
Grant left the river, and travelled overland east of the stream, 
which they did not strike again until just above the Ausa con- 
fluence. Thence they travelled down the Nile to Gondokoro, 
reached on the isth of February 1863. 

This remarkable journey virtually solved the Nile problem so 
far as the source of the main stream was concerned, but there re- 
mained much to be done before the hydrography of the whole Nile 
basin was made known. At Gondokoro Speke and Grant met 
Mr (afterwards Sir Samuel) Baker x and his wife a Hungarian 
lady who had journeyed thither to afford the explorers help. 
To Baker Speke communicated the news he had heard con- 
cerning the western lake, and this lake Baker determined to find. 
On the 26th of March 1863 Baker and his wife left Gondokoro, 
and despite much opposition, especially from slave-dealers, 
followed, in the reverse direction, the route of Speke and Grant as 

1 Baker and his wife had in 1861-1862 explored the Atbara (to its 
upper waters) and other eastern tributaries of the Nile. 



far as Unyoro, whence they journeyed west. On the I4thof March 
1864 they struck the lake (Albert Nyanza) on its S.E. side. 
They paddled up the lake to the point where a large river coming 
from the east poured its waters into the lake. This stream, 
which they rightly conjectured to be Speke's Nile, they followed 
up to the Murchison Falls. Thence they went overland to the 
Karuma Rapids, and so back to Gondokoro by their old tracks. 
It fell to the lot of General C. G. Gordon (when that officer 
administered the Egyptian Equatorial provinces) and his 
assistants to fill up the gap left by Speke and Baker in the course 
of the main stream. In 1874-75 two English engineer officers 
Lieut, (afterwards Colonel Sir Charles M.) Watson and Lieut. H. 
Chippendall followed the river between Gondokoro and Albert 
Nyanza; in 1876 an Italian, Romolo Gessi Pasha, circum- 
navigated that lake, proving Baker's estimate of its size to be 
vastly exaggerated; Gordon in the same year traced the river 
between Murchison Falls and Karuma Rapids, and an American, 
Colonel C. Chaille-Long followed (1874) the Nile from the Ripon 
Falls to the Karuma Rapids, discovering in his journey Lake 
Kioga (which he named Ibrahim). In this manner the identity 
of the Victoria Nile with the river which issued from the Albert 
Nyanza was definitely established. 

In 1874 H. M. Stanley (q.v.) went to Africa with the object of 
completing the work left unfinished by David Livingstone, 
who believed, erroneously, that the ultimate sources of the Nile 
were far to the south (see CONGO). Stanley, in 1875, circum- 
navigated Victoria Nyanza, setting at rest the doubt thrown 
on Speke's statement that it was a huge sheet of water, 2 but 
proving Speke mistaken in believing the nyanza to have more 
than one outlet. On the same journey Stanley encamped at the 
foot of the Ruwenzori range, not knowing that they were the 
" Mountains of the Moon," whose streams are the chief feeders of 
Albert Nyanza. (At the time of his visit the snow-peaks and 
glaciers were hidden by heavy clouds.) In 1888, however, 
Stanley saw the mountains in all their glory of snow and ice, 
discovered Albert Edward Nyanza, and traced the river (Semliki) 
which connects it with Albert Nyanza. The Semliki had been 
discovered, and its lower course followed in 1884 by Emin Pasha. 
Thus at length the riddle of the Nile was read, though much was 
still to do in the matter of scientific survey, and in the exploration 
of the valley of the Sobat (q.v.). The Kagera had been partly ex- 
plored by Stanley (1875), by whom it was called the Alexandra 
Nile, and between 1891-98 its various branches were traced 
by the German travellers Oscar Baumann, Richard Kandt 
and Captain H. Ramsay, and by Lionel Decle, a Frenchman. 
A British officer, Colonel C. Delme-Radcliffe, made the first 
accurate survey (1900-1901) of the Nile between Albert Nyanza 
and Gondokoro. In 1903 an Anglo-German commission under 
Colonel Delme-Radcliffe and Captain Schlobach made a detailed 
survey of the Kagera from 30 E. to its mouth. The Kioga 
system was surveyed in 1907-1908 by Lieut. C. E. Fishbourne. 
A trigonometrical survey of the upper river was begun by Colonel 
M. G. Talbot, director of Sudan surveys, in 1900, and other 
surveys were made by Captain H. G. Lyons, director-general of 
the Egyptian survey department. A fish-survey of the waters of 
the Nile was also undertaken. 

The Removal of Sudd. As already stated, the sudd above the Sobat 
confluence seems to have stopped the Roman centurions sent by the 
emperor Nero to explore the Nile. When the river above the Sobat 
was again reached by white men (1840) the stream was clear of sudd, 
and so continued until 1863-1864, when both the Bahr-el-Jebel and 
the Bahr-el-Zeraf became blocked by floating masses of vegetation. 
When Baker proceeded to Gondokoro in 1870 he thus described the 
increase that neglect had caused in the obstruction: "The immense 
number of floating islands that were constantly passing down the 
stream of the While Nile had no exit; thus they were sucked under 
the original obstruction by the force of the stream, which passed 
through some mysterious channel, until the subterranean passage 
became choked with a wondrous accumulation of vegetable matter. 
The entire river became a marsh, through which, by the great pressure 
of water, the stream oozed through innumerable small channels. 
In fact, the White Nile had disappeared." Baker, who had to cut 
through 50 m. of sudd in his passage to Gondokoro, urged to Khedive 



5 In the map issued in 1873 to illustrate Schweinfurth's book, 
The Heart of Africa, Victoria Nyanza is shown as five small lakes. 



NILE, BATTLE OF THE 



699 



Ismail to reopen the Nile. This work was efficiently done by Ismail 
Ayub Pasha, and the White Nile was clear for large vessels when 
Gordon reached Khartum in 1874. The river did not long remain 
free, for in 1878 Emin Pasha was unable to ascend the Bahr-el-Jebel 
from the south on account of sudd. It was cleared in 1879-1880 by 
officials in the Egyptian service, but had again accumulated in 1884. 
In consequence of the Mahdist movement nothing could then be 
done to clear the river, and the work was not taken in hand again 
until 1899, when, by direction of Sir William Garstin, the Egyptian 
inspector-general of irrigation, an expedition under Major Malcom 
Peake, R.A., was sent to cut through the sudd, which then extended 
from the Bahr-el-Ghazal confluence almost to Gondokoro. During 
1900 a channel was cut through the northern and heaviest portion 
of the sudd. The work was one of much difficulty, some of the blocks 
being I m. long and 20 ft. deep ; the water beneath flowed with great 
velocity. To remove the obstruction the surface was first burnt; 
then trenches were cut dividing the sudd into blocks 10 ft. square, 
and each of these was hauled out with wire hawsers and chains 
by gunboats working from below. For a distance of 172 m. N. of 
Shambe (i.e. about midway between the Ghazal confluence and 
Gondokoro) the true bed of the river could not, in many places, be 
found, but Major Peake forced a passage to Gondokoro through a 
spill channel or series of shallow lakes lying west of the main stream. 
In 1901 Lieut. Drury, a British naval officer, removed many of the 
remaining blocks of sudd, opening to navigation a further 147 m. 
of the river. Beyond this point for a distance of 25 m. the Bahr-el- 
Jebel could not be traced, so completely was the channel choked by 
sudd. In 1902, however, Major G. E. Matthews discovered the true 
bed of the river, which by 1904 was completely freed from obstruc- 
tions, and freedom of navigation between Khartum and Gondokoro 
was permanently secured. The effect of the sudd-cutting operations 
on the supply of water available for irrigation purposes in the lower 
river was slight. Nevertheless, Sir William Garstin rejx>rted that 
the removal of the sudd " undoubtedly checked the fall in the river 
levels which would otherwise have taken place." 

Political Relations. Explored in part by Egyptian government 
expeditions, the upper Nile as far south as Albert Nyanza became 
subject, between 1840 and 1882, to Egypt. Possession of the greater 
part of the river above Wadi Haifa then fell to the followers of the 
Mahdi. In 1896-98 an Anglo-Egyptian army reconquered the 
country, and from Victoria Nyanza to the Mediterranean the main 
river came under British or Egyptian administration. The west 
bank of the Bahr-el-Jebel, as far north as 5 30' N., was in 1894 taken 
on lease from Great Britain by the Congo Free State during the 
sovereignty of Leopold II., the territory leased being known as the 
Lado enclave (q.v.). The Kagera, the main headstream, lies almost 
wholly in German East Africa. 

AUTHORITIES. For the story of exploration see the works of 
Bruce, Speke, Grant, Baker and other travellers (whose books are 
mentioned in the biographical notices). Their achievements, and 
those of ancient and medieval explorers, are ably summarized in 
The Story of Africa, vols. ii. and iii.,by Dr Robert Brown (London, 
1893-1894), and The Nile Quest, by Sir Harry Johnston (London, 
1903). See also J. Partsch, Des Aristotel's Buch: " Uber das 
Steigen des Nil " (Leipzig, 1909). For the Kagera region consult 
Caput Nili, by Richard Kandt (Berlin, 1904). Latest additions to 
geographical knowledge are recorded in the Geographical Journal 
(London) and the Cairo Scientific Journal. For the hydrography, 
geology and climate see: The Physiography of the River Nile and its 
Basin, by Captain H. G. Lyons, director-general, survey department, 
Egypt (Cairo, 1906), an authoritative work, and numerous other 
publications of the Survey and Public Works Departments; " Notes 
on the History of the Nile and its yalley," by W. F. Hume, in Geog. 
Jnl. (Jan. 1906); Egyptian Irrigation (2nd ed., London, 1899) and 
the Nile Reservoir Dam at Assuan and After (London, 1901), both 
by Sir William Willcocks; the Annual Reports (1899 and after) of 
the Egyptian Public Works Department, by Sir William Garstin and 
others, and those on Egypt and the Sudan by Lord Cromer and Sir 
Eldon Gorst (London; official publications). Of special value is the 
Blue Book Egypt No. 2, 1904, which is a report by Sir William Garstin 
on the basin of the upper Nile, dealing at length with the lake area, 
the Nile affluents and the main river as far south as Khartum, 
from the topographical as well as the hydrographical aspect. Sir 
W. Garstin and Captain Lyons give full bibliographical notes. 

The study of the zoology of the Nile valley was the special object 
of a Swedish scientific expedition in 1901, under the direction of 
Prof. L. A. Jagerskiold. The Results were published at Upsala, 
pt. iii. appearing in 1909. For the botanical and other aspects of 
the Nile valley, see the works of Petherick, Heuglin, Schweinfurth, 
Junker and Emin. An orographical map of the Nile basin was pub- 
lished by the Survey Department, Cairo, in 1908. It 's in six sheets 
on a scale of 1 : 2, 500,000, with inset maps showing political divisions, 
distribution of rainfall and of vegetation. (F. R. C.) 

NILE, BATTLE OF THE. This was fought between the British 
and French fleets on the ist of August 1798 in the roadstead of 
Aboukir. The peace of Campo Formio, signed on the I7th of 
October 1797, had left France without an opponent in arms on 
the continent. War with Great Britain still continued, and for 



a time the Directory appeared to be intent on its schemes for 
an invasion of Ireland. Napoleon, fresh from his Italian vic- 
tories, was appointed to command, and he made a round of 
inspection of Brest and the Channel ports. But all this show of 
activity was designed to cover the preparations for an attack on 
Great Britain " from behind " in India and by way of Egypt. 
The French naval forces at Toulon were got ready slowly in spite of 
Napoleon's urging and with the defects inevitable in the impover- 
ished state of the arsenal. Thirty-six thousand soldiers, including 
the best of the army of Italy, were to be embarked from the 
southern French ports, from Italy and from Corsica. Information 
that a great offensive movement was about to be made by the 
French reached both Earl St Vincent, the commander-in-chief of 
the Mediterranean fleet, and the British government. Since Spain 
had entered into alliances with France in 1796, the British fleet 
had not cruised in the Mediterranean but had been occupied 
in blocking the Spanish ships at Cadiz. On the 2nd of May 1 798 
St Vincent detached Nelson, then the junior rear-admiral, with 
his flag into the Mediterranean, with three sail of the line and 
frigates to make a reconnaissance at Toulon. On the I7th of 
May a small French corvette was captured near Cape Side, 
and from the crew Nelson learnt that the French were still in the 
harbour. He could gain no information as to the aim of the 
armament. Napoleon enforced strict secrecy by not letting 
even the most important officers of the dockyard know whither 
he was bound. On the 2nd of May the British government had 
written to St Vincent stating their wish that a part of his fleet 
should be sent into the Mediterranean. The first lord of the 
admiralty, Lord Spencer, told him that he might either go him- 
self or send a subordinate. If the latter course was followed 
Nelson was indicated as the officer to be chosen. Reinforcements 
were sent to him to enable him to provide both for the cruise in the 
Mediterranean and for the blockade of Cadiz. St Vincent had 
already selected Nelson, and when the reinforcements arrived 
he despatched Captain Troubridge with the inshore squadron 
engaged in watching Cadiz " the choice fellows," as he described 
them, of his fleet to join Nelson at Toulon. The ships were 
replaced by others similarly painted, so that the Spaniards might 
see no difference and therefore be unable to send news to their 
ally. Troubridge left on the 24th of May with as many vessels 
as would bring Nelson's whole command up to thirteen 74*5 
and one 5o-gun ship. 

While these measures were being taken to intercept him, 
Napoleon had put to sea on the igth of May with fifteen sail of 
the line, twelve frigates and some two hundred transports. 
He sailed down the eastern side of Corsica and Sardinia to pick 
up the detachments which were to join him from the first-named 
island and from Civita Vecchia. On the evening of the 2oth 
a gale from the N.W. brought some confusion on his flock of 
ships, but it also drove Nelson to the S.W. His flagship the 
" Vanguard " (74) was dismasted and compelled to anchor at 
San Pietro to refit. His frigates were separated from him by the 
weather, and the captains made for Gibraltar, concluding that 
the admiral would go there to refit. The departure of his frigates 
left Nelson without vessels for scouting and had a material in- 
fluence on the campaign. The " Vanguard " was made ready 
by the 27th of May, and resumed her station off Toulon. On 
the 7th of June Nelson was joined by Troubridge. Calms 
hampered his pursuit of the French, whom he now knew to be 
at sea, but on the i4th he was off Civita Vecchia; on the I7th 
he was at Naples, where he heard that the French had been seen 
going south, and made arrangements to obtain water and stores 
in the Neapolitan ports. On the 2Oth he was at Messina, where 
he first got definite information of the movements of the enemy. 
The French had appeared off Malta on the 9th and had occupied 
the island, which was surrendered to them on the izth by the 
treachery of the French and Italian members of the order. Push- 
ing on in the hope of finding them on the coast of the island, 
Nelson was off Cape Passaro on the 22nd, and there learnt that 
the French had sailed from the island. His instructions directed 
him to guard against possible French attacks on Sicily, or even 
an attempt to pass the Straits of Gibraltar and sail for Ireland. 



yoo 



NILE, BATTLE OF THE 



But Nelson knew that the Neapolitan government had no fears 
for Sicily and that the westerly winds would prevent the French 
from going to Gibraltar. On a view of all the circumstances, 
and after consultation with those of his captains in whose judg- 
ment he had the most confidence, he came to the just conclusion 
that they were bound for Egypt. He therefore sailed for Alex- 
andria on the most direct route eastward along the coast of Africa. 
The information given him at Cape Passaro was that the French 
had left Malta on the i6th; the actual date was the igth. 
Napoleon, whose frigates. had sighted the British squadron, 
and who knew that he might be pursued, did not take the direct 
route, but steered to the north-east along the south shore of 
Crete. Thus it happened that on the night of the 22nd of June 
the fleets crossed one another's tracks. Want of look-out vessels 
prevented Nelson from detecting the neighbourhood of his 
enemy. The French with their convoy going more slowly on 
the longer route to the north, and the active British squadron 
on the direct route to the south, both headed for Egypt, with 
barely 60 m. of sea between them, but neither aware of the 
position of the other. 

On the 28th of June Nelson reached Alexandria to find the 
port occupied only by a few Turkish ships. It was from Nelson 
that the Turkish authorities gained their first knowledge of the 
impending invasion. Nelson, misled by the false date given him 
at Cape Passaro, and being unable to reconnoitre the position 
of the enemy, came to the erroneous conclusion that he was 
mistaken in supposing that the French were on the way to Egypt, 
and that they must be bound for some other part of the eastern 
Mediterranean. On the apth of June he sailed from Alexandria, 
standing to the north-east. His topsails were still in sight to 
the north-east when the French appeared coming from the north- 
west. They sighted the coast on the 2pth to the west of Alex- 
andria, and on the ist of July they occupied the anchorage and 
town. While Nelson was ranging along the coast pf Asia Miner, 
seeking for news of them and finding none, on his way back to 
Sicily, the French were landing their army. The British squadron 
reached Syracuse on the ipth of July. Here Nelson was able to 
obtain water and stores and clear indications that the French 
had gone to Egypt. On the 24th he sailed, and on the ist of 
August was again off Alexandria. The battle of the Pyramids 
had been fought on the 2ist, and Napoleon was master of Egypt. 
The fear of the British admiral was that the French fleet had left 
the coast in the interval of his absence. Brueys, the French 
admiral, had had a choice of three courses open to him to enter 
the old harbour of Alexandria, to sail for Corfu then occupied 
by the French or to take a strong anchorage on the coast and 
prepare to repel attack. To enter the harbour was difficult for 
large ships, and to leave it by its one narrow entrance in the 
presence of even an inferior force would have been impossible. 
Brueys therefore decided against that course. He did not sail 
for Corfu, partly because some of the army stores were still 
in his ships and partly because his squadron, ill fitted from 
the first, was short of provisions, and no more could as yet be 
obtained from the shore. He therefore stationed himself with 
thirteen of his ships of the line in the roadstead of Aboukir, 
some 15 m. north-east of Alexandria, between the island of 
Aboukir and the Rosetta mouth of. the Nile. Here he was found 
on the evening of the ist of August when the British fleet came 
in sight. The French line of thirteen ships was anchored to the 
east of Aboukir, now called Nelson's Island, in a curve stretching 
to the south-east. It consisted of the " Guerrier " (74), the 
" Conquerant " (74), the " Spartiate " (74), the " Aquilon " (74), 
" Souverain Peuple " (74), " Franklin " (80), " Orient " (120), 
Admiral Bruey's flagship " Tonnant " (80), " Heureux " (74), 
" Timoleon " (74), " Guillaume Tell " (80), " Mercure " (74) and 
" Genereux " (74), counting from the west end. The French 
ships had begun the voyage short-handed and many men were 
absent on shore filling the water-casks. They fought with a 
half to two-thirds of their complements, which suffered from the 
bad training and inexperience of the French republican navy. 
A council of flag officers and captains was being held in the 
" Orient " when the British squadron appeared. 



When the enemy was sighted Nelson at once gave the order 
to attack. All the possibilities of battle had been fully discussed 
between him and his captains. Much controversy of a rather idle 
character has taken place as to assigning the credit for the actual 
course adopted; it was almost dictated to men so experienced 
and capable as the British captains and their admiral by the 
position of the enemy. If the French had been anchored so near 
the shore that it was not possible to pass between them and it, 
the British ships, coming from the west with a westerly wind, 
would have passed outside of them, endeavouring to anchor 
one on the bow and the next on the quarter of each French ship 
in succession. Those in the van might have been crushed before 
the ships in the rear and to leeward could come to their assistance. 
As it was, the French were so placed that there was room for the 
British ships to pass between them and the land. Therefore it 
was possible for the first comers of the British squadron to pass 
inside the French ships, to anchor there, and to allow the next 
comers to anchor outside so as to put the enemy's van between 
two fires. This disposition was not without its drawbacks, for it 
entailed the risk that the British ships might fire into one 
another while directing their guns on an object between them. 
The risk was the greater because the battle began at sundown 
and was continued in the dark. Yet it had the advantage that it 
produced an intense concentration of fire. In the circumstances 
it had the peculiar advantage, of which, however, the British 
captains may not have been aware, that as the French were very 
short-handed they were unable to work both broadsides to the 
full. It is to this fact that we must attribute the comparatively 
small loss suffered by the British ships in an attack which, if 
made against a well-appointed enemy, must have been extremely 
costly. Whether by previous arrangement with Nelson, or 
because he acted on the facts before him, the first British captain 
to come into action, Captain Foley of the " Goliath " (74), 
passed inside the French, and anchored abreast of the second 
of them, the "Conquerant." The "Zealous" (74), under 
Captain Hood, anchored on the bow of the first Frenchman, 
the " Guerrier." The " Audacious " (74), under Captain Davidge 
Gould, anchored between the "Zealous" and "Goliath." 
The " Theseus " (74), under Captain Miller, anchored inside of 
the third French ship, the " Spartiate." The " Orion " (74), 
under Captain Saumarez, anchored abreast of the fifth French 
vessel, the " Souverain Peuple." Then Nelson, in his flagship 
the " Vanguard " (74), the sixth British ship to come into 
action, anchored on the outside of the French line abreast of the 
" Spartiate " already engaged with the " Theseus." The 
" Minotaur " (74), under Captain Thomas Louis, and the 
" Defence " (74). under Captain Peyton, anchored next to 
the " Vanguard " and opposite the fourth French ship, the 
" Aquilon," and the " Souverain Peuple," already engaged 
with the " Orion." Thus eight British 74's which had only to 
fight one broadside at a time were thrown on five undermanned 
French 74's, which had to fight both and were speedily crushed. 
One British vessel, the " Culloden " (74), under Captain Trou- 
bridge, grounded on the shoal at Aboukir, and could not get 
into action. She served as a beacon to the vessels coming behind 
her. As the French van was silenced, and the fresh vessels came 
up from the British rear, the attack was carried down the French 
line. About 9.30 P.M. the " Orient " was seen to be in flames, and 
at 10 P.M. she blew up. The explosion imposed a brief suspension 
of battle, but the fire was soon renewed. By midnight the battle 
was over. In the course of the next day the " Guillaume Tell," 
the " Genereux " and two frigates succeeded in escaping, but they 
were the only survivors of the fleet attacked in the roadstead 
of Aboukir. 

The destruction of the French fleet, which isolated Napoleon in 
Egypt; had profound political influence in Europe. The total 
loss of the British squadron was 218 killed and 678 wounded. 
The loss of the French was never exactly ascertained, but it 
was certainly very much greater. Admiral Brueys was killed 
on the quarter-deck of his flagship, and Nelson received a wound 
in the head from a langridge shot which disabled him. 

See Captain Mahan's Life of Nelson (2nd. ed., 1899). (D. H.) 



NILES NIMES 



701 



NILES, a city of Trumbull county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the 
Mahoning river, at the mouth of the Meander and Mosquito 
creeks, about 55 m. E.S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 4289; 
(1900) 7468 (2104 foreign-born); (1910) 8361. It is served by the 
Baltimore & Ohio, the Erie and the Pennsylvania railways, 
and by an interurban electric system. CoaJ and iron-ore are 
abundant in the vicinity, and the city's principal manufactures 
are sheet steel, sheet iron, tin, metal lath, boilers and railway cars. 
The municipality owns and operates its waterworks and electric- 
lighting plant. Niles was settled in 1832, laid out in 1834, 
incorporated as a village in 1865 and chartered as a city in 1895. 
It was named (1834) in honour of Hezekiah Niles (1777-1839), 
the founder and editor of the weekly Niles' s Register (181 1-1849). 

NILGAI, or NYLGHAU (" blue bull "), the largest antelope 
(Boselaphus tragocamelus) found in India, where it represents 
the kudu and eland group of Agrica. Only the bulls have 
horns, and these are short a'nd insignificant. The general 
colour of the old bulls is bluish grey, but younger bulls and 
cows are browner. The nilgai is about the size of a mule (see 
ANTELOPE). 

NILGIRIS, THE, or NEELGHERRIES (Blue Mountains), a 
range of hills in southern India, which gives its name to a district 
of the Madras Presidency. The Nilgiris are really a plateau 
rather than a range, rising abruptly from the plains on most 
sides, with a general elevation of about 6500 ft. above the 
sea. 

The DISTRICT OF THE NILGIRIS is the smallest administrative 
district in Madras. It formerly consisted exclusively of a moun- 
tain plateau lying at an average elevation of 6500 ft., with an area 
of about 725 sq. m. In 1873 this was increased by the addition 
of the Ochterlony valley in the south-east Wynaad, and again, in 
1877, by other portions of the Wynaad, making a total area of 958 
sq. m. The administrative headquarters is at Ootacamund, 
which is also the summer capital of the government of Madras. 
The summit of the Nilgiri hills is an undulating plateau, fre- 
quently breaking into lofty ridges and steep rocky eminences. 
The descent to the plains is sudden and abrupt, the average fall 
from the crest to the general level below being about 6000 ft., 
save on the north, where the base of the mountains rests upon 
the elevated land of Wynaad and Mysore, standing between 2000 
and 3000 ft. above sea-level. The Ochterlony valley and Wynaad 
country consist of a series of broken valleys, once forest-clad 
throughout, but now studded with tea and coffee-gardens. 
The highest mountain peaks are Dodabetta, 8760 ft.; Kudia- 
kad, 8502; Bevoibetta, 8488; Makurti, 8402; Davarsolabetta, 
8380; Kunda, 8353; Kundamoge, 7816; Ootacamund, 7361; 
Tambrabetta, 7292; Hokabetta, 7267. There are six well- 
known passes or ghats by which the district communicates 
with the neighbouring plains, three of which are practicable to 
wheeled traffic. The chief rivers are the Moyar, Paikara and 
Calicut, none of which are navigable. The forests consist of fine 
timber trees, such as sal (Shorea robusta), kino (Pterocarpus 
Marsupium), jack (Artocarpus integrifolia) , blackwood (Dalbergia 
latifolia) and teak. Eucalyptus and Australian wattle have been 
extensively planted in the higher grounds of the Wynaad. The 
hills were first explored by British officers in 1814, and in 1821 
the first English house was built on the plateau. The hill tribes 
include the Todas, the Badagas, the Kotas, the Kurumbas 
and the Irulas (?..). The total population of the district in 
1901 was 111,437, showing an increase of 11-7% in the decade. 
The commercially important products are coffee, tea and 
cinchona. Coffee cultivation was introduced about 1844. One 
of its chief seats is the Ochterlony valley. The Madras govern- 
ment commenced the experimental cultivation of cinchona 
on the Nilgiris in 1860, and several private cinchona gardens were 
kid out, owing to the success of the government experiment. 
The climate of the Nilgiri hills is almost unrivalled for equability 
of temperature. The average is 58 F. The approach from the 
plains is by the branch of the Madras railway from Podanur to 
Mettapolliem, whence a metre-gauge line on the rack principle has 
been constructed to Coonoor, with an extension to Ootacamund. 
The chief educational institution is the Lawrence Asylum at 



Ootacamund maintained by government. The military quarters 
are at Wellington. 

See Nilgiris District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908). 

NILSSON, CHRISTINE (1843- ), Swedish singer, was bora 
at Wedersloff, near Wexio, Sweden, on the 2oth of August 1843. 
Her father was a poor working man, and she used as a girl to 
sing and perform on the violin at popular gatherings. In 1857 
a wealthy man, M. Torne'rhjelm, perceiving the unusual beauty 
of her voice while she was performing at a fair in Ljungby, 
provided the means for giving her a proper musical education, 
and in 1860 she was heard in the concert halls in Stockholm and 
Upsala, and then went to Paris, where, after four years' study, 
she made her debut in the r61e of Violetta at the Theatre Lyrique 
on the 27th of October 1864. Between that date and 1872, when 
she married M. Auguste Rouzaud, she was the leading prima 
donna. Her first appearance in London was in 1867. A year 
later, on the 9th of March, she made her first appearance in the 
Paris Opera House as Ophdlie in Hamlet; and she visited the 
United States in 1870. She sang hi St Petersburg in 1872; 
in America in 1873-1874 and in 1882; in Germany and 
Austria between 1876 and 1877; and in the next few years in 
Spain and Scandinavia; but after her marriage her appearances 
in public were rare. M. Rouzaud died in 1882, and five years 
afterwards Madame Nilsson married Count A. de Casa Miranda, 
and finally retired from the stage. 

NIMAR, a district of British India, in the Nerbudda division 
of the Central Provinces. The administrative headquarters are 
at Khandwa; but the capital hi Mahommedan times was 
Burhanpur. Area, 4273 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 329,615, showing 
an increase of 14-2 % hi the decade. The district consists of two 
portions of the Nerbudda and Tapti valleys, separated by a 
section of the Satpura range, about 15 m. in breadth. On the 
highest peak, about 850 ft. above the plain and 1800 above 
sea-level, stands the fortress of Asirgarh, commanding a pass 
which has for centuries been the chief highway between Upper 
India and the Deccan. The district contains extensive forests, 
but the only tract reserved by government is the Punasa forest, 
which extends for about 120 m. along the south bank of the 
Nerbudda, and contains young teak, besides sdj (Terminalia 
tomenlosa) and anjan (Hardwickia binata). The staple crops are 
cotton and millet; ganja or Indian hemp is also allowed to be 
grown under government supervision. The Great Indian Penin- 
sula railway runs through the district, and a branch of the 
Rajputana line from Indore joins it at Khandwa. There are 
factories for ginning and pressing cotton at Khandwa, and 
manufacture of gold-embroidered cloth at Burhanpur. 

The name Nimar, derived from that of the ancient province, is 
also applied to a district in the state of Indore, lying W. of the 
British district on both banks of the Nerbudda. Area, 3871 
sq. m.; pop. (1901) 257,110. From 1823 onwards this tract, 
then belonging to Sindhia, was under British management; in 
1861 it was ceded hi full sovereignty to the British, but in 1867 
it passed to Holkar as the result of an exchange of territory. 

See Nimar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1908). 

NIMES, a city of southern France, capital of the department 
of Card, 174 m. S. by W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway, 
between Avignon and Montpellier. Pop. (1906) 70,708. Nimes, 
important alike for its industries and for its archaeological 
treasures, lies at the foot of the Garrigues, a range of stony and 
barren hills which limit it on the north and west. The most 
prominent of these is the Mont Cavalier, the summit of which is 
crowned by the Tour Magne, a ruined Roman tower commanding 
a fine view of the town and its surroundings. To the south and 
east the town overlooks the monotonous plain traversed by the 
Vistre, and for the most part given over to the cultivation of the 
vine. Nlmes covers a large area, owing to the fact that its 
population is housed in low buildings, not in the lofty tenements 
which are found in most of the industrial towns of France. The 
central and oldest part is encircled by shady boulevards, which 
occupy the site of the old fortifications. Here are to be found the 
majority of the Roman remains for which Nlmes is remarkable. 
The most celebrated is the amphitheatre, the best preserved 



NIMES, COUNCILS OF 



though not the largest in France. It dates from the ist or 2nd 
century A.D., and was used as a fortress for some time during 
succeeding centuries. Occupied during the middle ages by a 
special quarter, with even a church of its own, it was cleared 
in 1809, and since then has been well kept in repair. It is built of 
large stones fitted together without mortar. In form it is ellip- 
tical, measuring approximately 440 by 336 ft. externally; the 
arena is 227 by 1265 ft. The elevation (70 ft. in all) consists of 
a ground story of 60 arches, an upper story of 60 arches and an 
attic with consoles pierced with holes for supporting the velarium 
or awning. The building, which was capable of holding nearly 
24,000 persons, has 4 main gates, one at each of the cardinal 
points; and 124 doorways gave exit from the 35 tiers of the 
amphitheatre to the inner galleries. Originally designed for 
gladiatorial shows, naval spectacles, chariot races, wolf or boar 
hunts, the arena has in recent times been used for bull-fights. 
The celebrated Maison Carree, a temple in the style of the 
Parthenon, but on a smaller scale, 82 ft. long by 40 wide, is one 
of the finest monuments of the Roman period, and according 
to an inscription is dedicated to Gaius and Lucius Caesar, 
adopted sons of Augustus, and dates from the beginning of the 
Christian era. It contains a collection of antique sculptures 
and coins. The so-called temple of Diana, which adjoins the 
Fountain Gardens, was probably a building connected with the 
neighbouring baths of which remains are visible. Two Roman 
gates, the Porte d'Auguste, consisting of two large archways 
flanked by two smaller ones and dating from A.D. 16, and the 
Porte de France are still preserved. The Tour Magne (Turris 
Magna) is still 92 ft. in height, and was formerly a third higher. 
Admittedly the oldest monument of Nimes, it has been variously 
regarded as an old signal tower, a treasure house or a mausoleum. 
Attached to the ramparts erected by Augustus, and turned into 
a fortress in the middle ages by the counts of Toulouse, the Tour 
Magne was restored about 1840. Near the Tour Magne has been 
discovered the reservoir from which the water conveyed by the 
Pont du Card (see AQUEDUCT) was distributed throughout the 
city. 

When it still possessed its capitol, the temple of Augustus, 
the basilica of Plotina erected under Hadrian, the temple of 
Apollo, the baths, the theatre, the circus, constructed in the 
reign of Nero, the Campus Martius and the fortifications built < 
by Augustus, Nlmes must have been one of the richest of the 
Roman cities of Gaul. The cathedral (St Castor), occupying, it 
is believed, the site of the temple of Augustus, is partly Roman- 
esque and partly Gothic in style. The church of St Paul, a 
modern Romanesque building, is adorned with frescoes by 
Hippolyte and Paul Flandrin; St Baudile (modern Gothic) is 
of note for the two stone spires which adorn its facade; and the 
court-house has a fine Corinthian colonnade and a pediment. 
Other buildings of note are the old citadel (dating from 1687, 
and now used as a central prison), and the former lycee, which 
contains the public library and the museums of epigraphy, of 
archaeological models of the Roman and Romanesque periods, 
and of natural history. The town also has a collection of paint- 
ings. The esplanade in front of the court-house has in the 
centre a handsome fountain with five marble statues by James 
Pradier. The Fountain Gardens, in the north-west of the town, 
owe their peculiar character as well as their name to a spring of 
water which after heavy rains is copious enough not only to fill 
the ornamental basins (constructed in the i8th century with 
balustrades and statues on ancient foundations) but also to form 
a considerable stream. Neither the spring, however, nor the 
Vistre into which it discharges, is sufficient for the wants of the 
city, and water has consequently been brought from the Rhone, 
a distance of 17 m. A beautiful avenue, the Boulevard de la 
Republique, runs south for nearly i m. from the middle walk 
of the garden. Nlmes has erected monuments to the " Children 
of Card " (by A. Mercia), to Alphonse Daudet and to the 
Provencal poet Jean Reboul, natives of the town. 

The city is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and 
a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of 
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, an exchange, a chamber 



of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its edu- 
cational establishments include lycees and training colleges for 
both sexes, and schools of music and art. 

At the close of the middle ages the industries of Nimes were 
raised to a state of great prosperity by a colony from Lombardy 
and Tuscany; and, though the plague, the Wars of Religion 
and the revocation of the edict of Nantes were all sufficiently 
disastrous in their effects, before the Revolution about half of the 
whole community, or from 10,000 to 12,000 persons, had come 
to be engaged in manufactures, chiefly that of silk. Upholstery 
materials, shawls, carpets, handkerchiefs, tapes and braidings, 
brandy, hosiery, leather, clothes, candles, machinery and boots 
and shoes are now manufactured, and there are a number of 
foundries. Nimes is, besides, one of the great southern markets 
for wine and brandy, and there is a good trade in grain, groceries 
and colonial wares. Quarries of hard limestone, used as the 
material for the amphitheatre and other buildings by the Romans, 
are still worked in the vicinity. 

Nimes, the ancient Nemausus, derived its name from the 
sacred wood in which the Volcae Arecomici (who of their own 
accord surrendered to the Romans in 121 B.C.) were wont to 
hold their assemblies. Strabo states that it was the metropolis 
of a district containing twenty-four dependent towns, and that 
it was independent of the proconsuls of Gallia Narbonensis. 
Constituted a colony of veterans by Augustus, and endowed 
with numerous privileges, it built a temple and struck a medal in 
honour of its founder. The medal, which afterwards furnished 
the type for the coat of arms granted to the town by Francis I., 
bears on one side the heads of Caesar Augustus and Vipsanius 
Agrippa (the former crowned with laurel), while on the other 
there is a crocodile chained to a palm-tree, with the legend COL. 
NEM. It was Agrippa who built the public baths at Nimes, the 
temple of Diana and the aqueduct of the Pont du Gard. The 
city-walls, erected by Augustus, were nearly 4 m. in circuit, 
30 ft. high and 10 ft. broad, flanked by ninety towers and pierced 
by ten gates. Hadrian on his way back from Britain erected at 
Nimes two memorials of his benefactress Plotina. In the very 
height of its prosperity the city was ravaged by the Vandals; 
the Visigoths followed, and turned the amphitheatre into a 
stronghold, which at a later date was set on fire along with the 
gates of the city when Charles Martel drove out the Saracens. 
Nimes became a republic under the protection of Pippin the 
Short; and in 1185 it passed to the counts of Toulouse, who 
restored its prosperity and enclosed it with ramparts whose 
enceinte, less extensive than that of Augustus, may still be traced 
in the boulevards of the present day. The city took part in the 
crusade against the Albigenses in 1207. Under Louis VIII. it 
received a royal garrison into its amphitheatre; under Louis XI. 
it was captured by the duke of Burgundy, and in 1420 was 
recovered by the dauphin (Charles VII.). On a visit to Nimes 
Francis I. enriched it with a university and a school of arts. 
By 1558 about three-fourths of the inhabitants had become 
Protestants, and in 1567 a massacre of Catholics took place on 
St Michael's day. From the accession of Henry IV. till the revo- 
cation of the edict of Nantes (1685) the Protestant community 
devoted itself to active industry; but after that disastrous event 
great numbers went into exile or joined the Camisards. Louis 
XIV. built a fortress (1687) to keep in check the disturbances 
caused by the rival religious parties. Nimes passed unhurt 
through the storms of the Revolution; but in 1815 Trestaillon 
and his bandit followers pillaged and burned and plundered and 
massacred the Bonapartists and Protestants. Since then the 
city has remained divided into two strongly marked factions 
Catholics and Protestants though with no repetition of such 
scenes. 

See H. Bazin, Nimes Gatto-Romain (Mimes, 1891); L. Menard, 
Histoire civile, ecclesiastique et litteraire de la ville de Nismes; R. Peyre, 
Nimes, Aries et Orange (Nimes, 1903). 

NIMES, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Nemausensia). Of the four 
councils held at Nimes those of 886 and 1284 are relatively 
unimportant. The synod of 394 adopted seven canons on 
discipline, which were first printed in 1743 and have not as yet 



NIMROD NINEVEH 



703 



made their way into the great collections. At the council of 
July 1096 Pope Urban II. presided, and sixteen disciplinary 
canons were adopted, which have many points of contact with 
the canons of the council of Clermont. 

See, for the first council of Nimes, Lauchert, pp. 183-185; for the 
others, Hardouin vi. I. 397, vi. 2. 1747 ff., vii. 903 ff. ; full titles 
under COUNCIL. (W. W. R.*) 

NIMROD (-rtTDj, TV?*; Septuagint, N0p<b5: various reading 
in Gen. x. 8, Nffipuv: Vulg. Nemrod). Nimrod is only mentioned 
in three passages in the Bible; in Micah v. 6 Assyria is called 
" the land of Nimrod," and i Chron. i. 10 quotes a portion of the 
third, the most important reference, Gen. x. 8-12. The last- 
named is ascribed to one of the oldest writers of the Pentateuch, 
the Yahwist ; but not perhaps to the oldest stratum of his work 
(Ball, Sacred Books of the Old Testament). In Gen. x. 8, as Jabal 
was the inventor of music, so Nimrod was the first warrior, 
gibbdr, the first hunter, " he became a mighty hunter, gibb&r 
fayidh, before Yahweh, so that it is said, A mighty hunter before 
Yahweh like Nimrod "; the first builder of cities and ruler of a 
widespread dominion, " the beginning of bis kingdom was Babel, 
Erech, Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar. Out of that 
land he went forth into Assyria, 1 and built Nineveh, Rehoboth- 
Ir, Calah and Resen between Nineveh and Calah (the same is 
the great city)." The general statement that Assyria was 
originally an offshoot and dependence of Babylon is substantially 
in accordance with Assyrian and Babylonian authorities. As 
the chapter stands, Nimrod is a descendant of Ham, cf. verses 
6 and 8; but as Babylon and Assyria were Semitic, cf. 
verses 21, 22, and as verses 6, 7, on the one hand, and verses 
8-12, on the other, come from different documents, we must 
dissociate the two consecutive paragraphs, and regard the 
" Cush " of verse 8 as the Babylonian Cash or Cassites, a people 
quite distinct from the Cush of verse 6, which is Ethiopia; the 
text and interpretation of portions of Gen x. 8-12 are doubtful. 2 
The " mighty hunter before Yahweh " has been variously 
explained as " a divinely great hunter " (Spurrell); " a hunter 
; 9 defiance of Yahweh " (Holzinger) ; " a hunter with the help 
of Yahweh " or " of some deity whose name has been replaced by 
Yahweh " (Gunkel, Genesis, p. 82). 

The name Nimrod has not been found in any ancient (say 
older than 500 B.C.) non-Israelite document or inscription; and 
there is no conclusive evidence for identifying Nimrod with any 
of the names found in such documents. In the absence of 
evidence, the theories are naturally endless, especially as both 
the legendary and the historical heroes of the ancient East 
were often " mighty hunters." Nimrod would suggest to a Jew 
or Syrian the idea of " rebel," mrd=iebe\; but this is not 
likely to be the etymology. By regarding the " N " as per- 
formative, Nimrod-fias been identified with Merodach, the god 
of Babylon (Pinches, Hastings's Bible Diet.). He has also been 
identified with Gilgamesh, the hero of the epic which contains the 
Babylonian Deluge story (Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichle des alien 
Orients), with various historical kings of Babylonia, with Orion, 
&c., &c. As the name Nmrl (Petrie, Nemart) frequently occurs 
in Egyptian documents of the XXIInd Dynasty, c. 972-749 
(Petrie, Hist, of Egypt, iii. 242, &c.), the story of Nimrod is some- 
times (E. Meyer ap. Holzinger, Genesis) conjectured to be of 
Egyptian origin. Some support might be obtained for this 
view by supposing Cush in verse 8 to be Ethiopia as in verse 6; 
but it seems impossible to reconcile it with the statements in 
Genesis and Micah which connect Nimrod with Babylon and 
Assyria. It is possible that the Nebrod of the Septuagint 
(similarly Philo and Josephus) is the more ancient form of the 
name (Cheyne, Ency. Bibl.). 

1 So Revised Version text with Kautzsch, Dillmann, Gunkel, 
Holzinger, &c. ; Revised Version marg., " Out of that land went 
forth Asshur '," less probably following Septuagint, Vulgate, 
Authorized Version, &c. 

* Dr Cheyne's reconstructions in Ency. Bibl., article " Nimrod," 
are generally regarded as far too sweeping. Ball, Sacred Books of 
the Old Testament, marks verse 9, which describes Nimrod as " a 
mighty hunter," as a later addition, giving a mistaken explanation 
of the gibbdr of verse 8. 



Many later legends gathered round Nimrod ; Philo, De gigantibus, 
15, allegorises more suo. Nimrod stands for treachery or desertion, 
according to the derivation from mrd mentioned above. According 
to Josephus, Ant. I. iv. 2, vi. 2, Nimrod built the Tower of Babel. 
According to the Rabbis (Tzeenah u Reenah, Hershon's tr.. p. 59), 
Nimrod cast Abraham into the fire because he refused to worship 
idols. God, however, delivered him. 

Nimrod, in the form Nimrud or Nimroud, is an element in many 
modern place-names in western Asia. (W. H. BE.) 

NINE MEN'S MORRIS, known also as Morelles and Merelles, 
an ancient English game played with 9 counters a side on a board 
marked with four squares, one within the other. The middle 
points of the three inside squares are connected by straight lines, 
and, in a variation of the game, the corners also. The players, 
whose counters are of different colours, place these alternately 
one by one upon the intersections of the lines, the object of each 
being to get three of his own men in line, in which case he has 
the privilege of pounding, i.e. removing from the board, any one 
of his opponent's men; although he may not take one of a row 
of three, unless there are no others. When all 18 counters have 
been placed on the board they are moved to adjacent unoccupied 
intersections. When all but three of a player's men have been 
captured he is allowed to jump or hop to any vacant point he 
chooses. As soon as a player is reduced to two men he loses. 
In the time of Shakespeare {Midsummer Night's Dream, Act n. 
Scene i) the game was commonly played out of doors. 

NINEVEH (Heb. njf), in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; 
LXX. tiivtvri, NTJWWJ: Assyrian Nina or Ninua), the best known 
and highly renowned capital of the Assyrian empire. There was 
a quarter or suburb of the old Babylonian city of Lagash whose 
name was written in the same way; this may possibly have been 
the home of those settlers from Babylonia who gave its name to 
the Assyrian city. The name was carried elsewhere, probably by 
Assyrian settlers, and we meet with Ninoe in Asia Minor (Th. 
Noldeke, Hermes, v. 464, n. 2). Philostratus calls a Hierapolis, 
fl dpx<ua Ntpos but it must not be confounded with the Egyptian 
Ni-y, Assur-bani-pal Nl, the frontier city to the east of Egypt's 
greatest extension, where Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. hunted 
elephants, probably situated on the Euphrates. This, however, 
may be the origin of Ctesias's statement (ap. Diod. ii. 3) that 
Nineveh stood on the Euphrates; the Arabic geographer Yaqut 
places a Nineveh on the lower Euphrates near Babylon, and this 
may be a colony from the great Nineveh, or possibly the Nina 
of Lagash. 

The derivation of the name is uncertain. The name Nina was 
borne also by the goddess Ishtar, whose worship was the special 
cult of Nineveh, and Ninua may well be a hypocoristicon of 
Nina. The ideogram for Nineveh, as also for the Lagash city, 
K^WTT, is a fish enclosed in the sign for house, possibly indi- 
cating a fish-pond, sacred to Ishtar. As the Semitic nitnu means 
a fish, a play upon niinu and Nina is suggested, but the name 
may be pre-Semitic. A derivation from the root *u with a mean- 
ing like " lowland " is doubtful, unless we are sure that the name 
is Semitic, and that the Lagash city also lay low. 

Nineveh was situated at the N.W. angle of an irregular 
trapezium of land which lay between the rivers Husur (Khausar, 
Choser) on the N.W., Gomal on the N.E. and E., Upper Zab on 
the S.E. and S. and Tigris on the S. and W. In extent this plain 
is 25 m. by 15 m., and contains the ruins of Nineveh at Kuyunjik 
and Nebi Yunus, of Dur Sargon at Khorsabad to the N.E. of 
Calah at Nimrud to the S. as well as of other towns not yet 
identified. The whole plain has a gradual slope from the low 
range of Jebel Maqtub and the hill of Ain-es-safra on the N.E. 
to the Tigris on the S.W. This plain was, for those days, amply 
protected on three sides by the two rapid broad streams of the 
Tigris and its tributary Zab, by the hills on the N.E. and the 
river Gomal at their base. The weak N.W. side was partly 
covered by the Husur, an impassable flood in winter but easily 
fordable in summer. The floods caused by the Husur were 
frequent and destructive, on one occasion sweeping away the 
palace terrace at Nineveh and exposing the tombs of the kings, 
on another isolating Khorsabad. A great series of dams was 
therefore constructed (mapped and described in " Topography 



74 



NINEVEH 



of Nineveh," J.R.A.S. xiv. 318 ff.) which controlled the floods 
and filled the ditches and moats of Nineveh. One of these 
ditches can be traced over 2 m. with a breadth of 200 ft., and was 
lined with a rampart on the city side. 

The city on the river side of the Tigris extended about 2\ m., 
its north wall measured 7000 ft., the eastern wall was nearly 
3 m. long and the southern about 1000 ft. The city thus formed 
a long narrow strip along the Tigris, pierced at right angles by the 
Husur, the waters of which, by closing the great dam in the 
eastern wall, could be sent round the moats to the N. and S. 
The Tigris may have swept the western wall, though now a wide 
belt of sand has accumulated between the ruins and its present 
channel which is perpetually shifting. The actual extent of the 
city may be reckoned at about 1800 acres, or about two-thirds 
the size of Rome within Aurelian's Wall. At the rate of 50 sq. 
yds. to a person, it would have held a population of 175,000; 
but the extent of the palaces, gardens, &c., - forbid us to imagine 
any such multitude except as refugees during a siege. Outside 
this city proper lay wide outskirts (kablu) which were divided into 
quarters each with a separate governor (Saknu). Further afield 
lay the Rebit-Ninua, in which some have recognized the Reho- 
both-Ir of Gen. x. n (Ninua is often replaced by ir or alu in the 
inscriptions), a less closely populated area which extended to 
and included the site of Khorsabad, before Sargon II. built his 
city of Dur-Sargon there. Across the Tigris, connected by a 
bridge, lay an extensive district, probably now replaced by 
Mosul. As Esarhaddon entered Nineveh, on his triumphal 
return from Sidon, through Rebit-Ninua, it is probable that this 
name covered the western suburbs. The walled city formed 
a sort of Acropolis, and it is difficult to say exactly how far the 
name of Nineveh should be extended. Few traces of private 
houses have been found within the walls, but as deeds of sale speak 
of houses in Nineveh, which were bounded on three sides by other 
houses, there must have been continuous streets within the area 
denoted by that name. Great emphasis has been laid on the 
agreement of a tetrapolis, formed by Nineveh, Khorsabad, Calah 
and Keramlis, with the dimensions given by Diodorus and with 
the phrase " an exceeding great city of three days' journey " 
(Jonah iii. 3). Admitting that this whole area was thickly 
inhabited and might be regarded by those at a distance as one 
city, and that the district may well have had a common name, 
which could hardly be Assur, there is yet no native evidence that 
Nineveh extended so far. There is no trace of a common wall, 
each city was as strongly fortified towards the interior as on the 
outside. Each had its own Saknu, and the governor of Nineveh 
stands below the governors of Assur and Calah in official lists. 
In deeds of sale " the road to Calah " is as often named as the 
" king's highway " to Arbela or Assur. 

The history of Nineveh is, of course, bound up with that of 
Assyria in general. Later Assyrian writers professed to carry 
back its foundation to the creation of the world, but we lack 
any historical evidence of its age or early history. We may 
conjecture that it was founded by settlers from Babylonia Nina, 
and the statement that Nimrod founded it from Babylonia, along 
with Calah, Rehoboth-Ir and Resen, shows that this opinion 
was early held. We are, however, still without evidence that 
this was its first occupation. The mention of Gudea's building 
a temple for Ishtar in Nina (2800 B.C.) may refer to the Lagash 
city and an inscription of Dungi, king of Ur (2700 B.C.), said to 
have been found at Nineveh, might have been carried there by 
some antiquary king. We reach firm ground with the statement 
of Khammurabi(228sB.c.)that he" made the waters of Ishtar to 
be glorious in Nineveh in E-MES-MES," the temple of Ishtar there 
(Code IV. 60-62). As he had just spoken of " returning the 
gracious protecting god to Assur," and spells the name Ni-nu-a, 
there can be no doubt that Nineveh is meant. Shalmaneser I., 
in his zikati inscriptions (L. W. King, Records oj the Reign of 
Tukulti-Ninib I. p. 131), c. 1300 B.C., records his restoration of 
the temple of Ishtar of Nineveh, which had been built by Samsi- 
Hadad (Shamshi-Adad) and restored once before by Assur- 
uballit. Which Samsi-Hadad (out of six at least) this was, 
and which Assur-uballit we are not told; the first of the former 



name known to us was a contemporary of Khammurabi and, 
if he built the temple first, Khammurabi may have plundered 
it and then restored it again; but an even earlier Samsi-Hadad 
may be meant. Dushratta, king of Mitanni, about 1400 B.C., in 
the Tell el-Amarna letters offers to send to the king of Egypt 
an image of Ishtar of Nineveh; from which it has been inferred 
that Nineveh was then under foreign rule. The same letters 
mention Shaushbi as goddess of Nineveh. A statue of a female 
nude figure found at Nineveh bears an inscription showing it 
to have been in the palace of Assur-bel-kala (1080 B.C.), who is 
therefore supposed to have resided in Nineveh. Assur-resh-ishi, 
Mutakkil Nusku and Tiglath-pileser I. restored a temple of Ishtar, 
probably in Nineveh. Assur-narsin-apli (885 B.C.) restored the 
temple E-MAS-MAS of Ishtar at Nineveh, but removed his resi- 
dence to Calah. Shalmaneser II. set out on several of his expe- 
ditions from Nineveh, but in the latter part of his reign resided at 
Calah, and when rebellion broke out under his son Assur-danin- 
apli Nineveh sided with the rebel prince. Sennacherib records 
that several of his royal ancestors had been buried in Nineveh 
and they presumably had resided there. At the commencement 
of his reign Sennacherib found Nineveh a poor place. A store- 
house.the ancient and renowned temple, an armoury or storehouse, 
were the chief buildings. Two lofty platforms along the Tigris 
front had served as foundations of the palaces hitherto built, but 
the platforms had been wrecked and the palaces were in decay. 
Sennacherib restored and enlarged the northern platform now 
covered by the Kuyunjik mound and built his palace on the 
south-western portion of it. It has been only partially excavated, 
though seventy-one rooms were opened, and it is the grandest 
architectural effort of Assyria. The bas-reliefs with which the 
walls are adorned are .unrivalled in antiquity, for variety of 
subject, breadth of composition, truth of presentation and 
artistic treatment. The accuracy with which building operations 
are portrayed, and a sense of landscape, are great advances even 
on the superb work of Sargon's palace at Khorsabad. On the 
adjoining platform to the south, now Nebi-Yunus, Sennacherib 
erected an arsenal for military supplies. Nineveh was badly 
supplied with water for drinking; the inhabitants had to " turn 
their eyes to heaven for the rain," but Sennacherib conducted 
water by eighteen canals from the hills into the Husur and 
distributed its waters round the moats and into store tanks, or 
ponds, within the city. He laid out a fine park or Paradise, for 
pleasure and the chase, to the east of his palaces, and built up a 
magnificent "triumphal way" sixty-two cubits broad and forbade 
any householder to encroach upon the street. Sennacherib made 
Nineveh his court residence and, after his destruction of Babylon 
and the influx of the enormous booty brought back from his con- 
quests, it must have been the most magnificent and wealthiest 
city of the East. 

Esarhaddon began to rebuild Babylon and so departed from 
his father's purpose to make Nineveh the metropolis of the 
empire, but he did not altogether neglect the city. He rebuilt 
the temple of Assur at Nineveh, and a palace for himself now 
covered by the Nebi-Yunus mound and so inefficiently explored. 
Thither Assur-bani-pal brought the rebel Egyptian vassals 
Necho and Sharru-ludari, the Elamite kings, the booty and 
captives of his continual conquests. He rebuilt the temples 
and a palace for himself north of Sennacherib's on the site of 
the latter's harem; which was adorned with extraordinary 
variety and richness. His sculptures are at the highest range 
of original and effective delineation in antiquity. Especially 
is his palace famous for the celebrated library, of which Senna- 
cherib had made a commencement. Tens of thousands of clay 
tablets, systematically arranged on shelves, contained the 
classics of the Babylonian literature for which his scribes ran- 
sacked and copied the treasures of all then known centres of 
literary life. 

Very little trace is left of the fortunes of Nineveh during the 
reigns of the sons of Assur-bani-pal. Nineveh, according to 
Herodotus, was besieged by Cyaxares and the Medes but saved 
by Madyes and the Scythians some twenty or more years before 
the Medes in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, 



NING-PO NINIB 



705 



finally took it, c. 606 B.C. Much conjecture has been lavished 
upon the varying accounts which have reached us of the capture, 
but it seems probable that a heavy flood or the besiegers burst 
the great dam and while thus emptying the moats launched a 
flood against the west wall on the inside and thus breached the 
defences. 

It may be of interest to record the names of the governors of 
Nineveh: Nergal-mudammik. 835 B.C.; Ninib-mukin-ahi, 790-761 
B.C.; Mahde, 725 B.C.; Nabu-dini-epush, 704 B.C.; Ahi-ilai, 649 
B.C., officiated as Eponyms for the year. 

If, as generally admitted, the ruins of Mespila and Larissa 
" described " by Xenophon, Anab. iii. 4, 7 sq. were those of 
Kuyunjik and Nimrud, we may qonclude that there was no 
inhabited city on the spot at the time of the march of the Greeks 
with Cyrus (cf. Strabo xvi. p. 245). The name of Nineveh 
(Syriac NinwE; Arabic Nlnawa, Nunawa) continued, even in the 
middle ages, to be applied to a site opposite Mosul on the east 
bank of the Tigris, where huge mounds and the traces of an 
ancient city wall bore witness of former greatness. Copious 
references to these mentions are collected in Tuch, De Nino Urbe 
(Leipzig, 1845). Ibn Jubair, p. 237 sq., followed by Ibn Batuta, 
ii. 137, gives a good description of the ruins and the great shrine 
of Jonah as existing in the i2th century. The name of Ninawa 
applied, not to the ruins, but to the Rustak (fields and hamlets) 
on the site (Baladhuri, p. 331; Ibn Haukal, p. 145; Yaqut, 
ii. 694). 

A very complete summary of the traditions will be found in Lincke, 
" Assyrien und Nineveh," in Geschichte und Sage der Mittelmeervolker 
nach 607-606. 

The explorations of Sir A. H. Layard at Kuyunjik (1845- 
1847 and 1849-1851) definitely located the city, in confirmation 
of ancient tradition and the identifications of Rich and others. 
Excavations were carried on by Rawlinson, 1853-1855; H. 
Rassam, 1854; G. Smith, 1873-1874 and 1876; Rassam again, 
1877-1883; E. A. Wallis Budge, 1888-1889; and King, 1902. 
The enormous mound of Kuyunjik now separated from that 
of Nebi-Yunus by the deep and rapid Khausar, marks the site 
of the palace of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal. The mound 
of Nebi-Yunus is crowned by the " Tomb of Jonah," a sacred 
shrine to the modern inhabitants, and could not be explored; 
but by sinking a shaft within the walls of a private house, some 
sculptured slabs were recovered, and the Turkish government 
later opened out part of a palace of Esarhaddon. Excavations 
at two of the great city gates showed them to have been erected 
by Sennacherib. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The architecture of these palaces is exhaustively 
treated in Ferguson's Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored, 
and in Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Chaldea and Assyria. Each palace 
was in itself a fort, and the external walls are still 80 ft. high in 
places. The many topographical details furnished by exploration 
when compared with the building inscriptions and the indications 
given by deeds of sale will doubtless enable us ultimately to map 
out the principal features of the ancient city, but much more sys- 
tematic exploration is needed, as well as further publication of exist- 
ing documents. (C. H. W. J.) 

NING-PO (NiNG-Po-Fu, i.e. City of the Peaceful Waves), a 
great city of China, the principal emporium of trade in the 
province of Chehkiang, standing in a fine plain bounded by 
mountains towards the west, on the left bank of the Ning-po 
river, about 16 m. from its mouth, in 29 49' N., 121 35' E. It 
was visited by Portuguese traders as early as 1522, and is one of 
the five seaports which were thrown open to foreign trade in 
1842 by the treaty of Nanking. The population of the city and 
suburbs is estimated from 400,000 to 500,000. Ning-po is 
surrounded by a fine old wall, 25 ft. high and 16 ft. broad, pierced 
by six gates and two passages for ships in its circuit of 4 to 5 m. 
Just within the walls there is a considerable belt of open ground, 
and in many places the ramparts are thickly covered with 
jasmine and honeysuckle. In ascending the river a stranger's 
eye is first caught by the numerous huge ice-houses with high 
thatched roofs and by a tall white tower the T'ien-feng-t'a or 
Ning-po pagoda or obelisk which rises to a height of 160 ft. 
and has fourteen stories and seven tiers of windows, but has 
unfortunately been stripped of its galleries and otherwise 
damaged. Another striking structure in the heart of the city 
XK. 23 



is the Drum Tower, dating from before the isth century. As is 
natural in a place long celebrated for its religious and edu- 
cational pre-eminence, there is no lack of temples, monasteries 
and colleges, but few of these are of any architectural significance. 
Brick is the ordinary building material, and the dwelling-houses 
are mostly of one storey. Silks, cottons, carpets, furniture, 
white-wood carvings and straw hats are the chief products of 
the local industry. Large salt-works are carried on in the 
vicinity, and thousands of fishermen are engaged, mainly between 
April and July, in catching cuttle-fish. In spite of the powerful 
competition of Shanghai, Ning-po has a valuable foreign trade. 
It is regularly visited by the vessels of the China Navigation 
Company and the Chinese Merchants' Steam Navigation Com- 
pany. From 216,191 register tons in 1873 the tonnage of the 
port had increased to 303,109 in 1880, and in 1904 the figures 
rose to 532,869 tons. The value of the trade passing through the 
custom house in 1904 was 3,052,629, as compared with 2,31 2,000 
in 1900 and 3,405,000 in 1880. Straw or grass hats, straw mats, 
samshu (from the Shao-sing district), Chinese drugs, vegetable 
tallow and fish are among the chief exports; in 1904 the hats 
numbered 2,125,566, though in 1863 they had only amounted to 
40,000, and the mats, mainly despatched to south China, average 
from i ,000,000, to 2,000,000. Missions are maintained in Ning-po 
by the Roman Catholic church, by the Church Missionary Society 
(1848), the American Presbyterians, the Reformed Wesleyans, 
the China Inland Mission (1857), &c. A mission hospital was 
instituted in 1843. After the storming of Chenhai the fortified 
town at the mouth of the river on the loth of October 1841, 
the British forces quietly took possession of Ning-po on the I2th. 
In 1864 the T'aip'ings held the town for six months. 

NINIAN, ST, a Briton, probably from Strathclyde, who was 
trained at Rome and founded a church at Whithorn on the 
west side of Wigtown Bay. Whithorn has been identified with 
the Leukopibia of Ptolemy, but this is uncertain. Bede, writing 
three centuries after Ninian, ascribes the name Ad Candidam 
Casam to the fact that the church of Ninian was built of stone. 
We are told by Bede that St Ninian dedicated his church to St 
Martin of Tours, who died between 397 and 400, but Ailred of 
Rievaulx is our only authority for the statement that St Martin 
supplied him with masons. The population of the north shore 
of the Solway Firth at the beginning of the sth century were 
probably either Picts or Goidels or a blend of both, and naturally 
hostile to the Romanized Britons. Bede records that Ninian 
preached among the Picts within the Mounth, which indicates 
that he was acquainted with the Pictish language. The legends 
of his work in Ireland probably arise from the influence exercised 
in that country by the church of Whithorn. The date of Ninian 's 
death is given by Archbishop Ussher as 432, but there is no 
authority for this statement. 

See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896), iii., iv.; 
Ailred of Rievaulx, " Life of St Ninian," in the Historians of Scotland 
vol. v. (Edinburgh, 1874); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 
1877), ii. 2 ff.; and J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (London, 1904), p. 173. 

NINIB, the ideographic designation of a solar deity of Baby- 
lonia. The phonetic designation is uncertain perhaps Annshit. 
The cult of Ninib can be traced back to the oldest period of 
Babylonian history. In the inscriptions found at Shirgulla (or 
Shirpurla, also known as Lagash), he appears as Nin-girsu, that 
is, " the lord of Girsu," which appears to have been a quarter of 
Shirgulla. He is closely associated with Bel (<?..), or En-lil of 
Nippur, as whose son he is commonly designated. The com- 
bination points to the amalgamation of the district in which 
Ninib was worshipped with the one in which Bel was the chief 
deity. This district may have been Shirgulla and surrounding 
places, which, as we know, fell at one time under the control 
of the rulers of Nippur. 

Ninib appears in a double capacity in the epithets bestowed 
on him, and in the hymns and incantations addressed to him. 
On the one hand he is the healing god who releases from sickness 
and the ban of the demons in general, and on the other he is the 
god of war and of the chase, armed with terrible weapons. It is 
not easy to reconcile these two phases, except on the assumption 



yo6 



NINUS NIORT 



that he has absorbed in his person various minor solar deities, 
representing different phases of the sun, just as subsequently 
Shamash absorbed the attributes of practically all the minor 
sun-deities. 

In the systematized pantheon, Ninib survives the tendency 
towards centralizing all sun cults in Shamash by being made the 
symbol of a certain phase of the sun. Whether this phase is 
that of the morning sun or of the springtime with which bene- 
ficent qualities are associated, or that of the noonday sun or of 
the summer solstice, bringing suffering and destruction in its 
wake, is still a matter of dispute, with the evidence on the whole 
in favour of the former proposition. At the same time, the 
possibility of a confusion between Ninib and Nergal (q.v.) must 
be admitted, and perhaps we are to see the solution of the 
problem in the recognition of two diverse schools of theological 
speculation, the one assigning to Ninib the role of the spring-tide 
solar deity, the other identifying him with the sun of the summer 
solstice. In the astral-theological system Ninib becomes the 
planet Saturn. The swine seems to have been the animal sacred 
to him, or to have been one of the symbols under which he is 
represented. The consort of Ninib was Gula (q.v.). (M. JA.) 

NINUS, in Greek mythology, the eponymous founder of 
Nineveh (q.v.), and thus the city itself personified. He was 
said to have been the son of Belos or Bel, to have conquered 
in seventeen years the whole of western Asia with the help of 
Ariaeus, king of Arabia, and to have founded the first empire. 
During the siege of Bactra he met Semiramis, the wife of one 
of his officers, Onnes, whom he took from her husband and 
married. The fruit of the marriage was Ninyas, i.e. " The 
Ninevite." After the death of Ninus, Semiramis, who was 
accused of causing it, erected to him a temple-tomb, nine stades 
high and ten stades broad, near Babylon. According to Castor 
(ap.Syncell. p. 167) his reign lasted fifty-two years, its commence- 
ment falling 2189 B.C. according to Ctesias. Another Ninus 
is described by some authorities as the last king of Nineveh, 
successor of Sardanapalus. 

See J. Gilmore, Fragments of the Persika of Ktesias (1888). 

NIOBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Tantalus and Dione, 
wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. Proud of her numerous 
family, six daughters and six sons, she boasted of her superiority 
to her friend Leto, the mother of only two children, Apollo 
and Artemis. As a punishment, Apollo slew her sons and 
Artemis her daughters. Their bodies lay for nine days unburied, 
for Zeus had changed the people to stone; on the tenth day 
they were buried by the gods. Out of pity for her grief, the gods 
changed Niobe herself into a rock on Mount Sipylus in Phrygia, 
in which form she continued to weep (Homer, Iliad, xxiv. 
602-617; Apollodorus iii. 5; Ovid, Metam. vi. 146-312). The 
names and number of her children, and the time and place 
of their death, are variously given. This " Niobe," described 
by Pausanias (i. 21) and Quintus Smyrnaeus (i. 293-306), both 
natives of the district, was the appearance assumed by a cliff on 
Sipylus when seen from a distance and from the proper point 
of view (see Jebb on Sophocles, Antigone, 831). It is to be 
distinguished from an archaic figure still visible, carved in the 
northern side of the mountain near Magnesia, to which tradition 
has given the name of Niobe, but which is really intended for 
Cybele. 

According to some, Niobe is the goddess of snow and winter, 
whose children, slain by Apollo and Artemis, symbolize the ice 
and snow melted by the sun in spring; according to others, 
she is an earth-goddess, whose progeny vegetation and the 
fruits of the soil is dried up and slain every summer by the 
shafts of the sun-god. Burmeister regards the legend as an 
incident in the struggle between the followers of Dionysus and 
Apollo in Thebes, in which the former were defeated and driven 
back to Lydia. Heffter builds up the story round the dripping 
rock in Lydia, really representing an Asiatic goddess, but taken 
by the Greeks for an ordinary woman. Enmann, who interprets 
the name as " she who prevents increase " (in contrast to Leto, 
who made women prolific), considers the main point of the myth 
to be Niobe's loss of her children. He compares her story with 



that of Lamia, who, after her children had been slain by Zeus, 
retired to a lonely cave and carried off and killed the children 
of others. The appearance of the rock on Sipylus gave rise to 
the story of Niobe having been turned to stone. The tragedians 
used her story to point the moral of the instability of human 
happiness; Niobe became the representative of human nature, 
liable to pride in prosperity and forgetfulness of the respect and 
submission due to the gods. 

The tragic story of Niobe was a favourite subject in literature 
and art. Aeschylus and Sophocles wrote tragedies upon it; 
Ovid has described it at length in his Metamorphoses. In art, 
the most famous representation was a marble group of Niobe 
and her children, taken by Sosius to Rome and set up in the 
temple of Apollo Sosianus (Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 4). What 
is probably a Roman imitation of this work was found in 1 583 
near the Lateran, and is now in the Uffizi gallery at Florence. 
In ancient times it was disputed whether the original was the 
work of Praxiteles or Scopas, and modern authorities are not 
agreed as to its identity with the group mentioned by Pliny. 

On the whole subject see C.E. Burmeister, Defabula quae de Niobe 
ejusque liberis agit (Wismar, 1836); L. Curtze, Fabula. Niobes 
Thebanae (Corbach, 1836); W. Heffter in Zeilschrift fur Gymnasial- 
uiesen, ix. (1855); C. B. Stark, Niobe und die Niobiden (1863), the 
standard work; E. Thramer, Pergamos (1888); C. Friederichs, 
Praxiteles und die Niobegruppe (1865); A. Mayerhofer and H. 
Ohlrich, Die Florentiner Niobegruppe (1881 and 1888) ; for the Niobe 
on Mount Sipylus, see C. B. Stark, Nach dem griechischen Orient 
(1874); G. Weber, Le Sipylos et ses monuments (1880); W. Ramsay, 
" Sipylos and Cybele," in Journal of Hellenic Studies, iii. (1882); 
Frazer's Pausanias, iii. 555; for vase-paintings, see H. Heyde- 
mann, Niobe und Niobiden auf griechischen Vasenbildern (1875). 
For further literature on the subject, see A. Preuner's mythological 
bibliography in C. Bursian's Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der 
klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. xxv. (1891); the various 
derivations of the name and interpretations of the legend are given 
in Enmann's article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. 

In GREEK ART, fig. 29 (from an Orvieto vase) represents the 
slaying of the children of Niobe by Apollo and Artemis; fig. 78 
(PI. VI.), Niobe shielding her youngest daughter. 

NIORT, a city of western France, chief town of the department 
of Deux-Sevres, 42 m. E.N.E. of La Rochelle on the railway 
to Saumur. Pop. (1906) 20,538. Niort is situated on the left 
bank of the Sevre Niortaise, partly in the valley and partly on 
the slopes of the enclosing hills. The tower of the church of 
Notre-Dame (isth and i6th centuries) has a spire 246 ft. high, 
with bell-turrets adorned with statues of the evangelists, and 
at the base a richly decorated dais in the Renaissance style; 
and the north doorway shows a balustrade, of which the balusters 
form the inscription O Mater Dei, memento mei. St Andr6, 
with a fine window in the apse, and St Hilaire, which contains 
some beautiful frescoes, both date from the i9th century. Of 
the old castle, whose site is partly occupied by the prefecture, 
there remains the donjon two large square towers united by 
a central building, flanked by turrets, built, it is said, by Henry 
II. of England or Richard Cceur de Lion. The platform on the 
top affords a fine view of the public garden (one of the most 
picturesque in France) and the valley of the Sevre. The old 
town-hall, Renaissance in style, is wrongly known as the Alidnor 
palace, after Eleanor of Guienne; it contains a collection of 
antiquities. The house is still shown in which Madame de 
Maintenon is erroneously stated to have been born. Near Niort 
are the fine feudal ruins of the fortress of Coudray-Salbart. 

Niort is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and has 
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade- 
arbitration, Iyc6es for both sexes, a school of drawing, a chamber 
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Tanning, 
currying, shammy-dressing, glove-making and the manufacture 
of brushes and boots and shoes are the staple industries. 

Up to the 7th century the Niort plain formed part of the Gulf 
of Poitou; and the mouth of the Sevre lay at the foot of the hills 
now occupied by the town which grew up round the castle 
erected by Henry Plantagenet in 1155. The place was captured 
by Louis VIII. in 1224. By the peace of Br6tigny it was ceded 
to the English; but its inhabitants revolted against the Black 
Prince, and most of them were massacred when his troops 
recovered the town by assault. In 1373 Duguesclin regained 



NIPIGON NIPPUR 



707 



possession of the town for the French. Protestantism made 
numerous proselytes at Niort, and Gaspard de Coligny made 
himself master of the town, which successfully resisted the 
Catholic forces after the Battle of Jarnac, but surrendered without 
striking a blow after that of Moncontour. Henry IV. rescued 
it from the League. It suffered severely by the revocation of 
the edict of Nantes. 

NIPIGON [NEEPIGON, OR NEPiGON],a lake and river of Thunder 
Bay district, Ontario, Canada. The lake is 30 m. N. of the bay 
of the same name on Lake Superior, at an altitude of 852 ft. 
above the sea. It is 70 m. long and 50 m. wide; contains over 
looo islands, is very deep, and has a much-indented shore-line 
measuring upwards of 580 m. The river, which drains the lake, 
descends several hundred feet in the 40 m. of its course and is the 
largest stream flowing into Lake Superior. It is widely known 
for the excellence of its trout fishing. 

NIPISSING, a lake of the district of the same name in Ontario, 
Canada, situated nearly midway between Lake Huron and the 
Ottawa river, at an altitude of 644 ft. above the sea. It is of 
irregular shape, with bold shores, and contains many islands; 
from the north it receives the waters of Sturgeon river. It is 
50 m. in length and 20 in breadth; discharges its waters by 
French river into Lake Huron, and is separated by a low water- 
shed from the Mattawa river, a tributary of the Ottawa. It has 
been proposed as the summit level of the projected Ottawa and 
Georgian Bay canal, an important project rendered difficult by 
the numerous rapids both on French river and on the Ottawa. 
With the Ottawa, Mattawa and French, it formed the old 
voyageur route from Montreal to the Great Lakes. 

NIPPUR, one of the most ancient of all the Babylonian cities 
of which we have any knowledge, the special seat of the worship 
of the Sumerian god, En-lil, lord of the storm demons. It was 
situated on both sides of the Shatt-en-Nil canal, one of the 
earliest courses of the Euphrates, between the present bed of that 
river and the Tigris, almost 100 m. S.E. of Bagdad, in 32 7' N. 
45 10' E. It is represented by the great complex of ruin mounds 
known to the Arabs as Nuffar, written by the earlier explorers 
Niffer, divided into two main parts by the dry bed of the old 
Shatt-en-Nil (Arakhat). The highest point of these ruins, a 
conical hill rising about 100 ft. above the level of the surrounding 
plain, N.E. of the canal bed, is called by the Arabs Bint el-Amir 
or " prince's daughter." Here very brief and unsatisfactory 
excavations were conducted by Sir A. H. Layard in 1851, which 
served, however, by means of the inscribed bricks discovered, 
to identify the site. The university of Pennsylvania began 
systematic excavations in 1889 under the directorship of Dr John 
P. Peters. With some intermissions these excavations were 
continued until 1 900 under the original director and his successors, 
Dr John Henry Haynes and Dr H. V. Hilprecht. The result of 
their work is a fairly continuous history of Nippur, and especially 
of its great temple, E-kur, from the earliest period. 

Originally a village of reed huts in the marshes, similar to many 
of those which can be seen in that region to-day, Nippur under- 
went the usual vicissitudes of such villages floods and conflagra- 
tions. For some reason habitation persisted at the same spot, 
and gradually the site rose above the marshes, partly as a result 
of the mere accumulation of debris, consequent on continuous 
habitation, partly through the efforts of the inhabitants. As 
these began to develop in civilization, they substituted, at least 
so far as their shrine was concerned, buildings of mud-brick for 
reed huts. The earliest age of civilization, which we may 
designate as the clay age, is marked by rude, hand-made pottery 
and thumb-marked bricks, flat on one side, concave on the other, 
gradually developing through several fairly marked stages. The 
exact form of the sanctuary at that period cannot be determined, 
but it seems to have been in some way connected with the burning 
of the dead, and extensive remains of such cremation are found 
in all the earlier, pre-Sargonic strata. There is evidence of the 
succession on this site of different peoples, varying somewhat 
in their degrees of civilization. One stratum is marked by painted 
pottery of good make, similar to that found in a corresponding 
stratum in Susa, and resembling the early pottery of the Aegean 



region more closely than any later pottery found in Babylonia. 
This people gave way in time to another, markedly inferior in 
the manufacture of pottery, but superior, apparently, as builders. 
In one of these earlier strata, of very great antiquity, there was 
discovered, in connexion with the shrine, a conduit built of bricks, 
in the form of an arch. Somewhere, apparently, in the 4th 
millennium B.C., we begin to find inscriptions written on clay, 
in an almost linear script, in the Sumerian tongue. The shrine 
at this time stood on a raised platform and apparently contained, 
as a characteristic feature, an artificial mountain or peak, a 
so-called ziggurat, the precise shape and size of which we are, 
however, unable to determine. So far as we can judge from the 
inscriptions, Nippur did not enjoy at this time, or at any later 
period for that matter, political hegemony, but was distinctively 
a sacred city, important from the possession of the famous shrine 
of En-lil. Inscriptions of Lugal-zaggisi and Lugal-kigub-nidudu, 
kings of Erech and Ur respectively, and of other early pre-Semitic 
rulers, on door-sockets and stone vases, show the veneration in 
which the ancient shrine was then held and the importance 
attached to its possession, as giving a certain stamp of legitimacy. 
So on their votive offerings some of these rulers designate them- 
selves as palesis, or over-priests, of En-lil. Early in the 3rd 
millennium B.C. the city was conquered and occupied by the 
Semitic rulers of Akkad, or Agade, and numerous votive objects 
of Alu-usharsid (Urumush or Rimush), Sargon and Naram-Sin 
testify to the veneration in which they also held this sanctuary. 
En-lil was in fact adopted as the Bel or great lord of the Semitic 
pantheon. The last monarch of this dynasty, Naram-Sin, 
rebuilt both the temple and the city walls, and in the accumula- 
tion of d6bris now marking the ancient site his remains are found 
about half way from the top to the bottom. To this Akkadian 
occupation succeeded an occupation by the first Semitic dynasty 
of Ur, and the constructions of Ur-Gur or Ur-Engur, the great 
builder of Babylonian temples, are superimposed immediately 
upon the constructions of Naram-Sin. Ur-Gur gave to the temple 
its final characteristic form. Partly razing the constructions of 
his predecessors, he erected a terrace of unbaked bricks, some 
40 ft. high, covering a space of about 8 acres, near the north- 
western edge of which, towards the western corner, he built a 
ziggurat, or stage-tower, of three stages of unburned brick, faced 
with kiln-burned bricks laid in bitumen. On the summit of this 
artificial mountain stood, apparently, as at Ur and Eridu, a small 
chamber, the special shrine or abode of the god. Access to the 
stages of the ziggurat, from the court beneath, was had by an 
inclined plane on the south-east side. To the north-east of the 
ziggurat stood, apparently, the House of Bel, and in the courts 
below the ziggurat stood various other buildings, shrines, treasure 
chambers and the like. The whole structure was roughly 
orientated, with the corners towards the cardinal points of the 
compass. Ur-Gur also rebuilt the walls of the city in general on 
the line of Naram-Sin's walls. 

The restoration of the general features of the temple of 
this and the immediately succeeding periods has been greatly 
facilitated by the discovery of a sketch map on a fragment of 
a clay tablet. This sketch map represents a quarter of the city 
to the eastward of the Shatt-en-Nil canal, which was enclosed 
within its own walls, a city within a city, forming an irregular 
square, with sides roughly 2700 ft. long, separated from the other 
quarters of the city, as from the surrounding country to the north 
and east, by canals on all sides, with broad quays along the walls. 
A smaller canal divided this quarter of the city itself into two 
parts, in the south-eastern part of which, in the middle of its 
S.E. side, stood the temple, while in the N.W. part, along the 
Shatt-en-Nil, two great storehouses are indicated. The temple 
proper, according to this plan, consisted of an outer and inner 
court (each covering approximately 8 acres), surrounded by 
double walls, with ziggurat on the north-western edge of the 
latter. 

The temple continued to be built upon or rebuilt by kings of 
various succeeding dynasties, as shown by bricks and votive 
objects bearing the inscriptions of the kings of various dynasties 
of Ur and Isin. It seems to have suffered severely in some 



708 



NIPPUR 



manner at or about the time of the Elamite invasions, as shown 
by broken fragments of statuary, votive vases and the like, 
from that period, but at the same time to have won recognition 
from the Elamite conquerors, so that Eriaku (Sem. Rim-Sin, 
biblical Arioch), the Elamite king of Larsa, styles himself " shep- 
herd of the land of Nippur." With the establishment of the 
Babylonian empire, under Khammurabi, early in the and pre- 
Christian millennium, the religious as well as the political centre 
of influence was transferred to Babylon, Marduk became the 
Bel or lord of the pantheon, many of En-lil's attributes and 
myths were transferred to him, and E-kur was to some extent 
neglected. Under the succeeding Cossaean dynasty, however, 
shortly after the middle of the 2nd millennium, E-kur was 
restored once more to its former splendour, several monarchs of 
that dynasty built upon and adorned it, and thousands of in- 
scriptions, dating from the time of those rulers, have been 
discovered in its archives. After the middle of the 1 2th century 
follows another long period of comparative neglect, but with the 
conquest of Babylonia by the Assyrian Sargon, at the close of the 
8th century B.C., we meet again with building inscriptions, and 
under Assur-bani-pal, about the middle of the 7th century, we 
find E-kur restored with a splendour greater than ever before, 
the ziggnrat of that period being 190 ft. by 128 ft. After that 
E-kur appears to have gradually fallen into decay, until finally, 
in the Seleucid period, the ancient temple was turned into a 
fortress. Huge walls were erected at the edges of the ancient 
terrace, the courts of the temple were filled with houses and streets, 
and the ziggurat itself was curiously built over in a cruciform shape, 
and converted into an acropolis for the fortress. This fortress 
was occupied and further built upon until the close of the 
Parthian period, about A.D. 250; but under the succeeding rule 
of the Sassanids it in its turn fell into decay, and the ancient 
sanctuary became, to a considerable extent, a mere place of 
sepulture, only a little village of mud huts huddled about the 
ancient ziggurat continuing to be inhabited. The store-house 
quarter of the temple town had not been explored as late as 1909. 

As at Tello, so at Nippur, the clay archives of the temple were 
found not in the temple proper, but on an outlying mound. 
South-eastward of the temple quarter, without the walls above 
described, and separated from it by a large basin connected with 
the Shatt-en-Nil, lay a triangular mound, about 25 ft. in average 
height and 13 acres in extent. In this were found large numbers 
of inscribed clay tablets (it is estimated that upward of 40,000 
tablets and fragments have been excavated in this mound alone), 
dating from the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. onward into 
the Persian period, partly temple archives, partly school exer- 
cises and text-books, partly mathematical tables, with a consider- 
able number of documents of a more distinctly literary character. 
For an account of one of the most interesting fragments of a 
literary or religious character, found at Nippur, see below. 

The great complex of ruin mounds lying S.W. of the Shatt-en- 
Nil canal, larger in extent and mass than the N.E. complex, 
had not up to 1009 been so fully explored as the mounds to 
the N.E. Almost directly opposite the temple, however, a large 
palace was excavated, apparently of the Cossaean period, and in 
this neighbourhood and further southward on these mounds 
large numbers of inscribed tablets of various periods, including 
temple archives of the Cossaean and commercial archives of the 
Persian period, were excavated. The latter, the " books and 
papers " of the house of Murashu, commercial agents of the 
government, throw light on the condition of the city and the 
administration of the country in the Persian period, the sth 
century B.C. The former give us a very good idea of the admini- 
stration of an ancient temple. The whole city of Nippur appears 
to have been at that time merely an appanage of the temple. 
The temple itself was a great landowner, possessed of both farms 
and pasture land. Its tenants were obliged to render careful 
accounts of their administration of the property entrusted to their 
care, which were preserved in the archives of the temple. We 
have also from these archives lists of goods contained in the 
temple treasuries and salary lists of temple officials, on tablet forms 
specially prepared and marked off for periods of a year or less. 



On the upper surface of these mounds was found a considerable 
Jewish town, dating from about the beginning of the Arabic 
period onward to the loth century A.D., in the houses of which 
were large numbers of incantation bowls. Jewish names, 
appearing in the Persian documents discovered at Nippur, show, 
however, that Jewish settlement at that city dates in fact from 
a much earlier period, and the discovery on some of the tablets 
found there of the name of the canal Kabari suggests that the 
Jewish settlement of the exile, on the canal Chebar, to which 
Ezekiel belonged, may have been somewhere in this neighbour- 
hood, if not at Nippur itself. Hilprecht indeed believes that the 
Kabari was the Shatt-en-Nil. Of the history and conditions of 
Nippur in the Arabic period we learn little from the excavations, 
but from outside sources it appears that the city was the seat 
of a Christian bishopric as late as the izth century A.D. 

The excavations at Nippur were the first to reveal to us the 
extreme antiquity of Babylonian civilization, and, as already 
stated, they give us the best consecutive record of the develop- 
ment of that civilization, with a continuous occupancy from a 
period of unknown antiquity, long ante-dating 5000 B.C., onward 
to the middle ages. But while Nippur has been more fully ex- 
plored than any other old Babylonian city, except Babylon and 
Lagash, still only a small part of the great ruins of the ancient site 
had been examined in 1909. These ruins have been particularly 
fruitful in inscribed material, especially clay tablets, many of 
them from the very earliest periods; but little of artistic or 
architectural importance has been discovered. Excavation at 
Nippur is particularly difficult and costly by reason of the in- 
accessibility of the site, and the dangerous and unsettled con- 
dition of the surrounding country, and still more by reason of the 
immense mass of later debris under which the earlier and more 
important Babylonian remains are buried. 

See A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1853); John P. Peters, 
Nippur (1897); H. V. Hilprecht, Excavations in Assyria and Baby- 
lonia (1904); Clarence S. Fisher, Excavations at Nippur (ist part 
1905, 2nd part 1906); Babylonian Expedition of the University of 
Pennsylvania, a monumental edition of the cuneiform texts found 
at Nippur, with brief introductions and notes of a more general 
character (1893 foil.). For a plan of the Parthian palace see 
ARCHITECTURE, vol. ii. p. 381. (J. P. PE.) 

The Nippur Deluge Fragment. From among the many 
tablets and fragments of tablets discovered at Nippur one of more 
than ordinary interest was published in 1910. Though mutilated 
portions of only a few of its lines have been preserved, and 
the text contains no proper name, it is clear that the tablet 
represents part of a Babylonian version of the Deluge Legend. 1 
The portion of the story covered by the text relates to the 
warning given by Ea to Ut-napishtim, the Babylonian equivalent 
of the Hebrew Noah. The god here states that he is about to 
send a deluge, which will cause destruction to all mankind, and 
he gives directions for the building of a great ship in which " the 
beasts of the field and the birds of heaven " may be saved, along 
with Ut-napishtim and his family; he fixes the size of the ship and 
directs that it should be covered with a strong roof or deck. The 
text bears a general resemblance to the two well-known Assyrian 
versions on tablets in the British Museum, but it has been claimed 
that its phraseology presents a closer parallel to the biblical 
version of the Deluge story in the " Priestly Code." For several 
years the existence of Babylonian versions of the legend had been 
detected among collections of tablets dating from the earlier 
historical periods. A fragment of one such version belongs to 
the period of the First Dynasty of Babylon, 2 and -part of a still 
earlier Semitic version of another portion of the Gilgamesh 
Epic has also been recovered. 3 The new fragment from Nippur 
has given rise to considerable discussion, in view of the light it 

1 See Hilprecht, The Babylonian Expedition of the University of 
Pennsylvania, ser. D, vol. v. fasc. I. 

1 It is dated in the reign of Ammizaduga; cf. Scheil, Recueil de 
travaux, xx. 55 ff. For another fragment of the Atar-khasis legend 
of the same period, see Cuneiform Texts in the British Museum, pt. vi., 
and cf. Zimmern, Zeits. fur Assyr. xiv. 278 f. 

1 See Meissner, Mitteil. der Vorderas. Gesellschaft (1902), i. For 
other Semitic legends of this early period, see Cuneiform Texts in 
the British Museum, pt. xv. (1902), Pis. I.-VI., and cf. King, The 
Seven Tablets of Creation, p. Ixxvii. f. 



NIRIZ NISH 



709 



is said to throw upon a disputed problem of biblical criticism. 
According to its discoverer it represents the oldest account of the 
Babylonian Deluge story extant; and he considers it of funda- 
mental importance for determining the age of Israel's earliest 
traditions, since he would regard it as having been written 
" before Abraham had left his Babylonian home in Ur of the 
Chaldees." 

Beyond the fact that it was found at Nippur during the fourth 
of the American expeditions, there does not appear to be any 
exact record of its provenance; and, in order to determine its 
date, it is necessary to rely on the external and internal evidence 
furnished by the tablet itself. A number of hymns and prayers 
addressed to the chief Babylonian gods, and written throughout 
in the Sumerian language, have been found at Nippur, and these 
may be dated in the era. of the kings of Ur and Isin, since some 
of them are mentioned by name in the petitions. To the latter 
part of this period Professor* Hilprecht would assign the new 
Deluge fragment. It is natural that under the Sumerian revival, 
which characterized the united kingdom of Sumer and Akkad, the 
ancient ritual should have been revived and the Sumerian service- 
books adapted for the use of the reigning monarch. Sumerian, in 
fact, predominated, not only on the historical monuments, but 
also throughout the religious literature, a fact which militates 
against assigning the newly discovered Semitic legend to the 
period of these early Sumerian texts. It has already been noted 
that the earliest deluge-fragment previously recovered dates from 
the latter half of the First Dynasty of Babylon, when the Western 
Semites had succeeded in establishing their authority through- 
out the greater part of the country. But, to judge from the 
photographic reproduction of the Nippur tablet, the characters 
upon it do not appear to resemble those in use at the time of the 
First Dynasty, nor those of the period of the Dynasties of Ur and 
Isin. On purely epigraphic grounds the suggestion has indeed 
been made that it should be assigned to the Kassite period (not 
earlier than 1700 B.C.), during which a very large number of the 
tablets found at Nippur were inscribed. 1 

But, even so, the fragment is one of the most interesting that 
has been recovered on the site of Nippur. For it strikingly 
illustrates the fact that the temple of En-lil, like that of the 
Sun-god at Sippar and the other great temples in Babylonia, 
possessed a body of mythological and religious texts, which 
formed subjects for study and comment among the priestly 
scribes. It was by the collection and reproduction of such 
documents, preserved in the ancient religious centres, that Assur- 
bani-pal was enabled to form his unique library of tablets at 
Nineveh. The temple of E-kur thus formed no exception to the 
rule that the great temples of Babylonia were centres of literary, 
as well as of religious, activity. 

The text of this Deluge fragment also furnishes one more proof of 
the existence of parallel versions of the same legend. In some in- 
stances, as in the great Creation Series of Babylon, the later scribes 
subjected the different versions to processes of editing, with the 
result that the earlier forms gave place to the redactions of a militant 
priesthood. But where no theological nor local prejudices were 
involved, the tendency to a faithful reproduction of the earlier texts 
prevailed. Thus the resemblances which have been claimed between 
the Nippur Deluge fragment and the version of the " Priestly Code " 
in Genesis, in themselves furnish no significant evidence as to the 
latter's date. The possibility that Hebrew traditions were subject 
to Babylonian influence from the period of the Canaanite conquest 
has long been recognized, and to the Exilic and post-Exilic Jew 
the mythology of Babylon may well have presented many familiar 
features. (L. W. K.) 

NIRIZ, or NAIRIZ, a district and town in the province of Fars, 
Persia. The district has 24 villages and extends from near 
Istahbamat, south of the Bakhtegan lake, to about 50 m. E. 
Water is scarce and the plain is not much cultivated in con- 
sequence. The produce consists of some grain, cotton, tobacco, 
&c., but fruit is more abundant. Here, as in the neighbouring 
Darab district, villages situated in the hills are called madan 
(mine), and some travellers have in their itineraries indicated a 
mine in localities where there is none. 

1 It has also been pointed out that the employment of the sign PI 
for wa and the use of 2 for s, cited in support of the earlier date, 
survived in the Kassite period. 



The town of NlRlZ is situated in a plain 7 m. from the south- 
eastern point of the lake, and about 130 m. from Shiraz, and has 
a population of about 9000. The people of Niriz were stanch 
followers of the Bab (see BABIISM), and rose against the govern- 
ment in 1850 and in 1852, with disastrous results. Niriz was 
formerly known for its manufactureof steel from iron ore brought 
from Parpa, 40 m. E. 

NIRVANA, the term in Buddhist theology, meaning literally 
" blowing out "or" dying out," Skt. nirva, " to blow, "for a calm 
or sinless state or condition of the mind reached by a dying out or 
extinction of sin (see BUDDHISM). 

NISARD, JEAN MARIE NAPOLEON DESIRE (1806-1888), 
French author and critic, was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine on the 
zoth of March 1806. In 1826 he joined the staff of the Journal 
des Debats, but subsequently transferred his pen to the National. 
Under the empire he was inspector-general of education (1852) 
and director of the cole normale (1857-1867). His literary 
reputation was effectually established by his Histoire de la 
lUUralure fran^aise (1844-1861), which secured his election to 
the Academy (1850). His other works include Etudes d'histoire 
et de literature (1850-1864), and Les Quatres grands historiens 
latins (1875). In all his books he vigorously supported the 
claims of classicism against romanticism. He died at San Remo 
on the 27th of March 1888. 

NISBETT, LOUISA CRANSTOUN (1812-1858), English actress, 
was the daughter of Frederick Hayes Macnamara, an actor, whose 
stage name was Mordaunt. As Miss Mordaunt she had con- 
siderable experience, especially in Shakesperean leading parts, 
before her first London appearance in 1829 at Drury Lane as 
Widow Cheerly in Andrew Cherry's (1762-1812) Soldier's 
Daughter. Her beauty and high spirits made her at once a 
popular favourite in a large number of comedy parts, until in 
1831 she was married to Captain John Alexander Nisbett and 
retired. Her husband, however, was killed the same year by a 
fall from his horse, and she was compelled to reappear on the 
stage in 1832. She was the original Lady Gay Spanker of London 
Assurance (1841). In 1844 she withdrew again from the stage 
to marry Sir William Boothby, Bart., but on his death (1846), 
returned to play Lady Teazle, Portia, Constantine in the Love 
Chase, Helen and Julia in the Hunchback. It was in the first of 
these parts that she made her final appearance in 1851. She 
died on the isth of January 1858. 

NISH (also written NISCH and Nis), the capital of the Nish 
department of Servia, lying in a plain among the southern 
mountains, on the left shore of the Nishava, a tributary of the 
Morava. Pop. (1900) 24,451. Among Servian cities, Nish is 
only surpassed by Belgrade in commercial and strategic import- 
ance; for it lies at the point where several of the chief Balkan 
highroads converge, and where the branch railway to Salonica 
leaves the main line between Belgrade and Constantinople. 
The administration of the Servian railways has its factory for 
repairing engines and principal store of materials in the city, 
which also possesses an iron foundry. The king and the govern- 
ment reside for at least three months in the year in Nish, where 
also the national assembly, before the constitution of 1901, was 
regularly held. It is the see of a bishop, the seat of the district 
prefecture and a tribunal, and the headquarters of the territorial 
militia corps, having besides a large number of regular troops 
in garrison. There is a small obsolete fortress on the right bank 
of the Nishava, believed to have been erected on the site of 
the Roman Naissus. The surrounding hills (Vinik, Goritsa, 
Kamenitsa) were, after 1886, fortified by modern earthworks. 

After the Turks were driven from the city in 1878, it was in 
many respects modernized; but something of its former character 
is preserved in the ancient Turkish palace, mosque and fountain, 
the maze of winding alleys and picturesque houses in the older 
quarters, and, on market days, by the medley of peasant costumes 
Bulgarian, Albanian and Rumanian, as well as Servian. 

The ancient Roman city Naissus was mentioned as an im- 
portant place by Ptolemy of Alexandria. Under its walls was 
fought in A.D. 269 the great battle in which Emperor Claudius 
destroyed the army of the Goths. It was at Naissus that 



NISHAPUR NISUS 



Constantine the Great was born in A.D. 274. Though the emperor 
Julian improved its defences, the town was destroyed by the Huns 
under Attila, in the sth century, but Justinian did his best to 
restore it. In the 9th century the Bulgarians became masters of 
Naissus, but had to cede it to the Hungarians in the nth century, 
from whom the Byzantine emperor Manuel I. reconquered it in 
1 1 73. Towards the end of the 1 2th century the town was in the 
hands of the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya, who there received 
hospitably the German 'emperor Frederic Barbarossa and his 
Crusaders. In 1375 the Turks captured Naissus for the first time 
from the Servians. In 1443 the allied armies of the Hungarians 
under Hunyady and the Servians under George Brankovich, 
retook it from the Turks, but in 1456 it again came under Turkish 
dominion, and remained for more than 300 years the most 
important Turkish military station on the road between Hungary 
and Constantinople. In the frequent wars between Austria and 
Turkey during the 1 7th and i8th centuries the Austrians captured 
Naissus twice (in 1689 and 1737), but were not able to retain it 
long. The Servians having, in the beginning of the igth century, 
successfully cleared Servia of Turks, were emboldened to attack 
Nish in 1809, but were repulsed with great loss. The Turks raised 
as a monument of their victory a high tower composed entirely 
of the heads of the Servians slain in the battle of Nish. The 
remnants of this monument are still kept up. It stands half a mile 
to the east from Nish, and is called to this day by the Turkish 
name " Tyele-Koula," " the Tower of Skulls." In the Russo- 
Turkish War the Servian army, under the personal command 
of King Milan, besieged Nish, and forced it to capitulate on the 
loth January 1878. The Berlin congress decided that it should 
remain with Servia. (C. Mi.) 

NISHAPUR, a province of Persia, situated between Meshed and 
Sabzevar, in northern Khorasan. The older name of the district 
was Abarshehr. It has a population of from 130,000 to 140,000, 
is divided into twelve districts, and pays a yearly revenue 
of about 12,000. It produces much grain and cotton, and is 
considered one of the most fertile districts of Persia. One of its 
subdivisions is that of Bar-i-Madan, with chief place Madan 
(situated 32m. N.W. of the city of Nishapur, at an elevation of 
5100 ft., in 36 28' N., 58 20' E.), where the famous mines are 
which have supplied the world with turquoises for at least 2000 
years. The province used to be one of the administrative 
divisions of Khorasan, but is now a separate province, with a 
governor appointed by the shah. 

NISHAPUR (Old Pers. Nev-shapur-nev, New Pers. niv, nlk = 
good ; Arab. Naisabur) , the capital of the province of Nishapur, 
Persia, situated at an elevation of 3920 ft., in 36 12' N., and 
58 40' E., about 49 m. west of Meshed. The second element of 
the name is that of the traditional founder Shapur, or Sapor of 
the Western historians. Someaccounts name the first (241-272), 
others the second Shapur (309-379). It was once one of the four 
great cities of Khorasan, rivalling Rai (Rhages), " the mother 
of cities," in importance and population, but is now a small 
and comparatively unimportant place with a population of 
barely 1 5 ,000. It has post and telegraph offices and a lively trade 
in wool, cotton and dry fruits (almonds, pistachios). 

Eastward of the present city, amongst the mounds and ruins 
of the old town, in a dilapidated chamber adjoining a blue- 
domed building over the grave of an imamzadeh, is the tomb 
of the astronomer-poet Omar Khayyam, an unsightly heap of 
plaster without inscription, and probably fictitious. Near it is 
the grave of the celebrated poet and mystic Farld ud din Attar, 
who was killed by the Mongols when they captured the city 
c. 1229. 

Nishapur was an important place during the sth century, for 
Yazdegerd II. (438-457) mostly resided there. During the latter 
Sassanids it is seldom mentioned, and when the Arabs came to 
Khorasan (641-642) it was of so little importance that, as 
Tabari relates, it did not even have a garrison. Under the 
Tahirids (820-872) it became a flourishing town and rose to 
great importance during the Samanids (874-999). Toghrul, the 
first ruler of the Seljuk dynasty, made Nishapur his residence 
in 1037. In 1153 the Ghuzz Turkomans overran the country 



and partly destroyed town and suburbs. In 1208 most of the 
town was destroyed by an earthquake. The town was hardly 
rebuilt when it was again destroyed, this time by the Mongols 
(April 1221) and so effectually that, completely levelled to the 
ground, it was turned into a vast barley field. The city was again 
rebuilt, suffered again at the hands of the Mongols (1269) and 
from another great earthquake (1280), and never again rose to 
its former greatness. (A. H.-S.) 

NISI BIS (Nasibina in the Assyrian inscriptions), an ancient 
city and fortress in the north of Mesopotamia, near the point 
where the Mygdonius (mod. Jaghjagha) leaves the mountains 
by a narrow defile. The modern Nezib or Nasibin consists of 
some 4000 inhabitants, largely Jews, who pay tribute to the 
Shammar Bedouins. The neighbourhood, we are informed by 
Arab writers, was at one time richly wooded, but is now somewhat 
marshy and unhealthy. According to the Arabian geographer, 
Yaqut, Persian scorpions were thrown into the place when it was 
besieged by Anushirwan; hence their number to-day. The 
church of St James, belonging to a small community of Jacobite 
Christians, and a few pillars and blocks of masonry are the only 
remains of the former greatness of the town. 

The site of Nisibis, on the great road between the Tigris and the 
Mediterranean, and commanding alike the mountain country to the 
north and the then fertile plain to the south, gave it an importance 
which began during the Assyrian period and continued under the 
Seleucid empire. From 149 B.C. to A.D. 14 Nisibis was the residence 
of the kings of Armenia, and there Tigranes had his treasure-houses. 
The place figured frequently as a frontier fortress in the wars of the 
Romans and the Parthians, its brick walls being unusually thick 
and its citadel very strong. Ceded to the Parthians by Hadrian, 
it became a Roman colony (Septimia Colonia Nisibis) under 
Septimius Severus. It was heroically defended against Shapur 
(Sapor) II., who unsuccessfully besieged it thrice. In the peace made 
by Jovian, however, it passed into the hands of the Persians, who 
established a strong colony there (A.D. 364). Nisibis early became 
the seat of a Jacobite bishop and of a Nestorian metropolitan, and 
under the Arabs (when it continued to flourish and became the centre 
of the district of Diya'r Rebi'a) the population of the town and 
neighbourhood was still mostly Christian, and included numerous 
monasteries. Arab geographers and travellers of the middle ages 
speak in high terms of the gardens of Nisibis, and the magnificent 
returns obtained by the agriculturist. According to Mokaddasi (ob. 
102^), acorns, preserved fruits and manufactured articles such as 
carriages and inkstands were exported. The town was so heavily 
taxed by the Hamdanid princes at Mosul that the Arab tribe of the 
Banu Habib, although blood relations of the Hamdanids, migrated 
into Byzantine territory, where they were well received, accepted 
Christianity, attracted other emigrants from Nisibis, and at last began 
to avenge themselves by yearly raids upon their old home. Ibn 
Haukal goes on to say that finally the Hamdanids took possession 
of the town, confiscated the estates of those who had emigrated, and 
compelled those who remained to substitute corn for their profitable 
fruit crops. This destroyed the prosperity of Nisibis, and the dis- 
trict, no longer protected against nomad tribes, became a wilderness. 
Nisibis (Nezib) appeared for the last time in history in 1830, when 
the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha defeated the Turkish army 
under Hafiz Pasha on the 24th of June in a battle at which von 
Moltke was present. 

NISI PRIUS, in English law, a term used to denote generally 
all actions tried before judges of the king's bench division. 
For the history and meaning of this term see ASSIZE. As a rule 
actions only are tried at nisi prius, and a judge is said to sit at 
nisi prius when he sits, usually in the king's bench division, for 
the trial of actions. By a resolution passed by the judges of the 
king's bench division in 1894 it was declared of the utmost 
importance that there should be at least three courts of nisi prius 
sitting continuously throughout the legal year one for special 
jury causes, one for common jury causes, and one for causes with- 
out juries (see the Annual Practice). 

Nisi Prius Record was before the Judicature Acts the name of the 
formal copy of proceedings showing the history of the case up to the 
time of trial. After the trial it was endorsed with the postea, show- 
ing the result of the trial, and delivered by the officer of the court 
to the successful party, whose possession of the postea was his title 
to judgment. Since the Judicature Acts there is no nisi prius record 
in civil actions, the nearest approach to it being the deposit of 
copies of the' pleadings for the use 'of the judge, and there is no 
postea, the certificate of the associate or master as to the result of 
the trial superseding it. 

NISUS, in Greek mythology, king of Megara, brother of Aegeus, 
king of Athens. When Minos, king of Crete, was on his way to 



NITHARD NITRIC ACID 



711 



attack Athens to avenge the murder of his son Androgeus, for 
which Aegeus was directly or indirectly responsible, he laid siege 
to Megara. He finally gained possession of the city through the 
treachery of the king's daughter Scylla, who, enamoured of 
Minos, pulled out the golden (or purple) lock from her father's 
head, on which his life and the safety of the city depended (for 
similar stories, see Frazer, Golden Bough, iii. 1900, p. 358). 
Megara was captured, and Nisus, who died fighting (or slew 
himself), was changed into a sea-eagle. Minos, disgusted at 
Scylla's treachery, tied her to the rudder of his ship, and after- 
wards cast her body ashore on the promontory called after her 
Scyllaeum; or she threw herself into the sea and swam after 
Minos, constantly pursued by her father, until at last she was 
changed into a ciris (a bird or a fish). In Virgil, Scylla, the 
daughter of Nisus, is confused with the sea-monster, the daughter 
of Phorcys. Nisus was the eponymous hero of the harbour of 
Nisaea, and local tradition makes no mention of his betrayal by 
his daughter. According to Roscher (in his Lexikon der Mytho- 
logie), who identifies the ciris with the heron, the story of Nisus 
and Scylla (like these of Aedon, Procne, Philomela and Tereus) 
was invented to give an aetiological explanation of the char- 
acteristics of certain birds. The birds were regarded as originally 
human beings, whose acts and characters were supposed to 
account for certain habits of the birds into which they had been 
changed. E. Siecke, De Niso et Scylla in aves mutatis (progr. 
Berlin, 1884), holds that the purple or golden hair of Nisus is the 
sun, and Scylla the moon, and that the origin of the legend is to be 
looked for in a very ancient myth of the relations between the two, 
which he endeavours to explain with the aid of Indian and 
German parallels. 

NITHARD (d. 844), Prankish historian, was the illegitimate 
son of Angilbert, the friend of Charlemagne, by Bertha, a 
daughter of the great emperor. He was educated at the imperial 
court and became abbot of St Riquier in commendam, never taking 
the vows. Little else is known about his life, but he appears 
to have served his cousin, Charles the Bald, on peaceful errands 
and also on the field of battle. He fought for Charles at.Fontenoy 
in June 841, and died as the result of wounds received whilst 
fighting for him against the Northmen near Angouleme. The 
date of his death was probably the I4th of June 844. In the 
nth century his body, with the fatal wound still visible, was 
found in the grave of his father, Angilbert. Nithard's historical 
work consists of four books on the history of the Carolingian 
empire under the turbulent sons of the emperor Louis I., especi- 
ally during the troubled period between 840 and 843. This 
Hisloriae or De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii is valuable 
for the light which it throws upon the causes which led to the 
disintegration of the Carolingian empire. Although rough in 
style, partisan in character and sometimes incorrect in detail, 
the books are the work of a man who had an intimate knowledge 
of the events which he relates, who possessed a clear and virile 
mind, and who above all was not a recluse but a man of action. 
They are dedicated to Charles the Bald, at whose request they 
were written. 

The Historiae has been printed several times. Perhaps the best 
edition is in Band ii. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scrip- 
tores; it has also been edited by A. Holder (Freiburg, 1882). It 
has been translated into German by J. von Jasmund (Berlin, 1851 ; 
new edition by W. Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1889); and into French 
in tome iii. of Guizot's Collection des memoires (Paris, 1824). 

See O. Kuntzemiiller, Nithard und sein Geschichtswerk (Jena, 
1873); G. Meyer von Knonau, Vber Nithards vier Biicher Geschichten 
(Leipzig, 1866); and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, 
Band i. (Berlin, 1904). 

NITHSDALE, WILLIAM MAXWELL, STH EARL OF (1676- 
1744); Jacobite leader, was a member of the family of Maxwell 
(<?..), being a son of Robert the 4th earl (d. 1696) and a collateral 
relation of Robert Maxwell (d. 1646) who was created earl of 
Nithsdale in 1620. He became famous by his loyalty to the 
royalist tradition of his family, and by the heroism of his wife 
Winifred, daughter of William Herbert, ist marquess of Powis. 
After becoming earl in 1698 he served the exiled house of Stuart 
in secret, was suspected as a Jacobite conspirator, and was much 



molested on that account. In 1712 he resigned his estate to his 
son William (d. 1776), reserving a life rent to himself. When the 
Jacobite rising took place in 1715 he joined his friends in the 
north of England and was taken prisoner at Preston, being sent 
to London for trial. The countess of Nithsdale, who was at 
Terregles when she heard of the capture of her husband, followed 
him to London, making part of the journey on horseback in bitter 
winter weather. The earl and the other Jacobites were brought 
to trial in Westminster Hall on the igth of January 1716, and 
condemned to death on the 9th of February. The execution was 
fixed for the 24th. The countess presented a petition to George I. 
which he refused to receive, and when she knelt before him and 
took hold of the skirts of his coat he dragged her half across 
the room before he could break away. Finding that no pardon 
could be obtained the countess laid a plan to rescue her husband 
from the Tower of London. With the help of two Jacobite 
ladies, Mrs Morgan and Mrs Mills, she very cleverly extricated 
her husband from his cell on the night before the day fixed for 
the execution by disguising him as a woman. The earl escaped 
from England and was followed by the countess, but not till 
she had gone back to Scotland to rescue important legal papers 
which proved the transfer of the estate to their son. The earl 
and countess went to Rome after a short stay in France. In 
Rome they were attached to the court of the Pretender and lived 
in poverty and obscurity. The earl died on the 2oth of March 
1744, and the countess in 1749. Their son, William Maxwell, 
regained the possession of the family property after his father's 
death in 1744, since the government could only confiscate his 
father's life-interest; but the title was forfeited, and he died 
childless. 

See Sir A. Fraser, The Book of Carlaverock (Edinburgh, 1873). 

NITRE, the name given to naturally occurring potassium 
nitrate; " cubic nitre " is sodium nitrate. The word is adapted 
from Lat. nitrum, which is itself adapted from Gr. virpov. These 
words were originally applied to the naturally occurring sodium 
carbonate; the connexion with potassium nitrate (sal pelrae 
or sal petrosum) may be traced to Raimon Lull's name sal nitri, 
which substance, however, he distinguished from nitrum. In 
the i6th century the ancient nitrum became altered to natron, 
a term still used for native sodium carbonate, while nitrum, and 
its adaptation nitre, were retained for potassium nitrate or salt- 
petre (?..). 

NITRIC ACID (aqua fortis), HNO 3 , an important mineral acid. 
It is mentioned in the De inventione veritatis ascribed to Geber, 
wherein it is obtained by calcining a mixture of nitre, alum and 
blue vitriol. It was again described by Albert le Grand in the 
I3th century and by Raimon Lull, who prepared it by heating 
nitre and clay and called it " eau forte." Glauber devised the 
process in common use to-day, viz. by heating nitre with strong 
sulphuric acid. Its true nature was not determined until the 
i8th century, when A. L. Lavoisier (1776) showed that it con- 
tained oxygen, whilst in 1785 H. Cavendish determined its 
constitution and showed that it could be synthesized by passing 
a stream of electric sparks through moist air. The acid is found 
to exist to a slight extent in the free condition in some waters, 
but chiefly occurs in combination with various metals, as nitrates, 
principally as nitre or saltpetre, KNOs, and Chile saltpetre, 
NaNOs. It is formed when a stream of electric sparks is passed 
through moist air, and in the oxidation of nitrogenous matter 
in the presence of water. 

For experimental purposes it is usually obtained by distilling 
potassium or sodium nitrate with concentrated sulphuric acid. 
The acid so obtained usually contains more or less water and 
some dissolved nitrogen peroxide which gives it a yellowish red 
colour. It may be purified by redistillation over barium and 
silver nitrates, followed by treatment of the distillate with a 
stream of ozonized air. The product so obtained is then redistilled 
under diminished pressure and finally distilled again from a sealed 
and evacuated apparatus (V. Veley and Manley, Phil. Trans., 
1898, A. 291, p. 365). On the large scale it is obtained by distil- 
ling Chile saltpetre with concentrated sulphuric acid in horizontal 
cast iron stills, the vapours being condensed in a series of 



NITROBENZENE 



stoneware Woulfe's bottles. la practice the theoretical quantity 
of acid and Chile saltpetre is not used, but the charge is so 
regulated that the mixture of acid and neutral sodium sulphate 
formed in the retort remains liquid at the temperature employed, 
and consequently can be readily removed. Various modifica- 
tions have been made in the form of the condensing apparatus, the 
Guttmann condenser (Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1893, p. 203) being 
now frequently employed. This consists of a series of vertical 
earthenware condensing tubes through which compressed air is 
passed in order to reduce the quantity of nitrogen peroxide to 
a minimum. The temperature of the condenser is so regulated 
as to bring about the condensation of the nitric acid only, which 
runs out at the bottom of the pipe, whilst any uncondensed 
steam, nitrogen peroxide and other impurities pass into a Lunge 
tower, where they meet a descending stream of water and are 
condensed, giving rise to an impure acid. F. Valentiner [Eng. 
Pat. 610 (1892), 19192 (1893)] recommends distillation and 
condensation of nitric acid in a partial vacuum. For the 
production of nitric acid from air see NITROGEN. Fuming nitric 
acid consists of a solution of nitrogen peroxide in concentrated 
nitric acid and is prepared by distilling dry sodium nitrate with 
concentrated sulphuric acid. 

Nitric acid is a colourless strongly fuming liquid, having a 
specific gravity of i -50394 (24-2 C.) (V. Veley, Proc. Roy.Soc.,62, 
p. 223). It is exceedingly hygroscopic and corrosive. On dis- 
tillation, the pure acid begins to boil at 78-2 C. (W. Ramsay), 
partial decomposition into water, oxygen and nitrogen peroxide 
taking place. The acid solidifies when strongly cooled, the solid 
melting at - 47 C. Concentrated nitric acid forms with water a 
constant boiling mixture which boils at 120-5 C., contains 68% 
of acid and possesses a specific gravity of 1-414 (15-5 C.). If 
a more dilute acid than this be distilled, water passes over in 
excess and the residue in the retort reaches the above composition 
and boiling point; on distillation of a stronger acid, excess of 
acid passes into the distillate and the boiling point rises until the 
values of the constant boiling mixture are reached. On the 
hydrates of nitric acid see V. Veley, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1903, 83, 
p. 1015, and F. W. Kuster, Zeit. anorg. Chem. 1904, 41, p. i. On 
mixing nitric acid with water there is a rise of temperature and 
a contraction in volume. The acid is a powerful oxidizing agent. 
It attacks most metals readily, usually with production of a 
nitrate or hydrated oxide of the metal and one or other of the 
oxides of nitrogen, or occasionally with the production of 
ammonium salts; magnesium, however, liberates hydrogen from 
the very dilute acid. Its action on metals depends in most cases 
on the temperature, strength of the acid, and the nature of the 
products of reaction. Thus in the case of copper, it is found that 
the diluted acid acts very slowly upon the metal at first, but as the 
reaction proceeds the copper dissolves more rapidly up to a 
certain point and then the rate of solution again diminishes. 
This is possibly due to the accelerating action of the nitrous acid 
which is produced in the direct action of the copper on the nitric 
acid and which, when a certain amount has been formed in 
the system, begins to decompose, thus 3HNO 2 =HNQ3-f- 
2NO+H 2 O (V. Veley, Phil. Trans., 1891, 182, p. 279; G. O. 
Higley, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1893, 15, p. 71, 1895, 17, p. 18, 
1896, 18, p. 587). Iron when brought into contact with nitric 
acid under certain conditions, remains passive to the acid. 
Thus at 55 C. it is passive to an acid of specific gravity 1-42, 
and at 31 C. to an acid of specific gravity 1-38. No satis- 
factory explanation of this passivity has been given (see J. B. 
Senderens, Bull. Soc. Chem., 1896 [3], 15, p. 691; A. Finkelstein, 
Zeit. phys. Chem., 1901, 39, p. 91; W. J. Miiller, ibid. 1904, 
48, P- 577). Nitric acid is without action on gold, platinum, 
indium and rhodium. 

The salts of nitric acid, known as nitrates, are mostly readily 
soluble in water and crystallize well. They are all decomposed when 
heated to a sufficiently high temperature, with evolution for the most 
part of oxygen and nitrogen peroxide, leaving a residue of oxide 
of the metal. They may be recognized by the fact that on the 
addition of a solution of ferrous sulphate, followed by that of con- 
centrated sulphuric acid (the mixture being kept quite cold), the 
ferrous sulphate solution becomes of a deep brown colour, owing 



to the reducing action of the ferrous sulphate on the nitric acid 
which is liberated by the action of the sulphuric acid on the nitrate. 
As an alternative method the nitrate may be warmed with some 
fragments of copper and sulphuric acid which has been diluted with 
its own volume of water, when characteristic brown vapours will be 
seen. 

Nitric acid finds extensive application in the manufacture of 
sulphuric acid, certain coal-tar colouring matters, explosives, and in 
the production of various nitrates. 

In medicine, nitric acid is used externally in a pure state as a 
caustic to destroy chancres, warts and phagadenic ulcers; and diluted 
preparations are employed in the treatment of dyspepsia, &c. 
Poisoning by strong nitric acid produces a widespread gastro- 
enteritis, burning pain in the oesophagus and abdomen and bloody 
diarrhoea. There may also be blood in the urine. Death occurs 
from collapse or from secondary destructive changes in the intestinal 
canal. Characteristic yellow staining of the skin round the mouth 
from the formation of xanthoproteic acid serves to distinguish it 
from poisoning by other acids. The antidotes are mild alkalis, 
together with the use of opium to relieve pain. 

NITROBENZENE, C 6 H 5 NO2, the simplest aromatic nitro 
compound. It was first isolated in 1834 by E. Mitscherlich 
(Fogg. Ann., 1834, 31, p. 625), and is prepared commercially 
by the gradual addition of benzene to a well-cooled mixture of 
concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids, the oily product being 
separated, washed with alkali, and then distilled. It also results 
in the oxidation of aniline by monopersulphuric acid (H. Caro, 
Zeit. angew. Chem., 1898, p. 845) or by potassium permanganate 
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1893. 26, p. 496); by the oxidation of 
nitrosobenzene (below) with atmospheric oxygen; or by the 
decomposition of benzene diazonium nitrate mercury nitrite, 
Hg(NO 2 ) 2 -2C<iH5N 2 -NO3, with copper powder (A. Hantzsch, 
Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2551). It is a yellowish liquid possessing a 
strong smell of oil of bitter almonds. It boils at 2O9C., and melts 
at 3-6 C. (C.E. Linebarger, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1896, 18, p. 437). 
The products of its electrolytic reduction vary with the con- 
ditions: in sulphuric acid solution it yields para-aminophenol 
(L. Gattermann, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1844); in alcoholic alkaline 
solution it yields azoxybenzene; in acid alcoholic solution, 
benzidine; in ammoniacal alcoholic solution, phenylhydrazine. 
With chlorine, in the presence of iodine or antimony chloride, it 
yields meta-chlornitrobenzene. Hydrobromic acid at i85-i9oC. 
converts it into di- and tri-bromaniline. It occasionally acts as 
an oxidizing agent, as in the preparation of quinoline and f uchsine. 
It is used commercially for the preparation of aniline and of 
benzidine; and in perfumery (oil of mirbane). 

Dinitrobenzenes, CeH^NOa^. Ortho-dinitrobenzene is formed in 
small quantity in the preparation of meta-dinitrobenzene, and also 
results from the action of nitro-sulphuric acid on bismuth triphenyl 
(A. Gillmeister, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2844). It forms colourless crystals 
which melt at 116-5 C. and boil at 319 C. (773 mm.). On boiling 
with aqueous caustic soda, it yields ortho-nitrophenol. Meta-dinitro- 
benzene is formed by the direct nitration of nitrobenzene with 
fuming nitric acid, the product being poured into water and re- 
crystallized from dilute alcohol. It forms practically colourless 
needles which melt at 89-7 C., and boil at 302-8 C. It is used for 
the preparation of meta-phenylene diamine. Para-dinitrobenzene 
results from the action of nitrogen peroxide on an ethereal solution 
of quinone dioxime (R. Oliveri-Tortorici, Gazz., 1900, 30, i. p. 533). 
It crystallizes in colourless needles, which melt at 171 -172 C. It 
is only slightly soluble in cold water and cold alcohol. 

Trtnitrobenzenes, C 6 Hs(NOz)3. Asymmetrical (1.2.4) trinitro- 
benzene results from the action of fuming nitric and sulphuric acids 
on para-dinitrobenzene. It forms yellow crystals, which melt at 
57-5 C. When boiled with dilute aqueous caustic soda it yields 
2-4 dinitrophenol. Symmetrical (1.3.5) trinitrobenzene is formed by 
the further nitration of meta-dinitrobenzene with fuming sulphuric 
and nitric acids; by the action of hydrochloric acid on sodium 
malonyl aldehyde (H. B. Hill and J. Torray, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2598), 
or by the action of water on 2.4.6-trinitrobenzoic acid (German 
patent 77353). It crystallizes in prisms which melt at 121 C. 
It yields addition compounds, with aniline and naphthalene, and 
combines directly with potassium methylate, sodio-malonic ester 
and hydrocyanic ester. Alkaline potassium ferricyanide oxidizes it 
to picric acid. 

Nitrosobenzene, C 6 H 6 NO, was first obtained by the action of nitrosyl 
bromide or chloride on mercury diphenyl (A. Baeyer, Ber., 1874, 7, 
p. 1638). It results, with other products, in the oxidation of phenyl 
diazonium chloride with alkaline potassium ferricyanide; of $- 
phenylhydroxylamine with chromic acid mixture (E. Bamberger, 
Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 4_73, 483, 1894, 27, p. 1349), or of aniline by 
monopersulphunc acid (German patent 110575). I* exists in two 
crystalline forms. Nitric acid passed into its chloroform solution 



NITRO COMPOUNDS 



7*3 



gives phenyl diazonium nitrate. With aniline and acetic acid it 
yields azobenzene. It combines with aromatic amines to form azo- 
compounds, with arylhydroxylamines to form azoxy compounds, 
and with hydroxylamine it gives isodiazobenzene. 

NITRO COMPOUNDS, in organic chemistry, compounds 
containing the monovalent radical -NOi directly combined 
with carbon. 

Aiphatic Nitro Compounds. The nitroparaffins may be 
obtained by the action of the alkyl iodides on silver nitrite 
(V. Meyer, Ann. 1874, 171, p. i et seq.). When methyl iodide 
is used, nitromethane is the sole product, but the higher homo- 
logues give more or less of the isomeric nitrous esters. Nitro- 
paraffins may also be obtained by the action of sodium nitrite on 
the a-halogen fatty acids, the a-nitro fatty acids first formed 
readily eliminating carbon dioxide (H. Ko\be,Jour. prak. Ghent., 
1872 [2] 5, p. 427). Tertiary nitro compounds may also be 
obtained by the oxidation of the corresponding amino-, hydroxyl- 
amino-, and nitroso-hydrocarbons with monopersulphuric acid 
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 385): 

}C-NH 2 -> ->C-NHOH-> >C-NO-> ->C-NO 2 . 
The nitro compounds of the lower members of the paraffin series 
cannot be prepared by the direct action of nitric acid on the 
hydrocarbons themselves, but, in the case of some of the higher 
members of the series direct nitration is possible (M. Konowalow, 
Comptes rendus, 1892, 114, p. 26; Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1852; R. A. 
Worstall, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1898, 20, p. 202). 

The nitro compounds are colourless, somewhat pleasant smell- 
ing liquids, which distil without decomposition and possess 
boiling points much higher than those of the isomeric nitrous 
esters. Reduction with acid-reducing agents gives amines. 
The primary and secondary nitro compounds (i.e. those con- 
taining the groupings -CHzNOz and >CH-NO 2 ) form metallic 
derivatives; for example, sodium salts, which according to A. 
Hantzsch (Ber., 1899, 32, pp. 577 et seq.) are probably derived 
from the isomeric iso-nitro compounds R : NO(OH), and thus 
the nitro derivatives are to be looked upon as pseudo-acids. 
These sodium salts are crystalline solids which are readily soluble 
in water and are very explosive. Stannous chloride and hydro- 
chloric acid reduce the nitroparaffins to /3-alkyl hydroxylamines, 
amines and some ammonia being simultaneously produced (V. 
Meyer, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 3530), whilst the primary nitro com- 
pounds on heating with hydrochloric acid yield hydroxylamine 
and an acid: 

CH,-CH 2 -N0 2 +H 2 O = CH,-CO 2 H+NH 2 OH 

(V. Meyer, Ann., 1876, 180, p. 163). When reduced by the 
Sabatier and Senderens' method (Comptes rendus, 1902, 135, 
p. 225) they are converted into amines, provided the temperature 
be kept at i5O-2oo C., a higher temperature leading to the 
formation of paraffins and ammonia. The hydrogen in the 
primary and secondary nitro compounds which is attached to 
the same carbon atom as the nitro group is readily replaced by 
bromine in alkaline solution. The reactions of the nitroparaffins 
with nitrous acid are very characteristic and have been used as a 
method for discriminating between the primary, secondary 
and tertiary alcohols (q.v.) (V. Meyer, Ann., 1875, *75> P- 93)- 
The primary compounds form nilrolic acids of the type 
R-C(:NOH)NO, the secondary yield pseuao-nitrols of the type 
RR 1 : C(NO)(NO 2 ), whilst the tertiary nitro compounds are not 
acted upon by nitrous acid. The primary nitroparaffins combine 
with nitric oxide in the presence of sodium ethylate, to form 
nitroalkylisonitramines, R-CH(N0 2 )-N 2 O 2 H (W. Traube, Ann., 
1898, 300, p. 95). 

Nitromethane, CH 3 NO 2 , is a colourless oil which boils at 101" C. 
Fuming sulphuric acid decomposes it into carbon monoxide and 
hydroxylamine. It combines with aromatic aldehydes in the pres- 
ence of alcoholic potash to form addition products which are con- 
verted by acids into styrol derivatives (]. Thiele, Ber., 1899, 32, 
p. 1293). Nitroethane, CjHjNOj, is a colourless liquid which boils 
at 114 C. Nitroform (trinitromethane), CH(NOs)s, is obtained in 
the form of its ammonium salt by the decomposition of trinitro- 
acetonitrile with water (L. Schischkoff, Ann., 1857, 103, p. 364). 
It is a colourless crystalline solid which melts at I C. and has the 
properties of a strong acid. The potassium salt is formed by the 
action of potassium ethylate on tetranitromethane (A. Hantzsch, 
Ber., 1899, 32, p. 631). It is a deep yellow coloured solid, which 



is readily soluble in water. It explodes when heated. The silver salt, 
obtained by shaking an ether solution of nitroform with freshly 
prepared, slightly moist silver oxide, reacts with methyl iodide to 
form trinitroethane, a crystalline solid which melts at 56 C. Concen- 
trated caustic potash decomposes the latter compound, forming the 
potassium salt of dinitroethane, CH 3 -C(NOs) 2 K. Tetranitromethane, 
C(NOj)4, obtained by adding nitroform to a hot mixture of nitric 
and sulphuric acids, is a crystalline solid which melts at 13 C. 
Chlorpicrin, CCljNOi, is a liquid of suffocating odour obtained by 
the action of nitric acid and chloride of lime on many organic com- 
pounds. It boils at 112. 

Aromatic Nitro Compounds. The aromatic nitro compounds 
are generally obtained by the direct action of nitric acid. 
Substitution takes place usually in the nucleus and only 
rarely in the side chain, and according to the conditions of 
the experiment and the nature of the compound acted upon, one 
or more nitro groups enter the molecule. The reaction is gener- 
ally carried out in the presence of sulphuric acid, which is used to 
absorb the water formed during the process of nitration. Nitro 
compounds have also been prepared by the action of cuprous 
oxide on diazonium salts (T. Sandmeyer, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1494) ; 
by the action of copper powder on the double salt formed 
by the addition of potassium mercuric nitrite to diazonium 
nitrites; and by the oxidation of primary aromatic amines (E. 
Bamberger, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 496). The mono-nitro compounds 
are stable and distil without decomposition; they have a pale 
yellow colour and possess an agreeable odour. Most of the poly- 
nitro compounds are not volatile, but undergo decomposition 
on heating. The nitro group in the aromatic series is bound very 
firmly in the molecule and is not readily exchanged for other 
groups. Several different products may be obtained by the 
reduction of the aromatic nitro compounds, the substances 
formed in any particular case depending on the conditions of 
experiment. In acid solution, amines are obtained, in alkaline 
solution, azoxy, azo and hydrazo compounds, and in neutral 
solution hydroxylamino compounds. The electrolytic reduction 
of the aromatic nitro compounds gives rise to substituted 
hydroxylamines which are immediately transformed into 
aminophenols or amines. 

For the nitrobenzenes see NITROBENZENE. Nitrotoluenes, 
CsH4(CH)s(NO) 2 . Three isomers exist, the ortho- and para-com- 
pounds being the chief products of the direct nitration of toluene. 
They may be separated by fractional distillation. The ortho- 
compound melts at 10-5 C. and boils at 218 C., the para-compound 
melts at 54 C. and boils at 230 C. Meta-nitrotoluene (melting at 
16 C.) is obtained by nitrating acetparatoluidide and then replacing 
the amino group by hydrogen. 

Phenylnitromethane, CH 6 -CH 2 -NO 2 , isomeric with the nitro- 
toluenes, is prepared by the action of benzyl chloride on silver 
nitrite. It is a colourless oily liquid which boils at 225-227 C., is 
somewhat soluble in water, and does not give a coloration with ferric 
chloride. It readily forms a sodium salt, from the aqueous solution 
of which on the addition of a mineral acid an isomeric solid form of 
the nitro compound (melting at 84 C.) is precipitated. This solid 
form gradually passes, on standing, into the oily variety. It is probably 
a hydroxy-compound, since it gives a red-brown colour with ferric 
chloride, reacts with phenyl isocyanate and with phosphorus penta- 
chloride, and with benzoyl chloride yields dibenzhydroxamic acid, 
CeHiCO-NH-O-COCeHj. Thus the solid form is probably to be 

represented as C 6 H 6 CH: NO-OH or C,H 6 -CH<^ (see further, 

A. Hantzsch on Pseudo-acids, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 575, 1902, 35, pp. 
210, 226, looi, 1906, 39, pp. 139, 1073 et seq.). 

The nilrolic acids, R-C(:NOH)NO 2 , may be prepared by the 
action of nitrous acid on the primary nitroparaffins; by the 
action of hydroxylamine on the dibromnitroparaffins; and by 
the action of nitrogen peroxide on the a-isonitroso fatty acids 
(G. Ponzio, Gazz., 1903, 33 (i), p. 508). They are colourless solids 
which are readily soluble in water and possess the character of 
weak acids. They are characterized by the deep red colour of 
their solutions in alkalis. When strongly heated they decom- 
pose, forming fatty acids, nitrogen peroxide and nitrogen. By 
passing hydrochloric acid gas into an ethereal solution of the 
acids, the nitro group is eliminated and the hydrochloride of an 
oximido-acid is obtained (A. Werner and H. Buss, Ber., 1895, 28, 
p.i 282): CH,-C(: NOH)NO,+2HCl=HNOj+CH,-C(: NOH)C1-HC1. 

When heated with water and mineral acids, the nitrolic acids are 
completely decomposed, yielding fatty acids and nitrous oxide. 



NITROGEN 



A. Hantzsch and O. Graul (Ber. 1898, 31, p. 2854) described 
several series of salts of the nitrolic acids, with particular refer- 
ence to ethylnitrolic acid. They discriminate between the red 
or ery/Aro-salts, which are well crystallized, very explosive and 
unstable compounds, and which regenerate the colourless 
nitrolic acid on the addition of dilute mineral acids, and the 
leuco-sa]ts, which are colourless salts obtained by warming the 
erythro-salts or by exposing them to direct sunlight. These 
salts cannot be converted either into the red salts or into the free 
acid. An intensely yellow acid salt is described, as is also a very 
unstable colourless salt which could not be examined further 
owing to its very labile nature. The following structural formulae 
are assigned to these compounds: 



R C<^ 

,,/ '^NO 

nitrolic acid ; erythro-salt ; leuco-salt. 

The acid salts are obtained by the addition of one molecule 
of alkali to two molecules of the acid in concentrated alcoholic 
solution at a low temperature. They are unstable compounds 
which readily split into the red salt and the free acid on standing. 

The pseudo-nitrols, RR':C(NO)(NO 2 ), may be obtained by the 
action of nitrous acid on the secondary nitroparaffins; by the 
action of silver nitrite on such bromnitrosoparaffins as contain 
the bromine and the nitroso group united to the same carbon 
atom (O. Piloty, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 3093); and by the action of 
nitrogen peroxide on ethereal solutions of ketoximes (R. Scholl, 
Ber., 1888, 21, p. 508; G. Born, Ber. 1896, 29, p. 93). They 
exhibit an intense blue colour when in the liquid condition or 
dissolved in alkali and possess a very sharp smell. On oxidation 
with chromic acid they yield dinitrohydrocarbons, and on 
reduction with hydroxylamine (in alkaline solution) or with 
potassium sulphydrate give ketoximes, RR':C:NOH (R. Scholl 
and K. Landsteiner, .Ber., 1896, 29, p. 87). 
RR':C(NO)-NO*->RR':C(NH-OH) 2 -RR':C:N-OH+NH 2 OH. 

Nitrosohydrocarbons have been prepared in the aliphatic series 
by the oxidation of the corresponding hydroxylamino compounds. 
Nitroso-tertiary butane, (CH 3 ) 3 C-NO, is formed when the corre- 
sponding hydroxylamine is oxidized by sulphuric monoper acid 
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 686). A nitrosooctane 
(CH 3 ) 2 C(NO)-[CH 2 ] 2 -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , has been obtained by O. Piloty 
and O. Ruff (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 457) from nitro-di-isobutyl by 
reducing it to the corresponding hydroxylamino compound with 
aluminium amalgam and oxidizing this with chromic acid 
mixture. It is a colourless solid which melts at 54 C. to a deep 
blue liquid. Numerous nitroso compounds are met with in the 
aromatic series. 

NITROGEN [symbol N., atomic weight 14-01, O=i6]. A 
non-metallic chemical element, first isolated in 1772 by D. 
Rutherford, who showed that on removing oxygen from air 
a gas remained, which was incapable of supporting combustion 
or respiration. Nitrogen forms approximately 79% by volume 
(or 77% by weight) of the atmosphere; actual values are: 
% by volume 79-07 (Regnault), 79-20 (Dumas); %by weight 
76-87 (Regnault), 77-00 (Dumas), 77-002 (L6wy), 76-900 (Stas), 
77-010 (Marignac). No absolutely accurate determinations 
appear to have been made recently. Free nitrogen is also 
found in some natural waters and has been recognized in certain 
nebulae. In the combined state nitrogen is fairly widely dis- 
tributed, being found in nitre, Chile saltpetre, ammonium salts 
and in various animal and vegetable tissues and liquids. It is 
invariably present in soils, where compounds are formed by 
nitrifying bacteria. 

Nitrogen may be obtained from the atmosphere by the removal 
of the oxygen with which it is there mixed. This may be effected 
by burning phosphorus in a confined volume of air, by the action 
of an alkaline solution of pyrogallol on air, by passing air over 
heated copper, or by the action of copper on air in the presence 
of ammoniacal solutions. 

It is also prepared by heating ammonium nitrite (or a mixture 
of sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride): NH 4 NO 2 = 2H 2 O+N 2 ; 
by heating a mixture of ammonium nitrate and chloride (the chlorine 
which is simultaneously produced being absorbed by milk of lime or 



by a solution of sodium hydroxide): 4NH 4 NO S +2NHC1=5N 2 
+Cl 2 +12HjO; by heating ammonium dichromate (or a mixture 
of ammonium chloride and potassium dichromate): (NH^jCrjOr 
= Cr 2 O+4H 2 O+N 2 ; by passing chlorine into a concentrated solution 
of ammonia (which should be present in considerable excess) : 
8NH 3 +3C1 2 =6NHC1+N 2 ; by the action of hypochlorites or hypo- 
bromites on ammonia: 3NaOBr-f2NHs = 3NaBr+3HiO+Nj; and 
by the action of manganese dioxide on ammonium nitrate at 
180-200 C. It is also formed by the reduction of nitric and nitrous 
oxides with hydrogen in the presence of platinized asbestos at a red 
heat (G. v. Knorre and K. Arndt, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 2136); by the 
oxidation of hydroxylamine (ibid., 1900, 33, p. 30) ; and by the electro- 
lysis of hydrazine and its salts (E. Ch. Szarvasy, Jour. Chem. Soc., 
1900, 77, p. 603). 

The chief importance of nitrogenous compounds depends 
upon their assimilation by living plants, which, in their develop- 
ment, absorb these compounds from the soil, wherein they are 
formed mainly by the action of nitrifying bacteria. Since these 
compounds are essential to plant life, it becomes necessary to 
replace the amount abstracted from the soil, and hence a demand 
for nitrogenous manures was created. This was met in a very 
large measure by deposits of natural nitre and the products 
of artificial nitrieres, whilst additional supplies are available in 
the ammoniacal liquors of the gas-manufacturer, &c. The 
possible failure of the nitre deposits led to attempts to convert 
atmospheric nitrogen into manures by processes permitting 
economic success. Combination can be made in five directions, 
viz. to form (i) oxides and nitric acids, (2) ammonia, (3) readily 
decomposable nitrides, (4) cyanides, (5) cyanamides. The first 
three will be treated here; for the others see PRUSSIC Aero and 
CYANAMIDE. 

The combination of nitrogen with oxygen was first effected 
by Cavendish in 1785, who employed a spark discharge. The 
process was developed by Madame Lefebre in 1859; by Meissner 
in 1863, who found that moist gases gave a better result; and 
by Prim in 1882, who sparked the gases under pressure; it was 
also used by Lord Rayleigh in his isolation of argon (q.v.). It 
was not, however, a commercial success, and the same result 
attended Siemens and Halske's application of the silent discharge. 
More effective was the electric arc. In 1892 Sir W. Crookes 
showed that the arc brought about combination ; and in 1897 Lord 
Rayleigh went into the process more fully. But the first careful 
working-out of the conditions was made in 1900 by A. McDougall 
and F. Howies, who, employing a high tension alternating arc, 
showed that the effectiveness depended upon the temperature. 
The commercial manufacture of nitric acid was attempted by 
C. S. Bradley and D. R. Lovejoy at Niagara Falls, who passed 
atmospheric air, or air enriched with oxygen, about a high tension 
arc made as long as possible; but the company (the Atmospheric 
Products Company) was a failure. Better results have attended 
the process of K. Birkeland and S. Eyde, which is being worked 
on a large scale at Notodden, Norway. The arc is produced by 
leading a current of about 5000 volts equatorially between the 
poles of an electromagnet; this produces what is practically a 
disk of flame, 6| ft. in diameter and having a temperature of 
about 3000. The disk really consists of a series of successive 
arcs which increase in size until they burst. The first product of 
the reaction is nitric oxide, which on cooling with the residual 
gases produces nitrogen peroxide. The cooled gases are then 
led into towers where they meet a stream of water coming in the 
contrary direction. Nitric acid (up to 50%) is formed in the 
first tower, and weaker acids in the successive ones; the last 
tower contains milk of lime which combines with the gases to 
form calcium nitrite and nitrate (this product, being unsuitable 
as a manure, is decomposed with the acid, and the evolved gases 
sent back). It was found advantageous not to work for acid 
but for a basic calcium nitrate (normal calcium nitrate being 
very deliquescent); for this purpose the acid is treated with 
the requisite amount of milk of lime. In the process of the 
Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik, the arc, which is said to be 
30 to 50 ft. long or more, is formed in a long tube, and the gases 
are sent round the arc by obliquely injecting them. A 30% 
acid is said to be formed. I. Moscicki and J. von Kowalski have 
patented a process wherein the arc is formed at two vertical 



NITROGEN 



concentric copper electrodes and rotated by an electromagnet; 
it is worked at Vevey, Switzerland. The Rankin process, of 
which very little is known, produces the arc with much lower 
current. 

The conversion of nitrogen into ammonia by electricity has 
received much attention, but the commercial aspect appears to 
have been first worked out by de Hemptinne in 1900, who used 
both the spark and silent discharge on mixtures of hydrogen and 
nitrogen, and found that the pressure and temperature must be 
kept low and the spark gap narrow. J. Schlutius in 1903 em- 
ployed Dowson gas as a source of hydrogen, and induced com- 
bination by means of platinum and the silent discharge. Several 
non-electrical processes have been devised. In 1862 Fleck passed 
a mixture of steam, nitrogen and carbon monoxide over red-hot 
lime, whilst in 1904 Woltereck induced combination by passing 
steam and air over red-hot iron oxide (peat is used in practice). 
In de Lambilly's process air and steam is led over white-hot 
coke, and carbon dioxide or monoxide removed from the escaping 
gases according as ammonium formate or carbonate is wanted. 
The residual gas is then passed through a tube containing porous 
materials, such as wood- or bone-charcoal, platinized pumice or 
spongy platinum, then mixed with steam and again forced 
through the tube. The reactions are represented as 

(1) N 2 +3H 2 +2CO+2H 2 O = 2H-CO 2 NH 4 (Ammonium formate). 

(2) N 2 +3H 2 +2CO 2 -t-2H 2 O = 2HO-COjNH (Ammonium carbonate). 
The best temperature for the first reaction is between 8oC. and 
i30C. and for the second between 40 C. and 60 C. In another 
process, which originated with C. Kaiser (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, 
ii. p. 862), calcium is heated in a current of hydrogen, and 
nitrogen passed over the hydride so formed; this gives ammonia 
and calcium nitride, the latter of which gives up its nitrogen as 
ammonia and reforms the hydride when heated in a current of 
hydrogen. 

The fixation of nitrogen as a nitride has not been attended 
with commercial success. H. Mehner patented heating the 
oxides of silicon, boron or magnesium with coal or coke in an 
electric furnace, and then passing in nitrogen, which forms, with 
the metal liberated by the action of the carbon, a readily decom- 
posable nitride. 

For an extended bibliography see Bulletin No. 63 of the Bureau 
of Soils, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Washington, 1910). 

Nitrogen is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas, which 
is only very slightly soluble in water. It is slightly lighter than 
air. Lord Rayleigh in 1894 found that the density of atmospheric 
nitrogen was about 5 % higher than that of chemically prepared 
nitrogen, a discovery which led to the isolation of the rare gases 
of the atmosphere (see ARGON). The values obtained are shown 
below. 

Atmospheric Chemical 
Nitrogen. Nitrogen. 

0-97209 0-96727 Lord Rayleigh, Chem. News, 1897, 76, 

P- 3I5- 

0-9720 0-9671 A. Leduc, Comptes rendus, 1896, 123, 

p. 805. 

Nitrogen is a very inert gas: it will neither burn nor support 
the combustion of ordinary combustibles. It combines directly 
with lithium, calcium and magnesium when heated, whilst 
nitrides of the rare earth metals are also produced when their 
oxides are mixed with magnesium and heated in a current of 
nitrogen (C. Matignon, Comptes rendus, 1900, 131, p. 837). 
Nitrogen has been liquefied, the critical temperature being 
149 C. and the critical pressure 27-54 atmospheres. The 
liquefied gas boils at 195-5 C., and its specific gravity at its 
boiling point is 0-8103 (E. C. C. Baly and F. G. Donnan, Jour. 
Chem. Soc., 1902, 81, p. 912). 

Compounds. 

_ Nitrogen combines with hydrogen to form ammonia, NH 8 , hydra- 
zine, NjHi, and azoimide, NjH (qq.v.); the other known hydrides, 
NH and N ( Hj, are salts of azoimide, viz. NH^Nj and NjHrNaH. 

Nitrogen trichloride, NClj, discovered by P. L. Dulong in 1811 
(Schweigg. Journ., 1811, 8, p. 302), and obtained by the action of 
chlorine or sodium hypochlorite on ammonium chloride, or by the 
electrolysis of ammonium chloride solution, is a very volatile yellow 
oil. It possesses an extremely pungent smell, and its vapour is 
extremely irritating to the eyes. It is a most dangerous explosive 



(see D. L. Chapman and L. Vodden, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 
p. 138). Chlorine azide, C1-N>, was discovered by F. Raschig in 
1908 (see AZOIMIDE) ; the corresponding iodine compound had been 
obtained in 1900 by A. Hantzsch (Ber., 33, p. 522). For the so-called 
nitrogen iodide see AMMONIA. 

Nitrogen forms five oxides, viz. nitrous oxide, NjO, nitric oxide, 
NO, nitrogen trioxide, NjOs, nitrogen peroxide, NOz, and nitrogen 
pentoxide, N 2 Os, whilst three oxyacids of nitrogen are known: 
hyponitrous acid, H 2 N 2 O 2 , nitrous acid, HNOj, and nitric acid, 
HNC>3 (q.v.). The first four oxides are gases, the fifth is a solid. 
Nitrous oxide, N 2 O, isolated in 1776 by J. Priestley, who obtained 
it by reducing nitrogen peroxide with iron, may be prepared by 
heating ammonium nitrate at 170-260 C.,or by reducing a mixture 
of nitric and sulphuric acid with zinc. It is a colourless gas, which 
is practically odourless, but possesses a sweetish taste. It is some- 
what soluble in water. When liquefied it boils at 89-8 C., and by 
further coolftig may be solidified, the solid melting at -102-3 C. 
(W. Ramsay, Chem. News, 1893, 6 7. P- '4)- It does not burn, 
but supports the combustion of heated substances almost as well as 
oxygen. It is used as an anaesthetic, principally in dentistry, 
producing when inhaled a condition of hysterical excitement often 
accompanied by loud laughter, whence it is sometimes called 
" laughing gas.' 

Nitric oxide, NO, first obtained by Van Helmont, is usually pre- 
pared by the action of dilute nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-2) on copper. 
This method does not give a pure gas, varying amounts of nitrous 
oxide and nitrogen being present (see NITRIC ACID) In a purer con- 
dition it may be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on a 
mixture of potassium nitrate and ferrous sulphate, or of hydrochloric 
acid on a mixture of potassium nitrate and ferric chloride. It is 
also formed by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on sodium 
nitrite in the presence of mercury. It is a colourless gas which is 
only sparingly soluble in water. It may be liquefied, its critical 
temperature being -93-5, and the liquid boils at -i,53 - 6 C. It 
is not a supporter of combustion, unless the sustance introduced 
is at a sufficiently high temperature to decompose the gas, when 
combustion will continue at the expense of the liberated oxygen. 
If the gas be mixed with the vapour of carbon disulphide, the mixture 
burns with a vivid lavender-coloured flame Nitric oxide is soluble 
in solutions of ferrous salts, a dark brown solution being formed, 
which is readily decomposed by heat, with evolution of nitric oxide. 
It combines with oxygen to form nitrogen peroxide. Nascent 
hydrogen reduces it to hydroxylamine (q.v.), whilst solutions of 
hypochlorites oxidize it to nitric acid. In some instances it reacts 
as a reducing agent, e.g. silver oxide is reduced to metallic silver at 
170 C., lead dioxide to the monoxide and manganese dioxide to 
sesquioxide. 

Nitrogen trioxide, N 2 O 3 , was first mentioned by J. R. Glauber in 
1648 as a product of the reaction between nitric acid and arsenious 
oxide. Sir W. Ramsay (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1890, 5, p. 590), by distil- 
ling arsenious oxide with nitric acid and cooling the distillate, 
obtained a green liquid which consisted of nitrogen trioxide and 
peroxide in varying proportions, and concluded that the trioxide 
could not be obtained pure. He then tried the direct combination 
of nitric oxide with liquid nitrogen peroxide. A dark blue liquid is 
produced, and the first portions of gas boiling off from the mixture 
correspond fairly closely in composition with nitrogen trioxide. 
H. B. Baker (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1862) obtained nitrogen 
trioxide in the gaseous form by volatilizing the liquid under special 
conditions. L. Francesconi and N. Sciacca (Gazz., 1904, 34 (i.), 
p. 447) have shown that liquid nitric oxide and oxygen, or gaseous 
nitric oxide pnd liquid oxygen, mixed in all proportions and yielded 
nitrogen trioxide, whilst gaseous nitric oxide mixed with excess of 
oxygen always gave the trioxide if the mixture was kept below 
-110 C. They also state that nitrogen trioxide is stable at ordinary 
pressure up to -21 C. N. M. v. Wittorf (Zeil. anorg. Chem., 1904, 
41, p. 85) obtained blue crystals of the trioxide (melting at -103 C.) 
on saturating liquid nitrogen peroxide with nitric oxide and cooling 
the mixture. The liquid prepared by Baker is green in colour, 
and has a specific gravity i-n at ordinary temperature, but below 
-2 C. becomes of a deep indigo blue colour. It forms a mass of 
deep blue crystals at the temperature of liquid air. It is exceedingly 
soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. 

Nitrogen peroxide, NO 2 or NjO*, may be obtained by mixing 
oxygen with nitric oxide and passing the red gas so obtained through 
a freezing mixture. The production of this red gas when air is 
mixed with nitric oxide was mentioned by R. Boyle in 1671. Nitrogen 
peroxide is also prepared by heating lead nitrate and passing the 
products of decomposition through a tube surrounded by a freezing 
mixture, when the gas liquefies. At low temperatures it is a colour- 
less crystalline solid which melts at -10-14 C. (W. Ramsay, Chem. 
News, 1900, 61, p. 91). As the temperature increases the liquid 
becomes yellowish, the colour deepening with rise of temperature until 
at +15 C. it has a deep orange tint. The liquid boils at about 22 C. 
This change of colour is accompanied by a change in the vapour 
density, and is explained by the fact that nitrogen peroxide 
consists of a mixture of a colourless compound N 2 O4, and a red- 
brown gas NO 2 , the latter increasing in amount at the expense 
of the former as the temperature is raised (G. Salet, Comptes rendus, 
1868, 67, p. 488; see also E. and L. Natanson, Wied. Ann., 1885, 24, 



NITROGLYCERIN 



p. 454; 1886, 27, p. 606). M. Berthelot and J. Ogier (Butt. Soc. 
Chim., 1882 [2], 37, p. 434; 38, p. 60) have also shown that the 
specific heat of the gas decreases with increase of temperature until 
it reaches a minimum at about 198-253 C. Cryoscopic determina- 
tions of the molecular weight of nitrogen peroxide dissolved in 
glacial acetic acid show that it corresponds to the molecular formula 
N 2 Oi at low temperatures (W. Ramsay, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, 
p. 621). Nitrogen peroxide is the most stable oxide of nitrogen. 
It is decomposed by water, giving at o C. a mixture of nitric and 
nitrous acids: 2NO 2 +H 2 O = HNO ? +HNO 2 . It combines with 
sulphuric acid to form nitro-sulphonic acid, SO 2 (OH)(NO 2 ). It does 
not support the combustion of a taper, but burning phosphorus and 
red-hot carbon will continue to burn in the gas. It converts many 
metallic oxides into mixtures of nitrates and nitrites, and attacks 
many metals, forming nitrates and being itself reduced to nitric 
oxide. It is an energetic oxidizing agent. 

Nitrogen pentoxide, N 2 O 6 , was first obtained in 1849 by H. Sainte- 
Claire-Deville (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1850 [3], 28, p. 241) by the action 
of dry chlorine on silver nitrate: 4AgNO3+2Cl2 = 4AgCl+2N 2 O6 
+Oz. It may also be obtained by distilling nitric acid over phosphorus 
pentoxide. It crystallizes in large prisms which melt at 29-30 C. 
to a yellowish liquid, which boils at 45-50 C. with rapid decomposi- 
tion. It is very unstable, decomposing slowly even at ordinary 
temperatures. It dissolves in water, forming nitric acid. 

Hyponitrous acid, H 2 N 2 O 2 , was first obtained in the form of its 
salts by E. Divers in 1871 (Chem. News, 23, p. 206) by reducing a 
solution of potassium nitrite with sodium amalgam, and subsequent 
precipitation as silver salt. Hyponitrites also result when hydroxy- 
amido-sulphonates, e.g. HO-NH-SOsNa, are hydrolysed by caustic 
alkalis (E. Divers and T. Haga, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1889, 55, p. 760), 
or when benzsulphohydrpxamic acid, C 6 H 6 SO 2 -NH-OH, is treated in 
the same manner (O. Piloty, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1560). They may 
also be prepared by the action of mercuric or cupric oxides on alkaline 
solutions of hydroxylamine (A. Hantzsch, Ann., 1896, 292, p. 317); 
by the action of hydroxylamine sulphate on alkaline nitrites in the 
presence of lime or calcium carbonate, the mixture being rapidly 
heated to 60 C. ; or by the hydrolysis of dimethyl nitroso-oxyurea, 
(CH 3 ) 2 N-CO-N(NO)-OH (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2356). 
The free acid, which crystallizes in brilliant scales, is best prepared 
by decomposing the silver salt with an ethereal solution of hydro- 
chloric acid. It is very explosive, dissolves readily in water and 
behaves as a dibasic acid. It does not liberate iodine from potassium 
iodide, neither does it decolorize iodine solution. Bromine oxidizes 
it to nitric acid, but the reaction is not quantitative. In acid 
solution, potassium permanganate oxidizes it to nitric acid, but 
in alkaline solution only to nitrous acid. It decomposes slowly 
on standing, yielding water and nitrous oxide. The silver salt is a 
bright yellow solid, soluble in dilute sulphuric and nitric acids, and 
may be crystallized from concentrated solutions of ammonia. It 
slowly decomposes on exposure or on heating. The calcium salt, 
CaN 2 O 2 -4H 2 O, formed by the action of calcium chloride on the silver 
salt in the presence of a small quantity of nitric acid, is a lustrous 
crystalline powder, almost insoluble in water but readily soluble in 
dilute acids. It is decomposed by sulphuric acid, with evolution of 
nitrous oxide. 

Nitrous acid, HNOj, is found to some extent in the form of its 
salts in the atmosphere and in rain water. The pure acid has not yet 
been obtained, since in the presence of water it decomposes with 
formation of nitric acid and liberation of nitric oxide: 3HNO 2 
= HNO3+2NO+H 2 O. Its salts may be obtained in some cases by 
heating the corresponding nitrates, but the method does not give 
good results. Sodium nitrite, the most commonly used salt of the 
acid, is generally obtained by heating the nitrate with metallic lead ; 
by heating sodium nitrate with sulphur and sodium hydroxide, 
the product then being fractionally crystallized (Read, Holliday & 
Sons): 3NaNO8-r-S+2NaOH=Na 2 SO4+3NaNO 2 +H 2 O; by oxidiz- 
ing atmospheric nitrogen in an electric arc, keeping the gases above 
300 C., until absorption in alkaline hydroxide solution is effected 
(German Pat. 188188); or by passing air, or a mixture of oxygen 
and ammonia, over heated metallic oxides (ibid., 168272). The salts 
of the acid are colourless or faintly yellow. In aqueous solution the 
free acid acts as an oxidizing agent, bleaching indigo and liberating 
iodine from potassium iodide, or it may act as a reducing agent since 
it readily tends to pass into nitric acid: consequently it discharges 
the colour of acid solutions of permanganates and chromates. The 
acid finds considerable use in organic chemistry, being employed to 
discriminate between the different types of alcohols and of amines, 
and also in the production of diazo, azo and diazo-amino compounds. 
It may be recognized by the blue colour it gives with diphenylamine 
sulphate and by its reaction with potassium iodide-starch paper. 

Nitrosyl chloride, NOC1, is obtained by the direct union of nitric 
oxide with chlorine; or by distilling a mixture of concentrated 
nitric and hydrochloric acids, passing the resulting gases into 
concentrated sulphuric acid and heating the so-formed nitrosyl 
hydrogen sulphate with dry salt: HNOs+3HCl = NOCl+Cl 2 
+ H 2 O ; NOC1 + H 2 SO, = HC1 + NO-SO.H ; NO SO 4 H + NaCl 
=NOCl + NaHSO4 (W. A. Tilden, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1860, p. 630). 
It is also prepared by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on 
potassium nitrite or on nitrogen peroxide. It is an orange-coloured 
gas which may be readily liquefied and by further cooling may be 



solidified. The liquid boils at 5 C. and the solid melts at 65 C. 
It forms double compounds with many metallic chlorides, and finds 
considerable application as a means of separating various members 
of the terpene group of compounds. It is readily decomposed by 
water and alkaline hydroxides, yielding a mixture of nitrite and 
chloride. On treatment with silver fluoride it yields nitrosyl fluoride, 
NOF (O. Ruff, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905 47, p. 190). Nitroxyl 
fluoride, NO 2 F, is formed by the action of fluorine on nitric oxide at 
the temperature of liquid oxygen (H. Moissan and P. Lebeau, Comptes 
rendus, 1905, 140, pp. 1573, 1621). It is a gas at ordinary tempera- 
ture; when liquefied it boils at 63-5 C. and on solidification melts 
at 139 C. Water decomposes it into nitric and hydrofluoric 
acids. Nitramide, NH 2 NO 2 , is obtained by the action of sulphuric 
and nitric acids on potassium imidosulphonate, or by the action of 
ice-cold sulphuric acid on potassium nitro-carbamate (J. Thiele and 
A. Lachmann, Ann., 1895, 288, p. 297): NQs-NK-COjK+HsSO* 
= NH 2 NO 2 +K 2 SO<+CO 2 . It crystallizes in prisms or leaflets which 
melt at 72-75C. and are readily soluble in water and in all organic 
solvents except ligroin. It is somewhat volatile at ordinary tempera- 
ture, and its aqueous solution possesses a strongly acid reaction. 
It is very unstable, decomposing into nitrous oxide and water when 
mixed with copper oxide, lead chromate or even powdered glass. 
On reduction it gives a strongly reducing substance, probably 
hydrazine. According to A. Hantzsch (Ann., 1896, 292, pp. 340 et 
seq.) hyponitrous acid and nitramide are to be regarded as stereo- 
isomers, being the anti- and syn- forms of the same compound. 
Thiele, however, regards nitramide as imidonitric acid, HN :NO(OH). 

Nitrogen sulphide, N<S 4 , first obtained by W. Gregory (Jour, 
pharm., 1835, 21, p. 315) by the action of ammonia on sulphur 
chloride, has been investigated by O. Ruff and E. Geisel (Ber., 
1904, 37, p. 157.3; !95> 3 8 i P- 2659), who also obtained it by dis- 
solving sulphur in liquid ammonia. It is a reddish-yellow crystalline 
solid, insoluble in water and melting at 178 C. It explodes readily 
when melted or subjected to shock. Dry hydrochloric acid gives 
ammonia but no nitrogen; with ammonia it gives N:SNH 2 and 
S :S(NH 2 ) 2 ; and with secondary amines it forms thiodiamines, S(NR 2 )i, 
nitrogen and ammonia being liberated. When heated with CSj to 
100 C. under pressure, it forms liquid nitrogen sulphide, N 2 S(, a 
mobile red liquid which solidifies to an iodine-like mass of crystals 
which melt at 10-1 1 C. Water, alkalis and acids decompose it into 
sulphur and ammonia (W. Muthmann, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1897, 13, 
p. 200). 

For sulphonic acids containing nitrogen see AMMONIA. 

Numerous determinations of the atomic weight of nitrogen have 
been made by different observers, the values obtained varying some- 
what according to the methods used. These methods have been 
purely chemical (either gravimetric or volumetric) , physical (deter- 
minations of the density of nitrogen, nitric oxide, &c.) or physico- 
chemical. P. A. Guye has given a critical discussion of the relative 
accuracy of the gravimetric and physico-chemical methods, and 
favours the latter, giving for the atomic weight a value less than 
14-01. The more important papers dealing with the subject are: 
J. Stas, (Euvres completes, i. pp. 342 et seq.; Lord Rayleigh, Proc. 
Roy. Soc. (1894), 55, p. 340; (1904) 73, p. 153; G. Dean, Jour. 
Chem. Soc. (1901), 79, p. 147; R. W. Gray, Jour. Chem. Soc. (1906), 
88, p. 1174; A. Scott, Proc. Chem. Soc. (1905), 21, p. 309; P. A. 
Guye, Chem. News (1905), 92, pp. 261 et seq.; (1906) 93, p. 13 et 
seq.; D. Berthelot, Comptes rendus (1907), 144, p. 269. 

NITROGLYCERIN, C 3 H 5 (NO 3 ) 3 or CH 2 NO 3 CHN0 3 CH 2 NO, 
glyceryl trinitrate, an explosive first obtained in 1846 by Ascanio 
Sobrero (Mem. Acad. Torino, 1847) by acting with a mixture 
of strong nitric and sulphuric acids on glycerin at the ordinary 
temperature. - The reaction proceeds in several stages, mono-, 
di- and finally tri-nitrate being produced, the final stage requiring 
sulphuric acid as a dehydrator. When pure it is a very pale 
yellow oil of sp. gr. 1-614 at 4 C. and 1-60 at 15 C. One gram 
requires for solution between 800 and icoo c.c. of water, 4 c.c. 
of absolute alcohol or 18 c.c. of wood spirit, and it is scarcely 
at all soluble in glycerin itself, but mixes in all proportions with 
ether, acetone, ethyl acetate and benzene. 

In the manufacture glycerin is dropped in a very thin stream into 
a mixture of 3 parts of nitric (sp. gr. 1-5) and 5 parts of sulphuric acid 
(sp. gr 1-84), the containing vessel being cooled by a water jacket 
and theacid mixture agitated by a stream of cooled air, the tempera- 
ture being kept at about 15 C. A considerable excess of acids is 
necessary for the completion and safety of the reaction, usually 
about 8 parts of the acid mixture to I of glycerin. The higher the 
strength of the acids the higher the yield of nitroglycerin and the 
smaller the loss by solution in the waste acids. In recent practice 
some sulphin trioxide, or fuming sulphuric acid, is added, so that 
the mixture of acids contains less than I % of water. The action is 
very rapid, and the product, which rises to the top of the acids, 
is separated a_nd washed successively with cold and then tepid water, 
and finally with water made slightly alkaline with sodium carbonate 
or hydroxide, to remove all adhering or dissolved acids which would 
otherwise render the product very unstable. Nitroglycerin dissolves 
a little water and then appears thick or milky. Generally it is either 



NITZSCH, G. W. NITZSCH, K. I. 



717 



dried, after being separated from the wash water, by means of 
common salt, upon a layer of which the moist nitroglycerin is gently 
run and allowed to dram or filter through, or it is filtered through a 
mass of dry sponge or similar dry and porous material. 

Under ordinary pressure it boils at above 200 C. (L. de Bruyn). 
If gradually heated it begins to vaporize and decompose at about 
130, and as a rule it detonates when heated slightly above this 
temperature, previously giving off some red fumes. A little vapour 
is given off at ordinary temperatures and pressures, and when under 
a few millimetres pressure only it rapidly vaporizes below IOO C. 
The freezing-point is uncertain, owing perhaps to the existence of 
two modifications, as suggested by Kast (Zeits. f. ges. Schiess- u. 
Sprengstoff, 1-225; see also S. Nauckhoff, Zeits. f. ang. Chem., 18, 
Heft I and 2). It is frequently given as 43 to 46 F. (about 6 to 
8 C.), and it is stated to be more sensitive to percussion when frozen 
(Beilstein). It crystallizes (in long needles) more easily when gently 
agitated during the cooling, or when mixed with such substances as 
kieselguhr. At one time it was transported all over America in a 
frozen condition without serious accidents, and according to Sir 
F. Nathan (Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1908, 27, p. 5) it" is safer to export 
in the frozen state. To prevent the freezing of nitroglycerin in 
dynamite it has been proposed to add various substances, such as 
chlordinitroglycerin, nitrated diglycerin or tetranitrodiglycerol, 
and also mono-and di-nitroglycerin. The latter two have been studied 
by C. W. Will (Ber., 1908, 7, p. 407), who obtained two isomeric 
dmitroglycerins, one of which is eminently crystallizable and the 
other fluid. Both are sensitive to percussion, but a little less so than 
nitroglycerin. The mononitroglycerin also exists in two forms, 
neither of which is strictly speaking explosive. It appears that an 
addition of dinitroglycerin to nitroglycerin would materially retard 
its freezing or lessen its sensitiveness (see also C. Claessen, Ger. 
Pat. 210990 (1909)). 



Specific gravity 
Melting-point . 

Boiling-point 18 mm. 
Solubility . 


Mono. 


Di. 


Tri. 


1-40 
a58 
ft 54 
155-160 

70% 


1-47 
o hydrate, 26 
hydrate (fluid) 
145 about 
77% 


1-6 
labile, 2-2 
stable, 12-2 
160 

16% 



The liquid when soaked into a porous combustible substance like 
blotting-paper burns rapidly and quietly, and when struck with a 
hammer on a hard surface violently detonates ; when a little of the 
liquid is spread on an anvil and struck, the portion immediately 
under the hammer only will, as a rule, detonate, the remainder being 
scattered. Some solutions of nitroglycerin (in ether, acetone, &c.) 
burn quietly, and the same is the case when it is held in solution or 
suspension in a colloid substance, as gelatinized guncotton, &c. 

Strong sulphuric acid dissolves nitroglycerin, and this solution on 
being poured into water yields dinitroglycerin (see Will, he. cit.) 
and also some mononitroglycerin. When the solution in the strong 
acid is allowed to stand, some nitric acid is first evolved, and as the 
temperature rises this is followed by a general decomposition of the 
substance, though not necessarily an explosive one. Shaken with 
mercury and sulphuric acid, nitroglycerin yields its nitrogen as nitric 
oxide; the measurement of the volume of this gas is a convenient 
mode of estimating nitroglycerin. Ammonium hydroxide has no 
appreciable action at ordinary temperatures, but strong solutions of 
sodium or potassium hydroxides start a decomposition, with rise of 
temperature, in which some nitrate and always some nitrite is pro- 
duced. Some glycerin may be re-formed, but with very strong 
alkaline solutions little of the glycerin molecule escapes destruction, 
oxalic acid and several other products resulting. Alcoholic solutions 
of the alkalis also produce much nitrite along with some formate 
and acetate. Calcium or potassium sulphides and potassium hydro- 
sulphides completely reduce nitroglycerin to glycerin, some of the 
sulphur being oxidized and some precipitated. Hydriodic acid 
reduces it to glycerin and nitric oxide. Aniline and similar bases are 
oxidized and partially nitrated by nitroglycerin, with the production 
of non-explosive compounds. 

The first attempts to utilize the explosive power of nitro- 
glycerin were made by Nobel in 1863; they were only partially 
successful until the plan, first applied by General Pictot in 1854, 
of developing the force of gunpowder in the most rapid manner 
and to the maximum extent, through initiative detonation, was 
applied by Nobel to nitroglycerin. Even then, however, the 
liquid nature of the substance, though advantageous in one or two 
directions, constituted a serious obstacle to its safe transport and 
storage and to its efficient employment; it was therefore not 
until Nobel produced plastic solid preparations by mixing the 
liquid with porous substances, such as gunpowder, or carbon and 
sulphur, and finally kieselguhr in a fine state of division, capable 
of absorbing and retaining considerable quantities of it, that it 
could be employed as a blasting agent (see EXPLOSIVES, DYNA- 
MITE, CORDITE). (W. R. E. H.) 



Therapeutics. Nitroglycerin has a sweet burning taste and is 
decidedly poisonous. Its vapour produces violent headache, and 
the same effect is often caused by handling compositions con- 
taining it. Prior to its use as an explosive, its alcoholic solution 
found application in medicine under the name of glonoin. 
Although a nitrate, its pharmacological actions resemble those 
of nitrites such as amyl nitrite, taken internally. The explana- 
tion is that in an alkaline medium at body heat nitroglycerin 
yields a nitrite, probably as a preliminary stage of resolution. 
Nitroglycerin shaken up with warm very dilute alkaline solutions, 
as sodium carbonate, for a few minutes only, always yields 
sufficient nitrite to give the diazoreaction; and, as stated, strong 
alkaline solutions always produce some nitrite as one of the 
decomposition products. This gradual conversion in the tissues 
is a valuable property of nitroglycerin, as its effects take longer to 
manifest themselves than is the case with amyl and other nitrites. 
Nitroglycerin is valuable as a preventive in cases of cardiac 
pain, such as angina pectoris, and it is also used in other condi- 
tions where it is desirable to reduce the arterial tension. The 
British Pharmacopoeia contains a liquor trinilrini (i%), and 
tablets made up with chocolate, each containing one-hundredth 
of a grain. 

NITZSCH, 6REGOR WILHELM (1790-1861), German classical 
scholar, brother of Karl Immanuel Nitzsch, was born at 
Wittenberg on the 22nd of November 1790. In 1827 he was 
appointed professor of ancient literature at Kiel, but in 1852 
was dismissed by the Danish government for his German sym- 
pathies. In the same year he accepted a similar post at 
Leipzig, which he held till his death on the 2 2nd of July 1861. 
Nitzsch is chiefly known for his writings on the Homeric epic. 
In opposition to Wolf and Lachmann, he maintained that the 
Iliad and Odyssey were not an aggregate of single short poems, 
but long complete poems, composed by one and the same author 
according to a uniform plan with a central dramatic idea. 

His son, KARL WILHELM NITZSCH (1818-1880), became professor 
of history at Konigsberg in 1862, and at Berlin in 1872. 

The most important of his works were: Erklarende Anmerkungen 
zu Homer's Odyssee, i.-xii. (18261840); Die Sagenpoesie der Griechen 
(1852); Beitrdge zur Geschichte der epischen Poesie der Griechen 
(pub. 1862, ed. C. W. Nitzsch). See memoir by F. Liibker (1864); 
C. Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883) 
and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. iii. (1908), p. 105. . 

NITZSCH, KARL IMMANUEL (1787-1868), Lutheran divine, 
was born at the small Saxon town of Borna near Leipzig on 
the zist of September 1787. His father, Karl Ludwig Nitzsch 
(1751-1831), who at that time was pastor and superintendent 
in Borna, and afterwards (1790) became professor at Wittenberg 
and director (1817) of the seminary for preachers, has also left 
a name of some distinction in the theological world by a number 
of writings, among which may be mentioned a work entitled 
De discrimine revdationis imperatoriae et didacticae prolusiones 
academicae (2 vols., 1830). Theologically, he represented a 
combination of supernaturalism and rationalism (supernatural 
rationalism or a Kantian rational supernaturalism). Karl 
Immanuel was sent to study at Schulpforta in 1803, whence 
he proceeded to the university of Wittenberg in 1806. In 1809 
he graduated, and in 1810 he became a Privatdozent at the 
university. Having become diaconus at the Schlosskirche in 
1811, he showed remarkable energy and zeal during the bombard- 
ment and siege of the city in 1813. In 1817 he was appointed 
one of the preceptors in the preachers' seminary which had been 
established at Wittenberg after the suppression of the university. 
From 1820 to 1822 he was superintendent in Kemberg, and in the 
latter year he was appointed professor ordinarius of systematic 
and practical theology at Bonn. Here he remained until called 
to succeed Marheineke at Berlin in 1847; subsequently he became 
university preacher, rector of the university, provost of St 
Nicolai (in 1854) and member of the supreme council of the 
church, in which last capacity he was one of the ablest and most 
active promoters of the Evangelical Union. He died on the 2ist 
of August 1868. He represented the Vermittelungstheologie 
of the school of Schleiermacher. 



718 



NIU-CHWANG NIVERNAIS 



His son, FRIEDRICH AUGUST NITZSCH (b. 1832), was made 
professor ordinarius of theology at Giessen in 1868 and at Kiel 
in 1872. He was the author of Grundriss der christl. Dogmcn- 
geschichte (1870, incomplete) and Das System des Boethius 
(1860), amongst other works. 

Karl Nitzsch's principal works are: System der christlichen Lehre 
(1829; 6th ed., 1851; Eng. trans., 1849), Praktische Theologie 
(1847-1860; 2nd ed., 1863-1868), Akademrsche Vorlrdge uber chnst- 
liche Glaubenslehre (1858) and several series of Predigten. " He took 
as his starting-point the fundamental thought of Schleiermacher, 
that religion is not doctrine but life, direct consciousness, feeling. 
At the same time he sought to bring religious feeling into closer 
connexion with knowledge and volition than Schleiermacher had 
done; he laid special stress and justly on the recognition of a 
necessary and radical union of religion with morality, treating both 
dogmatics and ethics together accordingly in his System der Christ- 
lichen Lehre " (Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 123). 
His Protestantische Beantwortung, a reply to the Symbolik of Johann 
Adam Mohler (17961838), which originally appeared in the Studien 
it. Kritiken, of which he was one of the founders, may also be men- 
tioned. 

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and the Attgemeine deutsche 
Biographie; F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the 
Nineteenth Century, pp. 185-196. 

NIU-CHWANG, a city of China, in the Manchurian province 
of Sheng-king (Liao-tung), in 40 53' N. and 122 7' E., about 
35 m. (90 m. by water) from the coast of the Gulf of Liao-tung, 
on what is now a small branch of the main eastern affluent of the 
Liao-ho. The population is estimated at 80,000. The city 
proper is a comparatively unimportant place with broken-down 
walls, but it is surrounded by a number of large and flourishing 
suburbs. About the beginning of the Ta-ts'ing dynasty (1644) 
Niu-chwang was the chief port on the river, but in the reign of 
K'ien-lung, owing mainly to physical changes, it was supplanted 
by T'ien-chwang-tai farther down the stream, and towards the 
close of the i8th century this had in turn to give place to Ying-tsze 
still nearer the mouth. In ignorance of these facts Niu-chwang 
(now scarcely to be reached by a flat-bottomed river boat) was 
chosen as one of the ports to be opened to foreign trade by the 
treaty of Tien-tsin; and, though Ying-tsze had of necessity 
to be adopted as the site of the foreign settlements, Europeans 
still continue to speak of it as the port of Niu-chwang. Ying-tsze 
(otherwise known as Ying-k'ou, Niu-k'ou and in Mandarin as 
Muh-k'ou-ying) lies on the left bank of the Liao-ho on the lowest 
dry portion of the plain, not much . above high- water mark. 
The British settlement immediately above the town has a river 
frontage of 1000 yds. opposite the deepest of the reaches, and runs 
back to the highway leading to Niu-chwang. Off the mouth of 
the river there is an extensive bar of hard mud which can only 
be crossed by certain channels at high tide, when it is covered 
by from 18 to 20 ft. of water; and the port is altogether closed 
by ice for four or five months of the year, between November 
and May. Niu-chwang has shown considerable vigour as a port 
of trade, sharing in the general prosperity of the provinces 
of Manchuria, of which it is the outlet. It was opened to foreign 
trade in 1858. In 1864 the total value of trade was 934,374, 
in 1878 2,606,134, in ^98 4,634,470, while in 1904 the figures 
reached s,9Si895. The principal exports (29%) are beans, 
bean-cake, bean-oil and wild silk. The bean-cake is a popular 
article of food with the natives of Kwang-tung and Fuh-kien, 
and is also largely employed for manuring the rice and sugar 
fields in the neighbourhood of Shanghai, Amoy, Swatow, &c. 
Of imports (71 %) the principal are cotton yarn and cotton cloth, 
most of the latter being drawn from the United States in prefer- 
ence to English-made goods. The number of resident foreigners 
is about 150. Railways connect the port with Tientsin and 
Peking on the one hand, and with the Russian territories lying 
to the north on the other. In 1895 Niu-chwang was occupied 
by Japanese troops, and the town was included in the cession of 
territory originally granted by the treaty of peace. By a supple- 
mentary convention it was retroceded by the Japanese under 
pressure of France and Russia. Niu-chwang suffered considerably 
from the disturbances of 1900 and again during the Russo- 
Japanese war. In 1900 the Russians defeated the Chinese 
troops who attacked the town, and took possession of the port, 



and administered affairs until they in their turn were driven 
out by Japanese. At the conclusion of the war the Japanese 
restored the port to China. 

NlUfi (SAVAGE ISLAND or NIUE-FEKAI, as the natives call it), 
an island in the South Pacific Ocean, 14 m. long by 10 m. wide, 
in 19 10' S., 169 47' W. The entire island is an old coral reef 
upheaved 200 ft., honeycombed with caves and seamed with 
fissures. The soil, though thin, is, as in other limestone islands, 
very rich, and coco-nuts, tara, yams and bananas thrive. There 
is an abundant rainfall, but owing to the porous nature of the 
soil the water percolates into deep caves which have communica- 
tion with the sea, and becomes brackish. The natives, a mixed 
Polynesian and Melanesian people of Samoan speech, are the most 
industrious in the Pacific, and many of the young men go as 
labourers to other islands. The consequent minority of men has 
been destructive of the sexual morality of the women, which 
formerly stood high. The natives are keen traders, and though 
uncouth in manners when compared with their nearest neigh- 
bours, the Tongans and Samoans, are friendly to Europeans. 
Their hostility to Captain Cook in 1774, which earned from him 
the name of Savage for the island, was due to their fear of foreign 
disease, a fear that has since been justified. The population 
(4079 in 1901) is slightly decreasing. The natives are all Chris- 
tians, and the majority have learned to read and write, and to 
speak a little English, under the tuition of the London Missionary 
Society. They wear European clothes. The island became 
a British protectorate on the 2oth of April 1900, and was made 
a dependency of New Zealand in October 1900, the native 
government, of an elected " king " and a council of headmen, 
being maintained. In 1900 there were thirteen Europeans on the 
island. The exports are copra, fungus and straw hats, which 
the women plait very cleverly. 

See T. H. Hood, Notes of a Cruise in H.M.S. "Fawn "(Edinburgh, 
1863); J. L. Brenchley, Jottings during the Cruise of the " Curafoa" 
(London, 1873); B. H. Thomson, Savage Island (London, 1902). 

NIVELLES (Flem. Nyvel), a town of Belgium in the province 
of Brabant, situated on the Thines 19 m. S. of Brussels. Pop. 
(1904) 12,109. It is a busy little place with many industries, 
notably the manufacture of parchment. The town is supposed 
to owe its origin to the foundation of a convent on the spot by 
Itta or Iduberge, wife of Pippin of Landen. The Romanesque 
church of St Gertrude, named after Itta's daughter, dates 
from the nth century, but has been badly restored and is dis- 
figured by a heavy tower. On the top of the tower is the effigy 
of a man in iron who strikes the hours with a hammer. 
He is called by the townspeople Jean de Nivelles, a celebrated 
baron of the i sth century whose title eventually became merged 
in that of the count de Homes (Horn). The church is supposed to 
occupy the site of Itta's convent. Close to Nivelles is Seneffe, 
where Conde defeated William of Orange in 1674, and at Nivelles 
itself the French under Marceau defeated the Austrians in 
1794. 

NIVERNAIS, LOUIS CHARLES BARBON MANCINI MAZ- 
ARINI, Due DE (1716-1798), French diplomatist and writer, 
was born in Paris on the i6th of December 1716, son of Philippe 
Jules Francois, due de Nevers, and Maria Anne Spinola, and great- 
nephew of Cardinal Mazarin. He was educated at the College 
Louis le Grand, and married at the age of fourteen. He served 
in the campaigns in Italy (1733) and Bohemia (1740), but had 
to give up soldiering on account of his weak health. He was 
subsequently ambassador at Rome (1748-1752), Berlin (1755- 
1756) and London, where he negotiated the treaty of Paris (toth 
of February 1763). From 1787 to 1789 he was a member of the 
Council of State. He did not emigrate during the Revolution, 
but lost all his money and was imprisoned in 1 793. He recovered 
his liberty after the fall of Robespierre, and died in Paris on the 
25th of February 1798. In 1743 he was elected to the Academy 
for a poem entitled Dflie, and from 1763 he devoted the greater 
part of his time to the administration of the duchy of Nevers and 
to belles-letlres. He wrote much and with great facility; but 
his writings are of little value, his Fables being his best pro- 



NIXIE NIZAMI 



ductions. His (Euvres completes were published in Paris in 1796; 
an edition of his (Euvres posthumes was brought out in Paris by 
Francois de Neuf chateau in 1807, and his Correspondance 
secrete was published in Paris by de Lescure in 1866. 

See L. Perey (pseud, for Mile. Luce Herpin), Un Petit-Neveu de 
Mazarin (Paris, 1890) ; La Fin du XVIII' siecle: le ducde Nivernais 
(Paris, 1891), by the same writer; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi 
(vol. xiii.); Dupin, Eloge du due de Nivernais (1840); Abb6 Blam- 
pignon, Le Due de Nivernais, d'apres sa correspondence inidite (1888). 

NIXIE, or NIXY, a female water-sprite. The word is adapted 
from Ger. Nixe, the male water-sprite being Nix. The general 
term covering both the male and female is " nicker," a kelpie. 
This also appears in Dutch nikker. The Old Teutonic nikus 
may be connected with the root which appears in Gr. vl^tiv or 
vivrtai, " to wash." 

NIXON, JOHN (1815-1899), English mining engineer and 
colliery proprietor, was born at Barlow, Durham, on the loth 
of May 1815, the son of a farmer. He was educated at the village 
school, and at an academy in Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he 
distinguished himself in mathematics. Leaving school at 
fourteen, he worked on his father's farm for two years, and then 
apprenticed himself to Mr Joseph Gray, one of the leading 
mining engineers in the north of England, and agent to the 
second marquis of Bute; subsequently he obtained employment 
as " overman " at one of the Bute collieries in Durham. In 
1839 an advertisement drew him to the South Wales coalfield, 
where he was engaged in mine-surveying, and whence he pro- 
ceeded to France as engineer to a coal and iron company. 
Returning to England, he noticed while travelling on one of the 
Thames steamers that the Welsh coal in use gave off no smoke 
and was preferred to north country coal both on this ground 
and because of its greater power-producing efficiency. His 
experience in France now suggested to him that a profitable 
market for this coal might be established among the French 
iron-founders and manufacturers generally who had hitherto 
imported English north country coal. For some time he was 
unable to procure any of this special Welsh coal. Eventually, 
however, by expending all his small savings he secured a cargo, 
freighted a small craft, and sent it across to Nantes, where with 
some difficulty he persuaded the local manufacturers to try it on 
the understanding that he bore the expense of the experiments. 
These tests, carried out under Nixon's personal directions, 
proved highly successful, and in due course the French govern- 
ment gave him a contract for Welsh coal for the French navy. 
Nixon's visit to Nantes laid the foundations of the Welsh steam- 
coal trade, English manufacturers and shipowners imitating the 
example of their French rivals. At first Nixon only sold the 
coal on commission, but eventually acquired what appeared 
to him a prospective field for steam-coal in the Aberdare valley, 
and after seven years' working at last struck a rich seam. This 
property is now known as Nixon's Navigation Collieries. Nixon 
subsequently acquired or developed other South Wales steam 
collieries, which yielded him a considerable fortune. He was 
also the inventor of many mechanical improvements in colliery 
working. He died in London on the 3rd of June 1899. 

See J. E. Vincent, John Nixon, Pioneer of the Steam Coal Trade in 
South Woks (London, 1900). 

NIZAM, the hereditary title of the reigning prince of Hyderabad 
(q.v.) in India, derived from an Arabic word meaning order, or 
administration. The same word is found in Nazim, applied to 
the Nawab of Bengal, and in Nizamat, the old term for criminal 
jurisdiction. Nizam-ul-Mulk ( = " administrator of the kingdom") 
was the title of Asaf Jah, the founder of the dynasty, a very 
able soldier and minister of the court of Aurangzeb, who was 
appointed governor of the Deccan in 1713, and established his 
independence before his death in 1 748. 

NIZAMI (1141-1203). Nizam-uddin Abfl Mahommed Ilyas 
bin Yusuf, Persian poet, was born 535 A.H. (1141 A.D.). His 
native place, or at any rate the abode of his father, was in the 
hills of Kum, but as he spent almost all his days in Ganja in 
Arran (the present Elizavettpol) he is generally known as 
Nizami of Ganja or Ganjawl. The early death of his parents, 



which illustrated to him in the most forcible manner the unstable- 
ness of all human existence, threw a gloom over his whole life, 
and fostered in him that earnest piety and fervent love for 
solitude and meditation which have left numerous traces in his 
poetical writings, and served him throughout his literary career as 
a powerful antidote against the enticing favours of princely 
courts, for which he, unlike most of his contemporaries, never 
sacrificed a tittle of his self-esteem. The religious atmosphere of 
Ganja, besides, was most favourable to such a state of mind; 
the inhabitants, being zealous Sunnites, allowed nobody to 
dwell among them who did not come up to their standard of 
orthodoxy, and it is therefore not surprising to find that Nizami 
abandoned himself at an early age to a stern ascetic life, as full 
of intolerance to others as dry and unprofitable to himself. 
He was rescued at last from this monkish idleness by his inborn 
genius, which, not being able to give free vent to its poetical 
inspirations under the crushing weight of bigotry, claimed 
a greater share in the legitimate enjoyments of life and the 
appreciation of the beauties of nature, as well as a more 
enlightened faith of tolerance, benevolence, and liberality. The 
first poetical work in which Nizami embodied his thoughts on 
God and man, and all the experiences he had gained, was neces- 
sarily of a didactic character, and very appropriately styled 
Makhzanid Asrar, or " Storehouse of Mysteries," as it bears the 
unmistakable stamp of Sufic speculations. It shows, moreover, 
a strong resemblance to Nasir Khosrau's ethical poems and 
Sana'l's Hadlkat-ulhakikat, or " Garden of Truth." The date 
of composition, which varies in the different copies from 552 to 
582 A.H., must be fixed in 574 or 575 (1178-1179 A.D.). Although 
the Makhzan is mainly devoted to philosophic meditations, 
the propensity of Nizami's genius to purely epic poetry, which 
was soon to assert itself in a more independent form, makes 
itself felt even here, all the twenty chapters being interspersed 
with short tales illustrative of the maxims set forth in each. 
His claim to the title of the foremost Persian romanticist he 
fully established only a year or two after the Makhzan by the 
publication of his first epic masterpiece Khosrau and Shirln, 
composed, according to the oldest copies, in 576 A.H. (1180 A.D.). 
As in all his following epopees the subject was taken from what 
pious Moslems call the time of " heathendom " here, for 
instance, from the old Sassanian story of Shah Khosrau Parwiz 
(Chosroes Parvez), his love affairs with the princess Shirln 
of Armenia, his jealousy against the architect Ferhad, for some 
time his successful rival, of whom he got rid at last by a very 
ingenious trick, and his final reconciliation and marriage with 
Shirln; and it is a noteworthy fact that the once so devout 
Nizami never chose a strictly Mahommedan legend for his 
works of fiction. Nothing could prove better the complete 
revolution in his views, not only on religion, but also on art. 
He felt, no doubt, that the object of epic poetry was not to teach 
moral lessons or doctrines of faith, but to depict the good and 
bad tendencies of the human mind, the struggles and passions of 
men; and indeed in the whole range of Persian literature only 
Firdusi and Fakhr-uddin As'ad Jorjani, the author of the older 
epopee Wis u. Rdmin (about the middle of the nth century), 
can compete with Nizami in the wonderful delineation of 
character and the brilliant painting of human affections, especially 
of the joys and sorrows of a loving and beloved heart. 

Khosrau and Shirln was inscribed to the reigning atabeg 
of Azerbaijan, Abu Ja'far Mahommed Pahlavan, and his brother 
Kizil Arslan, who, soon after his accession to the throne in 582 
A.H., showed his gratitude to the poet by summoning him to 
his court, loading him with honours, and bestowing upon him 
the revenue of two villages, Hamd and Nijan. Nizami accepted 
the royal gift, but his resolve to keep aloof from a servile court- 
life was not shaken by it, and he forthwith returned to his quiet 
retreat. Meanwhile his genius had not been dormant, and two 
years after his reception at court, in 584 A.H. (1188 A.D.), he 
completed his Dltvan, or collection of kasidas and ghazals 
(mostly of an ethical and parenetic character), which are said 
to have numbered 20,000 distichs, although the few copies 
which have come to us contain only a very small number of 



720 



NIZHNE-TAGILSK NIZHNIY-NOVGOROD 



verses. About the same time he commenced, at the desire of 
the ruler of the neighbouring Shlrvan, his second romantic 
poem, the famous Bedouin love-story of Laila and Majnun, 
which has so many points in common with Ariosto's Orlando 
Furioso, and finished it in the short space of four months. A 
more heroic subject, and the only one in which he made a certain 
attempt to rival FirdousI, was selected by our poet for his third 
epopee, the Iskandarnama, or " Book of Alexander," also called 
Sharafnama or Iqbalnama-i-Iskandari (" The Fortunes of 
Alexander "), which is split into two divisions. The first or 
semi-historical part shows us Alexander the Great as the con- 
queror of the world, while the second, of a more ethical tendency, 
describes him in the character of a prophet and philosopher, 
and narrates his second tour through the world and his adven- 
tures in the west, south, east and north. There are frequent 
Sufic allegories, just as in the Makhzan; and quite imbued 
with pantheistic ideas is, for instance, the final episode of the 
first part, the mysterious expedition of Alexander to the fountain 
of life in the land of darkness. As for the date of composition, 
it is evident, from the conflicting statements in the different 
MSS., that there must have been an earlier and a later recension, 
the former belonging to 587-589 A.H., and dedicated to the prince 
of Mosul, 'Izz-uddin Mas'ud, the latter made for the atabeg 
Nusrat-uddln Abu Bakr of Azerbaijan after 593 A.H., since we 
find in it a mention of Nizaml's last romance Haft Paikar, or 
the " Seven Beauties," which comprises seven tales related 
by the seven favourite wives of the Sassanian king Bahramgur. 
In this poem, which was written 593 A.H., at the request of 
Nur-uddin Arslan of Mosul, the son and successor of the above- 
mentioned "Izz-uddm, NizamI returned once more from his 
excursion into the field of heroic deeds to his old favourite 
domain of romantic fiction, and added a fresh leaf to the laurel 
crown of immortal fame with which the unanimous consent of 
Eastern and Western critics has adorned his venerable head. 
The most interesting of the seven tales is the fourth, the story 
of the Russian princess, in which we recognize at once the 
prototype of Gozzi's well-known Turandot, which was afterwards 
adapted by Schiller for the German stage. The five mathnawis, 
from the Makhzan to the Haft Paikar, form Nizaml's so-called 
" Quintuple " (Khamsa) or " Five Treasures " (Panj Ganj), 
and have been taken as pattern by all the later epic poets in the 
Persian, Turkish, Chaghatai and Hindustani languages. NizamI 
died at Ganja in his sixty-fourth year, 599 A.H. (1203 A.D.). 

The fullest account of NizamI is given in Dr W. Bacher's Nizaml's 
Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1871 ; English translation by S. Robinson, 
London, 1873; reprinted in the same author's Persian Poetry for 
English Readers, 1883, pp. 103-244). AH the errors of detail in 
Bacher's work have been corrected by Dr Rieu in his Catalogue of 
the Persian MSS. in the British Museum (1881), ii. 563 sqq. 

Principal Editions. The whole Khamsa (lithographed, Bombay, 
1834 and 1838; Teheran, 1845); Makhzan-ul Asrar (edited by N. 
Bland, London, 1844; lithographed, Cawnpore, 1869; English 
translation in MS. by Hatton Hindley, in the British Museum 
Add. 6961); Khosrau and Shirin (lithographed, Lahore, 1871; 
German translation by Hammer in Shmn, ein persisches romantisches 
Gedicht, Leipzig, 1809); Laila and Majnun (lithographed, Lucknow, 
1879; English translation by J. Atkinson, London, 1836); Haft 
Paikar (lithographed, Bombay, 1849; Lucknow, 1873; the fourth 
tale in German by F. von Erdmann, Behramgur und die russische 
Furstentochter, Kasan, 1844); Iskandarnama, first part, with com- 
mentary (Calcutta, 1812 and 1825; text alone, Calcutta, 1853; 
lithographed with marginal notes, Lucknow, 1865; Bombay, 1861 
and 1875; English translation by H. Wilberforce Clarke, London, 
1 88 1 ; compare also Erdmann, De expeditions Russorum Berdaam 
versus, Kasan, 1826, and Charmoy, Expedition d'Alexandre centre 
les Russes, St Petersburg, 1829); Iskandarnama-i-Bahn, second 
part, edited by Dr Sprenger (Calcutta, 1852 and 1869). (H. E.) 

NIZHNE-TAGILSK, popularly known as TAGIL, a town and 
ironworks of Russia, in the government of Perm, stands in a 
longitudinal valley on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains, 
within a few miles of the place where the Tagil, cutting through 
the eastern wall of the valley, escapes to the lowlands to join 
the Tura, a tributary of the Tobol. The southern part of this 
valley is occupied by the upper Tagil, and its northern portion 
by the upper Tura, from which the Tagil is separated by a 
low watershed. Pop. (1897) 30,000, all Great-Russians and 



chiefly Nonconformists. The town is connected by railway 
(the first in Siberia) with Perm and Ekaterinburg, the latter 
distant 88 m. to the S.S.E. It was founded in 1725 by the 
Russian mine-owner Demidov, and is still the property of his 
family. Nizhne-Tagilsk is a central foundry for a number of 
iron-mines and other works scattered in the valley of the Tagil 
and its tributary the Salda. Gold, platinum and copper are also 
mined at Nizhne-Tagilsk. The town carries on a brisk corn 
trade. The inhabitants make wooden boxes and trays, which 
are sent to the fairs of Irbit and Nizhniy-Novgorod. 

NIZHNE-UDINSK, a town of East Siberia, in the government 
of Irkutsk, 315 m. by rail W.N.W. of Irkutsk, on the Siberian 
railway, and on the Uda river. It is a centre for the Biryusa 
gold mines, and in winter the head of a line of communication 
with the Lena and Bratsky Ostrog, on the Angara. Pop. (1897) 

5803- 

NIZHNIY-NOVGOROD or NIJNI-NOVGOROD, abbreviated into 
NIZHEGOROD, a government of Central Russia, bounded by the 
governments of Vladimir on the W., Kostroma and Vyatka 
on the N. and N.E., Kazan and Simbirsk on the E., and Penza 
and Tambov on the S., with an area of 19,792 sq. m., two-thirds 
being on the right and the rest on the left bank of the Volga. 
The smaller portion, with the exception of the better-drained 
lands close to the river, is a low, flat, marshy region, covered 
with, thick forests and sandy hills, and thinly peopled. The 
space between the Oka and the Volga, in the west, is also flat 
and forest-grown. The best part of the government is that to 
the east of the Oka; it is hilly, trenched by deep ravines and 
better drained, and has patches of fertile black earth in the south. 
The government is drained by the Volga with its tributaries, 
the Kerzhenets and the Vetluga on the left, and the Sura (with 
the Pyana) and the Oka on the right. These and their numerous 
tributaries offer great facilities both for navigation and for the 
transportation of timber. Numerous small lakes dot the govern- 
ment, especially in the north, and close upon two-fifths of its 
entire surface is still covered with forests, which occupy nearly 
the whole of the Zavolyi (to the north of the Volga), and extend 
without a break for 50 and 80 m. to the west and south-west 
respectively. The climate is severe, especially in the Zavolyi, 
where the average yearly temperature is 5-6 Fahr. lower than 
at Nizhniy. Besides the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic 
deposits (" variegated marls "), Jurassic deposits are found in 
patches, chiefly in the south-east, as also in the south-west and 
north. They are overlain with Cretaceous black clays and 
sandstones. Thick strata of Tertiary sands, containing petrified 
wood, are found in the Ardatov district, and over the whole 
lie Glacial deposits, sandy gravels and clays. 

Black earth, known as the " black earth of the plateau," 
prevails on the high plains between the river valleys in the 
south-east; the " valley black earth," even more fertile than 
the former, covers the gently-sloping portions of the territory, 
also in the south-east. More or less sandy clays are met with 
elsewhere, and there are large patches of sand. Iron ores (brown 
and spherosideritic), alabaster, limestone, sand (used for glass), 
salt and phosphorites are the chief useful minerals. There are 
also extensive deposits of peat. 

The population increased from 1,376,000 in 1880 to 1,602,292 
in 1897; of these 841,245 were women, and 140,347 lived in 
towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 1,823,600. They consist 
of Russians, to the extent of 88%; Mordvinians, to the number 
of 53,100; Cheremisses, 6700; with Tatars and Chuvashes. 
Of the total number in 1897 1,525,735 were Orthodox and Old 
Believers, 75,848 Raskolniks (Nonconformists), 51,236 Mussul- 
mans and 3388 Jews. Both the birth-rate (53 in 1000) and the 
death-rate (42 in 1000) are high. A little over 53 % of the area is 
available for agriculture, and of this 59% is owned by noblemen 
and 16% only by the peasantry, the remainder being owned by 
merchants and others. Of the cultivable land owned by the 
peasantry 55% is under crops, but of similar land owned by 
noblemenonly30%is cultivated. The principal crops are wheat , 
rye, oats, barley, pease and potatoes. In some years the yield is 
quite insufficient for the population, and every year over 100,000 



NIZHNIY-NOVGOROD 



721 



persons quit their villages in quest of temporary work in neigh- 
bouring governments. The zemslvo or district council of Nizhniy- 
Novgorod supports an agricultural school, an experimental farm 
and an agency for the purchase of improved seeds and machinery. 
The live-stock industry is inferior, as many as 41 % of the peasant 
families having no horses, and 24% no cows. The domestic 
trades, such as the making of cutlery, felts, woollens, leather 
goods, wooden wares (sledges, spoons, boxes, window-frames, 
&c.), gloves, wirework, hardware, mats and sacks, are widely 
practised; 70% of the male working population among the 
peasants earn their livelihood in this way, as well as by shipping. 
This last is an industry of considerable magnitude, goods being 
shipped and unshipped to the annual value of over 5,000,000. 
Many of the villages and towns have each its own speciality, 
those in the district of Semenov being famous for wooden spoons, 
in Gorbatov for cutlery and locks, in Balakhna for spindles, in 
Makaryev for fancy boxes, in Arzamas, Knyaginin and Sergach 
for furs and leather goods. The Mordvinians and Cheremisses keep 
bees. Fruit and vegetables are cultivated along the Oka and the 
Volga. The factories are steadily developing, iron and machinery 
works, flour-mills, potteries, tanneries, shipbuilding yards, saw- 
mills and distilleries are the more important. Education, owing 
to the efforts of the zemstvo, is in a better condition than in many 
other governments of Russia. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

NIZHNIY-NOVGOROD, or simply NIZHNIY, a town of Russia, 
capital of the above government, situated at the confluence of 
the Oka and the Volga, 272 m. by rail E. of Moscow. It occupies 
an advantageous position on the great artery of Russian trade, 
at a place where the manufactured and agricultural products of 
the basin of the Oka meet the metal wares from that of the Kama, 
the corn and salt brought from the south-eastern governments, 
the produce of the Caspian fisheries, and the various wares 
imported from Siberia, Central Asia, Caucasia and Persia. It 
has thus become the seat of the great Makaryevskaya fair (see 
below), and one of the chief commercial centres of Russia. 
Its importance was still further increased during the latter part 
of the i gth century in consequence of the growth of manufactur- 
ing industry in the Oka basin, the rapid development of steam- 
boat traffic on the Volga and its tributaries, the extension of the 
Russian railway system and the opening of Central Asia for 
trade. 

Nizhniy-Novgorod consists of three parts: the upper city, 
including the Kremlin; the lower town, or Nizhniy Bazaar; 
and " the Fair," with the suburb of Kunavino. The upper city 
is built on three hills, which rise as steep crags 400 ft. (490 ft. 
above sea-level) above the right bank of both the Oka and the 
Volga. The Kremlin, or old fort, occupies one of these hills 
facing the Volga. It was begun in the second half of the I4th 
century, but was erected chiefly in the beginning of the i6th, 
on the site of the old palisaded fort, and has a wall 2300 yds. long, 
and 65 to 95 ft. high, with eleven towers; it contains the law- 
courts, the governor's residence, the arsenal, barracks, the 
military gymnasium of Count Arakcheev (transferred from old 
Novgorod), a small museum and two cathedrals, Preobrazhenski 
and Arkhangelski. These last were erected in 1225 and 1222 
respectively, and have been rebuilt more than once; the present 
structures, in somewhat poor taste, date from 1829-1834 and 
1732 respectively. The Preobrazhenski cathedral retains several 
relics of the past, such as holy pictures of the I4th and I7th 
centuries and a Bible of 1408; Minin, the hero of Nizhniy (see 
below) lies buried there. The Kremlin is adorned with a square, 
containing a monument to Minin and Pozharsky erected in 1826, 
and pretty boulevards have been laid out along its lower wall. 
The view from the Kremlin of the broad Volga, with its low- 
lying and far-spreading left bank, is very striking. The Pechersky 
monastery, close by, is archaeologically interesting; it was built 
in the first half of the i6th century instead of the old monastery 
founded in 1330 and destroyed by a land-slip in 1596 and has 
several antiquities and a library which formerly contained very 
valuable MSS., now at St Petersburg. Another monastery, 
that of Blagovyeshchensk (1370, rebuilt 1647), is situated on the 
right bank of the Oka. Its old churches have been destroyed by 



fire, but it has a very ancient holy picture probably the oldest in 
Russia, dating from 993, which attracts many pilgrims. In 
1904 a town-house and a monument to Tsar Alexander II. were 
built in the principal square of the upper town. Besides the 
Kremlin, the upper town contains the best streets and public 
buildings. Five descents lead from it to the lower town, planted 
on the alluvial terrace, 30 to 35 ft. above the banks of the Oka 
and the Volga, and in the centre of a very lively traffic. Piles 
of salt line the salt wharves on the Oka; farther down are the 
extensive storehouses and heaps of grain of the corn wharves; 
then comes the steamboat quay on the Volga, opposite the 
Kremlin, and still farther east the timber wharves. The fair is 
held on the flat sandy tongue of land between the Oka and the 
Volga, connected with the town by only a bridge of boats, 1500 
yds. long, which is taken to pieces in winter. The shops of the 
fair, 4000 in number, built of stone in regular rows, are surrounded 
by a canal, and cover half a square mile. Outside this inner 
fair are nearly 4000 more shops. Several buildings have been 
erected, and institutions established, in connexion with the fair, 
e.g. the house of the committee (1890), banks, a theatre, a circus, 
a new semicircular canal and a second floating bridge, under- 
ground galleries, a water-supply, an electrical tramway, temper- 
ance tea-shops and restaurants kept by the Society of Tradesmen. 
The Siberian harbour is conspicuous during the fair on account 
of its accumulations of tea boxes and temporary shelters, in 
which the different kinds of tea are tried and appraised by 
tasters. The point of the peninsula is occupied by the store- 
houses of the steamboat companies, while metal wares and corn 
are discharged on a long island of the Oka, at the iron harbour 
and in Grebnovskaya harbour. An island in the Volga is the 
place where various kinds of rough wares are landed. The rail- 
way from Moscow has its terminus close to the fair buildings, 
to the south of which is the suburb of Kunavino, widely known 
throughout the East as a place for amusements of the lowest kind 
during the fair. On the fair side the Alexander Nevski cathedral 
was erected in 1881, and there too is the older " Fair " cathedral 
of 1822. 

The climate of Nizhniy is harsh and continental, the yearly 
average temperature being 39 Fahr. (10-6 in January and 64 
in July), and the extreme thermometric readings -40 and 
104 Fahr. The town has a settled population of (1897) 90,053 
inhabitants, who are nearly all Great-Russians, and many of 
them Nonconformists. The mortality exceeds the birth-rate. 
The educational institutions include a military school, a technical 
school, a theological seminary, and two schools for sons and 
daughters of the clergy. 

The manufactures include steam flour-mills, iron and 
machinery works, manufactories of ropes and candles, distil- 
leries and potteries. Shipbuilding, especially for the transport 
of petroleum on the Caspian Sea, and steamboat building, have 
recently advanced considerably. Nizhniy is the chief station of 
the Volga steamboat traffic. The first steamer made its appear- 
ance on the Volga in 1821, but it was not till 1845 that steam 
navigation began to assume large proportions. The merchants 
carry on a brisk trade, valued (apart from that of the fair) at 
more than 2,000,000 of purchases and 1,800,000 of sales; 
the principal items are corn (200,000 to 500,000), salt, iron, 
tea, fish, groceries and manufactured goods. 

The chief importance of the city is due to its fair, which is 
held from the 29th of July to the loth of September. From 
remote antiquity Russian merchants were wont to meet in 
summer with those from the East at different places on the Volga, 
between the mouths of the Oka and the Kama the fair changing 
its site with the increasing or decreasing power of the nation- 
alities which struggled for the possession of the middle Volga. 
Bolgari, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Kazan and Vasilsursk have succes- 
sively been its seat since the loth century. From 1641 its seat 
was at a monastery 55 m. below Nizhniy and close to Makaryev 
(whence its present name). The situation, however, being in 
many ways inconvenient, and a conflagration having destroyed 
the shops at Makaryev, the fair was transferred in 1817 to its 
present locality at Nizhniy-Novgorod. 



722 



NOAH NOAILLES 



The goods mostly dealt in are cotton, woollen, linen and silk stuffs 
(35 to 38 % of the whole), iron and iron wares, furs and skins, pottery, 
salt, corn, fish, wine and all kinds of manufactured goods. The 
Russian goods constitute four-fifths of the whole trade; those 
brought from Asia tea (imported via Kiakhta and via Canton 
and Suez), raw cotton and silk, leather wares, madder and various 
manufactured wares do not exceed 10 or 11%. Manufactured 
wares, groceries and wines are the goods principally imported from 
western Europe. The total turnover of goods sold and " ordered " 
amounts to nearly 36^ millions sterling annually. The former 
category dropped, however, from 26 millions in 1881 to 14 millions 

In 1880, the Russian manufacturers depending chiefly on the 
barter-trade in tea at Kiakhta, their production was regulated 
principally by the prices of tea established at the fair; but now 
cotton takes the lead, and the prospective output for the year of the 
mills of central Russia is determined at the fair by the price of raw 
cotton imported from Asia, by that of madder, and by the results of 
the year's crop, which became known during the fair. The same 
holds good with regard to all other stuffs, the prices of wool (pro- 
visionally established at the earlier fairs of south-western Russia) 
being ultimately settled at Nizhniy, as well as those of raw silk. 
The whole of the iron production of the Urals depends also on the 
same fair. The " caravans " of boats laden with iron-ware, starting 
from the Urals works in the spring, reach Nizhniy in August, after a 
stay at the fair of Laishev, which supplies the lower Volga ; and the 
purchases of iron made at Nizhniy for Asia and middle Russia deter- 
mine the amount of credit that will be granted for the next year's 
business to the owners of the ironworks, on which credit most of 
them entirely depend. The fair thus influences directly all the 
leading branches of Russian manufacture. It exercises a yet greater 
influence on the corn and 'salt trades throughout Russia, and still 
more on the whole of the trade in Siberia and Turkestan, both de- 
pending entirely on the conditions of credit which the Siberian and 
Turkestan merchants obtain at the fair. 

The Makaryevskaya fair attracts no fewer than 400,000 people 
from all parts of Russia, and partly from Asia. 

Two other fairs of some importance are held at Nizhniy one for 
wooden wares on the ice of the Qka, and another, in June, for horses. 

History. The confluence of the Oka and the Volga, inhabited 
in the loth century by Mordvinian tribes, began to be coveted 
by the Russians as soon as they had occupied the upper Volga, 
and as early as the nth century they established a fort, 
Gorodets, 20 m. above the mouth of the Oka. In 1221, the 
people of Suzdal, under Yuri Vsevolodovich, prince of Vladimir, 
erected a fort on the hill now occupied by the Kremlin of Nizhniy. 
Until the beginning of the I4th century Nizhniy-Novgorod, 
which grew rapidly as the Russians colonized the banks of the 
Oka, remained subject to Suzdal; it enjoyed, however, almost 
complete independence, being ruled by its popular assembly. 
In the i4th century, until 1390, it elected its own princes. Ill- 
protected by its palisaded walls, it was plundered in 1377 and 
1378 by the Tatars, supported by the Mordvinians. In 1390 
Prince Vasili of Moscow, in alliance with Toktamish, khan of the 
Golden Horde of the Mongols, took Nizhniy and established his 
own governors there; in 1417 -it was definitely annexed to 
Moscow, becoming a stronghold for the further advance of that 
principality towards the east. It was fortified in 1508-1511, 
and was able to repel the Tatars in 1513, 1520 and 1536. The 
second half of the i6th century was for the city a period of 
peaceful and rapid development. It became a dep6t for all 
merchandize brought from the south-east, and even English 
merchants established warehouses there. With the fall of 
Kazan, and the opening of free navigation on the Volga, it 
became the starting-place for the " caravan " of boats yearly 
sent to the lower Volga under the protection of a military force, 
whilst the thick forests of the neighbourhood favoured the 
development of shipbuilding. In 1606-1611 the trading classes 
of Nizhniy took an active part in the expeditions against the 
revolted serfs, and it was a Nizhniy dealer in cattle, Kozma 
Minin Sukhorukov, who took the initiative in sending an army 
for the delivery of Moscow from the Poles in 1612. In 1667 the 
robber chieftain, Stenka Razin, made an unsuccessful attempt 
to capture the city. During the 1 7th century the country around 
Nizhniy became the seat of a vigorous religious agitation, and 
in its forests the Raskolniks established hundreds of their 
monasteries and communities, those of the Kerzhenets playing 
an important part in the history of Russian Nonconformity 
even to the present time. 



Nizhniy-Novgorod had at one time two academies, Greek and 
Slav, and took some part in the literary movement of the end of 
the 1 8th century; its theatre also was of some importance in the 
history of the Russian stage. (P. A. K; J. T. BE.) 

NOAH (nJ, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, 
Note, Ncoxos, Ntotos: Vulg. No'e). According to Gen. v.-x. the 
tenth patriarch in direct descent from Adam, counting Adam 
as the first; the son of Lamech; the father of Shem, Ham and 
Japheth; and the builder of the Ark, in which he and his 
family, &c. &c., were saved from a universal flood (see DELUGE). 
After the flood subsided God made a covenant with Noah per- 
mitting the use of animal food, on condition that the flesh is not 
eaten with the blood; and forbidding homicide (ix. 1-7, cf. 
i. 29 f., both P.). Noah was the first to cultivate the vine and to 
experience the consequences of over-indulgence in its products, an 
occasion which called forth the filial respect of two of his sons 
and the irreverence of the third. Through his sons he became 
the ancestor of the whole human race. The name is mentioned 
in the genealogy in i Chron. i. 4; the " waters of Noah " occur 
in Isaiah liv. 9; and Noah is mentioned with Daniel and Job 
as an ancient worthy in Ezek. xiv. 14, 20. The story is referred 
to in the New Testament in Matt. xxiv. 37 f.; Luke iii. 36, 
xvii. 26 f.; Heb. xi. 7; i Pet. iii. 20; 2 Pet. ii. 5. 

The name Noah is explained in Gen. v. 29 as connected with 
the root nhm " comfort," but this is etymologically impossible. 
As a Hebrew word it might connect with ntiah, " rest "; and the 
Septuagint has, " he will give us rest," instead of " he will 
comfort us "; and this is sometimes accepted as the original 
reading. 

As the tenth patriarch Noah corresponds to the tenth pre- 
historic Babylonian king, Xisuthros in Berossus, Ut-napistim 
or Atrahasis in the cuneiform tablets, the hero of the Babylonian 
flood story. 

Gen. ix. 20-27 is a distinct episode, and has no necessary con- 
nexion with the narrative of the Deluge. Probably, as Gunkel, 
Dillmann and others suggest, it came originally from a cycle of 
stories different from that which contained the account of the 
Flood. There are some apparent inconsistencies. Noah is called 
" the husbandman." The proper rendering of verse 20 is " and 
Noah, the husbandman, was the first to plant a vineyard," the 
E.V.: " And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted 
a vineyard," is incorrect. It seems, therefore, that in the original 
context Noah had been described as " the husbandman," a title 
in no way suggested by Gen. vi. cHx. 19. Moreover, even after 
making allowance for lack of experience as to the effect of the 
new product, drunkenness and exposure hardly tally with the 
statement that " Noah was a just man and perfect in his genera- 
tions, and Noah walked with God," vi. 9. This indeed comes 
from the late Priestly Code; but we are also told in the earlier 
story that " Noah found favour in the eyes of the Lord," vi. 8. 

The name also occurs in the Bible (nyj, NouA, Noa) for the 
daughter of Zelophehad, of the tribe of Manasseh. Zelophehad 
having only daughters, the case is made the occasion of laying 
down the law that where there are no sons daughters inherit, 
but must marry within their own tribe (Num. xxvi. 33, xxvii. i, 
xxxvi. ii ; Josh. xvii. 3, all Priestly Code). (W. H. BE.) 

NOAILLES, the name of a great French family, derived from 
the castle of Noailles in the territory of Ayen, between Brive 
and Turenne in the Limousin, and claiming to date back to the 
nth century. It did not obtain fame until the i6th century, 
when its head, ANTOINE de Noailles (1504-1562), became admiral 
of France, and was ambassador in England during three im- 
portant years, 1553-1556, maintaining a gallant but unsuccessful 
rivalry with the Spanish ambassador, Simon Renard. HENRI 
(1554-1623), son of Antoine, was a commander in the religious 
wars, and was made comte d'Ayen by Henry IV. in 1593. ANNE 
(d. 1678), the grandson of the first count, played an important 
part in the Fronde and the early years of the reign of Louis XIV., 
became captain-general of the newly won province of Roussillon, 
and in 1 663 was made due d'Ayen, and peer of France. The sons 
of the first duke raised the family to its greatest fame. The 
eldest son, ANNE JULES (1650-1708), was one of the chief generals 



NOAKHALI NOBEL 



723 



of France towards the end of the reign of Louis XIV., and, 
after raising the regiment of Noailles in 1689, he commanded 
in Spain during the war of the Spanish succession, and was made 
marshal of France in 1693. A younger son, Louis ANTOINE 
(1651-1729), was made archbishop of Paris in 1695, holding this 
high dignity until his death; he was made a cardinal in 1699. 
The name of Noailles occurs with almost confusing reiteration 
throughout the i8th century. ADRIEN MAURICE (1678-1766), 
the third duke, served in all the most important wars of the reign 
of Louis XV. in Italy and Germany, and became a marshal 
in 1734. His last command was in the war of the Austrian 
succession, when he was beaten by the English at the battle of 
Dettingen in 1743. He married Franchise d'Aubign6, a niece of 
Madame de Maintenon and two of his sons also attained the rank 
of marshal of France. The elder, LOOTS (1713-1793), who bore 
the title of due d'Ayen till his father's death in 1766, when he 
became due de Noailles, served in most of the wars of the i8th 
century without particular distinction, but was nevertheless made 
a marshal in 1775. He refused to emigrate during the Revolution, 
but escaped the guillotine by dying in August 1793, before the 
Terror reached its height. On the 4th Thermidor (July 22) 
the aged duchesse de Noailles was executed with her daughter-in- 
law, the duchesse d'Ayen, and her granddaughter, the vicomtesse 
de Noailles. JEAN PAUL FRANCOIS (1739-1824), the fifth duke, 
was in the army, but his tastes were scientific, and for his emin- 
ence as a chemist he was elected a member of the Academy of 
Sciences in 1777. He became due d'Ayen in 1766 on his grand- 
father's death, and due de Noailles on his father's in 1793. 
Having emigrated in 1792, he lived in Switzerland until the 
Restoration in 1814, when he took his seat as a peer of France. 
He had no son, and was succeeded as due de Noailles by his 
grand-nephew, PAUL (1802-1885), who won some reputation 
as an author, and who became a member of the French Academy 
in the place of Chateaubriand in 1849. The grandfather of 
Paul de Noailles, and brother of the fifth duke, EMMANUEL 
MARIE LOOTS (1743-1822), marquis de Noailles, was ambassador 
at Amsterdam from 1770-1776, at London 1776-1783, and at 
Vienna 1783-1792. 

One other branch of the family deserves notice. PHILIPPE (1715- 
1794), comte de Noailles, afterwards due de Mouchy, was a younger 
brother of the fourth duke, and a more distinguished soldier than his 
brother. He served at Minden and in other campaigns, and was 
made a marshal on the same day as his brother. He was long in 
great favour at court, and his wife was first lady of honour to Marie 
Antoinette, and was nicknamed by her Madame Etiquette. This 
court favour brought down punishment in the days of the Revolution, 
and the old marshal and his wife were guillotined on the 27th of June 
1794. His two sons, the prince de Poix and the vicomte de Noailles, 
were members of the Constituent Assembly. 

PHILIPPE Louis MARC ANTOINE, duke of Noailles and prince of 
Poix (1752-1819), was born on the 2ist of November 1752. In 1789 
he was elected deputy of the States-General by the nobility of the 
baittiages of Amiens and Ham, but was compiled to resign in 
consequence of a duel with the commander of the Garde Nationale 
at Versailles. He left the country for some time, but returned to 
France and took part in the revolution of the loth of August 1792. 
He was, however, forced to quit the country once more to evade 
the fate of his father and mother. Returning to France in 1800, he 
lived quietly at his residence at Mouchy during the empire. At the 
Restoration he was brought again into favour and became a peer of 
France. He died at Paris on the I7th of February 1819. 

Louis MARIE (1756-1804), vicomte de Noailles, was the second 
son of the marshal. He served brilliantly under La_Fayette in 
America, and was the officer who concluded the capitulation of York- 
town. He was elected to the States-General in 1789. He began the 
famous " orgie," as Mirabeau called it, on the 4th of August, when all 
privileges were abolished, and with d'Aiguillon proposed the abolition 
of titles and liveries in June 1790. When the revolution became 
more pronounced he emigrated to America, and became a partner 
in Bingham's bank at Philadelphia. He was very successful, and 
might have lived happily had he not accepted a command against 
the English in San Domingo, under Rochambeau. He made a 
brilliant defence of the mole St Nicholas, and escaped with the 
garrison to Cuba; but in making for Havana his ship was attacked 
by an English frigate, and after a long engagement he was severely 
wounded, and died of his wounds on the 9th of January 1804. 

NOAKHALI, a town and district of British India, in the 
Chittagong division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town, 
also known as Sudharam, is on a small river channel 10 m. from 



the sea. Pop (1001) 6520. The DISTRICT OF NOAKHALI has 
an area of 1644 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,141,728. The district 
consists of an alluvial tract of mainland, together with several 
islands at the mouth of the Meghna. In general, each home- 
stead is surrounded by a thick grove of betel- and coco-nut 
palms, and in the north-western tracts dense forests of betel-nut 
palms extend for miles. Rice is the great staple of cultivation. 
The district is very fertile; and, with the exception of some 
sandbanks and recent accretions, every part of it is under con- 
tinuous cultivation. The process of alluvion is gradually but 
steadily going on, the mainland extending seawards. Noakhali 
is peculiarly liable to destructive floods from the sea, generally 
caused by southerly gales or cyclones occurring at the time when 
the Meghna is swollen by heavy rains, and at flood-tides the 
tidal bore being sometimes 20 ft. high, and moving at the rate 
of 15 m. an hour. The cyclone and storm-wave of the 3ist of 
October 1876 was terribly disastrous, sweeping over the whole 
delta of the Meghna. The loss of human life was estimated at 
100,000. The east of the district is served by the Assam-Bengal 
railway. 

The Mahommedan population of the islands at the mouth of the 
Meghna practised piracy up to a comparatively recent date, and 
at the beginning of the I7th century Portuguese pirates, under 
Sebastian Gonzales, occupied Sandwip. They were ultimately 
reduced to subjection by Shaista Khan, the governor of Bengal, 
about the middle of the century; and their descendants have 
sunk to the level of the natives surrounding them, whose dress, 
customs and language they have, for the most part, adopted. 
They are Christians, and retain xhe old Portuguese names. 
About 1756 the East India Company established factories in 
Noakhali and Tippera, the ruins of some of which still remain. 

NOBEL, ALFRED BERNHARD (1833-1896), Swedish chemist 
and engineer, was the third son of Emmanuel Nobel (1801-1872), 
and was born at Stockholm on the 2ist of October 1833. At 
an early age he went with his family to St Petersburg, where 
his father started torpedo works. In 1859 these were left to the 
care of the second son, Ludvig Emmanuel (1831-1888), by 
whom they were greatly enlarged, and Alfred, returning to 
Sweden with his father, devoted himself to the study of ex- 
plosives, and especially to the manufacture and utilization of 
nitroglycerin. He found that when that body was incorporated 
with an absorbent, inert substance like kieselguhr it became 
safer and more convenient to manipulate, and this mixture he 
patented in 1867 as dynamite. He next combined nitro- 
glycerin with another high explosive, gun-cotton, and obtained 
a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a still more 
powerful explosive than dynamite. Blasting gelatin, as it 
was called, was patented hi 1876, and was followed by a host 
of similar combinations, modified by the addition of potassium 
nitrate, wood-pulp and various other substances. Some 
thirteen years later Nobel produced ballistite, one of the earliest 
of the nitroglycerin smokeless powders, containing in its 
latest forms about equal parts of gun-cotton and nitroglycerin. 
This powder was a precursor of cordite, and Nobel's claim that 
his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously 
contested law-suits between him and the British Government 
in 1894 and 1895. Cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and 
gun-cotton, but the form of the latter which its inventors wished 
to use was the most highly nitrated variety, which is not soluble 
in mixtures of ether and alcohol, whereas Nobel contemplated 
using a less nitrated form, which is soluble in such mixtures. 
The question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice 
impossible to prepare either of these two forms without ad- 
mixture of the other; but eventually the courts decided against 
Nobel. From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives, 
and from the exploitation of the Baku oil-fields, hi the develop- 
ment of which he and his brothers, Ludvig and Robert Hjalmar 
(1829-1896), took a leading part, he amassed an immense 
fortune; and at his death, which occurred on the loth of 
December 1896 at San Remo, he left the bulk of it in trust for 
the establishment of five prizes, each worth several thousand 
pounds, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. 



724 



NOBILI NOBILITY 



The first three of these prizes are for eminence in physical 
science, in chemistry and in medical science or physiology; 
the fourth is for the most remarkable literary work dans le sens 
d'idealisme; and the fifth is to be given to the person or society 
that renders the greatest service to the cause of international 
brotherhood, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, 
or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses. 
See Les Prix Nobel en 1901 (Stockholm, 1904). 

NOBILI, LEOPOLDO (1784-1835), Italian physicist, born at 
Reggio nelT Emilia in 1784, was in youth an officer of artillery, 
but afterwards became professor of physics in the archducal 
museum at Florence, the old habitat of the Accademia del 
Cimento. His most valuable contributions to science consist 
in the suggestion of the astatic combination of two needles for 
galvanometers, and in the invention of the so-called thermo- 
multiplier used by him and M. Melloni. In 1826 he described 
the prismatically-coloured films of metal, known as Nobili's 
rings, deposited electrolytically from solutions of lead and other 
salts when the anode is a polished iron plate and the cathode is 
a fine wire placed vertically above it. His papers were mostly 
published in the Bibliotheque unwersdle of Geneva. He died 
at Florence in August 1835. 

NOBILIOR, MARCUS FULVIUS, Roman general, a member of 
one of the most important families of the plebeian Fulvian 
gens. When praetor (193 B.C.) he served with distinction in 
Spain, and as consul in 189 he completely broke the power of the 
Aetolian league. On his return to Rome, Nobilior celebrated a 
triumph (of which full details are given by Livy) remarkable 
for the magnificence of the spoils exhibited. On his Aetolian 
campaign he was accompanied by the poet Ennius, who made 
the capture of Ambracia, at which he was present, the subject 
of one of his plays. For this Nobilior was bitterly attacked by 
Cato the Censor, on the ground that he had compromised his 
dignity as a Roman general. He restored the temple of Hercules 
and the Muses in the Circus Flaminius, placed in it a list of 
Fasti drawn up by himself, and endeavoured to make the 
Roman calendar more generally known. He was a great en- 
thusiast for Greek art and culture, and introduced many of its 
masterpieces into Rome, amongst them the picture of the 
Muses by Zeuxis from Ambracia. 

NOBILITY. To form a true understanding of what is strictly 
implied in the word " nobility," in its social as opposed to a 
purely moral sense, it is needful to distinguish its meaning from 
that of several words with which it is likely to be confounded. 
In England nobility is apt to be confounded with the peculiar 
institution of the British peerage. Yet nobility, in some shape or 
another, has existed in most places and times of the world's 
history, while the British peerage is an institution purely local, 
and one which has actually hindered the existence of a nobility 
in the sense which the word bears in most other countries. 
Nor is nobility the same thing as aristocracy. This last is a word 
which is often greatly abused; but, whenever it is used with 
any regard to its true meaning, it is a word strictly political, 
implying a particular form of government. But nobility is 
not necessarily a political term; the distinction which it implies 
may be accompanied by political privileges or it may not. Again, 
it is sometimes thought that both nobility and aristocracy are 
in some special way connected with kingly government. To 
not a few it would seem a contradiction to speak of nobility 
or aristocracy in a republic. Yet, though many republics have 
eschewed nobility, there is nothing in a republican, or even in a 
democratic, form of government inconsistent with the existence 
of nobility; and it is only in a republic that -aristocracy, in the 
strict sense of the word, can exist. Aristocracy implies the 
existence of nobility; but nobility does not imply aristocracy; 
it may exist under any form of government. The peerage, 
as it -exists in the three British kingdoms, is something which 
is altogether peculiar to the three British kingdoms, and which 
has nothing in the least degree lik'e it elsewhere. 

Nobility, then, in the strict sense of the word, is the hereditary 
handing on from generation to generation of some acknow- 
ledged pre-eminence, a pre-eminence founded on hereditary 



succession, and on nothing else. Such nobility may be imme- 
morial or it may not. There may or there may not be a power 
vested somewhere of conferring nobility; but it is DtHttltloa 
essential to the true idea of nobility that, when once 
acquired, it shall go on for ever to all the descendants or, 
more commonly, only to all the descendants in the male line 
of the person first ennobled or first recorded as noble. The 
pre-eminence so handed on may be of any kind, from substantial 
political power to mere social respect and precedence. It does 
not seem necessary that it should be formally enacted by law 
if it is universally acknowledged by usage. It may be marked 
by titles or it may not. It is hardly needful to prove that 
nobility does not imply wealth, though nobility without wealth 
runs some risk of being forgotten. This definition seems to 
take in all the kinds of nobility which have existed in different 
times and places. They have differed widely in the origin of 
the noble class and in the amount of privilege implied in member- 
ship of it; but they all agree in the transmission of some 
privilege or other to all the descendants, or to all the male 
descendants, of the first noble. 

In strictness nobility and gentry are the same thing. This 
fact is overshadowed in England, partly by the habitual use of 
the word " gentleman " (q.v.) in various secondary 
uses, partly by the prevalent confusion between a ad gentry. 
nobility and peerage. But that they are the same 
is proved by the use of the French word gentilhomme, a word 
which has pretty well passed out of modern use, but which, 
as long as it remained in use, never lost its true meaning. There 
were very wide distinctions within the French noblesse, but 
they all formed one privileged class as distinguished from the 
roturier. Here, then, is a nobility in the strictest sense. If 
there is no such class in England, it is simply because the class 
which answers to it has never been able to keep any universally 
acknowledged privileges. The word " gentleman " has lost its 
original meaning in a variety of other uses, while the word 
" nobleman " has come to be confined to members of the peerage 
and a few of their immediate descendants. 

That the English peerage does not answer to the true idea 
of a nobility will be seen with a very little thought. There is no 
handing on of privilege or pre-eminence to perpetual generations. 
The peer holds a great position, endowed with substantial powers 
and privileges, and those powers and privileges are handed on by 
hereditary succession. But they are handed on only to one 
member of the family at a time. The peer's children, in some 
cases his grandchildren, have titles and precedence, but they 
have no substantial privileges. His remoter descendants have 
no advantage of any kind over other people, except their chance 
of succeeding to the peerage. The remote descendant of a duke, 
even though he may chance to be heir presumptive to the duke- 
dom, is in no way distinguished from any other gentleman; 
it is even possible that he may not hold the social rank of gentle- 
man. This is not nobility in the true sense; it is not nobility as 
nobility was understood either in the French kingdom or in the 
Venetian commonwealth. 

Nobility thus implies the vesting of some hereditary privilege 
or advantage in certain families, without deciding in what such 
privilege or advantage consists. Its nature may differ widely 
according to the causes which have led to the establishment 
of the distinction between family and family in each particular 
case. 

The way in which nobility has arisen in different times and 
places is very various, and there are several nations whose 
history will supply us with examples of a nobility 
of one kind giving way to a nobility of another kind. 
The history of the Roman commonwealth illustrates 
this perhaps better than any other. 1 What we may call the 
nobility of earlier occupation makes way for the nobility of 
office. Our first glimpses of authentic Roman history set before 
us two orders in the same state, one of which is distinguished 
from the other by many exclusive privileges. The privileged 

1 For the ethnological problems raised by the relations of popvlus 
and plebs,see ROME: History, i.; also PATRICIANS. 



NOBILITY 



725 



order the populus, patres, patricians has all the characteristics 
which we commonly expect to find in a privileged order. It is a 
minority, a minority strictly marked out by birth from other 
members of the commonwealth, a minority which seems further, 
though this point is less clearly marked, to have had on the whole 
the advantage in point of wealth. When we are first entitled 
to speak with any kind of certainty, the non-privileged class 
possess a certain share in the election of magistrates and the 
making of laws. But the privileged class alone are eligible to the 
greatest offices of the state; they have in their hands the ex- 
clusive control ef the national religion; they have the exclusive 
enjoyment of the common land of the state in Teutonic phrase, 
the folkland. A little research shows that the origin of these 
privileges was a very simple one. Those who appear in later times 
as a privileged order among the people had once been the whole 
people. The patricians, patres, housefathers, goodmen so 
lowly is the origin of that proud name were once the whole 
Roman people, the original inhabitants of the Roman hills. They 
were the true populus Romanus, alongside of whom grew up 
a secondary Roman people, the plebs or commons. As new 
settlers came, as the people of conquered towns were moved to 
Rome, as the character of Romans was granted to some allies 
and forced upon some enemies, this plebs, sharing some but not all 
of the rights of citizens, became a non-privileged order alongside 
of a privileged order. As the non-privileged order increased in 
numbers, while the privileged order, as every exclusive hereditary 
body must do, lessened, the larger body gradually put on the 
character of the nation at large, while the smaller body put 
on the character of a nobility. But their position as a nobility 
or privileged class arose solely because a class with inferior rights 
to their own grew up around them. They were not a nobility 
or a privileged class as long as there was no less privileged class 
to distinguish them from. Their exclusive possession of power 
made the commonwealth in which they bore rule an aristocracy; 
but they were a democracy among themselves. We see indeed 
faint traces of distinction among the patricians themselves, 
which may lead us to guess that the equality of all patricians may 
have been won by struggles of unrecorded days, not unlike those 
which in recorded days brought about the equality of patrician 
and plebeian. But at this we can only guess. The Roman 
patricians, the true Roman populus, appear at our first sight of 
them as a body democratic in its own constitution, but standing 
out as an order marked by very substantial privileges indeed 
from the other body, the plebs, also democratic in its own con- 
stitution, but in every point of honour and power the marked 
inferior of the populus. 

The old people of Rome thus grew, or rather shrank up, into a 
nobility by the growth of a new people by their side which they 
p trie/ as declined to admit to a share in their rights, powers 
and possessions. A series of struggles raised this 
new people, the plebs, to a level with the old people, the 
populus. The gradual character of the process is not the least 
instructive part of it. There are two marked stages in the 
struggle. In the first the plebeians strive to obtain relief from 
laws and customs which were actually oppressive to them, while 
they were profitable to the patricians. When this relief has been 
gained by a series of enactments, a second struggle follows, in 
which the plebeians win political equality with the patricians. 
In this second struggle, too, the ground is won bit by bit. No 
general law was ever passed to abolish the privileges of the 
patricians; still less was any law ever passed to abolish the dis- 
tinction between patrician and plebeian. All that was done was 
done step by step. First, marriage between the two orders was 
legalized. Then one law admitted plebeians to one office, another 
law to another. Admission to military command was won first, 
then admission to civil jurisdiction; a share in religious functions 
was won last of all. And some offices, chiefly those religious 
offices which carried no political power with them, always 
remained the exclusive property of the patricians, because no 
special law was ever passed to throw them open to plebeians. 
In this gradual way every practical advantage on the part of the 
patricians was taken away. But the result did not lead to the 



abolition of all distinctions between the orders. Patricians and 
plebeians went on as orders defined by law, till the distinction 
died out in the confusion of things under the empire, till at last 
the word " patrician " took quite a new meaning. The distinc- 
tion, in truth, went on till the advantage turned to the side of 
the plebeians. Both consuls might be plebeians, both could not 
be patricians; a patrician could not wield the great powers vested 
in the tribunes of the commons. These were greater advantages 
than the exclusive patrician possession of the offices of interrex, 
rex sacrorum and the higher flamens. And, as the old distinction 
survived in law and religion after all substantial privileges were 
abolished, so presently a new distinction arose of which law 
and religion knew nothing, but which became in practice nearly 
as marked and quite as important as the older one. 

This was the growth of the new nobility of Rome, that body, 
partly patrician, partly plebeian, to whom the name nobilitas 
strictly belongs in Roman history. This new nobility gradually 
became as well marked and as exclusive as the old patriciate. 
But if differed from the old patriciate in this, that, while the 
privileges of the old patriciate rested on law, or perhaps rather 
on immemorial custom, the privileges of the new nobility 
rested wholly on a sentiment of which men could remember 
the beginning. Or it would be more accurate to say that the new 
nobility had really no privileges at all. Its members had no 
legal advantages over other citizens. They were a social caste, 
which strove to keep, and which largely succeeded in keeping, 
all high offices and political power in its own hands. Such 
privileges, even of an honorary kind, as the nobles did enjoy 
by law belonged to them, not as nobles, but as senators and 
senators' sons. Yet practically the new nobility was a privileged 
class; it felt itself to be so, and it was felt to be so by others. 
This nobility consisted of all those who, as descendants of curule 
magistrates, had the jus imaginum that is, who could point 
to forefathers ennobled by office. That is to say, it consisted 
of the remains of the old patriciate, together with those plebeian 
families any members of which had been chosen to curule 
offices. These were naturally those families which had been 
patrician in some other Italian city, but which were plebeian 
at Rome. Many of them equalled the patricians in wealth 
and antiquity of descent, and as soon as inter-marriage was 
allowed they became in all things their social equals. The 
practical result of the Licinian reform was that the great plebeian 
families became, for all practical purposes, patrician. They 
separated themselves from the mass of the plebeians to form 
a single body with the surviving patricians. Just as the old 
patricians had striven to keep plebeians out of high offices, 
so now the new nobles, patrician and plebeian alike, strove to 
keep " new men," men who had not the jus imaginum, out of 
high office. But there was still the difference that in the old 
state of things the plebeian was shut out by law, while in the 
new state of things no law shut out the new man. It needed 
a change in the constitution to give the consulship to Lucius 
Sextius; it needed only union and energy in the electors to 
give it to Gaius Marius. 

The Roman case is often misunderstood, because the later 
Roman writers did not fully understand the case themselves. 
Livy could never get rid of the idea that the old struggle between 
patrician and plebeian was something like the struggle between 
the nobility and the 'people at large in the later days of the 
commonwealth. In a certain sense he knew better; at any rate, 
he often repeats the words of those who knew better; but the 
general impression given by his story is that the plebeians were 
a low mob and their leaders factious and interested ringleaders 
of a mob. The case is again often misunderstood because the 
words " patrician " and " plebeian," like so many other technical 
Roman and Greek words, have come in modern language to 
be used in a way quite unlike their original sense. The word 
" plebeian," in its strict sense, is no more contemptuous than 
the word commoner in England. The plebs, like the English 
commons, contained families differing widely in rank and social 
position, among them those families which, as soon as an artificial 
barrier broke down, joined with the patricians to form the new 



726 



NOBILITY 



nobility. The whole lesson is lost if the words "patrician" 
and " plebeian " are used in any but their strict sense. The 
Catuli and Metelli, among the proudest nobles of Rome, were 
plebeians, and as such could not have been chosen to the purely 
patrician office of interrex, or flamen of Jupiter. Yet even in 
good writers on Roman history the words " patrician " and 
" plebeian " are often misapplied by being transferred to the 
later disputes at Rome, in which they are quite out of place. 

We may now compare the history of nobility at Rome with 
its history in some other of the most famous city-commonwealths. 
Thus at Athens * its history is in its main outlines 
'par/son verv muc h tne same as its history at Rome up to a 
between certain point, while there is nothing at Athens which 
Roman and at all answers to the later course of things at Rome. 
At Athens > ** at R m e, an old patriciate, a nobility of 
older settlement, a nobility which had once been the 
whole people, was gradually shorn of all exclusive privilege, 
and driven to share equal rights with a new people which 
had grown up around it. The reform of Cleisthenes (q.v.) 
answers in a general way to the reform of Licinius, though the 
different circumstances of the two cities hinder us from carrying 
out the parallel into detail. But both at Rome and at Athens 
we see, at a stage earlier than the final reform, an attempt 
to set up a standard of wealth, either instead of or alongside 
of the older standard of birth. This same general idea comes 
out both in the constitution of Servius and in the constitution 
of Solon, though the application of the principle is different 
in the two cases. Servius made voting power depend on income; 
by Solon the same rule was applied to qualification for office. 
By this change power is not granted to every citizen, but it is 
put within the reach of every citizen. No man can change his 
forefathers, but the poor man may haply become richer. The 
Athenian tinrarpidai., who were thus gradually brought down 
from their privileged position, seem to have been quite as proud 
and exclusive as the Roman patricians; but when they lost 
their privileges they lost them far more thoroughly, and they 
did not, as at Rome, practically hand on many of them to a new 
nobility, of which they formed part, though not the whole. 
While at Rome the distinction of patrician and plebeian was never 
wiped out, while it remained to the last a legal distinction even 
when practical privilege had turned the other way, at Athens, 
after the democracy had reached its full growth, the distinction 
seems to have had no legal existence whatever. At Rome 
down to the last it made a difference whether the candidate for 
office was patrician or plebeian, though the difference was in 
later times commonly to the advantage of the plebeian. At 
Athens, at any rate after Aristides, the eupatrid was neither 
better nor worse off than another man. 

But, what is of far greater importance, there never arose at 
Athens any body of men which at all answered to the nobilitas of 
Rome. We see at Athens strong signs of social distinctions, 
even at a late period of the democracy; we see that, though 
the people might be led by the low-born demagogue using that 
word in its strict and not necessarily dishonourable meaning 
their votes most commonly fell on men of ancient descent. 
We see that men of birth and wealth often allowed themselves 
a strange licence in dealing with their low-born fellow-citizens. 
But we see no sign of the growth of a body made up of patricians 
and leading plebeians who contrived to keep office to themselves 
by a social tradition only less strong than positive law. We 
have at Athens the exact parallel to the state of things when 
Apprus Claudius shrank from the thought of the consulship of 
Gaius Licinius; we have no exact parallel to the state of things 
when Quintus Metellus shrank from the thought of the consulship 
of Gaius Marius. The cause of the difference seems to be that, 
while the origin of the patriciate was exactly the same at Rome 
and at Athens, the origin of the commons was different. The 
four Ionic tribes at Athens seem to have answered very closely 
to the three patrician tribes at Rome; but the Athenian demos 
grew up in a different way from the Roman plebs. If we could 
believe that the Athenian demos arose out of the union of the 
'See further ATHENS: History, and EUPATRIDAE. 



other Attic towns with Athens, this would be an exact analogy 
to the origin of the Roman plebs; the emarpiSai would be the 
Athenians and the demos the Atticans ('Arruioi). But from 
such glimpses of early Attic history as we can get the union of 
the Attic towns would seem to have been completed before the 
constitutional struggle began. That union would answer rather 
to the union of the three patrician tribes of Rome. Such hints 
as we have, while they set before us, just as at Rome, a state 
of things in which small landed proprietors are burthened with 
debt, also set before us the Attic demos as, largely at least, a 
body of various origins which had grown up in the city. Cleis- 
thenes, for instance, enfranchised many slaves and strangers, 
a course which certainly formed no part of the platform of 
Licinius, and which reminds us rather of Gnaeus Flavius some- 
what later. On the whole it seems most likely that, while the 
kernel of the Roman plebs was rural or belonged to the small 
towns admitted to the Roman franchise, the Attic demos, largely at 
least, though doubtless not wholly, arose out of the mixed settlers 
who had come together in the city, answering to the /ITCHKOI of 
later times. If so, there would be no place in Athens for those great 
plebeian houses, once patrician in some other commonwealth, 
out of which the later Roman nobilitas was so largely formed. 

Thus the history of nobility at Athens supplies a close analogy 
to the earlier stages of its history at Rome, but it has nothing 
answering to its later stages. At Sparta we have a third instance 
of a people shrinking up into a nobility, but it is a people whose 
position differs altogether from anything either at Rome or at 
Athens. Sparta is the best case of a nobility of conquest. This 
is true, whether we look on the irepioiKOL as Achaeans or as Dorians, 
or as belonging some to one race and some to the other (see 
PERIOECI). In any case the Spartans form a ruling body, and a 
body whose privileged position in the land is owing to conquest. 
The Spartans answer to the patricians, the iveploiKoi to the 
plebs; the helots are below the position of plebs or demos. The 
only difference is that, probably owing to the fact that the 
distinction was due to conquest, the local character of the dis- 
tinction lived on much longer than it did at Rome. We hardly 
look on the Spartans as a nobility among the other Lacedae- 
monians; Sparta rather is a ruling city bearing sway over the 
other Lacedaemonian towns. But this is exactly what the original 
Roman patricians, the settlers on the three oldest hills, were in the 
beginning. The so-called cities (iroXeis) of the irepioixoi answered 
pretty well to the local plebeian tribes; the difference is that the 
irepioiKoi never became a united corporate body like the Roman 
plebs. Sparta to the last remained what Rome was at the 
beginning, a city with a populus (Sfjuos) but no plebs. And, as 
at Rome in early times, there were at Sparta distinctions within 
the populus; there were o^oiot and moiuiovK, like the majores 
and minores gentes at Rome. Only at Rome, where there was a 
plebs to be striven against, these distinctions seem to have had a 
tendency to die out, while at Sparta they seem to have had a 
tendency to widen. The Spartan patriciate could afford to 
disfranchise some of its own members. 

The other old Greek cities, as well as those of medieval Italy 
and Germany, would supply us with endless examples of the 
various ways in which privileged orders arose. Venice, a city 
not exactly belonging to any of these classes, essentially a city 
of the Eastern empire and not of the Western, gives us an example 
than which none is more instructive. The renowned patriciate 
of Venice was as far removed as might be from the character either 
of a nobility of conquest or of a nobility of older settlement. 
Nor was it strictly a nobility of office, though it had more in 
common with that than with either of the other two. As Athens 
supplies us with a parallel to the older nobility of Rome without 
any parallel to the later, so Venice supplies us with a parallel to 
the later nobility of Rome without any parallel to the earlier. 
Athens has Fabii and Claudii, but no Catuli or Metelli; Venice 
has Catuli and Metelli, but no Fabii or Claudii. 

In one point, however, the Venetian nobility differed from 
either the older or the newer nobility of Rome, and also from the 
older nobilities of the medieval Italian cities. Nowhere else did 
nobility so distinctly rise out of wealth, and that wealth gained 




NOBILITY 



727 



by commerce. In the original island territory of Venice there 
could be no such thing as landed property. The agricultural 
plebeian of old Rome and the feudal noble of contemporary 
Europe were both of them at Venice impossible characters. The 
Venetian nobility is an example of a nobility which gradually 
arose out of the mass of the people as certain families step by 
step drew all political power into their own hands. The plebs 
did not gather round the patres, neither were they conquered by 
the palres; the patres were developed by natural selection 
out of the plebs, or, more strictly, out of the ancient popitlus. 
The commune of Venice, the ancient style of the common- 
wealth, changed into the seigniory of Venice. Political power 
was gradually confined to those whose forefathers had held 
political power. This was what the later nobility of Rome 
was always striving at, and what they did to a great extent 
practically establish. But, as the exclusive privileges of the 
nobility were never recognized by any legal or formal act, men 
like Gaius Marius would ever and anon thrust themselves in. 
The privileges which the Venetian nobility took to themselves 
were established by acts which, if not legal, were at least formal. 
The Roman nobility, resting wholly on sufferance, was over- 
thrown by the ambition of one of its own members. The Venetian 
nobility, resting also in its beginnings on sufferance, but on 
sufferance which silently obtained the force of law, lasted as long 
as Venice remained a separate state. 

The hereditary oligarchy of Venice was established by a series 
of changes which took place between the years 1297 and 1319. 
All of them together really go to make up the " Shutting of the 
Great Council," a name which is formally given to the act of the 
first of those years. In 1172 the Great Council began as an 
elective body; it gradually ousted the popular assembly from all 
practical power. It was, as might be looked for, commonly filled 
by members of distinguished families, descendants of ancient 
magistrates, who were already beginning to be looked on as noble. 
The series of revolutions already spoken of first made descent 
from former councillors a necessary qualification for election 
to the council; then election was abolished, and the council 
consisted of all descendants of its existing members who had 
reached the age of twenty-five. Thus the oplimates of Venice 
did what the oplimates of Rome strove to do: they established 
a nobility whose one qualification was descent from those who 
had held office in past times. This is what the nobility of office, 
if left unchecked, naturally grows into. But the particular way 
in which oligarchy was finally established at Venice had some 
singular results. Some of the great families which were already 
looked on as noble were not represented in the council at the 
time of the shutting; of others some branches were represented 
and others not. These families and branches of families, however 
noble they might be in descent, were thus shut out from all the 
political privileges of nobility. When one branch of 
Curiae'and' a family was admitted and one shut out we have an 
the Onat analogy to the patrician and plebeian Claudii, though 
Council ot the distinction had come about in quite another way. 
Venice. ^ n( j j n ^j^ Q rea Council itself we have the lively 
image of the aristocratic popular assembly of Rome, the 
assembly of the populus, that of the curiae, where every 
man of patrician birth had his place. The two institutions are 
the same, only the way in which they came about is exactly 
opposite. The assembly of curiae at Rome, originally the 
democratic assembly of the original people, first grew into an 
aristocratic assembly, and then died out altogether as a new 
Roman people, with its own assembly, grew up by its side. 
It was a primitive institution which gradually changed its 
character by force of circumstances. It died out, supplanted 
by other and newer powers, when it became altogether unsuited 
to the times. The Great Council of Venice was anything but a 
primitive institution; it was the artificial institution of a late 
age, which grew at the expense of earlier institutions, of the 
prince on the one side and of the people on the other. But the 
two different roads led to the same result. The Great Council of 
Venice, the curiae of Rome, were each of them the assembly of 
a privileged class, an assembly in which every member of that class 



had a right to a place, an assembly which might be called popular 
as far as the privileged class was concerned, though rigidly 
oligarchic as regarded the excluded classes. But, close as the 
likeness is, it is merely a superficial likeness, because it is the 
result of opposite causes working in opposite directions. It is like 
two men who are both for a moment in the same place, though 
their faces are turned in opposite ways. If the later nobilitas 
of Rome had established an assembly in which every one who had 
the jus imaginum had a vote and none other, that would have 
been a real parallel to the shutting of the Venetian Great Council; 
for it would have come about through the working of causes 
which are essentially the same. 

The nobility which was thus formed at Venice is the very 
model of a civic nobility, a nobility which is also an aristocracy. 
In a monarchy, despotic or constitutional, there Thf 
cannot in strictness be an aristocracy, because the ^ability of 
whole political power cannot be vested in the noble Venice 
class. But in the Venetian commonwealth the nobility **"' arf *'* 
was a real aristocracy. All political power was vested cr * cy ' 
in the noble class; the prince sank to a magistrate, keeping 
only some of the outward forms of sovereignty; the mass of 
the people were shut out altogether. And, if no government 
on earth ever fully carried out the literal meaning of aristocracy 
as the rule of the best, these civic nobilities come nearer to it 
than any other form of government. They do really seem to 
engender a kind of hereditary capacity in their members. Less 
favourable than either monarchy or democracy to the growth 
of occasional great men, they are more favourable than either 
to the constant supply of a succession of able men, qualified 
to carry on the work of government. Their weak point lies in 
their necessary conservatism; they cannot advance and adapt 
themselves to changed circumstances, as either monarchy or 
democracy can. When, therefore, their goodness is gone, their 
corruption becomes worse than the corruption of either of the 
other forms of government. 

All this is signally shown in the history both of Venice and of 
other aristocratic cities. But we are concerned with them now 
only as instances of one form of nobility. The civic 
aristocracies did not all arise in the same way. Venice 
is the best type of one way in which they rose; but crtcie*. 
it is by no means the only way. In not a few of the 
Italian cities nobility had an origin and ran a course quite unlike 
the origin and the course which were its lot at Venice. The 
nobles of many cities were simply the nobles of the surrounding 
country changed, sometimes greatly against their will, into 
citizens. Such a nobility differed far more widely from either 
the Roman or the Venetian patriciate than they differed from 
one another. It wanted the element of legality, or at least of 
formality, which distinguished both these bodies. The privileges 
of the Roman patriciate, whatever we may call them, were 
not usurpations; and, if we call the privileges of the Venetian 
nobility usurpations, they were stealthy and peaceful usurpa- 
tions, founded on something other than mere violence. But in 
many Italian cities the position of the nobles, if it did not begin 
in violence, was maintained by violence, and was often over- 
thrown by violence. They remained, in short, as unruly and 
isolated within the walls of the cities as they had ever been 
without. A nobility of this kind often gave way to a democracy 
which either proved as turbulent as itself, or else grew into an 
oligarchy ruling under democratic forms. Thus at Florence 
the old nobles became the opposite to a privileged class. The 
process which at Rome gradually gave the plebeian a political 
advantage over the patrician was carried at Florence to a far 
greater length at a single blow. The whole noble order was 
disfranchised; to be noble was equivalent to being shut out 
from public office. But something like a new nobility presently 
grew up among the commons themselves; there were popolani 
grossi at Florence just as there were noble plebeians at Rome. 
Only the Roman commons, great and small, never shut out the 
patricians from office; they were satisfied to share office with 
them. In short, the shutting out of the old nobility was, if 
not the formation of a new nobility, at least the formation of a 



728 



NOBILITY 



Hunt 
nobility. 



new privileged class. For a certain class of citizens to be con- 
demned, by virtue of their birth, to political disfranchisement 
is as flatly against every principle of democracy as for a certain 
class of citizens to enjoy exclusive rights by reason of birth. 
The Florentine democracy was, in truth, rather to be called an 
oligarchy, if we accept the best definition of democracy (see 
Thucydides vi. 39), namely, that it is the rule of the whole, 
while oligarchy is the rule of a part only. 

It is in these aristocractic cities, of which Venice was the most 
fully developed model, that we can best see what nobility 
really is. It is in these only that we can see nobility in its purest 
form nobility to which no man can rise and from which no 
man can come down except by the will of the noble class itself. 
In a monarchy, where the king can ennoble, this ideal cannot 
be kept. Nor could it be kept in the later nobility of Rome. 
The new man had much to strive against, but he could some- 
times thrust himself through, and when he did his descendants 
had their jus imaginum. But at Venice neither prince nor people 
could open the door of the Great Council; only the Great Council 
itself could do that. That in the better times of the aristocracy 
nobility was not uncommonly granted to worthy persons, that in 
its worse times it was more commonly sold to unworthy persons, 
was the affair of the aristocratic body itself. That body, at 
all events, could not be degraded save by its own act. But these 
grants and sales led to distinctions within the ranks of the noble 
order, like those of which we get faint glimpses among the 
Roman patricians. The ducal dignity rarely passed out of a 
circle of specially old and distinguished families. But this has 
often been the case with the high magistracies of commonwealths 
whose constitutions were purely democratic. 

From this purest type of nobility, as seen in the aristocratic 
commonwealths, we may pass to nobility as seen in states of 

greater extent that is, for the most part in monarchies. 

There are two marked differences between the two. 

They are differences which seem to be inherent 
in the difference between a republic and a monarchy, but 
which it would be truer to say are inherent in the difference 
between a body of men packed close together within the walls 
of a city and a body of men if we can call them a body 
scattered over a wide territory. The member of a civic nobility 
is more than a member of an order; he is a member of a corpora- 
tion; he has no powers, he has hardly any being, apart from 
the body of which he is a member. He has a vote in making 
the laws or in choosing those who make them; but when they 
are made he is, if anything, more strictly bound by them than 
the citizen of the non-privileged order. To be a fraction of the 
corporate sovereign, if it had its gains, had also its disadvantages; 
the Venetian noble was fettered by burthens, restrictions and 
suspicions from which the Venetian citizen was free. The noble 
of the large country, on the other hand, the rural noble, as he 
commonly will be, is a member of an order, but he is hardly 
a member of a corporation; he is isolated; he acts apart from 
the rest of the body and wins powers for himself apart from the 
rest of the body. He shows a tendency a tendency whose 
growth will be more or less checked according to the strength 
of the central power to grow into something of a lord or even 
a prince on his own account, a growth which may advance to 
the scale of a German elector or stop at that of an English lord 
of a manor. Now many of these tendencies were carried into 
those Italian cities where the civic nobility was a half-tamed 
country nobility; but they have no place in the true civic 
aristocracies. Let us take one typical example. In many 
parts of western Europe the right of private war long remained 
the privilege of every noble, as it had once been the privilege 
of every freeman. And in some Italian cities, the right, or at 
least the privilege, of private war was continued within the city 
walls. But no power of imagination can conceive an acknow- 
ledged right of private war in Rome, Venice or Bern. 

The other point of difference is that, whatever we take for 
the origin and the definition of nobility, in most countries it 
became something that could be given from outside, without 
the need of any consent on the part of the noble class itself. 



In other words, the king or other prince can ennoble. We have 
seen how much this takes away from the true notion of nobility 
as understood in the aristocratic commonwealths. The nobility 
is no longer all-powerful; it may be constrained to admit within 
its own body members for whose presence it has no wish. Where 
this power exists the nobility is no longer in any strictness an 
aristocracy; it may have great privileges, great influence, even 
great legal powers, but it is not the real ruling body, like the true 
aristocracy of Venice. 

In the modern states of western Europe the existing nobility 
seems to have for the most part had its origin in personal service 
to the prince. And this nobility by personal service ^obiaaes 
seems commonly to have supplanted an older nobility, u early 
the origin of which was, in some cases at least, strictly Western 
immemorial. In this way the later nobility of the Bur P e - 
thegns was in England substituted for the older nobility 
of the eorls. Now the analogy between this change and the 
change from the Roman patriciate to the later Roman 
nobilitos is obvious. In both cases the older nobility gives way 
to a newer; and in both cases the newer nobility was a nobility 
of office. Under a kingly government office bestowed by the 
sovereign holds the same place which office bestowed by the 
people holds in a popular government. This new nobility of 
office supplanted, or perhaps rather absorbed, the older nobility, 
just as the later nobihlas of Rome supplanted or absorbed the 
old patriciate. In our first glimpse of Teutonic institutions, as 
given us by Tacitus, this older nobility appears as strictly 
immemorial (see Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, i. 185 sq.), 
and its immemorial character appears also in the well-known 
legend in the Rigsmal-saga of the separate creation of jarl, karl 
and thrall. These represent the three classes of mankind 
according to old Teutonic ideas the noble, the simple freeman 
and the bondman. The kingly house, where there is one, is not 
a distinct class; it is simply the noblest of the noble. For, 
as almost everywhere else, this Teutonic nobility admits of 
degrees, though it is yet harder to say in what the degrees of 
nobility consisted than to say in what nobility consisted itself. 
The older nobility is independent of the possession of land; 
it is independent of office about the sovereign; it is hard to say 
what were the powers and privileges attached to it; but of its 
existence there is no doubt. But in no part of Europe can the 
existing nobility trace itself to this immemorial nobility of 
primitive days; the nobility of medieval and modern days 
springs from the later nobility of office. The nobles of modern 
Europe are rather thegnas than eorlas. The eorl of the old system 
would doubtless commonly become a thegn under the new, as 
the Roman patrician took his place in the new nobilitas; but 
others could take their place there also. The Old-English laws 
point out ways by which the churl might rise to thegn's rank, 
and in the centuries during which the change went on we find 
mention complaining mention both in England and elsewhere, 
at the court of Charles the Simple and at the court of ^Ethelred, of 
the rise of new men to posts of authority. The story that Earl 
Godwine himself was of churlish birth, whether true or false, 
marks the possibility of such a rise. A still wilder tale spoke 
of Hugh Capet as the son of a butcher of Paris. Stories like 
these prove even more than the real rise of Hagano and Eadric. 

In England the nobility of the thegns was to a great extent 
personally displaced, so to speak, by the results of the Norman 
Conquest. But the idea of nobility did not greatly 
change. The English thegn sometimes yielded to, 
sometimes changed into, the Norman baron, using that word 
in its widest sense, without any violent alteration in his position. 
The notion of holding land of the king became more prominent 
than the notion of personal service done to the king; but, as 
the land was held by the tenure of personal service, the actual 
relation hardly changed. But the connexion between nobility 
and the holding of land comes out in the practice by which the 
lord so constantly took the name of his lordship. It is in this 
way that the prefixes de and von, descriptions in themselves 
essentially local, have become in other lands badges of nobility. 
This notion has died out in England by the dropping of the 



NOBILITY 



729 



preposition; but it long lived on wherever Latin or French 
was used. And before long nobility won for itself a distinguishing 
outward badge. The device of hereditary coat-armour, a growth 
of the 1 2th century, did much to define and mark out the noble 
class throughout Europe. As it could be acquired by grant of 
the sovereign, and as, when once acquired, it went on from 
generation to generation, it answers exactly to the jus imaginum 
at Rome, the hereditary badge of nobility conferred by the 
election of the people. Those who possessed the right of coat- 
armour by immemorial use, or by grant in regular form, formed 
the class of nobility or gentry, words which, it must again be 
remembered, are strictly of the same meaning. They held 
whatever privileges or advantages have attached in different 
times and places to the rank of nobility or gentry. In England 
indeed a variety of causes hindered nobility or gentry from ever 
obtaining the importance which they obtained, for instance, 
in France. But perhaps no cause was more important than 
the growth of the peerage. That institution at once set up a 
new standard of nobility, a new form of the nobility of office. 
The peer in strictness, the peer in his own person only, not 
even his children became the only noble; the ideas of nobility 
and gentry thus became divorced in a way in which they are 
not in any other country. Those who would elsewhere have been 
counted as the nobility, the bearers of coat-armour by good 
right, were hindered from forming a class holding any substantial 
privilege. In a word, the growth of the peerage hindered the 
existence in England of any nobility in the continental sense 
of the word. The esquires, knights, lesser barons, even the 
remote descendants of peers, that is, the noblesse of other countries, 
in England remained gentlemen, but not noblemen simple 
commoners, that is, without legal advantage over their fellow- 
commoners who had no jus imaginum to boast of. There can 
be no doubt that the class in England which answers to the 
noblesse of other lands is the class that bears coat-armour, the 
gentry strictly so called. 1 Had they been able to establish and 
to maintain any kind of privilege, even that of mere honorary 
precedence, they would exactly answer to continental nobility. 
That coat-armour has been lavishly granted and often assumed 
without right, that the word " gentleman " has acquired various 
secondary senses, proves nothing; that is the natural result 
of a state of things in which the status of gentry carries with it 
no legal advantage, and yet is eagerly sought" after on social 
grounds. If coat-armour, and thereby the rank of gentry, has 
been lavishly granted, some may think that the rank of peerage 
has often been lavishly granted also. In short, there is no real 
nobility in England; for the class which answers to foreign 
nobility has so long ceased to have any practical privileges that 
it has long ceased to be looked on as a nobility, and the word 
nobility has been transferred to another class which has nothing 
answering to it out of the three Britfsh kingdoms. 2 This last 

1 This statement is mainly interesting as expressing the late 
Professor Freeman's view; it is, however, open to serious criticism. 
Coat-armour was in itself not necessarily a badge of nobility at all ; 
it could be, and was, worn by people having no pretensions to be 
" gentlemen," and this is true both of England and the continent. 
In its origin it was a mere personal mark of distinction, in the 
primary sense of this word. No " grant " was necessary; it was 
assumed by all and sundry who had occasion to use it, though a 
reasonable convention forbade one man to assume the device of 
another. Later arose the custom of granting arms as a mark of 
personal favour or gratitude. _This again was not at the outset an 
exclusive right of the crown; it was common for a leader in battle 
to grant to some one not of his family, who had specially distinguished 
himself, the right to bear the whole or part of his coat of arms, 
differenced or undifferenced. On the other hand, many undoubted 
" gentlemen " never assumed arms at all. The claim of the heralds 
to make " gentry " depend on the bearing of coat-armour, and the 
right to this depend on grant or recognition by themselves as officers 
of the crown, is of comparatively late growth. See further the article 
GENTLEMAN. W. A. P. 

* Compare e.g. the social conditions of Great Britain and Germany. 
In Germany there are two classes of nobility: (i) the hoher Adel, 
members of the mediatized, formerly sovereign families, who rank 
as the equals in blood (ebenburtig) of the royal houses of Europe; 
(2) the niederer Adel, to which every one having the nobiliary prefix 
von belongs. In England " presentation at court " is the privilege 
of no particular class as such; and the wives of ministers of the 



France. 



Poland. 



class in strictness takes in only the peers personally; at the 
outside it cannot be stretched beyond those of their children 
and grandchildren who bear the courtesy titles of lord and lady. 

No attempt has been here made to trace out the history of 
nobility in the various countries and, we must add, cities of 
Europe. All that has been attempted has been to point 
out some general truths, and to refer to some specially 
striking instances. Once more, it must be borne in mind that, 
while it is essential to the idea of nobility that it should carry 
with it some hereditary privilege, the nature and extent of that 
privilege may vary endlessly. In the i8th century the nobility 
of France and the nobility of Poland alike answered to the very 
strictest definition of nobility; but the political positions of the 
two were as broadly contrasted as the positions of any two 
classes of men could be. The nobility of France, keeping the 
most oppressive social and personal privileges, had been shorn 
of all political and even administrative power; the tyrants 
of the people were the slaves of the king. In Poland 
sixty thousand gentlemen, rich and poor, famous and 
obscure, but all alike gentlemen, rode out to choose a king by a 
unanimous vote, and to bind him when chosen by such conditions 
as they thought good. Those sixty thousand, like the populus 
of Rome, formed a narrow oligarchy as regarded the rest of the 
nation, but a wild democracy among themselves. Poland, in 
short, came nearer than any kingdom or country of large extent 
to the nature of an aristocracy, as we have seen aristocracy in 
the aristocratic cities. The chief power of the state was placed 
neither in the prince nor in the nation at large; it was held by a 
noble class. The kingly power in Poland, like the ducal power 
at Venice, had been so narrowed that Poland, though she still 
kept a king, called herself a republic no less than Venice. And 
whatever was taken from the king went to the gam of the noble 
order. But the nobility of a large country, even though used to 
act politically as an order, could never put on that orderly and 
legal character which distinguishes the true civic patriciates. 
It never could come so nearly as a civic patriciate could to being 
something like the rule of the best in any sense of those words. 

The tendency of modern times has been towards the breaking 
down of formal hereditary privileges. In modern common- 
wealths, above all, they have been thought to be essentially 
inconsistent with republican institutions. The truth of the 
matter is rather that the circumstances of most modern common- 
wealths have been unfavourable to the preservation, and still 
more to the growth, of privileged bodies. Where they existed, 
as in Switzerland, they have been overthrown. Where they did 
not exist, as in America, everything has made it more and more 
impossible that they should arise. And, as modern changes have 
commonly attacked the power both of kings and of nobles, the 
common notion has come that kingship and nobility have some 
necessary connexion. It has seemed as if any form of nobility 
was inconsistent with a republican form of government, while 
nobility, in some shape or other, has come to be looked on as a 
natural, if not a necessary, appendage to a monarchy. And as 
far as regards the social side of kingship this is true. A court 
seems more natural where a chain of degrees leads gradually 
up from the lowest subject to the throne than when all beneath 
the throne are nearly on a level. And from one point of view, 
that from which the kingly house is but the noblest of the noble, 
kingship and nobility are closely allied. But in the more strictly 

crown, even if of quite humble origin, are " commanded " to court 
functions with their husbands. The strictness of the principle of 
admission or exclusion differs at the various German courts, and has 
tended to be modified by the growth of a new aristocracy of wealth ; 
but a single instance known to the present writer may serve to 
illustrate the fundamental divergence of German (a fortiori Austrian) 
ideas from English in this matter. A wealthy publisher of European 
reputation attended the court of his native town, the capital of a small 
grand-duchy, in virtue of the honorary title Hofrat; his wife, not 
being noble, did not accompany him. His elder daughter married a 
cabinet minister, but, as he was not a noble, this did not confer on 
her the right to go to court. His younger daughter married a sub- 
altern in a line regiment, belonging to the lesser nobility; as en- 
nobled by marriage (according to the liberal rule of this particular 
court), she was duly " presented." W. A. P. 



730 



NOBLE NOCERA UMBRA 



political view monarchy and nobility are strongly opposed. 
Even the modified form of absolute monarchy which has existed 
in some Western countries, while it preserves, perhaps even 
strengthens, the social position of a nobility, destroys its political 
power. Under the fully-developed despotisms of the East a real 
nobility is impossible; the prince raises and thrusts down as he 
pleases. It is only in a commonwealth that a nobility can really 
rule; that is, it is only in a commonwealth that the nobility can 
really be an aristocracy. And even in a democratic common- 
wealth the sentiment of nobility may exist, though all legal 
privilege has been abolished or has never existed. That is to 
say, traditional feeling may give the members of certain families 
a strong preference, to say the least, in election to office. We 
have seen that this was the case at Athens; it was largely the 
case in the democratic cantons of Switzerland; indeed the 
nobility of Rome itself, after the privileges of the patricians were 
abolished, rested on no other foundation. (E. A. F.) 

AUTHORITIES. Selden's Titles of Honor (London, 1672) remains 
the best comparative account in the English language of the nobility 
of various countries up to his date. For England see E. P. Shirley, 
Noble and Gentle Men (1860) ; Gneist, Adel und Ritterscha.fi in England 
(Berlin, 1853); Sir George Sitwell, "The English Gentleman," in 
the Ancestor (No. i, April 1902); and J. H. Round's works, passim. 
A. C. Fox-Davies's Armorial Families (Edinburgh, 1895, and subse- 
quent editions) represents an unhistorical attempt to create the idea 
of a noblesse in the United Kingdom. For the origin and growth of 
the nobility in France, see A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions 
franchises (Paris, 1892), and P. Guilhiermoz, Essai sur I'origine de la 
noblesse en France au moyen Age (1902); for their later status and 
privileges, A. de Tocqueville, VAncien Regime et to Revolution (1856 
n.), and H. A. Taine, Les Origines de la France contemporaine, pt. i., 
VAncien Regime (1875 flf.). For the German and Austrian nobility, 
see v. Strantz, Gesch. des deutschen Adels (2nd ed., Waldenburg, 
1851); von Maurer, Uber das Wesen des dltesten Adels der deutschen 
~Stdmme (Munich, 1846); Rose, Der Adel Deutschlands und seine 
Stellung im deutschen Reich (Berlin, 1883); G. Meyer, Lehrbuch des 
deutschen Staatsrechts (sth ed., Leipzig, 1899), and the Gotha 
Genealogische Taschenbucher. For the Italian nobility see the eight 
magnificent folio volumes of Count Pompeo Litta, Celebri famiglie 
italiane, continued by various editors (Milan, I8ia_-I9p7); for 
Spanish, Fernandez de Bdthencourt, Hist, genealogica, t. i.-vii. (1897- 
1907). The authoritative manual for the royal houses and the 
" higher nobility " of Europe is the Almanack de Gotha, published 
yearly. See also the articles TITLES OF HONOUR, PEERAGE, FEUDAL- 
ISM, GENTLEMAN, DUKE, COUNT, &c. 

NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- ), British physicist and 
artillerist, was born at Greenock on the isth of September 1832, 
and was educated at Edinburgh Academy and at the Royal 
Military Academy, Woolwich. In 1849 he entered the Royal 
Artillery, attaining the rank of captain in 1855, and in 1857 he 
became secretary to the Royal Artillery Institution. About this 
time the question of the supersession of the old smooth-bores by 
rifled guns was coming to the fore, and on the appointment of 
the Select Committee on Rifled Cannon in 1858 to report on the 
matter, he was chosen its secretary, a capacity in which he 
devised an ingenious method for comparing the probable accuracy 
of the shooting attainable with each type of gun. In 1859 he 
was appointed Assistant-Inspector of Artillery, and in the 
following year he became a member of the Ordnance Select 
Committee and of the Committee on Explosives, serving on the 
latter for twenty years, until its dissolution. About the same 
time he was prevailed upon by Sir William, afterwards Lord, 
Armstrong to leave the public service and take up a post at 
Elswick. Here, in the first instance, he was put in charge of 
the ordnance department, but it was not long before his organiz- 
ing and administrative ability and scientific attainments enlarged 
the sphere of his influence, until finally he became chairman of 
the company. Immediately on his appointment he began a 
systematic investigation of the phenomena which occur when a 
gun is fired, some of his first experiments being designed to 
discover with accuracy the pressures attained in the largest 
guns of that time. About 1862 he invented his chronoscope for 
the measurement of exceedingly small intervals of time, and 
began to apply it in ballistic experiments for ascertaining the 
velocity with which the shot moves along the barrel of a gun 
with different powders and different charges. Then he joined 
Sir Frederick Abel in a classical research on " Fired Gunpowder," 



the experimental work being largely carried on at Elswick, and 
the conclusions they arrived at had a great effect on the progress 
of gunnery, for they showed how increased muzzle velocities were 
to be attained without increased pressures in the gun. These 
inquiries, in fact, enabled Elswick in 1877 to turn out the 6-in. 
and 8-in. guns, with velocities of over 2000 ft. per second, that 
obliged the British government finally to give up the antiquated 
muzzle-loaders to which it had so obstinately adhered. Later, 
when the era of nitro or " smokeless " powders had begun, 
Captain Noble was an early advocate of their advantages, and 
when at length the British government awoke to the necessity 
of selecting a powder of that character for the naval and military 
services of Great Britain, Elswick extended its hospitality to 
the committee that invented cordite, and gave the members 
facilities, which were not offered by the government, for the 
necessary experimental work. Even after the powder was in- 
vented and the committee dissolved, inquiries which it was 
nobody's official business to make, and which therefore were not 
made officially were continued at Elswick to ascertain how by 
suitable modifications in form, composition, &c., cordite might 
the better perform the varied duties required of it. Noble 
became a member of the committee appointed in 1900 by Lord 
Lansdowne to consider, among other things, the excessive erosion 
alleged by some of the powder's critics to be produced by it in 
the barrels of the guns in which it is used. He was made C.B. 
in 1881, promoted to be K.C.B. in 1893, and was created a baronet 
among the Coronation honours in 1902; he was also the recipient 
of many foreign decorations and scientific honours, including a 
Royal medal from the Royal Society in 1880, and the Albert 
medal of the Society of Arts in 1909. He published a number of 
his scientific papers in a collected form as Artillery and Explosives 
in 1906. 

NOBLESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton 
County, Indiana, U.S.A., on the White river, about 20 m. N. by 
E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 3054; (1900) 4792 (226 ne- 
groes); (1910) 5073. It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, 
the Central Indiana and the Indiana Union (electric) Traction 
railways. It is in the natural gas region of the state, and has 
various manufactures. It was settled about 1825 and incor- 
porated as a town in 1851. 

NOCERA INFERIORS, formerly NOCERA DEI PAGANI (anc. 
Nuceria Alfaterna, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Campania, 
Italy, in the province of Salerno, at the foot of Monte Albino, 
23 m. E.S.E. of Naples by rail, 135 ft. above sea-level. Pop. 
(1901) 11,933 (town); 20,064 (commune). Nocera is connected 
with Codola on the line from Naples to Avellino by a branch 
railway (3 m.). In the old castle Helena, the widow of Manfred, 
died after the battle of Benevento, and here Urban VI. imprisoned 
the cardinals who favoured the antipope Clement VII. Two 
miles to the E. near the village of Nocera Superiore is the circular 
church of Sta Maria Maggiore, dating from the 4th century. Its 
chief feature is its dome, ceiled with stone internally; but covered 
externally with a false roof. It is supported by 40 ancient 
columns, and in its construction resembles S Stefano Rotondo in 
Rome. The walls are covered with frescoes of the I4th century. 

At an early date the city became an episcopal see, and in the 
1 2th century it sided with Innocent II. against Roger of Sicily, 
and suffered severely for its choice. A colony of Saracens 
introduced by Frederick II. probably gave rise to the epithet 
(" of the pagans ") by which it was so long distinguished, as 
well as to the town of Pagani, which lies about i m. to the west. 
In 1385 Pope Urban VI. was besieged in the castle of Charles of 
Durazzo. Nocera was the birthplace of Solimena the painter 
and of Hugo de' Pagani, the founder of the Templars, and in the 
list of its bishops appears the name of Paulus Jovius. 

NOCERA UMBRA (anc. Nuceria Camellaria), a town and 
episcopal see in the province of Perugia, Italy, 12 m. by rail N. 
by E. of Foligno, 1706 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 5685 
(town), 7848 (commune). It has some old churches, containing 
pictures and frescoes; in the cathedral is a large altarpiece by 
Nicolo Alunno. Three miles to the south-east of the town are 
mineral springs. 



NOCTURN NOEGGERATH 



NOCTURN, or NOCTURNE (Lat. nocturnus, of or belonging to 
the night, nox), in the Roman Church, one of the three divisions 
of the office of matins, corresponding with the vigils, beginning 
at 9 P.M. midnight and 3 A.M. respectively. The service consists 
of psalms, lessons and antiphons (see BREVIARY). The term 
" nocturne " is applied to a musical composition, answering 
to the earlier " serenade, " of a quiet, dreamy and romantic 
character. The name and style are said to have originated with 
John Field (1782-1837). The best-known compositions of this 
kind are the pianoforte pieces of Chopin. J. McNeill Whistler 
also introduced the term into painting by using the name for some 
of his night-pieces. A " nocturnal " is an instrument for finding 
the hour of the night by observation of the relative positions of 
the pole-star and other stars, generally the pointers of Ursa 
Major. The British Museum contains a fine nocturnal made 
about 1560 by Humfray Cole (see NAVIGATION). 

NODDY, the name applied, originally by sailors, to a sea-bird, 
from its showing so little fear of man as to be accounted stupid. 
It is the Sterna stolida of Linnaeus, and the Anous stolidus of 
modern ornithology, having the figure of a TERN (?..), and 
belonging to the sub-family Sterninae, but is heavier in flight, 
with shorter wings and the tail less deeply forked. The plumage is 
of a uniform sooty hue, excepting the crown of the head, which is 
light grey. The Noddy is very generally distributed throughout 
the tropical or nearly tropical oceans, but occasionally wanders 
into colder climates, and has been met with even in the Irish Sea. 
It breeds, often in astounding numbers, on low cays and coral- 
islets, commonly making a shallow nest of sea- weed or small twigs. 
Howard Saunders (Proc. Zool. Society, 1876, pp. 669-672) admits 
four other species of the genus: Anous tenuirostris, supposed 
to be confined to the southern part of the Indian Ocean, from 
Madagascar to West Australia; A. melanogenys, often con- 
founded with the last, but having nearly as wide a range as the 
first; and A. leucocapUlus, hitherto known only from Torres 
Strait and the Southern Pacific. These three have much 
resemblance to A. stolidus, but are smaller in size, and the two 
latter have the crown white instead of grey. The fourth species, 
A. caeruleus (with which he includes the A. cinereus of some 
authors), differs not inconsiderably, being of a dove-colour, 
lighter on the head and darker on the back, the wings bearing a 
narrow white bar, with their quill-feathers blackish-brown, while 
the feet are reddish and the webs yellow. Three more species 
A. superciliosus from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, 
A. plumbeigularis from the Red Sea, and A. galapagensis from 
the Galapagos have been added by R. Bowdler Sharpe (Philos. 
Transactions, clxviii. pp. 468, 469), according to whom (Proc. 
Zool. Society, 1878, p. 272) A. cinereus of the Eastern Pacific 
is distinct from A. caeruleus of Australia and the Western 
Pacific. (A. N.) 

NODE (Lat. nodus, a loop), in astronomy, one of two opposite 
points at which a heavenly body passes through the principal 
co-ordinate plane to which its motion is referred. In the case of 
the heavenly bodies this plane is commonly that of the ecliptic, 
but, in special cases, the plane through the origin parallel to the 
earth's equator or the plane of a planet's orbit is used. The 
ascending node is that at which the body moves from the south 
or negative towards the north or positive side of the plane. 
The moon's nodes are the points in which its path intercepts the 
plane of the ecliptic. In the geometry of curves, a node is the 
name given to the loop formed by a continuous curve crossing 
itself, the point of crossing is termed a " double point," and at 
it there are two non-coincident tangents to the curve; the 
remaining species of double points, termed " acnode," " spinode " 
or " cusp," admits of two coincident tangents (see CURVE). 

NODIER, CHARLES (1780-1844), French author, was born 
on the 29th of April 1780 at Besancon. His father, on the out- 
break of the Revolution, was appointed mayor of Besancon and 
consequently chief police magistrate; he seems to have rather 
lent himself as an instrument to the tyranny of the Jacobins 
than to have shared their principles; but his son was for a time 
an ardent citizen, and is said to have been a club member when he 
could at the most have been twelve years old. In 1793 Charles 



saved the life of a lady guilty of sending money to an imigri, 
by declaring to his father that if she were condemned he would 
take his own life. He was sent to Strassburg, where he lived in 
the house of Eulogius Schneider, the notorious Jacobin governor 
of Alsace, but a good Greek scholar. During the Terror his father 
put him under the care of Girod de Chautrans, with whom he 
studied English and German. His love of books began very 
early, and he combined with it a strong interest in natural 
science. He became librarian in his native town, but his exertions 
in the cause of suspected persons brought him under suspicion. 
An inspection of his papers by the police, however, revealed 
nothing more dangerous than a dissertation on the antennae of 
insects. Entomology continued to be a favourite study with him, 
but he varied it with philology and pure literature and even 
political writing. For a skit on Napoleon, in 1803, he was im- 
prisoned for some months. He then quitted Paris, whither he 
had gone after losing his position at Besancon, and for some 
years lived a very unsettled life at Besancon, D61e, where he 
married, and in other places in the Jura. During these wander- 
ings he wrote Le Peinlre de Salzbourg, journal des emotions d'un 
coenr souffrant, suivi des Meditations du cloitre (1803). The hero, 
Charles, who is a variation of the Werther type, desires the 
restoration of the monasteries, to afford a refuge from the woes 
of the world. In 1811 Nodier appears at Laibach as editor of 
a polyglot journal, the Illyrian Telegraph, published in French, 
German, Italian and Slav. On the evacuation of the Illyrian 
provinces he returned to Paris, and the restoration found him a 
royalist, though he retained something of republican sentiment. 
In 1824 he was appointed to the librarianship of the Bibliotheque 
de 1'Arsenal. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1833, 
and made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1843, a year 
before his death on the 27th of January 1844. These twenty 
years at the arsenal were by far the most important and fruitful of 
Nodier's life. He had much of the Bohemian in his composition. 
But he had the advantage of a settled home in which to collect 
and study rare books; and he was able to supply a centre and 
rallying place to a knot of young literary men of greater individual 
talent than himself the so-called Romanticists of 1830 and 
to colour their tastes and work very decidedly with his own 
predilections. Victor Hugo, Alfred de Mussel and Sainte-Beuve 
all acknowledged their obligations to him. He was a passionate 
admirer of Goethe and of Shakespeare, and had himself con- 
tributed to the personal literature that was one of the leading 
traits of the Romantic school. 

His best and most characteristic work, some of which is exquisite 
in its kind, consists partly of short tales of a more or less fantastic 
character, partly of nondescript articles, half bibliographic, half 
narrative, the nearest analogue to which in English is to be found 
in some of the papers of De Quincey. The best examples of the 
latter are to be found in the volume entitled Melanges tires d'une 
petite bibliotheque, published in 1829 and afterwards continued. 
Of his tales the best are Smarra, ou les demons de la nuit (1821); 
Trilby, ou If lutin d'Argail (1822); Histoire du roi de Boheme et de 
ses sept chateaux (1830); La Fee aux miettes (1832); Ines de las 
Sierras (1838); Legende se Sceur Beatrix (1838), together with some 
fairy stories published in the year of his death, and Franciscus 
Columna, which appeared after it. The Souvenirs de jeunesse (1832) 
are interesting but untrustworthy, and the Dictionnaire universel 
de la langue franc/iise (1823), which, in the days before Littre', was 
one of the most useful of its kind, is said to have been not wholly 
or mainly Nodier's. There is a so-called collection of CEuvres 
completes, in 12 vols. (1832), but at that time much of the author's 
best work had not appeared, and it included but a part of what 
was actually published. Nodier found an indulgent biographer in 
Prosper Me'rimee on the occasion of the younger man's admission 
to the academy. 

An account of his share in the Romantic movement is to be found 
in Georg Brandes's Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature. 
His Description raisonnee d'une jolie collection de livres (1844), which is 
a catalogue of the books in his library, contains a life by Francis Wey 
and a complete bibliography of his numerous works. See also Sainte- 
Beuve, Portraits litteraires, vol. ii. ; Prosper Me'rimee, Portraits 
historiques et litteraires (1874); and A. Estignard, Gorrespondance 
inedile de Charles Nodier, 1700-1844 (1876), containing his letters to 
Charles Weiss. 

NOEGGERATH, JOHANN JACOB (1788-1877), German 
mineralogist and geologist, was born at Bonn on the loth of 



732 



NOEL NOGENT-LE-ROTROU 



October 1788. In 1814-1815 he became commissioner of mines 
for some of the Rhine Provinces, and in 1818 professor of minera- 
logy and afterwards professor of geology, director of the 
Museum of Natural History and chief of the mining department 
in the university at Bonn. He obtained a very fine collection of 
minerals for the museum, was eminently successful as a teacher, 
and achieved a wide reputation among mining engineers. The 
following are his more important publications: Uber aufrecht 
im Gebirgsgestein eingeschlossene fossile Baumstiimmt und andere 
Vegetabilien (1810-1821); Das Gebirge in RheMand-Westphalen, 
nach mineralogischem und chemischem Bezuge (4 vols., 1822-1826) ; 
Die Entstehung der Erde (1843); and Der Laacher See und seine 
vulkanischen Umgebungen (1870). The Carboniferous plant 
Noeggerathia, allied to the Zamias and Cycads, was named after 
him. He died at Bonn on the I3th of September 1877. 

NOEL, RODEN BERKELEY WRIOTHESLEY (1834-1894), 
English poet, son of Noel, Lord Barham, afterwards earl of 
Gainsborough, was born on the 27th of August 1834. He was 
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated 
M.A. in 1858. He then spent two years travelling in the East. 
He married in 1863 Alice de Broe, daughter of the director of the 
Ottoman Bank in Beirout. The third child of this marriage, 
Eric, who died at the age of five, is commemorated in Roden 
Noel's best-known book of verse, A Little Child's Monument 
(1881). His other volumes are Behind the Veil, and other Poems 
(1863), not included in his collected works, Beatrice, and other 
Poems (1868), The Red Flag (1872), Livingstone in Africa (1874), 
Songs of the Heights and Deeps (1885), A Modern Faust, and 
other Poems (1888), Poor People's Christmas (1890) and My Sea, 
and other Poems (1896). Roden Noel's versification was unequal 
and sometimes harsh, but he has a genuine feeling for nature, 
and the work is permeated by philosophic thought. The latter 
part of his life was spent at Brighton, but he died at Mainz, 
on the 26th of May 1894. His other works include a drama in 
verse, The House of Ravensburg (1877), a Life of Byron (1890, 
" Great Writers " series), a selection of Thomas Otway's plays 
(1888) for the " Mermaid " series, and critical papers on literature 
and philosophy. 

His Collected Poems were edited (1902) by his sister, Victoria 
Buxton, with a notice by J. Addington Symonds, which had origin- 
ally appeared in the Academy (igth of Jan. 1899) as a review of The 
Modern Faust. The selection (1892) in the series of Canterbury Poets 
has an introduction by Robert Buchanan. 

NOETUS, a presbyter of the church of Asia Minor about 
A.D. 230, was a native of Smyrna, where (or perhaps in Ephesus) 
he became a prominent representative of the particular type of 
Christology now called modalistic monarchianism or patri- 
passianism. His views, which led to his excommunication from 
the Asiatic Church, are known chiefly through the writings of 
Hippolytus, his contemporary at Rome, where he settled and had 
a large following. He accepted the fourth Gospel, but regarded 
its statements about the Logos as allegorical. His disciple 
Cleomenes held that God is both invisible and visible; as visible 
He is the Son. 

NOGARET, GUILLAUME DE (d. 1313), councillor and keeper 
of the seal to Philip IV. of France, was born between 1260 and 
1270. His father was a citizen of Toulouse, and was, so it was 
claimed, condemned as a heretic during the Albigensian crusade. 
The family held a small ancestral property of servile origin at 
Nogaret, near Saint Felix de Caramon, from which it took its 
name. In 1291 Guillaume was professor of jurisprudence at the 
university of Montpellier, and in 1296 he became a member of 
the Curia Regis at Paris. His name is mainly connected with the 
quarrel of Philip IV. with Pope Boniface VIII. In 1300 he was 
sent with an embassy to Boniface, of which he has left a pic- 
turesque but highly coloured account. His real ascendancy over 
the king dates from February 1303, when he persuaded Philip 
to consent to the bold plan'of seizing Boniface and bringing him 
forcibly from Italy to a council in France which should depose 
him. On the 7th of March he received, with three others, a 
secret commission from the royal chancery to " go to certain 
places . . . and make such treaties with such persons as seemed 
good to them," On the izth of March a solemn royal assembly 



was held in the Louvre, at which Guillaume de Nogaret read a 
long series of accusations against Boniface and demanded the 
calling of a general council to try him. Soon afterwards he 
went to Italy. By the aid of a Florentine spy, Nogaret gathered 
a band of adventurers and of enemies of the Gaetani (Boniface's 
family) in the Apennines. The great Colonna house, at bitter feud 
with the Gaetani, was his strongest ally, and Sciarra Colonna 
accompanied Nogaret to Anagni, Boniface's birthplace. On 
the 7th of September, with their band of some sixteen hundred 
men, Nogaret and Colonna surprised the little town. Boniface 
was taken prisoner. Sciarra wished to kill him, but Nogaret's 
policy was to take him to France and compel him to summon a 
general council. The tide soon turned, however. On the 9th 
a concerted rising of the townsmen in Boniface's favour put 
Nogaret and his allies to flight, and the pope was free. His 
death at Rome on the nth of October saved Nogaret. The 
election of the timid Benedict XI. was the beginning of that 
triumph of France which lasted through the Avignon captivity. 
Early in 1304 Nogaret went to Languedoc to report to Philip 
IV., and was rewarded by gifts of land and money. Then he 
was sent back with an embassy to Benedict XI. to demand 
absolution for all concerned in the struggle with Boniface VIII. 
Benedict refused to meet Nogaret, and excepted him from the 
general absolution which he granted on the i3th of May 1304, 
and on the 7th of June issued against him and his associates at 
Anagni the bull Flagitiosum scelus. Nogaret replied by apologies 
for his conduct based upon attacks upon the memory of Boniface, 
and when Benedict died on the 7th of July 1304 he pointed to his 
death as a witness to the justice of his cause. French influence 
was successful in getting a Frenchman, Bertrand de Got (Clement 
V.) elected as Benedict's successor. The threat of proceedings 
against the memory of Boniface was renewed to force Clement 
to absolve Nogaret, and Clement had given way on this point 
when the further question of an inquiry into the condition of the 
Templars was brought forward by Philip as a preliminary to 
their arrest and the seizure of their property in October 1307. 
Nogaret was active in getting the renegade members of the order 
to give evidence against their fellows, and the whole proceedings 
against them bear traces of his unscrupulous and merciless pen. 
Clement's weak and ineffective resistance to this still further 
delayed the agreement between him and Philip. Nogaret had 
become keeper of the seal this year in succession to Pierre de 
Belleperche. His talents as an advocatus diaboli were given still 
further employment in the trial of Guichard, bishop of Troyes, 
charged with various crimes, including witchcraft and incon- 
tinence, which was begun in 1308 and lasted till 1313. The trial 
was a hint to Clement as to what might happen if the oft repeated 
threat of a trial of Boniface were fulfilled. Absolution was 
obtained from Clement on the 27th of April 1311. Guillaume de 
Nogaret was to go on the next crusade and visit certain places of 
pilgrimage in France and Spain as a penance, but never did so. 
He died in 1313 " wirti his tongue horribly thrust out," according 
to the chronicler Jean Desnouelles. He retained the seals till his 
death and was . occupied with the king's affairs concerning 
Flanders as late as the end of March 1313. 

See E. Renan in Histoire litteraire de la France, xxvii. 233; R. 
Holzmann, Wilhelm von Nogaret (Freiburg, 1898). For the sources 
consult Dom Bouquet, Recueil de historiens des Caules et de la France, 
vols. xx.-xxiii. ; Annales regis Edwardi primi in Rishanger (" Rolls " 
series), pp. 483-491, which gives the fullest account of the affair at 
Anagni. 

NOGENT-LE-ROTROU, a town of northern France, formerly 
capital of the district of Perche and now capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Eure-et-Loir on the Huisne, 38 m. 
W.S.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 6884. In the early 
part of the I7th century the overlordship was acquired by the 
duke of Sully, financial minister of Henry IV. In the courtyard 
of the hospital, originally founded at the end of the I2th century, 
there is a small building containing the tomb of Sully and his 
wife. On the hill overlooking the town stands the chateau of the 
counts of Perche, of which the donjon dating from the first half 
of the nth century is the oldest portion. To Rotrou I., founder 
of the chateau, the town owes the second part of its name. 



XT 



NOGENT-SUR-MARNE NOLA 



733 



Nogent preserves three Gothic churches and the remains of the 
old priory of St Denis, and there are statues of General St Pol, 
killed at Sevastopol, and of the poet Remy Belleau (i6th century), 
a native of the town. The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal 
of first instance, a communal college and institution for deaf 
mutes. 

NOGENT-SUR-MARNE, a town of northern France, in the 
department of Seine, on a hill on the right bank of the Marne, 
6 m. E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 11,463. The Eastern 
railway here crosses the Marne valley by a viaduct 875 yds. in 
length. Nogent has a Gothic church, with a tower of the Roman- 
esque period, in front of which there is a monument to Watteau, 
who died here in 1721. Chemical products are manufactured. 
The fine situation of the town gained it the name of Beaute, and 
Charles V. built a chateau here (demolished in the i8th century) 
which was presented by Charles VII. to Agnes Sorel with the 
title of Dame de Beaute. An island in the Marne to the south of 
the town is still known as the lie de Beaute. 

NOGENT-SUR-SEINE, a town of north-central France, capital 
of an arrondissement in the department of Aube, on the left 
bank of the Seine, 35 m. N.W. of Troyes on the Paris-Belfort line. 
Pop. (1906) 3791. The river at this point forms an island, 
which supports a stone bridge of the I7th century. The chief 
building is the church of St Laurent (1421-1554). A lateral 
portal in the flamboyant style and the Renaissance tower at the 
west end are of great beauty. The town is the seat of a sub- 
prefect and has a tribunal of first instance. There is trade in 
grain, flour, fodder, wood and cattle. Nogen-sur-Seine was in 
1814 the scene of fighting between the French and Austrians. 

NOGI, KITEN, COUNT (1840- ), Japanese general, was 
born in Choshu. He commanded a brigade at the battle of 
Kinchow (1894) and the subsequent capture of Port Arthur 
from the Chinese; but the most memorable events of his career 
were the siege of Port Arthur by the third army corps of Japan 
under his command in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), and 
the great flanking march made by the same army in the battle of 
Mukden. 

NOIRMOUTIER, an island of western France, belonging to 
the department of Vendee, and protecting the Bay of Bourgneuf 
on the south-west. Pop. (1906) 8388. The area amounts to 
22 sq. m., one-sixth dunes. Between the island and the mainland 
is a sandbank laid bare at low water, and crossed by an embank- 
ment and carriage road some 2j m. long. It was not till about 
1766 that it was found possible to walk across to the island, 
which lies from N.N.W. to S.S.E., and is 12 m. long, its breadth 
varying from i m. in the south part to 3 or 4 m. in the north. 
It appears to be formed of alluvial deposits gradually accumu- 
lated round a rock of no great size situated at the meeting-place 
of the Gascony and Brittany currents. Fishing, agriculture, 
oyster-breeding and work in the salt marshes also occupy the 
inhabitants. There are two communes, Noirmoutier and 
Barbatre. Noirmoutier, which has a small port, has about 
2165 of its 6644 inhabitants gathered together in a little town 
with narrow and winding streets. Its castle was once the residence 
of the abbot of Her. In the church (i2th, I4th and igth 
centuries) there is a crypt of the nth century. A mile to the 
north of the town lies a pleasant watering-place, rendered 
picturesque by the La Chaise woods (evergreen oaks and pines), 
and a grand confusion of rocks, among which lie charming 
beaches. A dolmen, several menhirs, and the ruins of a Gallo- 
Roman villa with its hot baths show that the island must have 
been occupied at an early date; but the first fact in its recorded 
history is the foundation of the Benedictine monastery of Her 
by St Philibert about 680. From this monastery the name 
Noirmoutier (Heri monasterium, Hermouticr) is derived. It had 
already attained to great prosperity when it was pillaged by the 
Normans in 825 and 843. In 1 205 the abbey of Notre Dame la 
Blanche was built at the north extremity of the island to take 
the place of a Cistercian convent established in the lie du Pilier, 
at that time attached to Noirmoutier by a dike. This abbey was 
ruined by the Protestants in 1562. In the isth, i6th and I7th 
centuries the island belonged to the family of La Tremoille, and 



in 1650 the territory was made a duchy. In 1676 the island was 
captured by the Dutch. Having been seized by Charette during 
the war of Vendee, it was recovered by the Republican general, 
Haxo, who caused the Vendean leader, d'Elb6e, to be shot. 

NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; 
Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; 
others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source), an excessive, offen- 
sive, persistent or startling sound. By the common law of 
England freedom from noise is essential to the full enjoyment 
of a dwelling house, and acts which affect that enjoyment may 
be actionable as nuisances. But it has been laid down that a 
nuisance by noise, supposing malice to be out of the question, 
is emphatically a question of degree (Gaunt v. Finney, 1872, 
8 Ch. Ap. 8). The noise must be exceptional and unreasonable. 
The ringing of bells, building operations, vibration of machinery, 
fireworks, bands, a circus, merry-go-rounds, collecting disorderly 
crowds, dancing, singing, &c., have been held under certain 
circumstances to constitute nuisances so as to interfere with 
quiet and comfort, and have been restrained by injunction. 
Noise occasioned by the frequent repetition of street cries is 
frequently the subject of local by-laws, which impose penalties 
for infringement. 

NOISOME, harmful, offensive, especially of that which causes 
physical disgust. The word is formed from the obsolete " noy," 
trouble, a shortened form of " annoy," now only used as a verb, 
to cause trouble, the usual substantive being " annoyance." 
The O. Fr. anoi, anui (modern ennui) is an adaptation of Lat. 
in odio esse, venire or habere, to be sick, tired of anything (odium, 
disgust, hatred). The word has no connexion with Lat. nocere, 
to hurt. 

NOKES (NoxE, NOAK, NOAKES), JAMES (d. 1692), an English 
actor, whose laughter-arousing genius is attested by Gibber and 
other contemporaries. Sir Martin Mar-all, Sir Davy Dunce 
and Sir Credulous Easy were among his favourite parts. His 
success as the Nurse in Nevil Payne's Fatal Jealousy was so 
great that he was thereafter nicknamed " Nurse Nokes." 

NOLA, a city and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the 
province of Caserta, pleasantly situated in the plain between 
Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines, i6f m. E.N.E. of Naples, 
121 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 11,927 (town); 14,511 
(commune). It is served by the local railway from Naples to 
Baiano, and is 22 m. from Naples by the main line via Cancello. 
The more conspicuous buildings are the ancient Gothic cathedral 
(restored in 1866, and again in 1870 after the interior was 
destroyed by fire), with its lofty tower, the cavalry barracks, 
the ex-convent of the Capuchins at a little distance from the 
city, and the seminary in which are preserved the famous 
Oscan inscription known as the Cippus Abellanus (from Abella, 
the modern Avella, q.i>.) and some Latin inscriptions relating 
to a treaty with Nola regarding a joint temple of Hercules. 
Two fairs are held in Nola, on the I4th of June and the i2th 
of November; and the 26th of July is devoted to a great festival 
in honour of St Paulinus, one of the early bishops of the city, 
who invented the church bell (campana, taking its name from 
Campania). The church erected by him in honour of St Felix 
in the 4th century is extant in part. There is a monument 
(restored in 1887) to Giordano Bruno, the free-thinker, who 
was born at Nola in 1548. 

Nola (NcoXo.) was one of the oldest cities of Campania, variously 
said to have been founded by the Ausones, the Chalcidians and 
the Etruscans. The last-named were certainly in Nola about 
500 B.C. At the time when it sent assistance to Neapolis against 
the Roman invasion (328 B.C.) it was probably occupied by Oscans 
in alliance with the Samnites. The Romans made themselves 
masters of Nola in 313 B.C., and it was thenceforth faithful to 
Rome. In the Second Punic War it thrice bade defiance to 
Hannibal; but in the Social War it was betrayed into the hands 
of the Samnites, who kept possession till Marius, with whom 
they had sided, was defeated by Sulla, who in 80 B.C. subjected 
it with the rest of Samnium. Seven years later it was stormed 
by Spartacus. Whatever punishment Sulla may have inflicted, 
Nola, though it lost much of its importance, remained a 



734 



NOLDEKE NOLLET 



municipium with its own institutions and the use of the Oscan 
language. It became a Roman colony under Augustus, who 
died at Nola. Sacked by Genseric in 455, and by the Saracens 
in 806 and 904, captured by Manfred in the 13th century, and 
damaged by earthquakes in the isth and i6th, Nola lost much 
of its importance. The revolution of 1820 under General Pepe 
began at Nola. The sculptor Giovanni Marliano was a native of 
the city; and some of his works are preserved in the cathedral. 

Nola lay on the Via Popillia from Capua to Nuceria and the 
south, and a branch road ran from it to Abella and Abellinum. 
Mommsen (Corp. inscr. Lot. x. 142) further states that roads 
must have run direct from Nola to Neapolis and Pompeii, but 
Kiepert's map annexed to the volume does not indicate them. 
In the days of its independence it issued an important series 
of coins, and in luxury it vied with Capua. Its territory was 
very fertile, and this was the principal source of its wealth. 
A large number of vases of Greek style were manufactured here 
and have been found in the neighbourhood. Their material 
is of pale yellow clay with shining black glaze, and they are 
decorated with skilfully drawn red figures. Of the ancient city, 
which occupied the same site as the modern town, hardly any- 
thing is now visible, and the discoveries of the ancient street 
pavement have not been noted with sufficient care to enable 
us to recover the plan. Numerous ruins, an amphitheatre, 
still recognizable, a theatre, a temple of Augustus, &c., existed 
in the i6th century, and have been since used for building 
material. They are described by A. Leone, De Nola (Venice, 
1514). A few tombs of the Roman period are preserved. The 
neighbourhood was divided into pagi, the names of some of 
which are preserved to us (Pagus Agrifanus, Capriculanus, 
Lanitanus). (T. As.) 

NOLDEKE, THEODOR (1836- ), German Semitic scholar, 
was born at Harburg on the 2nd of March 1836, and studied 
at Gottingen, Vienna, Leiden and Berlin. In 1859 his history 
of the Koran won for him the prize of the French Academic des 
Inscriptions, and in the following year he rewrote it in German 
(Gesckickte des Korans) and published it with additions at 
Gottingen. In 1861 he began to lecture at the university of 
this town, where three years later he was appointed extraordinary 
professor. In 1868 he became ordinary professor at Kiel, and 
in 1872 was appointed to the chair of Oriental languages at 
Strassburg, which he resigned in 1906. Noldeke's range of studies 
has been wide and varied, but in the main his work has followed 
the two lines already indicated by his prize essay, Semitic 
languages, and the history and civilization of Islam. While 
a great deal of his work (e.g. his Grammatik der neusyrischen 
Sprache, 1868, his Mandaische Grammatik, 1874, and his transla- 
tions from the Arabian of Tabari, 1881-1882) is meant for 
specialists, many of his books are of interest to the general 
reader. Several of his essays first appeared in the Encyclopedia 
Britannica, and his article on the Koran, with some others, was 
republished in a volume called Oriental Sketches. The articles 
dealing with Persia were republished in a German volume, 
Aufsatze zur persischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1887). Among his 
best-known works are: Das Leben Mohammeds (1863); Beitrage 
zur Kenntnis der Poesie der alien Araber (1864); Die alltestament- 
liche Literatur (1868) ; Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alien Testa- 
ments (1869); Zur Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch (1896); 
Funf M o'allaqal, iibersetzt und erklart (1899-1901); and Beilrage 
zur semitischen Spracfrwissenschaft (1904). He has contributed 
frequently to the Zeitschrift der deutschen tnorgenldndischen 
Gesellschaft, the Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen and the Expositor. 

NOLI, a coast village of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 
from which it is 36 m. S.W. by rail, 13 ft. above sea-level. Pop. 
(1901) 1985. It is a town of considerable antiquity, now 
decayed, and has an ancient church of S. Paragorio, once the 
cathedral, a Romanesque basilica dating from the i ith century, 
with interesting works of art. The diocese has been united 
with that of Savona. 

See A. d'Andrade, Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale per la conser- 
vazione dei monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria (Turin, 1899), 
IOO seq. 



NOLLEKENS, JOSEPH (1737-1823) British sculptor, was born 
on the nth of August 1737 in Dean Street, Soho, London, 
where his father, a native of Antwerp, the " old Nollekens " of 
Horace Walpole, was a painter of some repute. In his thirteenth 
year he entered the studio of the sculptor Peter Scheemakers, 
and practised drawing and modelling with great assiduity, 
ultimately gaining various prizes offered by the Society of Arts. 
In 1760 he went to Rome, and he executed a marble bas-relief, 
" Timoclea before Alexander," which obtained a prize of fifty 
guineas from that society in 1762. Garrick and Sterne were 
among the first English visitors who sat to him for busts; among 
his larger pieces belonging to this early period perhaps the most 
important is the " Mercury and Venus chiding Cupid." Having 
returned to England in 1770, he was admitted an associate of the 
Royal Academy in 1771, and elected a member in 1772, the year 
in which he married Mary, the second daughter of Saunders 
Welch. By this time he had become known to George III., 
whose bust he shortly afterwards executed, and henceforward, 
until about 1816, he was the most fashionable portrait sculptor 
of his day. He himself thought highly of his early portrait of 
Sterne. Among many others may be specially named those of 
Pitt, Fox, the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), Canning, 
Perceval, Benjamin West and Lords Castlereagh, Aberdeen, 
Erskine, Egremont and Liverpool. He elaborated a number of 
marble groups and statues, amongst which may be mentioned 
those of " Bacchus," " Venus taking off her Sandal," " Hope 
leaning on an Urn," " Juno," " Paetus and Arria," " Cupid and 
Psyche " and (his own favourite performance) " Venus anointing 
Herself "; all, however, although remarkable for delicacy of 
workmanship, are deficient in vigour and originality, and the 
drapery is peculiarly weak. The most prominent personal 
characteristic of Nollekens seems to have been his frugality, 
which ultimately developed into absolute miserliness. Mrs 
Nollekens died in 1817, and the sculptor himself died in 
London on the 23rd of April 1823, leaving a large fortune. 

NOLLE PROSEQUI (sometimes shortened into nol. pros.), 
a technical term of English law, the meaning of which varies 
as it is used with reference to civil or criminal cases. In civil 
cases it applied only to actions in the king's bench division, and 
there signified a formal undertaking by the plaintiff that he 
intended to proceed no further with the action (se vlterius nolle 
prosequi). The more modern practice in such cases is to proceed 
by way of discontinuance. In proceedings either by indictment 
or by information, a nolle prosequi or stay of proceedings may 
be entered by the attorney-general. The nolle prosequi is a 
matter purely for his discretion, and will not be granted unless 
very good ground be shown for his interference. The object 
of it generally is to obtain a stay of proceedings against an 
accomplice in order to procure his evidence. This object is, 
however, more usually effected by the prosecution offering 
no evidence and the judge directing an acquittal. 

In the United States the term bears the same meaning as in 
England, with one exception. The attorney-general has not the 
same discretion with which English law invests him. Although 
in some states the prosecuting officer may enter a nolle prosequi 
at his discretion, in others the leave of the court must be 
obtained. 

NOLLET, JEAN ANTOINE (1700-1770), French physicist, 
of peasant origin, was born near Noyon (Oise) on the igth of 
November 1700. He entered holy orders and ultimately attained 
the rank of abbe; but his tastes all lay in the direction of 
experimental research, especially on the subject of electricity. . 
In 1734 he was admitted a member of the London Royal Society, 
four years later he entered the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and 
in 1753 he was appointed to the newly-instituted chair of experi- 
mental physics in the College de Navarre. In addition to many 
memoirs he wrote Leqons de physique experimentale (1743), Essai 
sur Velectricite des corps (1747), Recherches sur les causes particu- 
lieres des phenomenes (lectriques (1749 and 1754), Recueil de 
lettres sur I'eleclricite (1753), L'Art de faire les chapeaux (1764) 
and L'Art des experiences (1770). He died at Paris on the 24th 
of April 1770. 



NOMAD NONCONFORMIST 



735 



NOMAD (Gr. vo^as, vo^adts, wandering), a wanderer. The 
word is particularly used of tribes who shift continually from 
place to place in search of pasture (Gr. vt^tiv). The VOJJ.&&K of 
ancient Greek writers meant particularly the pastoral tribes of 
North Africa; hence the Latin name of the Numidians (see 
NUMIDIA). 

NOME, a mining town about 12 m. W. of Cape Nome, on the S. 
shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, in 1900 the largest settlement 
in the district. Pop. (1900) 12,488; (1910) 2600. Gulch gold was 
found near Nome on Anvil Creek in September 1898, and diggings 
in the ocean beach were first worked in July 1899. The rush to 
Nome in 1900 was one of the most remarkable stampedes in 
American mining history; the town soon had hotels, banks, 
stores, several newspapers and weekly mails from the States, 
and for part of the year there were, it was estimated, 20,000 
inhabitants. This rapidity of growth and the isolation of the 
settlement raised prices to extraordinary heights, and in other 
respects created economic conditions remarkable even among 
Alaskan mining camps. By 1903 the population had greatly 
decreased, and in subsequent years the winter population 
averaged about 3500, the summer population from 7000 to 8000. 
In 1905 the gold output of the Nome region amounted to about 
$2,500,000, nearly all from placers, though some quartz mining 
was done. A municipal government and local police force were 
early organized after the fashion of American mining communities, 
and United States soldiers from the St Michael reservation aided 
in the preservation of order. The greatest drawback to the 
town's prosperity is the lack of any good harbour nearer than 
Point Clarence, 80 m. W. The winter ice-floes, sometimes 30 ft. 
high on the beach, render harbour improvements at Nome 
almost impossible. There is connexion with Seattle by steamer 
(since 1904) in about 8j days. In 1901 the town was incorporated 
under the laws of the United States. It is the north-western 
terminus of the United States military telegraph. It was first 
called Anvil City; the name " Nome " is derived from Cape 
Nome, first so called on a chart dated 1849, and said to have been 
a draughtsman's mistake for the query " ? Name " on the 
original chart. 

NOMENOE, or NOMINOE (d. 851), duke of Brittany. The date 
of his birth is not known, and his origin is obscure; all that is 
known is that he was of Breton race. In the hope of pacifying 
Brittany, Louis the Debonair named him count of Vannes in 
819 and governor or duke of Brittany in 826. Throughout the 
reign of Louis, Nomenoe's fidelity to the emperor never flagged; 
he put down several attempted insurrections, and maintained 
peace in Brittany for fifteen years. But in 841 he resolved to 
make himself independent of Charles the Bald. In 843 Charles 
made a vain attempt to subdue Brittany. In 844 Nomenoe 
invaded Maine, and in 845 the emperor was completely defeated 
at Ballon near Bain-de-Bretagne. In the following year Charles 
recognized the independence of Brittany. Having resolved to 
detach the duchy from the ecclesiastical province of Tours, 
Nomenoe accused the Prankish bishops of Vannes, Quimper, 
Dol and Leon of simony at the council of Coetlouh in 848, 
replaced them by Bretons, and erected Dol into a metropolitan 
see. In 849 Nomenoe attacked the Prankish county of Anjou. 
Charles retaliated by establishing a garrison at Rennes; but 
Nomenoe seized Rennes, Nantes and, finally, the whole of Upper 
Brittany, and ravaged Maine. In 851 he seized Anjou and 
invaded Beauce; but he died suddenly, leaving as his successor 
his son Erispoe. 

See A. de la Borderie, Histoire de Bretagne, vol. ii. (1898) ; R. Merlet, 
" Guerres d'ind^pendance de la Bretagne," in the Revue de Bretagne, 
de Vendee et d' Anjou (1891). 

NOMENTANA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading N.E. 
from Rome to Nomentum (q.v.), a distance of 14 m. It originally 
bore the name Via Ficulensis, from the old Latin village of 
Ficulea, about 8 m. from Rome. It was subsequently prolonged 
to Nomentum, but never became an important highroad, and 
merged in the Via Salaria (see SALARIA, VIA) a few miles beyond 
Nomentum. It is followed as far as Nomentum by the modern 
highroad, but some traces of its pavement still exist. 

See T. Ashby in Papers of Brit. School at Rome, iii. 38 sqq. (T. As.) 



NOMENTUM (mod. Mentana), an ancient town of Italy, 14 m. 
N.E. of Rome by the Via Nomentana. It was a Latin town, 
but was by some considered to be Sabine, and, like Fidenae 
and Ficulea, was excluded from the first region by Augustus, 
who made the Anio its northern boundary. Nomentum received 
the civitas sine sujfragio after the last war of the Latins 
against Rome (338 B.C.) ; in its municipal constitution the chief 
magistrate even in imperial times bore the title of dictator. 
Pliny and Martial often praise the fertility of its neighbourhood. 
The site of the town is well protected by ravines except on the 
east; no ancient remains exist in situ, but inscriptions and 
other relics have been found. 

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 68 sqq. 

(T. As.) 

NOMINALISM (from Lat. nomen, name), the name of one 
of the two main tendencies of medieval philosophy, the other 
being Realism. The controversy between nominalists and 
realists arose from a passage in Boethius' translation of Porphyry's 
Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle, which propounded the 
problem of genera and species, (i) as to whether they subsist 
in themselves or only in the mind; (2) whether, if subsistent, 
they are corporeal or incorporeal; and (3) whether separated 
from sensible things or placed in them. The Realists held that 
universals alone have substantial reality, existing ante res; 
the Nominalists that universals are mere names invented to 
express the qualities of particular things and existing post res; 
while the Conceptualists, mediating between the two extremes, 
held that universals are concepts which exist in our minds and 
express real similarities in things themselves. Though a strong 
realist tendency is evident in the system of Erigena (gth century), 
the controversy was not definitely started till the nth century: 
it lasted till the middle of the i2th, when the first period of 
scholastic philosophy ends. Under an appearance of much vain 
subtlety the controversy about universals involved issues of the 
greatest speculative and practical importance: realism repre- 
sented a spiritual, nominalism an anti-spiritual, view of the world ; 
while realism was evidently favourable, and nominalism unfavour- 
able, to the teaching of the Church on the dogmas of the Trinity 
and the Eucharist. Nominalism was a doctrine of sceptics and 
suspected heretics, such as Berengar of Tours and Roscellinus. 
Even Abelard's mediating doctrine of conceptualism (q.v.) was 
sufficiently near to obnoxious ideas to involve him in lifelong 
persecution. The principles of the great orthodox philosophers 
of the later scholastic period which begins in the I3th century, 
Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, were those of moderate 
realism. When nominalism was revived in the i4th century 
by the English Franciscan, William of Occam, it gave evidence 
of a new tendency in thought, a distrust of abstractions and an 
impulse towards direct observation and inductive research, a 
tendency which had its fulfilment in the scientific movement 
of the Renaissance. Occam's dictum " Entia non multiplicanda 
sunt praeter necessitatem " was inspired by a spirit similar to 
that of Bacon. Though nominalism is properly a medieval 
theory, the tendency has passed over into modern philosophy: 
the term " nominalist " is often applied to thinkers of the 
empirical, sensationalist school, of whom J. S. Mill may be 
taken as the chief representative. (H. ST.) 

NONCONFORMIST, a term denoting historically (a) those 
persons who at the beginning of the iyth century refused to 
conform to certain practices, e.g. the wearing of the surplice, 
kneeling at the reception of the Sacrament, &c., of the Church 
of England; (6) those who, after the passing of the Act of 
Uniformity 1662, refused to conform to that act and ceased 
to be members of the church. In current usage the term " non- 
conformist " is applied in Great Britain to any member of a 
church not conforming to the ceremonies, worship and doctrines 
(" forms ") of the Church of England, but is generally used of a 
member of the so-called Free Churches, or Protestant Dissenters, 
and is not usually applied to Roman Catholics. The name can 
also be applied, in other countries, to those who do not belong 
to the established religion. Strictly a " dissenter " is one who 
dissents from the church as an " established " body, or who 



736 



NONCONFORMITY NONJURORS 



dissents from the establishment of a state church, while conform- 
ing or not to its forms, ceremonies or practice. 

NONCONFORMITY, LAW RELATING TO. For the history 
of the gradual relief of nonconformists in England from their 
disabilities see ENGLISH HISTORY, BAPTISTS, CONGREGATIONAL- 
ISM, METHODISM, FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF, &c.; also OATH. It is 
proposed here to note simply the present legal aspects of non- 
conformity apart from its history, that is, the matters in which 
the law as to nonconformists still differs from that applicable 
to members of the Church of England. The differences may be 
conveniently grouped under six heads. 

(i) Judicial Notice. The courts, both temporal and spiritual, 
take judicial notice of the tenets and authorities of the Church of 
England, the crown being head of the law and of the church. Where 
the tenets and authorities of a nonconformist body come in question, 
they must be proved by evidence. By Lord Lyndhurst's act, the 
Nonconformist Chapels Act 1844, where no particular religious 
doctrine or mode of worship has been prescribed by the deed or 
instrument of trust the usage of the congregation for twenty-five 
years is to be taken as conclusive evidence of the doctrine and worship 
which may be properly observed in such meeting-houses. (2) 
Tribunal. Offences against the law ecclesiastical (not being crimes) 
committed by clergy of the Church of England as a rule come by letters 
of request from the bishop of the diocese before the arches court of 
Canterbury or the chancery court of York (of both of which the 
same person is judge). Similar matters arising in nonconformist 
bodies can only be tried by the ordinary secular courts, and generally 
depend upon the question whether a minister has done any act 
which is not in accordance with the rules governing the particular 
body of which he is a minister. A nonconformist body is in law 
nothing more than a voluntary association, whose members may 
enforce discipline by any tribunal assented to by them, but must be 
subject in the last degree to the courts of the realm. Brawling in 
a church was an offence which formerly fell solely under the cogniz- 
ance of the spiritual courts, but by the Ecclesiastical Courts Juris- 
diction Act 1860 any person guilty of brawling in churches or chapels 
of the Church of England or Ireland, or in any chapel of any religious 
denomination, is liable on conviction to a fine or imprisonment (see 
BRAWLING), while clergymen of the Church of England may also be 
dealt with under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892. (3) Status of 
Ministers. A nonconformist minister is not in holy orders, and his 
chapel is not a consecrated building. His status is, however, recog- 
nized to a limited extent. By the Toleration Act, I Will. & Mar., 
c. 1-8, a minister, preacher or teacher of a nonconformist congregation 
is exempt from certain parochial offices, as that of churchwarden. He 
is also exempt from serving in the reserve forces or on a jury. These 
privileges only attach where the place of worship of which he is a 
minister has been duly registered (the Places of Worship Registration 
Act 1855), unless in the case of bodies subject to special legislation, 
as Quakers. Registration is not required in the case of consecrated 
buildings. By the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, s. 12, a noncon- 
formist minister (as is a clerk in holy orders) is disqualified from being 
elected an alderman or councillor of a town council, but under the 
Local Government Act 1888 a clerk in holy orders, or other minister of 
religion, may be a councillor or alderman of a county council, and, 
under the London Government Act 1899, of a metropolitan borough. 
He cannot take a degree in divinity at Oxford, Cambridge or Durham 
(Universities Tests Act 1871), and so is debarred from holding any 
professorship of divinity in those universities. (4) Marriage. 
Marriage by a person in holy orders was probably necessary at 
common law, at any rate from the Reformation up to 1836. (See 
MARRIAGE.) And from the date of Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act, 
'753. up to 1836 the ceremony must have been performed in a 
consecrated building. The first act of parliament that relieved 
dissenters (other than Jews and Quakers) from these restrictions 
was the Marriage Act of 1836. By that act the ceremony of marriage 
might be performed in a nonconformist place of worship, but it must 
be after due notice to the superintendent registrar and in his presence 
or in that of a registrar, and the building must be one that is duly 
certified for marriages. The Marriage Act 1898 dispensed with the 
necessity of the attendance of a registrar at marriages celebrated 
at a nonconformist place of worship, substituting in place thereof a 
person duly authorized by the trustees of the place of worship, if the 
persons intending to be married so desire; but the parties may, if 
they wish, still require the presence of the registrar. Marriage by 
banns, licence or special licence cannot take place except ina church. 
(5) Burial. By the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 burial may 
take place in a churchyard without the rites of the Church of England. 
But in such a case notice must be given in a specified form, which is 
unnecessary where the burial service is conducted by a clergyman 
of the Church of England. (6) Parish Offices. By I Will. & Mar. 
c. 18, s. 5, a dissenter chosen churchwarden and scrupling to take 
the oaths may execute his office by deputy. His acceptance of office 
is made optional by the act; there is nothing to prevent his dis- 
charging it if he see fit to do so. This seems to be still the law, although 
a declaration was substituted for the oath by the Statutory Declara- 
tions Act 1835, s. 9. 



British Colonies. In crown colonies ecclesiastical jurisdiction may 
be conferred by the sole authority of the crown. In colonies which 
have parliamentary representation the crown cannot give to a 
metropolitan bishop jurisdiction or coercive legal authority over 
suffragan bishops or over any other person. In colonies of the 
former kind the Church of England may still preserve the privileges 
which attach to her in the mother country ; in colonies of the latter 
kind she is in the same position as any other religious body, simply 
a voluntary association. Since the Irish Church Act 1869 the Church 
of Ireland has been practically in the same position as the Church 
of England in colonies which have representative government. 

NONFEASANCE, MISFEASANCE, MALFEASANCE. The ex- 
pressions " nonfeasance " and " misfeasance," and occasionally 
" malfeasance," are used in English law with reference to the 
discharge of public obligations existing by common law, custom 
or statute. The rule of law laid down is that no action lies for 
nonfeasance, i.e. for failure or refusal to perform the obligation, 
but that an action does lie for misfeasance or malfeasance, i.e. 
for negligently and improperly performing the obligation. 
The doctrine was formerly applied to certain callings carried 
on publicly (see R. v. Kilderby, 1669, i Will. Saund. 311, 3izc). 
At present the terms misfeasance and nonfeasance are oftenest 
used with reference to the conduct of municipal authorities 
with reference to the discharge of their statutory obligations; 
and it is an established rule that an action lies in favour of 
persons injured by misfeasance, i.e. by negligence in discharge 
of the duty; but that in the case of nonfeasance the remedy 
is not by action but by indictment or mandamus or by the 
particular procedure prescribed by the statutes. This rule is 
fully established in the case of failure to repair public highways ; 
but in other cases the courts are astute to find evidence of 
carelessness in the discharge of public duties and on that basis 
to award damages to individuals who have suffered thereby. 
Misfeasance is also used with reference to the conduct of directors 
and officers of joint-stock companies. The word malfeasance 
is sometimes used as equivalent to mala praxis by a medical 
practitioner. (W. F. C.) 

NONIUS MARCELLUS, Latin grammarian and lexicographer, 
flourished at the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 4th 
century A.D. He is often called the " Peripatetic of Thubur- 
sicum " (in Numidia, probably his birth-place). He is the 
author of a sort of lexicon called De compendiosa doclrina, 
in 20 sections or chapters, the first twelve of which deal with 
language and grammar, the remaining eight with special subjects 
(navigation, costume, food, arms). The work is a compilation 
from commentaries on the authors quoted (whom Nonius only 
knows at second hand) and from existing dictionaries and 
grammars. Nonius is especially indebted to Verrius Flaccus 
and Aulus Gellius. The Doctrina is valuable as preserving 
fragments from old dramatists, annalists, satirists and anti- 
quarian writers. It is remarkable that in the quotations from 
the authors cited Nonius always follows the same order, beginning 
with Plautus and ending with Varro and Cato. The grammarians 
Priscian and Fulgentius borrowed largely from his book; and 
in the sth century a certain Julius Tryphonianus Sabinus 
brought out a revised and annotated edition. 

Editions by L. Miiller (1888); J. H. Onions, bks. i.-iii. (1895); 
W. M. Lindsay (1903) (reviewed in Classical Review, October 1904). 
See also articles in the Classical Review (Dec. 1888, June and July 
1889); I. H. Onions (Oct. 1890, Oct. 1895, Feb. 1896, Feb. 1902); 
W. M. Lindsay; Journal of Philology, xvi. (1888), xviii. (1890), (J- H. 
Onions), xxi. (1893). (" The Printed Editions of Nonius," by H. 
Nettleship); P. Monceaux, Les Africains. Etude sur la litterature 
latine d'Afrique (1894); Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. 
trans.), 4O4A; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Literatur, iv. i 
(1904). 

NONJURORS, the name given to those beneficed clergy of the 
Church of England who refused to take the oaths of allegiance 
to William and Mary in 1689. They were about four hundred in 
number, and included William Bancroft, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, and four others of the " Seven Bishops," Thomas Ken of 
Bath and Wells, John Lake of Chichester, Thomas White of 
Peterborough and Francis Turner of Ely, together with three 
other bishops, Robert Frampton of Gloucester, William Thomas 
of Worcester and William Lloyd of Norwich (who is sometimes 
confused with his namesake, the bishop of St Asaph, one of the 



NONNUS NONPAREIL 



737 



" Seven Bishops "). Other distinguished nonjurors among the 
clergy were: William Sherlock, master of the Temple, Jeremy 
Collier, the ecclesiastical historian, Charles Leslie, the contro- 
versialist, George Hickes, dean of Worcester, Nathanael Spinckes, 
John Fitzwilliam, canon of Windsor, and John Kettlewell, the 
devotional writer. The most famous nonjurors among the laity 
were Henry Dodwell, Camden professor of history at Oxford, 
Robert Nelson, Henry Hyde, second earl of Clarendon, and 
Roger North, the lawyer. Afterwards their number was aug- 
mented by the refusal of William Law, author of The Serious 
Call, Thomas Carte, the historian, Thomas Hearne, the antiquary, 
and others, to take the oaths of allegiance to George I. Ken, 
the most eminent of the nonjurors, disapproved of their sub- 
sequent proceedings, and Sherlock and Dodwell afterwards took 
the required oaths, the former becoming dean of St Paul's. 

Believing in the doctrine of non-resistance to established 
authority, the nonjurors argued that James II. was still the 
rightful king, and likened the position of William to that of 
Cromwell. Taking examples from the Old Testament and from 
the practice of the early church, their antagonists traversed 
these arguments, and a long and voluminous controversy 
followed. Many have thought that the position of the nonjurors 
was inconsistent, and Dr Johnson said, " I never knew a non- 
juror who could reason," although he appears to have excepted 
Leslie from this general condemnation. The government did 
not treat the nonjurors harshly. With the approval of William 
III., Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, attempted to reconcile 
them to the new order; and it was only when the generous terms 
offered by Burnet had been refused, that, in February 1690, they 
were deprived of their sees and other benefices. Although they 
had only a small following among the mass of. the people, who 
were not required to take the oaths of allegiance, Sancroft and 
his colleagues claimed to represent the true Church of England, 
and requested James II. in his exile to nominate two new bishops 
to carry on the episcopal succession. James chose Hickes and 
Thomas Wagstaffe (1645-1712), who were consecrated in 1694 
as bishops of Thetford and Ipswich respectively. A further 
consecration took place in 171.3 when Collier, Spinckes and 
Samuel Hawes (d. 1722), were consecrated " bishops at large." 
In 1718 the introduction of a new communion office with some 
" usages " taken partly from primitive liturgies, and partly 
from the first prayer-book of Edward VI. caused a schism among 
the nonjurors, dividing them into " Usagers " and " Non- 
Usagers." The four " usages " were: The mixed chalice, 
prayers for the faithful departed, prayer for the descent of the 
Holy Ghost on the consecrated elements, and the Oblatory 
Prayer, offering the elements to the Father as symbols of His 
Son's Body and Blood. Accepting the " usages " the two bodies 
united in 1731, but other dissensions followed, although the 
episcopal succession was maintained until the death of a bishop 
named Charles Booth in 1805. The last nonjuror is supposed to 
have been James Yeowell, who died in 1875. Public worship 
was conducted in chapels or " oratories," and sometimes in 
private houses. 

In Scotland the nonjurors included the greater part of the 
clergy of the Episcopal Church, which ceased to be the state 
church in 1689. Many of these men and some of their English 
colleagues were ardent Jacobites, and were punished for sharing 
in the risings of 1715 and 1745, and in other Jacobite movements. 
The Scottish clergy maintained their attitude of resistance to 
the government until the death of Prince Charles Edward Stuart 
in 1788, when the bishops met at Aberdeen, and unanimously 
agreed to submit to the government of King George III. A 
large number of the Presbyterians in Scotland, principally found 
among the Cameronians, also refused to take the oaths of allegi- 
ance to William and Mary; but as their reasons for this refusal 
were quite different from those of the episcopalian nonjurors, 
they are not usually referred to by this name (see CAMERONIANS). 

For the history of the nonjurors, see Macaulay, History of England 
vol. ii. (London, 1895); T. Lathbury, History of the Nonjurors 
(London, 1845); and especially J. H. Overton, The Nonjurors 
(London, 1902), a defence of the sect. (A. W. H.*) 

XIX. 24 



NONNUS (Egyptian for " saint "), Greek epic poet, a native of 
Panopolis (Akhmim) in the Egyptian Thebaid, probably lived 
at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century A.D. 
His principal work is the Dionysiaca, an epic in forty-eight books, 
the main subject of which is the expedition of Dionysus to India 
and his return. The earlier portions treat of the rape of Europa, 
the battle of the giants, the mythical history of Thebes, and it 
is not until the eighth book that the birth of the god is described. 
Other poets had already treated the subject, and since the time 
of Alexander it had gained popularity from the favourite com- 
parison of the king with the god and of his enemies with the giants. 
In its vast and formless luxuriance, its beautiful but artificial 
versification, its delineation of action and passion to the entire 
neglect of character, the poem resembles the epics of India. 
Like his countryman Claudian, Nonnus is a writer of copious 
learning and still more copious fancy, whose faults are those of 
the age in which he lived. His chief merit consists in the syste- 
matic perfection to which he brought the Homeric hexameter. 
But the very correctness of the versification renders it monoton- 
ous. His influence on the vocabulary of his successors was 
likewise very considerable. 

We also possess under his name a paraphrase (juera/SoXij) of 
the Gospel of St John, which is chiefly interesting as apparently 
indicating that Nonnus in his later years was a convert to 
Christianity. The style is not inferior to that of his epic, but, 
employed in embellishing the simple narrative of the evangelist, 
it produces an impression of extreme bombast and want of taste. 
According to an epigram in the Palatine Anthology (ix. 198), 
Nonnus was also the author of a Battle of the Giants, and four 
lines of the Bassarica (also on the subject of Dionysus) have been 
preserved in Stephanus of Byzantium. 

Editio princeps (1569) ; H. Kochly (" Teubner " series, with critical 
introduction and full index of names, 1858) ; the most generally 
useful edition is that by the comte de Marcellus (1856), with notes 
and prolegomena, and a French prose translation. On the metre, 
see J. G. Hermann, Orphica (1805), p. 690; A. Ludwich, Beitrdee 
zur Kritik des Nonnus (1873), critical, grammatical and metrical; 
C. Lehrs, Quaestiones epicae (1837), pp. 255-302, chiefly on metrical 
questions; on the sources, R. Kohler, Uber die Dionysiaka des 
Nonnus (1853), a short and connected analysis of the poem, with a 
comparison of the earlier and later myths; see also I. Negrisoli, 
Studio critico . . . Nonnus Panopolita, with short bibliography 
(1903). The paraphrase on St John (editio princeps, c. 1505) is 
edited by F. Passow (1834) and A. Scheindler (1881), with complete 
index. 

NONPAREIL, the name under which, from its supposed match- 
less beauty, a little cage-bird, chiefly imported from New Orleans, 
has long been known to English dealers (cf. Edwards, Gleanings, 
i. 132). It is the Emberiza ciris of Linnaeus, and the Cyano- 
spiza ciris of most recent ornithologists, belonging to a small 
group, now included with the buntings and finches, although 
some authors have regarded it as a tanager (q.v.). The cock 
has the head, neck and lesser wing-coverts bright blue, the 
upper part of the back yellow, deepening into green, and the 
lower parts generally, together with the rump, bright scarlet, 
tinged on the latter with purple. This gorgeous colouring is not 
assumed until the bird is at least two years old. The hen is 
green above and yellow beneath; and the younger cocks present 
an appearance intermediate between the adults of both sexes. 
The species, which is often also called the painted bunting, 
after wintering in Central America or Mexico, arrives in the 
Southern states of the American Union in April, but does not 
ordinarily proceed to the northward of South Carolina. In 
Louisiana, where it is generally known to the French-speaking 
inhabitants as the Pape as it was to the Spaniards of Florida 
as the Mariposa pintada (painted butterfly) it is said to be very 
abundant; and on its appearance in spring advantage is, or was, 
taken of the pugnacious disposition of the males to capture them 
alive in great numbers by means of the stuffed skin of one so 
placed in connexion with a cage-trap that they instantly fall into 
the latter on attacking what they conceive to be a rival. Belong- 
ing to the same genus as the nonpareil is the indigo-bird, Cyano- 
spiza cyanea, which, as a summer visitant, is widely diffused from 
the Missouri to the Atlantic, and extends into the provinces of 



738 



NONPAREIL NORCIA 



Ontario and New Brunswick, being everywhere regarded with 
favour. Though wanting most of the bright hues of its congener, 
the indigo-bird has yet much beauty, the adult cock being nearly 
all over of a deep blue, changing, according to the light, to green. 
The hen is brown above and ochreous-white beneath. The 
" pintailed nonpareil " of aviculture (Erythrura prasina) is a 
somewhat similarly coloured but really very different bird; 
the male has a long sharp tail, and the species belongs to the 
Ploceidae (see WEAVER-BIRD). 

NONPAREIL (Fr. non, and pareil, like, Lat. par), having 
no equal, unrivalled. Apart from its uses as a descriptive name 
for particularly fine kinds of fruit, &c., and of certain birds, 
moths and butterflies, the chief application of the word in English 
is, in printing, to a size of type between " emerald " and " ruby," 
in the United States of America between " minion " and " agate " 
(see TYPOGRAPHY). 

NONSUIT (Fr. non suit, he does not pursue), in law the name 
given to a judgment whereby an issue is determined against 
the plaintiff. It was a term peculiar to the English common-law 
courts before the Judicature Acts, and was simply the expression 
of the opinion of the court that, apart from the merits, the 
plaintiff's case was incomplete. It did not in any way act as 
a bar to his bringing another action for the same cause. It 
might be entered either at the wish of the plaintiff himself 
(to whom it was of course much more beneficial than judgment 
for the defendant) or by direction of the court against the will 
of the plaintiff. Although judgment of nonsuit still exists, 
it has, since the Judicature Acts, the same effect as a judgment 
on the merits, unless the court otherwise directs. This effect 
of a nonsuit was specially provided for by the rules of the 
Supreme Court of 1875. 

NOODT, GERHARD (1647-1725), Dutch jurist, was born at 
Nijmwegen in 1647. Educated at Leiden, Utrecht and Franeker, 
he became a professor of law at Leiden. As a writer on juris- 
prudence he acquired a wide reputation. His Latin style was 
modelled after the best writers, and his numerous works soon 
rose to the rank of standard authorities. Two of his political 
treatises were translated into French by Jean Barbeyrac, and 
appeared at Amsterdam in 1707 and 1714, under the respective 
titles of Powioir des sowierains and Libertf de conscience, 

The first edition of his collected works was published at Leiden in 
1724 and the last in 1767. That of 1735 and those subsequent 
contain a life of the author by Barbeyrac. 

NOON, midday, twelve o'clock. The O. Eng. n6n, Nor. non, 
Dutch noen, are all from Lat. nona sc. hora, the ninth hour, 
i.e. according to the Roman system, three o'clock P.M. (see DAY). 
The early uses of noon till the i3th and I4th centuries are either 
as translating the Latin, especially with reference to the Cruci- 
fixion, or as equivalent to the canonical hour of " nones " (see 
BREVIARY). The ordinary word for twelve o'clock was middag, 
midday, also the equivalent of the canonical hour " sext." 
Both the office and the meal taken about that time were shifted 
to an earlier hour, and by the i4th century the ordinary use of 
" noon " is that current to-day. 

For " nones " (i.e. nonae, sc. dies) in the Roman calendar, see 
CALENDAR. 

NORA, an ancient town of Sardinia, 22 m. by road S.S.W. 
of Carales. It was founded, according to Pausanias (x. 17. 5), 
by the Iberians under Norax, son of Hermes, and was the most 
ancient town in the island. The discoveries made on the site 
have, however, shown that it was certainly of Phoenician origin. 
In Roman times too, we find the milestones on the road from 
Nora to Bitia and even on that from Nora to Carales reckoned 
from Nora (Corp. inscr. Lat. x. 831; Epkemcris epigraphica, 
viii. 180); but the authors and the sepulchral inscriptions 
found here give us no information as to its juridical condition. 
The town occupies a characteristically Phoenician site, a small 
peninsula joined to the mainland by an isthmus, low, narrow 
and sandy. Excavations have led to the discovery of a few 
Phoenician buildings, the foundations of a temple of Tanit, 
of a road, of quay walls at the water's edge and of a watch-tower 
on the extremity of the peninsula, which rises to some 150 ft. 
above the sea. Two cemeteries were found, one of the 7th-6th 



century B.C., consisting of tombs cut in the rock for inhumation, 
while in the other, going down to the 4th century B.C., cremation 
is the rule; there are ossuaries placed in holes in the sand, with 
a sculptured stele over each. A quantity of small objects, 
gems, ivories, glass, vases, terra-cottas, &c., were found; in 
some of them Egyptian, in others Greek, influence and importa- 
tion are apparent. To the Roman period belong an aqueduct, 
bringing the water from the neighbouring hills one pier of it 
rests upon a destroyed nuraghe scanty remains of an amphi- 
theatre, a theatre, considerable ruins of concrete foundations 
(perhaps of villas by the sea) and a watch-tower on the promon- 
tory close to the Phoenician tower. A full description of the 
site and the excavations is given by G. Patroni in Monumenti 
dei Lincei, xiv. (1905), in. On the isthmus is the curious small 
old church of S Efisio, with a nave and two aisles divided by 
heavy square pillars. At the festival of the saint (May 1-4), 
his body is brought in procession from the cathedral at Cagliari; 
the festival is much frequented by people from all parts of 
Sardinia. (T.As.) 

NORBA, an ancient town of Latium (Adjectum), Italy. It is 
situated i m. N.W. of the modern Norma, 1575 ft. above sea-level, 
on the west edge of the Vclscian Mountains or Monti Lepini, 
above a precipitous cliff, with a splendid view over the Pomptine 
Marshes. It was a member of the Latin League of 499 B.C., 
and became a Latin colony in 492 B.C., as an important fortress 
guarding the Pomptine Marshes. It served in 199 as a place 
of detention for the Carthaginian hostages, and was captured 
and destroyed by Sulla's troops during the civil wars at the 
end of 82 B.C. Some revival in prosperity took place later. 
From excavations begun in 1901 it seems clear that the remains 
now visible on the site are entirely Roman. The well-preserved 
walls are in the polygonal style, 15 m. in circuit, and are entirely 
embankment walls, not standing free above the internal ground 
level. Remains of a massive tower, and of several gateways 
(notably the Porta Grande, defended by a tower) exist. Within, 
the remains of several buildings, including the substructions 
of two temples, one dedicated to Juno Lucina, have been 
examined. At the foot of the cliff are the picturesque ruins of 
the medieval town of Nainfa (i2th-i3th centuries) abandoned 
owing to the malaria. The remains of a primitive settlement, 
on the other hand, have been discovered on the mountain-side 
to the S.E., above the 13th-century abbey of Valvisciolo, where 
there is a succession of terraces supported by walls of polygonal 
work, and approached by a road similarly supported. Here 
a quantity of primitive Latin pottery has been found. The 
necropolis of this settlement was probably the extensive one 
situated at Caracupa (8th-6th century B.C.), near the railway 
station of Sermoneta, which belongs also to the 8th-6th century 
B.C., terminating thus at the precise date at which the Roman 
city of Norba began to exist. 

See L. Savignioni and R. Mengarelli in Notizie degli scavi (1901), 
514; (1903) 299, 289; (1904) 407; and Atli del Congresso Storico 
(Rome, 1903), vol. v. (Archaeologia) 255. (T.As.) 

NORBANUS, GAIUS, surnamed BULBUS (or BALBUS), Roman 
politician, was a seditious and turbulent democrat. In 103 B.C., 
when tribune of the people, he accused Q. Servilius Caepio 
of having brought about the defeat of his army by the Cimbri 
through rashness, and also of having plundered the temple 
of Tolosa. Caepio was condemned and went into exile. About 
ten years later Norbanus himself was accused of treason on 
account of the disturbances that had taken place at the trial of 
Caepio, but the eloquence of M. Antonius, grandfather of the 
triumvir, procured his acquittal. In 89 Norbanus as praetor 
successfully defended Sicily against the Italian socii. . During 
the civil war between Marius and Sulla he sided with the former, 
but was defeated by Sulla at mount Tifata near Capua, and 
again by Metellus at Faventia in Cisalpine Gaul (82). He fled 
to Rhodes, where he committed suicide, while the Rhodians were 
debating whether to hand him over to Sulla. 

See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk. iv. ch. v. ; Greenidge, Hist, of 
Rome. 

NORCIA (anc. Nursia), a town and episcopal see of the province 
of Perugia, Italy, 29 m. E.N.E. of Spoleto by road, and 40 m. W. 



NORD NORDAU 



739 



of Ascoli Piceno, 1980 ft. above sea-level, on the south-west 
foot-slopes of the Monti Sibillini, still surrounded by old walls. 
Pop. (1901) 4261 (town), 9584 (commune). There are a cathedral, 
the church of St Benedict and other churches, with Romanesque 
14th-century facades; the town-hall; and the prefecture, 
with Romanesque arcades. Much injury was done by earth- 
quakes in 1730 and 1859. The ancient Nursia was a Sabine 
city, though close to the Umbrian border. Its inhabitants fought 
in 43-41 B.C. against Octavian, and were punished by him for 
erecting a monument 'in honour of those who fell. It was 
governed by octoviri like other Sabine towns and became a 
municipium under the empire. At Ancarano near Norcia was 
situated a small pagus; remains of a temple were found there in 
1880, which from the character of the objects seems to have been 
destroyed in the $th century B.C. The tombs of the district have 
also produced interesting early bronzes, &c., some of which go 
back to the 7th century B.C., and a fine funeral couch decorated 
with sculptured pieces of bone. M. Guardabassi in Noiizie degli 
scavi, 1878, 13 sqq.; 1880, 6 sqq.; A. Pasqui in Monumenti 
dei Lincei, i. (1891) 239. The town was the birthplace of Q. 
Sertorius (d. 72 B.C.), of Vespasia, mother of the emperor 
Vespasian of Plotina, wife of the emperor Trajan, and of St. 
Benedict, founder of the Benedictine order, and of his sister 
Scholastica. The town is famous for its pork and its cloth (the 
term norcineria for a pork butcher's shop is indeed used in Rome) 
and produces bricks and earthenware. 

See F. Patrici Ford, Memorie storiette di Norcia (Norcia, 1869). 

NORD, the most northern of the departments of France, 
formed chiefly out of Flanders, French Hainault and the district 
of Cambrai (Cambre'sis). Area 2229 sq. m. Its population 
(1,895,861 in 1906), which includes a large proportion of Belgians, 
ranks next to that of Seine among French departments. Its 
length from south-east to north-west is 112 m.; its breadth 
nowhere exceeds 40 m., and contracts to 4 where it is crossed by 
the Lys. Bounded N.W. and N. for 21 m. by the North Sea, 
it has Belgian territory on the N.E. and E., the departments 
of Aisne and Somme on the S. and Pas-de-Calais on the W. 
The Flanders portion west of the Scheldt is very flat, the isolated 
hill at Cassel, only 535 ft. high, looking north towards Dunkirk 
over a stretch of fertile lowlands, the Wateringues and the 
Moeres, separated by a line of sand-dunes from the sea, by 
which about a thousand years ago they were still covered. 
The reclamation of this district, now covered by a network of 
canals, was begun as early as the I2th century.. South-east of 
the Scheldt the country resembles the neighbouring Ardennes, 
is better wooded, and contains the highest point in the depart- 
ment (873 ft.). The greater part of Nord is in the Scheldt basin, 
but certain portions belong to those of the Sambre (Meuse), 
the Oise (Seine) and the little coast-streams the Aa and the Yser. 
The Scheldt, flowing by Cambrai, Bouchain, Valenciennes and 
Cond6, receives the Scarpe, which touches Douai, Marchiennes 
and St Amand. The Lys, which does not join the Scheldt till it 
has entered Belgium, passes Armentieres, and receives the Deule, 
on which Lille, the capital, is situated. The Sambre passes 
Landrecies and Maubeuge. The Aa falls into the port at 
Gravelines. The climate of Nord is colder than that of France in 
general, the mean temperature being 49 or 50 F. The average 
annual rainfall is about 28 in. 

In agricultural and industrial importance Nord is the first of 
French departments. In the hilly region of the south-east stock- 
raising flourishes; in the central zone beetroot is the character- 
istic crop, while mixed fanning prevails in the north-west. 
Cereals (especially wheat and oats) and potatoes are grown in 
abundance. Among minor crops, flax, tobacco, chicory and hops 
may be mentioned. Market-gardening and horticulture are 
practised on a considerable scale in some localities. The mineral 
wealth of the department lies principally in its coal mines 
forming part of the Valenciennes basin, the most important 
in France, which extends into Belgium and Pas-de-Calais. 
The textile industry is particularly active around Lille, Roubaix 
and Tourcoing which spin and weave cotton and wool, as also 
around Fourmies which is especially a weaving town. Other 



important centres are Armentieres (cloth- weaving), Dunkirk 
(flax, jute and hemp-spinning), Cambrai (batiste and other 
delicate fabrics), Douai, Avesnes, le Cateau and Caudry. Other 
great industries are brewing, flour-milling, glass, brick, pottery 
and sugar manufacture, alcohol-distilling, dyeing, iron-founding 
and steel production and other branches of the metallurgical 
industry carried on at Denain, Hautmont, Maubeuge, Valen- 
ciennes, Douai, Raismes, &c. Dunkirk and Gravelines equip 
fleets for the cod and herring fisheries. Dunkirk is the 
chief port of the department, which is served by the Northern 
railway. Its system of inland navigation is highly developed 
and attains a length of 320 m., comprising a line of waterways 
from the Scheldt to the North Sea at Dunkirk, with which the 
coal basin of Valenciennes is linked up by way of the canalized 
Scheldt and the textile region of Lille by means of the Deule 
canal and the canalized Lys. To these must be added the 
canalized Sambre and other less important waterways. 

The department is divided into seven arrondissements (Avesnes, 
Cambrai, Douai, Dunkirk, Hazebrouck, Lille, Valenciennes) 
with 67 cantons and 667 communes. It forms the archiepiscopal 
diocese of Cambrai and part of the region of the I. army corps 
(headquarters at Lille) and of the educational division of Lille. 
Its court of appeal is at Douai. The most noteworthy places 
are Lille, Cambrai, Douai, Dunkirk, Valenciennes and Anzin, 
Tourcoing, Roubaix, Avesnes, Halluin, Armentieres, Maubeuge, 
Conde-sur-Escaut, Fourmies, Hazebrouck, Gravelines, St Amand- 
les-Eaux, Bergues, Le Cateau, Comines, Denain, Cassel and 
Bavai, which are separately noticed. Other populous industrial 
towns not mentioned above are Loos (pop. 9294) and Haubourdin 
(7897) near Lille, Caudry (10,947), nea* Cambrai, and Aniche 
(7855), a coal mining centre, near Douai. Other places of interest 
are Bailleul (pop. in 1906, 7128), Bavai and Bergues, which have 
fine belfries of the i6th century, structures characteristic of the 
architecture of the department; Hondschoote, scene of a victory 
of the French over the allies in 1793, which has a church of the 
1 5th and i6th centuries with a fine tower and spire; and Famars 
which preserves a curious ruined stronghold of the period of the 
Roman occupation. 

NORDAU, MAX SIMON (1840- ), German author and 
philosopher, was born of Jewish parents at Budapest on the 
zgth of July 1849. He studied medicine and travelled widely 
through Europe until 1878, when he settled down as a practitioner 
in his native town. In 1880 he removed to Paris, and in addition 
to his professional work took up the study of art, literature 
and social questions. His investigations were marked by a 
critical accuracy which endeavoured to weigh data and deduce 
results with a fearless disregard of conventional ideas. In his 
Enlartung he applied the theory of physical degeneration to the 
intellectual side of civilized man, and endeavoured to show that 
in art, literature and social evolution there is decadence and 
hysteria; confused aesthetic theory, mysticism in thought, 
so-called " realism " in art, all alike indicate the vain spasmodic 
struggling of an effete civilization. In Die konventionellen 
Lugen der Kulturmenschheit (1884), the same destructive method 
is applied to politics and to social science. Yet Nordau was not 
a pessimist. In the Paradoxes psyckologiques (1885) he expressed 
his profound and reasoned conviction that the " Degeneration " 
of the time was only temporary. This optimism was seen in his 
enthusiastic support of Dr Herzl's Zionist movement. In 
connexion with the British government's offer of land for a 
Jewish settlement in East Africa, there was a fundamental 
difference of opinion among the various Jewish societies. Herzl 
and Nordau were accused of giving up the idea of returning to 
Palestine, and substituting the African scheme. This idea 
provoked great hostility, and at a Zionist Ball in Paris (igth of 
December 1903) a Jew named Louban Chain Selik fired two shots 
at Nordau unsuccessfully. The outrage drew from Herzl a 
letter (The Times, 22nd of December) which clearly set forth the 
view held by himself and Nordau as to the ultimate destiny of 
the Zionist Movement. 

WORKS. Novels and Stories: Seifenblasen, Federzeichnu*ien 
und Geschichten (1879); Die Krankheit des Jahrhunderts (1889); 



740 



NORDEN NORDENSKIOLD 



GefuUskomodie (1892); Die DrohnensMacht (1897); Morganatisch 
(1904). Dramas: Die neuen Journalisten (in collaboration with 
F. Gross, 1880) ; Der Krieg der Millionen (1882) ; Das Recht zu lieben 
(2nd ed., 1894); Die Kugel (1894); and Doktor Kohn (1898). He 
published also Vom Kreml zur Alhambra (1880), an account of his 
travels, and three works descriptive of Paris and the Parisians 
Pariser Studien aus dem wahren MiUiardenlande (1878); Paris unter 
der dritten Republik (1881); Ausgewahlte Pariser Briefe (1887); 
two further volumes of criticism, Zeitgenossische Franzosen, literatur- 
geschichtliche essays (Berlin, 1901); and Von Kunst und Kiinstlern 
(Leipzig, 1905). 

NORDEN, JOHN (1548-1625?), English topographer, was the 
first Englishman who designed a complete series of county 
histories and geographies. His earliest known work of import- 
ance was the Speculum Britanniae, first part . . . Middlesex 
(1593); the MS. of this in the British Museum (Harl. 570) has 
corrections, &c., in Lord Burleigh's handwriting. In 1595 he 
wrote a Chorographical Description of . . . Middlesex, Essex, 
Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire, Wight, Guernsey and Jersey, dedicated 
to Queen Elizabeth; the MS. of this is in the British Museum, 
Addit. MSS. 31,853. In 1596 he published his Preparative 
to . . . Speculum Britanniae, dedicated to Burleigh, and in 1598 
his Hertfordshire (Lambeth Libr. MSS. 521). Before his death 
he had completed in manuscript his account of five other counties; 
three of these studies were printed long after his death, viz. 
Essex, edited for the Camden Society in 1840 by Sir Henry Ellis 
from a MS. at Hatfield (see also British Museum Addit. MSS. 
33, 769); Northamptonshire, known to have been finished in 
1610, but only published in 1720; Cornwall, likewise finished in 
1610, published in 1728 (see Harl. MSS. 6252). Of Kent and 
Surrey even the MSS. are now lost; parts of the latter are perhaps 
identical with sections of the Chorographical Description of 1595. 
In 1600 Norden was appointed surveyor of the crown woods and 
forests in Berkshire, Devon, Surrey, &c. ; in 1605 he obtained 
the surveyorship of the duchy of Cornwall; in 1607, after a 
careful survey, he composed his valuable Description of the 
Honour of Windsor, with fine maps and plans in colour, dedicated 
to James I. (see Harl. MSS. 3749). In 1608 he was mainly 
occupied with the surveying of crown woods, especially in Surrey, 
Berkshire and Devon, and with the writing of his works on forest 
culture Considerations touching . . . raising . . . of Coppices, 
and . . . Relation of . . . Proceedings upon . . . Commission 
concerning new forests, to which he added in 1613 his Observations 
concerning Crown Lands and Woods (see Egerton MSS. 806; 
Ashmole MSS. 1148; and Lansdowne MSS. 165). In 1612 
he was made surveyor of the royal castles in Kent, Surrey, 
Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire, Dorset, Wiltshire, Somerset, 
Devon and Cornwall; in 1616 and 1617 he appears surveying 
the soke of Kirketon in Lindsey, as well as various manors and 
lands belonging to Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I. (see 
Cambridge University Library, Ff. iv. 30; London, British 
Museum Addit. MSS. 6027); his last works were a survey of 
Sheriff Button manor, Yorks, in 1624 (Harl. MSS. 6288), and 
England, an intended guide for English travellers, a series of tables 
to accompany Speed's county maps, executed in 1625, shortly 
before his death. 

Norden's maps of London and Westminster (in his Speculum 
Britanniae of 1593) are the best representations known of the English 
metropolis under the Tudors; his maps of Middlesex (also from the 
Spec. Brit, of 1593), of Essex (1594, 1840), of Hertfordshire (1598, 
1723) and of Cornwall (published in 1728; see above) are also note- 
worthy ; in the last-named the roads are indicated for the first time 
in English topography. Norden also executed maps of Hampshire, 
Hertfordshire, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey and Sussex, for the fifth 
edition (1607) of Camden's Britannia, also maps of Middlesex, 
Essex, Sussex, Surrey and Cornwalj for J. Speed (1610). Several 
important cartographical works of his are lost : e.g. his Map . . . of 
. . . Battles fought in England from . . . William the Conqueror to 
. . . Elizabeth, in 16 sheets, formerly in the Bodleian Gallery, Oxford, 
of which some part is probably preserved in the Invasions of England, 
an appendix to the Prospect of the most Famous Parts of the World, 
by J. Speed (1635); and his View of London, in 8 sheets, made c. 
1604-1606, and View of London Bridge, published in 1624; in the 
Crace collection at the British Museum is an earlier View of London 
by Norden (1600), and an 1804 reprint of the View of London Bridge; 
a map of Surrey by Norden, said to have been copied by Speed 
and Kip in Camden's Britannia of 1607, has also disappeared. 



Besides the works noticed above, see the accounts of Norden by 
C. Bateman in Speculum Britanniae, pars Cornwall (1728), and 
by Sir H. Ellis in Spec. Brit., pars Essex (Camden Society, 1840); 
also H. B. Wheatley in Harrison's Description of England (New 
Shakspere Society, 1877), and C. H. Coote's article in the Diet. 
Nat. Biog. (C. R. B.) 

NORDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, 4 m. from the North Sea and 20 m. by rail N. of 
Emden. Pop. (1905) 6717. It has a 16th-century town hall 
and its parish church was built in 1445. Gin, sugar, chocolate, 
yeast, beer, tobacco and machinery are manufactured. Nord- 
deich, a small port 4 m. N.W., is the shipping place for passengers 
bound for Norderney. Norden was first mentioned in 842. 

NORDENSKIOLD, NILS ADOLF ERIK, BARON (1832-1001), 
geographer and Arctic explorer, was born at Helsingfors, i8th 
November 1832. His ancestors came originally from Sweden, 
but for some generations had been settled in Finland. His 
father, Nils Gustav Nordenskiold, was both a mineralogist and 
a traveller. Nordenskiold entered the university of Helsingfors 
in 1849, and applied himself specially to chemistry and miner- 
alogy. In 1853 he accompanied his father to the Ural Mountains 
and studied the iron and copper mines at Tagilsk. On his return 
he received minor appointments both at the university and the 
mining office, but an unguarded speech at a convivial entertain- 
ment in 1855 drew the attention of the Russian authorities 
to his political views, and led to his dismissal. He then visited 
Berlin, continuing his mineralogical studies, and in 1856 
obtained the Alexander travelling stipend at the university 
of Helsingfors and planned to expend it in geological research 
in Siberia and Kamchatka. Before starting he took his master's 
and doctor's degrees (1857), but he again aroused the suspicion 
of the authorities, so that he was forced to leave the country 
and was deprived of the right of ever holding office in the univer- 
sity. Settling at Stockholm he thenceforward became practically 
a Swedish citizen. He soon received an offer from Otto Torell, 
the geologist, to accompany him on an expedition to Spitsbergen. 
To the observations of Torell on glacial phenomena Norden- 
skiold added the discovery at Bell Sound of remains of Tertiary 
plants, and on the return of the expedition he received the 
appointment of professor and curator of the mineralogical 
department of the Swedish State Museum. In 1861 he took 
part in Torell's second Spitsbergen expedition, which yielded 
even more important geological results. Of the further expedi- 
tion to the same quarter promoted by the Swedish academy 
of science in 1864, Nordenskiold was the leader. Three years 
later, chiefly through the support of the Swedish government 
and Oscar Dickson, who contributed largely towards the later 
expeditions of 1872 and 1875, he headed a well-organized 
expedition in the iron steamer " Sofia," and reached the highest 
northern latitude (81 42') then attained in the eastern hemi- 
sphere. Arctic exploration had now become his all-absorbing 
object in life, and in 1870, with three young naturalists, he 
visited the vast inland ice-sheet of Greenland. His next expedi- 
tion in 1872 did not answer expectation, for the tenders were 
caught in the ice, and the crews of the three vessels were forced 
to winter in Spitsbergen. In 1875-1876, however, a successful 
voyage eastwards, including the ascent of the Yenisei, led him 
to attempt the discovery of the long-sought North-East Passage. 
This he accomplished in the voyage of the " Vega," navigating 
for the first time the northern coasts of Europe and Asia. 
Starting from Karlskrona on the 22nd of June 1878, the " Vega " 
doubled Cape Chelyuskin in the following August, and after 
being frozen in at the end of September near Bering Strait, 
completed the voyage successfully in the following summer. 
He edited a monumental record of the expedition in five octavo 
volumes, and himself wrote a more popular summary in two 
volumes. 

On his return to Sweden he received an enthusiastic welcome, 
and in April 1880 was made a baron and a commander of the 
Order of the Nordstjerna. In 1883 he again visited the east 
coast of Greenland, and succeeded in taking his ship through the 
great ice barrier, a feat attempted in vain during more than three 
centuries. Baron Nordenskiold also made a notable reputation 



NORDERNEY NORDLINGEN 



in the field of historical geography by his Facsimile Atlas 
(1889) and Periplus (1897). The former contains reproductions 
of the most important geographical documents printed during 
the isth and i6th centuries, and the latter, a work of far 
greater research, deals with the history of early cartography and 
the sailing charts in use among mariners during the middle ages. 
He died at Stockholm on the izth of August 1901. 

NORDERNEY (i.e. " northern island "), an island of Germany, 
in the North Sea, the largest of the East Friesland group, 
belonging to the Prussian province of Hanover. Pop. (1905) 
3888. It is 8 m. long and about i| m. broad, and supports a 
seafaring and fishing population. It is reached by steamer 
from Geestemiinde, Emden, Bremen or Hamburg, and at low 
tide by road from the mainland. The village at the S.W. end 
of the island is one of the most popular sea-bathing places 
in Germany, and is visited annually by some 26,000 visitors. 
On the S. side rises a lighthouse 175 ft. high, while the E. end 
of the island is filled with sand dunes ranging in height from 
50 to 75 ft. Norderney is immortalized by its association with 
Heinrich Heine's NordseebUder. 

See Berenberg, Das Nordseebad Norderney (Norden, 1895) ; 
C. Herquet, Geschichte der Insel Norderney 1398-1711 (1890) ; and 
the article FRISIAN ISLANDS. 

NORDFJORD, an inlet of the west coast of Norway, penetrat- 
ing the land for 50 m. in an easterly direction, its mouth being 
115 m. by sea N. of Bergen (61 50' N.). No part of Norway 
affords finer scenery than the inner ramifications of this fjord 
among the snowy mountains of the northern Jostedalsbrae. 
Driving-roads penetrate the mountains from Visnaes eastward 
to the Gudbrandsdal, from Utvik southward to Vadheim on 
the Sogne Fjord, and from Faleide northward to Hellesylt 
(Geiranger Fjord) and Oje (Jorundsfjord). Nordfjordeid is a 
large village on the outer fjord, at the mouth of Hornindalen. 
Olden and Loen are other favourite centres on the inner part of 
the fjord. A small but powerful breed of horses is peculiar to 
the Nordfjord district. 

NORDHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the province of 
Prussian Saxony. It is situated on the Zorge at the south base 
of the Harz Mountains, and at the west end of the Goldene Aue 
(Golden Plain), a fruitful valley watered by the Helme, 60 m. 
by rail W. of Halle, on the main line to Frankfort-on-Main and 
Cassel, and at the junction of railways to Erfurt and Blankenheim. 
Pop. (1885) 27,083; (1005) 29,882. It is built partly on the 
slope of the mountains and partly on the plain, and the upper 
and lower parts of the town are connected by flights of steps. 
Among its eight churches the most noteworthy are the Roman 
Catholic cathedral, late Gothic with a Romanesque crypt, and 
the Protestant church of St Blasius, containing two pictures 
by Lucas Cranach. Near the medieval town hall stands a 
Roland's column, the ancient symbol of free commercial inter- 
course and civic liberty. The town has a museum of antiquities 
and various public monuments, notably a fountain by Ernst 
Rietschel in the corn market, and another to Luther in the 
market square. There are statues of the emperor Frederick III. 
and of Prince Bismarck. The chief importance of the place 
arises from its distilleries, which annually yield about 10,000,000 
gallons of " Korn Schnapps," a spirit somewhat akin to whisky. 
The breweries are also important and there are manufactures 
of leather, tobacco and cigars, cotton, linen goods, carpets, 
chicory, malt and chemicals. Nordhausen is sometimes called 
the Cincinnati of Germany on account of its extensive export 
trade in pork, corned beef, ham and sausages. There is also a 
large trade in corn. 

Nordhausen is one of the oldest towns in North Germany. It 
possessed a royal palace in 874 and a convent was founded here 
in 962. It was destroyed by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, 
in 1 1 80, but was soon rebuilt and was made a free imperial town 
in 1 2 53 . In this and the following century several diets and other 
assemblies were held here. The protector (Vogt) of the town 
was the elector of Saxony and later for a few years (1702-1715) 
the elector of Brandenburg. Nordhausen accepted the reformed 
doctrines in 1522. It was annexed by Prussia in 1803 and again 



in 1815, having in the meantime belonged to the kingdom of 
Westphalia. 

See Forstemann, Urkundliche Geschichte der Stadt Nordhausen 
bis 1250 (Nordhausen, 1828-1840) and Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte 
der Stadt Nordhausen (Nordhausen, 1855); Lesser, Historische 
Nachrichten von Nordhausen, edited by Forstemann (Nordhausen 
1860); J. Schmidt, Bau- und Kunstdenkmdler der Stadt Nordhausen 
(Halle, 1886); T. Eckart, Gedenkbldtler aus der Geschichte der 
ehemaligen freien Reichsstadt Nordhausen (Leipzig, 1895); Heine, 
Nordhausen und Preussen (Nordhausen, 1902) ; and Girschner, 
Lokalfiihrer fur Nordhausen und Umgebung (1891). 

NORDICA, LILIAN (1859- ), American operatic soprano, 
nfe Norton, was born at Farmington, Maine, and trained as a 
singer at Boston, and later at Milan. As Madame Nordica she 
made her operatic debut at Brescia in 1879, and from that time 
took high rank among the prima donnas, appearing in all the 
principal capitals in Europe, and also in America. 

NORDIN, CARL 6USTAF (1749-1812), Swedish statesman, 
historian and ecclesiastic. In 1774 he was made decent of 
Gothic antiquities at Upsala University in consequence of his 
remarkable treatise, Monumenta svia-golhica vetuslioris aevi 
falso meritoque svspecta. Summoned to Stockholm in 1782 by 
Gustavus III. to edit a Swedish Corpus diplomaticum, half an 
hour's private conversation with the young priest convinced 
Gustavus that Nordin's proper place was by his side in the 
political arena. But he employed Nordin quite differently from 
his episcopal colleague Olaf Wallqvist. While the bishop 
publicly defended the royal measures, Nordin became the king's 
private adviser. In politics Nordin was a royalist from pure 
conviction. To him a parliament seemed little better than a 
mob. He was one of the king's secret managers during the 
troublesome and dangerous riksdag of 1 789, but advised caution 
and compared the estate of clergy, which at one time held the 
balance between the jarring orders, to ice which might be walked 
upon but could not be driven over. He was appointed a member 
of an ecclesiastical commission for reforming the church in 1787, 
in which capacity he was virtually minister of public worship. 
In 1791-1792 he became a leading member of the financial and 
general committees of the riksdag. After the king's death 
Nordin shared in the general disgrace of the Gustavians and 
lived in retirement at the little town of Hernosand, where he 
held the post of lector at the gymnasium. But he reappeared 
prominently on the political scene during the riksdag of 1800, 
and in 1805 was consecrated bishop of Hernosand. Though he 
lacked the brilliant qualities of his rival Wallqvist, Nordin had 
the same alertness and penetration, and was infinitely more 
stable and disinterested. One of the most learned men of his 
day, he devoted his spare time to history, and discovered that 
many of the oldest and most cherished Scandinavian MSS. were 
clever forgeries. Like Jean Hardouin he got to believe that a 
great deal of what is called classical literature was compiled by 
anonymous authors at a much later date, and he used frequently 
to startle his colleagues, the Gustavian academicians, by his 
audacious paradoxes. 

He left behind him a colossal collection of MSS., the so-called 
Nordinska Samlingarna, which were purchased and presented to 
Upsala university by Charles XIV. and form the groundwork of the 
well-known Scriptores rerum Suecicarum medii aevi. Nordin pub- 
lished during his lifetime Handlingar till uplysning af svenska krigs- 
historien (Stockholm, 1787-1788). His academical addresses came 
out at Stockholm in 1818 under the title Minnen ofver namnkunniga 
svenska man. His Dagbok did not appear till 1868. 

See Sverites historia (Stockholm, 1877, &c.), vol. v.; C.T. Odhner, 
Sveriges politiska historia under Guslaf IH.'s regering (Stockholm, 
1885, &c.) ; R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. vol. 2 (London, 1896). 

NORDLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 
on the Eger, 40 m. N. of Augsburg by rail and at the junction 
of lines to Buchloe and Dombuhl. Pop. (1905) 8512. It was 
formerly a free imperial town, owning a territory 35 sq. m. in 
extent, and is still surrounded with walls and towers. The 
Evangelical church of St George is a Gothic structure erected 
in the isth century and restored in 1880. It has paintings by 
Hans Schaufelein, who was a native of Nordlingen, and a tower 
290 ft. high. The Late Gothic town hall has a collection of 
pictures and antiquities. The chief manufactures of the town 



742 



NORE NORFOLK, EARLS OF 



are linen goods, soap, malt, and agricultural implements, and a 
brisk trade is carried on in cattle, grain and geese. From 898, 
when first mentioned, to 1215 Nordlingen was subject to the 
bishops of Regensburg, but about 1215 it became a free city of 
the Empire. It was annexed to Bavaria in 1803. 

Nordlingen was the scene of two great battles in the Thirty 
Years' War (q.v.). In the first, which was fought on the 5th and 
6th of September 1634, the hitherto invincible Swedish army, 
commanded by Duke Bernhard of Saxe Weimar and Marshal 
Horn, was defeated with great loss by a somewhat superior 
army of Imperialists and Spaniards under General Gallas, Horn 
and 3000 men being made prisoners and 6000 killed or mortally 
wounded. In the second battle, fought eleven years later 
(3rd August 1645), Conde (then duke of Enghien) and Turenne 
were the leaders on the one side, and Mercy and Johann von 
Weert, the dashing cavalry commander whose onset had decided 
the battle of 1634, on the other. The Germans were posted 
some 5 m. to the east of Nordlingen, about Allerheim, with their 
right resting on a hill and the left on a castle, the guns with an 
infantry escort being placed on these points, and the village 
itself in the centre being also garrisoned and entrenched. In 
rear of the village the plain was occupied by Mercy's army in the 
customary two lines, foot in the centre, horse in the wings. The 
French army, similarly arrayed, but with a few battalions 
attached to the cavalry wings, was more heterogeneous than the 
German, being composed of French, Hessian, German mercen- 
aries, and Liegeois. After a cannonade in which it suffered 
more severely than its entrenched enemy, the French centre 
furiously attacked the village of Allerheim; the fighting here 
was very heavy, and on the whole in favour of the Germans, 
although Mercy was killed. The right wing of the French 
cavalry was swept off the field by Johann von Weert's charge, 
but the German troopers, intoxicated with success, dispersed 
to plunder. On the French left, meanwhile, Turenne saved the 
day. Fighting cautiously at first with his leading line to gain 
time for his second to come up, he then charged and broke up 
the hostile right wing of cavalry, while some battalions of infantry 
scaled the hill and captured the Bavarian guns. Unlike Weert 
the marshal kept his troops in hand, and swung round upon the 
Bavarian infantry behind Allerheim, who were at the same time 
cannonaded by their lost guns. A prolonged fight now ensued, 
in which the Bavarians had the worst of it, and Weert, returning 
at last to the field, dared not attempt to engage afresh. The 
armies faced one another all night with their sentries fifty paces 
apart, but in the morning the Bavarians were found to have 
retreated. Nothing was gained by the victors but the trophies 
and the field of battle, and the losses of both sides had been 
enormous. Enghien had only 1500 of his foot in hand next day. 
Nordlingen, therefore, is a classical instance of the unprofitable 
and costly bataille rangee of the i7th century. 

See Beyschlag, Geschichte der Stadt Nordlingen (Nordlingen, 1851), 
and Mayer, Die Stadt Nordlingen, ihr Leben und ihre Kunst im Lichte 
der Vorzeit (Nordlingen, 1856). 

NORE, THE, a sandbank at the mouth of the river Thames, 
England, marked by various buoys and by a lightship, with 
revolving light. This ship lies 3 m. from the nearest point on 
the Kent coast, about the same distance from the Essex coast, 
and 47! m. below London Bridge. The first light was placed here 
as an experiment by Mr Hamblin, its patentee, in 1731. In 
1797 the neighbouring anchorage was the scene of a mutiny in 
the British fleet then lying here, well known in history as the 
Mutiny of the Nore. 

NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The ist earl of Norfolk 
was RALPH DE GUADER, a follower of William the Conqueror, 
who forfeited the earldom when he revolted against William 
in 1075; the 2nd was HUGH BIGOD (d. 1177), one of Stephen's 
supporters, to whom the earldom was granted by this king 
before 1141. Hugh's grandson, HUGH (d. 1225), the 3rd earl 
of this line, married Matilda, daughter of William Marshal, 
earl of Pembroke, and from the Marshals their son ROGER 
(d. 1270), the 4th earl, inherited the office of marshal of 
England. This powerful family of Bigod retained the 






earldom until ROGER, the 5th earl, died childless in December 
1306. 

The next earl of Norfolk was THOMAS OF BROTHERTON (1300- 
1338), a younger son of Edward I., to whom the earldom was 
granted in 1312 by his half-brother, Edward II. In addition 
to the estates which had formerly belonged to the Bigods Thomas 
received the office of marshal. He joined Queen Isabella when 
she landed in England in 1326, and was one of the group of 
nobles who brought about the deposition of Edward II. He 
died in August 1338, leaving no son. The survivor of his two 
daughters, Margaret (c. 1320-1400), who was countess of Norfolk 
in her own right, married John de Segrave, 3rd Lord Segrave 
(d. 1353), and their only child Elizabeth (d. c. 1375) became 
the wife of John de Mowbray, 4th Lord Mowbray (d. 1368), 
and the mother of two sons John and Thomas. In 1397 the 
countess Margaret was created duchess of Norfolk, and at the 
same time her grandson Thomas Mowbray was made duke of 
Norfolk. 

THOMAS MOWBRAY, ist duke of Norfolk (c. 1366-1399), 
became Baron Mowbray and Baron Segrave when his elder 
brother John died in February 1382; about the same 
time Richard II. created him earl of Nottingham, 
a title held by his dead brother, and in 1385 made him 
marshal of England for life. For some years he enjoyed the 
favour and companionship of the king, but differences arose 
between them, and in 1387 Nottingham began to act with 
Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, his own brother-in- 
law, Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, and the party of nobles 
who wished to deprive the king of his power. They routed the 
royal favourite Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, at Radcot 
Bridge, and Richard was at their mercy. Owing partly to 
Nottingham's moderate counsels the suggestion to depose him 
was not carried out, but in the " merciless parliament " of 1388 
his favourites were " appealed " of treason and were sentenced 
to death. For nearly two years the chief power was in the hands 
of the lords appellant, as Nottingham and his friends were 
called, but in 1389 the king regained his authority. He detached 
Nottingham from his colleagues and made him warden of the 
Scottish marches; later he became captain of Calais and the 
royal lieutenant in the north-east of France. Richard took 
him to Ireland in 1394 and soon afterwards sent him to arrange 
a peace with France and his marriage with Isabella, daughter 
of King Charles VI. But the earl's supreme service to the king 
was in 1397 when Richard took a tardy but severe vengeance 
upon three of the appellants. In their turn these lords were 
" appealed " of treason before the parliament, and as on the 
former occasion Nottingham was one of the accusers. He was 
present when Gloucester was arrested at Pleshey, and Froissart 
says that he actually beheaded Arundel himself. Gloucester 
was entrusted to his keeping at Calais, and in September 1397 
he reported that his prisoner was dead. The duke had been 
murdered, and Nottingham was probably responsible, although 
the evidence against him is not conclusive. As a reward he 
received most of Arundel's lands in Surrey and Sussex, and was 
created duke of Norfolk. He now began to fear for his own 
safety, and took the duke of Hereford, afterwards King Henry 
IV., into his confidence. Hereford carried his words to the king, 
who summoned him to his presence, and at Oswestry Norfolk 
accused Hereford of speaking falsely. A court of chivalry 
decided that the dispute should be referred to the arbitrament 
of single combat and Coventry was the place appointed for the 
duel; but when on the i6th of September 1398 everything was 
ready for the fight Richard interposed and ordered both com- 
batants into banishment. Norfolk was deprived of his offices, 
but not of his titles; his " heavier doom " was exile for life, and 
he was ordered to confine himself to Germany, Hungary and 
Bohemia. At once he left England for Dordrecht, and after 
passing some months in wanderings he reached Venice, where he 
died on the 22nd or 27th of September 1399. The concluding 
scene of the duke's life in England forms the staple material of 
act i. of Shakespeare's Richard II. Norfolk left estates in nearly 
all the English counties. His wife was Elizabeth (c. 1372-1425), 



NORFOLK, DUKES OF 



743 



daughter of Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, by whom he 
had two sons, Thomas and John, and two daughters. 

His elder son, THOMAS MOWBRAY (1385-1405), became earl 
of Nottingham and earl marshal on his father's death, but he 
was not allowed to assume the title of duke of Norfolk. He 
quarrelled with Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, over the 
precedence of their respective earldoms, and left the court in 
anger when Henry IV. decided in favour of Warwick. At this 
time (1405) Richard le Scrope, archbishop of York, and other 
northern potentates were preparing to rise against the king. 
The earl marshal joined them, was taken prisoner at Shipton 
Moor, and was beheaded at York on the 8th of June 1405. 

JOHN MOWBRAY (1390-1432), 2nd duke, brother of the last- 
named, now became earl marshal and earl of Nottingham. He 
sat in judgment upon Richard, earl of Cambridge, and the other 
rebels in 1415, and went to France with Henry V. He took part 
in the siege of Harfleur, but illness prevented him from fighting 
at Agincourt. He saw service in France in subsequent years, and 
after Henry's death he was a member of the English governing 
council. In 1424 he followed Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, on 
his campaign in Hainaut, and in 1425 he secured his recognition 
as duke of Norfolk. He died on the igth of October 1432 at 
Epworth, where his father had founded a Cistercian priory. 
By his wife Catherine, daughter of Ralph Neville, ist earl of 
Westmorland, he left an only son, the 3rd duke. 

JOHN MOWBRAY, 3rd duke (1415-1461), became warden of 
the Scottish marches; he also served as a soldier and an 
ambassador in France. Upon the outbreak of the fierce rivalry 
between the houses of York and Lancaster about 1450 he joined 
Richard, duke of York, to whom he was related; he aided, the 
Yorkist cause in Norfolk and in London, and it was he who 
in November 1453 demanded an inquiry into the administration 
of Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset. In 1459 he appeared on 
the Lancastrian side and took the oath of allegiance to Henry VI. 
and to his son Edward at Coventry, but soon he was again 
figuring as an active Yorkist. He was a member of the deputa- 
tion which in March 1461 asked the duke of York (Edward IV.) to 
take the crown, and he fought at the second battle of St Albans 
and also at Towton, where one authority says he saved the day 
for the Yorkists. 

JOHN MOWBRAY, 4th duke (1444-1476), who had already been 
created earl of Surrey,. a title formerly held by his ancestors, 
the Fitzalans, was the only son of the preceding. The names 
both of John and of his father appear frequently in the Paston 
Letters, as both dukes in turn seized Caister castle, which had 
been left by Sir John Fastolf to John Paston, and the 4th duke 
held it against the Pastons for some years. On his death in 1476 
the dukedom became extinct, but the earldom passed to his 
daughter Anne (1472-1481), who married Richard, duke of York, 
the younger son of Edward IV. Richard was created duke of 
Norfolk and made earl marshal, but when he was murdered in 
1483 the dukedom again became extinct, the earldom having 
reverted to the crown on the death of Anne. 

The illustrious family of Howard (q.v.), members of which 
have been dukes of Norfolk from 1483 to the present 
day, with the exception of two periods during which 
the title was forfeited, was connected with the family 
of Mowbray. 

JOHN HOWARD, ist duke of Norfolk (c. 1430-1485), was 
the son of Sir Robert Howard by his wife Margaret, daughter of 
Thomas Mowbray, the first duke of that family. In 1455 John 
Howard was sent to parliament as member for Norfolk, although 
he " hadde no lyvelode in the shire "; in 1461 he was knighted; 
and in 1470, although he appears to have been a consistent 
Yorkist, he was created a baron by Henry VI. He was treasurer 
of the royal household from 1467 to 1474, and went to France 
with Edward IV. in 1475. After Edward's death, however, 
he supported Richard III., who created him duke of Norfolk 
and made him earl marshal of England in June 1483. He was 
killed at Bosworth whilst fighting for this king on the 22nd of 
August 1485, and the title thus suffered attainder. He is 
frequently mentioned in the Paston Letters. 



Howard 
line. 



His son, THOMAS HOWARD, afterwards 2nd duke (1443-1524), 
shared his father's fortunes; he fought at Barnet for Edward IV. 
and was made steward of the royal household and created earl 
of Surrey in 1483. Taken prisoner at Bosworth he was attainted 
and remained in captivity until January 1489, when he was 
released and restored to his earldom but not to the dukedom 
of Norfolk. He was then entrusted with the maintenance of 
order in Yorkshire and with the defence of the Scottish borders; 
he was made lord treasurer and a privy councillor in 1501, 
and he helped to arrange the marriage between Margaret, the 
daughter of Henry VII., and James IV. of Scotland. Henry 
VIII., too, employed him on public business, but the earl grew 
jealous of Wolsey, and for a short time he absented himself 
from court. He commanded the army which defeated the Scots 
at Flodden in September 1513, and was created duke of Norfolk 
in February of the following year, with precedency as of the 
creation of 1483. In his later years Norfolk worked more 
harmoniously with Wolsey. He was guardian of England 
during Henry's absence in France in 1520, and he acted as 
lord high steward at the trial of his friend Edward Stafford, 
duke of Buckingham, in 1521. Among his sons were William, 
ist Lord Howard of Effingham, and Sir Edward Howard (c. 1477- 
I S I 3)> lord high admiral, who defeated the French fleet off 
Brest in August 1512, and lost his life during another engagement 
in April 1513. 

THOMAS HOWARD, 3rd duke (1473-1554), eldest son of the 
2nd duke, married in 1495 Anne (1475-1512), daughter of Edward 
IV., thus becoming a brother-in-law of Henry VII., who had 
married Anne's sister Elizabeth. He became lord high admiral 
in 1513, and led the van of the English army at Flodden in 
September, being created earl of Surrey in February 1514. In 
1513 he took for his second wife Elizabeth (d. 1558), daughter 
of Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham. In 1520 Surrey 
went to Ireland as lord-deputy, but soon vacated this post to 
command the troops which sacked Morlaix and ravaged the 
neighbourhood of Boulogne in 1522; afterwards he raided and 
devastated the south of Scotland. He succeeded his father 
in May 1524, and as the most powerful nobleman in England he 
headed the party hostile to Cardinal Wolsey. He favoured the 
divorce of Henry VIII. from Catherine of Aragon, and the 
king's marriage with his niece Anne Boleyn. In 1529 he became 
president of the council, but in a few years his position was shaken 
by the fate of Anne Boleyn, at whose trial and execution he 
presided as lord high steward. But his military abilities rendered 
him almost indispensable to the king, and in 1536, just after 
the rising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace had broken out, 
he was despatched into the north of England; he temporized 
with the rebels until the danger was past, and then, as the first 
president of the council of the north, punished them with great 
severity. Sharing in the general hatred against Thomas Crom- 
well, Norfolk arrested the minister in June 1540. He led the 
English army into Scotland in 1542 and into France in 1544; 
but the execution of Catherine Howard, another of his nieces 
who had become the wife of the king, had weakened his position. 
His son Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (q.v.), was arrested on a 
charge of treason; Norfolk .himself suffered the same fate as 
accessory to the crime. In January 1547 Surrey was executed; 
his father was condemned to death by a bill of attainder, but 
owing to the death of the king the sentence was not carried out. 
Norfolk remained in prison throughout the reign of Edward VI., 
but in August 1553 he was released and restored to his dukedom. 
Again taking command of the English army he was sent to 
suppress the rebellion which had broken out under Sir Thomas 
Wyat, but his men fled before the enemy. He acted as lord high 
steward at the trial of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland; 
and he died on the 25th of August 1554. Norfolk was a brutal 
and licentious man, but was a supporter of the Roman church, 
being, as he himself admits, " quick against the sacramentaries." 
As a soldier he was serviceable to Henry VIII., but as a diplo- 
matist he was a failure, being far inferior to Wolsey and to 
Cromwell. He had two sons, Henry, earl of Surrey, and Thomas 
(c. 1528-1582), who in 1559 was created Viscount Howard of 



744 



NORFOLK 



Bindon, a title which became extinct in 1611. His only daughter 
Mary (d. 1557) married Henry, duke of Richmond, the natural 
son of Henry VIII. 

THOMAS HOWARD, 4th duke (1536-1572), son of Henry Howard, 
earl of Surrey, was born on the loth of March 1536. His tutor 
was John Foxe, the martyrologist. Soon after Elizabeth 
became queen in 1558 she sent the young duke to take part in 
the war against the Scots and their French allies, but the conclu- 
sion of the treaty of Edinburgh in July 1560 enabled him to 
return to the court in London. Having married and lost three 
wives, all ladies of wealth and position, Norfolk was regarded 
as a suitable husband for Mary queen of Scots, who had just taken 
refuge in England. He presided over the commission appointed 
by Elizabeth to inquire into the relations between the Scottish 
queen and her subjects; and although he appears to have 
believed in Mary's guilt he was anxious to marry her. Among 
the Scots Maitland of Lethington favoured the proposed union; 
Mary herself consented to it; but Norfolk was unwilling to 
take up arms, and while he delayed Elizabeth ordered his arrest 
and he was taken to prison in October 1569. In August 1570, 
after the suppression of the rising in the north of England, the 
duke was released; but he entered into communication with 
Philip II. of Spain regarding the proposed invasion of England 
by the Spaniards. After some hesitation Norfolk placed himself 
at the head of the conspirators; and in return for his services 
he asked the king of Spain " to approve of my own marriage with 
the Queen of Scots." But the plot failed; Norfolk's treachery 
was 'revealed to Lord Burghley, and in September 1571 he was 
arrested. He was beheaded on the 2nd of June 1572. It is 
noteworthy that he always regarded himself as a Protestant. 
Norfolk's first wife, Mary (1540-1557), daughter and heiress 
of Henry Fitzalan, i2th earl of Arundel, bore him a son, Philip, 
who in consequence of his father's attainder was not allowed 
to succeed to the dukedom of Norfolk, but became I3th earl of 
Arundel in succession to his maternal grandfather in 1580. 
Norfolk left two other sons, Thomas Howard, created earl of 
Suffolk in 1603, and Lord William Howard (q.v.). 

In 1660 the dukedom was restored by act of parliament to 
THOMAS HOWARD, 4th earl of Arundel (1627-1677), a descendant 
of the 4th duke. The 5th duke was succeeded by his brother 
Henry (1628-1684), the friend of John Evelyn, who had been 
already created earl of Norwich; in 1672 he was made earl 
marshal, and this dignity was entailed on his male heirs. 

CHARLES HOWARD, nth duke (1746-1815), was the son of 
Charles Howard (1720-1786), who succeeded his cousin, Edward 
Howard (1686-1777), as loth duke of Norfolk in 1777, and who 
wrote Historical Anecdotes of some of the Howard Family (1769 
and 1817). Born in March i746,the earl of Surrey, as Charles 
was called from 1777 until he became duke of Norfolk in 1786, 
represented Carlisle in the House of Commons, where he acted 
with the Whigs; unlike his father he was a Protestant. In 1780 
he was a lord of the treasury. In 1789 at a dinner held in 
London the duke gave the toast " Our sovereign's health the 
majesty of the people "; this greatly offended George III., who 
deprived him of some of his public offices. 

When he died on the i6th of December 1815 he left no sons, 
and the dukedom passed to his kinsman, BERNARD EDWARD 
HOWARD (1765-1842), a descendant of the 4th duke. 

Bernard's only son, HENRY CHARLES HOWARD (1791-1856), 
became I3th duke in 1842. As earl of Surrey he was the first 
Roman Catholic since the Reformation to sit in the House of 
Commons, of which he was a member from 1829 to 1841; as 
duke of Norfolk he was master of the horse from 1846 to 1852 
and lord steward from 1853 to 1854. The second of his three 
sons, Edward George Fitzalan (1818-1883), was a member of the 
House of Commons from 1848 to 1868, and was created Baron 
Howard of Glossop in 1869. Lord Howard rendered great 
service to the cause of Roman Catholic education. 

The i3th duke's eldest son, HENRY GRANVILLE FITZALAN 
HOWARD (1815-1860), succeeded to the title. He was a devoted 
Roman Catholic, left the Liberal party and resigned his seat in 
parliament rather than support the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill of 



1850. He edited the Lives of Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, 
and of Anne Dacres, his wife (1857 and 1861). He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Henry Fitzalan Howard, i5th duke (b. 1847), 
who was postmaster-general from 1895 to 1900, first Lord Mayor 
of Sheffield in 1895, went out to the South African War in 1900, 
and whose position as head of the English Roman Catholics 
and as premier duke and Earl Marshal made him for many 
years conspicuous in public life. His only son by his first wife, 
a daughter of Baron Donington, died in early life; but by his 
second marriage (1904) to the daughter and heiress of Lord 
Herries he had a son born in 1908. 

NORFOLK, an eastern county of England, bounded N. and 
E. by the North Sea, S.E. and S. by Suffolk and W. by Cam- 
bridgeshire and Lincolnshire. The area is 2044-4 s q- m -> the 
county being the fourth in size in England. The surface falls 
into two divisions. The eastern and central portions consist 
of an undulating plain with rising ground skirting the river 
valleys and low chalk downs in the north. For the most part this 
section is fertile and well wooded, but there are some expanses 
of heath land. The principal rivers are the Yare and its tribu- 
taries the Wensum, Bure and Waveney, the last forming a 
large part of the boundary with Suffolk. In the west the county 
includes part of the Fen country (q.v.), where the principal 
rivers are the Great Ouse and its tributaries the Little Ouse or 
Brandon river, which also forms part of the Suffolk boundary, 
the Wissey and the Nar. The flat fens are crossed by innumer- 
able drainage channels. They are comprised within that 
portion of the whole district known as the Bedford Level, and 
extend from Welney and Hilgay Fens near the junction of the 
Great and Little Ouse northward to the Wash. 

The watershed is nearly in the centre of the county. The 
middle eastern portion is a low-lying flat area lifted slightly 
towards the coast in such a way that some of the tributary 
streams of the Bure rise very near the sea but flow at first inland 
or parallel to the coast. Here occur the well-known Norfolk 
Broads, shallow meres, having their low banks massed with 
luxuriant reeds and other water-plants, and possessing much 
quiet beauty of an individual character. Most of them abound 
with pike, bream and other coarse fish, and harbour innumerable 
waterfowl, including the water-hen, heron, bittern, king-fisher, 
mallard, teal and snipe. They are thus frequented by sports- 
men, but still more by boating parties, and at Yarmouth, 
Wroxham Bridge, Acle and elsewhere sailing boats with cabins, 
and other boats, are hired in large numbers. Annual regattas 
are held on several Broads. The Broads are generally not 
widenings of the main river, but are connected with it by short 
channels. Their formation is probably due to a slight uprising 
of the land, whereupon the depressions in the undulated surface 
continued to carry water. The average depth of the Broads is 
only some eight feet, and their tendency is to become choked 
with sedges and bulrushes and to decrease in size. The Bure 
joins the Yare at Yarmouth, at the seaward end of Breydon 
Water, which does not rank among the Broads. Following the 
Bure upwards, a small stream is found uniting it with Filby, 
Rollesby and Ormsby Broads to the north, which form one 
sheet of water of irregular shape. The Thurne stream then 
enters from the same direction, draining Heigham Sound, 
Hickling Broad, Horsey Mere and Martham Broad. The second 
of these is the largest of all, measuring some 3 m. in length by 
one at its widest part. The next tributary, the Ant, drains 
Barton and Stalham Broads. Closely adjoining the upper Bure 
itself, there are Ranworth Broad, Horning Broad, and Salhouse, 
Hoveton and Wroxham Broads almost adjoining. South of 
Ranworth, on a tributary, is South Walsham Broad. Adjacent 
to the Yare towards Norwich is Rockland Broad. Between the 
Waveney and Lowestoft Oulton Broad is formed (in Suffolk; 
see LOWESTOFT). 

Nearly two-thirds of the boundary of the county is formed by 
tidal water. There are few bays or inlets, and on the northern 
coast no river mouths. For the most part the coast-line is flat 
and low, and has been greatly encroached on by the sea, several 
villages having been engulfed since the Conquest. From the 



NORFOLK 



745 



mouth of the Yare to Happisburgh the shore is skirted by sand- 
banks. Thence for 20 m. it is formed of cliffs consisting of clay 
and masses of embedded rocks, the average height being 
about 50 ft., although in some cases an altitude of 200 it. is 
reached. These cliffs are succeeded by a low shingly or sandy 
coast stretching as far as St Edmund's Point. The shores of the 
Wash are formed of mudbanks, which are left dry at low water. 
West of Lynn a considerable extent of land has been reclaimed 
from the sea in modern times, and farther south an old Roman 
embankment stretches into Lincolnshire. At various points off 
the coast there are submarine forests, especially in Brancaster 
Bay and in the neighbourhood of Cromer and Happisburgh. 
Fossilized remains of large mammals are sometimes dragged 
up by the nets of fishermen, and mammoth tusks measuring 
from 6 to 9 ft. have been found at Knole Sand off Happisburgh. 
The fine sandy beaches and healthy climate have contributed 
to the growth of such popular watering-places as Cromer, 
Yarmouth and Hunstanton, while Mundesley and Wells-next- 
the-Sea are lesser resorts. 

Geology. The prevailing rock formation in Norfolk is the Chalk, 
which occupies a broad tract in the central and western portions of 
the county and underlies the Tertiary deposits in the eastern part, 
the general dip of the rocks being towards that direction. Pliocene 
beds predominate in the eastern third of the county ; while a narrow 
belt of Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks lies along the western 
border. Oxford Clay and Corallian beds have been proved by boring 
at Lynn, but the oldest formation to appear at the surface is the 
Kimeridge Clay, which stretches along the coast of the Wash from 
Hunstanton to King's Lynn and south to Dov/nham, where it has 
been dug for bricks and tiles. The Lower Greensand, which forms the 
picturesque escarpment overlooking the Fen-land and the Wash, is 
represented in its upper part by the brown, iron-stained sandstone, the 
Carstone (up to 40 ft.), locally known as the " Gingerbread stone," 
which is quarried at Snettisham and elsewhere as a building stone. 
Below the Carstone are the Snettisham Clay beds, dug for brick- 
making at that village and at Dersingham and Heacham; these 
pass southwards into sandstones and ironstones. The lowest division 
of the Greensand, the Sandringham beds, highly-coloured sands and 
sandstones, are exposed at Sandringham Warren, Downham Market 
and Grimston Common. Overlying the Lower Greensand is the Gault 
Clay which extends from Shouldham northwards to Dersingham, 
where it begins to change in character and finally passes into the 
Red Chalk (4 ft.), so conspicuous in the cliffs at Hunstanton. In the 
same cliffs the Lower Chalk is exposed resting on the Red Chalk 
(which does not belong to the Chalk proper but the Gault) ; it is a 
hard grey or white limestone; at Marham and other places it is 
quarried for building and for lime. The Middle Chalk (about 300 ft.), 
with flints in the upper part and occasional marl beds, is exposed at 
Docking, Hillington and Methwold. The Upper Chalk (about 800 
ft.) is much softer, with many flints, including the peculiar forms 
known as " paramoudras "; it has been largely exploited for lime 
and whiting, and the flints have been worked from prehistoric times. 
Dressed flints are still used for facing walls in churches and other 
buildings. At Trimingham occurs the highest horizon of the Chalk 
known in England. Eocene strata, Reading Beds (46 ft.) and London 
Clay (310 ft.) have been proved to lie beneath younger deposits at 
Yarmouth. Pliocene deposits, sands, gravels and clays are exposed 
along the coast from Weybourne and Cromer to Happisburg and in 
the river valleys over most of the eastern part of the country. The 
lower subdivision, the Norwich Crag Series (25-100 ft.), exhibits 
numerous local peculiarities to which distinctive names have been 
applied, as the Fluvio-Marine beds " of Bramerton and Thorpe, 
the " mammaliferous crag," the " Weybourne Crag " and the 
" Chillesford Clays," &c. The upper subdivision, the Cromer Forest- 
Bed (10-30 ft.), contains the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, 
giant beaver, sabre-toothed tiger and many others, as well as the 
transported stumps of trees. Next in order come the glacial clays, 
sands and gravels, which cover and obscure so much of the older 
stratified rocks of the county and hence greatly influence the scenery. 
There is a lower " till " with boulders and an upper chalky boulder 
clay, sometimes with sands and gravels between; glacial gravels 
overlie the clays in large sheets as at Norwich, Mousehold Heath, 
Dereham, Fakenham. The drift is thicker in the east than in the 
west very interesting exposures occur on the cliffs about Cromer. 
Later valley gravels occupy some of the stream courses, and among 
the more recent deposits are^the Fen beds and blown sands. 

Climate and Agriculture. On account of the exposed position 
of the coast to east and north-east winds, the climate, especially 
in winter and early spring, is much colder than in the adjacent 
counties. The air is, however, generally dry, and unhealthy 
fogs are not common, except in the marshy districts. The 
cynd is a characteristic mist which sometimes rolls up like 
smoke from the sea over the eastern parts. Norfolk contains a 



greater variety of soil than any other county in England. In the 
north and west the soil is generally chalky; towards the south- 
east it is a light sand, assuming occasionally the form of blowing 
sand, but elsewhere capable of cultivation and of average 
fertility. In the centre and east the prevailing soil is loam, 
chiefly light and workable, but sometimes composed of stiff 
chalky boulder clay. Alluvial clays and loams occur on the 
borders of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and stretch along 
the river valleys. The marsh lands along the coast are subject 
to inundation, but afford capital pasturage. Farming is in an ad- 
vanced condition, and, by means of draining, subsoil ploughing, 
&c., excellent crops are raised. The farms are for the most part 
large and the farm buildings superior. About four-fifths of the 
total area is under cultivation. Of this area corn crops occupy 
some two-fifths and consist mainly of wheat and barley, but in 
the production of oats also Norfolk is one of the first counties in 
England. As much attention is paid to the grazing of cattle 
and to the rearing and fattening of sheep, turnips and swedes 
are extensively grown. Large numbers of lean cattle, princi- 
pally Irish shorthorns, are brought into the county mainly for 
winter grazing. The old Norfolk polled stock is recognized as a 
distinct breed. Good pasture lands are found in many districts 
of the county, especially along the river-beds and near the fens. 
A large acreage is under beans and a fair quantity of small 
fruit is grown. 

Other Industries. At an early period Norfolk was one of the 
principal seats of the cloth trade in England, worsted deriving 
its name from having been first manufactured at Worstead. 
The weaving of silk and wool is still carried on at Norwich and 
also shawl weaving, although the staple trade of the town is 
now boots and shoes. Silk is also manufactured at Yarmouth, 
Wymondham and North Walsham. Flour-mills are numerous 
all over the county, and there are agricultural implement works 
at Norwich, Lynn, Thetford, East Harling, North Walsham, 
Walsingham, and East Dereham. Lime-burning, brick-making, 
tanning, malting and brewing are carried on in various districts. 
There are extensive mustard and starch works at Norwich. 
One of the chief hindrances to commercial progress is the danger- 
ous nature of the sea-coast, and the lack of harbours. A large 
trade, however, is carried on at Yarmouth. The other principal 
port is Lynn, and there is a small trade at Cromer and Wells. 

Railway communication is provided principally by the Great 
Eastern railway, the principal lines of which are those from London 
and Ipswich to Norwich and Yarmouth, from Ely to Norwich and 
Yarmouth, Ely to Lynn, Lynn to Swaffham and Dereham, Norwich 
to Dereham and Wells and Norwich to Cromer. There are numerous 
branch lines. The Midland & Great Northern joint line, from Lynn, 
serves Cromer, Norwich, North Walsham and Yarmouth. The 
eastern rivers afford water communication with the port of Yar- 
mouth and the Great and Little Ouse, with many of the drainage- 
cuts which are navigable, with Lynn. 

Population and Administration. The area of the ancient 
county is 1,308,439 acres, with a population in 1891 of 454,516, 
and in 1901 of 460,120. The area of the administrative county 
is 1,314,612. The county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal 
boroughs are King's Lynn (pop. 20,288); Norwich, a city and 
county borough and the county town (111,733); Thetford 
(4613); and Yarmouth, properly Great Yarmouth, a county 
borough (51,316). The urban districts are Cromer (3781), 
Diss (3745), Downham Market (2472), East Dereham (5545), 
Hunstanton (1893), North Walsham (3981), Sheringham (2359), 
Swaffham (3371), Walsoken (3250), Wells-next-the-Sea (2494). 
Among other towns may be mentioned Fakenham (2907), Holt 
(1844), Wymondham (4733). The county is in the south- 
eastern circuit, and assizes are held at Norwich. There are two 
courts of quarter sessions, and 25 petty sessional divisions. 
Each of the four municipal boroughs has a separate commission 
of the peace and a separate court of quarter sessions. The total 
number of civil parishes is 700. Norfolk is mainly in the diocese 
of Norwich, with small parts in those of Ely and Lincoln; it 
contains 607 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in 
part. For parliamentary purposes the county is divided into 
six divisions (North-Western, South- Western, Northern, 
Eastern, Mid, and Southern), and also includes the parliamentary 



746 

boroughs of King's Lynn and Norwich, and part of the parlia- 
mentary borough of Great Yarmouth; each returning one 
member, except the city of Norwich, which returns two members. 

History. The district which is now Norfolk was invaded in 
the second half of the sth century by Angle tribes from north 
Germany, who, having secured the coast districts, worked their 
way inland along the river valleys. In the 7th century the land 
of the North-folk formed the northern half of East Anglia 
which at the time owned the supremacy of Kent, and later 
appears successively as a dependency of Mercia and Northumbria, 
until in 827 the whole land was united under the rule of Ecgbert. 
In 867 the Danes under Inguar and Ubba defeated and killed 
King Edmund at Thetford, but, although it formed an integral 
part of the Danelaw, Norfolk remained thickly settled by an 
almost exclusively Teutonic population. In the renewed 
Danish attacks of the nth century Norwich and Thetford were 
destroyed. At the time of the Norman invasion Norfolk formed 
part of Harold's earldom, but it offered no active resistance to 
the Conqueror, who built a castle at Norwich, and bestowed the 
earldom of East Anglia on Ralf Guader. The forfeited estates 
of Earl Ralf had passed at the time of the Domesday Survey to 
Roger Bigod, ancestor of the earls of Norfolk, whose line expired 
in 1306. The Norfolk fief of Count Alan later formed part of 
the honour of Richmond; Robert Malet's fief became the 
honour of Eye; Hermer de Ferriere's fief became the barony 
of Wormegay, afterwards held by the Bardolfs; Hugh de Mont- 
fort's fee, as the honour of Haughley, was afterwards attached 
to the office of constable of Dover. The Howards were settled 
in the county from the i3'th century, Thomas Howard being 
created duke of Norfolk for his services at Flodden. Castle Acre 
was a seat of the earls of Warenne; Paston of the Fastens; 
Attleborough of the Mortimers; Caister of the Fastolfs. 

The shire-system was not definitely established in East 
Anglia before the Conquest, but the Domesday boundaries of 
Norfolk were practically those of the present day. The thirty-six 
Domesday hundreds were subdivided into leets, of which no 
trace remains, and the boroughs of Norwich and Thetford 
ranked as separate hundreds, while Yarmouth was the chief 
town of three hundreds. The Domesday hundred of Emneth 
is now included in Freebridge, and Docking in that of Smithdon, 
and the boundary between Brothercross and Gallow hundred 
has been considerably changed. Norfolk and Suffolk were 
united under one sheriff until the reign of Elizabeth, the shire 
court for the former being held at Norwich. The hundred court 
of Humbleyard hundred was held in the parish of Swardeston; 
that of Clackclose at Clackclose hill on Stradsett common; 
Taverham at Frettenham Hill; Grimeshoe at a tumulus between 
Brandon and Norwich; Forehoe in the parish of Carleton 
Forehoe; Greenhoe by the tumuli on the London road to 
Swaffham; Smithdon in the parish of Bircham Magna; Free- 
bridge at Flitcham Burgh, afterwards at an oak at Gaywood 
and still later at an oak at Wiggenhall St German's; Gallow in 
the i sth century at Fakenham; in the i6th century at Longfield 
Stone; Brothercross, at the cross by the ford over the Burnham; 
Eynsford at Reepham; Depwade, at the Deep ford over the 
Tas; Mitford, in 1639, at " Brokpit "; North Erpingham, at 
Guneby Gate, near Gunton; South Erpingham, at Cawston 
Park Gate; Launditch, at the crossing of the Norwich road with 
the long ditch between Longham and Beeston; Earsham, at an 
encampment near the church. 

Norfolk formed part of the diocese of East Anglia from its 
foundation in 630, and in 1075 the bishop's see was placed at 
Thetford, whence it was transferred to Norwich in 1093. In 
1 1 21 the Norfolk portion of the diocese included the 12 deaneries 
of Norwich (or Taverham), Blofield, Ingworth, Sparham, Holt, 
Walsingham, Toftrees, Brisley, Breckles, Lynn, Thetford and 
Flegg all in the archdeaconry of Norwich, and the 12 deaneries 
of Repps, Humbleyard, Depwade, Waxham, Brooke, Redenhall, 
Rockland, Cranwich, Fencham, Hitcham, Burnham and Hengham 
in the archdeaconry of Norfolk. From this date the deaneries 
underwent little change, until the creation of the archdeaconry 
of Lynn in 1894, when they were entirely reconstituted. 



NORFOLK 



In the wars between John and his barons Roger Bigod garri- 
soned Norwich castle against the king, who in 1216 on his retreat 
from Lynn lost his baggage in the Wash. In the rising of 1381 
Norwich was plundered by the insurgents under Sir Roger 
Bacon of Baconsthorpe, and in the rising of 1549 against en- 
closures Norwich was again captured by the rebels under Ket. 
In the Civil War of the i7th century Norfolk as a whole adhered 
to the parliamentary cause, forming one of the six counties of 
the Eastern Association. Lynn, however, was held for the 
king by Sir Hamon Lestrange, and Norwich was one of the first 
cities to welcome back Charles II. 

At the time of the Domesday Survey sheep-farming flourished 
almost throughout Norfolk, a flock of 1300 being mentioned at 
Walton, and horses were extensively bred; numerous bee- 
hives, nearly 600 water-mills and valuable river-fisheries are 
mentioned; and salt was made in the hundreds of Freebridge 
and East Flegg. The worsted trade was introduced by Flemish 
immigrants as early as the i2th century, and the woollen trade 
became especially prosperous in the hundreds adjoining the 
Wash. Linen was manufactured at Aylsham in the I4th century. 
Fuller, writing in the I7th century, describes Norfolk as abound- 
ing in all good things, and especially rabbits, herrings and 
worsteds. The leather industry flourished in Norman times. 

Norfolk returned members to parliament in 1 290, and in 1 298 
the county and the boroughs of Lynn, Norwich and Yarmouth 
returned each two members. Thetford acquired representation 
in 1529, and Castle Rising in 1558. Under the Reform Act of 
1832 the county returned four members in two divisions, and 
Castle Rising was disfranchised. Under the act of 1868 the 
county returned six members in three divisions, and Thetford 
and Yarmouth were disfranchised, the latter for notorious 
corruption. 

Antiquities. There are few traces of Saxon architecture in 
the county, unless the towers of Dunham-Magna and Newton- 
by-Castleacre be assigned to this period. The round towers 
which are specially characteristic of the district are probably 
Norman. Although there are several fine specimens of Norman 
architecture in the county in addition to Norwich cathedral, 
and a few good examples of Early English, the majority of the 
churches are Decorated or Perpendicular, or a mixture of both 
styles. The most notable features of the churches are the flint 
and stone panels, the fine rood screens and the numerous 
brasses. The churches of the marshes in the N.W. are note- 
worthy, especially those of Tilney Ail Saints and Walsoken 
(Norman) and West Walton (Early English) ; the rich Norman 
church of Castle Rising should also be mentioned. At Northwold 
remains one of the rare Easter sepulchres. Apart from the 
churches in the towns, those of Worstead, Hingham, Cawston 
and Terrington St Clement may be quoted as typical examples 
of the numerous fine later Gothic village churches. Norfolk 
possessed an unusually large number of monastic foundations, 
but of these the remains are few and comparatively unimportant. 
The cathedral church of Norwich was originally connected with 
a very richly endowed Benedictine monastery. A foundation 
of almost equal importance was that of Augustinian canons at 
Walsingham, where there are remains of an Early English and 
Decorated church, a Decorated refectory and a Perpendicular 
gateway. The shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham was the 
resort of great numbers of pilgrims. Other monastic remains 
are Bromholm Priory near North Walsham; slight Early 
English fragments of Beeston Augustinian priory, W. of Cromer; 
good Norman and later remains at Binham (Benedictine) N.E. of 
Walsingham; the Benedictine nunnery of Carrow near Norwich; 
the fine church (Norman and later) of the Benedictine priory at 
Wymondham; and the remains at Castle Acre and Thetford. 

Of Norman keeps there are remains of the building at Castle 
Acre; there is a magnificent ruin at Castle Rising N.E. of Lynn; 
and Norwich Castle is kept in restoration. There are several 
old mansions of interest, such as the Jacobean brick building 
of Stickling Hall, Barningham Hall (1612), Hunstanton, the 
moated Oxburgh Hall, and Cressingham Manor, both of the i $th 
century. The larger mansions, however, such as Sandringham 



NORFOLK NORFOLK ISLAND 



747 



(a seat of King Edward VII.), Holkham, Rainham, Costessey, 
Gunton, Houghton and Shadwell, are of more modern date. 
The Holkham estate was the scene of the agricultural work of 
Thomas William Coke, earl of Leicester (d. 1842), who success- 
fully proved that wheat could be profitably grown in this part 
of the county, and also made great improvements in live stock. 
Among sites of other various interests are Burnham Thorpe, the 
birthplace of Nelson; Paston and Oxnead, successive seats of 
the Paston family whose Letters are famous; and Ket's Oak 
near Hethersett, W. of Norwich, where Robert Ket took oath 
as leader of the agrarian rebellion of 1 549. 

See Victoria County History; Norfolk; F. Blomefield, Essay 
towards a Topographical History of ... Norfolk (London, 1739- 
1775 and 1805-1810); W. Rye, History of Norfolk (London, 1885); 
P. H. Emerson, Pictures of East Anglian Life (London, 1888), and 
other works; Rev. A. Jessopp, Arcady (London, 1887), and other 
works; Quarterly Review (London, 1897), where other literature is 
cited; G. C. Davies, Norfolk Broads and Rivers (Edinburgh, 1884). 

NORFOLK, a city of Madison county, Nebraska, U.S.A., on 
the north branch of the Elkhorn river, 2 m. from its mouth, 
and about 75 m. S.W. of Sioux City. Pop. (1900) 3883 (622 
foreign-born) ; (1910) 6025. It is served by the Union Pacific, the 
Chicago & North Western (of which it is a division headquarters), 
and the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railways. The 
city is the seat of the Northern Nebraska Insane Asylum. 
Cereals, alfalfa and fruit are raised in the surrounding country. 
The site was first permanently settled in 1866. Norfolk was 
incorporated as a village in 1881 and chartered as a city in 
1886; it became a city of the first class in 1909. 

NORFOLK, a city and port of entry of Norfolk county, Virginia, 
U.S.A., on the northern side of the Elizabeth river (an arm of 
the Chesapeake Bay) and at the mouth of its eastern branch, 
and on the Albemarle and Chesapeake and the Dismal Swamp 
canals, about 90 m. S.E. of Richmond. Pop. (1890) 34,871; 
(1900) 46,624, of whom 1705 were foreign-born and 20,230 were 
negroes; (1910 census) 67,452. It is served by the Atlantic 
Coast Line, the Seaboard Air line, the Southern, the New York, 
Philadelphia & Norfolk, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk & 
Western, the Norfolk & Southern and the Virginian railways, 
by many steamship lines, by ferry to Portsmouth (immediately 
opposite), Newport News, Old Point Comfort and Hampton, 
and by electric lines to several neighbouring towns. The Norfolk 
and Portsmouth Belt Line encircles the two cities, and connects 
the various trunk lines. Among the prominent buildings and 
institutions are the Custom House, the Federal Building, Marine 
Hospital, St Christopher's Hospital, St Vincent's Hospital, 
Norfolk Protestant Hospital, Sara Leigh Hospital, Norfolk 
Public Library, Norfolk Academy, Cotton Exchange, City 
Market, Bank of Commerce Building, Citizens' Bank Building, 
Board of Trade Building, Law Building, Virginia Bank & Trust 
Company Building, Norfolk National Bank, Atlantic Hotel, 
Monticello Hotel, Lynnhaven Hotel, Norfolk Mission College 
(Presbyterian) for negroes and the historic St Paul's church, 
which was built in 1737 and was struck by a cannon-ball and 
partly burned in 1776; in the yard is one of the oldest cemeteries 
in the country. Norfolk is the see of a Protestant Episcopal 
bishopric. The city has a public park of no acres and various 
smaller ones, and in the vicinity are several summer resorts, 
notably Virginia Beach, Ocean View, Old Point Comfort, Pine 
Beach and Willoughby Beach. The " Norfolk " navy yard is 
in the southern part of the city of Portsmouth. The harbour 
is deep, easily accessible through a channel 30 ft. in depth, 
and well protected by forts Monroe and Wool. The city has 
immense coal piers. It is the largest peanut market in the 
world, is in a great truck-gardening region, and makes large 
shipments of cotton (822,930 bales in 1905), oysters, coal, 
fertilizers, lumber, grain, fruits, wine, vegetables, fish and 
live stock. Norfolk is combined with Portsmouth in one 
customs district, the foreign trade of which in 1908 amounted 
to $11,326,817 in exports and $1,150,044 in imports. One of 
the most important manufacturing industries is grading, roasting, 
cleaning and shelling peanuts (in 1905 valued at $791,760). 
In 1900 the value of the factory products was $4,691,779; in 



1905 it was $5,900,129, the city ranking third among the cities 
of the state in value of factory products. 

Norfolk was founded in 1682 in pursuance of an act of the 
Virginia Assembly passed in 1680 to establish towns for the 
encouragement of trade; it was incorporated as a borough in 
1736 by a royal charter, was chartered as a city in 1845, its 
charter being revised in 1882 and 1884, and received a new 
charter in 1906 (amended in 1908), under which there are a 
mayor (elected for four years), a common council, a board of 
aldermen and a board of control of three members, which has 
charge of public works, streets, sewers, drains and water supply, 
the police and fire departments, the work of the board of health, 
&c. Norfolk is administratively independent of Norfolk county. 
In 1906 the town of Berkley (incorporated in 1890; pop. in 
1900, 4988) was annexed. During the War of Independence 
Norfolk was bombarded on the ist of January 1776 by the 
British under John Murray, 4th earl of Dunmore (1732- 
1809); much of the town was burned by the American troops 
to prevent Dunmore from establishing himself here. In 1855 
it suffered severely from yellow fever. At the outbreak of the 
Civil War the city was abandoned, and the navy yard was 
burned by the Federals in April 1861 ; Norfolk was then occupied 
until the gth of May 1862 by Virginia troops, first under General 
William Booth Taliaferro (1822-1898) and later under General 
Benjamin Huger (1806-1877). Five miles from Norfolk and 
with Norfolk as its headquarters was held from the 26th of 
April to the 30th of November 1907 the Jamestown Ter-Cen- 
tennial Exposition, celebrating the first permanent English 
settlement in America at Jamestown, Virginia. 

NORFOLK ISLAND, an island in the Pacific Ocean, about 
800 m. E. of the nearest point of New South Wales, in 29 S., 
167 56' E. It stands on a submarine tableland extending 
about 18 m. to the N. and 25 m. to the S., and has itself an area 
of 8528 acres or 13-3 sq. m. The islets of Nepean and Philip 
lie near it. Its high cliff-bound coast is difficult of access. With 
a general elevation of 400 ft. above the sea the island rises in 
the N.W. to 1050 ft. in the double summit of Mount Pitt. The 
soil, of decomposed basalt, is wonderfully fertile. The rich 
undulating pasture-land with clumps of trees and copses resembles 
a park. Oranges, lemons, grapes, passion fruit, figs, pine-apples, 
guavas and other fruits grow abundantly; while potatoes, 
onions, maize and arrowroot can be cultivated. The Norfolk 
Island pine (Araucaria excelsa) is a magnificent tree, with a 
height sometimes exceeding 200 ft. and a girth of 30. A small 
species of palm is known as the Norfolk Island cabbage. Tree- 
ferns are abundant. The flora is most closely associated with 
that of New Zealand, and the avifauna indicates the same 
connexion rather than one with Australia, as those birds which 
belong to Australian genera are apparently immigrants, while 
those which occur on the island in common with New Zealand 
would be incapable of such distant 'migration. The climate 
is healthy, the thermometer rarely sinking below 65 F. The 
island is a station of the British Pacific cable. It was discovered 
in 1774 by Captain Cook, and was taken by Philip King of the 
" Stirling " and twenty-four convicts from New South Wales. 
This settlement was abandoned in 1805, but in 1826 the island 
was made a penal settlement from New South Wales. In 1856, 
194 Pitcairn islanders took the place of the convicts. Forty 
of them soon returned to Pitcairn Island, and the remainder 
deteriorated owing to intermarriage. The administration of 
justice by an elected magistrate was unsatisfactory. Crime 
was rarely punished, and debts were not recoverable. A remedy 
was attempted in 1896 by an improvement in the government. 
The island was brought under the immediate administration 
of New South Wales; a chief magistrate, appointed by the 
governor of New South Wales, took the place of the elected 
magistrate, and an elected council of twelve elders superseded 
the general gathering of the adult population. In 1867 a Melan- 
esian mission station was established at St Barnabas, and in 
1882 a church was erected to the memory of Bishop Patteson, 
with windows designed by Burne-Jones and executed by William 
Morris. 



748 



NORICUM NORMANBY 



NORICUM (Noricus ager), in ancient geography, a district 
bounded on the N. by the Danube, on the W. by Raetia and 
Vindelkia, on the E. by Pannonia, on the S. by Pannonia and 
Italy, corresponding to the greater part of the modern Styria 
and Carinthia, and part of Austria, Bavaria and Salzburg. 
The original population appears to have consisted of Illyrians, 
who after the great emigration of the Gauls became subordinate 
to various Celtic tribes, chief amongst them being the Taurisci, 
probably called Norici by the Romans from their capital Noreia 
(Neumarkt). The country is mountainous and the soil poor, 
but it was rich in iron, and supplied material for the manu- 
factories of arms in Pannonia, Moesia and northern Italy. 
The famous Noric steel was largely used for the Roman weapons 
(" Noricus ensis," Horace, Odes, i. 16. 9). The inhabitants 
were a brave and warlike people, who paid more attention to 
cattle-breeding than to; agriculture, although it is probable that 
the Romans, by draining the marshes and cutting down timber, 
increased the fertility of the soil. Gold and salt were also found 
in considerable quantities; the plant called saliunca (the wild 
or Celtic nard) grew in abundance, and was used as a perfume 
(Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxi. 20. 43). Noricum was the southern outpost 
of the northern or Celtic peoples and the starting-point of their 
attacks upon Italy. It is in Noricum that we first hear of almost 
all these Celtic invaders. Archaeological researches, particularly 
in the cemeteries of Hallstatt (?..), less than 40 m. from Noreia, 
have shown that for centuries before recorded history there 
was a vigorous civilization. The Hallstatt cemeteries contained 
weapons and ornaments from the Bronze age, through the period 
of transition, up to the fully-developed Iron age. Professor 
Ridge way (Early Age of Greece, i. ch. 5) has made out a strong 
case for the theory that in Noricum and the neighbouring 
districts was the cradle of the Homeric Achaeans. For a long 
time the Noricans enjoyed independence under princes of their 
own, and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 B.C. 
they took the side of Caesar in the civil war against Pompey. 
In 1 6, having joined with the Pannonians in invading Histria, 
they were defeated by Publius Silius, proconsul of Illyricum. 
From this time Noricum is called a province, although not 
organized as such, but remaining a kingdom with the title 
regnum Noricum. It was under the control of an imperial 
procurator. It was not until the reign of Marcus Antoninus 
that the Legio II. Pia (afterwards called Italica) was stationed 
at Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the 
governor of the province. Under Diocletian, Noricum was 
divided into Noricum ripense (along the Danube) and mediter- 
raneum (the southern mountainous district). Each division was 
under a praeses, and both belonged to the diocese of Illyria 
in the prefecture of Italy. The Roman colonies and chief towns 
were Virunum (near Mariasaal), Ovilava (Wels), Celeia (Cilli), 
Juvavum (Salzburg), Lauriacum (Lorch, at the mouth of the 
Enns, the ancient Anisus). 

See A. Muchar, Das romische Norikum (Gratz, 1825) ; T. Mommsen, 
Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, iii. 587; J. Marquardt, Romische 
Staatsverwaltung, i. (and ed., 1881) p. 290; Smith's Diet, of Gk. and 
Roman Ceog. (1873); Mary B. Peaks, The General Civil and Military 
Administration of Noricum and Raetia (Chicago, 1907) ; full references 
to ancient authorities in A. Holder, Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz, ii. 
(1904). 0- H. F.) 

NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904), field-marshal 
and colonial governor, was born on the 2nd of December 1826, 
and entered the Indian army at the age of seventeen. In 1840 
his father, who had been for many years a merchant in Cuba, 
became a partner in a mercantile house in Calcutta, where he 
was joined by his son in 1842. In 1844 the latter obtained a 
cadetship. He went through the second Sikh campaign and 
having attracted the favourable notice of Sir Colin Campbell 
was selected by him to accompany an expedition against the 
Kohat Pass Afridis in 1850 as officiating brigade-major. The 
subaltern of twenty-four was given a substantive appointment 
in this capacity for a splendid deed of gallantry, which is recorded 
by Sir Charles Napier in the following terms: " In the pass of 
1 Kohat a sepoy picket, descending a precipitous mountain under 
fire and the rolling of large stones, had some men killed and 



wounded. Four of the latter, dreadfully hurt, crept under 
some rocks for shelter. They were not missed until the picket 
reached the bottom, but were then discovered by our glasses, 
high up and helpless. Fortunately the enemy did not see 
them, and some sepoys volunteered a rescue, headed by Norman 
of the 3ist Native Infantry and Ensign Murray of the 7oth 
Native Infantry. These brave men would that the names of 
all were known to me for record! ascended the rocks in defiance 
of the enemy, and brought the wounded men down." Norman 
served in numerous frontier expeditions between 1850 and 1854, 
and in the suppression of the Sonthal rebellion of 1855-56. 
In the Mutiny campaign he was constantly engaged, being 
present at the siege of Delhi, the relief of Lucknow and a number 
of other affairs. As adjutant-general of the Delhi Field Force, 
he was one of the leading spirits of the siege, and afterwards 
became its chief chronicler. Altogether he was mentioned 
twenty-five times in despatches. He afterwards became assistant 
military secretary for Indian affairs at the Horse Guards, 
military secretary to the government of India, military member 
of the viceroy's council and member of the secretary of state 
for India's council. In 1883 Sir Henry began his colonial 
career as governor of Jamaica, an appointment from which 
he was transferred in 1888 to the governorship of Queensland. 
Here he remained until 1895, when he came home to act as 
agent-general for the colony in London. In 1893 he was offered 
the viceroyalty of India, but, after first accepting, declined it. 
In 1897 he was chairman of the royal commission of inquiry 
into the condition of the West Indies. In April 1901 he was 
appointed governor of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, in succession 
to Sir Donald Stewart. In 1902 he was made a field-marshal. 
He died on the 26th of October 1904. 

See Sir William Lee Warner, Memoirs of Field-marshal Sir Henry 
Wylie Norman (1908). 

NORMAN, a city and township (coextensive) and the county- 
seat of Cleveland county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 2 m. N. of 
the Canadian river, and 18 m. S. by E. of Oklahoma City. 
Pop. (1890) 787; (1900) 2225; (1910) 3724. It is served by 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway. It is the seat of 
the university of Oklahoma (chartered, 1892; opened 1894; 
coeducational), which includes a college of arts and sciences, 
schools of applied science,medicine, pharmacy, mines and fine arts, 
and a preparatory school, and in 1908 had 56 instructors and 790 
students. The Oklahoma Insane Asylum is in the city. Cotton- 
seed oil, flour and ice are manufactured, and the neighbouring 
region produces much cotton, Indian corn, oats, alfalfa and wheat. 
Hogs, cattle and sheep are raised. The first settlement here was 
made in 1889, and Norman was chartered as a city in 1902. 

NORMANBY, CONSTANTINE HENRY PHIPPS, IST MARQUESS 
OF (1797-1863), British statesman and author, son of Henry, 
ist earl of Mulgrave (1755-1831), was born on the 15th of May 
1797. The ist earl (who was created baron in 1794 and earl 
in 1812), was a distinguished soldier, and Pitt's chief military 
adviser; and he held the offices of chancellor of the duchy of 
Lancaster (1804), secretary for foreign affairs (1805), first lord 
of the admiralty (1807-1810), and master of the ordnance 
(1810-1818). In 1792 he inherited the earlier Irish barony of 
Mulgrave created in 1767 for his father, Constantine (1722- 
!775) grandson of Sir Constantine Phipps (1656-1723), the 
lord chancellor of Ireland from his elder brother Constantine 
(1744-1792), a distinguished naval captain. His son, the future 
marquess, passed through Harrow and Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, and sat for the family borough of Scarborough as soon 
as he attained his majority. But, speaking in favour of Catholic 
emancipation, and dissenting in other points from the family 
politics, he resigned his seat, and went to live in Italy for some 
two years. Returning in 1822, he was elected for Higham 
Ferrers, and made a considerable reputation by political 
pamphlets and by his speeches in the house. He was returned 
for Malton at the general election of 1826, becoming a supporter 
of Canning. He was already known as a writer of romantic 
tales, The English in Italy (1825); in the same year he made his 
appearance as a novelist with Matilda, and in 1828 he produced 



NORMANDY 



749 



another novel, Yes and No. Succeeding his father as earl of 
Mulgrave in 1831, he was sent out as governor of Jamaica, 
and was afterwards appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland (1835- 
1839). He was created marquess of Normanby in 1838, and 
held successively the offices of colonial secretary and home 
secretary in the last years of Lord Melbourne's ministry. From 
1846 to 1852 he was ambassador at Paris, and from 1854 to 
1858 minister at Florence. The publication in 1857 of a journal 
kept in Paris during the stormy times of 1848 (4 Year of Revolu- 
tion), brought him into violent controversy with Louis Blanc, and 
he came into conflict with Lord Palmerston and Mr Gladstone, 
after his retirement from the public service, on questions of 
French and Italian policy. He died in London on the 28th 
of July 1863. He had married in 1818 the daughter of Lord 
Ravensworth, and was succeeded as 2nd marquess by his son 
George (1819-1890), a liberal politican, who became governor of 
Queensland (1871-1874), New Zealand (1874-1879), and Victoria 
(1870-1884). 

NORMANDY, a province of old France, bounded on the N.E. 
by the river Bresle, which falls into the Channel at Treport and 
separates Normandy from Picardy, and then roughly by the 
Epte, which divides the Vexin into two parts. From the con- 
fluence of the Epte and Seine to Ivry, the boundary between 
Normandy and the Ile-de-France is artificial; it is afterwards 
practically determined by the course of the Eure and the Sarthe. 
But from there to the sea Normandy is separated by no natural 
boundary either from Maine or afterwards from Brittany; 
it lies fairly regularly in the direction from E. to W. The 
boundary between the coast of Normandy and that of Brittany 
is formed by the mouth of the Couesnon. Normandy is washed 
by the English Channel and lies opposite to England. The 
northern part of the coast consists of cliffs, which cease at the 
mouth of the Seine, the estuary of which is 12 km. wide from 
Havre to Trouville; the coast of Calvados consists of rocks and 
beaches; that of the peninsula of Cotentin is sandy on the 
eastern side and granite on the west; in the north it forms 
between the point of Barfleur and the cape of La Hague a kind 
of concave arc in which lies the harbour of Cherbourg. 

Historical Geography. In the time of Caesar the country which 
has since gone to form Normandy was inhabited by several tribes of 
the Gauls, the Caleti, who lived in the district of Caux, the Velio- 
cassi, in the Vexin, the Lexovii, in the Lieuvin, the Unelli in Cotentin ; 
these are the only ones whose names have been preserved for us by 
Caesar. At the beginning of the 5th century, when the Notitia 
provinciarum was drawn up, Normandy corresponded to the Pro- 
vincia Lugdunensis Ser.unda, the chief town of which was Rouen 
(Civiias Rotomagensium) ; it included seven civitates with that of 
Rouen: those of Bayeux (C. Bajocassium), Lisieux (C. Lexoviorum), 
Coutances (C. Constantia), Avranches (C. Abrincatum), Seez (C. 
Sagiorum) and Evreux (C. Ebroicorum). For ecclesiastical purposes 
it formed the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, with six suffragan 
sees. For civil purposes, the province was divided into a number 
of pagi: the civitas of Rouen formed the pagus Rototnagensis (Rou- 
mois), the p. Caletus (pays de Caux), the p. Vilcassinus (Vexin), the 
p. Tellaus (Talou); that of Bayeux the pagus Bajocassinus (Bessin), 
and the Otlinga Saxonia; that of Lisieux the pagus Lexovinus 
(Lieuvin); that of Coutances the p. Corilensis and p. Constantinus 
(Cotentin); that of Avranches the p. Abrincatinus (Avranchin); 
that of Seez the p. Oximensis (Hie'mois), the p. Sagensis and p. 
Corbonensis (Corbonnais) ; and that of Evreux the p. Ebroicinus 
(Evrecin) and p. Madriacensis (pays de Madrie). It is to the settle- 
ment of the Normans in the country that Normandy owes its name; 
from the loth century onwards it formed a duchy, roughly coextensive 
with the ecclesiastical province of Rouen. Under the feudal regime, 
the energy of the Norman dukes prevented the formation of many 
powerful lordships, and there are few worthy of note, save the 
countships of Eu, Harcourt, Le Perche and Mortain. 

The duchy of Normandy, which was confiscated in 1204 by King 
Philip Augustus of France, formed in the i6th century the gouverne- 
ment of Normandy; the extent of this gouvernement did not, as a 
matter of fact, correspond exactly to that of the duchy, for Le Perche, 
which had been part of the duchy, was annexed to the gouvernement 
of Maine, while the Thimerais, which had belonged to the countship 
of Blois, was joined to the gouvernement of Normandy. In the I7th 
century this gouvernement was divided into three gtneralites or 
intendances : those of Rouen, Caen and Alencon. For judicial pur- 
poses Normandy was under the jurisdiction of the parlement of 
Kouen, created in 1499. Since 1791 the territory of the old duchy 
has composed, roughly speaking, the departments of Seine-Infe'rieure, 
Eure, Calvados, Manche and Orne. 



History. The prosperity of Normandy in Roman times is 
proved by the number and importance of the towns which 
existed there at that time. The most important was Lillebonne 
(Juliobona), chief town of the Caletes, the Roman antiquities 
of which are famous. The evangelization of Normandy did 
not take place before the 3rd century: the first bishop of Rouen, 
about 260, seems to have been St. Mallonus; it is possible, 
however, that before this date there were a few Christian com- 
munities in Normandy, as seems to be proved by the existence 
of St Nicasius, who was martyred in the Vexin. 

The province of Lugdunensis Secunda, which at the end of 
the sth century formed part of the kingdom of Syagrius, was 
conquered by Clovis before 506, and during the Merovingian 
times followed the fortunes of Neustria. In the pth century 
this country was ravaged by the Northmen, who were constantly 
going up and down the Seine, and later on it was formally 
ceded to them. During these incursions Rouen was occupied 
several times, notably in 876 and 885. 

The definitive establishment of the Normans, to whom the 
country owes its name, took place in 911, when by the treaty 
of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, concluded between King Charles the 
Simple of France and Rolf or Rollo, chief of the Normans, the 
territory comprising the town of Rouen and a few pagi situated 
on the sea-coast was ceded to the latter; but the terms of the 
treaty are ill-defined, and it is consequently almost impossible to 
find out the exact extent of this territory or to know whether 
Brittany was at this time made a feudal dependency of Normandy. 
But the chronicler Dudo of Saint-Quentin's statement that 
Rollo married Gisela, daughter of Charles the Simple, must be 
considered to be legendary. In 924 Rollo received from the 
king of France Bessin and Maine. Although baptized, he seems 
to have preserved certain pagan customs. The history of 
Normandy under Rollo and his immediate successors is very 
obscure, for the legendary work of Dudo of Saint-Quentin is 
practically our only authority. 

Rollo died in 927, and was succeeded by his son William 
" Long Sword," born of his union more danico with Poppa, 
daughter of count B6renger; he showed some attachment to 
the Scandinavian language, for he sent his son William to 
Bayeux to learn Norse. The first two dukes also displayed 
a certain fidelity to the Carolingian dynasty of France, and 
in 936 William " Long-Sword " did homage to Louis IV. 
d'Outremer. He died on the I7th of December 942, assassinated 
by the count of Flanders. 

During the minority of his successor, Duke Richard, King 
Louis IV., who was making an expedition into Normandy, was 
captured by the inhabitants of Rouen and handed over to Hugh 
the Great. From this time onwards the dukes of Normandy 
began to enter into relations with the dukes of France; and in 
958 Duke Richard married Hugh the Great's daughter. He 
died in 996. At the beginning of the reign of his son, Richard II. 
(996-1026), there was a rising of the peasants, who formed 
assemblies with a view to establishing fresh laws for the manage- 
ment of the forests. This attempt at insurrection, described 
by William of Jumieges, and treated by many historians, on 
the authority of the poet Wace, as a sort of democratic move- 
ment, was put down with a firm hand. Richard III. reigned 
from 1026-1027; h e seems to have been poisoned by his brother, 
Robert the Magnificent, or the Devil (1027-1035), who succeeded 
him. In 1031 Robert supported King Henry I. of France against 
his brother Robert, who was laying claim to the throne, and in 
return for his services received the French Vexin. The duke 
died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, leaving as his heir an illegiti- 
mate son, William, born of his union with the daughter of a 
tanner of Falaise. 

William was very young when his father started for the Holy 
Land, leaving him under the protection of the king of France. 
In 1047 Henry I. had to defend the young duke against an army 
of rebellious nobles, whom he succeeded in beating at Val-es- 
dunes. In the following year the king of France was in his turn 
supported by the duke of Normandy in his struggle against 
Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou; the two allies besieged 



750 



NORMANDY 



Mouliherne (1048); and the war was continued between the 
duke of Normandy and the count of Anjou by the siege of 
Alencon, which was taken by Geoffrey Martel, then retaken by 
William, and that of Domfront, which in 1049 had to surrender 
to Duke William. 

In 1054 William the Bastard married Matilda, daughter of 
Baldwin V., count of Flanders, in spite of the opposition of 
Pope Leo IX., who only gave his consent on condition that 
William and Matilda should each build an abbey: under these 
conditions were built the Abbaye-aux-Hommes and the Abbaye- 
aux-Dames at Caen. The king of France had at first protected 
William, but before long became alarmed at his ambitions; 
the first sign of his feeling of rivalry with the duke was the 
encouragement he gave to the revolt of William Busas, count 
of Eu and Montreuil, who claimed the ducal crown. In 1054 
he invaded Normandy with his brother Odo and this count, 
but Odo was beaten at Mortemer. In 1058 the king of France, 
joined by Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou, tried to revenge 
himself, but was beaten at the ford of Varaville (1058). 

Towards the same time took place the annexation of Maine 
to Normandy, for a short period only. Herbert II., the young 
count of Maine, who was a vassal of the count of Anjou, did 
homage to William the Bastard between 1055 and 1060, perhaps 
after the defeat of Geoffrey Martel; he promised to marry one 
of William's daughters, and betrothed his sister Margaret to the 
duke's son, Robert Curthose, on the understanding that, if he 
died leaving no children, the countship was to fall to William. 
After his death, the people of Maine revolted (1063), choosing 
as their lord Walter of Mantes, count of Vexin; but William 
the Bastard, after one campaign, succeeded in imposing the 
authority of Normandy. Three years later, William took posses- 
sion of England, of which he was crowned king in 1066. 
Normandy now became the scene of William's quarrels with 
his son, Robert Curthose, who laid claim to Normandy and 
Maine, and with the aid of King Philip I. of France succeeded in 
defeating his father at Gerberoi in 1079. 

William the Conqueror died on the 7th of September 1087, 
and was buried in the church of St Etienne at Caen. After 
his death his eldest son, Robert Curthose, kept Normandy and 
Maine, and his second son,William Ruf us, became king of England. 
In 1091 William Rufus made a vain attempt to recover Nor- 
mandy; but in 1096 Robert departed on a crusade and pledged 
the duchy to his brother for 10,000 livres. When Robert 
returned, William Rufus had just died, and his youngest brother, 
Henry Beauclerc, had already taken possession of the crown. 
Henry was ambitious of uniting Normandy to England; in 
1105, with the aid of Helias, count of Maine, and the son of 
Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou, he took and burnt Bayeux, 
but failed to take Falaise. On the 28th of September 1106, by 
the help of William, count of Evreux, Robert, count of Meulan, 
Robert de Varenne, and Helias, count of Maine, he defeated 
his brother at Tinchebrai, took him prisoner, and seized Nor- 
mandy. Duke Robert passed the rest of his life in captivity 
and died in 1134. 

From 1106 to 1204 Normandy remained united to England. 
According to Ordericus Vitalis, whose Historia ecclesiastica is 
a chronicle of the greatest interest for the history of Normandy 
in the nth and i2th centuries, Henry Beauclerc governed 
the two kingdoms wisely, checking the nobles, and protecting 
the Church and the common people. He carried on hostih'ties 
against the king of France and William Clito, son of Robert 
Curthose, whose claim to the duchy of Normandy was upheld 
by Louis VI., and won an important victory over his opponents 
at Bremule in Normandy (1119). After the disaster of the 
White Ship (1121), in which the Atheling William lost his life, 
Henry's only surviving child was a daughter, Matilda, widow 
of the emperor Henry V. In 1127 Matilda married Geoffrey the 
Fair, eldest son of Fulk V., count of Anjou. After the death 
of Henry I. in 1135, a struggle arose between Matilda, who 
claimed the kingdom of England and the duchy of Normandy in 
the name of her son Henry Plantagenet, and Theobald, count 
of Champagne, grandson of William the Conqueror on the side 



of his mother Adela, the candidate of the Normans of Normandy, 
while the Norman party in England supported Stephen, brother 
of Theobald. In 1144 Theobald, whose position had been 
much weakened since the taking of the castle of Rouen, gave up 
his rights in Normandy to Matilda's husband Geoffrey, count 
of Anjou, in favour of Henry Plantagenet. Between 1139 and 
1 145 Geoffrey, with French and Flemish help, gradually subdued 
Normandy, and on his death, in 1151, his son Henry Plantagenet 
was master of Normandy as well as count of Anjou. In 1152,. 
by his marriage with Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine, the divorced 
wife of Louis VII. of France, Aquitaine also was secured to- 
himself and his descendants. Finally, in 1153, he was recognized 
by Stephen of Blois as heir to the throne of England. The 
duchy of Normandy, though nominally in feudal dependence on 
the king of France, thus became part of the great Angevin 
empire, of which the power and resources were more than equal 
to that of the French kings. The perennial struggle, dating 
from this period, between the kings of England and France is 
dealt with elsewhere (see FRANCE: History, and ENGLISH 
HISTORY). 

From the first the French kings were fully conscious of the 
menace of the Angevin power. The reign of Louis VII. was 
occupied by the struggle against Henry II. In 1158 he com- 
mitted the blunder of concluding a treaty with Henry, by which 
he was to give his daughter Margaret in marriage to Henry 
Short Mantle, eldest son of Henry II., with the French Vexin 
as her dowry. The Vexin was consequently the scene of 
hostilities in 1159 and 1165. In 1173 Louis VII., resuming the 
policy of his grandfather and father, took advantage of the 
strife which broke out in the family of the king of England, 
and took the part of Henry II. "s sons who were in revolt against 
their father. He negotiated with Henry Short Mantle, duke of 
Normandy, as though he were king of England, but owing to- 
his weakness did not gain any serious advantage. In 1173 he 
abandoned the siege of Verneuil, in 1174 that of Rouen, and was 
no more successful in 1176. 

Philip Augustus (1180-1223) pursued the same policy with 
greater tenacity and success. He began by taking part against 
Henry II. with his son and successor, Richard Cceur de Lion, 
who obtained the throne on the death of Henry II. in 1189. 
From the point of view of Normandy, the most important events, 
of Richard's reign were: the truce of Issoudun, by which 
Philip Augustus kept the Norman Vexin which he had just 
conquered (1195), the building by Richard of Chateau-Gaillard 
(1196), and finally the defeat of Philip Augustus by Richard at 
Courcelles, near Gisors (1198). On the death of Richard at 
Chalus in 1199 the position of Philip Augustus was critical. 
This situation was modified under the reign of John Lackland, 
Richard's brother, who had himself crowned duke of Normandy 
at Rouen (April 25, 1199). Philip Augustus set up in opposition 
to him Arthur of Brittany, son of Geoffrey and grandson of 
Henry II., and the first phase of the struggle between the kings 
of France and England continued until the treaty of Goulet 
(1200). But in 1 202 Philip made a fresh attempt to seize the 
continental possessions of the kings of England. An excuse for 
reopening hostilities offered itself in the abduction, by John, 
of Isabel of Angouleme, the betrothed of Hugh le Brun, son of 
the count of La Marche. The barons appealed to Philip Augustus, 
who summoned John to appear before the royal judges; he 
failed to appear, and was consequently condemned by default, 
as a disloyal vassal, to have all the fiefs which he held in France 
confiscated (April 1202). The confiscation, a purely legal and 
formal operation, was followed by the actual conquest. 

In June 1202 Philip Augustus invaded Normandy and 
besieged the castle of Arques, near Dieppe; at the same time 
Arthur of Brittany was taken prisoner by John at Mirebeau in 
Poitou, and imprisoned in the castle of Falaise, from which 
he was removed to Rouen and died, probably assassinated by 
John's orders. The conquest of Normandy began with the 
occupation of Chateau-Gaillard after an eight months' siege 
(September 1203- April 1204); the rest of Normandy was taken 
during the following months, Rouen surrendering in 1204 but 



NORMANS 



obtaining a guarantee of her privileges. The conquest of 
Normandy by the French was not, however, recognized officially 
till the treaty of Paris (1259). 

Normandy enjoyed a time of comparative prosperity under 
French rule, up to the time of the Hundred Years' War. The 
institution of the Estates of Normandy even assured her a sort 
of independence. In 1329 the duchy of Normandy was revived 
in favour of John, son of King Philip VI. 

Owing to her geographical position, Normandy suffered 
heavily during the Hundred Years' War. In 1346 Edward III., 
at the instance of Godefroi d'Harcourt lord of Saint-Sauveur, 
invaded Normandy, landing at Saint-Vast-la-Hougue (July 1 2) ; 
and arriving at Caen on the 25th of July, he laid waste the 
country as far as Poissy. After the accession of John II. (1350), 
Normandy was again separated from the crown and given as 
an appanage to the dauphin Charles. The treaty of London 
(1359) stipulated for its cession to England, but the provisions 
of the treaty were modified by those of the treaty of Bretigny 
(1360), and it remained in the possession of France. 

John II. died in 1364, and was succeeded by his son Charles V. 
One of the chief feudatories of Normandy, Charles the Bad, 
grandson of Louis X. le Hutin, and a claimant to the crown of 
France, was in 1365, owing to his continued treachery, deprived 
of the countship of Longueville, and in 1378 of all his other 
possessions in Upper and Lower Normandy. The most striking 
event of the war between the French and English which took 
place in Normandy during the reign of Charles V. was the siege 
of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, which was occupied by the English, 
and only surrendered after a siege of several years. 

The opening years of the reign of Charles VI. (13805-1422) 
were disturbed by a revolt which broke out at Rouen against 
the aides which the royal government had tried to impose 
(1381); a cloth-merchant was proclaimed king of Rouen, and 
Charles was obliged to go in person to Rouen to put down the 
insurrection. In 1415 the war with England was resumed: 
an English army of 60,000 men landed on the I4th of August at 
the mouth of the Seine, took Harfleur on the i6th of September, 
and finally defeated the army of the king of France at Agincourt. 
During the following years the whole of Normandy was occupied, 
Rouen holding out for nearly six months (July 29, I4i8-January 
13, 1419), and Henry V. of England entrusted the administration 
of Normandy to a special council. In spite of the moderation 
of the duke of Bedford's government, Normandy, ruined by the 
war, was in a state of great dist r ess, and in the years following 
the treaty of Troyes (1420) there was a continual resistance 
offered to the English. This resistance became general after the 
expeditions of Joan of Arc and the treaty of Arras; at the end of 
1435 the whole district of Caux, and in 1436 that of the Val de 
Vire revolted; Mont-Saint-Michel, which had never been 
taken by the English, continued to resist, and in order to keep 
guard over it the English built Granville. But Normandy was 
not recovered by the French till after the sack of Fougeres (1449). 
Cotentin was reconquered by Richmond (see ARTHUR, duke of 
Brittany) and the duke of Brittany; Rouen surrendered on the 
29th of October 1449. In face of these successes of the French, 
an English army was sent into Normandy under the leadership 
of Thomas Kyriel^ it landed at Cherbourg and marched across 
Cotentin to Bayeux, but was met at Formigny (April 15, 1450) 
by the count of Clermont and utterly routed. Shortly after- 
wards Caen, and finally Cherbourg, capitulated. 

After the French conquest, the history of Normandy is less 
eventful. In 1465 Normandy was given as an appanage to 
Charles, brother of King Louis XL, who was deprived of it in 
1467. The kings of France tried to win the support of Nor- 
mandy by certain favours, such as maintaining the provincial 
Estates and the University of Caen, founded by the kings of 
England, and transforming the Exchequer of Normandy into 
a permanent court of justice (1499) which was called the Parle- 
ment of Normandy and sat at Rouen in the famous Palais de 
Justice. Among the measures which contributed to the increase 
of the prosperity of Normandy should be noted the construction 
in 1752 of the Havre de Grace. 



During the i6th century the Protestant Reformation met 
with some success in Normandy, where the Wars of Religion 
caused a certain amount of disturbance. The Reforming 
movement began with Pierre Bar in 1528, and the first apostle 
of the Reformation at Rouen was Francois Legay, called Bois- 
normand.. In 1562 the town of Rouen was taken by the 
Calvinists, but retaken in the same year by the Catholics. 
Caen received the Reformed religion in 1531, and Alencon in 
1582. In the massacre of Saint Bartholomew's day (1572) 
more than 500 victims were slaughtered by the Catholics. 

In spite of the success of Protestant ideas, however, the 
Catholic party of the League succeeded after 1588 in establishing 
itself in Normandy, and King Henry IV. had to conquer it by 
force of arms. The most famous engagements during this 
expedition were the victories of Henry IV. at Arques and Ivry, 
but he failed to take Rouen, which was defended by Alexander 
Farnese, duke of Parma, and only surrendered after the abjura- 
tion of the king. 

The history of Normandy in the I7th and i8th centuries 
contains few events of note, except for a few attempts at landing 
made by the English during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763); 
in 1758 the English admiral Anson attacked Cherbourg, and in 
1759 Admiral Rodney bombarded Havre. From 1700 dates 
the creation of the departments, when Normandy ceased to 
have a separate political existence, and her history becomes 
one with that of France. 

See G. Depping, Histoire de la Normandie (2 vols., 1835); Fr. 
Palgrave, The History of Normandy and of England (2 vols., 1851- 
1857); E. A. Freeman, The History of the Norman Conquest of 
England (yd ed., 5 vols., Oxford, 1877); Joh. Steenstrup, Les 
Normands (1880); Louis du Bois, Itineraire descriptif, historiqut 
el monumental des cinq departments composant la Normandie (1828) ; 
John Cotman, Architectural Antiquities of Normandy (2 vols., 1820); 
Leopold Delisle, Etude sur la condition des classes agricoles en Nor- 
mandie (reprinted 1906), La Normandie ittustree (2 vols., 1852-1855) ; 
A. Duchesne, Historiae Normanorum scriptores antiqui (1619); E. J. 
Tardif, Les Coutumiers de Normandie (1881-1896); Edouard Frere, 
Manuel de bibliographie normande (1858-1860); Artur du Monstier, 
Neustria pia (1663); N. Oursel, Nouvelle Biographie normande 
(3 vols., 1886-1888). Publications of the learned societies of the 
province analysed in the Bibliographie of Robert de Lasteyrie. 

(R. LA.) 

NORMANS, the softened form of the word " Northman," 
applied first to the people of Scandinavia in general, and after- 
wards specially to the people of Norway. In the form of " Nor- 
man " (Northmannus, Normannus, Normand) it is the name 
of those colonists from Scandinavia who settled themselves in 
Gaul, who founded Normandy, who adopted the French tongue 
and French manners, and who from their new home set forth on 
new errands of conquest, chiefly in the British Islands and in 
southern Italy and Sicily. From one point of view the expedi- 
tions of the Normans may be looked on as continuations of the 
expeditions of the Northmen. As the name is etymologically the 
same, so the people are by descent the same, and they are still 
led by the old spirit of war and adventure. But in the view of 
general history Normans and Northmen must be carefully 
distinguished. The change in the name is the sign of a thorough 
change, if not in the people themselves, yet in their historical 
position. Their national character remains largely the same; 
but they have adopted a new religion, a new language, a new 
system of law and society, new thoughts and feelings on all 
matters. Like as the Norman still is to the Northman, the 
effects of a settlement of Normans are utterly different from the 
effects of a settlement of Northmen. There can be no doubt 
that the establishment of the Norman power in England was, 
like the establishment of the Danish power, greatly helped by 
the essential kindred of Normans, Danes and English. But 
it was helped only silently. To all outward appearance the 
Norman conquest of England was an event of an altogether 
different character from the Danish conquest. The one was a 
conquest by a people whose tongue and institutions were still 
palpably akin to those of the English. The other was a conquest 
by a people whose tongue and institutions were palpably different 
from those of the English. The Norman settlers in England felt 
no community with the earlier Danish settlers in England. In 



752 



NORMANS 



fact the Normans met with the steadiest resistance in a part of 
England which was largely Danish. But the effect of real, 
though unacknowledged, kindred had none the less an important 
practical effect. There can be no doubt that this hidden working 
of kindred between conquerors and conquered in England, as 
compared with the utter lack of all fellowship between conquerors 
and conquered in Sicily, was one cause out of several which made 
so wide a difference between the Norman conquest of England 
and the Norman conquest of Sicily. 

These two conquests, wrought in the great island of the Ocean 
and in the great island of the Mediterranean, were the main 
works of the Normans after they had fully put on the 
Character character of a Christian and French-speaking people, 
Normaas. > n other words, after they had changed from Northmen 
into Normans. The English and the Sicilian settle- 
ments form the main Norman history of the nth century. The 
loth century is the time of the settlement of the Northmen in 
Gaul, and of the change in religion and language of which the 
softening of the name is the outward sign. By the end of it, any 
traces of heathen faith, and even of Scandinavian speech, must 
have been mere survivals. The new creed, the new speech, the 
new social system, had taken such deep root that the descendants 
of the Scandinavian settlers were better fitted to be the armed 
missionaries of all these things than the neighbours from whom 
they had borrowed their new possessions. With the zeal of new 
converts they set forth on their new errand very much in the 
spirit of their heathen forefathers. If Britain and Sicily were the 
greatest fields of their enterprise, they were very far from being 
the only fields. The same spirit of enterprise which brought the 
Northmen into Gaul seems to carry the Normans out of Gaul 
into every corner of the world. Their character is well painted 
by a contemporary historian of their exploits. 1 He sets the 
Normans before us as a race specially marked by cunning, despis- 
ing their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager 
after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, 
holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness that 
is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly 
opposite qualities. Their chief men, he adds, were specially 
lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, 
a race skilful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that 
the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless 
held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring 
of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given 
to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, 
and of all the weapons and garb of war. Several of these features 
stand out very clearly in Norman history. The cunning of the 
Normans is plain enough; so is their impatience of restraint, 
unless held down by a strong master. Love of imitation is also 
marked. Little of original invention can be traced to any strictly 
Norman source; but no people were ever more eager to adopt 
from other nations, to take into their service and friendship from 
any quarter men of learning and skill and eminence of every 
kind. To this quality is perhaps to be attributed the fact that 
a people who did so much, who settled and conquered in so large 
a part of Europe, has practically vanished from the face of the 
earth. If Normans, as Normans, now exist anywhere, it is 
certainly only in that insular fragment of the ancient duchy 
which still cleaves to the successor of its ancient dukes. Eke- 
where, as the settlers in Gaul became French, the emigrants from 
Gaul became English, Irish, Scottish, and whatever we are to 
call the present inhabitants of Sicily and southern Italy. Every- 

1 Geoffrey Malaterra, i. 3 " Est quippe gens astutissima, in- 
juriarum ultrix, spe alias plus lucrandi, patrios agros vilipendens, 
quaestus et dommationis avida, cujuslibet rei simulatnx, inter 
largitatem et avaritiam quoddam medium habens. Principes vero 
delectatione bonae famae largissimi, gens adulari sciens, eloquentiis 
in studiis inserviens in tantum, ut etiam ipsos pueros quasi rhetores 
attendas, quae quidem, nisi jugo justitiae prematur, effrenatissima 
est; laboris, mediae, algoris, ubi fortuna expedit, patiens, venationi 
accipitrum exercitio inserviens. Equorum, caeterorumque militiae 
instrumentorum, et vestium luxuria delectatur. Ex nomine itaque 
suo_terrae nomen indiderunt. North quippe Anglica lingua aquilo- 
naris plaga dicitur. Et quia ipsi ab aquilone venerant terrain ipsam 
etiam Normanniam appellarunt." 



where they gradually lost themselves among the people whom 
they conquered; they adopted the language and the national 
feelings of the lands in which they settled; but at the same time 
they often modified, often strengthened the national usages 
and national life of the various nations in which they were finally 
merged. 

But Geoffrey hardly did justice to the Normans if he meant to 
imply that they were simple imitators of others. Their position 
was very like that of the Saracens. Hasty writers who j- Ae / r 
forget the existence of the eastern Rome are apt to faculty of 
claim for the Saracens of Bagdad, or more commonly adapta- 
for those of Cordova, a monopoly of science and art **"' 
at some time not very clearly defined by dates. In so doing 
they slur over the real position and the real merit of the Saracens 
with regard to science and art. In neither department did any 
Saracen, strictly speaking, invent anything; but they learned 
much both from Constantinople and from Persia, and what they 
learned they largely developed and improved. The Normans 
did just the same. They adopted the French tongue, and were 
presently among the first to practise and spread abroad its 
literature. They adopted the growing feudal doctrines of France, 
and worked them, both in Normandy and in England, into a 
harmonious system. From northern Italy, as it would seem, they 
adopted a style of architecture which grew in their hands, both 
in Normandy and in England, into a marked and living form of 
art. Settled in Gaul, the Scandinavian from a seafaring man 
became a landsman. Even in land-warfare he cast aside the 
weapons of his forefathers; but he soon learned to handle the 
weapons of his new land with greater prowess than they had 
ever been handled before. He welcomed the lore of every 
stranger. Lanfranc brought law and discipline; Anselm brought 
theology and philosophy. The gifts of each were adopted and 
bore fruit on both sides of the Channel. And no people ever 
better knew how to be all things to all men. The Norman power 
in England was founded on full and speedy union with the one 
nation among whom they found themselves. The Norman power 
in Sicily was founded on a strong distinction between the ruling 
people and the many nations which they kept in peace and 
prosperity by not throwing in their lot with any one among them. 

The quality which Geoffrey Malaterra expresses by the word 
" effrenatissima " is also clearly marked in Norman history. 
It is, in fact, the groundwork of the historic Norman character. 
It takes in one case the form of ceaseless enterprise, in another 
the form of that lawlessness which ever broke out, both in 
Normandy and in every other country settled by Normans, 
when the hand of a strong ruler was wanting. But it was balanced 
by another quality which Geoffrey does not speak of, one which 
is not really inconsistent with the other, one which is very promi- 
nent in the Norman character, and which is, no less than the 
other, a direct heritage from their Scandinavian forefathers. 
This is the excessive litigiousness, the fondness for law, legal 
forms, legal processes, which has ever been characteristic of 
the people. If the Norman was a born soldier, he was also a 
born lawyer. Ranulf Flambard, working together the detached 
feudal usages of earlier times into a compact and logical system 
of feudal law, was as characteristic a type of the people as any 
warrior in the Conqueror's following. He was the organizer 
of an endless official army, of an elaborate technical system 
of administration, which had nothing like it in England before, 
but which grew up to perfection under Norman rulers. 4 But 
nothing so well illustrates this formal side of the Norman char- 
acter as the whole position of William the Conqueror himself. 
His claim to the crown of England is something without earlier 
precedent, something as far as possible removed from the open 
violence of aggressors who have no pretexts with which to dis- 
guise their aggression. It rested on a mass of legal assumptions 
and subtleties, fallacious indeed, but ingenious, and, as the 
result proved, effective. His whole system of government, his 

J This view of Ranulf Flambard's work, which on Freeman's 
authority superseded the older view, which attributed the feudal 
organization of England to the Conqueror himself, was subjected to a 
destructive criticism by Mr J. H. Round in his Feudal England. (Ed.) 



NORMANS 



753 



confiscations, his grants, all that he did, was a logical deduction 
from one or two legal principles, arbitrary certainly in their 
conception, but strictly carried out to their results. Even 
Norman lawlessness in some sort took a legal shape. In the 
worst days of anarchy, in the minority of William or under the 
no-reign of Robert, the robber-baron could commonly give 
elaborate reasons for every act of wrong that he did. 

It is perhaps less wonderful that this characteristic should 
have been left out in a picture of the Normans in Apulia and 
Sicily than if it had been left out in a picture of the Normans 
in Normandy and England. The circumstances of their Apulian 
and Sicilian conquests certainly did not tend to bring out this 
feature of their character so strongly as it was brought out by 
the circumstances of their English conquest. Possibly the same 
cause may have kept the chronicler from enlarging on their 
religious character; yet in Sicily at least they might pass for 
crusaders. Crusaders in fact they were before crusades were 
preached. Norman warriors had long before helped the Christians 
of Spain in their warfare with the Saracens of the Peninsula, 
and in Sicily it was from the same enemy that they won the 
great Mediterranean island. Others had done a kindred worjc 
in a more distant field as helpers of the Eastern emperors against 
the Turks of Asia. All these might pass for religious wars, and 
they might really be so; it needed greater ingenuity to set 
forth the invasion of England as a missionary enterprise designed 
for the spiritual good of the benighted islanders. The Norman, 

a strict observer of forms in all matters, attended to 
anle'oi the forms of religion with special care. No people 
Fora's"* were more bountiful to ecclesiastical bodies on both 

sides of the Channel; the foundation of a Benedictine 
monastery in the nth century, of a Cistercian monastery in 
the 1 2th seemed almost a matter of course on the part of a 
Norman baron. The Conqueror beyond doubt sincerely aimed 
at being a religious reformer both in his duchy and in his kingdom, 
while it is needless to say that his immediate successor was 
exceptionally ungodly, whether among Normans or among other 
men. But among their countrymen generally strict attendance 
to religious observances, a wide bounty to religious foundations, 
may be set down as national characteristics. On the other hand, 
none were less inclined to submit to encroachments on the part 
of the ecclesiastical power, the Conqueror himself least of all. 

We thus see in the Scandinavian settlers in Gaul, after they 
had put on the outward garb of their adopted country, a people 

restless and enterprising above all others, adopting 
The Coo- and spreading abroad all that they could make their 
England own in their new land and everywhere else a people 
o"sici"y in man y wa X s highly gifted, greatly affecting and 
compared, modifying at the time every land in which they settled, 

but, wherever they settled, gradually losing themselves 
among the people of the land. The Norman, as a visible 
element in the country, has vanished from England, and 
he has vanished from Sicily. The circumstances of his settle- 
ment in his two great fields of conquest were widely different; 
his position when he was fully established in his two insular 
realms was widely different; but the end has been the same 
in both cases. Neither island has for ages been in any sense a 
Norman land, and the tongue which the Norman brought with 
him into both has not for ages been spoken in either. Norman 
influence has been far stronger in England than in Sicily, and 
signs of Norman presence are far more easily recognized. But 
the Norman, as a distinct people, is as little to be seen in the 
one island as in the other. His disappearance in both cases 
is an illustration of one of the features which we have spoken 
of in the Norman character, the tendency which in fact made 
Normans out of Northmen, the tendency to adopt the language 
and manners of the people among whom they found themselves. 
But, as far as outward circumstances are concerned, we may 
say that the same effect has been brought about by different 
and almost opposite causes. The whole circumstances of the 
conquest of England constrained the conquerors to become 
Englishmen in order to establish themselves in the conquered 
land. In William's theory, the forcible conquest of England 



by strangers was an untoward accident. The lawful heir of 
the English crown was driven against his will to win his rights 
by force from outside. But he none the less held his crown 
as an English king succeeding according to English law. More- 
over, every Norman to whom he granted lands and offices held 
them by English law in a much truer sense than the king held 
his; he was deemed to step into the exact position of his 
English predecessor, whatever that might be. This legal theory 
worked together with other causes to wipe out all practical 
distinction between the conquerors and the conquered in a 
wonderfully short time. By the end of the izth century the 
Normans in England might fairly pass as Englishmen, and they 
had largely adopted the use of the English language. The 
fashionable use of French for nearly two centuries longer was 
far more a French fashion than a Norman tradition. When 
the tradition of speaking French had all but died out, the practice 
was revived by fashion. Still the tradition had its effect. The 
fashion could hardly hav^e taken root except in a land where the 
tradition had gone befor it. 

The Normans in England therefore became Englishmen, 
because there was an English nation into which they could be 
absorbed. The Normans in Sicily could hardly be said to become 
Sicilians, for there assuredly was no Sicilian nation for them 
to be absorbed into. While the Normans in England were lost 
among the people of the land, the Normans in Sicily were lost 
among their fellow-settlers in the land. The Normans who 
came into Sicily must have been much less purely Norman 
than the Normans who came into England. The army of Duke 
William was undoubtedly very far from being wholly made up 
of Normans, but it was a Norman army; the element which 
was not Norman, though considerable, was exceptional. But 
we may doubt whether the Norman invaders of Sicily were 
Norman in much more than being commanded by Norman 
leaders. They were almost as little entitled to be called pure 
Scandinavians as the Saracens whom they found in the island 
were entitled to be called pure Arabs. The conquest of England 
was made directly from Normandy, by the reigning duke, in 
a comparatively short time, while the conquest of Sicily grew out 
of the earlier and far more gradual conquest of Apulia and 
Calabria by private men. The Norman settlements at Aversa and 
Capua were the work of adventurers, making their own fortunes 
and gathering round them followers from all quarters. They 
fought simply for their own hands, and took what they could 
by the right of the stronger. They started with no such claim 
as Duke William put forth to justify his invasion of England; 
their only show of legal right was the papal grant of conquests 
that were already made. The conquest of Apulia, won bit by 
bit in many years of what we can only call freebooting, was 
not a national Norman enterprise like the conquest of England, 
and the settlement to which it led could not be a national 
Norman settlement in the same sense. The Sicilian enterprise 
had in some respects another character. By the time it began 
the freebooters had grown into princes. Sicily was won by a 
duke of Apulia and a count of Sicily. 1 Still there was a wide 
difference between the duke of the Normans and the duke of 
Apulia, between an hereditary prince of a hundred and fifty 
years' standing and an adventurer who had carved out his 
duchy for himself. And, besides this, warfare in Sicily brought 
in higher motives and objects. Though crusades had not yet 
been preached, the strife with the Mussulman at once brought 
in the crusading element; to the Christian people of the island 
they were hi many cases real deliverers; still, the actual process 
by which Sicily was won was not so very different from that by 
which Apulia had been won. Duke William was undisputed 
master of England at the end of five years; it took Count Roger 
thirty years to make himself undisputed master of Sicily. The 
one claimed an existing kingdom, and obtained full possession 
of it in a comparatively short time; the other formed for 
himself a dominion bit by bit, which rose to the rank of a kingdom 

1 Roger de Hauteville, the conqueror of Sicily, was a brother of 
the first four dukes or counts of Apulia, and was invested with the 
countship of Sicily by the pope before starting on his adventure. 



754 



NORMANS 



in the next generation. When Count Roger at last found himself 
lord of the whole island, he found himself lord of men of various 
creeds and tongues, of whom his own Norman followers were 
but one class out of several. And the circumstances of his 
conquest were such that the true Normans among his following 
could not possibly lose themselves among the existing inhabitants 
of the island, while everything tended to make them lose 
themselves among their fellow-adventurers of other races, 
among whom, by the time the conquest was ended, they could 
hardly have been even a dominant element. 

As far then as concerned the lands in which the settlements 
were made, the difference lay in this, that, as has been already said, 
while there was an English nation, there was no Sicilian nation. 
The characteristic point of Norman rule in Sicily is that it is 
the rule of princes who were foreign to all the inhabitants of 
the island, but who were not more foreign to the inhabitants of 
the island than different classes of them were to one another. 
The Norman conqueror found in Sicily a Christian and Greek- 
speaking people and a Mussulman and Arabic-speaking people. 
The relations between the two differed widely in different parts 
of the island, according to the way in which the Saracens had 
become possessed of different towns and districts. In one place 
the Christians were in utter bondage, in another they were simply 
tributary; still, everywhere the Mussulman Saracen formed the 
ruling class, the Christian Greek formed the subject class. We 
speak of the Saracen very much as we speak of the Norman; 
for of the Mussulman masters of Sicily very many must have 
been only artificial Arabs, Africans who had adopted the creed, 
language and manners of Arabia. In each case the Arab or the 
Norman was the kernel, the centre round which all other elements 
gathered and which gave its character to the whole. Besides 
these two main races, Greek and Saracen, others came in through 
the Norman invasion itself. There were the conquerors them- 
selves; there were the Italians, in Sicily known as Lombards, 
who followed in their wake; there were also the Jews, whom 
they may have found in the island, or who may have followed 
the Norman into Sicily, as they certainly followed him into 
England. The special character of Norman rule in Sicily was 
that all these various races flourished, each in its own fashion, 
each keeping its own creed, tongue and manners, under the 
protection of a common sovereign, who belonged to none of them, 
but who did impartial justice to all. Such a state of things 
might seem degradation to the Mussulman, but it was deliverance 
to the native Christian, while to settlers of every kind from outside 
it was an opening such as they could hardly find elsewhere. 
But the growth of a united Sicilian nation was impossible; 
the usual style to express the inhabitants of the island is " omnes " 
or " universi Siciliae populi." In the end something like a 
Sicilian nation did arise; but it arose rather by the dying out 
of several of the elements in the country, the Norman element 
among them, than by any such fusion as took place in England. 
That is, as has been already said, the Norman as such has 
vanished in two different ways. In England the Norman 
duke came in as a foreign intruder, without a native supporter 
to establish his rule over a single nation in its own land. He 
could not profess to be, as the count of Sicily could honestly 
profess to be, a deliverer to a large part of the people of the land. 
But, coming in by a title which professed to be founded on English 
law, establishing his followers by grants which professed no less 
to be founded on English law, he planted a dynasty, and estab- 
lished a dominant order, which could not fail to become English. 
The Normans in England did not die out; they were merged 
in the existing nation. The Normans in Sicily, so far as they 
did not die out, were merged, not in a Sicilian nation, for that 
did not exist, but in the common mass of settlers of Latin speech 
and rite, as distinguished from the older inhabitants, Greek 
and Saracen. The Norman conquest of England was at the 
moment a curse; the Norman conquest of Sicily was at the 
moment a blessing. But the gradual and indirect results of 
the Norman conquest of England are easily to be seen to this 
day, and they have been largely, though indirectly, results for 
g'ood. Its chief result has been, not so much to create anything 



new as at once to modify and to strengthen what was old, to call 
up older institutions to a new life under other forms. But 
whatever it has done it has done silently; there has not been at 
any time any violent change of one set of institutions for another. 
In Sicily and southern Italy there is hardly any visible Norman 
influence, except the great historic fact which we may call the 
creation of Sicily and southern Italy in their modern sense. 
The coming of the Norman ruled that these lands should be 
neither Saracen nor Greek, nor yet Italian in the same sense 
as northern Italy, but that they should politically belong to 
the same group of states as the kingdoms and principalities of 
feudal Europe. William assuredly did not create the kingdom 
of England; Roger assuredly did create the kingdom of Sicily. 
And yet, notwithstanding all this, and partly because of all 
this, real and distinct Norman influence has been far more 
extensive and far more abiding in England than it has been in 
Sicily. 

In Sicily then the circumstances of the conquest led the 
Norman settlers to remain far more distinct from the older races 
of the land than they did in England, and in the end to lose 
themselves, not in those older races of the land, but in the 
settlers of other races who accompanied and followed them. 
So far as there ever was a Sicilian nation at all, it might be said 
to be called into being by the emperor-king Frederick II. In 
his day a Latin element finally triumphed; but it was not a 
Norman or French-speaking element of any kind. The speech 
of the Lombards at last got the better of Greek, Arabic and 
French; how far its ascendancy can have been built on any 
survival of an earlier Latin speech which had lived on alongside 
of Greek and Arabic this is not the place to inquire. 

The use of language and nomenclature during the time of Norman 
rule in the two countries forms a remarkable contrast, and illustrates 
the circumstances of the two as they have just been 
sketched. The chroniclers of the conquest of Apulia 
and Sicily use the Norman name in every page as the name 
of the followers of the conquerors from Hauteville. It England 
was the natural name for a body of men who must, by 
the time the conquest of Sicily was over, have been 
very mixed, but whose kernel was Norman, whose strength and 
feelings and traditions all came from a Norman source. But if we 
tuin to Hugo Falcandus, the historian of Sicily in the 1 2th century, 
the Norman name is hardly found, unless when it is used historicajly 
to point out (as in Muratori vii. 260) that the royal house of Sicily 
was of Norman descent. Of the various " Siciliae populi," we hear of 
Greeks, Saracens, Lombards, sometimes of Franci, for by that time 
there were many French-speaking settlers in Sicily who were not of 
Norman descent. There is a distinction between Christians and 
Saracens; among Christians there seems to be again a distinction 
between Greeks and Latins, though perhaps without any distinct 
use of the Latin name; there is again a further distinction between 
" Lombard! " and "Franci"; but Normans, as a separate class, 
do not appear. In England there is no room for such subtleties. 
The narratives of the conquest of England use both the Norman and 
the French names to express the followers of William. In the English 
chronicles " French " is the only name used. It appears also in the 
Bayeux Tapestry, and it is the only word used when any legal 
distinction had to be drawn between classes of men in the English 
kingdom. " Franci " and " Angli " are often opposed in Domesday 
and other documents, and the formula went on in charters long after 
all real distinction had passed away. That is to say, there were 
several purposes for which it was convenient todistinguish "English" 
and " French " the last name taking in all the followers of the 
Conqueror; there were no purposes for which there was any need to 
distinguish Normans as such, either from the general mass of the 
people or from others who spoke the French tongue. We can see 
also that, though several languages were in use in England during 
the time of Norman rule, yet England was not a land of many 
languages in the same sense in which Sicily was. In the I2th century 
three languages were certainly spoken in London; yet London 
could not callitself the " city of threefold speech," as Palermo did. 
English, French, Latin, were all in use in England; but the distinc- 
tion was rather that they were used for three different purposes 
than that they were used by three distinct races or even classes. 
No doubt there was a class that knew only English ; there may have 
been a much smaller class that knew only French; any man who 
pretended to high cultivation would speak all as a matter of course; 
Bishop Gilbert Foliot, for instance, was eloquent in all three. But in 
Sicily we see the quite different phenomenon of three, four, five classes 
of men living side by side, each keeping its own nationality and speak- 
ing its own tongue. If a man of one people knew the speech of any 
of the others, he knew it strictly as a foreign language. Before the 
Norman Conquest England had two official tongues; documents 



NORMANS 



755 



were drawn up sometimes in English, sometimes in Latin, now and 
then in both. And the same usage went on after the Conquest; 
the use of English becomes gradually rarer, and dies out under the 
first Angevins, but it is in favour of Latin that it dies out. French, 
the language which the Normans brought with them, did not become 
an official language in England till after strictly Norman rule had 
passed away. French documents are unknown till the days of French 
fashion had come in, that is, till deep in the 1 3th century. So it was 
in Sicily also; of all the tongues of Sicily French was the most 
needful in the king's court (" Francorum lingua quae maxime 
necessaria esset in curia," says Hugo Falcandus, 321); but it was 
not an official tongue. The three tongues of Palermo are Greek, 
Arabic and Latin. King Roger's clock is commemorated in all 
three. Documents were drawn up in such and so many of these 
tongues as was convenient for the parties concerned; not a few 
private documents add a fourth tongue, and are drawn up in Greek, 
Arabic, Latin and Hebrew. In neither case is the actual speech of 
the conquerors one of the tongues in formal use. French, as a separate 
tongue from Latin, already existed as a literary speech, and no 
people had done more than the Normans to spread it as a literary 
speech, in both prose and verse. But neither in England nor in Sicily 
did official formalism acknowledge even French, much less Italian, 
as a fit tongue for solemn documents. In England, English, French, 
Latin, were the three tongues of a single nation; they were its 
vulgar, its courtly and its learned speeches, of which three the courtly 
was fast giving way to the vulgar. In Sicily, Greek, Arabic, Latin 
and its children were the tongues of distinct nations; French might 
be the politest speech, but neither Greek nor Arabic could be set 
down as a vulgar tongue, Arabic even less than Greek. 

The different positions then which the conquering Norman 
took in his two great conquests of England and of Sicily amply 
illustrate the way in which he could adapt himself 
Normans j. Q anv c i rc umstances in which he found himself, 
Scotland. tne wav i Q which he could adopt whatever suited 
his purpose in the institutions of any other people, 
the way in which he commonly lost his national being in that 
of some other people. From England, moreover, he spread into 
Scotland, Wales and Ireland, and in each land his settlement 
put on a somewhat different character, according to the circum- 
stances of the land. In Scotland he was not a conqueror, but 
a mere visitor, and oddly enough he came as a visitor along 
with those whom he had himself overcome in England. Both 
Normans and English came to Scotland in crowds in the days 
of Margaret, Edgar and David, and Scottish national feeling 
sometimes rose up against them. In Scotland again the Norman 
settlers were lost in the mixed nationality of the country, but 
not till they had modified many things in the same way in which 
they modified things in England. They gave Scotland nobles 
and even kings; Bruce and Balliol were both of the truest 
Norman descent; the true Norman descent of Comyn might 
be doubted, but he was of the stock of the Francigenae of the 
Conquest. In Wales the Norman came as a conqueror, 
more strictly a conqueror than in England; he could 
not claim Welsh crowns or Welsh estates under any fiction of 
Welsh law. The Norman settler in Wales, therefore, did not to any 
perceptible extent become a Welshman; the existing relations 
of England and Wales were such that he in the end became 
an Englishman, but he seems not unnaturally to have been 
somewhat slower in so doing in Wales than he was in England. 
At least Giraldus Cambrensis, the Norman Welshman or Welsh 
Norman, was certainly more alive to the distinction between 
Normans and English than any other of his contemporaries. In 
Ireland the Norman was more purely a conqueror 
than anywhere else; but in Ireland his power of 
adaptation caused him to sink in a way in which he sank nowhere 
else. While some of the Norman settlers in Ireland went to swell 
the mass of the English of the Pale, others threw in their lot 
with the native Irish, and became, in the well-known saying, 
Hibernis ipsis Hiberniores (see e.g. the article BURGH). 

There is yet one point in which we may profitably go back to our 
comparison between England and Sicily. Both countries are rich 
in works of architecture raised during the time of Norman 
rule. And the buildings of both lands throw an instructive 
'**"" light on the Norman national character, as we have 
ire . . described it. Few buildings, at least few buildings raised 
in any reasonable style ofarchitecture which makes use 
of the arched construction, can be less like one another 



Wales. 



Ireland. 



Sicily. 



than the buildings of the Norman kings in England and 



the buildings of the Norman kings in Sicily. In Sicily the Normans 



found the two most outwardly civilized of the nations of Europe, 
the two which had as yet carried the arts to the highest pitch. The 
Greek had created the column; the Roman had developed it; the 
Roman Greek or Greek Roman had taught the column to bear the 
cupola ; the Saracen had taught it to bear arches of his own favourite 
pointed shape. Out of these elements the Saracens of Sicily had 
formed a noble and beautiful style, grand and simple in its con- 
struction, rich and graceful in its characteristic detail. With the 
Saracen and the Greek as his subjects, the Norman had really no 
need to innovate ; he had simply to bid the men of the land to go on 
working for him instead of for any other. The palaces and churches 
of the Norman kings at Palermo and Monreale and Cefalu and Messina 
are in style simply Saracenic; they were most likely the work oi 
Saracen builders; they were beyond doubt built after Saracenic 
models. In these buildings, as in those of Aquitaine, the pointed arch 
is the surest sign of Saracenic influence; it must never be looked 
on as marking the approach of the Gothic of the North. With that 
form of art the pointed style of Sicily has nothing in common. A 
Sicilian church has nothing in common with a French or an English 
church; it is sometimes purely Oriental, sometimes a basilica with 
pointed arches. But, if the Saracen gave the lines of the building, 
the Greek gave the mosaic decorations of its walls. In such a case 
the ruling people, rather the ruling dynasty, had really nothing to 
add to what they found ready for them. They had simply to make 
Saracen and Greek work in partnership. In England, on the other 
hand, the Normans did really bring in a new style of their own, their 
own form of Romanesque, differing widely indeed from the Saracenic 
style of Sicily. This Norman form of Romanesque most likely had 
its origin in the Lombard buildings of northern Italy. But it took 
firm root on Norman soil; it made its way to England at an early 
stage of its growth, and from that time it went on developing and 
improving on both sides of the Channel till the artistic revolution 
came by which, throughout northern Europe, the Romanesque styles 
gave way to the Gothic. Thus the history of architecture in England 
during the nth and I2th centuries is a very different story from 
the history of the art in Sicily during the same time. There were no 
Greeks or Saracens in England ; there was no Greek or Saracen 
skill. England indeed had, possibly in a somewhat ruder form, the 
earlier style of Romanesque once common to England with Italy, 
Gaul and Germany. To this style it is no wonder that the Normans 
preferred their own, and that style therefore supplanted the older 
one. A comparison of Norman buildings in England and in Nor- 
mandy will show that the Norman style in England really was affected 
by the earlier style of England ; but the modification was very slight, 
and it in no way affected the general character of the style. Thus, 
while the institutions of England in the I2th century were English 
with very considerable Norman modifications, the architecture of 
England in that century was Norman with a very slight English 
modification. The difference then is plain. Where, as in Sicily, 
the Normans felt that they could not improve, they simply adopted 
the style of the country. Where, as in England, they felt that they 
could improve, they substituted for the style of the country their 
own style that is, a style which they had not created but which 
they had adopted, which they had made thoroughly their own, and 
which they went on improving in England no less than in Normandy. 
That is, the discerning Norman, as ever, adapted himself, but 
adapted himself in an intelligent way, to the circumstances of each 
land in which he found himself. And this comes out the more clearly 
if we compare Norman work in England and in Sicily with Norman 
work in at least some parts of Apulia. At Bari, Trani and Bitonto 
we see a style in which Italian and strictly Norman elements are 
really mingled. The great churches of those cities are wholly unlike 
those of Sicily; but, while some features show us that we are in 
Italy, while some features even savour of the Saracen, others dis- 
tinctly carry us away to Caen and Peterborough. It is plain that the 
Norman settlers in Apulia were not so deeply impressed with the 
local style as they were in Sicily, while they thought much more of 
it than they thought of the local style of England. In each of the 
three cases there is adaptation, but the amount of adaptation differs 
in each case according to local circumstances. In Normandy itself, 
after the separation from England, architecture becomes French, but 
it is French of a remarkably good type. The buildings of the latest 
French style keep a certain purity and sobriety in Normandy which 
they do not keep elsewhere. (E. A. F.) 

For a bibliography of the Normans and Northmen see Ulysse 
Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist, du moyen-age. Topobiblwpr. 
(Montbeliard, 1903), ii. 2140; also, for sources for the Norman in- 
vasion of France, Molinier, Sources de I'hist. de France (Paris, 1901), 
i. 264. Many sources for the history of the Normans were collected 
by Andre Du Chesne in his Hist. Normannorum scriptores antiqui . . . 
838-1220, &c. (Paris, 1619). Of modern works may be mentioned 
H. Dondorff, Die Normanncn und ihre Bedeutung fiir das europdische 
Kulturlcben im Mittelalter (Berlin, 1875); A. H. Johnson, The 
Normans in Europe (1877); E. A. Freeman, Hist, of the Norman 
Conquest (Oxford, 1867-1879) and Hist, of Sicily (1891-1894); 
O.-Delarc, Les Normands en Italic, 859-1073 (Paris, 1883); J. W. 
Barlow, Short Hist, of the Normans in S. Europe (London, 1886); 
A. F. von Schack, Gesch. der Normannen in Sicilien (Stuttgart, 
1889); L. von Heinemann, Gesch. der Normannen in Unteritalien 
und Sicilien (Leipzig, 1894); W. Vogel, Die Normannen und das 



NORMANTON NORRIS, JOHN 



frankische Reich, 799-911 (1906); F. Chalandon, La Dominion 
normande en Italic et Sidle, 1009-1194 (Paris, 1907); F. Lot, " La 
Grande Invasion normande, 856-862," in t. 69 of the Bibliotheque 
de I'Mcole des Charles (Paris, 1908). 

NORMANTON, a town of Normanton county, Queensland, 
Australia, on the river Norman, 25 m. E. by S. of the Gulf of 
Carpentaria, and 1382 m. direct N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 
838. It is the centre of the Carpentaria district, one of the 
chief sheep and cattle farming districts in the colony. Nor- 
manton is also the outlet of the Croydon and Etheridge goldfields, 
and of the Cloncurry copper mines. It is the terminus of the 
railway to Croydon, and has large meat-packing works. 

NORMANTON, an urban district in the Normanton parlia- 
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 
on the river Calder, 3 m. N.E. of Wakefield on the Midland, 
North Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. 
(1901) 12,352. The church of All Saints is Norman and Per- 
pendicular, with a square tower rebuilt in 1717, and contains 
a number of interesting monuments; the ancient stained glass 
is good. The grammar-school was founded about the end of the 
i6th century. Traces remain of a moat surrounding the town. 
A mound in the neighbourhood called Haw Hill is supposed 
to be a barrow. Altofts, a neighbouring parish, was the home of 
Sir Martin Frobisher in the i6th century. There are numerous 
collieries in the neighbourhood. 

NORNS (O. Norse, Nornir), in Northern mythology, the 
female divinities of fate, somewhat similar to the Gr. Motpai 
and the Roman Parcae. Like them they are generally lepre- 
sented as three in number, and they are said to spin, or weave, 
the destiny of men. Their dwelling is beside the " Spring of fate," 
beneath the " world-tree," Yggdrasil's ash, which they water 
with draughts from the spring. In some cases the Norns are 
not easily to be distinguished from the Valkyries (q.v.). Some- 
times again they appear as prophetesses (volur) at the birth of 
children, whose destiny they foretell. The most famous of 
these stories is contained in the Thdttr af Nornagesti, and has 
a curious resemblance to the Greek legend of Althaea and 
Meleager. Similar beings seem to have been known among 
other Teutonic peoples in early times. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, 
7). (H. M. C.) 

NORRIS, FRANK (1870-1002), American novelist, was born 
in Chicago, Illinois, on the 5th of March 1870. He studied art 
in Paris in 1887-1889; studied at the University of California 
(1890-1894), and at Harvard University (1894-1895); in 1895- 
1896 served in South Africa as war correspondent for the 
San Francisco Chronicle; in 1896-1897 was associate editor of 
the San Francisco Wave; and in 1898 was sent to Cuba as 
war correspondent for McClure's Magazine. He died in San 
Francisco on the 25th of October 1902. He wrote A Deal in 
Wheat, and Other Stories (1903), Responsibilities of the Novelist, 
and Other Literary Essays (1003), and the following novels: 
M'oran of the Lady Letty (1898), a story of adventure off the 
California coast; McTeague (1899), a story of the San Francisco 
slums; Blix (1899), a love story; A Man's Woman (1900); 
The Octopus (1901) and The Pit (1903). The last two were 
powerful stories, which made his reputation. The Octopus deals 
with wheat-raising in California and with the struggle between 
the growers and the railroad trust; The Pit with wheat-specula- 
tion in the Chicago market. His complete works were published 
in seven volumes in 1903. 

NORRIS, HENRY NORRIS or NORREYS, BARON (c. 1525-1601), 
belonged to an old Berkshire family, many members of which 
had held positions at the English court. His father, Henry 
Norris, was a grandson of Sir William Norris, who commanded 
the royal troops against Lambert Simnel at the battle of Stoke 
in 1487. Like his brother John (d. 1564), the elder Henry 
Norris obtained a post at the court of Henry VIII.; he gained 
the king's favour and was rewarded with many lucrative offices. 
He belonged to the party which favoured the elevation of 
Anne Boleyn; but in May 1536 he was arrested on the charge 
of intriguing with her, and though he was probably innocent 
of any serious offence he was beheaded on the I7th of May 1536. 



His son Henry regained some of his father's lands and entered 
upon court life, being a member of parliament under Edward 
VI. During Mary's reign he was one of those who were entrusted 
with the custody of the princess Elizabeth, and when the princess 
became queen she amply repaid the kindness which Norris had 
shown to her when he was her guardian at Woodstock. In 
1566 he was knighted and was sent as ambassador to France, 
where he remained until 1570, and in 1572 he was created 
Baron Norris of Rycote. He died in June 1601. By his wife 
Margaret (d. 1599), daughter of John, Lord Williams of Thame, 
Norris iad six sons, all of whom distinguished themselves in 
the field. The Norris monument, with figures of Lord and Lady 
Norris and their six sons, is in St Andrew's Chapel in Westminster 
Abbey. 

The eldest son, Sir WILLIAM NORRIS, died in Ireland in 
December 1579, leaving a son Francis (1579-1623), who succeeded 
to his grandfather's barony and also to the estates of his uncle Sir 
Edward Norris. In 1621 Francis was created earl of Berkshire. 
He left no sons and the earldom became extinct, but the barony 
descended to his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1645), the wife of Edward 
Wray (d. 1658). Their daughter Bridget (1627-1657) married 
as his second wife Montagu Bertie, 2nd earl of Lindsey, and 
their son James Bertie (1654-1699) became Baron Norris (or 
Norreys) in 1657, and was created earl of Abingdon in 1682. 
His descendants the Berties, earls of Abingdon, still hold this 
barony, and are the present representatives of the family of 
Norris. 

Sir EDWARD NORRIS (d. 1603), the ist Lord Norris's third 
son, served with the English troops in the Netherlands from 1 585 
to 1588. He is chiefly remembered owing to his fierce quarrel 
with Philip, count of Hohenlohe (1550-1606), called Hollock 
by the English, in August 1586 at Gertruydenberg (see J. L. 
Motley, The United Netherlands, vol. ii.). In 1589 he sailed 
with his brother Sir John and Sir Francis Drake on the expedi- 
tion to Spain and Portugal, and from 1590 to 1599 he was 
governor of Ostend. 

Sir THOMAS NORRIS (1556-1599), another son of the first lord, 
went as a soldier to Ireland in 1579 and acted for a few months 
as president of Connaught. He fought against the Fitzgeralds 
and also in Ulster; in 1585 he became vice-president of Munster, 
and in 1597 he succeeded his brother, Sir John Norris, as presi- 
dent. The three remaining brothers were: Sir Henry Norris 
(1554-1599), who fought in the Netherlands and then in Ireland, 
where he was killed in 1599; Maximilian Norris, who was 
killed in Brittany in 1593, and Sir John Norris (q.v.). 

Two other members of another branch of this family remain to be 
mentioned, namely, Sir William Norris and his brother Sir John. 

Sir WILLIAM NORRIS (c. 1657-1702), having been created a 
baronet, was sent in 1699 to the Mogul emperor in India to secure 
trading privileges for the new company which had been just formed 
to compete with the old East India Company.! He reached India in 
September 1699, and after overcoming many difficulties he arrived 
at the emperor's residence in April 1701. The embassy, however, 
was a total failure; Norris was unable to make terms, and he died 
on the voyage to England. 

Sir JOHN NORRIS (c. 1660-1749) entered the navy and saw a good 
deal of service during the war with France under William III. and 
Anne. Under George I. he was sent several times with a fleet into 
the Baltic Sea to forward the policy of this king by giving the 
northern nations some idea of tne strength of England. In 1734 
he became an admiral and commander- in-chief. Norris, who was 
known as " foul-weather Jack," was a member of parliament from 
1708 until his death. 

NORRIS, JOHN (1657-1711), English philosopher and divine, 
was born at Collingbourne-Kingston in Wiltshire. He was 
educated at Winchester and Exeter College, Oxford, being 
subsequently elected to a fellowship at All Souls'. His first 
original work was An Idea of Happiness (1683), in which, with 
Plato, he places the highest happiness or fruition of the soul 
in the contemplative love of God. Malebranche's Recherche de 
la iierite, which had appeared in 1674, made a strong impression 
upon him. Malebranche, he says, " is indeed the great Galileo 
of the intellectual world." He had also studied the works of 
Descartes himself, and most of what had been written for and 
against Cartesianism. Of English thinkers, More and Cudworth, 



NORRIS, SIR J. NORRIS, W. E. 



the so-called Cambridge Platonists, had influenced him most; 
and in 1685 his study of their works led to a- correspondence 
with the former, published after his death by Norris as an 
appendix to his Platonically conceived essay on The Theory 
and Regulation of Love (1688). He also corresponded with Mrs 
Astell (q.v.) and Lady Masham, the friend of Locke, to whom 
he addressed his Reflections upon the Conduct of Human Life 
(1689). Some time before this Norris had taken orders, and in 
1689 he was presented to the living of Newton St Loe, in Somer- 
setshire. In 1690 he published a volume of Discourses upon 
the Beatitudes, followed by three more volumes of Practical 
Discourses between 1690 and 1698. The year 1600 is memorable 
as the year of the publication of Locke's Essay, and the book 
came into Norris's hands just as his volume of Discourses was 
passing through the press. He at once appreciated its import- 
ance, but its whole temper was alien from the modes of thought 
in which he had been reared, and its main conclusions moved 
him to keen dissent. He hastened to " review " it in an appendix 
to his sermons. These Cursory Reflections constitute Norris 
the first critic of the Essay; and they anticipate some of the 
arguments that have since been persistently urged against 
Locke from the transcendental side. Though holding to the 
" grey-headed, venerable doctrine " of innate ideas as little 
as Locke himself, Norris finds the criticism in the first book 
of the Essay entirely inconclusive, and points out its incon- 
sistency with Locke's own doctrine of evident or intuitively 
perceived truths. He also suggests the possibility of subconscious 
ideation, on which Leibnitz laid so much stress in the same 
connexion. He next complains that Locke neglects to tell us 
" what kind of things these ideas are which are let in at the 
gate of the senses." In other words, while giving a metaphorical 
account of how we come by our ideas, Locke leaves unconsidered 
the intellectual nature of the ideas or of thought in itself. Unless 
we come to some conclusion on this point, Norris argues, we 
have little chance of being right in our theory of how ideas 
" come to be united to our mind." He also saw the weakness 
of Locke's doctrine of nominal essences, showing how it ignores 
the relation of the human mind to objective truth, and instancing 
mathematical figures as a case " where the nominal essence 
and the real essence are all one." The last twenty years of 
Norris's life were spent at Bemerton, near Salisbury, the former 
home of George Herbert, to the living of which he had been 
transferred in 1691. In 1691-1692 he was engaged in con- 
troversy with his old enemies the " Separatists," and with the 
Quakers, his Malebranchian theory of the divine illumination 
having been confounded by some with the Quaker doctrine 
of the light within. In 1697 he wrote An Account of Reason 
and Faith, one of the best of the many answers to Toland's 
Christianity not Mysterious. Norris adopts the distinction 
between things contrary to reason atid things above reason, 
and maintains that the human mind is not the measure of truth. 
Reason, according to him, is nothing but the exact measure of 
truth, that is to say, divine reason, which differs from human 
reason only in degree, not in nature. In 1701 appeared the 
first volume of the systematic philosophical work by which 
he is remembered, An Essay towards the Theory of Ike Ideal 
or Intelligible World. The first volume treats the intelligible 
world absolutely; the second, which appeared in 1704, considers 
it in relation to human understanding. It is a complete ex- 
position of the system of Malebranche, in which Norris refutes 
the assertions of Locke and the sensualists. In 1708 Norris' 
wrote A Philosophical Discourse concerning the Natural Im- 
mortality of the Soul, defending that doctrine against the assaults 
of Dodwell. After this he wrote little. He died at Bemerton, 
and a monument was erected to his memory in the parish 
church, with an inscription in which he is spoken of as one who 
" bene latuit." 

Norris was neither an original thinker nor a master of style. His 
philosophy is hardly more than an English version of Malebranche, 
enriched by wide reading of " Platonic " thinkers of every age and 
country. His style is too scholastic and self-involved. His Theory 
of the Intelligible World is an attempt to explain the objective nature 
of truth, which he blamed Locke for leaving out of regard. By the 



757 

intelligible world Norris understands the system of ideas eternally 
existent in the mind of God, according to which the material creation 
was formed. This ideal system he identifies with the Logos the 
second person of the Trinity, the light that lighteth every man that 
cometh into the world. For it is these ideas and their relations that 
are alone the object-matter of science; whenever we know, it is 
because they are present to our mind. Material things are wholly 
dark to us, except so far as the fact of their existence is revealed in 
sensation. The matter which we say that we know is the idea of 
matter, and belongs, like other ideas, to the intelligible world. 
When stripped of its semi-mythical form of statement, Norris's 
emphatic assertion of the ideal nature of thought and its complete 
distinction from sense as such may be seen to contain an important 
truth. _ As the disciple and correspondent of More, he is, in a sense, 
the heir of the Cambridge Platonists, while, as the first critic of 
Locke's Essay, he may be said to open the protest of the church 
against the implicit tendencies of that work. He occupies a place, 
therefore, in the succession of churchly and mystical thinkers of 
whom Coleridge is the last eminent example. 

See Wood, Atkenae Oxonienses (ed. Bliss), iv. ; Biographia Britan- 
nica; Leslie Stephen in Dictionary of National Biography; J. 
Tulloch, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England 
in the ijth Century (187^), who calls Norris " as striking and signifi- 
cant a figure in the history of English philosophy as another 
idealist, Berkeley. 

NORRIS, SIR JOI& (c. 1547-1597), English soldier, was the 
second son of Henry Norris, Baron Norris of Rycote, and gained 
his earliest military experience in the civil wars in France. In 
1573 he went to Ulster with Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, 
winning fame by his conduct in the guerilla wars against the 
Irish, and being responsible for the massacre on the island of 
Rathlin in July 1575; and in July 1577 he crossed over to the 
Netherlands to assist the Dutch against the Spaniards. Having 
added to his reputation by his valour at the battle of Rymenant, 
Norris returned to England in March 1584, and in the following 
July he was sent to Ireland as lord president of Munster; he 
accompanied the lord deputy, Sir John Perrot, on a campaign 
in Ulster, and spoke eloquently in the Irish parliament; but 
he disliked his work and soon obtained his recall. In August 

1585 he was again in the Netherlands, commanding the English 
army of 4400 men which Elizabeth had sent to serve against 
the Spaniards. During his successful relief of Grave in April 

1586 he was wounded, and just after this event he was knighted 
by the governor-general, the earl of Leicester; but he and 
Leicester were soon at variance, and many complaints of his 
conduct were sent to England. After taking part in the battle 
of Zutphen in October 1586 Sir John was recalled to England, 
but in 1587 he went again to the Netherlands and was soon 
quarrelling with his new superior, Peregrine Bertie, Lord Wil- 
loughby de Eresby, and with Sir William Stanley. In 1588, 
when the Spanish Armada was expected, he was marshal of the 
camp at Tilbury; later in the same year he served the queen as 
ambassador to the Dutch states, and in 1589 he and Sir Francis 
Drake led the fleet which ravaged the coasts of Spain and 
Portugal. In 1591, and again in 1593, he aided Henry IV. of 
France in his struggle with the League in Brittany; and in 
May 1595 he landed again in Ireland, where he was still lord 
president of Munster. But this time he was entrusted with 
more extensive powers and was to assist the lord deputy, Sir 
William Russell, in subjugating Ulster. He did not, however, 
work harmoniously with Russell; his health was failing and 
the gigantic task was too much for him. After fighting and 
negotiating with the O'Neills in Ulster, and warring in Connaught, 
he asked for his recall. This was not granted, but he was sup- 
planted in his military command; and he retired to Munster 
and died at Mallow on the 3rd of July 1597. His monument 
is in the church of Tattendon, Berkshire. 

See J. L. Motley, The United Netherlands, vol. ii. (1904); and 
R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. iii. (1890). 

NORRIS, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847- ), English novelist, 
was born on the i8th of November 1847, the son of Sir W. Norris, 
chief justice of Ceylon. He was educated at Eton, and called 
to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1874. His first story, Heaps 
of Money, appeared in 1877, and was followed by a long series 
of novels, many of which first appeared in the Temple Bar and 
CornhUl magazines. The best of his numerous novels are 
Mademoiselle de Mersac (1880), Matrimony (1881), No New 



758 



NORRISTOWN NORTH, SIR D. 



Thing (1883), My Friend Jim (1886), The Rogue (1888), The 
Despotic Lady (1895), Matthew Auslin(i8gs), The Widower (1898), 
Nature's Comedian (1904), Pauline (1908). 

NORRISTOWN, a borough and the county-seat of Mont- 
gomery county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 
at the mouth of Stony Creek, opposite Bridgeport, and about 
18 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1910 census) 27,875. 
Norristown is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & 
Reading and the Stony Creek railways, by interurban electric 
railway to Philadelphia and Reading, and by the Schuylkill 
canal, and is connected by bridge with the borough of Bridge- 
port (pop. in 1910, 3860), where woollen and cotton goods 
are manufactured. Norristown is a residential suburb of 
Philadelphia, and commands fine views of the Schuylkill Valley. 
It has a State Hospital for the Insane (opened 1880), a fine 
County Court House, a general hospital, a Friends' Home, a 
home for aged women, St Joseph's Protectory (Roman Catholic) 
for girls, and the Norristown and McCann public libraries; in 
Montgomery cemetery are the tombs of General Winfield Scott 
Hancock and General John Frederick Hartranft (1830-1889), 
a distinguished Federal officer in the Civil War and governor 
of Pennsylvania in 1873-1879. Valley Forge is less than 6 m. 
distant to the W. The borough has a large trade with the 
surrounding country, which is well adapted to agriculture and 
abounds in limestone. Among Norristown's manufactures are 
hosiery and woollen goods; in 1905 its total factory product was 
valued at $5,925,243, an increase of 44-3% over the value in 
1900. Norristown was founded in 1785, and was named in 
honour of Isaac Norris (c. 1671-1735), a friend of William Penn 
and a member of the Pennsylvania legislature, who had owned 
the land on which the borough is built. Norristown was incor- 
porated as a borough in 1812, and its boundaries were extended 
in 1853. 

NORRKOPING, a town and port of Sweden, in the district (/an) 
of Ostergotland, 113 m. S.W. of Stockholm by the Malmo 
railway. Pop. (1880) 26,735; (JO 00 ) 41,008. It occupies both 
banks of the Motala, the wide and rapid emissary of lake Vetter, 
close to its outlet in the Bravik, an inlet of the Baltic. Having 
been burned by the Russians in 1719 and visited by further 
fires in 1812, 1822 and 1826, the whole town has a modern 
appearance, with wide and regular streets. 'Among the more- 
conspicuous buildings are St Olaf's church (erected by Gustavus 
Adolphus in 1616 and rebuilt in 1765-1767); St Hedvig's, 
built by the German colony in 1670; the town hall, dating from 
the beginning of the igth century; the high school (1868), and 
technical and weaving schools. Norrkoping is the fourth town 
in population and industrial importance in Sweden. The falls 
in the river afford motive power to the cloth and cotton mills 
(spinning and weaving) the staple industries and to factories 
for sugar, paper, h'thography, tobacco and carpets, joinery 
works and breweries. There are also shipbuilding yards and 
docks. Fine granite is quarried at .Grafversfors, 7! m. N. The 
inlet of Bravik affords excellent harbour accommodation, with 
from 33 ft. to 17! ft. of water below the bridges in the town. 
The town returns two members to the second chamber of the 
Riksdag (parliament). 

A bull of Pope Lucius III. shows that Norrkoping existed in 
1185. At the meeting of the states in 1604 Duke Charles assumed 
the Swedish crown as Charles IX.; and not long afterwards 
Duke John of Ostergotland introduced German craftsmen into 
Norrkoping, and thus originated its industrial activity. Under 
Charles XII. the town suffered not only from war but from 
pestilence, 2700 of its inhabitants perishing in 1710-1711. 
After the Russian invasion of 1719 the population was only 
'2600. 

NORTH, BARONS. The English title of Lord North of 
Kirtling was created for Edward North (c. 1496-1564), son of 
Roger North, a London citizen, in 1554; he was a successful 
lawyer, clerk of the parliament (1531) and chancellor of the court 
of augmentations (1545). His second son was Sir Thomas North 
(q.v.), and he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Roger (1530- 
1600), a prominent courtier and soldier of Queen Elizabeth's 



day, who married the daughter of Lord Chancellor Rich, and 
whose eldest son, Sir John (c. 1551-1597), predeceased him. 

DUDLEY NORTH, 3rd Baron North (1581-1666), son of Sir 
John North and of Dorothy, daughter and heiress of Sir Valentine 
Dale, was born in 1581 and succeeded his grandfather, the 2nd 
Baron North, at the age of nineteen. He was educated at 
Cambridge, and married in 1599 Frances, daughter of Sir John 
Brockett of Brockett Hall in Hertfordshire. He travelled in 
Italy, took part in the campaign of 1602 in the Netherlands, 
and on his return became a conspicuous figure at court, excelling 
in athletic exercises as well as in poetry and music, and gaining 
the friendship of Prince Henry. In 1606, while returning from 
Eridge to London, he discovered the springs of Tunbridge Wells, 
which cured North himself of a complaint and quickly became 
famous. He also recommended the Epsom springs to the public. 
He supported and subscribed to the expedition to Guiana made 
by his brother Roger North (c. 1582-^. 1652) in 1619, and when 
Roger departed without leave Dudley was imprisoned for two 
days in the Fleet. In 1626 he attached himself to the party of 
Lord Saye and Sele in the Lords, who were in sympathy with the 
aims of the Commons; and when the civil war broke out he was 
on the side of the parliament. In 1641 he was a member of the 
Lords' committee on Religion, and served on the committee to 
consider Laud's attainder in 1644, finally voting for the ordinance 
in January 1645. He was placed on the admiralty commission 
in 1645, and acted as lord lieutenant for Cambridgeshire. He 
was one of the small group of Lords who continued attendance 
in the House of Peers, and on the igth of December 1648, with 
three others, visited Fairfax, when they " cast down their honours 
at his Excellency's feet " and protested their desire not to retain 
any privileges prejudicial to the public interest. l He passed 
the rest of his life in retirement at Kirtling in Cambridgeshire, 
with his sons, daughters and grandchildren, finding " employ- 
ment with many airy entertainments as poetry, writing essays, 
building, making mottoes and inscriptions as well as in music." 2 
He wrote A Forest of Varieties (1645), a miscellany of essays and 
poems, another edition of which was published in 1659 under 
the title of A Forest promiscuous of various Seasons' Productions. 
He died on the i6th of January 1666. North is described as 
" full of spirit and flame," of imperious temper but of well- 
balanced judgment, Lord Holland declaring that " he knew no 
man less swayed with passion and sooner carried with reason and 
justice." He left, besides one daughter, two sons, the elder of 
whom, Sir Dudley, succeeded him as 4th Baron North. 

DUDLEY NORTH, 4th Baron North (1602-1677), increased 
the family fortune by marrying the daughter of Sir Charles 
Montagu, brother of the ist earl of Manchester. He was an 
accomplished man, of studious bent, and had fourteen children, 
of whom the third son, Francis, became lord chancellor as 
Lord Guilford; the fourth was Sir Dudley North (q.v.), the 
economist; the fifth, John (1645-1683), master of Trinity, 
Cambridge, and professor of Greek in the university; and the 
sixth, Roger (q.v.), the lawyer and historian. 

The eldest son, Charles (d. 1691), was created Lord Grey 
of Rolleston during his father's life, and succeeded his father 
as 5th Baron North; and on the death of his son, William, 
6th Lord North, without issue, in 1734, the barony of North 
went to a cousin, Francis North, 3rd- baron, afterwards ist 
earl of Guilford. The title of Lord North is that by which the 
2nd earl of Guilford, prime minister from 1770 to 1782, is best 
known in history (see GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF). 

George Augustus, 3rd earl of Guilford (d. 1802), left three 
daughters, and the barony of North fell into abeyance till 1841 
when it vested in Susan, Baroness North (1797-1884), wife of 
John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of North; at her dealh 
her son William Henry John North (b. 1836) succeeded as nth 
baron, the title now being separate from that of Guilford. 

NORTH, SIR DUDLEY (1641-1691), English economist, 
was 4th son of Dudley, 4th Lord North, who published, 
besides other things, Passages relating to the Long Parliament, 

1 Gardiner's Civil War, iv. 285. 

* Roger North's Autobiography, ed. by A. Jessopp, 68. 



NORTH, MARIANNE NORTH, SIR THOMAS 



759 



of which he had himself been a member. He was born on the 
i6th of May 1641. In his early years he was carried off by 
gipsies and recovered with some difficulty by his family an 
incident curiously similar to that which befell Adam Smith in 
his infancy. He engaged in foreign trade, especially with 
Turkey, and spent a number of years at Constantinople and 
Smyrna. Some notices of the manners and customs of the east 
were printed from his papers by his brother. Having returned 
to London with a considerable fortune, he continued to prosecute 
trade with the Levant. His ability and knowledge of commerce 
attracted the attention of the government, and he was further 
recommended by the influence of his brother Lord Guilford. 
During the Tory reaction under Charles II. he was one of the 
sheriffs forced on the city of London with an express view to 
securing verdicts for the crown in state trials. He was knighted, 
and was appointed a commissioner of customs, afterwards of 
the treasury, and again of the customs. Having been elected 
a member of parliament under James II., " he took," says 
Roger North, " the place of manager for the crown in all matters 
of revenue." After the Revolution he was called to account 
for his alleged unconstitutional proceedings in his office of 
sheriff. He died on the 3ist of December 1691. 

His tract entitled Discourses upon Trade, principally directed 
to the cases of the interest, coinage, dipping and increase of money, 
was published anonymously in 1691, and was edited in 1856 by 
J. R. M'Culloch in the Select Collection of Early English Tracts 
on Commerce printed by the Political Economy Club of London. 
In this thorough-going and emphatic assertion of the free-trade 
doctrine against the system of prohibitions which had gained 
strength by the Revolution, North shows that wealth may 
exist independently of gold or silver, its source being human 
industry, applied either to the cultivation of the soil or to 
manufactures. It is a mistake to suppose that stagnation of 
trade arises from want of money; it must arise either from a 
glut of the home market, or from a disturbance of foreign 
commerce, or from diminished consumption caused by poverty. 
The export of money in the course of traffic, instead of diminish- 
ing, increases the national wealth, trade being only an exchange 
of superfluities. Nations are related to the world just in the 
same way as cities to the state or as families to the city. North 
emphasizes more than his predecessors the value of the home 
trade. With respect to the interest of capital, he maintains that 
it depends, like the price of any commodity, on the proportion 
of demand and supply, and that a low rate is a result of the 
relative increase of capital, and cannot be brought about by 
arbitrary regulations, as had been proposed by Sir Josiah Child 
and others. In arguing the question of free trade, he urges that 
every advantage given to one interest over another is injurious 
to the public. No trade is unprofitable to the public; if it 
were, it would be given up; when trades thrive, so does the 
public, of which they form a part. Prices must determine 
themselves, and cannot be fixed by law; and all forcible inter- 
ference with them does harm instead of good. No people can 
become rich by state regulations, only by peace, industry, 
freedom and unimpeded economic activity. It will be seen 
how closely North's view of things approach to that embodied 
some eighty years later in Adam Smith's great work. North 
is named by Wilhelm Roscher as one of that " great triumvirate " 
which in the 17th century raised the English school of economists 
to the foremost place in Europe, the other members of the 
group being Locke and Petty. 

NORTH, MARIANNE (1830-1890), English naturalist and 
flower-painter, was born at Hastings on the 24th of October 1830, 
the eldest daughter of a Norfolk landowner, descended from 
Roger North (1653-1734). She trained as a vocalist under 
Madame Sainton Dolby, but her voice failed, and she then devoted 
herself to painting flowers. After the death of her mother in 
1855 she constantly travelled with her father, who was then 
member of parliament for Hastings; and on his death in 1869 
she resolved to realize her early ambition of painting the flora 
of distant countries. In 1871-1872 with this object she went 
to Canada, the United States and Jamaica, and spent a year 



in Brazil, where she did much of her work at a hut in the depths 
of a forest. In 1875, after a few months at Teneriffe, she began 
a journey round the world, and for two years was occupied in 
painting the flora of California, Japan, Borneo, Java and Ceylon, 
The year 1878 she spent in India, and after her return she 
exhibited a number of her drawings in London. Her subsequent 
offer to present the collection to the botanical gardens at Kew, 
and to erect a gallery for their reception, was accepted, and the 
new buildings, designed by James Ferguson, were begun in the 
same year. At Darwin's suggestion she went to Australia in 
1880, and for a year painted there and in New Zealand. Her 
gallery at Kew was opened in 1882. In 1883, after a visit by 
her to South Africa, an additional room was opened at the Kew 
gallery, and in 1884-1885 she worked at Seychelles and in Chile. 
Miss North died at Alderly in Gloucestershire on the 3othof August 
1890. The scientific accuracy with which she represented plant 
life in all parts of the world gives her work a permanent value. 

NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734), English lawyer and biographer, 
was the sixth son of the 4th Baron North. He acquired a good 
practice at the bar, being helped by his elder brother Francis, 
who became lord chancellor and was created Baron Guilford 
(q.v.), and in 1684 he became solicitor-general. But the Revolu- 
tion stopped his advancement, and he retired to his estate of 
Rougham in Norfolk, and increased his fortune by marrying 
the daughter of Sir Robert Gayer. He collected books, and 
was constantly occupied in writing. But he is best known 
for his Lives of the Norths, published after his death, together 
with his own autobiography (see the edition in Bonn's Standard 
Library, 1890, by Jessopp), a classic authority for the period. 
He died at Rougham on the ist of March 1734, leaving a family 
from whom the Norths of Rougham are descended. 

He is to be distinguished from Roger North (1585-1652), brother 
of the 3rd baron, one of the captains who sailed with Raleigh in 1617, 
who projected the plantation of Guiana with an English colony. 

NORTH, SIR THOMAS (i535?-i6oi?), English translator of 
Plutarch, second son of the ist Baron North, was born about 
JS35- He is supposed to have been a student of Peterhouse, 
Cambridge, and was entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1557. In 1574 
he accompanied his brother, Lord North, on a visit to the French 
court. He served as captain in the year of the Armada, and was 
knighted about three years later. His name is on the roll of 
justices of the peace for Cambridge in 1592 and again in 1597, 
and he received a small pension (40 a year) from the queen 
in i6oi. A third edition of his Plutarch was published, in 
1603, with a supplement of other translated biographies. He 
translated, in 1557, Guevara's Reloj de Principes (commonly 
known as Libra Aureo), a compendium of moral counsels chiefly 
compiled from the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, under the 
title of Diall of Princes. The English of tliis work is one of the 
earliest specimens of the ornate, copious and pointed style for 
which educated young Englishmen had acquired a taste in their 
Continental travels and studies. North translated from a French 
copy of Guevara, but seems to have been well acquainted with 
the Spanish version. The book had already been translated 
by Lord Berners, but without reproducing the rhetorical artifices 
of the original. North's version, with its mannerisms and its 
constant use of antithesis, set the fashion which was to culminate 
in Lyly's Euphues. His next work was The Morall Philosophic 
of Doni (1570), a translation of an Italian collection of eastern 
fables. The first edition of his translation of Plutarch, from the 
French of Jacques Amyot, appeared in 1579. The first edition 
was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and was followed by other 
editions in 1595 and 1603, containing in each case fresh Lives. 
It is almost, impossible to over-estimate the influence of North's 
vigorous English on contemporary writers, and some critics have 
called him the first master of English prose. The book formed 
the source from which Shakespeare drew the materials for his 
Julius Caesar, Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra. It is in 
the last-named play that he follows the Lives most closely, 
whole speeches being taken direct from North. 

North's Plutarch was reprinted for the " Tudor Translations " 
('895), with an introduction by George Wyndham. 



760 



NORTH ADAMS NORTH AMERICA 



NORTH ADAMS, a city of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., situated at the junction of the N. and S. branches of the 
Hoosac river, and the Boston & Maine (at the W. terminus 
of the Hoosac Tunnel) and the Boston & Albany railways, in 
the extreme N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1905) 22,150; (1910) 
22,019. Area, 19-9 sq. m. In the city are the villages of North 
Adams, Greylock and Blackinton. Within the city limits are 
a natural bridge across Hudson Brook, 50-60 ft. high, and ruins of 
Fort Massachusetts, which was captured in 1746 by French and 
Indians under the command of Pierre Frangois de Rigaud, 
Chevalier de Vaudreuil (1704-1772). North Adams is the seat of 
a state Normal School (1897). Among its manufactures are 
cotton (especially print) and woollen goods, and boots and shoes. 
In 1900 the factory products of the city were valued at 
$10,741,495, and in 1905 at $8,035,705. North Adams secured 
incorporation as an independent township in 1878. Township 
government was abandoned and city government was organized 
in 1895; in 1900 part of Williamstown was annexed. 

NORTHALLERTON, a market town in the Richmond parlia- 
mentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 
30 m. N.N.W. from York by the North Eastern railway, on which 
it is an important junction. Pop. of urban district (1901) 
4009. It lies in a plain west of the Cleveland and Hambleton 
Hills, on the Sun Beck, a small tributary of the river Wiske. 
The church of All Saints is a large cruciform structure, Norman, 
Early English and Perpendicular, with a central tower 80 ft. in 
height. There is a grammar-school. Among the charities are 
a hospital founded in 1476 by Richard Moore. There are no 
traces of the fortified palace of the bishops of Durham, of the 
White Friars' monastery founded in 1354, or of the Austin priory 
founded in 1341. The town- has a considerable agricultural 
trade, and there are motor-engineering works. In the neighbour- 
hood of Northallerton is the priory of Mount Grace, a Carthusian 
foundation of 1397. It consists of an outer court entered through 
a gatehouse, the church and chapter-house, with other buildings 
lying on the north side, partly surrounded by monastic dwelling- 
houses. These houses, with gardens attached, also surround three 
sides of the cloister court, which lies north of the outer court. 
In the vicinity are a monks' well and a ruined chapel of the i6th 
century. 

Northallerton (Alvetune, AUerton) is said to have been a 
Roman station and afterwards a Saxon " burgh," but nothing is 
known with certainty about it before the account given in the 
Domesday Survey, which shows that before the Conquest Earl 
Edwin had held the manor, but that the Normans had destroyed 
it so utterly that it was still waste in 1086. Soon after his 
accession William Rufus gave it to the bishop of Durham, whose 
successors continued to hold it until it was taken over by the 
ecclesiastical commissioners in 1865. As a borough by pre- 
scription Northallerton returned two members to the parliament 
of 1 298, but was not represented again until 1640, when its ancient 
privileges were restored. The Municipal Reform Act of 1832 
reduced the number of members to one, and in 1885 the town was 
disfranchised. The first account of the borough and its privileges 
is contained in an inquisition taken in 1333 after the death of 
Anthony, bishop of Durham, which shows that the burgesses 
held the town with the markets and fairs at a fee-farm rent of 40 
marks yearly, and that they had two reeves who sat in court 
with the bishop's bailiff to hear the disputes of the townspeople. 
This form of government continued until 1851, when a local board 
was formed, which in 1894 was superseded by an urban district 
council. A weekly market on Wednesday was granted by King 
John to the bishop in 1205. A subsequent bishop obtained a 
grant of a fair on St Bartholomew's day, which according to 
Camden (circa 1585), had become almost " the most thronged " 
cattle fair in England, but is no longer held. In 1317 the town 
.was burnt by the Scots under. Robert Bruce, although the bur- 
gesses paid 3000 marks that it might be spared. In consequence 
they were exempted from taxes in 1319. 

See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; C. J. D. Ingledew, The 
History and Antiquities of Northallerton in the County of York (1858) ; 
J. L. Saywell, The History and Annals of Northallerton (1885). 



Compari- 
son of 
North 
America 
and 
Eurasia. 



NORTH AMERICA. In the article AMERICA a brief geographi- 
cal survey is taken of the two continents which bear this name; 
and their points of similarity and contrast are broadly 
indicated. When North America is compared with 
the northern continents of the Old World, an important 
correspondence is found between it and the greater 
part of Eurasia; but here the corresponding parts are 
reversed, right and left, like the two hands. The Lauren- 
tian highlands agree with Scandinavia and Finland, both having 
escaped deformation since very ancient times. A series of water 
bodies (the Great lakes in North America; the southern Baltic, 
with Onega, Ladoga, &c. in Europe) occupy depressions that 
are associated with the boundary between the very ancient lands 
and their less ancient covering strata. The old worn-down and 
re-elevated Appalachian mountains of south-eastern North 
America agree well with the Hercynian mountains of similar 
history in middle Europe (Ardennes, Slate mountains of the 
middle Rhine, &c.), each range entering the sea at its Atlantic 
end (in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; in Brittany, Wales and 
Ireland), and dipping under younger formations at its inland end. 
Certain younger ranges seldom recognized as mountains 
because they are mostly submerged in the American mediter- 
raneans (Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea), but of great absolute 
relief and with crests rising in the larger West Indian islands 
may be compared with the younger ranges of southern Europe 
(Pyrenees, Alps, Caucasus) bordering the classic Mediterranean 
and the seas farther east. The central plains of North America 
correspond well with the plains of Russia and western Siberia; 
both stretch from great enclosed water bodies on the south to the 
Arctic Ocean, and both are built of undisturbed Palaeozoic strata 
toward the axis of symmetry and of younger strata away from it. 
Finally, the Western highlands of North America may be com- 
pared with the great mountain complex of central and eastern 
Asia. In this remarkable succession of resemblances we find 
one of the best proofs of the continental unity of Eurasia. More- 
over, the resemblances thus described controvert the idea, 
prevalent when geology was less advanced than to-day, that the 
New World of civilized discovery is an " old world " geologically, 
and that the Old World of history is geologically " new." Both 
worlds are so old, and both share so well the effects of successive 
geological changes from the most ancient to the most modern 
periods, that neither can regard the other as older or younger than 
itself. 

There are several climatic similarities between North America 
and Eurasia. The Appalachians and the Hercynian mountains 
of middle Europe both contain extensive coal deposits of similar 
geological age, thus indicating a climatic and geographic re- 
semblance at a time of great antiquity. The Laurentian high- 
lands and the Scandinavian highlands were both heavily and 
repeatedly glaciated in recent geological times, and the ice 
sheets that crept out on all sides from those centres spread far 
over the lower lands to the south and away from the axis of 
symmetry towards the continental interior, scouring the high- 
lands and leaving them rocky and barren, strewing extensive 
drift deposits over the peripheral areas, and thus significantly 
modifying their form and drainage; while the much loftier 
mountain ranges of western America and central Asia suffered, 
singularly enough, a far less extensive glaciation. At the present 
time, the plentiful and well-distributed rainfall of the continental 
border on either side of the Atlantic is succeeded by an increasing 
aridity towards the continental interior, until the broad plains 
that rise towards the distant mountain complexes are com- 
paratively barren or even desert. Within each greater mountain 
area extensive interior drainage basins are found holding salt 
lakes, and the recently determined former extension of these 
lakes in Central Asia agrees with the well-proved extension of 
Pleistocene lacustrine conditions in western North America. 

The following sketch of the geological development of North 
America considers the larger physiographic divisions already 
indicated. 

The extensive area of ancient crystalline rocks (Archean), 
stretching from Labrador past Hudson Bay to the Arctic Ocean, 
is of greatly disordered structure, and hence must have once had a 



NORTH AMERICA 



761 



mountainous form. Moreover, the crystalline texture and deformed 
foliation of the rocks prove that the surface now seen was once buried 
deep beneath the surface of an earlier time, for only at great 
Lauren- depths can such texture and foliation be acquired. Both 
'" these lines of evidence lead to the conclusion that the 

highlands. mo( Jerate relief prevalentovertheexistingLaurentianregion 
is the work of persevering erosion during a long continuance of dry 
land conditions, and hence that the region must be regarded as 
a worn-down mountain system. The worn-down old land is gently 
overlapped, chiefly around the south and west, and south of Hudson 
Bay, by very early Palaeozoic strata which rest upon the eroded 
surface of the crystallines, thus proving that the destruction of the 
ancient mountains had already been accomplished before some of 
the oldest fossiliferous formations of the world had been deposited. 
All the evidence goes to prove that from then to now the Laurentian 
region has been relatively quiescent. In all subsequent time there 
have been here only moderate oscillations of level, one of which 
allowed the transgression of the ancient sea in which the overlapping 
strata were deposited, while another of much more modern date gave 
the region its present highland altitude (1000 to 2000 ft.; mountains 
near the Labrador coast, 8000 ft.), again offering it to the forces of 
erosion. 

It is this ancient Laurentian area that the earlier geologists named 
the " Continental Nucleus," as if it had been the first part of North 
America to rise from the primeval waters of an assumed universal 
ocean. The " Archean V," formed by the two arms of the Lauren- 
tian oldland stretching from Labrador to the Arctic, between 
which Hudson Bay is included, has been repeatedly described as the 
oldest area of the continent, the beginning around which many later 
additions have built the existing outlines; and as such it has been 
adduced in favour of the theory of the permanence of continents. 
But when thus stated, the half of the story in favour of this theory 
is not told. Hudson Bay is not due to a primitive failure of elevation 
between the arms of the " Archean V " ; it is not a deep basin 
whose floor has never emerged from the primeval ocean, but an 
ancient and comparatively shallow depression in a pre-existent land, 
over which the sea flowed as the surface sank below sea-level. South 
and west from the" Archean Nucleus," the Cambrian strata of the 
medial plains of North America are found to lie, wherever their base 
is discovered, on a foundation that possesses all the essential features 
of the Laurentian oldland. This relation is found all around the 
Adirondack mountains in New York, along the Appalachians 
southward to Georgia, through the Mississippi basin in Wisconsin 
and Missouri, and beyond in Texas, and farther west in the Black 
Hills, as well as certain points in the Rocky Mountains region. 
Hence the pre-Cambrian land surface of the continent must have had 
not only a vastly greater area than was formerly attributed to it, 
but also an earlier origin; for at the time when it was thought by 
the older geologists to be first rising from the primeval ocean, it is 
now proved to have been slowly sinking after a prolonged land exist- 
ence. The crystalline Archaean rocks in the Laurentian region and 
its scattered fellows cannot possibly be explained as a primitive sea 
bottom, rising above sea-level to make the beginning of a continent 
and receiving Cambrian strata upon its still submerged borders, 
but only as portions of an already old and deeply-denuded land area, 
which was in pre-Cambrian time much larger than the visible 
Laurentian area of to-day, and which was reduced to perhaps half 
its primeval dimensions by a gradual submergence beneath the trans- 
gressing sea in which the Cambrian sediments were laid down. 
We are thus led to believe that much of the continent of to-day was 
a continent in the earliest geological times, and that the seas which 
partly covered it in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time were due to 
partial submergence, not to partial emergence. Furthermore, all the 
marine strata that now stretch over a large part of what is believed 
to have been the ancient continental surface are of relatively shallow 
water origin; none of them bears any close resemblance to the 
deposits of the deep oceans that have been so well studied of late 
years. Hence the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic seas of North America 
were not deep oceans, and as far as this continent is concerned it 
is by no means admissible to assume, as some of the earlier geo- 
logists did, that the position of continents and oceans have repeatedly 
changed places. The testimony of the rocks is decidedly in favour 
of Dana's view that continental masses are relatively permanent. 

The early history of the Laurentian region has been dwelt upon 
because of its great importance in the history of the continent, 
and because its history has so generally been misunderstood. To 
these reasons may be added a third: through Palaeozoic and 
Mesozoic time the history of the Laurentian region is for the most 
part a blank. Records are wanting from the aarly Palaeozoic to 
the Pleistocene, when the Laurentian uplands became the centres 
from which the ice sheets of the Glacial period spread out on all sides. 
As a result of this late chapter in the history of the region, the 
weathered soils of earlier periods were swept away along with an 
unknown amount of firm rock, leaving bare ledges, scattered boulders 
and gravelly drift to-day upon a rugged upland without mountains 
(except in north-east Labrador), but diversified by innumerable 
knobs and hollows. The drainage of the region has thus been thrown 
into disorder; large and small lakes and marshy hollows abound; 
the streams are repeatedly interrupted by rapids, and frequently 
split into two or more channels, enclosing islands many miles 



in length. They are the only highways of this thinly inhabited 
region. 

The Appalachian province is a generally hilly and mountainous 
belt, stretching from Newfoundland to Alabama. It seems for the 
most part to have belonged in the earliest times to the 
great pre-Cambrian land area, of which the Laurentian 
highland is the more manifest representative; for where- d 

ever the basal members of the Palaeozoic sedimentary "**" 
series are found in the Appalachians, they rest upon a floor of 
denuded Archean rocks, and the lowest layers are largely composed 
of Archaean detritus. This province must, however, be set aside 
from the undisturbed Laurentian region because of the repeated 
movements of depression, deformation and elevation that it has 
suffered, generally along a north-east south-west trend, causing the 
successive alternations of heavy deposition, and almost equally heavy 
denudation that have prevailed with varying intensity during the 
whole stretch of geological time covered by the fossiliferous record. 
The earliest important mountain-making disturbances interrupted 
the conditions of deposition in Cambrian time, and produced what 
has been called the Green Mountain system. A later, and probably 
greater, disturbance, with its climax at the close of Carboniferous 
time, established the Appalachian Mountain system; but, as under- 
stood to-day, the " Appalachian revolution " of the older geologists 
should be regarded as a long-lasting process, perhaps intermittently 
enduring as long as the whole of Carboniferous time. A subordinate 
period of deposition and deformation occurred early in Mesozoic 
time, marked by the accumulation and disturbance of several basins 
of the Newark formation, roughly corresponding to the Triassic of 
Europe. 

The Appalachian mountains of to-day were formerly regarded as 
the unconsumed remnants of the chief Appalachian uplift; but it 
is now generally agreed that Mesozoic erosion reduced the greater 
part of the range to a lowland of moderate or small relief, leaving 
only isolated groups of subdued mountains in the areas of the most 
resistant rocks, and that the altitude and form of the mountains 
of to-day are chiefly the result of the Tertiary elevation and dis- 
section of the previously worn-down mass the additional height 
thus given in Tertiary time to the pre-existent subdued mountain 
groups making them now the loftiest areas of the range, as in the 
White Mountains of New Hampshire (Mount Washington, 6293 ft.) 
and the Black Mountains of North Carolina (Mount Mitchell, 6711 
ft.). It is interesting to note that the axis of Tertiary elevation 
is nearly parallel to and closely associated with the axes of the earlier 
disturbances, but it lies somewhat to the north-west of its prede- 
cessors, and therefore involves considerable areas of flat-lying 
Palaeozoic strata on the inner side of the previously disturbed belt 
from New York to Alabama, thus producing what is known as the 
Alleghany plateau (altitudes, 2000 to 4000 ft.). It should be added 
that the Ozark plateau of Missouri and the Ouachita mountains on 
the south, in Arkansas and farther west, are related to one another 
in much the same way as the Alleghany plateau and the middle 
ranges of the Appalachians the two pairs corresponding to a 
remarkable degree in regard to conditions of ancient accumulation, 
medieval deformation and denudation, and more modern uplift 
and dissection; it is, therefore, admissible to classify this western 
group of uplifts as an annex to the normal Appalachians. Numerous 
and extensive coal seams occur in the worn-down Appalachians of 
Nova Scotia, Pennsylvania and Alabama, as well as in the Alleghany 
plateau from Pennsylvania to Alabama, and in the extension of the 
same strata through the Ohio and middle Mississippi basins. 

The eastern coast of the continent has a rocky and ragged shore 
line from Maine to Greenland, with numerous submerged lowlands 
and valleys forming bays, and as many uplands and ridges out- 
stretching in promontories and islands; this being the result of the 
summation of many movements of the land, whose total gives an 
increasing measure of depression to the north, where an archipelago 
at last replaces what was probably once a corner of the continent; 
but the measure of the depression is uncertain, because of the doubt 
regarding the depth beneath sea-level to which the Pleistocene 
glaciers may have worn the pre-Glacial valleys. South of New 
England, along the Atlantic coast, and around the border of the gulf 
into Mexico, the dominating movement of the land in late geological 
periods has been upward with respect to sea-level, whereby a former 
sea bottom, on which the land waste of Cretaceous and Tertiary 
times had been outspread, was revealed as a coastal plain, across 
which the rivers of the former land area now extend their courses, 
from the old shore line to the new. Part of the same plain, still sub- 
merged, forms the " continental shelf " of the mid-Atlantic border. 
Florida seems to be a projecting swell of this shelf, around whose 
extremity coral reefs have been added, but whose greater mass is still 
under a shallow sea cover. Along the ragged coast in the north a 
moderate and very modern movement of elevation has laid bare 
clay-floored lowlands that were lately beneath the sea, as in the plain 
of the lower St Lawrence valley, while along the coastal plain of the 
south a slight movement of depression has drowned a number of low 
valley floors, producing shallow arms of the sea, as Chesapeake Bay, 
Albemarle and Pamlico Sound and Mobile Bay. All the coast south 
of New York is low, and a great part of it is fringed with wave-built 
sand-reefs. 

The great complex of mountains in the Western highlands. 



762 



NORTH AMERICA 



sometimes styled the Cordilleras of North America (the Rocky 
Mountains being the eastern members of the system in the 
_. ., United States and Canada), differ from the Laurentian 

The (.or- anc j Appalachian regions in having suffered numerous 
dilleras of Disorderly movements at dates so recent that the existing 
relief of the region bears a significa nt relation to its irregular 
America. u pjjf ts . a relation that doubtless once obtained in the older 
mountain areas of the east, where it has now been obliterated by 
erosion. It is not, however, only in modern geological periods that 
mountain-making disturbances have prevailed in the regions of the 
Western highlands; their geological history is one of repeated and 
long-continued movement the ruins of the more ancient upheavals 
supplying materials for the strata of newer ranges. For example, in 
Canada an axial belt of ancient rocks is bordered on the east and 
west by stratified formations of enormous thickness (40,000 to 60,000 
ft.), those on the west including a large share of contemporaneous 
volcanic materials; all three belts having been deformed and up- 
heaved, as well as deeply dissected in the later chapters of geological 
time. It is, however, important to note that the interval between 
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time, in which mountain-making disturb- 
ances were so general in western Europe and eastern North America 
that the older geologists thought them to be of world-wide extent, 
was here generally passed over in relative quiet, so that continuous 
sedimentation produced in certain districts a conformable series 
of deposits from Silurian to Cretaceous time. Furthermore, the 
Carboniferous period, which gained its name from the extensive coal 
deposits that were then formed in western Europe and eastern North 
America, was a marine limestone-making period in the Cordilleran 
region. 

There is here exemplified, as might be expected in a region extend- 
ing over 3000 m. from Alaska to southern Mexico, and measuring 
over 1000 m. in breadth at its middle, a great variety of plateau 
and mountain structures. The broad upheaval of adjacent blocks 
of earth-crust without significant tilting or disturbance has produced 
the plateaus of Arizona and Utah. Some of the simplest and 
youngest mountain ridges in the world are to be found in the broken 
and tilted lava blocks of southern Oregon. Tilted blocks on a larger 
scale, much more affected by processes of sculpture, are found in the 
lofty St Elias Alps of Alaska, the site of some of the greatest glaciers 
in the world. The wall of a huge fracture, now elaborately carved, 
constitutes the western slope of the Wahsatch range, facing the desert 
basin of Utah. Ranges of a relatively simple arch structure are seen 
in the Uinta mountains of Wyoming and Utah. Arched upheavals 
also characterize the front range of the Rocky Mountains proper in 
Colorado and Wyoming and in the Black Hills of South Dakota, 
bending up the strata of the adjacent plains in the simplest fashion, 
and producing dome-like mountains, now deeply dissected by out- 
flowing consequent streams. A remarkable change in the structure 
of the Rocky Mountains occurs north of the Missouri river in Montana 
and northward into Canada, where the front range is of synclinal or 
trough structure, with the youngest instead of the oldest rocks along 
the axis, while the strata of the plains are bent down and over- 
ridden in the most abnormal manner. Indeed, mountain structure 
occurs of so great diversity in various parts of the Cordilleran region 
as to elude general description. The disturbances extend directly 
to the western coast line, including not only the coast range of Cali- 
fornia, but the peninsular area of Lower California (belonging to 
Mexico) and the detached mountainous islands of British Columbia 
and Alaska. 

Volcanoes of commanding form here and there dominate the 
plateaus and mountains. Orizaba, Popocatepetl and their neigh- 
bours, terminating the Cordilleran system in Mexico; Mount San 
Francisco, bearing snow and Arctic plants above the nearly desert 
plateau of Arizona; Mount Shasta, with small glaciers in northern 
California: Mount Rainier, with extensive glaciers surmounting the 
Cascade range of Washington; Mount Wrangell in Alaska, and 
farther on the many cones in the curved chain of the Aleutian 
islands: all these have been heaped up around vents through which 
their lavas rose from some deep source. Vast lava floods have been 
poured out at different times. The southern part of the Mexican 
plateau is built up in large measure of lava sheets, capped with 
volcanoes. Extensive lava beds, barren and rugged, cover large 
areas in north-eastern California. The basins of Snake and Columbia 
rivers in Idaho and Washington are flooded with older and more 
extensive lava sheets, whose borders lap around promontories and 
islands of the " mainland." Still older lava-flows in British Columbia 
are now deeply dissected by the branches of Frazer river, and remain 
only in disconnected upland areas. High plateaus in Utah are pro- 
tected by a heavy lava capping, the result of great eruptions before 
the plateaus were uplifted. Here and there rise dome-like mountains, 
the result of the underground intrusion of lavas in cistern-like spaces, 
forming " laccoliths," and blistering up the overlying strata. Thus, 
by mountain upheaval or volcanic eruption, great altitudes have 
been gained. Where the uplift has been strong, ranges of truly 
Alpine form with extensive snow-fields and glaciers occur, as in the 
Selkirk range of Canada (now traversed by the Canadian Pacific 
railway), and again in Alaska. Heights of 12,000 and 14,000 ft. are 
exceeded by numerous summits in the central part of the system; 
but the dominating peaks are found far in the north-west and in 
the south. Several mountains in Alaska exceed 18,000 ft. (Mount 



McKinley, 20,300 ft.; Mount Logan, 19,540 ft.; Mount St Elias, 
18,000 ft.); and the great Mexican volcanoes rise nearly as high 
(Orizaba, 18,250 ft.). Widespread plateaus maintain upland altitudes 
of more than a mile over vast areas. 

As in all regions of great altitude, the erosion of valleys has 
progressed on a magnificent scale in the Cordilleran region, and the 
actual form of many of its parts is more the result of sculpturing 
than of uplifting. The plateaus of Arizona are traversed by the deep 
canons of the Colorado river and its branches, at places I m. deep, 
and with elaborately carved walls. Upon the plateaus themselves, 
long and ragged cliffs of recession attest an even greater work of 
erosion than the canons. In all the mountain ranges except those 
of youngest uplift, valleys have been actively eroded, sometimes 
producing steep peaks as in Mount Assiniboine (11,500 ft.) in the 
Canadian Rockies, rivalling the Swiss Matterhorn in sharpness of 
form; but the greater number of summits have been worn to roughly 
pyramidal form between wide-flaring valleys, and the mountain 
flanks have thus come to be extensively covered with rock waste 
lying on slopes of relatively uniform declivity. Some of the ranges 
are in a second cycle of dissection, having been once worn down to 
moderate relief and now being elevated for renewed erosion ; the 
Sierra Nevada of California is believed to be, in part, of this history, 
having at least in its central and northern parts been well reduced 
and now again enjoying a mountainous character in virtue of a later 
slanting uplift en bloc, with rapid descent on its eastern fractured 
face. Other ranges, almost completely worn down, still remain 
low, as in south-eastern California, where they are now represented 
by gently sloping rock floors veneered with gravel and retaining only 
small remnants of their original mass still unconsumed; thus the 
end, as well as the beginning, of the cycle of erosion, together with 
many complications of its progress, are illustrated in different parts 
of this great and varied mountain system. In the fjorded coast of 
Alaska, as well as in the higher northern ranges, signs of intense 
glacial erosion are seen in the cirques at the valley heads and in the 
discordant junction of the "hanging" lateral valleys and the deep 
trunk valleys the floors of the former being cut off on the walls 
of the latter. 

Fitting complements of the deeply-eroded mountains are found in 
the great accumulations of mountain waste now occupying basins 
of depression between the various ranges, as in Mexico, Utah, 
Nevada, Montana and elsewhere. Erosion and transportation here 
combine to build up the floors of the basins with the waste of the 
surrounding highlands; a result that is peculiarly beneficial in 
Mexico where the climate of the plateau basins is rendered relatively 
temperate by reason of its altitude, and where the surface is easily 
habitable by reason of its small relief. In the larger depressions, as 
along the boundary of the United States and Mexico, isolated ranges 
frequently rise like islands over the plain of waste that has been 
built up on their flanks. Shallow saline lakes or playas (wet-weather 
lakes) without outlets lie on the lowest parts of the waste-filled 
basins; their failure to overflow in rivers discharging to the sea 
being less the result of enclosure by barriers than of deficiency of 
rainfall; for it is chiefly in the arid region that the waste-floored 
basins are best developed. Indeed, the rainfall is often so scanty 
that the streams from the mountains where most of the little 
precipitation occurs often fail even to form lakes, withering away 
on the waste plains. In all these cases, the wash of rock waste from 
the mountains remains on the continent and builds up the basin 
plains, instead of being carried away from the land to form stratified 
sediments on the sea floor. The habit of gathering mountain waste 
in interior basins that characterizes so much of the Cordilleran 
region to-day is only the continuation of an earlier practice, for 
extensive basin deposits of Tertiary date are found in many parts 
of the Cordilleran region; some of them are famous for preserving 
vertebrate fossils, such as those of the many-toed ancestors of the 
horse. 

Between the loftier western highlands and the lower eastern 
highlands (Laurentian and Appalachian) lies a great extension of 
medial plains, stretching in moderate altitude from the , 
Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and having in their 
middle a breadth of 1500 m. They are composed 
throughout of nearly horizontal strata and mark a region long 
exempt from strong disturbance. Although for the most part floored 
by marine formations, their structure and composition indicate, as 
has already been said, relatively shallow water. The ancient sea 
that once occupied the middle belt of the continent therefore had 
little likeness to the abysmal oceans, but resembled rather the shallow 
ocean margins that to-day overlap various continental masses 
the largest example of this kind now existing being between Asia and 
Australia. The eastern part of the plains is underlaid by Palaeozoic 
strata, already mentioned as having been laid down upon the sub- 
siding Archaean continent or folded in the making of the Appal- 
achians; coal beds are here included in the Ohio and middle Missis- 
sippi basins. The area of the western plains remained submerged 
to a later date, preserving a stretch of marine waters to the end of 
Mesozoic time, and thus resembling the lowland belt of western 
Asia, which was similarly covered by a broad and a shallow arm 
of the ocean extending from the Arctic to the European mediter- 
raneans until a late geological date. The surface of the medial plains 
is not always so even as might be inferred from their name. Both 



The Medial 
Plains. 



NORTH AMERICA 



763 



Central 
America 
and the 
West 
Indies. 



the eastern and the western areas have been extensively denuded, 
even to the point of being reduced to peneplains. Their present 
altitude is not so much the result of their original uplift from the 
sea as of a later elevatory movement. The great river basins, for 
which North America is famous, have thus been formed between 
the eastern and western highlands the Mississippi receiving 
the drainage of a vast area (about 1,240,00x5 sq. m.) lor discharge 
to the south, while the Saskatchewan and Mackenzie gather their 
waters from somewhat less extensive areas in the north. Pleistocene 
glaciation covered the plains of the Ohio, upper Mississippi and 
Winnipeg districts with extensive deposits of ice-laid or water-laid 
drift, furnishing a generally smooth surface and a fertile soil: here 
are the true prairies treeless, but richly grassed. 

The traditional continuity of the Cordilleras of North and South 
America has been broken by investigations in the isthmian portion 
of the northern continent. The structural peculiarities 
of the western highlands of North America may be traced 
only to the east and west belt of great volcanoes by 
which the plateau of central Mexico is terminated on the 
south. The ranges of the Andes fail to reach Panama, 
from which the nearest one is separated by the valley of 
the Atrato. The two Cordilleras are out of line with each other, 
and their ends are some 1200 m. apart. Central America, the West 
Indies and various submarine ridges by which the islands are con- 
nected with one another and with the mainland to the west, as 
well as certain ranges along the northern margin of South America, 
all belong together in what has been termed the Antillean mountain 
system, m which east and west trends of late geological date pre- 
dominate, with abundant volcanic additions on the Pacific border 
of Central America, and along the eastern end of the system in the 
Windward islands of the Lesser Antilles. The unity of this system 
has been until recently overlooked partly because the Antillean 
ranges are for the most part still under water, and yet further because 
the volcanoes which form the strongest reliefs of the isthmian region 
are so arranged along the Pacific coast as to suggest the continuity 
of the Cordilleran systems on the north and south; but these 
volcanoes are really only superadded to a foundation of quite another 
kind. Geological studies on the mainland and on the islands have 
shown that both fundamental structure and surface form are not 
Cordilleran ; and numerous soundings in the adjacent mediterraneans 
suggest that the islands are best interpreted as the somewhat 
denuded crests of great crustal ridges. The warm waters that bathe 
the West Indies come with a high temperature from the equatorial 
Atlantic, and favour the growth of corals along the shores. Fringing 
and elevated reefs are known on many of the islands. The Bahamas 
are the slightly overtopping parts of a broad platform of coral and 
other calcareous marine deposits, of which the greater area constitutes 
extensive shallow banks, which descend by a steep slope on the 
north-east to great depths in the Atlantic. The lowlands of Yucatan 
resemble Florida in being the emerged part of a much larger mass, 
of which an equal portion is still under water in the shelf around the 
Gulf of Mexico. All this region is luxuriantly productive and is 
advantageously surrounded by waters which would be barren and 
desert, like the Sahara, if replaced by lowlands. The active volcanoes 
on the Pacific slope have built many cones and uplands, some of 
their historic eruptions having been of terrible violence. Thus Lake 
Nicaragua, once a bay of the Pacific, has been cut off by volcanic 
deposits, leaving only the Gulf of Fonseca open to the western ocean, 
raising the level of the lake behind the barrier and turning its dis- 
charge eastward to the Caribbean Sea across what was once the 
inter-oceanic watershed. 

The successive crustal movements by which the land area of what 
we now know as North America has been increased and connected 
. have determined the growth of several great river systems 

through which the broader part of the continent is drained. 
The movements that resulted in the emergence of the Plains had the 
effect of engrafting many ancient rivers of moderate size upon trunks 
of unusual dimensions. The Mississippi system, some of whose 
eastern branches probably date from early Mesozoic time, received 
great reinforcements by the addition of many long western branches 
in Tertiary time, roughly contemporaneous with the uplift of the 
Gulf coastal plain by which the lower trunk of the river was extended 
to the sea. The present headwaters of that river-trunk to which the 
name of Mississippi is applied, and which for that reason have gained 
an undue subjective importance, are of relatively modern date, as 
they are controlled by the abundant glacial deposits of northern 
Minnesota. The evolution of the Mackenzie resembles that of the 
Mississippi in a very general way, although some of its eastern 
branches may be the descendants of ancestors more ancient than 
those flowing westward from the Appalachians; but the regime of 
the great northern river is strikingly unlike that of its still greater 
southern analogue on account of its course being from a warmer to 
a colder climate: hence ice-dams, obstructed discharge, and over- 
flows recur every spring. The Nelson and the St Lawrence systems, 
draining eastward to Hudson Bay and St Lawrence Gulf, receive 
drainage from areas that would belong to the Mackenzie and the 
Mississippi systems under a simpler plan of continental growth ; 
and there is much reason for thinking that this simpler plan obtained 
until the occurrence of those changes, in association with the Glacial 
period, whereby sea waters gained access to the depressions that now 



hold the bays and sounds of the north-eastern coast. In exemplifica- 
tion of the rule that the larger ocean receives the drainage of the 
smaller continental area, the rivers that flow into the Pacific rank 
below those belonging to the Atlantic. The greatest is the Yukon, 
of farther Canada and inner Alaska, one of the great rivers of the 
world, little known until the active exploration of its basin for gold- 
fields. The Frazer drains much of the mountainous area of southern 
British Columbia, as the Columbia drains that of the north-western 
United States; the latter is peculiar in that one of its headwaters 
rises at the eastern base of the Kocky Mountains in northern Montana 
and flows westward through the ranges. The Colorado discharges 
a muddy current into the Gulf of California; but for the aridity of 
its large drainage area its volume would be much larger. The same 
is true of the Rio Grande, whose name would be better justified if so 
much of its basin were not semi-arid. 

The most remarkable lacustrine region of the continent, rivalling 
that of Central Africa, forms a belt around the border of the Lauren- 
tian highland; here, in addition to ten large lakes, there rate*. 
are hundreds of medium size, and many thousand small 
lakes. They are peculiar in occupying a region of moderate relief, 
in which no strong dislocations have taken place in recent geological 
time (unless in the case of Lake Superior), and thus in contrasting 
with the great African lakes which occupy rift-valleys or graben of 
comparatively recent fracture. The Laurentian lakes are further 
characterized by an intimate association with the ice-sheets of the 
Glacial period; but while glacial erosion and drift obstruction 
suffice to account for the smaller lakes, it is very probable that broad 
crusta! warping and drainage reversal have been potent aids to the 
other processes in producing the great lakes. The northern Cordil- 
leran region contains many beautiful lakes of moderate size in deep 
valleys among the crowded ranges of the narrowed mountain belt. 
Their origin has not been closely studied. The basins among the 
spaced ranges of the middle and southern Cordilleras, in the United 
States and Mexico, contain many lakes that occupy shallow depres- 
sions in desert plains; they are usually without outlet and saline; 
many of the basins were formerly occupied by lakes of much greater 
size, some of which overflowed, implying a climate moister than 
that of to-day, probably correlated with the glacial climate of the 
regions farther north. Lakes in volcanic craters or behind volcanic 
barriers occur in Central America, while Florida possesses many 
small lakes in limestone basins. The following table is taken from 
Russell's Lakes of North America: 



Lake. 


Altitude. 


Area. 


Depth. 




Ft. 


Sq. m. 


Ft. 


Ontario 


247 


7.200 (?) 


738 


Erie 


573 


9,900 


2IO 


Huron 


582 


22,322 


750 


Michigan 
Superior 


582 
602 


21,729 
31,000 


870 
I008 



The climatic features of North America are best appreciated 
when considered as exhibiting modifications of those general climatic 
conditions which prevail in consequence of the globular climate 
form of the earth as a whole. In January, when the iso- 
therms of 65 to 75 F. stretch almost directly across land and sea in 
the north torrid zone, a mean temperature of zero or less invades the 
region north-west of Hudson Bay, which thus resembles north-eastern 
Asia in departing greatly from the mean prevailing in similar latitudes 
on the northern oceans, and in bringing upon the northern lands an 
extension of frigid conditions that have no analogue in the southern or 
oceanic hemisphere. In July, when the isotherms of 40 and 50 
have a tolerably direct course around the latitude circles that border 
the continent on the north, a great middle area of North America 
becomes warmer than the seas on the east and west, having a mean 
of over 80, and in part over 90. In January the Hudson Bay region 
is 30 colder than the mean of its own latitude, about 60 colder than 
the mean of the corresponding southern latitude; while in July the 
Arizona-Mexican region is 20 above the mean of its own latitude, 
or about 40 above the mean of the corresponding southern latitude. 
In both winter and summer the isotherms are more closely crowded 
while crossing the continent than while crossing the adjacent oceans; 
or, in other words, the poleward temperature gradient is stronger 
on the land than on the oceans; and all these features should be 
regarded as inherent characteristics of the climate of North America 
in virtue of its being a continent chiefly in temperate latitudes. 

An associated feature of continental climate is found in the strong 
annual range of temperature of the central land area. The range 
between the means of January and July exceeds 40* for the largest 
part of the lands, and 70 for much of the northern lands; the ran^e 
of extreme temperatures is much greater. On corresponding oceanic 
areas in the northern hemisphere the range is little more than 20, 
and in the southern hemisphere it is probably less than 10. It 
must appear from this that if the largest part of North America is 
said to be in the north temperate zone, " temperate " must be taken 
as having little of the meaning originally given to it in southern 
Europe, tor the winter cold is severe and the summer heat is excessive 
over much of the North American continent. 

The several members of the terrestrial wind system, including 



NORTH AMERICA 



therein the trade winds of a broadened torrid zone, the stormy 
westerly winds of middle latitudes and the irregular winds of the 
polar regions, are well exemplified over North America; but, as is 
usually the case on land, the systematic movement of the atmosphere 
is better seen in the drift of the clouds than in the movement of the 
surface winds, which are much modified by the changes from hill to 
valley, from mountain to plain. Nevertheless the prevalence of the 
general atmosphere currents has much to do with the control of 
certain values of annual temperature range, as well as with the 
distribution of rainfall. The former are small (about 20) along a 
great stretch of the Pacific coast, even as far north as Alaska, where 
the moderating influences of the ocean are brought upon the land 
by the westerly winds ; while a> range appropriate to a continental 
interior (30 or 40) is experienced over most of the eastern side of 
the continent in temperate latitudes, and even upon the North 
Atlantic ocean near the American coast, where strong seasonal 
changes of temperature are carried forward by the westerly winds. 
It is particularly in this respect that the general climatic resemblances 
between North America and Eurasia, above referred to, are broken ; 
for eastern Canada and western Europe are strikingly unlike in 
seasonal variations of temperature. Labrador is about 10 cooler 
than northern Germany in July, but nearly 40 colder in January. 

The distribution of rainfall is in general controlled by the prevailing 
course of the winds. The West Indies receive abundant rain from 
the passing trades. In Mexico and Central America theeastern slopes 
are for the most part better watered than the western, because the 
winds there come chiefly from the east (maximum over 100 in. in 
Guatemala and adjacent parts). Farther north the reverse holds true ; 
the Pacific slope north of 40 latitude has an abundant rainfall (maxi- 
mum over 100 in.), and its mountains are clothed with dense forests. 
There are large areas of deficient rainfall (less than 20 in.) in the interior 
of the continent, where the intermontane basins and the piedmont 
plains that slope eastward from the Rocky Mountains in middle lati- 
tudes are treeless. The areas afflicted with dryness are unsymmetri- 
cally distributed, being west of the medial meridian (95), because of 
the ranges near the Pacific by which rain is withheld from the basins 
and from the plains farther east. The dryness is induced not only 
by light precipitation, but also by active evaporation in the warm 
season a rule that holds true until a high latitude is reached. 
East of the medial meridian great profit is received from the warm 
and moist winds that are drawn inland from the water surface of the 
mediterraneans (Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) which so advan- 
tageously occupy the latitudes that are given up to the Sahara in 
the Old World. It is largely on this account that the central and 
eastern parts of the Mississippi basin enjoy a sufficient and well- 
distributed rainfall, producing forests or fertile prairies over great 
areas (rainfall over 40 in.). Regions of prevailing snowfall are chiefly 
in the north-west and north-east; the former includes the higher 
ranges of the western highlands in Canada and Alaska, where the 
snowfall from the Pacific winds is heavy, and extensive snowfields 
and glaciers are formed; the former includes Greenland, where a 
heavy ice-sheet shrouds the land, the snowfall of moderate measure 
being probably supplied mostly from the North Atlantic. In the 
northern continental interior snow covers the ground during the 
winter season, not that the snowfall is heavy but that the persistent 
cold weather preserves the moderate amount that falls. 

The extension of the continent across the belts of the terrestrial 
wind system tends to turn branch winds from the westerlies toward 
the trades on the Pacific border, and from the trades toward the 
westerlies on the Atlantic border. This effect is strengthened in 
summer, when the higher temperature prevalent over the continent 
causes the air to flow away from above the lands, and to accumulate 
over the neighbouring oceans, on each of which a vast anticyclone 
is thereby established the circulation of the atmosphere, over the 
North Atlantic and North Pacific thus coming to simulate the circu- 
lation of the surface waters of the oceans themselves. It is partly 
on account of this deflection of the summer winds up the Mississippi 
valley that the eastern interior of the continent receives a beneficent 
rainfall as already stated. In winter when the inflow from the south 
is replaced by an outflow, little rain or snow would fall but for the 
indraft winds of cyclonic storms by which the outflow appropriate 
to the cold season of the continent is temporarily reversed. The 
free play of the cyclonic winds north and south over the great medial 
plains permits indrafts from torrid and frigid sources, which some- 
times succeed each other rapidly, producing abrupt and frequent 
weather changes. Something of the same contrasts is produced by 
winds drawn in upon the eastern coast alternately from over the moist 
and warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and from over the moist and 
cold waters of the Labrador current. 

The southerly flow of the branching winds along the Pacific coast 
gives them a drying quality, and thus still further broadens the 
western arid region towards the ocean until it reaches the coast in 
southern California and north-western Mexico (rainfall less than 10 
, in.), there joining the arid belt of western Mexico and presenting a 
strong contrast to the rainy forested coast farther north; but 
although unfavourably dry, the southern California coast is one of 
the most truly temperate regions of the world, in respect of mildness 
and constancy of temperature. The drying winds cover all California 
in summer, but they migrate southward in the winter, giving place 
to the stormy westerlies. Thus California has a subtropical climate 



of wet winters and dry summers; while north in British Columbia 
and Alaska there is plentiful rainfall all the year round, and farther 
south there is persistent aridity. 

The fauna of North America (Nearctic) is more closely related to 
that of Europe-Asia (Palaearctic) than to that of any other zoo- 
geographical province; the two being united by many 
writers in one faunal province (Holarctic). The reindeer Fwa. 
(caribou), beaver and polar bear are common to both provinces. 
The moose, wapiti, bison and grizzly bear of North America are 
closely related to the elk, red deer or stag, aurochs and brown 
bear of Eurasia; and the following groups are well represented in 
both provinces: cats, lynxes, weasels, bears, wolves, foxes, seals, 
hares, squirrels, marmots, lemming, sheep and deer. On the other 
hand the following forms are characteristic of North America: 
(rodents) pouched rats or gophers, musk rat, prairie dog, Canadian 
porcupine; (carnivora) raccoon and skunk; (ungulates) musk ox, 
bighorn, Rocky Mountains goat, pronghorn; {marsupial) opossum. 
Among birds there is a close resemblance to those of Eurasia, with 
some admixture of South American forms, as in the humming birds. 
The forms especially characteristic of the northern continent are the 
Baltimore oriole, bobolink, cowbird, flycatchers, wood-warblers, 
Californian quail, tree grouse, sage grouse, wild turkey and turkey 
buzzard. The house sparrow of Europe has been introduced, and 
has become very common, especially in the cities, where it is known 
as the English sparrow. Reptilian and amphibian groups are well 
represented; turtles are especially numerous; salamanders are 
varied and large; rattlesnakes are among the more peculiar forms. 
Among fish, the characteristic forms are the cyprinoids (carp), 
sturgeon, salmon, pike and especially the suckers, sunfish, mudfish 
(Amia) and gar pike (Lepidosteus). The most characteristic group of 
invertebrates is the Unionidae or river mussels. 

The floral areas of North America, limited by the geographic 
divisions of the continent, may be divided into five belts: the 
eastern forested area, the western forested area, the _.. 
interior unforested area, the northern barren lands and 
the Gulf coast. The eastern forested area extends from the Lauren- 
tian highland in Canada to the Great Lakes, and southward east of 
the Mississippi to the Gulf coast. In the north and along the moun- 
tains southward, the forests are largely coniferous, with a mixture 
of birches, poplars and maples. Southward, especially in the interior 
and at low altitudes, the conifers largely disappear, and oaks, 
hickories, plane-trees, tulip-trees, walnuts and other valuable 
deciduous species abound. The western forested area begins in the 
eastern Rocky Mountains and extends to the Pacific. Eastward in 
the mountains the forests are interspersed with arid districts which 
increase in area southward. Northward, in Canada, the mountains 
of the middle Cordilleras are densely wooded with continuous forest 
up to the timber line. Near the middle Pacific coast the forests 
attain a luxuriant development, the redwood (Sequoia) of California 
and Oregon sometimes reaching a height of from 300 to 400 ft. The 
unforested area of the interior consists of two very dissimilar por- 
tions. The vast fertile prairies extend from the Great Lakes west- 
ward to the Great Plains, and southward west of the Mississippi, 
with occasional eastward lobes at low altitudes. On these plains 
grasses and other herbaceous vegetation abound, and throughout 
this fertile belt agriculture is largely followed, the grain and hay 
crops being especially important. Northward in Canada the plains 
become wooded, the western mountains and the eastern highlands 
being thus connected by a narrow strip of forest. South-westward 
and westward the fertile prairie gives way to a vast arid region 
beginning on the Great Plains and extending as far as south-eastern 
California, and thence southward into Mexico. On this broad desert 
few trees are found, although pifions grow on the cliffs and ledges, 
and cottonwoods occur along the watercourses; but the various 
ranges that surmount the desert frequently carry forests. The desert 
vegetation as a whole consists of cacti, agaves, sage-brush (Artemisia) 
and other plants adapted to arid conditions. North of the eastern 
forested area and east of the northern Cordilleras are the " barren 
lands," with frozen subsoil, extending to the Arctic coast. The 
growing season here is short and the climate forbidding, so that trees 
cannot develop, although birches, poplars, willows and other genera, 
which southward attain large size, are present as dwarf shrubs. 
The vegetation of this northern barren district, like that of bleak 
mountain summits southward, is very similar in character to that of 
other extreme boreal regions. Blueberries, crowberries and some 
other small fruits are abundant, but the brief summer will not mature 
most crops of the temperate zone. The Gulf coast, on the other hand, 
supports a vegetation decidedly tropical in its nature. Somewhat 
developed in Florida and the other southern states, this flora becomes 
the prevailing one on the coast of Mexico and Central America, 
especially from the region of Vera Cruz southward, where the forests 
are largely composed of palms and live oaks, and where giant 
bamboos often attain a height of 40 ft. In these tropical forests 
many orchids and other showy plants of northern conservatories are 
native. 

North America, with an area of about 8,000,000 sq. m. (16% 
of all the lands, or 4-12% of the whole earth's surface), and a 
mean altitude of about 2000 ft., at present plays a part in 
human history that is of greater importance than is warranted 




NORTHAMPTON, EARLS OF 



765 



the Con- 
tinent. 



by its size alone, although it has not in this respect the 
extraordinary importance of Europe. The continent has the 
Economic K 00 ^ fortune to lie chiefly in a temperate rather 
Develop- tnan a torrid zone, and in temperate latitudes to be 
meat of much nearer to Europe than to Asia. Whatever may 
have been the first home of the aboriginal inhabitants, 
the dominating people of to-day are derived from the 
leading countries of the Old World. Not only so; temperate 
North America has become the most progressive part of the 
continent because of receiving its new population chiefly from the 
most advanced nations of middle western Europe Great Britain, 
France and Germany; while the torrid islands and the narrowing 
southern mainland of North America have been settled chiefly 
from the less energetic peoples of southern Europe; and the 
inhospitable northern lands are hardly entered at all by new- 
comers, except in the recently discovered goldfields of the 
far north-west. From the plantation of colonies on the eastern 
coast, the movement inland has been governed to a remarkable 
degree by physiographic factors, such as form, climate and 
products. The cities of the Atlantic harbours and of the adjacent 
lowlands still take a leading part in industry and commerce, 
because of their longer establishment and of their relation to 
Europe. The uplands, ridges and mountains of the Appalachian 
system the " Backwoods " of a century ago remain rather 
thinly occupied except at certain centres where coal or other 
earth-product attracts an industrial population. Beyond the 
Appalachians the middle interior contains a very large proportion 
of habitable land. It was long ago recognized as a land of great 
promise, and it is to-day a land of great performance, covered 
with a network of railways, yielding an enormous product of grain, 
and developing industries of all kinds. Indeed, within and closely 
around an area marked by the St Lawrence system on the north, 
the Ohio on the south, and stretching from the Atlantic coast 
between the Gulf of St Lawrence and Chesapeake Bay inland to 
the middle prairies, there is a remarkable concentration of the 
population, industry, progress, wealth and power of North 
America the focus of attention from all other parts of the 
continent. The regions of the far north and north-east, including 
the greater part of the Laurentian highland and the extreme 
northern stretch of the medial plains and the western highlands, 
remain and will long remain thinly populated. The furs of wild 
animals are their characteristic product. Timber is taken from 
their more accessible forests; but only in mining districts does 
the population notably increase, as in the iron region around 
Lake Superior and in the Klondike gold region. 

In the south-eastern United States lies a belt of coastal 
lowlands skirting the Appalachians, still affected by negro slavery 
and its consequences. The descendants of the early French 
settlers of Canada stand in political rights as well as in loyalty 
to the Government on an equal footing with the British citizens 
of the Dominion. The Italians of the cities, the Hungarians 
of the mines, the Scandinavians of the northern prairies, the 
Irish and Germans everywhere are " Americanized " in the second 
or third generation, rapidly entering local and national politics, 
and hardly less rapidly attaining an honourable social standing 
as tested by intermarriage with English and other stocks. But 
the negro is set aside, even though he has adopted the language 
and the religion of his former masters: political and social 
rights are denied him, and intermarriage with whites is practically 
excluded, although illegitimate mulattos are numerous. Thus 
has slavery left upon a people, amongst whom political rights 
and social opportunities should be equal for all, the heavy burden 
that always retards progress where strongly contrasted races 
are brought together. Farther south still are the tropical 
islands and the narrowing mainland, rich in possible productive- 
ness, but slowly developed because of a prevailing diversity and 
instability of government and lack of progressive spirit among 
the people. Here also there is a considerable proportion of 
negroes, but they live under less unhappy conditions than those 
now obtaining in the United States. In Mexico and Central 
America, the proportionate number of aborigines is much greater 
than farther north. 



West of the Mississippi in middle latitudes the population 
rapidly decreases in density, and over a large extent of the semi- 
arid plains it must long remain sparse. The settlements bordering 
the plains on the east for a long time marked the " Frontier " 
of civilization, for the vast stretch of dry country was a serious 
barrier to farther advance. But the plains are now crossed by 
many railways leading to the Cordilleran region the " Far 
West " in large part too rugged or too arid for occupation, 
but rich in minerals from one end to the other, the seat of many 
mining camps of unstable population, and containing numerous 
permanent settlements in the intermontane basins. Great 
irrigation enterprises, conducted under the National Reclamation 
Service of the United States, are employing all available water 
supplies for agriculture; but large areas must remain permanently 
desert. On nearing the farther ocean the climatic conditions 
improve, and the population is rapidly increasing in number and 
wealth; this district not being content to take its name with 
respect to the east, not considering itself as included in the 
" Far West," but choosing the distinctive designation of the 
" Pacific Slope," and, while maintaining an active intercourse 
all across the breadth of the continent, already opening relations 
with the distant Orient by a new approach. Among the earliest 
results of the latter movement was the arrival of Chinese labourers, 
a humble, industrious and orderly class of men, but one which 
stands apart in language, religion and race from the dominant 
population, lives largely without domestic ties, and gains neither 
political nor social standing in the New World. 

Two centuries ago the aboriginal population of North America 
would have deserved description before the immigrant population. 
To-day the aborigines are displaced from nearly all the valuable 
parts of the continent. Never very numerous, they are now decreas- 
ing; many tribes are already extinct, many more are almost so. 
Those which remain less diminished are in the Far North or North- 
West where nature is rigorous; or in the tropical forests of Central 
America where nature is over bounteous; or in the more desert 
parts of the Middle West where nature is arid. The replacement 
of the native races by the foreign has too often been harsh, cruel 
and unjust; yet it has resulted in an advance of civilization. Many 
savage tribes, speaking many different languages, holding little 
intercourse with each other, and frequently engaged in intertribal 
wars, have given place in little more than two centuries to a great 
population of European origin, whose dominant parts speak one 
language, whose arts are highly advanced, whose home intercourse 
is most active, and whose foreign commerce had attained unexpected 
proportions at the opening of the 2oth century. (W. M. D.) 

NORTHAMPTON, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The 

Northampton title has been held in various English families. 
About 1080 Simon de Senlis (d. 1109), a Norman noble, and the 
builder of Northampton Castle, was created earl of Northampton 
as well as earl of Huntingdon by William the Conqueror; his 
son Simon (d. 1153) was also recognized in the title about 1141, 
though his stepfather, David, king of Scotland (1084-1153), 
had meanwhile obtained the earldom in right of his wife. The 
second Simon died childless. In 1337 William de Bohun (c. 1310- 
1360), a distinguished soldier, son of Humphrey de Bohun, 4th 
earl of Hereford and 3rd earl of Essex, was created earl of 
Northampton; and his son Humphrey, who succeeded, fell heir 
in 1361 to the earldoms of Hereford and Essex, which thus 
became united under that of Hereford. The titles, however, 
became extinct at his death in 1372. 

In 1547 William Parr (1513-1571), son of Sir Thomas Parr 
and brother of Catherine Parr, was created marquess of North- 
ampton, and though attainted in 1553 was recreated marquess 
in 1559. He took part in suppressing the rising in the north 
of England in 1537, and after serving as member of parliament 
for Northamptonshire was made Baron Parr in 1539. In 
December 1543, just after his sister had married the king, he 
was created earl of Essex, a title formerly held by his father-in- 
law, Henry Bourchier, who had died in March 1540. Under 
Edward VI., who called him " his honest uncle," Parr was 
equally prominent, being lord-lieutenant of five of the eastern 
counties, and being great chamberlain from 1550 to 1553. He 
favoured the claim of Lady Jane Grey to the English throne and 
consequently the accession of Queen Mary was quickly followed 
by his attainder. Although sentenced to death he was pardoned 



7 66 



NORTHAMPTON, EARLS OF 



and released from prison at the end of 1553. After enjoying 
the favour of Queen Elizabeth, Northampton died at Warwick on 
the 28th of October 1571. He left no children and his mar- 
quessate became extinct. In 1604 Henry Howard (see below) 
was created earl of Northampton, his title dying with him. 
It next passed into the Compton family, where it has since 
remained. The ist earl of Northampton in this line, William 
Compton (d. 1630), who received the title in 1618, was a great- 
grandson of the Sir William Compton (1482-1528) who was 
with Henry VIII. at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and his son 
the 2nd earl is noticed below. The 9th earl, Charles Compton 
(1760-1828), was created a marquess in 1812, receiving at the 
same time the titles of Earl Compton and Baron Wilmington. 
His son Spencer Joshua Alwyne, the 2nd marquess (1790-1851), 
was president of the Royal Society from 1838 to 1848; the 
latter's son Lord Alwyne Compton (1825-1906) was bishop of 
Ely from 1886 to 1905. The sth marquess (b. 1851), 'son of the 
4th marquess (1818-1897), was, as Earl Compton, a Liberal 
member of parliament from 1889 to 1897. 

HENRY HOWARD, earl of Northampton (1540-1614), was 
the second son of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, the poet, 
and of Lady Frances Vere, daughter of the isth earl of Oxford, 
and younger brother of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk. 
He was educated first by Foxe the martyrologist, afterwards 
by John White, bishop of Lincoln, with whom he acquired 
Romanist opinions, and finally at the charge of Queen Elizabeth 
at King's College and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he obtained 
his M.A. degree in 1564, subsequently in 1568 being incorporated 
M.A. at Oxford. The discovery of his brother's plot to marry 
Mary, Queen of Scots, and of his own correspondence with her, 
deprived him of Elizabeth's favour, and he was arrested more 
than once on suspicion of harbouring treasonable designs. In 
1 583 he published a work entitled A Defensative against the 
Poyson of supposed Prophecies, an ostensible attack upon 
astrology, which, being declared to contain heresies and treason, 
led to his imprisonment. On regaining his liberty he is said to 
have travelled in Italy. His flattery of the queen in lengthy 
epistles met with no response, and his offer to take part in the 
national defence against the Spanish invasion was refused. He 
attached himself, however, both to Essex and to Robert Cecil, 
and through the influence of the latter was in 1600 again received 
by Elizabeth. At the close of the queen's reign he joined with 
Cecil in courting the heir to the throne in Scotland, the main 
object of his long letters of advice, which James termed " Asiatic 
and endless volumes," being to poison the royal mind against 
Sir Walter Raleigh and other rivals, whom he at the same time 
hoped to ensnare into compromising relations and correspondence 
with Spain. These methods, which could not influence Elizabeth, 
were completely successful with James, and on the latter's 
accession Howard received a multitude of favours. In 1603 
he was made a privy councillor, on the ist of January 1604 
lord warden of the Cinque Ports, and on the I3th of March earl 
of Northampton and Baron Howard of Marnhull in Dorset; 
on the 24th of February 1605 he was given the Garter and on 
the 29th of April was appointed Lord Privy Seal. In 1609 
he was elected high steward of the university of Oxford, and in 
1612 chancellor of Cambridge university. The same year he was 
appointed one of the commissioners of the treasury. 

He was one of the judges at the trials of Raleigh and Lord 
Cobham in 1603, of Guy Fawkes in 1605, and of Garnet in 1606, 
in each case pressing for a conviction. In 1604 he was one of 
the commissioners who composed the treaty of peace with Spain, 
and from that date he received from the Spanish Court a pension 
of 1000. The climax of his career was reached when he assisted 
his great-niece, Lady Essex, in obtaining her divorce from her 
husband in order to marry the favourite Somerset, whose 
mistress she already was, and whose alliance Northampton was 
eager to secure for himself. He obtained the divorce by the 
decree of a special commission, and when Sir Thomas Overbury's 
influence seemed likely to prevent Somerset completing the 
marriage project, he caused the former to be imprisoned in the 
Tower. Shortly afterwards Overbury died from the effects of 



poison administered by the direction of Lady Essex; and the close 
intimacy which existed between the latter and Northampton, 
together with his appointment of Sir Gervase Elwes or Helwys, 
a friend of his own, as the keeper of the victim, leaves his name 
tarnished with the blackest suspicions. The discovery of the 
crime was not made till some little time after Overbury had 
succumbed, and meanwhile Northampton's own death antici- 
pated his fall, together with that of Somerset, from power. 
He advised against the summoning of parliament in 1614, and 
then fomented disputes to compel James to dissolve it. He 
died unmarried on the isth of June 1614, when his title became 
extinct, and was buried in the chapel of Dover Castle, the 
monument erected above his grave being subsequently removed 
to the chapel at Greenwich College. His will shows that he died 
a Roman Catholic. 

Northampton, who was one of the most unscrupulous and treacher- 
ous characters of the age, was nevertheless distinguished for his 
learning, artistic culture and his public charities. He built North- 
umberland House in London and superintended the construction 
of the fine house of Audley End. He founded and planned several 
hospitals. Bacon included three of his sayings in his " Apophthegms," 
and chose him as " the learnedest councillor " in the kingdom to 
present to the king his Advancement of Learning. He was the author 
of a Treatise of Natural and Moral Philosophy (1569; MS. in the 
Bodleian Library) ; of a' pamphlet supporting the union between 
Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou (1580; Harleian MSS. 180); A 
Defensative against the Poyson of supposed Prophecies (1583); a 
reply to a pamphlet denouncing female government (1589; Harleian 
MS. 7021) ; Duello Foiled, printed in T. Hearne's Collection of Curious 
Discourses (1775), ii. 225, and ascribed there to Sir Edward Coke; 
Translation of Charles V.s Last Advice to Philip II., dedicated with a 
long epistle to the queen (Harl. 836, 1506 and elsewhere in Stowe 95, 
King's MSS. 106) ; devotional writings (Arundel MSS. 300); 
speeches at the trials of Guy Fawkes and Garnet in State Trials, 
vol. i. In Somers Tracts (ed. 1809), ii. 136, his opinions on the 
union between England and Scotland are recorded. 

See the life in Surrey's and Wyatfs Poems, ed. by G. F. Nott 
(1815), and Sidney Lee's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. 

SPENCER COMPTON, 2nd earl of Northampton in the Compton 
line (1601-1643), was the son of William, ist earl, lord presi- 
dent of the marches, whose father had been created Baron 
Compton by Elizabeth, and of Elizabeth, daughter and heir 
of Sir John Spencer, lord mayor of London. On the 3rd of 
November 1616 he was created a Knight of the Bath, and 
was elected for Ludlow in the parliament 9f 1621, the same 
year being appointed master of the robes to the prince of Wales 
and attending the latter in the adventure to Spain in 1623. 
He warmly supported the king in the Scottish expeditions, 
at the same time giving his advice for the summoning of the 
parliament, which " word of four syllables " he declared was 
" like the dew of heaven." 1 On the outbreak of the Civil War 
he was entrusted with the execution of the commission of array 
in Warwickshire. After varying success and failure in the 
Midlands he fought at Edgehill, and after the king's return to 
Oxford was given, in November 1642, the military supervision 
of Banbury and the neighbouring country. He was attacked 
in Banbury by the parliamentary forces on the 22nd of December, 
but relieved by Prince Rupert the next day. In March 1643 
he marched from Banbury to relieve Lichfield, and having 
failed there proceeded to Stafford, which he occupied. Thence 
on the igth of March, accompanied by three of his sons, he 
marched out with his troops and engaged Sir John Cell and Sir 
William Brereton at Hopton Heath. He put to flight the enemy's 
cavalry and took eight guns, but in the moment of victory, 
while charging too far in advance, he was surrounded by the 
parliament soldiers. To these who offered him quarter he 
answered that " he scorned to take quarter from such base 
rogues and rebels as they were," whereupon he was despatched 
by a blow on the head. Clarendon describes his loss as a great 
one to the cause. Northampton married Mary, daughter of 
Sir Francis Beaumont, by whom besides two daughters he had 
six sons, of whom the eldest, James (1622-1681), succeeded 
him as 3rd earl of Northampton, Henry (1632-1713) became 
bishop of London, and Charles, William and Spencer all dis- 
tinguished themselves in the king's cause. The 3rd earl's third 
1 Hard-wicke State Papers, ii. 210. 



NORTHAMPTON 



767 



son Spencer (1673-1743) was a favourite of George II. and in 
1728 was created earl of Wilmington, a title which became 
extinct at his death. 

See the article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by C. H. Firth; E. B. G. 
Warburton's Life of Prince Rupert: S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of England 
and of the Civil War; Thomason Tracts, E 99 (18) [Hopton Heath 
and Northampton's death], E 103 (n) [elegy], E III (ll), E no 
(8) 1642 [Proceedings at Banbury], E 83 (47) [speech]. 

NORTHAMPTON, a municipal, county and parliamentary 
borough and the county town of Northamptonshire, England, 
66 m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North Western 
railway; served also by a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. 
(1891) 75,075, (1901) 87,021. It lies in a slightly undulating 
district mainly on the north bank of the river Nene. The main 
roads converging upon the town meet near the centre in a 
spacious market-place, where stands a fountain on the site of 
the ancient cross destroyed by the fire of 1675 which levelled 
a great part of the town. There were formerly seven ancient 
parish churches, but only four remain. Of these All Saints 
church was rebuilt after the fire of 1675, but retains its Decorated 
embattled tower, with which the style of the later building 
scarcely harmonizes, the principal feature being the fine Ionic 
portico. The church of St Giles was originally a cruciform 
structure of the beginning of the i2th century, but has been 
greatly changed, and besides a rich Norman doorway contains 
specimens of Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular work. 
St Peter's, near the site of the ancient castle, is supposed to be 
of the same date with it, and its interior is a fine specimen of 
Norman architecture. St Sepulchre's, one of the four round 
churches still remaining in England, may have been built by 
the Knights Templars at the close of the nth century. There 
are several modern parish churches. Northampton is the seat 
of a Roman Catholic bishop, and there is a pro-cathedral, 
designed by A. W. Pugin (1864). In the neighbourhood of the 
town there were a Cluniac priory of St Andrew, a house (Delapre) 
for nuns of the same order, and one for Augustinian canons 
dedicated to St James; but the first has disappeared, the site 
of the second is occupied by a modern mansion, and of the third 
there are only slight fragments. Some portions of the castle 
were re-erected on a new site after their destruction when the 
Castle station was built by the London & North Western Railway 
Company. In the populous parish of Hardingstone, S. of the 
town, is one of the original Eleanor crosses, of which only three 
remain out of twelve erected by Edward I. to mark the resting- 
places of his queen's body on its way from Harby (Nottingham- 
shire) to burial at Westminster. The chief public buildings of 
Northampton are a town hall, county hall, county council 
room, corn exchange, antiquarian and geological museum, free 
library and barracks. The free grammar school was founded 
in 1552; the Northampton and county modern and technical 
schools were incorporated with it in 1894. There are a Roman 
Catholic convent with schools, and various charity schools. The 
charitable foundations include St John's hospital, founded in 
the 1 2th century; St Thomas's hospital, founded in 1450 in 
honour of Thomas a Becket, an infirmary, asylum, dispensary, 
&c. There is a race-course north of the town. The staple trade 
is the manufacture of boots and shoes, which is very large. 
There are also considerable currying and tanning works, 
breweries, iron foundries, and brick and tile works. The cattle 
market is extensive. The county borough was created in 1888. 
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 
councillors. Area, 3469 acres. 

British and Roman remains have been discovered near 
Northampton (Hamtune, Northantone), and it became the chief 
settlement of the Angle tribes who pushed their way up the Nen 
in the early part of the 6th century. It was occupied by the 
Danes in the reign of Edward the Elder and is said to have been 
burnt by Sweyn in 1010. In the reign of Edward the Confessor 
there were 60 burgesses in his demesne, and, although the 
number had decreased to 47 in 1086, a new borough containing 
40 burgesses had been formed. The burgesses rendered yearly 
to the sheriff 30, los. " which belonged to his farm," and 



was probably the beginning of the fee farm which they were 
allowed to pay directly to the king in 1185 and which was 'then 
increased from 100 to 120. Forty marks of this farm were 
pardoned by Richard III. in 1484 because " the town had come 
to such ruin " that the bailiffs ha.d to pay more than 53 from 
their own goods. The mayor was the chief officer in the i3tb 
century, and Henry VI. granted the incorporation charter in 
1460 under the title of mayor, bailiffs and burgesses. The town 
has been represented by two members since 1395. Tanning 
was an industry of Northampton in the time of Edward I. and 
in 1675 a law was made by the corporation forbidding strangers 
to purchase hides in the town except on fair-days. Boots and 
shoes are known to have been made here in the reigns of John 
and Edward I., although probably only for the use of the towns- 
people, and by the I7th century Northampton was one of the 
most noted places in England for their manufacture. 

Northampton has been the meeting-place of several important 
councils and parliaments. In the wars between John and his 
barons the castle withstood a siege by the latter, but in 1264 
it was occupied by the barons under the earl of Leicester. In 
the Wars of the Roses it was the scene of the battle in which 
Henry VI. was defeated and taken prisoner in 1460. During 
the Civil Wars of the i7th century it was held for the parliament 
by Lord Brooke. In 1675 the town suffered severely by fire, 
600 houses being destroyed. 

See Victoria County History, Northampton; C. H. Hartshorn, 
Historical Memorials of Northampton (1848). 

NORTHAMPTON, ASSIZE OF, a short code of English laws 
issued in 1-176, is drawn up in the form of instructions to six 
committees of three judges each, which were to visit the six 
circuits into which England was divided for the purpose. Though 
purporting to be a reissue of the Assize of Clarendon (1166), 
it contains in fact many new provisions. As compared with 
the earlier assize it prescribes greater severity of punishment 
for criminal offences; arson and forgery were henceforth to be 
crimes about which the jurors are to enquire; and those who 
failed at the ordeal were to lose a hand as well as a foot. In what 
is perhaps the most important section we may probably see the 
origin of the possessory action of morl d'ancestor, an innovation 
scarcely less striking than the institution of the novel disseisin 
in the winter of 1166. The justices were also ordered to try 
proprietary actions commenced by the king's writ for the 
recovery of land held by the service of half a knight's fee or less. 
In their fiscal capacity they were to enquire into escheats, 
churches, lands and women in the king's gift. The royal bailiffs 
were to answer at the exchequer for rents of assize and all the 
perquisites which they made in their offices, and apparently 
the duty of enforcing this provision was entrusted to the justices. 
As a result of the rebellion of 1173-1174 it was provided that an 
oath of fealty should be taken by all, " to wit, barons, knights, 
freeholders and even villeins (rustici)", and that any one who 
refused should be arrested as the king's enemy, and the justices 
were to see that the castles whose demolition had been ordered 
were completely razed. 

AUTHORITIES. Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of 
English Law before the Time of Edward I. (Cambridge, 1898); W. 
Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (Oxford, 1895). The text 
of the Assize occurs in Cronica Rogen de Howden (Rolls Series), ii. 89, 
and Gesta Henrici Regis Secundi (Rolls Series), i. 108. It has been 
reprinted from the latter by W. Stubbs in Select Charters (Oxford, 
1895). (G. J. T.) 

NORTHAMPTON, a city and the county-seat of Hampshire 
county, Massachusetts, U.S*A., situated on the Connecticut 
river, about 16 m. N. of Springfield. ' Pop. (1910 census) 
19,431. The city has an area of 35-3 sq. m. The chief village, 
Northampton, is on the New York, New Haven & Hartford, 
and the Boston & Maine railways. It lies on the border of the 
meadow-land, and with its irregular, semi-rural streets, and 
venerable trees is considered one of the prettiest villages in New 
England. About 2 m. S.E. of Northampton is Mount Holyoke 
(954 ft.), which may be ascended by carriage road and mountain 
railway, and the summit of which commands a magnificent 
view. The city is the seat of a state hospital for the insane; 



768 



NORTHAMPTONSHIRE 



of the Clarke School for the Deaf (1867, founded by John 
Clarke of Northampton) ; of Smith College, one of the foremost 
colleges for women in the country; of the Mary A. Burnham 
School for Girls (1877), a preparatory school chiefly for Smith 
College, founded by Miss Mary A. Burnham; and of the Miss 
Capen School (preparatory) for girls. Besides the college library, 
there are in Northampton two public libraries, the Clarke (1850) 
and the Forbes (1894). The Forbes library was established 
with funds left by Charles E. Forbes (1795-1881), from 1848 
to 1881 a justice of the state supreme court. The People's 
Institute was started as a Home-Culture Clubs movement by 
George W. Cable, who became a resident of Northampton in 
1886. The Smith Charities is a peculiar institution, endowed by 
Oliver Smith (1766-1845) of Hatfield, who left an estate valued 
at $370,000, to be administered by a board of three trustees, 
chosen by electors representing the towns of Northampton, 
Hadley, Hatfield, Amherst and Williamsburg in Hampshire 
county and Greenfield and Whately in Franklin county the 
beneficiaries of the will. The will was contested by Smith's 
heirs, but in 1847 was sustained by the supreme judicial court 
of Massachusetts. Of the total sum, $200,000 was to accumulate 
until it became $400,000. Of this $30,000 was to found Smith's 
Agricultural School at Northampton, which opened for instruction 
in 1908; an income of $10,000 was to be paid to the American 
Colonization Society, but this society failed to comply with 
the restrictions imposed by the will, and the $10,000 was in- 
corporated with the Agricultural School fund; and $360,000 
was devoted to indigent boys and girls, indigent young women 
and indigent widows. The remainder of Smith's property was 
constituted a contingent fund to defray expenses and keep the 
principal funds intact. Florence, a village on the Mill river in 
the city limits, is a manufacturing village, silk being its principal 
product, and cutlery and brushes being of minor importance. 
The value of the city's factory products increased from $4,706,820 
in 1900 to $5,756,381 in 1905, or 22-3%. Northampton was 
first settled in 1654, became a township in 1656, and was in- 
corporated as a city in 1883. In September 1786, at the time of 
the Shays Rebellion, the New Hampshire Gaeette (still published; 
daily edition since 1890) was established here in the interest 
of the state administration. Jonathan Edwards was pastor 
here from 1727 to 1750. Caleb Strong (1745-1819), a member 
of the Federal Constitutional Convention of 1787, and governor 
of Massachusetts in 1800-1807 and 1812-1816; Joseph Hawley 
(1723-1788), one of the most prominent patriots of western Massa- 
chusetts; Timothy Dwight; Arthur (1786-1865), Benjamin, 
and Lewis (1788-1873) Tappan, prominent philanthropists and 
anti-slavery men; and William D. Whitney were natives of 
Northampton. 

See J. R. Trumbull, History of Northampton (2 vols., Northampton, 
1898-1902). 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, an east midland county of England, 
bounded N. by Lincolnshire, N.W. by Rutland and Leicester- 
shire, W. by Warwickshire, S.W. and S. by Oxfordshire, S.E. 
by Buckinghamshire, and E. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire 
and Cambridgeshire. The area is 1003-1 sq. m. The surface 
is undulating and somewhat monotonous, notwithstanding 
that the country is richly cultivated and in some parts finely 
wooded. Elevations over 700 ft. are few. The most picturesque 
scenery is found in the western and south-western districts. 
For long Northamptonshire has been famed for its ash trees, 
and there are also some very old oaks, such as that associated 
with Cowper's posthumous poem-" Yardley Oak," in Yardley 
Chase near Northampton, as well as a few fine avenues of elm. 
The north-eastern extremity belongs to the great Fen district. 
The county forms the principal watershed of central England, 
nearly all the more important rivers of this region having their 
sources within its boundaries. The Avon, with a westward 
course, forms for some distance the northern boundary of the 
county, till near Lilbourne it passes into Warwickshire. The 
Nene passes southward past Northampton, whence it takes 
an easterly course, skirting the eastern boundary of the county. 
The Welland flows in an easterly direction, forming the boundary 



of the county with Leicester, Rutland and Lincoln. The 
Cherwell, rising in a spring at Charwelton, where it is crossed 
by a very ancient bridge, passes into Oxfordshire, and then 
forms for a considerable distance the southernmost portion of 
the boundary of Northamptonshire with that county; the 
Learn forms a portion of the boundary with Warwickshire. 
The Ouse, which rises near Brackley, soon afterwards leaves 
the county, but again touches it near Stony Stratford, separating 
it for some distance from Buckinghamshire. 

Geology. With the exception of the superficial glacial and river 
deposits, all the rocks exposed in the county are of Jurassic age; 
they all dip in a general way towards the S.E., the strike of the 
outcrops being from south-west to north-east. The oldest rocks 
exposed belong to the Liassic formation; they come to the surface 
over a large area in the south-west and centre, around Banbury, 
Daventry and Market Harborough.andby the removal of the over- 
lying Oolitic strata they are exposed along the rivers and stream 
courses near Towcester, Northampton, Wellingborough and Ketter- 
ing. The Lower Lias, blue clay with limestone bands and cement 
stones, has few exposures; it has been cut through by the railways 
at Kilsby and Catesby, and at Braunston it is dug for brick-making. 
The Middle Lias consists of grey micaceous marls, sandstones and 
clays, often ferruginous; ironstone appears near King's Sutton; 
at the top is the marlstone or " rock bed," used as a building stone 
and for road metal. The Upper Lias is again a blue argillaceous 
series of strata, with limestones and cement stones; it is employed 
for brick-making. _ Through the middle of the county from north- 
east to south-west is an elevated tract of Oolitic rocks which contrasts 
strongly with the low-lying grass-covered Liassic ground. The lowest 
subdivision cf the Inferior Oolite, sands, sandstone and calcareous 
beds, is an important source of iron ore, with from 9 to 12 ft. of 
workable beds at Blisworth, Kettering, Northampton, Thrapstone, 
Towcester and Wellingborough. The flaggy sandstone of Duston 
(Duston slate) belongs to this series. The upper part of the North- 
ampton sands is known as the Lower Estuarine Beds; these are 
white and reddish clays and sands. In the north-eastern part of 
the county from about Maidwell, the Lincolnshire Limestone is 
developed at the expense of the Northampton Sand; the well- 
known building stone of Barnack (Barnack Rag) and Weldon belong 
to this horizon ; a hard shelly variety is known as Weldon or Stam- 
ford marble. Locally at the base is a series of flaggy strata, the 
Collyweston slates. The Great Oolite series comprise the Upper 
Estuarine Beds, the Great Oolite Limestone, Great Oolite Clay, 
Forest Marble and Cornbrash (very fossiliferous at Rushden). On 
the south-east border a belt of Oxford Clay occupies the surface; 
good exposures occur in the brick-fields about Peterborough. Glacial 
sands and gravels, including the great Chalky Boulder Clay, occur in 
patches on the older rocks, as at Hillmorton, and fill up old channels 
of the rivers sometimes to a considerable depth, as in the old valley of 
the Ouse at Furtho, where the Boulder Clay is 100 ft. thick. Borings 
have revealed the existence of Rhaetic and Keuper rocks resting 
on an ancient quartz-porphyrite beneath the Lias at Orton ; and at 
Gayton and Northampton the Carboniferous and possibly Old Red 
Sandstone strata have been proved, but no Coal Measures were en- 
countered. The water-bearing strata of Northamptonshire include 
the marlstone of the Lias, the Lincolnshire Limestone, Collyweston 
beds and ironstone beds of the Inferior Oolite, and the Cornbrash 
and Great Oolite Limestone. 

Climate and Agriculture. The climate of Northamptonshire 
is mild and genial, while the absence of lofty hills renders it much 
drier than many other inland districts. The mean annual 
rainfall at Wellingborough is 27-2 ins. The prevailing soil is a 
rich brown but light and crumbling mould, sometimes with a 
rocky subsoil. The richest soil is the black mould of the fen 
district, which is specially suited for grass, as are all the heavier 
soils. Nearly all the land is capable of cultivation, although 
there is some stiff wet soil on the slopes of the hills. Nearly 
nine-tenths of the total area, a high proportion, is under cultiva- 
tion, and of this considerably over three-fifths is in permanent 
pasture, the acreage devoted to this use increasing steadily. 
Less than one-fifth is under grain crops, and the area decreases. 
Wheat and barley are the principal grain crops. The fattening 
of cattle is the chief occupation of the Northamptonshire fanner. 
The favourite stock for breeding purposes is the shorthorn, but 
the most common custom is to buy in Hereford, Scotch, Welsh 
and Irish cattle in the spring and fatten them on the rich pastures, 
a few being retained and fed for the Christmas market. In 
autumn additional cattle are bought in to eat the coarse grass 
off the pastures, and these are usually retained during winter. 
The most common breed of sheep on the rich pastures is the 
improved Leicester, which is preferred on account of its length 



NORTHAMPTONSHIRE 



769 



of wool; but the Southdown, on account of its superior flesh, 
is also largely kept. 

Manufactures. The iron industry is of considerable import- 
ance, though only a small proportion of the metal is smelted in 
the county. The industry is carried on in the central part of 
the county, as in the Kettering, Wellingborough and Thrapston 
districts, and in the north near Stamford. But Northamptonshire 
is more famous for its manufacture of boots and shoes, which is 
chiefly prosecuted in the towns and villages of the central and 
southern districts, and along the eastern border. This trade 
occupies some three-quarters of the total number of hands 
employed in factories in the county. 

Communications. The main line of the London & North Western 
railway passes through the south-western portion of the county, 
with an alternative route to Northampton, and branches to Peter- 
borough and elsewhere. With it are connected at Blisworth Junction 
the East and West Junction railway to Towcester, Woodford and 
Stratford-on-Avon, and the Northampton and Banbury Junction 
railway. The Great Central main line, crossing the county in the 
south, has connexion with the Great Westen railway at Banbury 
from Woodford. The Midland railway serves Wellingborough, 
Kettering and Northampton, and an important junction of systems 
is effected at Peterborough, which is on the main line of the Great 
Northern railway. Branch lines of this and the Midland system 
complete the railway communications of the county. The Grand 
Junction Canal, which is connected with the Oxford Canal, enters 
the county at Braunston on the borders of Warwickshire, and passes 
by Daventry and Blisworth into Buckinghamshire, a branch con- 
necting it with Northampton. The Grand Union Canal unites with 
the Grand Junction near Daventry, and runs north until it joins 
the Leicester Canal at Foxton, branches passing to Welford and 
Market Harborough. 

Population and Administration. The area of the county is 
641,992 acres, with a population in 1891 of 302,183 and in 1901 
of 338,088. The area of the administrative county of North- 
ampton is 585,148 acres, and that of the administrative county 
of the soke of Peterborough 53,464 acres. In Domesday the 
county is mentioned as containing 30 hundreds, but it then 
included a considerable part of Rutland. These divisions were 
first reduced to 28, and in the reign of Henry II. to 20, their 
present number. The administrative counties include four 
municipal boroughs, namely, Brackley (pop. 2467), Daventry 
(3780), Higham Ferrers (2540) and Peterborough (30,872), 
together with the municipal and county borough of Northampton 
(87,021). The urban districts are: Desborough (3573), Finedon 
(4129), Irthlingborough (4314), Kettering (28,653), Oundle 
(2404), Raunds (3811), Rothwell (4193), Rushden (12,453), 
Wellingborough (18,412). There are one court of quarter sessions 
and nine petty sessional divisions. The borough of Northampton 
and the liberty of the soke of Peterborough have each a separate 
court of quarter sessions and a separate commission of the peace. 
The total number of civil parishes is 346, of which 33 are in the 
soke of Peterborough. The ancient county contains 297 entire 
ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part, most of 
them being in the diocese of Peterborough; but small parts of 
the county fall within the dioceses of Oxford, Ely and Worcester. 
For parliamentary purposes the county is divided into four 
divisions (Northern, Eastern, Mid and Southern), and includes 
the parliamentary borough of Northampton, and part of the 
parliamentary borough of Peterborough, each returning one 
member, except the borough of Northampton, which returns 
two members. 

History. At some time in the 7th century the district which is 
now Northamptonshire suffered a simultaneous invasion by 
the West Saxons from the south and the Anglian tribes from 
the north, and relics discovered in the county testify to a mingling 
of races, at the same time showing that West Saxon influence 
never spread farther north than a line from Daventry to Warwick, 
and with the extension of the Mercian kingdom under Penda 
and the conversion of the midland districts ceased altogether. 
The abbey at Medehamstede (now Peterborough) was begun 
by Peada in 655, and about the same time foundations were 
established at Peakirk, Weedon Beck, Castor and Oundle. 
In 870 the district was overrun by the Danes, and Northampton 
was one of the five Danish boroughs, until in 921 it was recovered 
by Edward the Elder, who fortified Towcester in that year. 
xix. 25 



In the nth century Northamptonshire was included in Tostig's 
northern earldom; but in 10265, together with Huntingdonshire, 
it was detached from Northumbria and bestowed on Waltheof. 
The only monastic foundation which survived the Conquest 
was Peterborough. Norman castles existed at Rockingham, 
Barnwell, Lilbourne and Northampton. 

As a shire Northamptonshire was probably of Danish origin, 
representing in the loth century the area which owed allegiance 
to Northampton as a political and administrative centre. In 
021 this area extended to the Welland, the present northern 
limit of the county, and at the time of the Domesday Survey 
the boundaries were approximately those of the present day. 
Northamptonshire is first mentioned by name in the Historic 
Eliensis, in connexion with events which occurred at the close 
of the roth century. 

The Geld roll of the time of William I. and the Domesday 
Survey of 1086 mention 28 hundreds in Northamptonshire, 
and part of Rutland is assessed under this county. By 1316 
the divisions had undergone considerable changes, both in name 
and in extent, and had been reduced to their present number, 
20, since which date they have remained practically unaltered. 
The names of the hundreds point to primitive meeting-places 
gradually superseded by villages and towns, and the court for 
Fawsley hundred met under a large beech tree in Fawsley Park 
until the beginning of the i8th century, when it was transferred 
to Everdon. The shire-court originally met at Northampton. 

Northamptonshire was originally included in the diocese of 
Lincoln. The archdeaconry of Northampton is mentioned in 
the 1 2th century, and in 1291 included the deaneries of Peter- 
borough, Northampton, Brackley, Oundle, Higham, Daventry, 
Preston, Weldon, Rothwell and Haddon. The diocese of Peter- 
borough was created in 1541, and in 1875 the archdeaconry 
of Oakham was formed and included in this county the first 
and second deaneries of Peterborough and the deaneries of 
Oundle, Weldon and Higham Ferrers. Northampton arch- 
deaconry now includes the first, second and third deaneries of 
Brackwell and Rothwell; the first and second deaneries of 
Haddon and Preston, and the deaneries of Daventry, North- 
ampton and Weldon. 

At the time of the Domesday Survey the chief lay-tenant in 
Northamptonshire was Robert, earl of Mortain, whose fief 
escheated to the crown in 1106. The estates of William Peverel 
founder of the abbey of St James at Northampton, also escheated 
to the crown in the I2th century. Holdenby House was built 
by Sir Christopher Hatton, privy councillor to Queen Elizabeth, 
and Yardley Hastings was named from the Hastings, formerly 
earls of Pembroke. Higham Ferrers was the seat of the Ferrers 
family; Braybrook Castle was built by Robert de Bray brook, 
a favourite of King John; and Burghley House gave the title 
of baron to William Cecil. 

Northampton was a favourite meeting-place of the councils 
and parliaments of the Norman and Plantagenet kings. In 
1215 John was besieged in Northampton Castle by the barons, 
and in 1264 Henry III. captured the castle from the younger 
Simon de Montfort. During the Wars of the Roses Henry VI. 
was defeated at Northampton in 1460. In the Civil War of the 
1 7th century the county declared almost unanimously for the 
parliament. A royalist garrison was placed at Towcester by 
Prince Rupert in 1644, but almost immediately withdrawn. 

The iron-mines and stone-quarries of Northamptonshire were 
worked in Roman times, but the former were entirely neglected 
from the Plantagenet period until their rediscovery in 1850, 
while the two most famous quarries, those of Barnack and Stanion, 
were exhausted about the i6th century. The wool and leather 
industries flourished in Norman times. In the i7th century 
the weaving industry declined in the Northampton district, but 
became very flourishing about Kettering. Other early industries 
were charcoal-burning, brick and tile manufacture and brewing. 
The industries of whip-making, pipe-making, silk-weaving and 
paper-making were introduced in the I7th and i8th centuries. 

In 1290 Northamptonshire returned two members to parlia- 
ment, and in 1295 Northampton also returned two members. 



770 



NORTH BERWICK NORTH CAPE 



In 1547 Brackley and Peterborough returned each two members, 
and in 1557 Higham Ferrers returned one member. Under the 
act of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions, 
and Brackley and Higham Ferrers were disfranchised. 

Antiquities. Although Northamptonshire was rich in monastic 
foundations, remains, except of the abbey-church of Peter- 
borough, afterwards the cathedral, are of small importance. 
At Geddington, and also at Hardingstone, near Northampton, 
there is an Eleanor cross, erected by Edward I. to the memory 
of his queen, in good preservation. For the architecture of its 
churches Northampton holds a place scarcely inferior to any 
other English county. To the Saxon period belong the tower 
of Earls Barton church, which stands on an eminence, probably 
the mound of an old English strong-house; the tower and other 
portions at Brigstock; the ground plan and other portions at 
Wittering; the remarkable tower at Barnack; and Brixworth 
church, constructed in part of Roman materials, and by some 
believed to include part of a Roman basilica. Of Norman, 
besides the cathedral of Peterborough, the finest examples are 
St Peter's and St Sepulchre's, Northampton, and the tower of 
Castor church. St Mary's church, Higham Ferrers, formerly 
collegiate, Early English and Decorated, is one of the finest 
churches in the county, and, as specially noteworthy among 
many beautiful buildings, there may be mentioned the churches 
at Irthlingborough and Lowick, with their lantern towers, 
Warmington, a very fine specimen of Early English work, 
Rushden, Finedon, Raunds and Fotheringhay. Of the church 
at Easton Maudit, Percy, author of the Rdiques, and afterwards 
Bishop of Dromore, was rector. 

A gateway at Rockingham, and earth-works at Higham 
Ferrers and Brackley are worthy of mention. Some castellated 
ruins remain of the castle at Fotheringhay, famous as the scene 
of the imprisonment, trial and execution of Mary, Queen of 
Scots. Barnwell Castle, founded by William the Conqueror, 
an interesting example of the defensive construction of the 
period, is still a fine ruin, which includes four of the round towers 
and an imposing gateway. Holdenby Manor House, where Sir 
Christopher Hatton (1540-1591) was born, and where Charles I. 
was staying when he was carried away by Cornet Joyce, is 
largely restored. Among ancient mansions are Castle Ashby, 
the seat of the Comptons,. the oldest portion belonging to the 
reign of Henry VIII.; Althorp, the seat of the Spencers, of 
various dates; Drayton House, of the time of Henry VI.; the 
vast pile of Burghley House, Stamford, founded by Lord Burleigh 
( I SS3). but more than once altered and enlarged; and Kirby 
Hall, a beautiful Elizabethan building once the residence of 
Sir Christopher Hatton. 

See Victoria County History, Northamptonshire; G. Baker, History 
and Antiquities of the County of Northampton (2 vols., London, 1822- 
1841); John Bridges, History and Antiquities of Northamptonshire, 
compiled by Rev. Peter Whalley (2 vols., Oxford, 1/91); John 
Norden, Speculi Britanniae, pars altera, or A Delineation of North- 
amptonshire (London, 1720); Francis Whellan, History, Topography 
and Directory of Northamptonshire (2nd ed., London, 1874). 

NORTH BERWICK, a royal and police burgh of Haddington- 
shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2614. It is situated on the south 
shore of the entrance to the Firth of Forth, 225 m. E.N.E. of 
Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the terminus 
of a branch line from Drem Junction. It was created a royal 
burgh by Robert III. (d. 1406), and though once a port of some 
importance it dwindled to a fishing hamlet. In the latter half 
of the igth century, however, it gradually became a fashionable 
watering-place, much frequented for its firm sandy beach and 
bathing, and especially for its two golf-courses. Near the 
station are the ruins of the abbey of Cistercian nuns founded by 
David I. Immediately to the south rises the fine cone of North 
Berwick Law (612 ft.), which was utilized as a signal point at the 
period of the Napoleonic scare. 

About 3 m. E. stand the strikingly picturesque ruins of Tantallon 
Castle, which probably dates from the end of the I4th century and 
was for many generations the stronghold of the Angus Douglases. 
Though the 6th earl successfully resisted the sieges of James V. in 
1528 and 1530, the castle had at last to be surrendered by treaty. 
It was besieged and captured by General Monk in 1651, and some 



time after the restoration became the property of Sir Hew Dalrymple, 
lord president of session, whose family still own it. It was then 
dismantled and fell into decay. 

About 2 m. S.W. of North Berwick is Dirleton, with a castle dating 
from the I2th century. Edward I. took it in 1298, and in the reign 
of Robert Bruce it was acquired by the Haliburtons, from whom 
it passed to the family of Ruthven. On the failure of the Cowrie 
conspiracy (1600) the castle was forfeited and given to Sir Thomas 
Erskine (1566-1639), who became Baron Dirleton in 1604, two 
years later Viscount Fenton, and in 1619 earl of Kellie. Monk laid 
siege to the castle in 1650, and in 1663 it was purchased by Sir John 
Nisbet (1609-1687), lord advocate, afterwards a lord of session 
and Lord Dirleton. 

NORTHBROOK, THOMAS GEORGE BARING, IST EARL OF 
(1826-1904), English statesman, eldest son of the first baron 
(long known as Sir Francis Baring; see BARING), was born on 
the 22nd of January 1826, and educated at Christ Church, 
Oxford, where he graduated with honours in 1846. He entered 
upon a political career, and was successively private secretary 
to Mr Labouchere (Lord Taunton), Sir George Grey, and Sir 
Charles Wood (Viscount Halifax). In 1857 he was returned 
to the House of Commons in the Liberal interest for Penryn 
and Falmouth, which constituency he continued to represent 
until he became a peer on the death of his father in 1866. He 
was a lord of the admiralty in 1857-1858; under-secretary for 
war, 1861; for India, 1861-1864; for the home department, 
1864-1866; and secretary to the admiralty, 1866. When 
Mr Gladstone acceded to power in 1868, Lord Northbrook was 
again appointed under-secretary for war, and this office he held 
until February 1872, when he was appointed governor-general 
of India. In January 1876, however, he resigned. He had 
recommended the conclusion of arrangements with Shere Ali 
which, as has since been admitted, would have prevented the 
second Afghan war; but his policy was overruled by the duke 
of Argyll, then secretary of state. Lord Northbrook was created 
Viscount Baring of Lee in the county of Kent and earl of North- 
brook in the county of Southampton. From 1880 to 1885 he 
held the post of first lord of the admiralty in Mr Gladstone's 
second government. During his tenure of office the state of 
the navy aroused much public anxiety and led to a strong 
agitation in favour of an extended shipbuilding programme. 
The agitation called forth Tennyson's poem " The Fleet." 
In September 1884 Lord Northbrook was sent to Egypt as 
special commissioner to inquire into its finances and condition. 
The inquiry was largely unnecessary, all the essential facts being 
well known, but the mission was a device of Mr Gladstone's 
to avoid an immediate decision on a perplexing question. Lord 
Northbrook, after six weeks of inquiry in Egypt, sent in two 
reports, one general, advising against the withdrawal of the 
British garrison, one financial. His financial proposals, if 
accepted, would have substituted the financial control of Great 
Britain for the international control proposed at the London 
Conference of June-August of the same year. A heavy blow 
would thus have been struck at internationalism in Egypt. 
Mr Gladstone was not, however, prepared to give a British 
guarantee of the interest of the loan, and so Lord Northbrook's 
mission proved abortive. The 9,000,000 loan issued in 1885 
bound Egypt even more securely in international fetters (see 
Cromer's Modern Egypt, 1908, vol. ii. chap. xlv.). When Mr 
Gladstone formed his third ministry in 1886 Lord Northbrook 
held aloof, being opposed to the home rule policy of the premier; 
and he then ceased to take a prominent part in political life. 
In 1890 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Hampshire. He 
died on the isth of November 1904. He had married in 1848 
Elizabeth Sturt, sister of Lord Alington, and was succeeded as 
2nd earl by his eldest son, who as Lord Baring had been M.P. 
for Winchester (1880-1885) and North Bedford (1886-1892). 

See B. Mallet, Thomas George, Earl of Northbrook (1908). 

NORTH CAPE (Nordkap), a promontory on the island Magero 
off the north coast of Norway in 70 10' 40" N., 25 45' E., 78 m. 
N.E. of Hammerfest. Knivskjaerodden, an island a little to 
the west, actually reaches a point a little farther north than the 
North Cape, and Nordkyn, 45 m. E., is the northern extremity 
of the mainland (7i7'N.). The desolate cape, rising abruptly 



NORTH CAROLINA 



771 



over 1000 ft. from the sea, is frequently visited during the 
summer period of the " midnight sun," but travellers are often 
prevented from seeing this phenomenon by adverse atmospheric 
conditions. 

NORTH CAROLINA, a South Atlantic state of the United 
States of America, situated between latitudes 33 51' 37" (the 
southernmost point of the southern boundary 35 is the 
northernmost) andabout36 34' 25-5* N., and bet ween longitudes 
75 27' W. and 84 20' W. It is bounded N. by Virginia, E. and 
S.E. by the Atlantic Ocean, S. and S.W. by South Carolina, 
S. also by Georgia, and W. and N.W. by Tennessee. North 
Carolina has an extreme length from E. to W. of 503^ m., which 
is greater than that of any other state east of the Mississippi 
river. It total area is 52,426 sq. m., of which 3686 sq. m. are 
water surface. 

Physical Features. The state lies wholly within the three 
leading topographical regions of the eastern portion of the 
United States: the Coastal Plain Region, which occupies 
approximately the eastern half, the Piedmont Plateau Region, 
which occupies about 20,000 sq. m. in the middle, and the 
Appalachian Region, which occupies about 6000 sq. m. in the 
west. At the eastern extremity of the Coastal Plain Region 
an outer coast line is formed by a chain of long narrow barrier 
beaches from which project capes Hatteras, Lookout and Fear, 
whose outlying shoals are known for their dangers to navigation. 
Between Hatteras and Lookout is Raleigh Bay and between 
Lookout and Fear is Onslow Bay; and between the chain of 
islands and the deeply indented mainland Currituck, Albemarle, 
Pamlico and other sounds form an extensive area, especially 
to the northward, of shallow, brackish and almost tideless water. 
Projecting into these sounds and between the estuaries of rivers 
flowing into them are extensive tracts of swamp land the 
best known of these is Dismal Swamp, which lies mostly in 
Virginia and is about 30 m. long and 10 m. wide. Through 
most of the Coastal Plain Region, which extends inland from 
80 to 150 m., the country continues very level or only slightly 
undulating, and rises to the westward at the rate of little more 
than i ft. to the mile. Along the W. border of this region, 
however, the slope becomes greater and there are some hills. 
The " Fall Line," the boundary between the Coastal Plain and 
the Piedmont Plateau, has a very irregular course across North 
Carolina, but lies in a general S.W. direction from the Falls of 
Roanoke between Halifax and Northampton counties to Anson 
county on the South Carolina border and marks a rapid increase 
in elevation of about 200 ft. The Piedmont Plateau Region 
extends from this line to the Blue Ridge Escarpment, toward 
which its mean elevation increases at the rate of about 3! ft. 
to the mile. It is traversed from N.E. to S.W. by a series of 
ridges which in the E. portion produce only a general undulating 
surface but to the westward become higher and steeper until 
the country assumes a bold and rugged aspect. The S.E. 
face of the Blue Ridge Escarpment, which rises precipitously 
1200-1500 ft. or more above the Piedmont Platea'u, forms the 
S.E. border of North Carolina's Appalachian Mountain Region, 
which includes the high Unaka Mountain Range, segments of 
which are known by such local names as Iron Mountains, Bald 
Mountains and Great Smoky Mountains. These ranges reach 
their culmination in this state, and with a series of more or less 
interrupted cross ranges constitute the greatest masses of 
mountains in the E. half of the United States. Four peaks 
along the Blue Ridge have an elevation exceeding 5000 ft. one 
of these, the Grandfather, rises 5964 ft.; and about thirty 
peaks in the Unakas and in the several cross ranges exceed 
6000 ft., the highest being Mount Mitchell or Mitchell Dome 
(6711 ft.), of the Black Mountains, a short cross range extending 
N. from the Blue Ridge through Yancey County. Other note- 
worthy peaks are Black Brother (6690 ft.) and Hairy Bear (6681 
ft.), the next highest mountains. Many of the neighbouring 
mountain ridges have uniform crests, but a greater number 
terminate in numerous peaks, some sharp, rugged and rocky, but 
more of them rounded domes. Throughout the whole region the 
slopes vary greatly: the N.W. slope of the Blue Ridge is almost 



imperceptible, or confused with the numerous mountain slopes 
that rise above it. As a rule the mountain slopes are well graded 
and subdued, but a few are steep and some are rocky and pre- 
cipitous. The numerous valleys are usually narrow and deep, 
though few, if any, descend to less than 2000 ft. above the sea. 

The Blue Ridge is the principal water parting of the state. West 
of it the Hiwassee, the Little Tennessee and the French Broad rivers 
flow W. or N.W. into Tennessee. Farther N. are the headwaters of 
the New river, which flows N.E. and finds its way to the Ohio. 
On the S.E. slope of the Blue Ridge rise the Broad, the Catawba 
and the Yadkin, which flow for some distance a little N. of E., then, 
finding a passage across one of the ridges of the Piedmont Plateau, 
turn to the S.S.E. and across the boundary line into South Carolina, 
in which state their waters reach the Atlantic. In the N.W. part of 
the Piedmont Plateau Region, and a little to the N. of the most N.E. 
course of the Yadkin rises the Dan, which in its N.E. course crosses 
the boundary into Virginia, where it becomes a tributary of the 
Roanoke, i^ which its waters are returned to North Carolina near the 
" Fall Line." The other principal rivers the Cape Fear, the Neuse 
and the Tar rise in the N.E. part of the Piedmont Plateau Region, 
have their S.E. courses wholly within the state, and, with the 
Roanoke, drain the Coastal Plain Region. In the Mountain Region 
and in the Piedmont Plateau Region the rivers have numerous Falls 
and rapids which afford a total water power unequalled perhaps in 
any other state than Maine on the Atlantic Coast, the largest being 
on the Yadkin, Roanoke and Catawba ; and in crossing some of the 
mountains, especially the Unakas, the streams have carved deep 
narrow gorges that are much admired for their scenery. In contrast 
with the rivers of these regions those of the Coastal Plain are sluggish, 
and toward their mouths expand into wide estuaries. 

The Coastal Plain Region is the only part of the state that has any 
lakes, and these are chiefly shallow bodies of water, with sandy 
bottoms, in the midst of swamps. In all they number only about 
fifteen, and have an area estimated at 200 sq. m., about one-half of 
which is contained in Lake Mattamuskeet in Hyde county. 

Flora. In North Carolina's flora are many species common to 
sub-tropical regions and many common to temperate regions, and 
the variety is consequently very great. In the swamps are the bald 
cypress, the white cedar and the live oak, usually draped in southern 
long moss; south of Cape Fear river are palmettos, magnolias, 
prickly ash, the American olive and mock orange; along streams 
in the Coastal Plain Region are the sour gum, the sweet bay and 
several species of oak; but the tree that is most predominant 
throughout the upland portion of this region is the long-leaf or 
southern pine. In the Piedmont Plateau Region oaks, hickories and 
elms are the most common. In the Mountain Region at the bases of 
the mountains are oaks, hickories, chestnuts and white poplars: 
above these are hemlocks, beeches, birches, elms, ashes, maples and 
limes; and still higher up are spruce, white pine and balsam; and 
all but a comparatively few of the higher mountains are forest-clad to 
their summits. All of the species of pine and of magnolia, and nearly 
all of the species of oak, of hickory and of spruce, indigenous to the 
United States, are found in North Carolina. On the dome-like tops 
of such mountains as are too high for trees are large clusters of 
rhododendrons and patches of grasses fringed with flowers. The 
forests throughout most of the state have a luxuriant undergrowth 
consisting of a great variety of shrubs, flowering plants, grasses, 
ferns and mosses, and the display of magnolias, azaleas, kalmias, 
golden rod, asters, jessamines, smilax, ferns and mosses is often one 
of unusual beauty. Venus's fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula), a rare 
plant, is found only south of the Neuse river; and there are several 
varieties of Sarracenia, carnivorous pitcher plants. Among the fruit- 
bearing trees, shrubs, vines and plants the grape, the blue-berry, the 
cherry, the plum and the cranberry are indigenous and more or less 
common. Aromatic and medicinal herbs, of which the state has 
several hundred distinct species, have been obtained in larger 
quantities than from any other state in the Union. 

Fauna. In North Carolina five of the seven life-zones into 
which North America has been divided are represented, but more of 
its area belongs to the upper-austral than to any other rone. The 
species of fauna that are at all characteristic of this part of the United 
States are found in the Piedmont Plateau Region and the western 
portion of the Coastal Plain Region. Among the song-birds are the 
mocking-bird, the Carolina wren and the cardinal grosbeak (or red 
bird) ; there are plenty of quail or " bob white " (called partridge 
in the South). Among the mammals are the opossum, raccoon, 
star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), grey fox and fox squirrel. 
The mammals of the Mountain Region include the cotton-tail rabbit, 
red squirrel, lynx and woodchuck; and there is a considerable 
variety of migratory song-birds, which are common to the more 
northern states. In the eastern portion of the Coastal Plain Region 
are the cotton rat, rice-field rat, marsh rabbit, big-eared bat, brown 
pelican, swallow-tailed kite, black vulture and some rattlesnakes 
and cotton-mouth moccasin snakes, all of which are common farther 
south; and there are some turtles and terrapins, and many geese, 
swans, ducks, and other water-fowl. Large numbers of shad, blue 
fish, weak fish (squeteague), alewives, Spanish mackerel, perch, bass, 
croakers (Micropogon undidatus), mullet, menhaden, oysters and 



772 



NORTH CAROLINA 



clams are caught in the sounds, in the lower courses of the rivers 
flowing into them, or in the neighbouring waters of the sea. 

Climate. North Carolina has a climate which varies from that of 
the S.E. corner, which approaches the sub-tropical, to that of the 
Mountain Region, which is like the medium continental type, except 
that the summers are cooler and the rainfall is greater. The mean 
annual temperature for the state (below an elevation of 4000 ft.) 
is about 59 F. For the Coastal Plain Region it is 61 F.; for the 
Piedmont Plateau Region, 60 F. ; for the Mountain Region, 
56 F.; for Southport, in the S.E. corner of the state, 64 F. ; 
and for Highlands, at an elevation of 3817 ft. in the S.W. corner, 
50 F. January, the coldest month, has a mean temperature of 
38" F. in the Mountain Region, of 41" F. on the Piedmont Plateau, 
and of 44 F. on the Coastal Plain; and in July, the warmest month, 
the mean is about 79 F. on both the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont 
Plateau and 74 F. in the Mountain Region. Extremes have ranged 
from - 19 F. at Highlands in 1899 to 107 F. at Chapel Hill, Orange 
county, in 1900 and again in 1902. The average precipitation for the 
state is about 52 in. a year, nearly all of it in the form of rain. For 
the Coastal Plain Region it is 54 in.; for the Piedmont Plateau 
Region, 48 in.; and for the Mountain Region, 53 in. On the E. 
slope of some of the mountains the rainfall is exceeded nowhere in 
the United States, save in the N. part of the Pacific Slope. At 
Highlands, Macon county, during 1898 it was 105-24 in., and during 
1901 it was 106-17 in., 30-74 in. falling here during the month of 
August. The winds are variable and seldom violent, except along 
the coast during the sub-tropical storms of late summer and early 
autumn. 

Soil. On the Coastal Plain the soil is generally sandy, but in nearly 
all parts of this region more or less marl abounds; south of the Neuse 
river the soil is mostly a loose sand, north of it there is more loam 
on the uplands, and in the lowlands the soil is usually compact with 
clay, silt or peat; toward the western border of the region the 
sand becomes coarser and some gravel is mixed with it. Throughout 
much of the Piedmont Plateau and Mountain regions the decom- 
position of felspar and of other aluminous minerals has resulted in a 
deep soil of clay with which more or less sand is mixed. It is deeper 
and more sandy where granite is the underlying rock, deeper and 
more fertile on the north-western than on the south-eastern mountain 
slopes, and shallower and more clayey where slate is the underlying 
rock. 

Agriculture. Until the Civil War agriculture was about the only 
important industry in the state, and at the close of the I9th century 
it was still the leading one; but from 1880 to 1900 the ratio of agri- 
culturists to all inhabitants of the state engaged in some gainful 
occupation decreased from 75-3 to 64-1%. The land included in 
farms amounted in 1900 to 22,745,356 acres or 73% of the total 
land surface of the state, and the percentage of farm land that was 
improved increased from 26-5 in 1870 to 36-6 in 1900. Throughout 
the colonial era the establishment of small estates was a part of the 
territorial policy of the government of North Carolina, 640 acres 
being the largest normal grant to any one person; as a consequence 
of this policy land holdings have always been much smaller here than 
in most of the other parts of the South, and since the Civil War the 
rise in the percentage of improved land, the development of truck 
farming, and the growth in number of negro holdings, have been 
accompanied by a further decrease in the average size of farms 
from 316 acres in 1860 to 101-3 acres in 1900. In the latter year 
there were in all 224,637 farms: of these 93,097 contained less than 
50 acres, 55,028 between 50 and 100 acres, 44,052 between 100 and 
175 acres, and 4224 over 500 acres. Of the total number of farms 
128,978 were operated by owners or part owners, of whom 17,434 
were coloured (including Indians); 19,916, by cash tenants, of whom 
10,331 were coloured; and 73.052 by share tenants, of whom 
26,892 were coloured. After the Civil War there have been several 
important changes in the crops raised: the development of cotton 
manufacturing in the South and the utilization of cotton-seed oil 
and meal gave impetus to cotton culture; and the discovery of the 
adaptability of much of the cotton land to the culture of tobacco of 
a superior quality resulted first in the development of a vast tobacco 
industry and then to a fluctuation in acreage of the crops of tobacco 
and of cotton, according as the price of either rose or fell. The 
destruction of pine forests to meet the demands for naval stores, 
and the introduction and increased use of the refrigerator car, 
resulted in much attention to the growth of garden produce for 
Northern markets. Peanut culture, introduced into the state from 
Virginia soon after the close of the Civil War, spread rapidly. In 
the meantime the crops of cereals increased little, and stock raising 
generally decreased. 

The principal crops are cotton, Indian corn, tobacco, hay, wheat, 
sweet potatoes, apples and peanuts. The yield of cotton increased 
from 62,901,790 Ib in 1869 to 307,500,000 ft in 1909. In 1909 
2,898,000 acres were planted to Indian corn, with a crop of 
48,686,000 bushels; 570,000 acres to wheat, with a crop of 5,415,000 
bushels; and 196,000 acres to oats, with a crop of 3,234,000 bushels. 
In Caswell county. North Carolina, " lemon yellow tobacco was 
first produced in 1852, and the demand for this " bright " variety 
became so great that except during the interruption of the Civil War 
its culture spread rapidly. In 1879 the state's crop amounted to 
26,986,213 ft, in 1889 to 36,375,258 ft, in 1899 to 127,503,400 ft, 



and in 1909 to 144,000,000 ft. The hay and forage crop increased 
from 80,528 tons in 1879 to 246,820 tons in 1899; and in 1909 the 
hay crop was 242,000 tons. In the production of vegetables and 
fruits the state ranks high. Potatoes, cabbage and lettuce are much 
grown for the early Northern markets. 

Farmers of the Piedmont Plateau formerly kept large numbers 
of horses and cattle from April to November in ranges in the Moun- 
tain Region, but with the opening of portions of that country to 
cultivation the business of pasturage declined, except as the cotton 
plantations demanded an increased supply of mules; there were 
25,259 mules in 1850,110,011 in 1890, 138,786 in igoo.and 181,000 in 
1910. The number of horses was 192,000 in 1910; of dairy cows, 
297,000; of hogs, 1,356,000; and of sheep, 215,000. 

Cotton is grown most largely in the S. portion of the Piedmont 
Plateau and in a few counties along or near the W. border of the 
Coastal Plain; tobacco, in the N. portion of the Piedmont Plateau 
and in the central and N.W. portions of the Coastal Plain; rice, 
along the banks of rivers near the coast; wheat, in the valley of 
the Yadkin; orchard fruits, in the W. portion of the Piedmont 
Plateau and in the Mountain Region; vegetables and small 
fruits in the middle and S. portion of the Coastal Plain; peanuts, 
in the N. portion of the Coastal Plain; sorghum cane, almost wholly 
in Columbus county in the S. part of the Coastal Plain. The state 
government, through its Department of Agriculture; takes an active 
interest in the introduction of modern agricultural methods, and in 
the promotion of diversified farming; in 1899 it established the 
Edgecombe and in 1902 the Iredell test farm. 

Forests. North Carolina had in 1900 about 35,300 sq. m. of 
woodland; great quantities of merchantable timber still remained, 
especially in the Mountain Region and on the Coastal Plain. The 
trees of the greatest commercial value are oak and chectnut at the 
foot of the mountains and yellow pine on the uplands of the Coastal 
Plain. But mixed with the oak and chestnut or higher up are 
considerable hickory, biTch and maple; farther up the mountain 
sides are some hemlock and white pine; and on the swamp lands of 
the Coastal Plain are much cypress and some cedar, and on the 
Coastal Plain south of the Neuse there is much long-leaf pine from 
which resin is obtained. Several other pines are found, and among 
the less important timber trees are black spruce, Carolina balsam, 
beeches, ashes, sycamore or button wood, sweet gum and lindens. 
The value of the lumber and timber products was $1,074,003 in 1860; 
$5,898,742 in 1890; $14,862,593 in 1900; and $15,731.379 in 1905- 

Fisheries. In the sounds along the coast, in the lower courses 
of the rivers that flow into them, and along the outer shores fishing 
is an important industry. The fisheries are chiefly of shad, oysters, 
mullet, alewives, clams, black bass, menhaden, croakers and blue- 
fish. In 1908 the catch was valued at about $1,750,000. The State 
Geological and Economic Survey has made a careful study of the 
fishes of North Carolina, of the shad fisheries, of oyster culture, and of 
the development of terrapin. At Beaufort the United States Bureau 
of Fisheries has a marine biological laboratory, established in 1901 
for the study of the aquatic fauna of the south-east coast. 

Minerals. At the beginning of the 2Oth century a great number 
of minerals were found in the Piedmont Plateau and Mountain 
regions, but most of them in such small quantities as to be of little 
or no commercial value, and in 1902 the total value of the products 
of the mines and quarries was only $927,376; but in 1907 their 
value was $2,961,381, and in 1908, $2,145,947. During the first 
half of the igth century North Carolina was a mining state of 
the first importance; in 1804 it was the only state in the United 
States from which gold was obtained. Operations ceased during 
the Civil War, and although resumed soon after its close, they 
became somewhat desultory. Probably the earliest large find was 
a 17-ft nugget on the Reed Plantation in Cabarrus county in 1799; 
in the same mine a 28-ft nugget, probably the largest found in 
eastern United States, was discovered in 1803. The production in 
Rutherford and Burke counties and their vicinity was so great, 
and transportation to the United States Mint at Philadelphia so 
difficult, that from 1831 to 1857 gold was privately coined in I, 2j 
and 5 dollar pieces bearing the mark of the coiner " C. Bechtler, 
Rutherford county, N.C." The coins were of standard purity (or 
higher); they are now very rare. A branch mint of the United 
States was established in 1837 at Charlotte. Silver, which is rarer 
in the state than gold, is found chiefly in the W. portion of the 
Piedmont Plateau. In 1902 the value of the gold and silver product 
combined was $71,287, and in 1908, when the lola mine 6 m. E. of 
Troy, Montgomery county, was the most productive, the value of 
the gold alone was $97,945, that of the silver $668, and that of 
copper, $2560. 

In 1870 North Carolina's mica mines were reopened, and they 
produce the best grade of sheet mica for glazing and a large per- 
centage of the country's yield of this mineral. Most of it has been 
found in the N.E. portion of the Mountain Region; and that mica 
was mined here before any European settlement of the country 
seems proved by numerous excavations and by huge heaps on 
which are large oak and chestnut trees, some fallen and decayed. 
North Carolina is also the leading state in the Union in the production 
of monazite. The mining of corundum was begun at Corundum 
Hill in Macon county in 1871, and from 1880 to 1902 the output 
was considerable, but with the discovery of the Canadian corundum 



NORTH CAROLINA 



773 



deposits the importance of those of North Carolina greatly declined. 
It was along the coast of North Carolina that Europeans in 1585 
made the first discovery of iron ore within the present limits of the 
United States. Iron ores are widely distributed within the state, 
and there have been times since the eve of the War of Independence 
when the mining of it was an industry of relatively great importance. 
In 1908 the product amounted to 48,522 long tons (all magnetite), 
and was valued at $76,877; almost the entire product is from the 
Cranberry mines, near Cranberry, Mitchell county. The state has 
two small areas in which bituminous coal occurs; one in the basin 
of the Dan and one in the basin of the Deep. Very little coal was 
produced in the state until the Civil War, when, in 1862 and again 
in 1863, 30,000 short tons were obtained for the relief of the Con- 
federate government, an amount which up to 1905, when the yield 
was only 1557 short tons (falling off from 7000 short tons in 1904), 
had not since been equalled; in 1906, in 1907 and in 1908 no coal 
was mined in the state. The most valuable immediate product of 
the state's mines and quarries for nearly every year from 1890 to 
1908 was building stones of granite and gneiss, which are found in all 
parts of the state west of the "Fall Line"; the best grades of 
granite are quarried chiefly in Gaston, Iredell, Rowan, Surry and 
Wilkes counties. The value of the building stone increased from 
$150,000 in 1892 to $800,177 (of which $764,272 was the value of 
granite) in 1908. Talc also is widely distributed in the state; the 
most extensive beds are in the south-western counties, Swain and 
Cherokee. 

Manufactures. During the quarter of a century between 1880 
and 1905 a great change was wrought in the industrial life of the 
state by a phenomenal growth of cotton manufacturing. A cotton 
mill was erected in Lincoln county about 1813, and by 1840 about 
25 small mills were in operation within the state. When the Civil 
War was over, the abnormally high price of cotton made cotton 
raising for more than a decade a great assistance to the people in 
recovering from ruin, but when the price had steadily declined from 
23-98 cents a pound in 1870 to 10-38 cents a pound in 1879, they 
turned to the erection and operation of cotton mills. In 1880 the 
total value of the manufactured products of thestate was$2o,O95,O37 ; 
in 1900 the value of the cotton manufactures alone was $28,372,789, 
and in 1905 $47,254,054. The rapid extension of tobacco culture 
was accompanied by a corresponding growth in the manufacture of 
chewing and smokingtobacco and snuff, and some of the brands have 
a wide reputation. The product increased in value from $4,783,484 
in 1890 to $25,488,721 in 1905. In 1890 the lumber and timber 
products, valued at $5,898,742, ranked second among the state's 
manufactures; by 1905 their value had increased to $15,731,379. 
The value of the state's factory product for 1900 was $85,274,083, 
and that for 1905, $142,520,776, an advance of 67-1 %. The cotton 
mills are mostly in the Piedmont Plateau Region; Durham, Durham 
county, and Winston. Forsyth county, are leading centres of tobacco 
manufacture ; and High Point (pop. in 1900, 4163) in Randolph 
is noted for its manufacture of furniture. 

Transportation. Railway building was begun in the state in 1836 
with the Raleigh & Gastcn line, opened from Raleigh to Gaston in 
1844 and extended to Weldon in 1852. A longer line, that from 
Wilmington to Weldon, was completed in 1840. But the greatest 
period of building was from 1880 to 1890; during this decade the 
mileage was increased from 1486 m. to 3128 m., or 1642 m., which 
was more than one-third of all that had been built up to the year 
1909, when the total mileage was 4464-14. The principal systems of 
railways are the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Norfolk & 
Southern and the Seaboard Air Line. By means of its navigable 
waters and safe harbours the state has an extensive coasting trade. 
The harbours along the sounds and in the estuaries of the rivers 
are well protected from the storms of the ocean by the long chain 
of narrow islands in front, but navigation by the largest vessels is 
interrupted by shoals in the sounds, and especially by bars crossing 
the inlets between islands. The channel leading to the harbour of 
Wilmington has been cleared to a depth of 20 ft. or more by dredging 
and by the construction of jetties and an immense dam, works which 
were begun by the state in 1823 but from 1828 were carried on from 
time to time by the national government. The Roanoke river is 
navigable to Weldon and the Cape Fear river to Fayetteville; the 
Neuse is navigable for small vessels only to Newbern. 

Population. The population 1 of North Carolina increased from 
I >399>75 in 1880 to 1,617, 949 in 1890, or 15-6%; to 1,893,810 in 
1900, a further increase of 17-1%; and to 2,206,287 in 1910, an 
increase of 16-5% since 1900. Of the total in 1900 only 4492, 
or less than J of i % were foreign-born, nearly half of these 
being natives of Germany and England, 1,263,664 were whites, 
624,469 negroes, 5687 Indians and 51 Chinese. Nearly one- 
fourth of the Indians are Cherokees, who occupy, for the most 
part, the Qualla Reservation in Swain and Jackson counties, 
not tar from the south-western extremity of the state. The others, 

"The population of the state was 393,751 in 1790; 478,103 in 
1800; 555,500 in 1810; 638,829 in 1820; 737,987 in 1830; 753,419 in 
1840; 869,039 in 1850; 992,622 in 1860; and 1,071,361 in 1870. 



numbering in 1907 nearly 5000, living mostly in Robeson 
county, are of mixed breed and have been named the Croatans, 
on the assumption (probably baseless) that they are the descend- 
ants of John White's lost colony of 1587. The Cherokees have 
no ambition to accumulate property, but both they and the 
Croatans have been generally peaceable and many of them send 
their children to school for the Croatans the state provides 
separate schools. The Baptist and Methodist churches are the 
leading religious denominations in the state; but there are also 
Presbyterians, Lutherans, members of the Christian Connexion 
(O'Kellyites), Disciples of Christ (Campbellites) Episcopalians, 
Friends, Roman Catholics, Moravians and members of other 
denominations. Until nearly a century after the founding of 
the Carolinas there was not a town in North Carolina that had 
a population of 1000, and the urban population of the state was 
exceptionally small at the beginning of the rapid rise of the 
manufacturing industries about 1880. In 1900 the urban 
population (in places having 4000 inhabitants or more) was 
152,019, or 8% of the total; the semi-urban (in incorporated 
places having less than 4000 inhabitants) was 186,258 or 9-8% 
of the total; and the rural (outside of incorporated places) 
was 1,555,533 or 82-1% of the total. But between 1890 and 
1900 the urban population increased 56-6% and the semi- 
urban 61-6%, while the rural increased only 10-6%. The 
principal cities are Wilmington, Charlotte, Asheville, Raleigh 
(the capital), Greensboro, Winston and Newbern. 

Administration. North Carolina has been governed under the 
charters of 1663 and 1665 (1663-1729), under commissions and 
instructions from the crown (1729-1776), and under the state 
constitutions of the i8th of December 1776 (amended in 1835, 
in 1856, and in the Secession Convention of 1861) and of April 
1868 (amended in 1872-1873, 1875,* 1879, 1888 and 1899). 
The present constitution, as amended, prescribes that no con- 
vention of the people of the state may be called by the legis- 
lature unless by the concurrence of two-thirds of all the members 
of each house followed by an affirmative vote of a majority of 
the electors voting on the question; and that an amendment to 
the constitution may be adopted only by a three-fifths vote of 
each house followed by an affirmative vote of the majority of 
electors voting on the question. The suffrage provisions con- 
taining the famous " grandfather clause " (in Art vi. section 4), 
were adopted in the form of a constitutional amendment, ratified 
in August 1900, and in effect on the ist day of July 1902. 'All 
persons otherwise qualified may place their names on the voting 
register, provided they can read and write any section of the 
constitution in the English language and have paid on or before 
the ist of May the poll tax for the previous year. An exception 
to the educational requirement is made in favour of any male 
person who was, on the ist day of January 1867, or at any time 
prior thereto, entitled to vote under the laws of any state in 
the United States wherein he then resided, and in favour of 
lineal descendants of such persons. This exception remained 
in force until the ist of December 1908, after which time all 
who were on the list became (unless disqualified because con- 
victed of felony) life voters, but new applicants had to stand the 
educational test. 

Perhaps the most notable feature about the administration 
is the weakness of the governor's position. He is elected by 
popular vote 3 for four years, and cannot succeed himself in 
office. His power is limited by a council of state, a relic of 
colonial days. This body is not, however, a special board, as 
in Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, but a kind of 
administrative cabinet as in Iowa, consisting of the secretary 
of state, the auditor, the treasurer, and the superintendent of 

2 The changes made in 1875 were adopted in a convention, were 
ratified in 1876, and were so numerous that the amended constitution 
is frequently referred to as the Constitution of 1876. 

* Up to 1835 he was elected annually by the two houses of the 
legislature, and no man could serve as governor for more than three 
years in any six successive years. Under an amendment of 1835 
he was elected for two years by popular vote of electors for members 
of the House of Commons, and no man was eligible to serve for more 
than four years in any term of six years. 



774 



NORTH CAROLINA 



public instruction, and advising the governor in the administra- 
tion of his office. Judges, heads of departments, and executive 
boards are elected, and even in the few instances in which the 
governor appoints to office the confirmation of the Senate is 
necessary. Furthermore, in North Carolina the governor has 
no veto power. In addition to the executive officials mentioned 
above there are a lieutenant-governor, an attorney-general, a 
Bureau of Labor Statistics, established in 1887, and a Corporation 
Commission, which in 1899 superseded the Railroad Commission, 
established in 1891. The governor and the lieutenant-governor 
must at the time of their election be at least thirty years of age, 
and must have been citizens of the United States for five year's 
and residents of the state for two years. 

Sessions of the General Assembly are held biennially, beginning 
on the Wednesday after the first Monday in January. The Senate 
is composed of fifty members elected biennially by senatorial 
districts as nearly as possible equal to one another in population, 
and the House of Representatives (in the Constitution of 1776 
called the House of Commons) of one hundred and twenty, 
elected biennially and chosen by counties 1 according to their 
population, each county having at least one representative, no 
matter how small its population. A senator must at the time of 
his election be at least 25 years of age, and must have been a 
resident and citizen of the state for at least two years, and a 
resident in his district for one year immediately preceding his 
election; and a representative must be a qualified elector of 
the state and must have resided in his county for at least one 
year immediately preceding his election. The pay for both 
senators and representatives is four dollars per day for a period 
not exceeding sixty days; should the session be prolonged the 
extra service is without compensation. Extra sessions, called 
by the governor on the advice of the council of state, are limited 
to twenty days, but may be extended under the same limitations 
in regard to compensation. The Senate may sit as a court of 
impeachment to try cases presented by the House, and a two- 
thirds vote is necessary for conviction. 

There is a supreme court consisting of a chief justice and four 
associates, elected by popular vote for eight years, and a superior 
or circuit court, composed of sixteen judges elected by the people 
in each of sixteen districts for a term of eight years. 

The county officials are the sheriff, a coroner, a treasurer, a 
register of deeds, a surveyor and five commissioners, elected for 
two years. The commissioners supervise the penal and charitable 
institutions, schools, roads, bridges and finances of the county. 
Subordinate to them are the township boards of trustees, 
composed of a clerk, and two justices of the peace. 

By the constitution personal property to the value of $500 and 
any homestead to the value of jsiooo is exempt from sale for debt, 
except for taxes on the homestead, or for obligations contracted for 
the purchase of said premises. Under the revised code (1905) a wife 
may hold property which she had acquired before marriage free 
from any obligation of her husband, but in general she is not per- 
mitted to make contracts affecting either her personal or real estate 
without the written consent of her husband. Neither can the 
husband convey real estate without the wife's consent, and a widow 
may dissent from her husband's will at any time within six months 
after the probate of the same, the effect of such dissent being to 
allow her the right of one-third of her deceased husband's property, 
including the dwelling house in which they usually resided. The 
constitution prescribes that " all marriages between a white person 
and a negro, or between a white person and a white person of negro 
descent to the third generation inclusive, are hereby forever pro- 
hibited." Until 1905 the only grounds for an absolute divorce were 

1 Under the Constitution of 1776 senators were elected by counties, 
one for each county, and representatives also by counties, two for 
each county in addition, the towns of Edenton, Newbern, Wil- 
mington, Salisbury, Hillsboro and Halifax each elected one repre- 
sentative; and a property qualification a freehold of 50 acres 
held for six months before an election was imposed on electors 
of senators. Under amendments of 1835 senators were chosen by 
districts formed on the basis of public taxes paid into the state 
treasury, representatives were still chosen by counties, and were 
apportioned among them on the same basis as their Federal repre- 
sentation (i.e. counting three-fifths of the slaves), and free negroes or 
mulattoes " descended from negro ancestors to the fourth generation 
inclusive ]' were excluded from the suffrage. In 1856 the property 
qualification for electors of senators was removed. 



adultery, natural impotence, and pregnancy of the wife at the time 
of marriage; but an amendment of 1907 allows a divorce whenever 
there has been a separation of husband and wife for ten successive 
years, provided the parties have lived in the state for that period 
and no children have been born of the marriage. The working of 
children under twelve years of age in any factory or manufacturing 
establishment is unlawful, the working of children between the 
ages of twelve and thirteen in such places is allowed only on condition 
that they be employed as apprentices and have attended school for 
at least four months during the preceding year; and no boy or girl 
under fourteen is to work in such places during night time. An anti- 
trust law of 1907 makes it unlawful for any corporation controlling 
within the state the sale of 50% of an article to raise or lower the 

Srice of that article with the intention of injuring a competitor, 
n the 26th of May 1908 the people of the state voted " against 
the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors " in the state; 
the prohibition act thus approved went into effect on the 1st of 
January 1909. State prohibition had been defeated in 1881 by a 
vote of 100,000; in 1902 the Anti-Saloon League organized in the 
state; in 1903 the Watts Law enacted rural prohibition, giving towns 
local option, under which many of the towns voted " no licence "; 
and in 1905 severe police regulations were provided for towns in 
which saloons were licensed. 

Charitable and Penal Institutions. In the systematic care of the 
dependent and defective classes North Carolina was one of the 
pioneer states of the South. An institute for the deaf and dumb 
and blind was opened at Raleigh in 1845, and another for the deaf 
and dumb at Morganton in 1894; by a law of 1907 every deaf child 
of sound mind must attend, between the ages of eight and fifteen, 
a school for the deaf at least five terms of nine months each; and 
by a law of 1908 every blind child (between seven and seventeen), 
if of sound mind and body, must attend some school for the blind 
for nine months of each year. The North Carolina State Hospital 
(for the insane) at Raleigh was opened in 1856 as a result of the 
labours of Miss Dorothea Lynde Dix (1805-1887); in connexion 
with it there is an epileptic colony. The State Hospital at Morgan- 
ton, opened in 1883, completed in 1886, and intended for the use 
of the western part of the state, is perhaps the best equipped institu- 
tion of its kind south of the Potomac. In 1901 a department for 
criminal insane was opened in a wing of the state prison at Raleigh. 
The Oxford Orphan Asylum at Oxford (1872) is supported partly 
by the Masonic Order and partly by the state. A movement begun 
by the Confederate Veterans Association in October 1889 resulted 
in the establishment in 1890 of a home for disabled veterans at 
Raleigh; this became a state institution in 1891. In 1908 a state 
tuberculosis sanatorium was opened near Aberdeen, Moore county. 
The state also takes good care of the unfortunates among the negro 
race. The Institute for the Colored Deaf, Dumb and Blind (1867) 
at Raleigh and the Eastern Insane Hospital (1880) near Goldsboro 
are the oldest institutions of the kind for negroes in the world ; 
in connexion with the last there is an epileptic colony for negroes. 
There is also (at Oxford) an Orphanage for the Colored (1883), which 
was established by the " Wake and Shiloh Associations of the Colored 
Baptist Church," first received state aid in 1891 , and is now supported 
chiefly by the state. The state prison is at Raleigh, although most 
of the convicts are distributed upon farms owned and operated by 
the state. The lease system does not prevail, but the farming out of 
convict labour is permitted by the constitution; such labour is 
used chiefly for the building of railways, the convicts so employed 
being at all times cared for and guarded by state officials. A re- 
formatory for white youth between the ages of seven and sixteen, 
under the name of the Stonewall Jackson Manual Training and 
Industrial School, was opened at Concord in 1909, and in March 
1909 the Foulk Reformatory and Manual Training School for negro 
youth was provided for. Charitable and penal institutions are under 
the supervision of a Board of Public Charities, appointed by the 
governor for a period of six years, the terms of the different members 
expiring in different years. Private institutions for the care of the 
insane, idiots, feeble-minded and inebriates may be established, 
but must be licensed and regulated by the state board and become 
legally a part of the system of public charities. 

Education. The public school system was established in 1839, 
being based on the programme for state education prepared in 1816 
1817 by Archibald Debow Murphey (1777-1832), whose educational 
ideas were far in advance of his day. Calvin Henderson Wiley 
(1819-1887), the author of several romances dealing with life in 
North Carolina, such as Roanoke: or, Where is Utopia? (1866), 
and of Life in the South: a Companion to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), 
was superintendent of common schools in 1853-1865 (the executive 
head of the state's educational department having previously been a 
" literary board "), and won the name of the " Horace Mann of the 
South " by his wise reforms. He kept the public schools going 
through the Civil War, having advised against the disturbance of the 
school funds and their reinvestment in Confederate securities. The 
present school system is supervised by a state board of education 
consisting of the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, 
treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, and superintendent of public 
instruction. In the counties there is a board of education and 
there is also a local school committee of three in each township. 
The compulsory attendance at school of children between the ages 



NORTH CAROLINA 



775 



of eight and fourteen for sixteen weeks each year by a state law is 
optional with each county. A state library commission was estab- 
lished in 1909. 

At the head of the state system of education is the university of 
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, chartered in 1789 and opened in 
1795, one of the oldest state universities in the country and one of the 
oldest universities in the South; it consists of the college, the 
graduate department, the law department, the department of 
medicine (1890, part of whose work is done at Raleigh) and the 
department of pharmacy (1897). In 1907-1908 it had 75 instructors 
and 775 students. Other state educational institutions are the 
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (1889) at West Raleigh, 
which in 1907-1908 had 42 instructors and 436 students; the State 
Normal and Industrial College (1892) for women, at Greensboro; 
and the East Carolina Teachers' Training School (1907), atGreenville. 
For the higher education of the negroes the state supports an Agri- 
cultural and M echanical College ( 1 89 1 ) at Greensboro, and normal and 
industrial schools at Fayetteville, Elizabeth City and Winston. The 
more important sectarian schools are Wake Forest College (Baptist, 
opened 1834333" manual labour and classical institute "; as a college, 
1838) at Wake Forest, 16 m. north of Raleigh, with 371 students 
in 1907-1908; Davidson College (Presbyterian, 1837) at Davidson, 
with 308 students (1907-1908); Biddle University (Presbyterian) 
at Charlotte, for negroes; Greensboro Female College (Methodist 
Episcopal, South; 1846); Guilford College (coeducational; Society 
of Friends, 1837) near Greensboro; Trinity College (coeducational; 
Methodist, -1852) at Durham; Lenoir College (Lutheran, 1890) at 
Hickory; Catawba College (Reformed, 1851) at Newton; Weaver- 
ville College (Methodist Episcopal, 1873) at Weaverville; Elon 
College (Christian, 1890) at Elon; St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 
1877), under the charge of Benedictines, at Belmont; Shaw Uni- 
versity (Baptist, 1865), for negroes, at Raleigh; and Livingston 
College (Methodist, 1879), for negroes, at Salisbury. 

Finance. The revenues of the state come from two sources; 
about two-thirds from taxation and about one-third in 3!! from the 
earnings of the penitentiary, from the fees collected by state 
officials, from the proceeds from the sale of state publications, and 
from the dividends from stock and bonds. The state owned, in 
1909, 30,002 shares of stock in the North Carolina Railroad Company, 1 
with a market value (1907) of $5,580,372 (the stock being quoted 3t 
186), and an annual income of $210,014 an d 12,666 shares of stock 
in the Atlantic & North Carolina Railroad Company, from which the 
annual income is $31,665. In addition to the ordinary general 
property tax, licences and polls, there are a tax on corporations 
and an income tax. North Carolina is one of the few states to 
experiment with the inheritance tax, but the last law dealing with 
that subject was repealed in 1899. The total receipts of the general 
fund for the fiscal year 1907 were $2,603,293, and the total disburse- 
ments for the same year were $2,655,282. 

The state debt at the close of the fiscal year 1907 amounted to 
$6,880,950. It may be divided into three parts: that contracted 
between 1848 and 1861 for the construction of roads, railways and 
canals; that contracted during the Civil War for other than war 
purposes; and that contracted during the Reconstruction era, 
nominally in the form of loans to railway companies. In their im- 
poverished condition it was impossible for the people to bear the 
burden, so an act was passed in 1879 scaling part of the debt 60%, 
part of it 75% and part of it 85%. The remainder, $12,805,000, 
and all arrears of interest were repudiated outright. This of course 
impaired the obligation of a contract, but under the Eleventh Amend- 
ment to the Constitution of the United States the bondholders could 
not bring suit against the state in the Federal courts. Another state 
could do so, however, and in 1904, certain creditors having given ten 
of their bonds to South Dakota, the case of South Dakota versus 
North Carolina came before the Supreme Court. The court decided, 
four judges dissenting, that North Carolina must pay the amount due 
or suffer her railway bonds to be seized and sold to satisfy the 
judgment (192 U.S. Reports, 286. See also 108 U.S. 76). 



The North Carolina Railroad from Goldsboro, via Raleigh, 
Greensboro and Salisbury, to Charlotte, was an extension of the 
Raleigh & Gaston, which had come into the hands of the state; it 
was chartered in 1849, the act being passed by the casting vote of the 
speaker, whose action was the cause of his failure to be re-elected 
to that, or to be elected to any other office afterwards, since the 
poverty of the state did not warrant such an expenditure. The 
original stock of $3,000,000, of which the state was to subscribe 
$2,000,000, was increased in 1855 to $4,000,000, the state subscribinig 
the added million. The road was leased in 1871 to the Richmond & 
Danville for thirty years at 6%; and in 1905 to the Southern Rail- 
way Company for ninety-nine years at 6f % for the first six years 
and at 7 % for the remainder of the term. The Atlantic & North 
Carolina, the second great internal improvement undertaken. by the 
state, was chartered in 1853, and was opened from Goldsboro to 
Morehead City (95 m.) in 1858; it was in 1910 a part of the Norfolk 
& Southern system. Although the state of North Carolina owns 
70-3 % of the stock (besides this Craven county holds 7-7%; 
Lenoir, 2-8%; and Pamlico county, 1-13%), the state casts only 
350 votes to the 700 of the private stockholders. 



History. The history of North Carolina may be divided into 
four main periods: the period of discovery and early colonization 
(1520-1663); the period of proprietary rule (1663-1729); the 
period of royal rule (1729-1776); and the period of statehood 
(from 1776). 

It is possible that some of the early French and Spanish 
explorers visited the coast of North Carolina, but no serious 
attempt was made by Europeans to establish a settlement until 
near the close of the i6th century. After receiving from Queen 
Elizabeth a patent for colonization in the New World, Sir Walter 
Raleigh, in April 1584, sent Philip Amadas, or Amidas (1550- 
1618), and Arthur Barlowe (c. isso-c. 1620) to discover in the 
region bordering on Florida a suitable location for a colony. 
They returned in September with a glowing account of what is 
now the coast of North Carolina, and on the gth of April 1585 
a colony of about 108 men under Ralph Lane (c. 1530-1603) 
sailed from Plymouth in a fleet of seven small vessels commanded 
by Sir Richard Grenville. The colony was established at the 
north end of Roanoke Island on the i7th of August, and about 
a week later Grenville returned to England. Threatened with 
famine and with destruction from hostile Indians, the entire 
colony left for England on the igth of June 1586 on Sir Francis 
Drake's fleet. Only a few days after their departure Sir Richard 
Grenville arrived with supplies and more colonists, fifteen of 
whom remained when he sailed away. Although greatly dis- 
appointed at the return of the first colony, Raleigh despatched 
another company, consisting of 121 persons under John White, 
with instructions to remove the plantation to the shore of 
Chesapeake Bay. They arrived at Roanoke Island on the 
22nd of July 1587 and were forced to remain there by the refusal 
of the sailors to carry them farther. Of the fifteen persons left by 
Grenville not one was found alive. White's grand-daughter, 
Virginia Dare (b. i8th August 1587), was the first English child 
born in America. White soon returned to England for supplies, 
and having been detained there until 1591 he found upon his 
return no trace of the colony except the word " Croatan " 
carved on a tree; hence the colony was supposed to have gone 
away with some friendly Indians, possibly the Hatteras tribe, and 
proof of the assumption that these whites mingled with Indians 
is sought in the presence in Robeson county of a mixed people 
with Indian habits and occasional English names, calling them- 
selves Croatans. In 1629 Charles I. granted to his attorney- 
general, Sir Robert Heath, all the territory lying between the 
3ist and 36th parallels and extending through from sea to sea, 
but the patent was in time vacated, and in 1663 the same 
territory was granted to the earl of Clarendon (1600-1674), the 
duke of Albemarle (1608-1670), and six other favourites of 
Charles II. By a second charter issued in 1665 the limits were 
extended to 29 and 36 30'. 

The proprietors had all the powers of a county palatine and 
proposed to establish a feudal and aristocratic form of govern- 
ment. To this end John Locke drafted for them in 1669 the 
famous Fundamental Constitutions providing for the division 
of the province into eight counties and each county into 
seigniories, baronies, precincts and colonies, and the division of 
the land among hereditary nobles who were to grant three-fifths 
of it to their freemen and govern through an elaborate system 
of feudal courts. But these constitutions, several times revised, 
actually served only as a theoretical standard for the proprietors 
and were abrogated altogether in 1693, and the colonists were 
governed by instructions which granted them much greater 
privileges. From the very beginning the territory tended to 
divide into two distinct sections, a northern and a southern. 
The northern section was first called Albemarle, then " that part 
of our province of Carolina that lies north and east of Cape Fear," 
and about 1689 North Carolina. Settled largely by people from 
Pennsylvania, this section came to be closely associated with the 
continental colonies. The southern section, influenced by its 
location, by the early settlers from Barbados, and by its trade 
connexions, was brought into rather more intimate relations with 
the island colonies and with the mother country. The pro- 
prietors struggled in vain to bring about a closer union. In 1691 



776 



NORTH CAROLINA 



one governor was placed over both settlements, but it was found 
necessary to appoint a deputy for North Carolina, and finally in 
1712 again to allow her a governor of her own. So long as the 
intervening territory was a wilderness no effort was made to 
define the boundary line. The first steps were taken in that 
direction just after the close of the proprietary period in 1729, 
but the work was not completed until iSis. 1 

The first permanent English colony in North Carolina was 
established at Albemarle on the Chowan river about 1660 by 
people from Virginia. The colony grew rapidly, and at the close 
of the colonial period (1776) the population numbered approxi- 
mately 300,000, including English, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, Swiss, 
French Protestants, Moravians, and about 40,000 negroes. 
According to Dr Weeks " the earliest settlers . . . were not 
religious refugees, . . . they came to the province not from 
religious but economic motives." 

The proprietary period (1663-1729) was a turbulent one, in 
spite of the supposedly peaceful influence of the Quakers. 
Six out of sixteen governors or deputy-governors were driven 
from office between 1674 and 1712, and there were two uprisings 
which have been deemed worthy of the term rebellion. The 
first under John Culpeper in 1677 was primarily economic in 
character, the chief grievance being the payment of an export 
duty on tobacco. It was evidently influenced by the recent 
uprising in Virginia under Nathaniel Bacon. The insurrection 
of dissenters (1708-1711), which was headed by Thomas Carey, 
who was deputy-governor while the trouble was brewing, was 
in opposition to the establishment of the Church of England; 
it was ultimately unsuccessful, the Church was established in 
1711, a law was passed which deprived Quakers of the privilege 
of serving on juries or holding public office, and the establish- 
ment was continued until the War of Independence. A war with 
the Tuscarora Indians, in 1711-1713, resulted in the defeat of the 
Indians and the removal of the greater part of the tribe to New 
York, where they became the sixth nation of the Iroquois 
confederacy. 

North Carolina did not join South Carolina in the revolution 
of 1719 (see SOUTH CAROLINA), but remained under proprietary 
rule until 1729. In that year an act was passed by parliament 
establishing an agreement with seven of the Lords Proprietors 
for the surrender of their claims to both provinces. They were 
allowed 17,500 for their rights and 5000 for arrears of quit 
rents. Lord Carteret refused to sell and continued to hold a 
one-eighth undivided share until 1744, when he gave up his claim 
in return for a large strip of land in North Carolina lying between 
latitude 35 34' and the Virginia line (36 30'). So that while 
the king was governmental head of the whole of North Carolina 
from 1729 to 1776 he was, after 1744, territorial lord of only 
the southern half. The political history during the royal period 
is, like that of the other colonies, the story of a constant struggle 
between the representatives of the people and the representatives 
of the crown. The struggle was especially bitter during the 
administrations of the last three royal governors, Arthur Dobbs 
(1684-1765), William Tryon (1729-1788) and Josiah Martih 
(1737-1786). There were disputes over questions of government, 
of commerce, of finance and of religion. The ship which brought 
stamps and stamped paper to Wilmington in 1766 was not 
permitted to land, and the stampmaster was compelled by the 
people to take an oath that he would not exercise the functions 
of his office. Through the vigilance of Governor Tryon, however, 
the Assembly was prevented from sending delegates to the Stamp 
Act Congress. The colonists were also angered by the attempt to 

1 Between 1735 and 1746 the southern boundary was first definitely 
established by ajoint commission of North Carolina, South Carolina 
and Georgia. The line was resurveyed in 1764, and in 1772 was 
extended; parts of the line were resurveyed under acts of the 
assembly of 1803, 1804, 1806, 1813, 1814 and 1815, and by an act 
of 1819 the last extension, to the Tennessee line, was confirmed and 
established. According to the charter the northern boundary was 
to be the line of 36 30', but the surveys (of 1728, 1749 and 1779) 
were not strictly accurate, and the actual line runs irregularly from 
3 6 33' 15' at its eastern to 36 34' 25-5" at its western end. The 
boundary between North Carolina and Tennessee was surveyed in 
1799 aoo 



enforce the acts of trade and navigation and by the parliamentary 
statute of 1764 forbidding the issue of bills of credit; and the 
Scotch-Irish among them in particular were aroused by the 
repeal of an act of 1771 allowing Presbyterian ministers to per- 
form the marriage ceremony and of another act of the same year 
for the establishment of Queen's College in Mecklenburg county 
for Presbyterians. In the " back country " extortionate fees, 
excessive taxes, and the oppressive manner of collecting them 
brought about a popular uprising, known as the Regulation, which 
centred in Orange and Anson counties, but was strong also in 
Brown, Edgecombe, Johnson, Granville and Halifax counties. 
Hermon Husband (c. 1724-1795) was the chief agitator of 
measures for relief, but, since, as a Quaker, he discouraged 
violence, the cause was left without a recognized leader. 
Governor Tryon manifested no sympathy for the oppressed 
and sought only the thorough suppression of the disturbance, 
which was organized in the spring of 1768 by Regulators, " for 
regulating public grievances and abuses of power." The Regu- 
lators agreed to pay no more taxes until satisfied that they were 
in accordance with law, and to pay nothing in excess of the legal 
fees. Violence speedily followed; the local militia was called out, 
but since only a few would serve the only means found to quiet 
the people was an alleged promise from the governor that if they 
would petition him for redress and go to their homes he would 
see that justice was done. In reply to their petition the governor 
denied that he had made any promise in their behalf; and in 
September he had at his command a military force of 1153, 
about one-fourth of whom were officers. Although the Regulators 
assembled to the number of about 3700 they were not prepared to 
withstand the governor's force and again submitted without 
bloodshed, there being only a few arrests made. In the following 
year the Regulators attempted to elect new members to the 
assembly and petitioned the newly-elected house. But as little 
had been accomplished when the superior court met at Hillsboro, 
Orange county, in September 1770, the Regulators became 
desperate again, whipped the chief offender, Colonel Edmund 
Fanning, and demolished his residence. These riotous proceed- 
ings provoked the second military expedition of the governor, 
and on the i6th of May 1771, with a force of about 1000 men and 
officers, he met about twice that number of Regulators on the 
banks of the Alamance, where, after two hours of fighting, 
with losses on each side nearly equal, the ammunition of the 
Regulators was exhausted and they were routed. About 
fifteen were taken prisoners, and of these seven were executed. 
This insurrection was in no sense a beginning of the War of 
Independence; on the contrary, during that war most of Tryon's 
militia who fought at Alamance were Patriots and the majority 
of the Regulators, who remained in the province, were Loyalists. 
In August 1771 Governor Tryon was succeeded by Governor 
Josiah Martin, who was soon engaged in spirited controversies 
with the assembly on questions pertaining to taxes, the southern 
boundary, and the attachment of property belonging to non- 
residents. So complete became the breach between them that 
in 1773 the royal government had nearly ceased to operate, and 
in 1774 the governor was deserted by his hitherto subservient 
council. The first Provincial Congress met at Newbern on the 
25th of August 1774 and elected delegates to the Continental 
Congress. When the governor learned that a second Pro- 
vincial Congress was called to meet in April 1775 he resolved to 
convene the assembly on the same day. But the assembly, 
the members of which were nearly the same as those of the 
congress, refused to interrupt the meeting of the congress, and 
in the next month the governor sought safety in flight, first to 
Fort Johnson on the Cape Fear below Wilmington and then to a 
man-of-war along the coast. On the 3ist of May 1775 a com- 
mittee representing the militia companies of Mecklenburg 
county passed a series of resolutions which declared that the 
royal commissions in the several colonies were null and void, 
that the constitution of each colony was wholly suspended, and 
that the legislative and executive powers of each colony were 
vested in its provincial congress subject to the direction of the 
Continental Congress; and the resolutions requested the 



NORTH CAROLINA 



777 



inhabitants of the county to form a military and civil organiza- 
tion independent of the crown of Great Britain which should 
operate until the Provincial Congress should otherwise provide 
or the British parliament should " resign its unjust and arbitrary 
pretensions with respect to America." The " Mecklenburg 
Declaration," which it is alleged was passed on the zoth of the 
same month by the same committee, " dissolves the political 
bonds " which have connected the county with the mother 
country, " absolves " the citizens of that county " from all 
allegiance to the British Crown," declares them " a free and 
independent people," and abounds in other phrases which closely 
resemble phrases in the great Declaration of the 4th of July 1776. 

The Resolutions were published in at least two newspapers only 
a few days after they were passed. As for the " Declaration," 
the original records of the transactions of Mecklenburg county were 
destroyed by fire in 1800, but it is claimed that a copy of the 
" Declaration " was made from memory in the same year, and when, 
in 1819, a controversy had arisen as to where the movement for 
independence originated, this copy was published, first in the Raleigh 
Register and North Carolina Gazette and then in many other news- 
papers. Several aged men also testified that they had heard a 
declaration of independence read at Charlotte, the county-seat, in 
May 1775; and one of them stated that he had carried it to the 
Continental Congress. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, however, 
declared that they had never heard of it before, and both believed 
it spurious. But Jefferson was charged with plagiarism by those 
who believed in the authenticity of the " Declaration," and in 1833 
there was discovered a proclamation of Governor Martin, dated the 
8th of August 1775, in which he mentioned a publication in the Cape 
Fear Mercury of a series of resolves by a committee of Mecklenburg 
county which declared " the entire dissolution of the laws, govern- 
ment and constitution of the country." Another stage of the 
controversy was reached in 1838-1847 when the Mecklenburg 
Resolutions of the 3ist of May 1775 were discovered either in part 
or in full in newspaper files. There seems practically no basis for 
the contention that a declaration of independence was adopted on 
the zoth other than the tradition that independence was declared 
by the Mecklenburg Committee on that date, and the occasional 
references in print, even before 1819, to a declaration of independence 
in the county in 1775. Those who believe the " Declaration " to be 
spurious argue that survivors remembered only one such document, 
that the Resolutions might easily be thought of as a declaration of 
independence, that Governor Martin in all probability had knowledge 
only of these and not of the alleged " Declaration," and that the 
dates of publication in the Raleigh and Charleston newspapers, 
and the politics of those papers, show that the Resolutions are 
authentic. In July 1905 there 'appeared in Collier's Weekly (New 
York) what purported to be a facsimile reproduction of a copy of the 
Cape Fear Mercury which was referred to by Governor Martin and 
which contained the " Declaration "; but this was proved a forgery. 1 

The first and the second provincial congress did little except 
choose delegates to the Continental Congress and the manage- 
ment of affairs passed in large measure from the royal govern- 
ment to the several county committees. The third provincial 
congress, which met on the 2ist of August 1775, still required 
its members to sign an oath of allegiance to King George III. 
but formed a provisional government consisting of a provincial 
council and six District Committees of Safety. The first sanction 
of independence by any body representing the whole province 
was given by the fourth Provincial Congress on the izth of April 
1776, and the same body immediately proceeded to the con- 
sideration of a new and permanent form of government. Their 
labours ended, however, in another provincial government 
by a Council of Safety, and the drafting of North Carolina's 
first state constitution was left to a constitutional convention 
which assembled at Halifax on the izth of November. 

North Carolinians fought under Washington at Brandywine 
and Monmouth and played a still more important part in the 
Southern campaigns of 1778-1781. The state was twice invaded, 
in 1776 and in 1780-1781, and two important battles were fought 
upon her soil, Moore's Creek on the 27th of February 1776 and 
Guilford Court House on the isth of March 1781. 

The territory now comprising the state of Tennessee belonged 
to Carolina under the charters of 1663 and 1665, and fell to North 
Carolina when the original province was divided. To this 

1 The 20th of May has been made a holiday in North Carolina, 
and the date appears on the state fag and the state seal; and a 
statue has been erected at Charlotte in memory of the signers of the 
" Declaration." 



territory settlers, many of them from North Carolina, had gone 
immediately before and during the War of Independence, and 
had organized a practically inde'pendent government. In 1776 
this was formally annexed to North Carolina, but in 1784 the 
state ceded this district to the national government on condition 
that it should be accepted within two years. The inhabitants of 
the district, however, objected to the cession, especially to the 
terms, which, they contended, threatened them with two years 
of anarchy; declared their independence of North Carolina and 
organized for themselves the state of Franklin. But the new 
state was weakened by factions, and after a brief and precarious 
existence it was forced into submission to North Carolina by which 
in 1 790 the territory was again ceded to the national government 
with the proviso that no regulation made or to be made by Con- 
gress should tend to the emancipation of slaves (see TENNESSEE). 

North Carolina sent delegates to the Philadelphia Constitu- 
tional Convention of 1787, but the state convention, at Hillsboro, 
called to pass upon the constitution for North Carolina, did not 
meet until the 2ist of July 1788, when ten states had already 
ratified. On the first day of this convention the opponents to the 
constitution, among whom were most of the delegates from the 
western counties, were ready to reject it without debate, but 
yielded to a proposal for discussing it clause by clause. In this 
discussion, which was continued for nine days, the document was 
most strongly opposed because it contained no bill of rights and on 
the ground that it would provide for such a strong central govern- 
ment that the state governments would ultimately be sacrificed. 
At the conclusion of the debate the convention by a vote of 
184 to 84 declared itself unwilling to ratify the constitution until 
a bill of rights had been added and it had been amended in 
several other particulars so as to guarantee certain powers to the 
states. By reason of this rejection the relations of North Carolina 
with the other states were severed upon the dissolution of the 
Confederation, and it took no part in the first election or in the 
organization of the new government. However, there was a 
speedy reaction against the oppositon which had in no small 
measure been inspired by fear of a requirement that debts be 
paid in gold and silver. A second convention met at Fayetteville 
in November 1789 and the constitution was speedily ratified 
(on the I3th) by a vote of 195 to 77. 

The period from 1790 to 1835 was marked by a prolonged 
contest between the eastern and the western counties. When 
the state constitution of 1776 was adopted the counties were so 
nearly equal in population that they were given equal representa- 
tion in the General Assembly, but the equality in population 
disappeared in the general westward movement, and in 1790 
the West began to urge a new division of the state into repre- 
sentative districts according to population and taxation. This 
was stubbornly resisted, and the West assumed a threatening 
attitude as the East opposed its projects for internal improve- 
ments for which the West had the greater need. In 1823 the 
West called an extra-legal convention to meet at Raleigh, and 
delegates from 24 of the 28 western counties responded, but 
those from the far West, in which there were practically no slaves, 
wished free white population to be made the basis of representa- 
tion, while those from the Middle West demanded the adoption 
of the basis for the national House of Representatives and the 
convention made only a divided appeal to the people. Ten 
years later, however, at the election of assemblymen, 33 of the 
western counties polled an extra-legal vote on the question of 
calling a constitutional convention, and 30,000 votes were cast 
for it to only 1000 against it. The effect of this was that in 
January 1835 the legislature passed a bill for submitting the 
question legally to all the voters of the state, although this bill 
itself limited the proposed convention's power relating to re- 
presentation by providing that it should so amend the constitu- 
tion that senators be chosen by districts according to public 
taxes, and that commoners be apportioned by districts according 
to Federal representation, i.e. five slaves to be counted equal to 
three whites. When the popular vote was taken, in the following 
April, every eastern county gave a majority against the conven- 
tion, but the West, even with the limitation which was decidedly 



NORTH CAROLINA 



favourable to the East, voted strongly for it and carried the 
election with a total majority in the state of 5856 votes. Again, 
however, the advantage was with the East, for the delegates 
were chosen by counties, two from each; but in the convention, 
which was in session at Raleigh from the 4th of June to the nth 
of July, the East made some concessions: such as the popular 
election of the governor (who had previously been elected by 
the two houses of the legislature), the disfranchisement of free 
negroes, and the abolition of representation from 6 boroughs, 
4 of which were in the East. The number of senators was 
reduced to 50, the number of commoners to 1 20, and the manner 
of choosing senators and commoners was changed as directed 
in the act providing for the convention. The electorate gave 
its approval to the revision by a vote of 26,771 to 21,606, and 
with this the agitation over representation ceased. 

The fundamental points of difference between North Carolina 
and South Carolina were exemplified in the slavery conflict. 
South Carolina led the extreme radical element in the South 
and was the first state to secede. North Carolina held back, 
worked for a compromise, sent delegates to the Washington 
Peace Convention in February 1861, and did not secede until 
the 20th of May 1861, after President Lincoln's call for troops 
to preserve the Union. Liberal support was given to the Con- 
federacy, both in men and supplies, but Governor Vance, one 
of the ablest of the Southern war governors, engaged in 
acrimonious controversies with President Jefferson Davis, 
contending that the general government of the Confederacy 
was encroaching upon the prerogatives of the separate states. 
Owing to its distance from the border, the state escaped serious 
invasion until near the close of the war. Wilmington was captured 
by the Federals in February 1865; General Sherman's army 
crossed the southern boundary in March; a battle was fought 
at Bentonville, March 19-21; Raleigh was entered on April 
13; and the Confederates under General Joseph E. Johnston 
surrendered near Durham Station, in Durham county, on the 
26th. 

Reconstruction was a costly experience here as in other 
Southern states. Jonathan Worth (1802-1869), elected governor 
under the presidential plan in 1865, was an honest and capable 
official, but the government established in accordance with the 
views of Congress in 1868 was corrupt, inefficient and tyrannical. 
Carpet-baggers, negroes and unscrupulous native whites, known 
as scalawags, were in control of affairs, while the people of 
wealth, refinement and education were disfranchised. Governor 
William Woods Holden (1818-1892; governor 1868-1870) was so 
weak and tyrannical that he was impeached by the legislature 
in December 1870. Under his successor, Tod R. CaldweU (1818- 
1874), there was some improvement in the condition of affairs, 
and in 1875 a constitutional convention, in session at Raleigh, 
with the Democrats slightly in the majority, amended the 
constitution, their work being ratified by the people at the 
state election in 1876. The native white element completely 
regained possession of the government in the following year, when 
the Democrats came into office under Governor Zebulon B. 
Vance. Since that time the most interesting feature in the 
political history has been the rise and fall of the People's party. 
The hard times which followed the financial panic of 1893 made it 
possible for them, in alliance with the Republicans, to carry 
the state in the election of 1894. Afterwards their strength 
declined, because the people became more prosperous, because 
the national Democratic party in 1896 and 1900 adopted their 
views on the money question, and because of the unpopularity 
of a coalition with Republicans, which made it necessary to give 
the coloured people a share of the offices. The race question 
was the chief issue in the election of 1898, the Democrats were 
successful, and what amounted to a negro-disfranchising amend- 
ment to the constitution was adopted in August 1900. In 1907 
there was a serious clash between the state authorities and the 
Federal judiciary, arising from an act of the legislature of that 
year which fixed the maximum railway fare at 2$ cents a 
mile and imposed enormous fines for its violation. The two 
principal railway corporations, the Southern and the Seaboard 



Air Line, contended that the act was clearly contrary to the 
I4th Amendment to the Federal Constitution in that it de- 
nied the equal protection of law. The promise of the rail- 
ways to give to every purchaser of a ticket a rebate check 
until the question of the validity of the act should be decided 
by the courts was not satisfactory to the state authorities, 
who arrested a ticket agent of the Southern railway, convicted 
him of violating the law, and sentenced him to the chain-gang 
for thirty days. Thereupon the attorneys for the railway 
applied to Judge Jeter Connelly Pritchard (b. 1857) of the 
United States Circuit Court for a writ of habeas corpus; this 
was granted and the prisoner was released. The governor of 
the state, Robert Brodnax Glenn (b* 1854), nevertheless urged 
the state courts and attorneys to proceed with the prosecution 
of other ticket agents, and threatened to resist with the force 
of the state any further interference of Federal judiciary; but 
in March 1908 the Supreme Court of the United States declared 
the North Carolina rate law unconstitutional on the ground that 
it was confiscatory. 



GOVERNORS OF NORTH CAROLINA 
Proprietary Period (1663-1729). 
William Drummond .... 
Samuel Stephens .... 
Peter Carteret . . 
John Jenkins, president of the council 
Thomas Eastchurch .... 
Thomas Miller, president of the council 
John Harvey, president of the council 

John Jenkins 

Henry Wilkinson 

Seth Sothel 

Philip Ludwell 

Alexander Lillington, deputy-governor 
Thomas Harvey, deputy-governor . 
Henderson Walker, president of the council 
Robert Daniel, deputy-governor 
Thomas Carey, deputy-governor 
William Glover, president of the council 

WiflSm Gto^r I contes ^^ (Carey's rebellion) 
Edward Hyde, deputy-governor 
Thomas Pollock, president of the council . 

Charles Eden 

Thomas Pollock, president of the council 
William Reid, president of the council 

George Burrington 

Edward Mosely, president of the council. 
Sir Richaid Everard 

Royal Period (1729-1776). 

George Burrington l 

Nathaniel Rice, president of the council . 

Gabriel Johnston 

Nathaniel Rice, president of the council . 
Matthew Rowan, president of the council 

Arthur Dobbs 

William Tryon 

Tames Hasell, president of the council 
Josiah Martin 

Statehood Period (1776- ). 

Richard Caswell 

Abner Nash 

Thomas Burke 

Alexander Martin 

Richard Caswell 

Samuel Johnston 

Alexander Martin . . . Federalist 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, Sr. . Dem.-Repub. 

Samuel Ashe 

William Richardson Davie. . 

Benjamin Williams ... 

James Turner .... 

Nathaniel Alexander ... ,, 

Benjamin Williams ... 

David Stone 

Benjamin Smith .... ,, 

William Hawkins .... 

William Miller .... 
John Branch 






1663-1667 
1667-1669 
1669-1673 
1673-1676 
1676-1677 
1677-1678 
1678-1679 
1679-1681 
1681-1683 
1683-1689 
1689-1691 
1691-1694 
1694-1699 
1699-1704 
1704-1705 
1705-1706 
1706-1707 

1707-1710 

1710-1712 

1712-1714 

1714-1722 

1722 

1722-1724 

1724-1725 

1725 
1725-1729 



I73I-I734 

1734 

1734-1752 

1752-1753 

1753-1754 

1754-1765 

I765-I77I 

1771 

I77I-I775 



1777-1779 
1779-1781 
1781-1782 
1782-1784 
1784-1787 
1787-1789 
1789-1792 
1791-1795 
1795-1798 
1798-1799 
1799-1802 
1802-1805 
1805-1807 
1807-1808 
1808-1810 
1810-1811 
1811-1814 
1814-1817 
1817-1820 



1 Burrington was appointed in 1730, but did not arrive in the 
province until February 1731. Either Everard held over or the 
president of the council was acting-governor from 1729-1731. 



NORTHCOTE NORTH DAKOTA 



779 



Dem.-Repub. 


1820-1821 


it 


1821-1824 


,, 


1824-1827 





1827-1828 


Democrat 


1828-1830 


t , 


1830-1832 


M 


1832-1835 


It 


1835-183? 


Whig 


1837-1841 


,, 


1841-1845 


,, 


1845-1849 


,, 


1849-1851 


Democrat 


1851-1854 


, 


1854-1855 


T 


1855-1859 


> 


1859-1861 




1861-1862 


( 


1862-1865 


Provisional 


1865 


Conservative 


1865-1867 


Military 


1867 




1867-1868 


Republican 


1868-1870 


j 


1870-1874 




1874-1877 


Democrat 


1877-1879 


,, 


1879-1885 


,, 


1885-1889 


,, 


1889-1891 


,, 


1891-1893 




1893-1897 


Republican 


1897-1901 


Democrat 


1901-1905 


,, 


1905-1909 


,, 


1909- 



Jesse Franklin 
Gabriel Holmes . 
Hutchings G. Burton 
James Iredell . 
John Owen 
Montford Stokes . 
David Lowry Swain 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, Jr. 
Edward Bishop Dudley 
John Motley Morehead 
William Alexander Graham 
Charles Manly .... 
David Settle Reid 
Warren Winslow (ex-officio) 
Thomas Bragg .... 
John Willis Ellis .... 
Henry Toole Clark (ex-officio) . 
Zebulon Baird Vance . 
William Woods Holden 
Jonathan Worth .... 
Gen. Daniel Edgar Sickles . 
Gen. Ed. Richard Sprigg Canby 
William Woods Holden . 

Tod R. Caldwell 

Curtis Hooks Brogden . 
Zebulon Baird Vance . 
Thomas Jordan Jarvis 
Alfred Moore Scales . 
Daniel Gould Fowle . 
Thomas Michael Holt . 

Elias Carr 

Daniel Lindsay Russell 
Charles Brantley Aycock . 
Robert Brodnax Glenn 
William Walton Kitchin . 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For physical description, resources, industries, 
&c., see State Board of Agriculture, North Carolina and its Resources 
(Raleigh, 1896); North Carolina Geological Survey Reports (Raleigh, 
1852, sqq.); the publications of the North Carolina Geological and 
Economic Survey (Raleigh, 1893, sqq.), e.g. Water Powers in North 
Carolina (1899), by G. F. Swain, Joseph H. Holmes and E. W. Myers, 
Gold Mining in North Carolina and other Appalachian States (1897), 
by H. B. C. Nitze and A. J. Wilkins, The Tin Deposits of the Caro- 
linas (1905), by I. H. Pratt and D. B. Sterrett, Building and Orna- 
mental Stones of North Carolina (1907), by T. L. Watson and others. 
The Fishes of North Carolina (1907), by Hugh M. Smith, and 
History of the Gems found in North Carolina (1908), by G. F. Kunz; 
Report of the Secretary of A griculture in Relation to the Forests, Rivers 
and Mountains of the Southern Appalachian Region (Washington, 
1902); Climatology of North Carolina (Raleigh, 1892); and H. 
Thompson, From the Cotton Field to the Cotton Mill, a Study of the 
Industrial Transition in North Carolina (New York, 1906), contains 
some interesting observations on the changes in social conditions 
resulting from the growth of the cotton-manufacturing industry. 
John W. Moore, History of North Carolina (2 vols., Raleigh, 1880); 
S. A'Court Ashe, History of North Carolina (2 vols., Greensboro, 1908- 
) are general surveys. Cornelia P. Spencer, First Steps in North 
Carolina History (6th ed., Raleigh, 1893), is a brief elementary book 
written for use in the public schools. For the colonial and revolu- 
tionary periods there are some excellent studies. C. L. Raper, 
North Carolina: a Study in English Colonial Government (New York, 
1904), treats of the royal period (1729-1776) from the legal point of 
view; J. S. Bassett, Constitutional Beginnings of North Carolina 
(Baltimore, 1894); The Regulators of North Carolina (Washington, 
1894); and Slavery in the State of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1899), 
are all trustworthy. S. B. Weeks deals with the religious history in 
his Religious Development in the Province of North Carolina (Baltimore, 
1892), Church and State in North Carolina (Baltimore, 1893) and 
Southern Quakers and Slavery (Baltimore, 1896) ; he is anti- Anglican, 
but judicial. E. W. Sikes, The Transition of North Carolina from 
Colony to Commonwealth (Baltimore, 1898), based on the public 
records, is accurate, though dull. There is a considerable contro- 
versial literature concerning the Mecklenburg Declaration of In- 
dependence; W. H. Hoyt's The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independ- 
ence (New York, 1907) is the best presentation of the view generally 
adopted by competent historians that the alleged Declaration of the 
2Oth of May 1775 is spurious; G. W. Graham, The Mecklenburg 
Declaration of Independence (New York, 1905), and J. W. Moore, 
Defence of the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence (1909), are 
perhaps the best of the attempts to prove the same Declaration 
genuine. The older histories of the colony are: Hugh Williamson, 
History of North Carolina (2 vols. Philadelphia, 1812), which deals 
with the period before 1771 and is meagre and full of errors; F. X. 
Martin, History of North Carolina (2 vols., New Orleans, 1829), 
which deals with the period before 1776, contains much irrelevant 
matter and is of little value; F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina 
(2 vols. Fayetteville, N.C., 1857-1858), written from the established 
church point of view, the best and fullest treatment of the pro- 
prietary period (1663-1729); and W. D. Cooke (ed.), Revolutionary 



History of North Carolina (Raleigh and New York, 1853), containing 
a defence of the Regulators. For the Reconstruction period see J. G. 
de Roulhac Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina (Raleigh, 
1906); Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Con- 
dition of Affairs in the late Insurrectionary States, being the 42nd 
Congress, 2nd session, House Report 22 (13 vols., Washington, 1872; 
vol. ii. deals with North Carolina); and Hilary A. Herbert et al. 
Why the Solid South? or Reconstruction and its Results (Baltimore, 
1890). The chief published sources are The Colonial Records of 
North Carolina (10 vols., Raleigh, 1886-1890); and The State Records 
of North Carolina (vols. 11-20, 1776-1788; other vols., in continua- 
tion of the colonial series, Winston (11-15) an d Goldsboro (16-20), 
1895-1902; the series is to be continued). The best bibliography 
is S. B. Weeks, Bibliography of Historical Literature of North Carolina 
(Cambridge, 1895). 

NORTHCOTE, JAMES (1746-1831), English painter, was 
born at Plymouth on the 22nd of October 1746. He was 
apprenticed to his father, a poor watchmaker of the town, and 
during his spare hours was diligent with brush and pencil. In 
1769 he left his father and started as a portrait-painter. Four 
years later he went to London and was admitted as a pupil 
into the studio and house of Reynolds. At the same time he 
attended the Academy schools. In 1775 he left Reynolds, 
and about two years later, having acquired the requisite funds 
by portrait-painting in Devonshire, he went to study in Italy. 
On his return to England, three years later, he revisited his 
native county, and then settled in London, where Opie and 
Fuseli were his rivals. He was elected associate of the Academy 
in 1786, and full academician in the following spring. The 
" Young Princes murdered in the Tower," his first important 
historical work, dates from 1786, and it was followed by the 
" Burial of the Princes in the Tower," both paintings, along with 
seven others, being executed for Boydell's Shakespeare gallery, 
The " Death of Wat Tyler," now in the Guildhall, was exhibited 
in 1787; and shortly afterwards Northcote began a set of ten 
subjects, entitled " The Modest Girl and the Wanton," which were 
completed and engraved in 1796. Among the productions of 
Northcote's later years are the " Entombment " and the " Agony 
in the Garden," besides many portraits, and several animal 
subjects, like the " Leopards," the " Dog and Heron," and the 
" Lion "; these latter were more successful than the artist's efforts 
in the higher departments of art, as was indicated by Fuseli's 
caustic remark on examining the " Angel opposing Balaam "- 
" Northcote, you are an angel at an ass, but an ass at an angel." 
The works of the artist number about two thousand, and he made 
a fortune of 40,000. He died on the i3th of July 1831. 

Northcote was emulous of fame as an author, and his first essays 
in literature were contributions to the Artist, edited by Prince Hoare. 
In 1813 he embodied his recollections of his old master in a Life of 
Reynolds. His Fables the first series published in 1828, the second 
posthumously in 1833 were illustrated with woodcuts by Harvey 
from Northcote's own designs. I n the production of his Life of Titian, 
his last work, which appeared in 1830, he was assisted by William 
Hazlitt, who previously, in 1826, had given to the public in the 
New Monthly Magazine his recollections of Northcote's pungent and 
cynical " conversations," the bitter personalities of which caused 
much trouble to the painter and his friends. 

NORTH DAKOTA, one of the North Central states of the 
American Union, between 45 55' and 49 N., and 96 25' and 
104 3' W. It is bounded N. by the Canadian provinces of 
Saskatchewan and Manitoba, S. by South Dakota, W. by 
Montana and E. by Minnesota, from which it is separated by the 
Red river (or Red river of the North). North Dakota has an 
extreme length, E. and W., of 360 m., an extreme width, N. and 
S., of 210 m., and a total area of 70,837 sq. m., of which 654 
sq. m. are water surface. 

Topography. North Dakota lies in the Prairie Plains and 
Great Plains physiographic provinces. The escarpment of the 
Coteau du Missouri is the dividing line, that portion to the N. 
and E. lying in the Prairie Plains, that to the S.W. in the Great 
Plains. The surface presents few striking topographic features, 
and may be subdivided into three vast plains or prairie table- 
lands rising one above the other from E. to W., the two eastern- 
most together constituting the Prairie Plains portion of the state. 
The lowest of these plains is the valley of the Red river, and 
this valley extends along the eastern edge of the state and 
varies in width from 25 to 70 m. Its elevation is 965 ft. at 



780 



NORTH DAKOTA 






Wahpeton, in the extreme S.E.; 903 ft. at Fargo; 836 ft. at 
Grand Forks; and 798 ft. at Pembina, in the extreme N.E., 
which is the lowest point within the state. To the W. of this 
valley lies a second plain, ranging in height from 1200 to 1600 
ft. above sea level, and in width from 75 m. in the S. to 200 m. 
in the N. This plain is separated from the Red river valley in 
the N. by an abrupt slope rising to a height of from 300 to 500 
ft. above the surrounding country, and called the Manitoba 
escarpment, because the greater part of it lies in the province 
of Manitoba. The Pembina Mountains, low hills near the inter- 
national boundary and about 30 m. W. of the Red river, form 
a portion of this escarpment. From these hills southward the 
ridge gradually becomes less abrupt until in Walsh county 
it vanishes into prairie. The ascent to the upper plain then 
becomes very gentle, though there is a rise of 400 or 500 ft., 
until it reaches the south-eastern portion of Sargent county 
and changes into the more abrupt Coteau des Prairies, a plateau 
about 2000 ft. above the sea. The second plain, while not so 
level as the Red river valley, contains but one group of hills, 
the Turtle Mountains; these rise from 300 to 400 ft. above the 
general level, near the centre of the northern boundary. The 
prairies in this second table-land are gently rolling, and are 
covered with drift from the continental ice-sheet of the glacial 
period. They are bounded on the W. by a ridge from 300 to 
400 ft. in height and from 20 to 50 m. in width, which roughly 
marks the dividing line between the farming lands of the E. 
and the grazing lands of the W. The northern portion of this 
ridge forms the water-parting between the streams that empty 
into Hudson Bay and those that flow into the Gulf of Mexico. 
To the W. of this ridge lies the third and highest plain within the 
state, the so-called Coteau du Missouri. It occupies nearly 
one half of the state, and rises gradually westward until it attains 
a general level of about 2700 ft. East of the Missouri river 
this region is covered with glacial drift, and is noticeably different 
from the more level lands of the lower plains. The ice-sheet 
wore down from the hills and filled the valleys with debris 
until the surface has a billowy appearance. As the Missouri 
river marks approximately the lower edge of the ice-sheet, the 
region W. of this stream is almost free from glacial deposits and 
presents a strong contrast to the rest of the state. The billowy 
plains still remain in places, but in the vicinity of streams the 
billows give way to deep ravines. The sands and clays found 
here are fine and soft, and as there is scant vegetation to protect 
the hillsides they are easily eroded by the rains. As a result, 
the surface has been carved into fantastic forms. The early 
French explorers called the region les terres mauvaises, on account 
of the difficulties that here met the traveller, and in its English 
equivalent, " the Bad Lands," this appellation still remains. 
High winds and seams of burning lignite coal have aided the 
rains in giving the Bad Lands their peculiar configuration. 
Prairie fires or spontaneous combustion have ignited many coal 
seams. Some have already burnt out; others still emit 
smoke and sulphurous fumes from the crevices in the hillsides, 
and through the fissures may be seen the glowing coal and rock. 
The earth surface above these natural furnaces has been hardened, 
cracked and sometimes melted into a reddish slag, called scoria, 
which, on account of its resemblance to lava, has given rise to 
an incorrect impression that the region was once the centre of 
volcanic disturbances. The picturesque effect of this sculpturing 
by water, wind and fire is greatly enhanced by the brilliant 
colours along the faces of the hills and ravines grey, yellow, 
black and every shade of red and brown. Here too are found 
petrified forests and other evidences of a vegetable growth that 
has long ago disappeared. The lands are bad for the traveller 
and the farmer, but not for the ranchman. A few miles from 
the streams the country is less broken, and there are deep grassy 
valleys, in which the animals may find shelter in winter. Cattle 
sometimes congregate in cold weather around a burning coal 
seam and enjoy the warmth. The lignite in this region also warms 
the ranchman's cabin, being easily mined where a seam is exposed 
in the walls of a ravine or on the side of a hill. 

North Dakota has a mean elevation of 1900 ft. The highest 



point in the state, about 3500 ft., is in the southern part of 
Bowman county, east of the Little Missouri river. 

Rivers. There are three drainage systems within the state: 
the Red river (of the North) and its tributaries, the Mouse, or 
Souris, river and its tributaries, and the Missouri river and its tribu- 
taries. The Red river flows in a winding channel along the eastern 
boundary and empties into Lake Winnipeg in Canada, thence 
reaching Hudson Bay through the Nelson river. Its tributaries 
are small, and are remarkable chiefly for the fact that they at first 
flow in a direction almost opposite to that of the main stream, and 
make a great bend to the N.E. before joining it. 1 The Sheyenne, the 
Goose, the Park and the Pembina rivers are the most important of 
these streams. The Mouse, or Souris, river rises in Canada, crosses 
the international boundary near the meridian of 102 W. long., 
flows S.E. for about 70 m., then turns to the N. and near the loist 
meridian re-enters British territory, after receiving the waters of the 
Riviere des Lacs and other small streams. The Missouri river, the 
most important stream within the state, crosses the western boundary 
near the 48th parallel, and after pursuing a winding course in a 
general south-easterly direction, leaves the state near the centre 
of its southern boundary. The James river, flowing southward into 
South Dakota, is the Missouri's only important eastern tributary 
within the state. From the W. the Missouri receives the waters of 
the Little Missouri, Cannon Ball, Heart and Knife rivers. All that 
portion of the state lying W. of the Pembina Mountains and E. of 
the Mouse river valley is practically without river drainage, and 
for its surface and sub-surface drainage, Devils Lake, an irregular 
body of water about 40 m. in length and with an area of 400 sq. m., 
forms a natural reservoir. The waters of this lake are strongly saline. 
The entire region W. of the Red river valley and E. of the valleys 
of the Mouse and Missouri rivers is dotted with small lakes. The 
morainic belts and other obstructions in the drift plains hem in the 
waters in the intervening basins and create what are called " glacial 
lakes," varying in diameter from a few yards to several miles. All 
the lakes of the state are of this character, and many are strong with 
salt and alkali. The drift plains also contain numerous shallow 
hollows, locally termed " pots and kettles," which receive the 
drainage of their vicinity and form sloughs. 

Fauna and Flora. Before the advent of the white man, herds of 
bison roamed the prairies, but these have disappeared, 2 and, with 
the exception of deer and bears, large game is to be found only in 
the Bad Lands. Here are found the lynx, the " mountain lion " 
or puma, the prairie and timber wolves, the jack rabbit, the prairie 
dog (gopher), the black, the brown and, occasionally, the grizzly bear. 
A few fur-bearing animals, the mink, beaver and raccoon, still 
remain. The prairie dog is found everywhere. Among the lakes, 
sloughs and stubble-fields of the prairies, teal, ducks, coots and 
geese are found in abundance. Other prairie birds are the prairie 
chicken, and there are a great many birds that sing while flying; 
among them are the horned lark, bobolink, Smith's longspur and 
chestnut collared longspur, lark-sparrow, lark-bunting and Sprague's 
pipit. 

The flora of North Dakota is typical of a semi-arid country. 
The prevailing plant-colour is a greyish green, due to a hard dry 
outer covering which serves as a protection from desiccation. All 
plant life has a remarkably large proportion of subterranean growth, 
because of the necessity of getting moisture from the earth and not 
from the air; hence roots and tubers are unusually well developed. 
The Red river valley is a meeting ground for many species of plants 
whose principal habitat lies in some other quarter. Many trees of 
the eastern forest, such as basswood, sugar, river and red maple, 
red, white and black ash, red and rock elm, black and bur oak, 
white and red pine and red cedar find their western limit here. 
Some species characteristic of the more northerly regions for 
example, the mountain ash, balsam fir, tamarack and black and 
white spruce find here their southern or south-western limits. 
The same is true of shrubs and herbaceous plants. The prickly 
ash, Virginian creeper and staff-tree find here their northern limit ; 
and the mountain maple, Canada blueberry, dwarf birch and ground 
hemlock their southern limit. Of 1500 species of herbaceous plants 
in the Red river basin, it is estimated that fully half reach here their 
geographical limit or limit of frequent occurrence. Trees are found 



1 The peculiar bow shape of these western tributaries of the Red 
river is due to the fact that these streams originally flowed S.E. into 
Lake Agassiz, now extinct. As the waters of the lake gradually 
receded, the rivers reached it by pushing their channels eastward 
through what was once its bed. The southern part of the lake 
bottom was finally uplifted by a movement of the earth crust, 
and the outlet was changed from the S. to the N.E_. The waters 
continued to recede, and the tributaries, in cutting their way through 
the sediment, followed the slope of the land and gradually turned 
northward. 

2 The early settlers found the bones of the bison scattered over 
the prairies, and after the construction of railways the gathering 
and snipping of these for use in sugar refining and in the manufacture 
of superphosphate became temporarily a profitable industry. 
Between January and August 1889 a single dealer at Minot shipped 
1 200 tons, which sold at J8 the ton. 



O I 






CL. 




: 



NORTH DAKOTA 



781 



only on Turtle Mountains, in the vicinity of streams, and in a few 
other places sheltered from wind and sun. North Dakota's total 
woodland area is estimated at 600 sq. m., or less than I % of its 
entire surface. No other state in the Union has such a relatively 
small area of forest. By an executive proclamation, which came 
into effect on the 24th of November 1908, a Federal forest reservation 
of 21-8 sq. m. was created. The prairies of the more humid regions 
are covered with valuable grasses, and with masses of showy native 
flowers, which bloom from spring to autumn. The pasque flower is 
found on all the prairies and is the earliest to appear. The Bad Lands 
exhibit a vegetation typical of semi-arid regions. Cottonwoods 
flourish along the Little Missouri river, and in sheltered ravines 
grow stunted junipers and cedars, which seldom rise above the crest 
of some protecting bluff. Poplars grow in the valleys, and the cactus 
and sage brush are common. The faces of buttes and ravines that 
are turned toward the sun are usually devoid of vegetation. 

Climate. There are no mountains, forests or large bodies of water 
to moderate the extremes of summer and winter, and the uniformity 
of topography makes the ranges of temperature for different parts 
of the state very nearly the same. Between the extreme northern 
and southern sections there is a range of only 6 F. The mean annual 
temperature for the state is 39 F., with an extreme of no" recorded 
for the summer and a minimum of - 54 for the winter. As a general 
rule, temperatures are highest in the W. and lowest in the E. In 
the central region of the state (at Jamestown, Stutsman county) 
the mean annual temperature is 40; the mean for the winter, 10, 
with a minimum of 40 recorded in February; the mean for the 
summer is 67, with an extreme of 103 recorded in July. The 
winters are long and severe. The season, however, on account of the 
dryness of the climate, is not so harsh as the low temperatures 
would seem to indicate. The seasons are sharply demarked; both 
winter and summer come suddenly. The summers are short, but 
as there are sixteen hours of sunlight per day in midsummer, vege- 
tation grows rapidly. Killing frosts often occur in June and return 
again early in September. High winds are frequent, and prairie 
houses are often protected by rows of trees called " wind breaks." 
During the growing season the winds are usually light, but in the 
late summer and autumn occasional dry, hot, southerly winds (" hot 
southers ") prove very destructive to vegetation. T.ornadoes are 
not unknown, and local hail storms are frequent in the summer, 
but do little damage. The total precipitation for the state is 17 or 
18 in., the heaviest, about 20 in., occurring in the Red river valley, 
and the lightest, about 14 in., in the extreme W. While the rainfall 
is always below the normal amount for humid regions, by far the 
greater part of it occurs in the spring and summer, and growing 
crops receive the full benefit. The precipitation rarely amounts to 
2 in. for the entire winter. The snows are therefore very light, and 
are quickly swept from the prairies by the high winds, so that cattle 
may graze in the open plains throughout the year. There are, 
however, during every winter from one to four severe blizzards, 
which inflict great damage upon unprotected flocks and herds. 

Soils. As the Red river valley is the bed of the extinct Lake 
Agassiz, its soil is composed of the fine detritus and silty deposits 
carried into the lake by its tributaries. Over the whole basin this 
deposit, to a depth of I or 2 ft., is coloured black by decayed 
vegetation, and constitutes one of the most fertile tracts on the 
continent. Being remarkably free from trees, rocks and streams, 
the soil can be turned in furrows that run perfectly straight for 
miles, and favours the development of " bonanza farms," where 
thousands of acres are cultivated in a single field. The soils W. of 
the valley consist of glacial drift, and are well suited to the growing 
of grain. The drift becomes thinner toward the W., and finally 
disappears in the semi-arid regions of the Missouri river valley. 
In this region the soils of sand and clay are much finer than 
the drift, and are very productive where the water-supply is 
sufficient. 

Irrigation. Irrigation is confined to the western half of the state, 
and more especially to the north-west, being employed chiefly in the 
drainage basin of the Missouri river. The bed of the river is too far 
below the surrounding country to permit the use of its waters for 
irrigation purposes by the usual gravity methods. The ordinary 
process before 1906 was to dam small streams and " coulees "(deep 
gulches in which water flows intermittently) and flood the surround- 
ing country. The total irrigated area in 1902 was 10.384 acres. The 
so-called Reclamation Act passed by Congress in 1902 provided for 
the construction of a system of irrigation works in this and other 
states by the Federal government. In 1908 the Federal Reclamation 
Service had five projects in North Dakota. The Buford-Trenton, 
Williston and Nesson projects are situated in Williams county, on 
the left bank of the Missouri river. The abundant lignite coal in 
the region was to operate pumps for raising water from the river into 
canals crossing the valley. The Washburn project was to irrigate 
5000 acres in McLean county with water pumped from the Missouri 
river. It was estimated that the fourth project, the lower Yellow- 
stone, on the western bank of the river of that name, would furnish 
water for 66,000 acres of land, of which 20,000 lie in Dawson county, 
North Dakota, and the rest in Montana. The fifth project, the 
Bowman, was to irrigate 10,000 acres in North Dakota and the north- 
western part of South Dakota by storing the waters of the North 
Fork of Grand river. Water for irrigation purposes is often derived 



from artesian wells, which are very numerous in the S. and E., 
particularly in the James river valley. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is by far the most important industry 
of the state, and, owing to climatic conditions, it is rigidly limited 
to a few staple crops. The growing season is too short for maize 
or Indian corn, which constituted only I -2 % of the acreage of cereals 
in 1905. No winter wheat can be grown, and the climate is too harsh 
for the larger fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums and grapes; 
but such hardy small fruits as currants, gooseberries, raspberries, 
blackberries and strawberries may be grown in abundance. 

The total farm acreage in 1890 was 7,660,333; in 1900, 15,542,640. 
The value of the farm property in the same decade rose from 
$100,745,779 to $255,266,751, and the value of farm products 
from 1889 to 1899 from $21,264,938 to $64,252,494. 

The average size of the farms (excluding farms under 3 acres 
with products valued at less than $500) was 277-4 acres in 1890 and 
343-8 acres in 1900. With regard to tenure, 74-7 % of the farms 
were operated by their owners, 15-2% by part owners and 7-2% 
by share tenants. Hay and grain formed the principal source of 
income of 88-4 % of the farms, live-stock of 6-7 % and dairy produce 
of 2-6%. Wheat is the state's most important product. In the 
acreage of this cereal in 1909 (according to the Year-book of the U.S. 
Department of Agriculture), North Dakota ranked first, and in 
the crop second among the states of the Union, its total yield being 
90,762,000 bushels, valued at $83,501,000. Next in importance to 
wheat in 1909 was flaxseed, amounting to 14,229,000 bushels, valued 
at $22,340,000. In the production of this commodity the state 
ranked first, and produced about 55% of the entire crop of the 
United States. The flax is cultivated for the seed, and only slightly 
for the fibre. Other important crops are oats ($16,368,000 in 1906) 
barley ($8,913,000), hay, potatoes, rye and Indian corn. The value 
of the various classes of live-stock on the 1st of January 1910 was as 
follows: horses, $81,168,000; mules, $1,040,000; cattle, $21,001,000; 
sheep, $2,484,000; swine, $2,266,000. Very little attention is paid 
to fruit and vegetable growing. 

Minerals. With the exception of lignite, which underlies a large 
portion of the western half of the state, North Dakota has few mineral 
deposits of commercial value. Sandstone occurs in large quantities, 
and W. of the Red river valley granite and gneiss are found, but 
these materials are not quarried. The coal is all in the form of brown 
lignite and is not very valuable as a fuel, as it soon crumbles into a 
fine powder on being exposed to air. The total area of the coal beds 
is estimated at 35,000 sq. m. A law enacted in 1896 required the 
use of lignite in all state buildings and institutions. Mining is carried 
on along the Northern Pacific railway W. of the Missouri river, in 
the Mouse river valley along the line of the Minneapolis, St Paul & 
Sault Ste Marie railway, and at a few places in the same region 
along the line of the Great Northern railway. Good clays for the 
manufacture of tile and brick are found at numerous places. The 
total value of the mineral products (except stone) m 1909 was 
$738,818, of which $522,116 was the value of coal and $206,222 
of clay products. 

Manufactures. Manufacturing in North Dakota is of small im- 
portance, being largely confined, with the exception of flour and grist 
milling, to the supply of local needs. Under the factory system there 
were 337 establishments in 1900 and 507 in 1905: the capital in- 
vested in 1900 was $3,511,968 and in 1905 $5,703,837; and the 
value of products was $6,259,840 in 1900 and $10,217,914 (or 
63-2 % more) in 1905. The products of the flour and grist mills 
increasedjn value from $4,134,023 in 1900 to $6,463,228 in 1905, 
and in this last year constituted in value 63-3% of the total factory 
products of the state. Printing and publishing was next in import- 
ance, with products valued at $719.950 in 1900 and at $1,110,439 
in 1905. Butter, cheese and condensed milk manufactured were 
valued at $122,128 in 1900 and at $562,481 in 1905. The chief 
manufacturing centres are Fargo and Grand Forks. 

Transportation. The total railway mileage within the state on 
the 3ist of December 1908 was 4135-67 m. The main line of the 
Northern Pacific, from St Paul to Portland, Oregon, enters the state 
at Fargo and runs almost due W. throughout its length for about 
580 m. Parallel with this road, but farther to the N., is the main 
line of the Great Northern system, running from St Paul to Seattle. 
The length of its route within the state, from Wahpeton to Buford 
via Larimore, is about 460 m. Both of these systems have numerous 
branch lines. The main line of the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste 
Marie enters the S.E. corner of the state at Fairmount and ends 
in the N.W. at Portal, on the international boundary, having in 
1909 a length within the state of 361 m. Among its many branches 
are the " Wheat Line," running from Kenmare, North Dakota, to 
Thief River Falls, Minnesota, and having a length of 251 m. in the 
state; and the " Missouri River Line, penetrating the southern 
and central portions of the state from Hankinson to Garrison, with 
a length of 282 m. In 1909 the Northern Pacific was building about 
140 m. of new track. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railway, 
running E. and W. through South Dakota, sends four short branches 
into the southern part of North Dakota. The_Chicago & North- 
Western also sends a short branch line northward into the state, form- 
ing a junction with other lines at Oakes. The Red river is navigable 
as far S. as Belmont, and the Missouri river is navigable throughout 
its course within the state, although it requires a skilful pilot. 



782 



NORTH DAKOTA 



Population. In 1870 the population of that portion of 
Dakota Territory included within the present limits of North 
Dakota was 2405; in 1880, 36,909. The population of the 
state in 1890 was 182,719; in 1900, 319,146; in 1905, 437,070; 
in 1910, 583,888. The number of the foreign-born population 
in 1900 was 113,091, or 35-4%, the highest proportion to be 
found in any state of the Union. The principal elements com- 
posing the white foreign population were as follows: Norwegians 
30,206, English Canadians 25,004, Russians 14,979, Germans 
11,546, Swedes 8419. The coloured population consisted of 
4692 Indians not taxed, 2276 Indians taxed, 286 negroes, 148 
Japanese and 32 Chinese. Most of the Indians not taxed live 
on reservations, of which there are four: Devils Lake Reserva- 
tion in 1909 had a total area of 143-97 S Q- m -> a population of 
980, consisting of Sisseton, Wahpeton, and Cut Head (or Pabaksa ) 
Sioux; Turtle Mountain 1 Reservation, in Rolette county, 
established in 1882, and now allotted (excepting 186 acres for 
church and school purposes), had a population in 1909 of 2588, 
being for the most part a mixture of Pembina (or Turtle Mountain) 
Chippewa with French Canadians; Fort Berthold Reservation 
in the west central part of the state, on the Missouri river, 
established in 1870, had in 1909 an area of 1382-4 sq. m., and a 
population of 399 Arikara (Caddoan), and, of Siouan stock, 
453 Hidatsa (or Grosventre) and 252 Mandan Indians; and 
Standing Rock Reservation, on the western bank of the Missouri 
river, was established in 1875, and in 1909 contained 2887-2 
sq. m. (about three-fifths of which lies in South Dakota and 
much of which was opened to settlement in 1908-1909) and a 
population of 3399 Sioux. The population of the state is largely 
rural. The larger municipalities with the population of each 
in 1905 were: Fargo (12,512), Grand Forks (10,127), Jamestown 
(5093), Bismarck, the capital, (4913), Minot (4125), Valley City 
(4059), Dickinson (3188), Wahpeton (2741), Mandan (2714), 
Grafton (2423) and Devils Lake (2367) ; in 1905 there were fifteen 
other municipalities each with a population of more than 1000. 
In 1906 the Roman Catholic Church had the largest number of 
communicants (61,261 out of a total of 159,053 members of all 
denominations), and there were 59,923 Lutherans. 

Administration. The state is governed under its constitution 
of 1889, as subsequently amended. The governor is chosen 
biennially, and has a limited pardoning power. He may veto 
appropriation bills by items, but any of his vetoes may be 
overruled by a two-thirds vote of each house. The governor 
and lieutenant-governor must be at least thirty years old. 
The other administrative officers are a secretary of state, 
auditor, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, com- 
missioner of insurance, three commissioners of railways, attorney 
general and commissioner of agriculture and labour; each 
of these officers is chosen biennially and must be at least 
twenty-five years of age. The legislative department consists 
of a Senate, with members chosen every four years, and about 
half chosen at each biennial election; and a House of Repre- 
sentatives, with members chosen biennially. The sessions of 
the legislature are biennial, and are limited to sixty days. The 
minimum age for senators is twenty-five years and for repre- 
sentatives twenty-one years. Bills may originate in either house. 
A lieutenant-governor, chosen biennially , presides over the Senate. 
In 1907 the legislature proposed an amendment providing for 
the application of initiative and referendum to statutory laws 
and constitutional amendments; two years later the legis- 
lature passed a substitute resolution, which omits the clause 
regarding amendments of the constitution, and which, if 
passed by the legislature of 1911 will be put to popular vote 
at the general election of 1912. The judicial department consists 
of the supreme court, district courts, county courts, municipal 
courts, and justices of the peace. The supreme court consists 
, of three judges (minimum age thirty years), chosen by popular 
vote for six years. Their number may be increased to five 
whenever the population of the state shall amount to 600,000. 

1 The Devils Lake Reservation and the Turtle Mountain Chippewa 
are both under the Fort Totten School, which is on the Devils Lake 
Reservation. 



For each judicial district (the tenth district was created in 1907) 
there is one district judge, elected for four years; the district 
courts have original jurisdiction (except in probate matters) 
and certain appellate jurisdiction. The judge of the county court 
is chosen for two years. This court has exclusive original 
jurisdiction in probate matters, and in counties with over 2000 
inhabitants its jurisdiction may be extended by popular vote 
to include concurrent jurisdiction with the district courts in 
civil matters involving amounts less than $1000, and in criminal 
actions below the grade of felony. Justices of the peace have 
jurisdiction in civil cases involving no land titles and sums of 
money not exceeding $200. They may also try misdemeanours 
in counties without other criminal jurisdiction. 

For the administration of local government, the state is 
divided into counties (46 in 1910). In those counties that have 
not adopted a township organization county affairs are ad- 
ministered by a board of county commissioners; where the 
township organization has been adopted the county government 
is administered by the chairmen of the several township boards. 
For each county there are a judge, clerk, register of deeds, 
auditor, treasurer, sheriff and state's attorney. 

All citizens of the United States residing in North Dakota are 
declared to be citizens of the state. The right of suffrage is 
confined by the constitution to males twenty-one years of age, 
who are citizens of the United States or have declared their 
intention of becoming citizens, and who have resided in the 
state one year, in the county six months, and in the voting 
precinct ninety days preceding the election. Civilized Indians 
who have severed their tribal relations two years before an 
election are entitled to vote. Women may vote for all school 
officers and upon all questions relating solely to school matters, 
and are eligible to any school office. 

Amendments to the constitution must be passed by both 
houses of the legislature at two consecutive sessions, and must 
then be ratified by popular vote. By this arrangement a period 
of nearly four years usually elapses between the proposal and 
the final ratification of an amendment. 

The amount of homestead exempt from seizure for debt is 
limited in value to $5000, and may not include more than two 
acres in a town plot or more than 160 acres elsewhere. The 
exemption is not valid against a debt created for the purchase 
money, or against taxes levied on the property, or against 
mechanics' or labourers' liens for work done or material furnished 
for improvements, or against a mortgage acknowledged by both 
husband and wife. The grounds for absolute divorce are adultery, 
cruelty, desertion (one year), neglect (one year), habitual 
drunkenness (one year) and conviction for felony; residence in 
the state for one year is required before application for divorce. 

North Dakota is one of the few American states whose constitu- 
tion forbids the manufacture, importation 2 or sale of intoxicating 
liquors. Attempts to secure the repeal of this provision have been 
unsuccessful. Apothecaries may secure a licence to sell liquors 
for purely medicinal purposes upon a petition signed by twenty- 
five reputable free-holders and twenty-five reputable women. 
In 1909 the advertisement of liquors, solicitation of orders for 
liquors, and the sale of cigarettes to minors were prohibited. 

Education. At the head of the public school system is a super- 
intendent of public instruction, chosen for two years. He, with 
the governor and the president of the state university, constitutes 
a high-school board, having supervision of the secondary schools. 
In each county there is a county superintendent, elected biennially, 
and in each school district a board of directors. The proceeds of 
the sale of public lands donated to the state for educational purposes, 
and all escheats to the state, constitute a trust fund, the interest 
from which, with the proceeds of all fines for the violation of statfe 
laws, is annually apportioned among the school districts according 
to the school population; the total apportionment from the State 
Tuition Fund in 1908 was $357,238. This income is supplemented 
by local taxation. The minimum school term allowed by law is six 

1 Before the law passed by the first Legislative Assembly of the state 
to carry out this provision could come into effect, it was partially 
annulled by the decision of the United States Supreme Court in the 
case of Leisy v. Hardin (1890), in which the court held that liquors 
might be imported into any state and sold in the original package 
(q.v.) without reference to local prohibitory or restrictive laws. 



NORTH DAKOTA 



783 



months, and the schools are open to all pupils between the ages of 
six and twenty -one years. For children between the ages of eight 
and fourteen attendance for twelve weeks, six being consecutive, is 
compulsory. The total enrolment in the public schools in 1908 was 
131,582, with an average daily attendance of 90,419. Educational 
facilities are also furnished by the state through university and school 
of mines at University, near Grand Forks, normal schools (opened 
in 1890) at Valley City and Mayville, an agricultural college and 
experiment station (1890) at Fargo, a normal and industrial school 
(opened in 1899) at Ellendale, a school for the deaf (1890) at Devils 
Lake, a scientific school (opened in 1903) at Wahpeton, and a school 
of forestry at Bottineau. Fargo College at Fargo, founded in 
1887 by Congregationalists, is now non-sectarian. The Methodist 
Episcopal Church maintains Wesley College near Grand Forks 
(formerly the Red River Valley University at Wahpeton), affiliated 
with the state university. There is a state library commission. The 
state supports a hospital for the insane at Jamestown, an institu- 
tion for the feeble-minded at Grafton, a home for old soldiers at 
Lisbon, a blind asylum at Bathgate, a reform school (opened 1902) 
at Mandan and a penitentiary at Bismarck. There is a state sana- 
torium for tuberculosis (1909). 

Finance. The chief source of revenue for the state, counties 
and municipalities is the general property tax. There are no special 
corporation taxes, but licence-charges are levied upon express and 
sleeping-car companies, and a tax is laid on the premiums of insurance 
companies. No poll tax is levied for state purposes, but counties 
are authorized to levy such a tax for school purposes. There are 
boards of equalization and review for the state, counties and muni- 
cipalities. The state board fixes the rate of the state tax. For 
defraying the expenses of the state government, exclusive of the 
interest on the bonded debt, the tax rate is limited by the con- 
stitution to four mills on the dollar of assessed valuation. The state 
debt, excluding the amount of Territorial indebtedness assumed 
when Dakota Territory was divided, may not exceed $200,000. 
Local indebtedness is limited to % of the assessed value of the 
local property, but incorporated cities may by special vote increase 
this limit. The total bonded debt of the state on the 3ist of October 
1908 was $642,300 and was incurred for the most part for the 
construction of public buildings during the Territorial period. At 
the close of the fiscal year ending on the 3ist of October 1908, the 
receipts for the year amounted to $3,259,668, the expenditures to 
$3,476,073 and the balance in the treasury to $582,905. 

History. The first attempts to establish permanent settle- 
ments in what is now North Dakota were made by traders 
of the Hudson's Bay Company, who began their operations 
in the Red river valley about 1793.* In 1797 C. J. B. Chaboillez, 
a French trader in the service of the North- West Fur Company, 
built a trading post on the southern bank of the Pembina river, 
near its mouth, but this was soon abandoned. Three years 
later Alexander Henry, the younger (d. 1814), built two trading 
posts in the present limits of the state for this company, one on 
the western bank of the Red river near the Park river, where 
he lived until 1808. David Thompson (1770-1857), an employee 
at different times of the Hudson's Bay and North-West Fur 
companies, explored the region of the Missouri river in 1797-1798, 
and thus anticipated the work of Lewis and Clark, who entered 
the present limits of the state in 1804 and wintered among the 
Mandans,constructingFort Mandan in what is nowMcLean county. 
In 1801 John Cameron (d. 1804) erected a trading post for the 
North-West Fur Company on the site of the present Grand Forks. 

The first real homeseekers to enter the state of whom there 
is any record were a colony of Scottish Highlanders who had 
first settled at Kildonan (Winnipeg) in 1812 under a grant from 
the Hudson's Bay Company to Thomas Douglas, 5th earl of 
Selkirk. A part of the Winnipeg colony soon migrated south- 
ward and settled on the site of the present city of Pembina, 
at the mouth of the Pembina river, which they thought to be 
in British territory, and named the settlement Fort Daer. When 
Major Stephen H. Long, commanding an exploring expedition 
to the Minnesota and Red rivers, reached Fort Daer in 1823, 
he found there about six hundred persons, a few being Scotch, 
but the greater part being half-breeds. 

North Dakota formed part of the region ceded by France to 
the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. From 
1803 to 1805 it was included in the District of Louisiana, and from 
1805 to 1812 it was a part of the Louisiana Territory, the name 
of which was changed to Missouri Territory in 1812. In 1834 

1 There seems to be no good authority for the statement often 
made that the first settlement in North Dakota was made by 
French Canadians in 1780. 



that part of the present state E. of the Missouri river was included 
in the newly organized Territory of Michigan, and became 
successively a part of Wisconsin Territory in 1836, of Iowa 
Territory in 1838, and of Minnesota Territory in 1849. In 1854 
the Territory of Nebraska was organized from a portion of the 
Missouri Territory, and the part of the Dakotas W. of the 
Missouri, then locally called " Mandan Territory," was included 
in its limits. After Minnesota entered the Union, in 1858, the 
country between the Red and the Missouri rivers had no Terri- 
torial government for three years, but the inhabitants formed 
a provisional government. On the 2nd of March 1861 the 
Territory of Dakota was created, including the present Dakotas 
and portions of Wyoming and Montana. The scat of the 
Territorial government was fixed at Yankton, and remained 
there until 1883, when it was removed to Bismarck. The name 
of the Territory was derived from the Dakota Indians; the 
word " Dah-ko-ta " (signifying " allied " or " confederated "), 
being originally applied to the Sioux Confederation. In 1863 
when Idaho Territory was formed, the boundaries of the Dakotas 
were fixed at practically their present limits. The boundary 
between Dakota Territory and Nebraska was slightly altered 
in 1870 and 1882. The Territory had hardly been organized 
before its settlement was impeded by the Civil War without and 
by Indian troubles within. In 1862 the Indians began a series of 
bloody massacres along the frontiers of Minnesota and Dakota. 
In the following year General Alfred Sully (182 1-1879) > command- 
ing United States troops, marched up the Missouri river as far 
as Bismarck, and thence to the valley of the James river. On 
the 3rd of September 1863 with 1200 men he routed 2000 Sioux 
near the present town of Ellendale, in Dickey county, in an 
engagement called the battle of White Stone Hills. Four 
hundred warriors were slain, and a great number were captured. 
In 1864 Sully defeated the Sioux at the battle of Takaakwta, 
or Deer Woods, on the Knife river, and a few days later he 
again encountered them, and after a desperate struggle of 
three days administered a crushing defeat; the warriors 
abandoned their provisions and escaped into the Bad Lands. 
The Indians still remained hostile, however, and in 1865 Sully 
found it necessary to conduct his troops N. as far as Devils 
Lake, and thence W. to the Cannon Ball river. By these opera- 
tions the Indian frontier was fixed W. of the Missouri river, and 
forts and garrisons were placed along this stream. The worst 
of the Indian troubles in northern Dakota were then at an end, 
though for many years there were occasional outbreaks. 

A period of rapid development in the Red river basin followed 
the entrance of the Northern Pacific railway into this region in 1872. 
At the election in November 1887 the question of the division 
of the Territory into two states at the " seventh standard parallel " 
was submitted to the people, and was carried at the polls. In 
accordance with the Enabling Act, which received the president's 
approval on the 22nd of February 1889, a constitutional con- 
vention met at Bismarck on the 4th of July following, and drafted 
a frame of government for the state of North Dakota. In 
October this was ratified at the polls. The chief interest in the 
election turned on the prohibition clause in the constitution, 
which was submitted separately, and received a majority of 
only 1159 votes. On the 2nd of November 1889 President 
Harrison issued a proclamation declaring North Dakota a state. 
By an agreement between North and South Dakota, embodied 
in their constitutions, each state assumed the debt created for 
the erection of public buildings within its limits during the 
Territorial period. 

In the development of the state since its admission into 
the Union the railways have been an important factor. In 
1894 they inaugurated the so-called " concentration movement," 
and began to conduct annual excursions into North Dakota, thus 
bringing into the state thousands of immigrants. They have 
also adopted the policy of selecting favourable town-sites on 
the uninhabited prairie, erecting grain elevators at such points, 
and furnishing transportation facilities by means of branch 
roads tapping the main lines of travel. Under this system 
prosperous towns and villages have sprung up among the prairies. 



7 8 4 



NORTHEIM NORTHFLEET 



In politics the state has been Republican, except in 1892, when 
the Democrats and Populists combined; in 1906, 1908 and 1910 
a Democratic governor was elected. 

... T Territorial Governors.* 

William Jayne .... 1861-1863 

Newton Edmunds . . . 1863-1866 

Andrew J. Faulk .... 1866-1869 

John A. Burbank .... 1869-1874 

John L. Pennington . . . 1874-1878 

William A. Howard 2 . . . 1878-1880 

Nehemiah G. Ordway . . . 1880-1884 

Gilbert A. Pierce .... 1884-1887 

Louis K. Church . ... . 1887-1889 

Arthur C. Melette . . . 1889 



State Governors. 



Republican 



1889-1891 
1891-1893 
1893-1895 
1895-1897 
1897-1898 
1898-1899 
1899-1901 
1901-1905 
1905-1907 
1907- 



John Miller . 

Andrew H. Burke 

Eli C. D. Shortridge . . . Democratic 

Roger Allin Republican 

Frank A. Briggs * . 

Joseph M. Devine 4 

Frederick B. Fancher 

Frank White 

Elmore Y. Sarles . 

John Burke Democratic 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Description: The State of North Dakota: The 
Statistical, Historical and Political Abstract (Aberdeen, S.D., 1889), 
prepared by Frank H. Hagerty, Commissioner of Immigration; North 
Dakota: A Few Facts concerning its Resources and Advantages 
(Bismarck, 1892), prepared by the Commissioner of Agriculture and 
Labour; Glimpses of North Dakota (Buffalo, 1901), published by the 
North Dakota Pan-American Exposition Company; The Story of 
the Prairies; or. The Landscape Geology of North Dakota (Chicago, 
1902), by D. E. Willard; Explorations in the Dakota Country in 
the Year 1855 (Senate Ex. Doc. No. 76, 34 Cong., I Sess., Washington, 
1856) by G. K. Warren; Report on the Geology and Resources of the 
Region in the Vicinity of the Forty-Ninth Parallel (Montreal, 1875), 
by George M. Dawson; United States Geological Survey of the Terri- 
tories. Annual Reportfor 1872, containing The Physical Geography and 
Agricultural Resources of Minnesota, DakotaandNebraska(Wa.shington, 
1873), by Cyrus Thomas-; publications by the U.S. Geological Survey 
(consult the bibliographies in Bulletins, Nos. IOO, 177 and 301). 

Fauna and Flora : United States Geological Survey of the Territories: 
Miscellaneous Publications, No. 3, Birds of the North-west (Washington, 
1874), by Elliot Coues ; publications by the United States Geological 
Survey (consult the bibliographies in Bulletins, Nos. 100, 177,301); 
and Wallace Craig, " North Dakota Life : Plant, Animal and Human," 
in Nos. 6 and 7 (June and July) of vol. xl. (1908) of the Bulletin of 
the American Geographical Society (New York). 

History: " Historical Sketch of North and South Dakota," 
in South Dakota State Historical Society Collections (1902), i. 
23-162, by W. M. Blackburn; Illustrated Album of Biography of 
the Famous Valley of the Red River of the North and the Park 
Regions, including the most Fertile and Widely Known Portions of 
Minnesota and North Dakota (Chicago, 1889); New Light on the 
Earlier History of the Greater North-west. The Manuscript Journals 
of Alexander Henry and David Thompson, 1799-1814, edited by Elliot 
Coues (3 vols., New York, 1897). 

NORTHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, on the Ruhme. 12 m. by rail N. of Gottingen and at 
the junction of railways to Cassel and Nordhausen. Pop. (1905) 
7984. It has an interesting Evangelical church, containing 
some old wood-carving and stained glass, a Roman Catholic 
church, several schools and a training college for schoolmasters. 
There are manufactures of tobacco, sugar and boots; other 
industries are flour-milling, tanning and brewing. The place 
is said to date from the 9th century; it obtained civic rights 
in 1208, and later became a member of the Hanseatic League. 
It was stormed by the imperial troops in June 1627. The 
Benedictine abbey of St Blasius was founded in 1063 and dis- 
solved at the Reformation. 

See Wennigerholz, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Northeim 
(Northeim, 1896). 

NORTHER, a winter wind accompanying the "cold wave" 
that follows the passage of a cyclone across the United States 
of America. A warm S.E. or S.W. wind on the east of such a 
cyclone materially slackens or entirely dies away, and is followed, 
often suddenly, by the piercingly cold norther. The passage 

1 The Territorial government embraced both the present states 
of North and South Dakota. 



* Died in office on the loth of April 1880. 
1 Died in office, July 1898. 



_ 4 Succeeded Frank A. Briggs, deceased, by virtue of his office of 
lieutenant-governor. 



of a cyclone across America is usually from W. to E., and the 
cyclonic system of circulation would produce these results; 
but as the North American cyclones usually originate east of 
the Rocky Mountains, the warm air drawn from the Gulf of 
Mexico is not only followed by the cold air drawn from the 
Arctic regions, but the body of cold air slides down the eastern 
slopes of the Rockies and advances as a solid wedge (the " cold 
wave ") under the cyclone itself. " Uncomfortably warm in 
the lightest clothing," a traveller upon the prairies of Texas 
may become " uncomfortably cold before he can wrap his 
blanket around him " (W. Ferrel, A Popular Treatise on the 
Winds). The temperature may fall 50 F. in twenty-four hours. 

NORTHFIELD, a city of Rice county, Minnesota, U.S.A., 
on the Cannon river, about 35 m. S. of St Paul. Pop. (1905) 
3438; (1910) 3265. It is served by the Chicago Great-Western, 
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island 
& Pacific railways. It is a shipping centre for the products 
of the farming and dairying region in which it lies, but it is 
most widely known for its educational institutions. It is the 
seat of the Baker School for Nervous and Backward Children, 
a private institution; of St Olaf College (Norwegian Lutheran), 
founded in 1874; and of Carleton College (founded in 1866 by 
Congregationalists but now non-sectarian, opened in 1870), one 
of the highest grade small colleges in the West, and the first in 
the North-west to abolish its preparatory academy. Carleton 
College has the Goodsell Observatory, which gives the time 
to the railways of the North-west, and publishes a magazine, 
Popular Astronomy. The Scoville Memorial Library (1896) 
of the College had 23,000 volumes in 1909. Northfield has a 
public library and the Minnesota Odd Fellows' Widows and 
Orphans Asylum. Named in honour of John W. North, who 
laid out Northfield and several other western towns, it was 
settled about 1851, incorporated as a village m 1868, and 
chartered as a city in 1875. 

NORTHFIELD, a village of Washington county, Vermont, 
U.S.A., in Northfield township, about 35 m. S.E. of Burlington, 
in the Green Mountains region. Pop. (1910) of the village 
1918; of the township 3226. Northfield is served by the 
Central Vermont railway. It is the seat of Norwich University, 
founded in 1819 as the American Literary, Scientific and Military 
Academy at Norwich, Windsor county, Vermont, by Captain 
Alden Partridge (1785-1854). Captain Partridge was a pro- 
fessor in the U.S. Military Academy in 1813-1816 and acting 
superintendent of the Academy in 1816-1817, and was president 
of Norwich University until 1843; he founded various other 
military schools besides the one at Norwich. Norwich Univer- 
sity was incorporated in 1834 under its present name, and in 
1866, when the buildings at Norwich were burned, was removed 
to Northfield. The charter requires " a course of military 
instruction, both theoretical and practical," and the discipline 
of the institution is military in form and principle. In 1898 
the university was recognized by the General Assembly of Ver- 
mont as the military college of the state. It offers courses 
leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science 
in civil engineering, in electrical engineering and in chemistry. 
In 1908 it had 13 instructors and 168 students. Dewey Hall 
(1902), the administration building, was named in honour of 
Admiral George Dewey, a former student in the university. In 
the township there are outcrops of good granite and of verde 
antique, and along a range of hills E. of the village there is. a 
deposit of very fine black slate. The hills furnish excellent 
grazing for cattle, and much milk is shipped to New England 
cities. The township of Northfield was incorporated in 1781; 
the original settlement on the site of the present village was 
made in 1785, and the village was incorporated in 1855. 

NORTHFLEET, an urban district of Kent, England, within 
the parliamentary borough of Gravesend, on the Thames, 
22 m. E. by S. of London by the South Eastern and Chatham 
railway. Pop. (1901) 12,906. The church of St Botolph is of 
Norman foundation, but the nave is principally Decorated and 
the chancel Perpendicular, and the tower, having fallen down, 
was rebuilt in 1628. The church contains a brass of the 



NORTH HOLLAND NORTHINGTON, EARLS OF 



785 



century and other interesting monuments. The nave and chancel 
have undergone modern restoration. Huggens College, with 
residences for impoverished ladies, was established in 1847 by 
John Huggens of Sittingbourne. Besides chemical manufactures, 
there are chalk, lime, cement and brick works and a ship- 
building yard. Swanscombe almost adjoins Northfleet on the 
south-west. Its name is said to be derived from a camp formed 
here by the Danish king, Sweyn, and tradition fixes at this spot 
the meeting between William the Conqueror and the men of 
Kent, to whom was confirmed the possession of all their ancient 
laws and privileges. 

NORTH HOLLAND, a province of the kingdom of Holland, 
lying between the North Sea and the Zuider Zee, and on the 
landward side bounded by the provinces of South Holland 
and Utrecht. Pop. (1904) 1,053,083; area, 1070 sq. m. The 
province also includes the islands of Texel, Vlieland and Terschel- 
ling, belonging to the group of the Frisian Islands, as well as 
Wieringen, Marken and Urk in the Zuider Zee. There are. 
three natural divisions foreshore and sand-dunes, inner dunes 
and the geest grounds, and low fens and clay lands. 

The dunes form the great natural barrier against the sea behind 
which the province lies secure. But the fact of there 'being no 
inlets of the sea is the reason of the absence of commercial towns 
along the sea-board, the only exception being Ymuiden, which 
has arisen at the mouth of the North Sea canal from Amsterdam. 
On the other hand the broad, gently-sloping, sandy beach is 
peculiarly fitted for sea-bathing, and in the absence of harbours 
permits the beaching of the characteristic flat-bottomed fishing 
.boats. Petten, Egmond-on-Sea, Wyk-on-Sea and Zandvoort are 
fishing villages and watering-places. 

In the depressions of the dunes and on the geest grounds at 
their foot, small woods have been planted in places, and in this 
sheltered strip market-gardening and horticulture are practised. 
Horticulture flourishes, especially along the margin of the geest 
grounds from about 5 m. north of Haarlem to twice that distance 
south, hyacinths, tulips, narcissus and crocuses being the flowers 
chiefly cultivated. The sight of these flowers in spring, with 
mile after mile of brilliant and varied colours, attracts visitors 
even from foreign countries. This region of the province was 
one of the earliest inhabited and includes the oldest towns and 
villages, such as Schagen, which was flourishing in the I2th 
century and was created into a lordship in the beginning of the 
I5th century for the benefit of a natural son of Count Albrecht 
of Holland. The castle was demolished in the ipth century, 
but two towers (restored in 1879) are standing. Among interest- 
ing places may be mentioned Alkmaar, Heilo, Egmond, Kastrikum 
and Beverwyk, which, like Velzen a few miles south, was granted 
by Charles Martel to Willebrord, the apostle of the Frisians, in 
the first half of the 8th century. The name is a corruption of 
Bedevaartswyk, " the village on the pilgrims' road," and refers 
to the pilgrimages once made to the church of St Agatha in the 
neighbourhood. Brederode, another ancient village, was the 
seat of the illustrious family of the same name. The remains of 
the castle are extensive. Other ancient towns are Zandpoort, 
Bakenes, Haarlem and Bennebroek, once the seat of a nunnery 
removed hither from Egmond by Dirk II. in the loth century. 

The third division of the province comprises by far the largest 
area, that, namely, which lies at or below sea-level. The reclama- 
tion of land which has been effected here is noteworthy. The 
whole of the lakes to the north of the former Y, including the 
famous Purmer and Beemster lakes, and the Wieringerwaard 
and Zype sea-polders, were drained in the beginning of the I7th 
century; but the Waard-en-Groet, the Anna Paulowna and the 
Koegras sea-polders to the north of these, were only added to 
the mainland in the first half of the igth century. This region is 
traversed by the North Holland canal (1819-1825), between 
Amsterdam and the naval station of den Helder. The Y, which 
was formerly an inlet of the Zuider Zee, was drained, and the 
North Sea ship canal was formed in its stead (1865-1876), and 
carried through the dunes to Ymuiden. Of the drained lakes 
south of the former Y, the most important is the Haarlem Lake. 
The landscape in this division of the province is the most typical 



of Holland; green meadows stretching as far as the eye can see, 
dotted with windmills and cattle, and slashed by the regular 
lines of the drainage canals, bordered with pollarded willows. 

As in Friesland, cattle-rearing and the making of cheese, 
chiefly of the Edam description, are the main industries, but 
agriculture and even a little market-gardening are also practised 
in the heavier clay lands, such as the Y and Anna Paulowna 
polders. Purmerend, Alkmaar and Enkhuizen are the chief 
market centres. Though the country is naturally poor in minerals, 
springs containing iron have been discovered, such as the 
Wilhelminabron at Haarlem. The security of the Zuider Zee 
for trade and fishing purposes was the first factor in the com- 
mercial development of North Holland, and the cities of 
Medemblik, Enkhuizen, Hoorn, Edam and Monnikendam, 
though now little more than market centres for the surrounding 
district, possessed a large foreign commerce in the i6th and 
1 7th centuries. This prosperity finally concentrated itself upon 
the Y (that is, upon Amsterdam) and the series of industrial 
villages situated on its offshoot the Zaam, of which Zaandam 
and Wormerveer are the most important. 

NORTHINGTON, ROBERT HENLEY, isx EARL OF (c. 1708- 
1772), lord chancellor of England, was the second son of Anthony 
Henley, a member of a well-to-do family in Hampshire, who was 
a Whig member of parliament, and a well-known wit and writer. 
Robert was educated at Westminster school and St John's 
College, Oxford; and after gaining a fellowship at All Souls 
he was called to the bar in 1732. In 1747 he was elected member 
of parliament for Bath, of which borough he became recorder in 
1751. He acquired a lucrative practice at the bar, and in 1756 
was appointed attorney-general. In the following year he was 
promoted to the office of lord keeper of the great seal, being the 
last person so designated. For three years Henley, though still 
a commoner, presided over the House of Lords in virtue of his 
office; but in 1760 he was created Baron Henley of Grainge in 
the county of Southampton. The delay in raising him to the 
peerage was due to the hostility of George II., who resented 
Henley's former support of the prince of Wales's faction, known 
as the Leicester House party; and it was in order that he might 
preside as lord high steward at the trial of Earl Ferrers for 
murder in 1 760 that he then received his patent. On the accession 
of George III. the office of lord chancellor was conferred on 
Henley, and in 1764 he was created Viscount Henley and earl of 
Northington. In 1765 he presided at the trial of Lord Byron for 
killing William Chaworth in a duel. Northington, who was a 
member of the group known as " the king's friends," was 
instrumental' in procuring the dismissal of the marquess of 
Rockingham and the recall of Pitt to office in 1766, and he himself 
joined the government as lord president of the council, Lord 
Camden becoming chancellor. He resigned office in 1767, and 
died at his residence in Hampshire on the I4th of January 1772. 
He married, in 1743, Jane, daughter of Sir John Huband of 
Ipsley, Warwickshire, by whom he had three sons and five 
daughters. His youngest daughter, Elizabeth, married Morton 
Eden, who in 1799 was created Baron Henley in the peerage of 
Ireland; and her grandson, the 3rd Baron Henley of this creation, 
was in 1885 created earl of Northington. 

Lord Chancellor Northington was in his youth a man of convivial 
and boisterous manners, much addicted to swearing. Horace 
Walpole commented on his undignified bearing at the trial of Lord 
Ferrers; but Lord Eldon considered him " a great lawyer, "and his 
integrity was unquestioned. His notes of cases tried by himself 
in the Court of Chancery were published in two volumes in 1818. 

ROBERT HENLEY, 2nd earl of Northington (1747-1786), only 
surviving son of the lord chancellor, was appointed a teller of 
the exchequer in 1763, and lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1783, an 
office which he administered in a spirit of concession to popular 
claims in Ireland, encouraging native industries and public 
economy, by which he made himself beloved by the Irish people. 
He resigned in 1784, and died unmarried on the 5th of July 
1 786, when the titles granted to his father became extinct. 

See Lord Henley, Memoir of Robert Henley, Earl of Northington 
(London, 1831); Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors; Foss's Judges 
of England; Horace Walpole's Memoirs. 



786 



NORTH SEA 



NORTH SEA, a sea bounded E. by the continent of Europe 
and W. by Great Britain. At its southern end it communicates 
by the narrow Strait of Dover with the English Channel, and so 
with the Atlantic, and towards the north it widens out gradually 
to 345 rn- between St Abb's Head and the coast of Denmark, 
and narrows again to 270 m. between Duncansby Head and the 
coast of Norway. To the north of Scotland it communicates 
with the Atlantic westwards by the Pentland Firth and the 
channel between the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and north- 
wards with the Norwegian Sea. 

Its total area is given by Murray as 162,600 sq. m., and by 
Krummel as 571,910 sq. km., or 220,820 sq. statute m. Murray 
estimates the volume of the North Sea at 11,200 cub. 
re'//"'"' m -> an< i Krummel at 53,730 cub. km. or 12,890 cub. 
m., giving mean depths of 61 and 48 fathoms respect- 
ively. The North Sea is thus on the whole shallow; its 
bed is part of the continental shelf on which the British Isles 
stand, and it slopes upwards with fair regularity from north to 
south. In the south and east there is a broad coastal strip 
over which the depth nowhere exceeds 20 fathoms, and the 
whole south-eastern part of the area is less than 30 fathoms 
deep. In about its middle latitude the Dogger Bank crosses 
the North Sea from east to west, extending for about one-third 
of the whole distance; near the English coast the depth here 
is under 10 fathoms and it increases eastwards to about 20 
fathoms. South of the Dogger there are local depressions, 
mostly of small area, in which the depth is as much as 45 fathoms, 
as in the " Silver Pit." Krummel points out that a line drawn 
from the northern edge of the Dogger to the middle of the 
Skagerrack constitutes a rough boundary of the shallow southern 
basin, the depth increasing very slowly beyond this line to the 
" Norwegian Channel " a deep gully closely following the 
Scandinavian coast, and extending into the Skagerrack, in 
which the depth increases to as much as 400 fathoms. 
* According to Jukes-Browne, the North Sea, in its present form, 
first took shape as a result of the tectonic movements indicated 
Hist ry ky the break between the older and newer Pliocene 
deposits. The southern end of the North Sea was 
probably little affected by the general subsidence which occurred 
during the Glacial period; its boundary in this direction was 
apparently within the present land area of France and Belgium, 
while a narrow inlet may have run westwards between France 
and England in the present position of the Strait of Dover. 
Meanwhile immense quantities of ice detritus from Scotland and 
Scandinavia were deposited in the North Sea, to a thickness 
of perhaps 600 ft., and the whole region was subsequently raised 
above sea-level, constituting the " structural surface " upon 
which the present river system was developed as a series of 
tributaries to a great river which formed a continuation of 
the Rhine. Finally the land subsided again, the plain of the 
North Sea was again submerged, and the western inlet of 
Pleistocene times became the Strait of Dover. 

For reasons which will be sufficiently obvious from the historical 
sketch just given, the coasts of the southern part of the North 
Coasts Sea are of no great height. In England they consist 
of low cliffs with sandy beaches, while on the con- 
tinental side are immense flats and marshes, with parts below 
sea-level protected by sand-dunes and artificial dykes. Suess 
has shown that no evidence is forthcoming of tectonic movement 
since the Bronze Age, and the rapid changes of coast-line now 
taking place in many parts are therefore wholly due to the action 
of the sea, which is probably specially effective on account of 
the relatively recent opening of the Strait of Dover. The 
erosion of the North Sea coasts has been made a subject of 
minute study (in England especially by the British Association 
and a committee of the Royal Geographical Society), and 
Harmer has obtained interesting results by comparing the 
British and Continental coasts as characteristic " weather " 
and " lee " shores. 

The physical conditions of the waters of the North Sea have 
been extensively studied by expeditions sent out by the Swedish, 
Norwegian, Danish, German and British governments; and since 



1902 by the International Council for the Study of the Sea, 
which owes its origin mainly to the work of the earlier expedi- 
tions. Professor Pettersson of Stockholm, to whose 
initiative much of this work is due, classifies the 't''*' 
waters found in the North Sea as follows: (i) oceanic 
water of 35 pro mille salinity or more; (2) water of salinity 
34 to 35 pro mille, called " North Sea " water; (3) water of 
salinity 32 to 34 pro mille, found along the coasts of Holland, 
Germany, Denmark, and Norway, and called " bank-water "; 
(4) water of 32 pro mille salinity or less, belonging to the stream 
flowing out from the Baltic. Of these (i) and (4) are to be 
regarded as " in-flowing " waters, while the others are due to 
mixture, which may or may not take place in the North Sea 
itself. The oceanic water consists of a mixture of waters of 
Atlantic and Polar origin; it enters the North Sea from the north- 
west partly from the Norwegian sea, and partly from the Faewe 
channel by the passage between the Orkney and Shetland 
islands, and makes its way southwards along the coast of 
Scotland, especially during the early summer months. 

The International Council, and more particularly the North 
Sqa^E'sheries Investigation Committee of the Fishery Board 
for Scotland, have studied the periodic and irregular variations 
in the distribution of these waters in minute detail; and the 
results, extending and confirming the observations of the earlier 
observers, have established the conclusion that the supply of 
fresher coastal waters from the land on both sides of the North 
Sea is greatest in late summer, after the occurrence of the 
maximum inflow of oceanic water. The autumn and early 
winter months accordingly represent a period of mixing rather 
than of inflow, and this mixing is clearly an extremely complicated 
process, depending on the relative amounts of the mixing waters 
(which are themselves liable to great variation), on their tempera- 
ture and salinity, and also on the action of winds and tides. 
In the southern part of the North Sea area tidal action alone 
is sufficiently vigorous to ensure complete mixing of the waters 
from surface to bottom at all times. 

The tides of the North Sea are of great complexity, and have 
not been fully investigated. The tidal wave of the Atlantic enters 
by the Strait of Dover and by the channels in the north. rides 
In the latter place a division into two parts takes 
place, one wave travelling southwards along the coast of Scotland 
in comparatively shallow water, while another moves with 
greater speed across the deeper water to the Norwegian Channel, 
and thence southwards to the Skagerrack and the Danish coast. 
The southwards-moving waves are greatly retarded in the 
shallow water over the Dogger Bank; the trough of the " Silver 
Pit " accordingly gives the Scottish wave a strong easterly 
component, and the three systems the Scottish, Norwegian 
and Channel waves meet to the east of the Dogger, producing 
complicated interference phenomena. Along the English coasts 
the tidal streams are for the most part normal, the flood stream 
running south to south-east and the ebb north to north-west, 
but on the Continental coast the movements become very complex 
on account of the varying influence of the waves from different 
sources. 

The North Sea is particularly rich in organisms of all kinds, 
and the abundance of food attracts fish in such quantities that 
the North Sea fisheries are the most productive in Fauna 
the world. Flat fishes, and those feeding at the 
bottom on smooth ground, are chiefly caught by means of the 
trawl. The favourite trawling-grounds are the Dogger Bank 
in winter, and the shallow waters off the Continental coasts 
in summer; these yield halibut, soles, turbot, brill, plaice, 
cod, haddock, whiting, &c. In rough ground where the trawl 
cannot be used, hook- and line-fishing are carried on most success- 
fully, and " mid-water " fish are also taken in this way, although 
the trawl and line-fishing overlap considerably. Herring 
and mackerel are caught by means of drift-nets. The herring 
fishing off the British coasts exhibits a remarkable variation 
during summer and autumn, beginning in Shetland in June, 
and becoming progressively later southwards, until it ends 
off the Norfolk coast in November. Various attempts have 



NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION 



787 



been made to connect this succession with the physical changes 
already described, especially with the periodic influx of Atlantic 
water, but no very definite relation has been established. 

AUTHORITIES. Kriimmel and Boguslawski, Ozeanographie; O 
Pettersson, various papers in the Isvenska Vetenskaps-Akademie 
Handlingar, also in Scottish Geographical Magazine (1894) an d the 
Geographical Journal; H. N. Dickson, Journal of the Scottish Meteoro- 
logical Society, third series, vol. yiii. p. 332 ; Twelfth Report of the 
Fishery Board for Scotland, pt. iii. p. 336 ; Fifteenth Report of the 
Fishery Board for Scotland, pt. iii. p. 280; Geographical Journal 
(March 1896) ; and Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological 
Society, No. 112 (1899); T. Wemyss Fulton, Fifteenth Report of the 
Fishery Board for Scotland, pt. iii. p. 334; papers by J. T. Cunning- 
ham, W. Garstang and others in the Journal of the Marine Biological 
Association, various years; International Council for the Study 
of the Sea, and North Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee of the 
Fishery Boards for Scotland, Reports and occasional papers. 

(H. N. D.) 

NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION. This convention, 
dated May 6th, 1882, was the result of a conference which was 
held for the purpose of regulating the police of the fisheries in the 
North Sea. It was entered into by Great Britain, Germany, 
Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France for a period of five years 
and was thereafter to run on until notice of intention to terminate 
it, such notice to affect only the power giving it. The convention 
is operative only outside the three-mile limit from land. This 
limit is defined as follows: 

" The fishermen of each country shall enjoy the exclusive right 
of fishery within the distance of 3 m. from low-water mark along the 
whole extent of the coasts of their respective countries, as well as 
of the dependent islands and banks. As regards bays, the distance 
of 3 m. shall be measured from a straight line drawn across the bay, 
in the part nearest the entrance, at the first point where the width 
does not exceed 10 m. The present article shall not in any way 
prejudice the freedom of navigation and anchorage in territorial 
waters accorded to fishing boats, ' provided they conform to the 
special police regulations enacted by the powers to whom the shore 
belongs." 

Under the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act 1889, the Scottish 
Fishery Board was empowered by by-law to forbid beam- 
trawling and otter-trawling within a line drawn from Duncansby 
Head to Rattras Point. Acting under this power, it forbade 
these methods of trawling. This gave rise to litigation on the 
question of whether the prohibition applied to non-British ships 
beyond the three-mile limit (see Mortensen . Peters, July 2Oth, 
1906). The high Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh held that it 
was not incumbent on the court to draw a distinction between 
foreigners and British subjects which had not been made by 
the legislature, and that therefore any infringements of general 
restrictions imposed, although outside the three-mile limit, were 
binding, whatever the nationality of the persons committing 
them. Outside the limits of territorial waters British law, 
however, does not apply. Thus a later act, the Sea Fisheries 
Regulation (Scotland) Act 1895, though it provided for the 
imposition of restrictions on certain methods of sea-fishing outside 
the limits of territorial waters (s. 8), constructively admitted 
that no power could be given to apply it to non-British fishermen 
fishing beyond British territorial waters. A provision of the 
act empowered the Scottish Fishery Board by by-laws to 
forbid these methods of fishing within 13 m. of the Scottish coast, 
but added that " no area of sea within the said limit of 13 m. 
shall be deemed to be under the jurisdiction of her majesty for 
the purposes of this section unless the powers conferred thereby 
shall have been accepted as binding upon their own subjects with 
respect to such area by all the States signatories of the North Sea 
Convention 1882." 

A supplementary convention was signed at the Hague, 
November i6th, 1887, among the same High Contracting Parties, 
relating to the liquor traffic in the North Sea. It applies to the 
area set out in art. 4 of the Convention of May 6th, 1882, and 
forbids the sale of spirituous liquors within it to persons on board 
fishing vessels. A reciprocal right of visit and search is granted 
under this convention to the cruisers entrusted with the carrying 
out of its provisions. (T. BA.) 

NORTH SHIELDS, a seaport of Northumberland, England, 
within the municipal and parliamentary borough of Tynemouth 
(q.v. for history, &c.). The town of that name adjoins it on the E. 



It lies on the N. bank of the Tyne, immediately above its mouth, 
and opposite to South Shields in Durham, 7$ m. E. of Newcastle 
by a branch of the North Eastern railway. It is a town of 
modern growth, and contains the municipal offices of the borough, 
a custom-house and various benevolent institutions for seamen. 
The harbour is enclosed by north and south piers, and there is 
a depth of 29 ft. at spring-tides besides the quays. Cojl and coke 
are largely exported, and corn, timber and esparto grass are 
imported. There is an extensive fish quay, and about 14,000 
tons of fish are landed annually. There are engineering, iron, 
salt and earthenware works, and some shipbuilding is carried on. 

NORTH SYDNEY, a municipality in the county of Cumberland, 
New South Wales, Australia, on the N. shore of Port Jackson. 
Pop. (1901) 22,050. It is a rapidly growing town, immediately 
opposite and suburban to the city of Sydney, with which, however, 
the only connexion is by steam ferry. It is the terminus of a 
railway system serving the district N. of the town. 

NORTH TONA WANDA, a city of Niagara county, New York, 
U.S.A., on the N. side and at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek 
(opposite Tonawanda), and on the Niagara river, about 14 m. 
N. of Buffalo. Pop. (1910 census) 11,955. It is served by 
the Erie, the Wabash, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, and 
the New York Central & Hudson River railways, by three 
interurban electric h'nes and by the Erie Canal. Electric power 
for its factories is furnished by Niagara Falls. In 1905 the value 
of its factory product was $6,499,312. The water-supply conies 
from the Niagara river. North Tonawanda was first settled as a 
part of Tonawanda in 1809; it became a part of Wheatfield 
township in 1857; was incorporated as a village in 1865, and 
chartered as a city in 1897. In 1825 Major Mordecai Manuel 
Noah (1785-1851), a New York journalist and politician of 
Portuguese Jewish descent, attempted unsuccessfully to found 
on Grand Island (area 27 sq. m.; pop. (1910)914), Erie county, 
W. of North Tonawanda, the city of Ararat, a temporary refuge 
for Jews, who should return thence to the Holy Land. 

See L. F. Allen in Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society, 
vol. i. (1879), pp. 305 sqq. 

NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The 

earldom, and later the dukedom, of Northumberland, famous in 
English history by its connexion with the noble house of Percy 
(q.v.) is to be traced from an origin anterior to a strictly regu- 
lated system of peerage. The Saxon kingdom of Northumbria 
embraced a far more extensive territory than the modern county 
of Northumberland; and for at least a century after the Norman 
Conquest Northumberland, as the name imports, comprised 
a great portion of the country north of the Humber, including the 
cities of Durham and of York. The geographical position of this 
territory, contiguous with the kingdom of Scotland, conferred 
vast responsibility as well as power on the earl or governor to 
whom its administration was entrusted; and it appears to have 
been the policy of William the Conqueror and his immediate 
successors to acknowledge the rights of the men who, though 
sometimes spoken of as earls, were in no strict sense members of 
the feudal nobility created by the Norman monarchy. William 
the Conqueror found Northumberland in the possession of 
Morcar, a younger son of Algar, the Saxon earl of Mercia, who 
on giving in his submission was confirmed in the government 
of the district, but was soon afterwards imprisoned for rebellion, 
and was replaced by Copsi, an uncle of Morcar's predecessor, 
Tostig. Copsi was murdered a few weeks after receiving the 
dignity, and the same fate befell several of his successors; those 
who escaped it being not infrequently deprived of the post for 
rebellion or incapacity. Henry, earl of Huntingdon, only son 
of David I., king of Scotland, was made governor of Northumber- 
land in 1139, and was styled " earl of Northumberland " by the 
contemporary chronicler Roger of Hoveden. It was not for a long 
period, however, that the earldom of Northumberland came into 
existence as a title of honour heritable according to peerage law. 
Ever since the Conquest the house of Percy (q.v.) had been growing 
in power and importance, and at the coronation of Richard II. 
in 1377 Henry de Percy, 4th Baron Percy, who had distinguished 
himself in the French wars, officiated as marshal of England, and 



y88 



NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF 



was then created earl of Northumberland. With his son Sir 
Henry Percy, the celebrated " Hotspur, " the earl played a leading 
part in the turbulent history of the period, especially in bringing 
about the deposition of Richard II. and the accession of Henry 
IV. The quarrel of Northumberland and his son with King 
Henry over the ransom of their Scottish prisoners taken at 
Homildon Hill on the i4th of September 1402 has been im- 
mortalized by Shakespeare; and in consequence of their re- 
bellion all the earl's honours were forfeited in 1406. He was 
not himself present at the battle of Shrewsbury in July 1403, 
when Hotspur was killed, but he was slain, heading a fresh 
rebellion, at Bramham Moor on the ipth of February 1408. 

The ist earl of Northumberland was succeeded by his grandson, 
Hotspur's son, Henry (c. 1394-1455), who was restored to the 
earldom and the estates of the Perries in 1414 and was killed 
at the battle of St Albans in May 1455. The title then descended 
in the male line till the death of the 6th earl in 1537. During 
the Wars of the Roses the Percies took the Lancastrian side, 
which led to the attainder of Henry the 3rd earl (1421-1461) 
during the time of the Yorkist triumph, his forfeited title being 
conferred in 1464 by Edward IV. on John Neville, Lord Montagu 
(see the separate article below), by a patent which was cancelled 
a few years later. The earldom, together with the barony of 
Poynings which his father had obtained by marriage, was 
restored in 1 473 to Henry Percy, son of the 3rd earl, who attached 
himself to Edward IV., acquiesced in the accession of Richard 
III., and submitted to Henry VII., by whom he was received 
into favour. His grandson Henry, the 6th earl (c. 1502-1537), 
left no direct heir, and the latter's nephew, Thomas Percy, was 
debarred from the succession by an attainder passed on his 
father for his participation in the Pilgrimage of Grace. In 1 549, 
however, Thomas was restored in blood, and in 1557 he became 
by a new creation earl of Northumberland, 7th of his line. 
Meantime, in 1551, John Dudley, earl of Warwick, was created 
duke of Northumberland (see the separate article below), his 
title being, however, forfeited by attainder in 1553. 

The earldom restored to the house of Percy by the creation 
of 1557 continued without interruption in the male line till 
1670. The 7th earl was beheaded in 1572 for sharing in a 
conspiracy in which he was joined by the earl of Westmorland 
with the object of securing the release of Mary Queen of Scots 
and the free exercise of the Catholic religion. By the earl's 
attainder the baronies of Percy and of Poynings and the earldom 
of Northumberland of the older creation were forfeited, but 
owing to a clause in the patent the newer earldom of Northumber- 
land and the other honours conferred in 1557 passed to his 
brother Henry (c. 1532-1585), who, however, is usually known 
as the 8th and not the 2nd earl. 

Henry's grandson, ALGERNON PERCY, loth earl of Northumber- 
land (1602-1668), son of Henry the gth earl (1564-1632), became 
a peer in his father's lifetime as Baron Percy in 1626. During 
the years immediately preceding the Civil War he served as an 
admiral, making earnest but unsuccessful efforts to reform the 
navy, and in 1637 he was made lord high admiral of England. 
In 1639 Charles I. appointed him general of the forces north 
of the Trent, and a member of the council of regency. North- 
umberland played a distinguished and honourable part in the 
troubled times of the Civil War. He was a friend of Strafford, 
and gave evidence at his trial which, though favourable on the 
important point of bringing the Irish army to England, was 
on the whole damaging; and he afterwards leaned more and 
more towards the popular party, of which he soon became leader 
in the House of Lords. He was a member of the committee 
of safety, and later of the committee of both kingdoms; and 
he took an active part in the attempts to come to terms with 
the king, whom he visited at Oxford for that purpose in 1643 
and at Uxbridge two years later. Northumberland helped to 
organize the new model army; and in 1646 he was entrusted 
by parliament with the charge of the king's younger children. 
He led the opposition in the House of Lords to the proposal 
to bring Charles I. to trial, and during the Commonwealth he 
took no part in public affairs. At the Restoration he was called 



to the privy council by Charles II., and with his habitual modera- 
tion he deprecated harsh proceedings against the regicides. 
His second wife, Elizabeth (d. 1705), daughter of Theophilus 
Howard, 2nd earl of Suffolk, brought him Northumberland 
House in the Strand, London, which was demolished in 1874 
to make room for Northumberland Avenue. On the death of 
his son Joceline, the nth earl, in 1670, the male line became 
extinct. 

George Fitzroy (1665-1716), third son of Barbara, duchess 
of Cleveland, the wife of Roger Palmer, earl of Castlemaine, by 
King Charles II., was created by his father earl of Northumber- 
land in 1674, and duke in 1683. This second dukedom of 
Northumberland became extinct on his death at Epsom on the 
3rd of July 1716. 

Meanwhile Elizabeth Percy, daughter of Joceline, the nth 
earl, had married Charles Seymour, 6th duke of Somerset; and 
her son Algernon, the 7th duke, was in 1749 created Baron 
Warkworth and earl of Northumberland, with remainder to 
his son-in-law, Sir Hugh Smithson, Bart., son of Langdale 
Smithson of Langdale, Yorkshire. Sir Hugh Smithson (c. 1714- 
1786) took the name and arms of Percy on inheriting the earldom 
in 1750;. in 1766 he was created Earl Percy and duke of North- 
umberland, and in 1784 he was further created Baron Lovaine 
of Alnwick, with special remainder to his second son, Lord 
Algernon Percy. He took a somewhat prominent part in politics 
as a follower of Lord Bute, and was one of George III.'s confi- 
dential advisers, holding the office of lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
from 1763 to 1765, and that of master of the horse from 1778 
to 1780. He was a man of cultivated tastes, and spent large 
sums of money in repairing and improving Alnwick Castle and 
his other residences. His wife> Elizabeth (1716-1776), who was 
a prominent figure in society, inherited in her own right her 
father's barony of Percy. The duke was succeeded by his 
eldest son Hugh; and his second son Algernon, Lord Lovaine, 
was created earl of Beverley in 1790. 

Hugh, 2nd duke of this line (1742-1817), first inherited his 
mother's barony of Percy. He was present at the battle of 
Minden, and although in parliament, where he was member for 
Westminster from 1763 to 1776, he had opposed the policy that 
led to the American war, he proceeded to Boston in 1774 as 
colonel commanding the 5th Fusiliers, a regiment that has 
since then been known as the Northumberland Fusiliers. His 
generosity to his men made him exceedingly popular in the army; 
he became a general in 1 793 , and after succeeding to the dukedom 
in 1786 he exercised considerable influence in politics, though 
he never obtained office. His son Hugh, 3rd duke (1785-1847), 
was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1820-1830, when the Catholic 
Emancipation Act was passed, and was pronounced by Sir" 
Robert Peel " the best chief governor that ever presided over 
the affairs of Ireland." Both he and his brother Algernon, 
4th duke (1792-1865), who was created Baron Prudhoe in 1816, 
died without issue; the barony of Percy devolved on their 
great-nephew, the duke of'Atholl, and the dukedom passed to 
George (1778-1867), eldest son of Algernon, ist earl of Beverley, 
and so to his son, the 6th duke (1810-1899), an d grandson, the 
7th duke (b. 1846), who married the daughter of the 8th duke 
of Argyll. The 7th duke's eldest son, Earl Percy (1871-1910), 
seemed destined to take a great place in public life when he 
was prematurely cut off; he had a distinguished career at 
Oxford and from 1895 in the House of Commons, being under- 
secretary for India in 1902-1903 and under-secretary for foreign 
affairs in 1903-1905. 

See Edward Harrington de Fonblanque, The House of Percy 
(2 vols., London, 1887); G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. 
(London, 1895). 

NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN DUDLEY, VISCOUNT LISLE, 
EARL OF WARWICK, and DUKE OF (c. 1502-1553), was the 
eldest son of Henry VII. 's extortionate minister, Edmund 
Dudley (q.v.), by his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of Edward 
Grey, Viscount Lisle, and co-heiress of her brother John, Viscount 
Lisle. He was probably descended from the old baronial house 
of Sutton alias Dudley; but his father's attainder and execution 



NORTHUMBERLAND, EARL OF 



789 



in 1509 clouded his prospects. His mother, however, married 
as her second husband in 1511 Arthur Plantagenet, the illegiti- 
mate son of Edward IV., who in 1523 was created Viscount 
Lisle in his wife's right; and Lisle 's rise in Henry VIII. 's favour 
brought young Dudley into prominence. In 1512 he was 
restored in blood and in 1538 he was made deputy to his step- 
father, who was governor of Calais, and he does not appear to 
have suffered by Lisle's temporary disgrace and imprisonment 
in the Tower. Lisle died early in 1542 and Dudley was created 
Viscount Lisle on the I2th of March and was made warden of 
the Scottish marches in November, and lord high admiral of 
England in 1543 in succession to his future rival, Edward 
Seymour, earl of Hertford. He was also created a knight of 
the garter and sworn of the privy council on the 23rd of April 
1543. In 1544 he accompanied Hertford to the capture and 
burning of Edinburgh. On the capture of Boulogne in September 
Lisle was given command of the town and of the Boulonnais; 
in 1545 he directed the operations of the fleet in the Solent 
which foiled the French attack on Portsmouth and the Isle 
of Wight; and he was sent to Paris to ratify the peace con- 
cluded in 1546. 

Lisle had thrown in his lot with the reforming party, and 
he took an active share in the struggle at Henry VIII. 's court 
for control of affairs when Henry should die. Hertford and 
he were described by the Spanish ambassador as holding the 
highest places in Henry VIII. 's affections and as being the only 
noblemen of fit age and ability to carry on the government. 
The Howards were infuriated by the prospect, and Surrey's 
hasty temper ruined their prospects. Lisle quarrelled bitterly 
with Bishop Gardiner, served as commissioner at Surrey's trial, 
and was nominated one of the body of executors to Henry's 
will from which Norfolk and Gardiner were excluded. On 
Henry's death Lisle was raised to the earldom of Warwick and 
promoted to be lord great chamberlain of England, again in 
succession to Hertford, who became duke of Somerset and 
Protector. But he was not long content with Somerset's 
superiority, though he concealed his resentment and ambition 
for the time. He accompanied Somerset on his Pinkie cam- 
paign, and materially contributed to the winning of that victory. 
Nor did he exhibit any sympathy with the intrigues of the 
Protector's brother, Thomas Seymour, the lord high admiral; 
his subtler policy was to exasperate the brothers and thus 
weaken the influence of the house of Seymour. He took a 
leading part in the proceedings which brought the admiral to 
the block in March 1549; and then used the Protector's social 
policy to bring about his deposition. Warwick, like most of the 
privy council, detested Somerset's ideas of liberty and his 
championship of the peasantry against the inclosure movement ; 
one of his own parks was ploughed up as a result of a com- 
mission of inquiry which Somerset appointed; and when the 
peasants rebelled under Kelt, Warwick gladly took the command 
against them. His victory at Dussindale made him the hero of 
the landed gentry, and as soon as he had returned to London 
in September 1549, he organized the general discontent with 
the Protector's policy into a conspiracy. He played upon the 
prejudices of Protestants and Catholics alike, holding out to 
one the prospect of more vigorous reform and to the other hopes 
of a Catholic restoration, and to all gentry the promise of revenge 
upon the peasants. 

The coalition thus created effected Somerset's deposition 
and imprisonment in October 1549; and the parliament which 
met in November carried measures of political coercion and 
social reaction. But the coalition split upon the religious 
question. Warwick threw over the Catholics and expelled 
them from office and from the privy council, and the hopes they 
entertained were rudely dashed to the ground. But it was 
difficult to combine coercion of the Catholics with the proscrip- 
tion of Somerset; the duke was therefore released early in 1550 
and restored to the privy council; and his daughter was married 
to Warwick's son. Warwick himself assumed no position of 
superiority over his colleagues, and he was never made protector. 
But he gradually packed the council with his supporters, and 



excluded his enemies from office and from access to the king. 
His plan was to dominate Edward's mind, and then release him 
from the trammels of royal minority. He abandoned the Tudor 
designs on Scotland, and made a peace with France in 1 550 by 
which it recovered Boulogne and was left free to pursue its 
advantage in Scotland. Nor did the betrothal of Edward to 
Henry's daughter Elizabeth prevent the French king from 
intriguing to undermine English influence in Ireland. In 
domestic affairs Warwick pushed on the Reformation with none 
of the moderation shown by Somerset; and the difference 
between the two policies is illustrated by the change effected 
between the first and second Books of Common Prayer. War- 
wick, however, was widely distrusted; and the more arbitrary 
his government grew, the more dangerous became Somerset's 
rivalry. A parliamentary movement had early been started 
for Somerset's restoration. Warwick therefore kept parliament 
from meeting, and the consequent lack of supplies drove him 
into the seizure of church plate, sale of chantry lands, and other 
violent financial expedients. At length he resolved to get rid 
of his opponent ; his opposition was magnified into conspiracy, 
and in October 1551, after Warwick had made himself duke of 
Northumberland and his ally Dorset, duke of Suffolk, and had 
scattered other rewards among his humbler followers, Somerset 
was arrested, condemned by the peers on a charge of felony, 
and executed on the 22nd of January 1552. 

Parliament was permitted to meet on the following day, but 
for the next eighteen months Northumberland grew more and 
more unpopular. He saw that his life was safe only so long as 
he controlled the government and prevented the administration 
of justice. But Edward VI. was slowly dying, and Northumber- 
land's plot to alter the succession was his last desperate bid for 
life and power. Its folly was almost delirious. Edward had no 
legal authority to exclude Mary, and the nation was at least 
nine-tenths in her favour. Northumberland bullied the council 
and overawed London for a few days; but the rest of England 
was hi an uproar, and as he rode out to take the field against 
Mary, not a soul cried " God speed." A few days later he re- 
turned as Mary's prisoner. He was tried for treason, professed 
himself a Catholic in the delusive hope of pardon, and was 
executed on the 22nd of August. He was a competent soldier 
and one of the subtlest intriguers in English history; but he 
had no principles. He was, says a contemporary French account , 
" de parole affable, se composant a gracieusite et doulceur, mais 
au dedans felon, orgueilleux, vindicatif s'il en fut jamais." The 
violence of his rule and of his pretended Protestantism was 
largely responsible for the reaction of Mary's reign. His best- 
known son was Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, Queen Eliza- 
beth's favourite. 

See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. ; State Papers, Domestic 
and Foreign, Edward VI. and Mary; MS. 15,888, Bibliothegue 
Nationale de France; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage; A. F. 
Pollard, England under Somerset (1900), Life of Cranmer (1904) 
and vol. vi. of the Political History of England (1910). (A. F. P.) 

NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN NEVILLE, EARL or (c. 1430- 
1471), English soldier, was the third son of Richard Neville, earl 
of Salisbury, and a brother of Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, 
the " king-maker." At the battle of Blore Heath in 1459 John 
Neville was taken prisoner by the Lancastrians, although the 
Yorkists under his father had won the victory; he was among 
those who were attainted in the parliament of Coventry, and 
he was not released until 1460 when his own party had gained 
the upper hand. Just afterwards he was created Lord Montagu 
and was made chamberlain of the royal household. He was not 
present at the battle of Wakefield, when his father was taken 
prisoner, but he was again a captive after the second battle of 
St Albans in 1461. He was speedily released by Edward IV., 
whom he served in the north of England, being rewarded with 
lands and honours. In 1463 he became warden of the east 
marches towards Scotland, and he was responsible for the Yorkist 
victories at Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham in April and May 
1464; after the latter battle he secured the execution of Henry 
Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and other captives of high station. 
In this year (1464) he was created earl of Northumberland, the 



79 



NORTH UMBERLAND 



Percies being now crushed, and their head, Henry Percy, being 
in prison. Northumberland did not at first. join his brother 
Warwick and the other Nevilles when they revolted against 
Edward IV., but neither did he help the king. Edward, doubt- 
less suspecting him, restored the earldom of Northumberland 
and its vast estates to Henry Percy, while John Neville's only 
recompense was the barren title of marquess of Montagu. At 
Pontefract in 1470 he and his men declared for Henry VI., a 
proceeding which compelled Edward IV. to fly from England, 
and under the restored king he regained his position as warden, 
but not the earldom of Northumberland. He did not attempt 
to resist Edward IV. when this king landed in Yorkshire in 
March 1471, but he fought under Warwick at Barnet, where he 
was slain on the i4th of April 1471. His son George (d. 1483) 
was betrothed to Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., and was 
created duke of Bedford in 1470, but the marriage did not take 
place and he was deprived of his dukedom in 1477. 

NORTHUMBERLAND, the northernmost county of England, 
bounded N.W. by the Scottish counties of Berwick and Rox- 
burgh, W. by Cumberland, S. by Durham, and E. by the North 
Sea. The area is 2018 sq. m. It has a general inclination 
eastward from the hill-borders of Scotland and Cumberland. 
The Cheviot range partly separates Northumberland from 
Scotland, and reaches in the Cheviot, its culminating point 
north-eastward, the greatest elevation in the county, 2676 ft. 
The elevation of the Cheviots rarely falls below 1300 ft. along 
the Border, and generally exceeds 1600. A line of high ground, 
bending southward, forms the watershed between the North 
and Irish Seas. The boundary with Cumberland crosses the low 
divide between the Irthing and the South Tyne, after coinciding 
with the former river for a short distance, and giving Northumber- 
land a small drainage area westward. In the south-west a 
small area of the Pennine uplands is included in the county, 
reaching elevations up to 2206 ft. in Kilhope Law. Few 
eminences break the general eastward incline, which appears 
as a wide billowing series of confluent hills that for half the year 
mingle tints of brown, russet, and dun in a rich pattern, and at 
all times communicate a fine sense of altitude and expanse. 
The Simonside Hills (1447 ft.) form one not very conspicuous 
exception. The configuration of much of these uplands has a 
certain linearity in its details due to groups and ranges of ridges, 
crags, and terrace-like tiers, termed " edges" (escarpments) 
by the country folk, and generally facing the interior, like broad 
ends of wedges. The line of pillared crags and prow-like head- 
lands between the North and South Tynes along the verge of 
which the Romans carried their wall is a fine specimen. Passing 
eastwards from the uplands the moors are exchanged for enclosed 
grounds, " drystone " walls for hedgerows, and rare sprinklings 
of birch for a sufficiently varied wooding. The hills and moors 
sink to a coast generally low, a succession of sands, flat tidal 
rocks and slight cliffs. Its bays are edged by blown sandhills; 
its borders are severely wind-swept. Several islands lie over 
against it. Holy Island, the classic Lindisfarne, 1051 acres 
in extent, but half " links " and sandbanks, is annexed to the 
mainland and accessible to conveyances every tide. The Fame 
Islands (q.v.) are a group of rocky islets farther south. 

Deep glens and valleys, scoring the uplands, and richly wooded 
except at their heads, are characteristic of the rivers. Of these 
the chief are the Tweed, forming the north-eastern part of the 
Scottish border, its tributary the Till (with its feeders the Glen 
and College), the Aln and the exquisite Coquet, flowing into 
Alnmouth Bay, the Wansbeck, with its tributary the Font, the 
Blyth and the Tyne, forming part of the boundary with Durham, 
the union of the North and South Tynes. Many of the upland 
streams attract trout-fishermen. 

Geology. The core of the county, in a geological aspect, is the 
northern Cheviots from Redesdale head nearly to the Tweed. Its 
oldest rocks are gritty and slaty beds of Silurian age, about the head 
of the rivers Rede and Coquet and near the Breamish south of 
Ingram a part of the great Silurian mass of the southern uplands 
of Scotland. Volcanic activity about the period of the Old Red 
Sandstone resulted in the felspathic porphyrites, passing into the 
syenites and granites, that form the mass of the northern Cheviots. 
Round this core there now lie relays of Carboniferous strata dipping 



east and south, much faulted and repeated in places, but passing 
into Coal Measures and Magnesian Limestone in the south-eastern 
part of the county. The whole system consists of (l) the Carboni- 
ferous Limestone series in three divisions; (2) the Millstone Grit ; and 
(3) the Coal Measures. Lowest in Northumberland lies Tale's 
Tuedian group, the first envelope of sinking Cheviot-land. Some 
reddish shore-like conglomerates lie in places at its base, as at 
Roddam Dene; its shales are often tinged with distemper greens; 
its coals are scarcely worthy of the name; its limestones are thin, 
except near Rothbury ; and its marine fossils are few. The Tuedian 
group is overlaid by the Carbonaceous group; its shales are carbo- 
naceous-grey, its coals, though mostly small, very numerous, its 
limestones often plant-limestones, and its calcareous matter much 
diffused. Upon this lies the Calcareous group ; its lime occurs in 
well-individualized marine beds, cropping up to the surface in green- 
vested strips; its fossils are found in recurrent cycles, with the 
limestones and coals forming their extremes. These three groups 
now range round the northern Cheviots in curved belts broaden- 
ing southwards, and occupy nearly all the rolling ground between 
the Tweed and the South Tyne, the sandstones forming the chief 
eminences. The middle division becomes thinner and more like 
the Coal Measures in passing northwards, and the upper division, 
thinning also, loses many of its limestones. The Millstone Grit is 
a characterless succession of grits and shales. The Coal Measures 
possess the same zone-like arrangement that prevails in the Lime- 
stone series, but are without limestones. They also are divided, 
very artificially, into three groups. The lowest, from the Brockwell 
seam downwards, has some traces of Gannister beds, and its coal- 
seams are thin. The famous Hutton collection of plants was made 
chiefly from the roof-shales of two seams the Bensham and the 
Low Main. The unique Atthey collection of fishes and Amphibia 
comes from the latter. The Coal Measures lie along the coast in a 
long triangle, of which the base, at the Tyne, is produced westwards 
on to the moors south of that river, where it is wedged against lower 
beds on the south by a fault. The strata within the triangle give 
signs of departing from the easterly dip that has brought them 
where they are, and along a line between its apex (near Amble) and 
an easterly point in its base (near Jarrow) they turn up north- 
eastwards, promising coal-crops under the sea. 

The top of the Coal Measures is wanting. After a slight tilting 
of the strata and the denudation that removed it, the Permian rocks 
were deposited, consisting of Magnesian Limestone, a thin fish-bed 
below it, and yellow sands and some red sandstone (with plants of 
Coal Measure species) at the base. These rocks are now all but 
removed. They form Tynemouth rock, and lie notched-in against 
the go-fathom dyke at Cullercoates, and again are touched (the base 
only) at Seaton Sluice. No higher strata have been preserved. 
The chief faults of the county extend across it. Its igneous rocks, 
other than the Cheviot porphyrites and a few contemporaneous 
traps in the lowest Carboniferous, are all intrusive. An irregular 
sheet of basalt forced between planes of bedding (perhaps at the 
close of the Carboniferous period) forms the crag-making line of 
the Great Whinsill, which, with many shifts, breaks and gaps, 
extends from Greenhead near Gilsland to the Kyloe Hills. Numbers 
of basalt dykes cross the county, and were probably connected 
with the plateau of Miocene volcanic rocks in the Hebrides. Every- 
where the Glacial period has left rocks rounded and scored, and rock- 
fragments from far and near rubbed up into boulder-clay. The 
glaciers at first held with the valleys, but as the ice-inundation 
grew they spread out into one sheet the Cheviot tops, heavily 
ice-capped, alone rising above it. Two great currents met in con- 
fluence around these hills one from across the western watershed, 
the other skirting the coast from the north. Boulders from Galloway, 
Criffel, the Lake District and other places adjacent, and from the 
Lammermuirs and Berwickshire, lie in their track. Of moraines 
there are only a few towards the hills. Glaciated shell-fragments 
have been detected at Tynemouth. Laminated brick clays occur 
among the boulder-clays. Sheets and mounds of gravel of the 
nature of kames exist here and there on the low grounds, and stretch 
in a chain over the low watershed between Haltwhistle and Gilsland, 
sparsely dotting also some more upland valleys. An upper boulder- 
clay, containing flints, skirts the coast. 

The older valleys are all pre-Glacial, and may date from the 
Miocene period. They are much choked up with Glacial deposits, 
and lie so deep below the surface that, if they were cleared-out 
arms of the sea, one of them, 140 ft. deep at Newcastle, would extend 
for miles inland. After the departure of the glaciers the streams 
here and there wandered into new positions, and hence arises a 
great variety of smooth slope and rocky gorge. In the open country 
atmospheric waste has hollowed out the shales at their outcrops, 
leaving the sandstones, &c., as protruding " edges," roughened 
here and there into crags. In the lower grounds, where this surface- 
dissection first began, the "edges" have much run together; on 
the heights, whose turn came last, they are often prominent and 
crest-like, but have glacier-rounded brows. Many old tarns are 
now sheeted over with peat. The sloping peat-fields are often the 
sites of straggling birch-woods, now buried. 

Climate. The climate is bracing and healthy, with temperate 
summers (e.g. the average July temperature at Alnwick is 57-9 F.). 
In spring east winds prevail over the whole county. The lambing 



NORTHUMBERLAND 



791 



season in the higher uplands is fixed for the latter hall of April, | 
and is even then often too early. In summer and autumn west 
winds are general. The rainfall gradually increases as the country 
rises from the coast, thus the mean annual fall at Shields is 26-32 in., 
at Alnwick 31-04 in., while on the western borders 40 to 60 in. are 
recorded. East winds in summer bring rain to the interior. The 
smell from the coal-field, the lighter grime of which is detected as 
far as Cumberland, is taken by the shepherd for a sign of wet. 

Agriculture, &c. About five-ninths of the total area is under 
cultivation, and of this nearly five-sevenths is in permanent pasture. 
There are also about 470,000 acres under hill pasture. South of the 
river Coquet there is a broad tract of cultivation towards the coast 
that sends lessening strips up the valleys into the interior. From 
the Coquet northwards another breadth of enclosed ground stretches 
almost continuously along the base of the Cheviot hills. In the 
basin of the Till it becomes very fertile, and towards the Tweed the 
two breadths unite. In the porphyritic Cheviots the lower hills 
show a great extent of sound surface and good grass. The average 
hill-farms support about one sheep to 2 acres. A coarser pasturage 
covers the Carboniferous hills, and the proportion of stock to. surface 
is somewhat less. In the highest fells the congeries of bogs, hags 
and sandstone scars, with many acres dangerous to sheep, are 
worthless to the farmer. The lower uplands are a patchwork of 
coarse grasses (mown by the " muirmen " into " bent-hay ") and 
heather, or, in the popular terms, heather and " white ground," 
for it is blanched for eight months in the year. Heather is the 
natural cover of the sandstones and of the sandy glacier-debris 
near them. On the uplands they grow bents; lower down they 
are apt to be cold and strong, but are much relieved by patches 
and inworkings of gravel, especially north of the Wansbeck. The 
prevalent stream-alluvium is sandy loam, with a tincture of peat. 
The arable regions are very variable. Changes of soil are probably 
as numerous as fields. The bulk of the acreage under corn crops, 
which has greatly diminished, is under oats and barley, and turnips 
occupy some five-sixths of the area under green crops. North- 
umberland is one of the largest sheep-rearing counties in Great 
Britain. Of these, the half-breds crosses between the Leicester 
(or Shropshire) and Cheviot breeds occupy the lower enclosed 
grounds, the pure Cheviots are on the uplands and the hardier 
black-faced breeds lie out on the exposed heathery heights. The 
cattle are chiefly shorthorns and Galloways. They are very largely 
raised, chiefly for fattening purposes. 

The practice of paying wages in kind has passed greatly into 
disuse. Some of the shepherds still receive " stock-wages," being 
allowed to keep forty or fifty sheep and several cows on their em- 
ployers' farms in lieu of pay. This arrangement, which makes 
them really copartners, has probably done much to render them the 
singularly fine class of men they are. 

Other Industries. The manufactures of the county chiefly come 
from the Tyne, which is a region of ironworks, blast-furnaces, ship- 
building yards, ropewo'rks, coke-ovens, alkali-works and manufac- 
tories of glass, pottery and fire-bricks, from above Newcastle to the 
sea. Machines, appliances, conveyances and tools are the principal 
articles of manufacture in metal. There is great activity in all trades 
concerned in pit-sinking and mine-working. In the other parts of 
the county there are a few small cloth-mills, a manufactory of tan 
gloves at Hexham, some potteries and numbers of small brick and 
tile works. There are several sea-fishing stations, of which North 
Shields is by far the most important. The salmon fisheries are also 
valuable. 

Communications. Communications are provided almost wholly 
by the North-Eastern railway, of which the main line enters the 
county at Newcastle and runs N. by Morpeth, and near the coast, 
to Berwick, where a junction on the East Coast route from London 
to Scotland is effected with the North British railway. Numerous 
branch railways serve the populous south-eastern district, and there 
are connexions westward to Hexham and Carlisle, up the Tweed 
valley into Scotland and (by the North British line) up the North 
Tyne valley from Hexham. The principal ports besides the Tyne 
ports are Blyth, Amble (Warkworth Harbour), Alnmouth and 
Berwick. The Tyne is one of the most important centres of the 
coal-shipping trade in the world. 

Population and Administration. The area of the ancient 
county is 1,291,530 acres with a population in 1891 of 506,442, 
and in 1901 of 603,498. In physique the Northumbrian is 
stalwart and robust, and seldom corpulent. The people have 
mostly grey eyes, brown hair and good complexions. The 
inhabitants of the fishing villages appear to be Scandinavian; 
and parts of the county probably contain some admixture of 
the old Brit-Celt, and a trace of the Gipsy blood of the Faas of 
Yetholm. The natives have fine characteristics: they are 
clean, thrifty and plodding, honest and sincere, shrewd and 
very independent. Their virtues lie rather in solidity than in 
aspiration. 

Northumbrian speech is characterized by a " rough vibration 



of the soft palate" or pharynx in pronouncing the letter r, well 
known as the burr, a peculiarity extending to the town and 
liberties of Berwick, and absent only in a narrow strip along the 
north-west. Over the southern part of the county there is the 
same duplication of vowel-sounds, such as " peol " for " pool," 
that is found in the English counties adjacent. Many Old- 
English forms of speech strike the ear, such as " to butch a beef," 
i.e, to kill a bullock, and curious inversions, such as " they not 
can help." There is the Old-English distinction in the use of 
" thou " to familiars and " ye " to superiors. 

The area of the administrative county is 1,291,515 acres. The 
county is divided into nine wards, answering to hundreds. Popula- 
tion is densest in the south-east, where the mining district and the 
Tyneside industrial area are situated. The municipal boroughs in 
this district are: Newcastle-upon-Tyne (city, county of a city and 
county borough; pop. 215,328), Tynemouth (county borough, 
51,366), Morpeth (6158), Wallsend (20,918). In this district the 
following are urban districts: Amble (4428), Ashington (13,956), 
Bedlington (18,766), Blyth (5472), Cowpen (17,879), Cramlington 
(6437), Earsdon (9020), Gosforth (10,605), Newbiggin-by-the-Sea 
(2032), Newburn (12,500), Seghill (2213), Weetslade (5453)' Whitley 
and Monkseaton (7705), Wiflington Quay (7941). The remainder 
of the county contains the municipal borough of Berwick-upon- 
Tweed (13,437) a d the urban districts of Alnwick (6716), Hexham 
(7071) and Rothbury (1303). The county is in the north-eastern 
circuit, and assizes are held at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The total 
number of civil parishes is 523. The ancient county, which is in the 
diocese of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, with the exception of a small portion 
in that of Durham, contains 173 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, 
wholly or in part. The parliamentary divisions of the county are 
Berwick-upon-Tweed, Hexham, Wansbeck and Tyneside, each re- 
turning one member; while the parliamentary borough of Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne returns two members, and those of Morpeth and 
Tynemouth one member each. 

History. The first English settlement in the kingdom of 
Bernicia, which included what is now Northumberland, was 
effected in 547 by Ida, who, accompanied by his six sons, pushed 
through the narrow strip of territory between the Cheviots and 
the sea, and set up a fortress at Bamburgh, which became the 
royal seat of the Saxon kings. About the end of the 6th century 
Bernicia was first united with the rival kingdom of Deira under 
the rule of jEthelfrith, and the district between the Humber 
and the Forth became known as the kingdom of Northumbria. 
In 634 Cadwalla was defeated at Hefenfeld (the site of which 
lies in the modern parish of St John Lee) by Oswald, under whom 
Christianity was definitely established in Northumbria, and the 
bishop's see fixed at Hexham, where Bishop Wilfrid erected the 
famous Saxon church. Oswald also erected a church of stone 
at Tynemouth, which was destroyed in 865 in an incursion of 
the Danes under Hinguar and Hubba. The extent of Danish 
influence in Northumberland has been much exaggerated, 
however, for though in 876 Halfden, having conquered the whole 
of Northumbria, portioned out the lands among his followers, 
the permanent settlements were confined to the southern portion 
of the kingdom. In the northern half, which is now Northumber- 
land, the English princes continued to reign at Bamburgh as 
vassals of the Danes, and not a single place-name with the Danish 
suffix " by " or " thorpe " is found north of the Tyne. In 938 
jEthelstan annexed Northumberland to his dominions, and the 
Danish authority was annulled until its re-establishment by 
Canute in 1013. The vigorous resistance of Northumbria to the 
Conqueror was punished by ruthless harrying. The Normans 
rebuilt the Saxon monasteries of Lindisfarne, Hexham and 
Tynemouth; Eustace Fitz John founded Alnwick Abbey, and 
other Norman abbeys were Brinkburn, Hulne, Blanchland and 
Newminster. Castles were set up at Alnwick, Warkworth, 
Prudhoe, Dunstanborough, Morpeth, Ford, Chillingham, Lang- 
ley, Newcastle, Bamburgh, Wark and Norham, a stronghold of 
the palatine bishops of Durham. 

The term Northumberland is first used in its contracted 
modern sense in 1065 in an entry in the Saxon Chronicle relating 
to the northern rebellion. The county is not mentioned in the 
Domesday Survey, but the account of the issues of the county, 
as rendered by Odard the sheriff, is entered in the Great Roll 
of the Exchequer for 1131. In the reign of Edward I. the county 
of Northumberland was found to comprise the whole district 



792 



NORTHUMBERLAND 






between the Tees and the Tweed, and to have within it the 
several liberties of Durham, Sadberg and Bedlington south of 
the Coquet, and Norham beyond the Coquet, all subject to the 
bishop of Durham; the liberty of Hexham belonging to the 
archbishop of York; that of Tynedale to the king of Scotland; 
that of Emildon to the earl of Lancaster; and that of Redesdale 
to Gilbert de Umfraville, earl of Angus. These franchises were 
all held exempt from the ordinary jurisdiction of the shire. By 
statute of 1495-1496 the lordship of Tynedale was annexed to 
Northumberland on account of flagrant abuses of the liberties 
of the franchise; the liberty of Hexham was annexed to North- 
umberland in 1572; Norhamshire, Islandshire and Bedlington- 
shire continued to form detached portions of Durham until 1844, 
when they were incorporated with Northumberland. The 
division into wards existed at least as early as 1 295, the Hundred 
Roll of that year giving the wards of Coquetdale, Bamburgh, 
Glendale and Tynedale. 

The shire-court for Northumberland was held at different 
times at Newcastle, Alnwick and Morpeth, until by statute of 
1549 it was ordered that the court should thenceforth be held 
in the town and castle of Alnwick, and under the same statute 
the sheriffs of Northumberland, who had lately been in the 
habit of appropriating the issues of the county to their private 
use, were required to hereafter deliver in their accounts to the 
Exchequer in the same manner as the sheriffs of other counties. 
The assizes were held at Newcastle, and the itinerant justices, 
on their approach to the county, were met by the king of Scot- 
land, the archbishop of York, the bishop of Durham and the prior 
of Tynemouth, who pleaded their liberties either at a well called 
Chille near Gateshead, if the justices were proceeding from York, 
or, if from Cumberland, at Fourstanes. In these franchises the 
king's writ did not run, and their owners performed the office 
of sheriff and coroner. Among other Northumbrian landowners 
claiming privileged jurisdiction in 1293 was Robert de Quonla, 
who claimed that he and his men were quit of the suits of the 
shire and wapentake; the prior of St Mary of Carlisle claimed 
to exclude the king's bailiffs from executing their office in his 
fee of Corbridge, and that he and his men were quit of the suits 
of the shire and wapentake. The burgesses of Newcastle claimed 
return of writs in their borough, and Edmund, the brother of 
Edward I., claimed return of writs and exemptions from the 
sheriff's jurisdiction in his manor of Stamford. Newcastle was 
made a county by itself by Henry IV. in 1400, and has juris- 
diction in admiralty cases. Ecclesiastically the county was in 
the diocese of Durham, and in 1291 formed the archdeaconry 
of Northumberland, comprising the deaneries of Newcastle, 
Corbridge, Bamburgh and Alnwick. In 1535 the archdeaconry 
included the additional deanery of Morpeth. The archdeaconry 
of Lindisfarne was formed in 1845, and subdivided into the rural 
deaneries of Alnwick, Bamburgh, Morpeth, Norham and Roth- 
bury; the archdeaconry of Northumberland then including the 
deaneries of Bellingham, Corbridge, Hexham and Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. In 1882 Northumberland was formed into a separate 
diocese with its see at Newcastle, the archdeaconries and 
deaneries being unaltered. In 1885 the additional deaneries of 
Tynemouth and Bedlington were formed in the archdeaconry 
of Northumberland, and in 1900 the deanery of Glendale in the 
archdeaconry of Lindisfarne. 

Pre-eminent among the great families connected with North- 
umberland is that of Percy (q.v.). Ford and Chipchase were 
seats of the Heron family. The Widdringtons were established 
at Widdrington in the reign of Henry I. and frequently filled 
the office of sheriff of the county. The barony of Prudhoe was 
granted by Henry I. to the Umfravilles, who also held the castles 
of Otterburn and Harbottle and the franchise of Redesdale. 
From the Ridleys of Willimoteswyke was descended Bishop 
Ridley, who was martyred in 1555. Aydon Castle was part 
of the barony of Hugh Baliol. The Radcliffes, who held Dilston 
and Cartington in the isth century and afterwards acquired 
the extensive barony of Langley, became very powerful in 
Northumberland after the decline of the Percies, and were 
devoted adherents of the Stuart cause. 



From the Norman Conquest until the union of England and 
Scotland under James I., Northumberland was the scene of 
perpetual inroads and devastations by the Scots. Norham, 
Alnwick and Wark were captured by David of Scotland in the 
wars of Stephen's reign, and in 1290 it was at Norham Castle 
that Edward I. decided the question of the Scottish succession 
in favour of John Baliol. In 1295 Robert de Ros and the earls 
of Athol and Menteith ravaged Redesdale, Coquetdale and 
Tynedale. In 1314 the county was ravaged by Robert Bruce, 
and in 1382 by special enactment the earl of Northumberland 
was ordered to remain on his estates in order to protect the 
county from the Scots. In 1388 Henry Percy was taken prisoner 
and 1500 of his men slain at the battle of Otterburn, immortalized 
in the ballad of " Chevy Chase." Alawick, Bamburgh and 
Dunstanborough were garrisoned for the Lancastrian cause in 
1462, but after> the Yorkist victories of Hexham and Hedgley 
Moor in 1464, Alnwick and Dunstanborough surrendered, and 
Bamburgh was taken by storm. In 1513 the king of Scotland 
was slain in the battle of Flodden Field on Branxton Moor. 
During the Civil War of the I7th century Newcastle was 
garrisoned for the king by the earl of Newcastle, but in 1644 it 
was captured by the Scots under the earl of Leven, and in 1646 
Charles was led there a captive under the charge of David 
Leslie. Many of the chief Northumberland families were ruined 
in the rebellion of 1715. 

The early industrial development of Northumberland was 
much impeded by the constant ravages of internal and border 
warfare, and in 1376 the commonalty of Northumberland begged 
consideration for their sheriff, who, although charged 100 for 
the profits of the county, through death and devastation by the 
Scots could only raise 53, 33. 4d. Again Aeneas Sylvius 
Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.), who passed through the county 
disguised as a merchant in 1436, leaves a picture of its barbarous 
and desolate condition, and as late as the i7th century, Camden, 
the antiquarian, describes the lands as rough and unfit for culti- 
vation. The mineral resources, however, appear to have been 
exploited to some extent from remote times. It is certain that 
coal was used by the Romans in Northumberland, and some 
coal ornaments found at Angerton have been attributed to the 
7th century. In a 13th-century grant to Newminster Abbey a 
road for the conveyance of sea-coal from the shore about Blyth 
is mentioned, and the Blyth coal-field was worked throughout 
the i4th and isth centuries. The coal trade on the Tyne did 
not exist to any extent before the I3th century, but from that 
period it developed rapidly, and Newcastle acquired the monopoly 
of the river shipping and coal-trade. Lead was exported from 
Newcastle in the i2th century, probably from Hexhamshire, 
the lead mines of which were very prosperous throughout the 
i6th and i7th centuries. In a charter from Richard I. to Bishop 
Pudsey creating him earl of Northumberland, mines of silver 
and iron are mentioned, and in 1240 the monks of Newminster 
had an iron forge at Stretton. A salt-pan is mentioned at Wark- 
worth in the i2th century; in the i3th century the salt industry 
flourished at the mouth of the river Blyth, and in the i5th 
century formed the principal occupation of the inhabitants 
of North and South Shields. In the reign of Elizabeth glass- 
houses were set up at Newcastle by foreign refugees, and the 
industry spread rapidly along the Tyne. Tanning, both of 
leather and of nets, was largely practised in the I3th century, 
and the salmon fisheries in the Tyne were famous in the reign 
of Henry I. 

The county of Northumberland was represented by two 
members in the parliament of 1290, and in 1295 Bamburgh, 
Corbridge and Newcastle-upon-Tyne each returned two members. 
From 1297, however, Newcastle was the only borough repre- 
sented, until in 1524 Berwick acquired representation and 
returned two members. Morpeth returned two members from 
1553. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four 
members in two divisions; Berwick and Newcastle were repre- 
sented by two members each, and Morpeth and Tynemouth by 
one member each. Under the act of 1885 the county now returns 
four members in four divisions. 



NORTHUMBRIA 



793 



Antiquities. Of Anglo-Saxon buildings the Danes left almost 
nothing. The crypt of Wilfrid's abbey of St Andrew at Hexham is 
one undoubted remnant; portions of several other churches are 
very doubtfully pre-Norman. Some thousand Saxon stycas found 
buried at Hexham, the " fridstool " there, and an ornate cross now 
shared between Rothbury and Newcastle are the other principal 
vestiges of Saxon times. The Black Dyke, a bank and ditch crossing 
the line of the Roman wall about 3 m. east of the Irthing, is supposed 
by some antiquaries to be the continuation of the CatraiT at Peel Fell ; 
the latter was the probable boundary-fence between the Saxon 
Bernicia and the British Strathclyde. 

The ecclesiastical buildings of the county suffered greatly at 
the hands of the Scots. Not a few of the churches were massive 
structures, tower-like in strength, and fit to defend on occasion. 
Lindisfarne Priory, the oldest monastic ruin in the country, dates 
from 1093. Hexham Abbey Church, raised over the crypt of 
Wilfrid's cathedral, has been termed a " text-book of Early English 
architecture." Of Brinkburn Priory the church remains, and has 
been well restored. Hulne Abbey was the first Carmelite monastery 
in Britain. Besides these there are fragments of Newminster Abbey 
(1139), Alnwick Abbey (1147) and others. An exquisitely graceful 
fragment of Tynemouth church is associated with some remains 
of the older priory. St Nicholas's church, Newcastle (1350), was the 
prototype of St Giles's, Edinburgh. There is a massive Norman 
church at Norham, and other Norman and Early English churches 
at Mitford, Bamburgh, Warkworth (with its hermitage), Alnwick 
(St Michael's) &c., most of them with square towers. The stone 
roof of the little church at Bellingham, with its heavy semicircular 
girders, is said to be now unique. 

" It may be said of the houses of the gentry herein," writes 
Fuller, " ' quot mansiones, tot munitiones,' as being all castles or 
castle-like." Except a few dwellings of the 1 6th century in New- 
castle, and some mansions built after the Union of England and 
Scotland, the older houses are all castles. A survey of 1460 mentions 
thirty-seven castles and seventy-eight towers in Northumberland, 
not probably including all the bastle-houses or small peels of the 
yeomen. At the Conquest Bamburgh, the seat of the Saxon kings, 
was the only fortress north of York. Norham Castle was built in 
1 1 2 1 . None of the baronial castles are older than the time of Henry I . 
A grass mound represents Wark Castle. Alnwick Castle is an array 
of walls and towers covering about five acres. Warkworth, Prudhoe 
and Dunstanburgh castles are fine groups of ruins. Dilston Castle 
has still its romantic memories of the earl of Derwentwater. Bel- 
say, Haughton, Featherstone and Chipchase castles are joined 
with modern mansions. The peel-towers of Elsdon, Whitton 
(Rothbury) and Embleton were used as fortified rectory-houses. 
Seaton Delaval was the work of Vanbrugh. 

The place-names of the county may be viewed as its etymological 
antiquities. The Danish test-suffix by is absent. Saxon tons, hams, 
cleughs (clefts or ravines) and various patronymics are met with in 
great numbers; and the Gaelic knock (hill) and Cymric caer, dwr 
(water), cefn (ridge), bryn (brow), &c., mingle with the Saxon. Many 
curiosities of place-nomenclature exist, some strange, some expressive, 
e.g. Blink-bonny, Blaw-wearie, Skirl-naked, Pity Me. 

AUTHORITIES. Victoria County History, Northumberland; North- 
umberland County History Committee, A History of Northumberland 
(in process) (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1893, &c.); John Hodgson, A 
History of Northumberland, in 3 parts (1827-1840); E. Mackenzie, 
An Historical View of the County of Northumberland (2nd ed., 2 vols., 
Newcastle, 1811); Society of Antiquaries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, A 
History of Northumberland, pt. i. containing the general history of 
the county, state of the district under the Saxon and Danish kings, 
&c. (Newcastle, 1858); Archaeologia Aeliana, or Miscellaneous 
Tracts relating to Antiquity, published by the Society of Antiquaries 
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (4 vols., Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1822-1855; 
new series, 1857, &c.) ; William Wallis, The Natural History and 
Antiquities of Northumberland (2 vols., London, 1769); W. S. Gibson, 
Descriptive and Historical Notices of some remarkable Northumbrian 
Castles, Churches and Antiquities, series i. (London, 1848); Early 
Assize Rolls for Northumberland, edited by William Page, Surtees 
Society (London, 1891). 

NORTHUMBRIA (regnum Norlhanhymbrorum), one of the 
most important of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, extended from 
the Ilumber to the Forth. Originally it comprised two in- 
dependent kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira (q.v.). Each of these 
had a dynasty of its own. The first known king of the former 
was Ida, who, according to tradition, acquired 'the throne in 
547 and reigned twelve years. To him the foundation of Bam- 
burgh is attributed. Four of Ida's sons successively occupied 
his throne: Glappa 559-560, Adda 560-568, Aethelric 568-572, 
and Theodoric 572-579. Of the first three nothing is known, 
but Theodoric is said (Hisloria Brittonum) to have been besieged 
by the Welsh under Urien in Lindisfarne. Theodoric was 
succeeded by Frithuwald 570-585 or 586 and Hussa 586-592 or 
593. Then ^Ethelfrith (q.v.), son of ^Ethelric, came to the throne. 



He greatly extended his territories at the expense of the Welsh, 
and eventually provoked an invasion of Aidan, king of the Scots, 
whom he defeated at a place called Daegsastan (603). The first 
king of Deira of whom we know was Ella, or Aelle, who, according 
to Bede, was still reigning when Augustine arrived in 597. The 
Saxon Chronicle, which is a lass reliable authority for North- 
umbrian history, places his death in the year 588. The compiler 
of this work, however, seems to have used a regnal list of the 
Bernician kings, which differed considerably from most ef those 
found in our early authorities. jEthelfrith eventually acquired 
possession of Deira, probably in 604 or 605, perhaps on Ella's 
death, expelling his son Edwin (q.v.). Thenceforward, with 
rare intervals, the two kingdoms remained uniced. jEthelfrith 
became involved in war with the Welsh towards the end of his 
reign and captured Chester, probably about 613. Shortly after- 
wards, in 6 1 6, he was defeated and slain in battle on the river 
Idle by Edwin, who was assisted by the East Anglian king 
Raedwald. Edwin now became king over both Northumbrian 
provinces. By his time the kingdom must have reached the 
west coast, as he is said to have conquered the islands of Anglesea 
and Man. Under Edwin the Northumbrian kingdom became 
the chief power in the country. At his death in 633 the kingdom 
was again divided, Deira falling to his nephew Osric, while 
Bernicia was occupied by Eanfrith son of '^thelfrith. Both 
these kings were slain by Ceadwalla in the following year, but 
shortly afterwards the Welsh king was overthrown by Oswald 
(q.v.), brother of Eanfrith, who reunited the whole of North- 
umbria under his sway and acquired a supremacy analogous to 
that previously held by Edwin. After Oswald's defeat and 
death at the hands of Penda in 642 Bernicia fell to his brother 
Oswio, while Oswine son of Osric became king in Deira, though 
probably subject to Oswio. Oswine's death was compassed by 
Oswio in 651, and the throne of Deira was then obtained by 
^Ethelwald son of Oswald. He is not mentioned, however, 
after 655, so it is probable that Deira was incorporated in the 
Bernician kingdom not long afterwards. After Oswio's victory 
over Penda in 654-655 he annexed the northern part of Mercia 
to his kingdom and acquired a supremacy over the rest of 
England similar to that held by his predecessors. The Mercians, 
however, recovered their independence in 658, and from this 
time onward Northumbria played little part in the history of 
southern England. But Oswio and his son Ecgfrith greatly 
extended their territories towards the north and north-west, 
making themselves masters of the kingdoms of Strathclyde and 
Dalriada, as well as of a large part of the Pictish kingdom. 
Ecgfrith (q.v.), who succeeded on Oswio's death in 671, expelled 
the Mercians from Lindsey early in his reign, but was in turn 
defeated by them in 679, his brother ^Elfwine being slain. From 
this time onwards the Humber formed the boundary between 
the two kingdoms. In 684 we hear of the first English invasion 
of Ireland, but in the following year Ecgfrith was slain and 
his army totally destroyed by the Picts at a place called Nech- 
tansmere (probably Dunnichen Moss in Forfarshire). The Picts 
and Britons now recovered their independence; for Aldfrith, 
apparently an illegitimate son of Oswio, who succeeded, made 
no attempt to reconquer them. He was a learned man and a 
patron of scholars, and during his reign the Northumbrian 
kingdom partially recovered its prosperity. He was succeeded 
in 705 by his son Osred, and under him and his successors 
Northumbria began rapidly to decline through the vices of its 
kings and the extravagance of their donations. Osred was slain 
in 716. He was succeeded by Coenred 716-718, and Coenred by 
Osric 718-729. The next king was Ceolwulf, to whom Bede 
dedicated his Historia Ecclesiastica in 731. In the same year he 
was deposed and forced to become a monk, but was soon restored 
to the throne. In 737 he voluntarily retired to a monastery and 
left the kingdom to his cousin Eadberht. The latter appears to 
have been a vigorous ruler; in the year 740 we hear of his being 
involved in war with the Picts. ./Ethelbald of Mercia seems to 
have taken advantage of this campaign to ravage Northumbria. 
In 750 Eadberht is said to have annexed a large part of Ayrshire 
to his kingdom. Finally in 756, having now allied himself with 



794 



NORTH WALSHAM 



(Engus king of the Picts, he successfully attacked Dumbarton 
(Alcluith), the chief town of the Britons of Strathclyde. Ead- 
berht showed considerable independence in his dealings with 
the church, and his brother Ecgberht, to whom the well-known 
letter of Bede is addressed, was from 734 to 766 archbishop of 
York. In 758 Eadberht resigned the kingdom to his son Oswulf, 
and became a monk. After his abdication Northumbrian history 
degenerates into a record of dynastic murders. Oswulf was 
slain by his household at a place called Mechil Wongtun in 759. 
Moll ^Ethelwald, who' may have been a brother of Eadberht, 
succeeded, and after a victory over a certain Oswine, who fell 
in the battle, abdicated and became a monk probably under 
compulsion in 765. His successor Alchred claimed descent from 
Ida, but Simeon of Durham appears to doubt the truth of his 
claim. He sent an embassy to Charlemagne in 768 and was 
deposed in 774, whereupon he fled to Bamburgh and afterwards 
to the Picts. His deposition has been ascribed to a formal act 
of the Witan, but this seems an antedating of constitutional 
methods and the circumstances point to a palace revolution. The 
successor of Alchred was /Ethelred son of Moll ^Ethelwald. In 
778 three high-reeves were slain at the instigation of the king. 
jEthelred was expelled during the next year, perhaps in con- 
sequence of this event, and^Elfwald son of Oswulf became king. 
^Elfwald was murdered by Sicga in 789, whereupon Osred his 
nephew the son of Alchred succeeded. In 790 the banished 
^Ethelred returned to the throne and drove out Osred, whom 
he put to death in 792. ^Ethelred, who had married ^Elflaed 
the daughter of Offa, also killed (Elf and CElfwine, the sons of 
GElfwald and was murdered himself at Corbridge in 796. Oswald, 
who is called patricius by Simeon of Durham, succeeded, but 
reigned only twenty-seven days, when he was expelled and 
eventually became a monk. Eardwulf dux, who had apparently 
fled abroad to escape the wrath of iEthelred, was now recalled 
and held the crown until 807 or 808. ^Elfwald then became 
king, but Eardwulf was restored in 808 or 809 after appealing 
to the emperor and the pope. Eanred, son of Eardwulf, probably 
came to the throne in 809 and reigned until 841. It was during 
his reign in 827 that Northumbria acknowledged the supremacy 
of Ecgberht, king of Wessex. Eanred was succeeded by his son 
/Ethelred, who was slain in 850, when Osberht came to the 
throne and reigned until 863. On the expulsion of Osberht, Ella 
or ^Elle, succeeded. The chroniclers emphasize the fact that 
this king was not of royal descent. He is said to have slain 
Ragnarr LoSbrok. In the year 866 LoSbrok's sons Ingwaere 
(I'varr, q.v.), Hcalfdene, Ubba and others brought a vast army 
to England to avenge the death of their father. In the following 
year they obtained possession of York. Ella seems now to have 
made peace with the exiled king Osberht, and their united 
forces succeeded in recovering the city. In the great battle 
which ensued the Northumbrian army was annihilated and both 
kings slain (the death of Ella, according to Irish tradition, being 
due to the treachery of one of his followers). The southern 
part of Northumbria now passed entirely into the hands of the 
invaders, but they allowed a certain Ecgberht to reign over 
the portion of the kingdom north of the Tyne. Ecgberht was 
expelled in 872 and died in the course of the following year. 
His successor Ricsig died in 876 and was followed by Ecgberht II., 
who reigned until 878. He was the last English king who 
reigned in Northumbria. After him the chief power north of 
the Tyne came into the hands of a certain Eadulf of Bamburgh, 
who did not take the kingly title, but accepted the overlordship 
of Alfred the Great perhaps in 886. In the winter of 874-875 
Healfdene returned to Northumbria, which he partitioned among 
his followers. He was probably killed in Ireland in 877. Simeon 
of Durham makes his death occur about the same time, after 
he had been expelled from his country and had lost his reason 
as a punishment for his misdeeds. After an interregnum of a 
few years a certain Guthred became king in 883. He is said to 
have been a slave and to have been appointed king at the com- 
mand of St Cuthbert, who appeared to Eadred the abbot of 
Carlisle in a dream. There is some reason for the conjecture 
that he belonged to the family of LoSbrok. He died in 894, 



after which date little is known of Northumbrian history for a 
number of years. About the year 919 the country was invaded 
by Raegenald (Rognvaldr grandson of I'varr), a Norwegian king 
from Ireland, who seized York and occupied the lands of St 
Cuthbert. Aldred, the son of Eadulf, who now ruled north of 
the Tyne, appealed to Constantine II., king of the Scots, for 
help, but the Scottish and Northumbrian armies were defeated 
at Corbridge. Shortly after this, however, all the northern 
princes submitted to Edward the Elder. Raegenald was suc- 
ceeded by Sihtric (Sigtryggr, another grandson of I'varr), who 
married ^Ethelstan's sister. He died in 926, and his brother 
and successor Guthfrith was soon afterwards expelled by .^Ethel- 
Stan and fled to Eugenius, king of Strathclyde. The Welsh 
and Scottish kings, however, both submitted to ^Ethelstan, and 
Guthfrith was again driven into exile. He died in 934, leaving 
a son Aniaf (Olaf r) , Godf redsson or Godfreyson. In 934 ^Ethel- 
stan invaded Scotland as far as the Tay. In 937 a great fleet 
and army were brought together by Constantine and Anlaf, 
the son of Sihtric, another Norwegian chieftain who had allied 
himself with the Scots, helped by Anlaf Godfreyson from Ireland. 
jEthelstan, however, won a complete victory over them at a 
place called Brunanburh, probably Burnswark in Dumfries- 
shire. Anlaf Godfreyson returned to Ireland and died in 941- 
942 in a raiding expedition in the south of Scotland. Anlaf the 
son of Sihtric again came to England in 940 just after the death 
of yEthelstan. He became king of Northumbria and extended 
his territories as far as Watling Street. Peace was made with 
King Edmund by the capture of King Anlaf, and a good deal 
later by the confirmation of King Raegenald, brother to Anlaf 
Godfreyson and cousin to Anlaf Sihtricson. About two years 
later, however, both these kings were expelled by Edmund, and 
the whole of Northumbria was brought under his power. About 
the second year of Eadred's reign there was another revolt and 
Eric Bloodaxe, the exiled king of Norway, obtained the throne. 
During the next few years the kingdom alternated between 
Eric and Anlaf until 954, when Eadred finally succeeded in 
establishing his power. Eric was killed by Maccus, the son of 
Anlaf while Anlaf himself withdrew to Ireland, where he died 
in 980. Eadred placed Northumbria in the hands of a certain 
Osulf, who is called high-reeve at Bamburgh. In the reign of 
Edgar, Oslac was appointed earl of southern Northumbria, but 
he was banished at the beginning of the following reign. The 
next earl was Waltheof and after him Uhtred, who defeated 
Malcolm II., king of the Scots, in 1006. Twelve years later, 
however, the Northumbrians were completely defeated at 
Carhan, and Lothian was annexed by the Sects (see LOTHIAN). 
Uhtred was slain by the orders of Canute, who gave the province 
to Eric (Eirikr) earl of Lade. Shortly afterwards, however, 
part of it at least came into the hands first of .Eadulf and then 
Aldred and another Eadulf, the brother and sons respectively 
of Uhtred. The younger Eadulf was slain by Siward, probably 
in the reign of Hardacanute. Siward held the earldom till his 
death in 1055, when it was given to Tostig, son of earl Godwine, 
and after his banishment to Morkere, son of ^Elfgar, earl of 
Mercia. Tostig's banishment led to the invasion of Harold 
Hardrada, king of Norway, and the battle of Stamford Bridge, 
in which both perished. 

AUTHORITIES. Bede, Historia ecclesiastica, ed. C. Plummer 
(Oxford, 1896); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer 
(Oxford, 1899); " Annales Lindesfarnenses," in the Monumenta 
historica Germanita, Band xix. (Hanover, 1866); Simeon of Durham 
(" Rolls" series), ed. T. Arnold (1882); ]. C. H. R. Steenstrup, 
Nortnannerne (Copenhagen, 1876-1882). J (F. G. M. B.) 

NORTH WALSHAM, a market town in the eastern parlia- 
mentary division of Norfolk, England; 131 m. N.E. by N. 
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban 
district (1901) 3981. It lies in a pastoral district near the river 
Ant, a tributary of the Bure. The church of St Nicholas is a 
fine Perpendicular structure exhibiting the flint-work common to 
the district, and possessing a beautiful south porch and the ruin 
of a massive western tower which partly collapsed early in the 
1 8th century. A grammar school was founded in 1606, and 
reorganized and moved to new buildings in modern times. There 



NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE 



795 



is a market house of the i6th century. A considerable agri- 
cultural trade is carried on, and cattle-shows and fairs are held. 
The river Ant provides a route southward to the Norfolk Broads. 
The coast village of Mundesley, 5 m. N.E. by a branch railway, 
is in favour as a watering-place, having fine sands beneath the 
cliffs. In the district between this and North Walsham are 
Paston, taking name from the family which is famous through 
the Paston Letters (<?..), and the fragments of Bromholm 
Priory, a Cluniac foundation. These are of various dates from 
Norman onwards, but are incorporated with farm buildings. 
The rood of Bromholm was a reputed fragment of the Cross 
which attracted many pilgrims. To the south of North Walsham 
is North Walsham Heath, whither in June 1381 a body of in- 
surgents in connexion with the Peasants' Revolt were driven 
from before Norwich by Henry le Despenser, bishop of Norwich, 
and defeated; after which their leader, Geoffrey Lister, and 
others were sent to the scaffold. 

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, the most northerly 
province of British India, created on the 25th of October 1001. 
Roughly it may be denned as the tract of country N. of Baluch- 
istan, lying between the Indus and Afghanistan. More exactly 
it consists of (i) the cis-Indus district of Hazara; (2) the com- 
paratively narrow strip between the Indus and the hills con- 
stituting the settled districts of Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu and 
Dera Ismail Khan; and (3) the rugged mountainous region 
between these districts and the borders of Afghanistan, which 
is inhabited by independent tribes. This last region is divided 
into five agencies: Dir, Swat and Chitral, with headquarters at 
Malakand; Khyber, Kurram, Tochi and Wana. The province 
lies between 31 4' and 36 57' N., and 69 16' and 74 f E. 
The approximate area is 38,665 sq. m., of which 13,193 sq. m. 
are British territory and the remainder is held by tribes under 
the political control of the Agent to the Governor-General. 
On the N. it abuts on the Hindu Kush. To the S. it is bounded 
by Baluchistan and Dera Ghazi Khan district of the Punjab, 
on the E. by Kashmir and the Punjab, and on the W. by 
Afghanistan. 

1. Hazara District. The district of Hazara extends north- 
eastwards into the outer Himalayan Range, tapering to a narrow 
point at the head of the Kagan valley. The mountain chains which 
enclose Kagan sweep southward into the broader portion of the 
district, throwing off well-wooded spurs which break up the country 
into numerous isolated glens. Approaching Rawalpindi district 
the hills open out, and rich plain lands take the place of the terraced 
hillsides and forests of the more northern uplands. The Babusar 
Pass at the head of the Kagan valley marks the most direct approach 
to Chilas and Gilgit from the plains of India. (See HAZARA). 

2. The Settled Districts. The tract between the Indus and the 
hills consists of four open districts, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu and 
Dera Ismail Khan, divided one from the other by low hills. The vale 
of Peshawar is for the most part highly irrigated and well wooded, 
presenting in the spring and autumn a picture of waving cornfields 
and smiling orchards framed by rugged hills. It has, however, an 
evil name for malarial fever. Adjoining Peshawar, and separated 
from it by the Jowaki hills, lies the district of Kohat, a generally 
hilly tract intersected by narrow valleys. The largest of these 
traverses the district from Kushalgarh on the Indus to Thai on the 
Kurram, narrowing in places, but usually opening out into wide 
cornlands and pastures dotted with the dwarf palm. This district 
affords striking contrasts of scenery, from the sheltered fields of 
Miranzai to the barren desolation of the salt mines. The southern 
spurs of the Kohat hills gradually subside into the Bannu plain. 
Where irrigated from the Kurram river, especially round Bannu 
itself, this tract is well cultivated and forms a great contrast to the 
harsh desolation of the Kohat hills. But beyond the sphere of irri- 
gation, where the land is dependent on the rainfall, there is much 
rough stony ground broken by great fissures cut by flood-water 
from the border hills. To the east this gives way to the broad level 
plain of Marwat, which in favourable years presents a uniform ex- 
panse of rich cultivation extending from Lakki to the base of the 
Shekh Budin hills. These hills consist of a broken range of sandstone 
and conglomerate dividing the Bannu plain from the cultivated 
flats of Dera Ismail Khan. 

3. The Country of the Independent Tribes. Turning to the moun- 
tainous region between the settled districts and Afghanistan, to the 
extreme north lies the agency of Dir, Swat and Chitral. Chitral 
itself consists of a narrow valley enclosed between rugged mountains. 
Below Chitral are found the thickly timbered forests of Dir and 
Bajour, and the fertile valleys of the Panikora and Swat rivers. 
Between this agency and the Khyber Pass lie the Mohmand hills, 



a rough country with but little cultivation, under the political control 
of Peshawar. West and south-west of the Khyber again is the 
country of the Afridis and the Orakzais. The boundary of the 
province here follows the line of the Safed Koh, which overlooks the 
Afridi Tirah and the upper Kurram valley. Dotted with towered 
hamlets and stately chinar groves the valley of the Kurram runs 
south-east from the Peiwar Kotal (below the great peak of Sikaram), 
past Thai in the Miranzai valley, through the southern Kohat hills 
to Bannu. South of the Kurram is the Tochi valley, separating it 
from Waziristan, an isolated mountainous district bounded on the 
south by the Gomal and the gorges that lead to the Wana plain. 
The lower ridges of the frontier mountain system are usually bare 
and treeless, but here and there, as in the Kaitu valley, in northern 
Waziristan and round Kaniguram in the south, are forest clad and 
enclose narrow but fertile and well-irrigated dales. In places, too, 
as, for instance, round Shawal, the summer grazing ground of the 
Darwesh Khel Waziris, and on the slopes of Pir Ghol, there is good 
pasturage and a fair sprinkling of deodars. The valleys of the Tochi 
and Wana are both fertile, but are very different in character. 
The former is a long narrow valley, with a rich fringe of cultivation 
bordering the river; the latter is a wide open alluvial plain, cultivated 
only on one side, and for the rest rough stony waste. South of the 
Gomal the Suliman Range culminates in the famous Takht-i- 
Suliman in the Largha Sherani country, a political dependency of 
Dera Ismail Khan district. The Kaisargarh peak of the Takht-i- 
Suliman is 1 1 ,300 ft. above sea-level. 

Mountain Systems. The mountains of the Hindu Kush running 
from east to west form the northern boundary of the province, 
and are met at the north-east corner of the Chitral agency by the 
continuation of an outer chain of the Himalayas after it crosses the 
Indus above the Kagan valley. From this chain minor ranges run 
in a south-westerly direction the whole length of Bajour and Swat, 
till they merge into the Mohmand hills and connect the mid-Hima- 
layas with the Safed Koh. The range of the Safed Koh flanks the 
Kurram valley and encloses the Kabul basin, which finds its outlet 
to the Indus through the Mohmand hills. The Suliman system lies 
south of the Gomal unconnected with the northern hills. To the east 
the Safed Koh extends its spurs into the Kohat district. The Salt 
Range crosses the Indus in the Mianwali tahsil of the Punjab, and 
forms the boundary between Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan, merging 
eventually in the Waziri hills. The chief peaks in the province are 
Kaisargarh (11,300 ft.) and Pir Ghol (11,580 ft.) in Waziristan; 
Shekh Budin (4516 ft.), in the small range; Sikaram (15,621 ft.) 
in the Safed Koh; Istragh (18,900 ft.), Kachin (22,641 ft.) and 
Tirach Mir (25,426 ft.), in the Hindu Kush on the northern border 
of the Chitral agency; while the Kagan peaks in Hazara district 
run from 10,000 ft. to 16,700 ft. 

Rivers. With the exception of the Kunhar river, which flows 
down the Kagan valley to the Jhelum, the whole drainage of the 
province eventually finds its way into the Indus. The Indus enters 
the province between tribal territory and Hazara district. After 
leaving Hazara it flows in a southerly direction between the Punjab 
and the North-West Frontier Province, till it enters Mianwali 
district of the Punjab, from which it emerges to form again the 
eastern boundary of the province. From the east it is fed by three 
or four rivers of Hazara district (see INDUS). At Attock the Kabul 
river brings down to the Indus the whole drainage of Kafiristan, 
Chitral, Panjkora, Swat and Peshawar district (see KABUL RIVER). 
The Kurram river rises in the southern slopes of the Safed Koh, 
and after leaving the Kurram valley passes through the Kohat hills 
and enters Bannu district. Three miles below Lakki it is joined by 
the Tochi or Gambela, which carries the drainage of North Waziristan. 
The Kurram then empties itself into the Indus. From this point 
until it leaves the province the Indus receives no tributary of any 
importance. The Gomal river drains a large area of central Afghan- 
istan and forms the most important povindah (or Kafila) route on the 
frontier. 

The Pathan Races. The North-West Frontier Province as 
now constituted may be described as the country of the Pathans 
(<?..). The true Pathan is possibly of Indian extraction. But 
around this nucleus have collected many tribes of foreign origin. 
The whole have now become blended by the adoption of a common 
language, but remain tribally distinct; all alike have accepted 
Islam, and have invented traditions of common descent which 
express their present association. For centuries these tribes 
maintained their independence in the rugged hills which flank 
the present kingdom of Afghanistan. In the isth century 
they began to settle in the plains. The i6th century saw the 
Pathan tribes established in their present homes. The spirit 
of independence which always characterized them soon brought 
them into collision with the Mogul empire. In the i7th century, 
after a long struggle, the settlers in the plains wrested from 
Aurangzeb terms which left them almost as independent as 
their brothers in the hills. The invasion in 1738 of Nadir Shah, 
who traversed the province from Peshawar to Dera Ismail Khan. 



79 6 



NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES 



is a landmark in the history of the frontier. From his death to 
the rise of Ranjit Singh, the frontier districts remained an 
appendage of the Durani empire. Little control was exercised 
by the rulers of Kabul, and the country was administered by 
local chiefs or Afghan Sirdars very much as they pleased. The 
Sikh invasions began in 1818, and from that date to the annexa- 
tion by the British government the Sikhs were steadily making 
themselves masters of the country. After the Second Sikh War, 
by the proclamation of the apth of March 1849, the frontier 
districts were annexed by the British government. From that 
time until the creation of the North- West Frontier Province the 
settled districts formed part of the Punjab, while the independent 
tribes were controlled at different times by the Punjab govern- 
ment, and the government of India. Their turbulence still 
continued, and since 1849 they have been the object of over 
fifty punitive expeditions. The chief tribes, under the political 
control of the N.W. Frontier agency, besides Chitralis and 
Bajouris, are the Utman Khel, Yusafzais, Hassanzais, Mohmands, 
Afridis, jowakis, Mullagoris, Orakzais, Zaimukhts, Chamkannis, 
Khattaks, Bangashes, Turis, Waziris, Battannis (Bhitanis) 
and Sheranis. These tribes are referred to under separate 
headings. 

Creation of the Province. The North- West Frontier Province 
differs from the older provinces of India in having been artifici- 
ally built up out of part of a previous province together with 
new districts for a definite administrative purpose. The proposal 
to make the frontier districts into a separate province, ad- 
ministered by an officer of special experience, dates back to the 
viceroyalty of Lord Lytton, who, in a famous minute of the 
22nd of April 1877, said: 

" I believe that our North- West Frontier presents at this moment 
a spectacle unique in the world; at least I know of no other spot 
where, after 25 years of peaceful occupation, a great civilized power 
has obtained so little influence over its semi-savage neighbours, 
and acquired so little knowledge of them, that the country within a 
day's ride of its most important garrison is an absolute terra incognita, 
and that there is absolutely no security for British life a mile or two 
beyond our border." 

The result of this minute was that a frontier commissionership, 
including Sind, was sanctioned by the home government, and 
Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Roberts had been designated 
as the first Commissioner, when the outbreak of the Second 
Afghan War caused the project to be postponed. It was after- 
wards shelved by Lord Ripon. Twenty-three years elapsed 
before the idea was revived and successfully brought to com- 
pletion by Lord Curzon, whose scheme was on a more modest 
scale than Lord Lytton's. It omitted Sind altogether, and con- 
fined the new province to the Pathan trans-Indus districts 
north of the Gomal. The purpose of the change was to subject 
all the independent tribes from Chitral to the Gomal Pass to 
the control of a single hand, and to ensure a firm and continuous 
policy in their management. The administration of the province 
is conducted by a chief Commissioner and Agent to the Governor- 
General. 

Population. In the census of 1 901 the operations were extended 
for the first time to the Kurram Valley and the Sherani country, 
trans-frontier territories containing a population of 66,628 
souls, which had not been previously enumerated. The military 
cantonments and posts in Malakand, Dir, Swat and Chitral 
were also enumerated, as were those in the Tochi Valley (the 
Northern Waziristan Agency) and in the Gomal (the Southern 
Waziristan Agency), the former figures being included in the 
census returns of Bannu district, and those of the latter in the 
returns of Dera Ismail Khan. The total population of the 
province was 2,125,480; but this figure omits the great majority 
of the frontier tribes. The province is almost wholly agricultural. 
The urban population is only one-eighth of the total, and shows 
i>o tendency to increase. There are no large industries to attract 
the population to the towns; these, except Peshawar and Dera 
Ismail Khan, are either expansions of large agricultural villages 
or bazaars which have grown up round the many cantonments 
of the province. The great majority of the population are 
Pathan by race and Mahommedan by religion. The predominant 



language is Pushtu (q.v.). The conquered strata of the popu- 
lation speak servile Indian dialects, called Hindki in the 
north and Jatki in the south, while Gujari is spoken by the 
large Gujar population in the hills of Hazara and north of 
Peshawar. 

Crops and Climate. The area under cultivation represents an 
average of 1-3 acres per head of the total, and of nearly 1-5 acres 
per head of the rural population. The limit of profitable cultivation 
has almost been reached. It is therefore from an improvement in 
the methods of agriculture rather than to an extension of the area 
under cultivation that recourse must be had to supply the needs of a 
rapidly increasing population. The Pathan, however, is a slovenly 
cultivator and slow to adopt any new methods which involve 
increased effort. The principal crops are in the cold weather, 
maize and bajra; in the spring, wheat, barley and gram. Rice and 
sugar-cane are largely grown on the irrigated lands of Hazara, 
Peshawar and Bannu districts, and the well and canal irrigated 
tracts of Peshawar district produce fine crops of cotton and tobacco. 
In the trans-border agencies the valleys of the Swat, Kurram and 
Tochi rivers yield abundant rice crops. The province is mainly a 
mountainous region, but includes the Peshawar valley and the broad 
riverain tract of the Indus in Dera Ismail Khan district. The 
climatic conditions are hence extremely diversified. Dera Ismail 
Khan district is one of the hottest areas in the Indian continent, 
while over the mountain region to the north the weather is temperate 
in the summer and intensely cold in the winter. The air is generally 
dry, and hence the daily and annual range of temperature is fre- 
quently very large. There are two seasons of rainfall over the 
province: the monsoon season, when supplies of moisture are brought 
up by the ocean winds from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal ; 
and the winter season, when storms advancing eastwards from Persia 
and the Caspian districts occasion winds, widespread rain and snow- 
fall. Both sources of supply are precarious, and instances are not 
infrequent of the almost entire failure of either the winter or the 
summer rainfall. 

Irrigation. Canals are the main source of irrigation in the province, 
and fall under three heads: (l) Private canals in the various districts, 
the property of the people and managed on their behalf; (2) the 
Michni Dilazak and Shabkadar branch in Peshawar, constructed by 
the district board, which receives water rates; and (3) the Swat 
and Kabul river canals, which were constructed by and are the 
property of government, and are managed by the irrigation depart- 
ment. 

About 20 % of the cultivated area is irrigated by canals, 2 % by 
wells and 3 % by perennial streams. Throughout the province the 
area in which well-cultivation is possible is extremely limited, and 
the field has already been covered. In Kohat and Hazara any 
considerable extension of canal irrigation is out of the question, 
but in the remaining districts much can still be done to promote 
irrigation. 

Railways. The railways of the province are mostly intended in 
the first instance for strategic purposes. The main line of the North- 
Western railway runs from Rawalpindi to Peshawar, whence it 
has been extended 9 m. to Jamrud at the entrance to the Khyber 
Pass. From Nowshera a frontier light line, involving a break of 
gauge, is carried to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass. 
From Rawalpindi again another branch extends to the Indus at 
Kushalgarh. A bridge has been built at this point, and the railway 
continued through Kohat to Thai at the entrance of the Kurram 
valley. 

See North-West Frontier Province Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908); 
Sir Thomas Holdich, The Indian Borderland (1901); Paget and 
Mason, Record of Frontier Expeditions (1884). (T. H. H.*) 

NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. The North-West Territory 
was at first a general name given to all the districts of British 
North America lying N.W. of the St Lawrence basin. In the 
British North America Act of 1867 provision was made for the 
admission to Canada of " Rupert's Land and the North-West 
Territory." Manitoba was formed out of this district in 1870. 
The territory remaining was then called the " North-West 
Territories," and until other arrangements were made was to be 
under the governor of Manitoba. In 1876 the district of Keewatin 
was established; in 1881 the limits of Manitoba were enlarged; 
and in 1882 four new districts Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, 
Alberta and Athabasca were organized. In 1905 the two first 
of these with some modification became the province of Saskatche- 
wan, and the two last the province of Alberta. The territories 
of Canada outside of the eight provinces and Yukon district of 
the mainland are now organized as the North-West Territories, 
and are under an administrator or acting governor. They include 
the districts of Keewatin, Ungava, Mackenzie and Franklin. 
These territories have an Indian population of about 8500, the 



NORTHWICH NORTON, C. E. 



797 



Indians throughout the southern part being chiefly Chipewyans, 
or, as they are sometimes called, Tinn6. The northern parts are 
inhabited by Eskimo. In these territories a short hot summer 
is followed by a long cold winter with extremely low temperatures, 
the spirit thermometer at times showing 60 to 65 F. below 
zero. The following observations may be quoted: 





Feet 
above 
Sea-level. 


Mean Temperature.F. 


Average 
Precipitation, 
Inches. 


Summer. 


Winter. 


Norway House, Keewatin . 
York Factory 
Fort Simpson, 41 51' N. . 
Fort Franklin, 65 12' N. . 


710 
o 
400 
500 


48-7 
59-4 
50-4 


12-6 
-10 

-17 


19-26 
28-73 



With the exception of southern Keewatin and the district south 
of James Bay the animals of the North-West Territories are 
chiefly fur-bearing. Great herds of musk-oxen are found in 
Mackenzie, and vast flocks of ducks, geese and other migratory 
birds spend summer in the northern wilds. Except in southern 
Keewatin and the James Bay district the flora is decidedly 
northern, becoming Arctic in the far north. Forest trees grow 
small and ill formed. Sedges abound, exceeding grasses; 
mustards are abundant, and saxifrages plentiful. Mosses and 
lichens are numerous. 

The history of the north-west follows three different branches, 
(i) The story of Arctic exploration and the search for the North- 
West Passage, with a concentration of interest upon the name of 
Sir John Franklin, whose loss was followed by a great development 
of investigation in the Arctic regions; (2) the story of the fur trade, 
connected with the Hudson Bay forts, from the establishment of 
the first Charles Fort in 1669; (3) the story of immigration, the 
beginning of which is to be found in the coming of the Selkirk 
colonists, the real founders of Manitoba (g.f .), to Red river by way of 
Hudson Bay. 

NORTHWICH, a market town in the Northwich parliamentary 
division of Cheshire, England, 1713 m. N.W. of London, on the 
London and North-Western railway and the Cheshire lines. 
Pop. of urban district, 17,611. It lies in a low open valley at 
the confluence of the rivers Weaver and Dane, and is the centre 
of the principal salt-producing district in the United Kingdom. 
In its narrow and irregular streets many of the houses are 
strongly bolted to keep them secure from the subsidences which 
result not infrequently from the pumping of brine. Despite 
these precautions many accidents have occurred; some of the 
houses have sunk or stand at fantastic angles, and in 1892 a 
portion of the High Street, which had subsided below the level 
of the Weaver, had to be raised 6 ft. Both rock salt and white 
salt obtained by evaporation from brine are exported. The 
amount supplied by the whole district, which includes the 
neighbouring town of Winsford 6 m. south, is about 1,500,000 
tons annually. The white salt is> shipped chiefly to America. 
The principal buildings are the church of St Helen, Witton, 
noted for its finely carved roof of the lyth century, a museum 
and free library and market house. The Verdin Park was 
presented to the town by Robert Verdin, M.P. for Northwich, 
in 1887. There is a considerable industry in the building of 
flat boats to convey salt to Liverpool, the river Weaver being 
navigable, and connected by a hydraulic lift, i m. from the 
town, with the Trent and Mersey Canal on a higher level. Rope- 
and brick-making, iron and brass-founding, chemical manu- 
factures, brewing and tanning, are also carried on. 

NORTON, CAROLINE ELIZABETH SARAH (1808-1877), 
afterwards Lady Stirling-Maxwell, English writer, was born in 
London in 1808. One of the three beautiful granddaughters of 
Richard Brinsley Sheridan, daughters of his son Thomas, the 
" three Graces " of London society in the reign of George IV., 
she began to write before she was out of her teens. Her two 
sisters Helen and Georgina became respectively Lady Dufferin 
and duchess of Somerset. Lady Dufferin described the sisters 
to Disraeli with characteristic modesty. " Georgey's the beauty," 
she said, " and Carry's the wit, and I ought to be the good one, 
but I am not." At the age of seventeen, Caroline published a 



merry satire, The Dandies 1 Rout, illustrated by herself, and full 
of girlish high spirits and wit. Her first essay m serious verse 
was made in 1829 with The Sorrows of Rosalie, the next in 1830 
with The Undying One, a version of the legend of the Wander- 
ing Jew. She made an unfortunate marriage in 1827 with 
the Hon. George Norton, brother of Lord Grantley. After 
three years of protests on her part and good promises 
on his, she had left his house for her sister's, had 
"condoned" on further good promises, and had 
returned, to find matters worse. The husband's 
persecutions culminated in 1836 in an action brought 
against Lord Melbourne for seduction of his wife, 
which the jury decided against Mr Norton without 
leaving the box. The case against Lord Melbourne 
was so weak that it was suggested that Norton 
was urged to make the accusation by Melbourne's political 
enemies, in the hope that the scandal would prevent him from 
being premier when the princess Victoria should succeed William 
IV. In 1853 legal proceedings between Mrs Norton and her 
husband were again entered on, because he not only failed to 
pay her allowance, but demanded the proceeds of her books. 
Mrs Norton made her own experience a plea for addressing 
to the queen in 1855 an eloquent letter on the divorce laws, 
and her writings did much to ripen opinion for changes in the 
legal status of married women. George 'Meredith, in Diana of 
the Crossways, used her as the model for his " Diana." Mrs 
Norton was not a mere writer of elegant trifles, but was one 
of the priestesses of the " reforming " spirit; her Voice from 
the Factories (1836) was a most eloquent and rousing condemna- 
tion of child labour. The Dream, and other Poems appeared in 
1840. Aunt Carry's Ballads (1847), dedicated to her nephews 
and nieces, are written with charming tenderness and grace. 
Later in life she produced three novels, Stuart of Dunleath (1851), 
Lost and Saved (1863), and Old Sir Douglas (1868). Mrs Norton's 
last poem was the Lady of La Garaye (1862), her last publication 
the half-humorous, half-heroic story of The Rose of Jericho in 
1870. She died on the isth of June 1877. Mr Norton died in 
1875; and Mrs Norton in the last year of her life married Sir 
W. Stirling-Maxwell. 

See The Life of Mrs Norton, by Jane G. Perkins (1909). 

NORTON, CHARLES BOWYER ADDERLEY. IST BARON 
(1814-1905), English politician, eldest son of Charles Clement 
Adderley (d. 1818), one of an old Staffordshire family, was born 
on the 2nd of August 1814, and inherited Hams Hall, Warwick- 
shire and the valuable estates of his great-uncle, Charles Bowyer 
Adderley, in 1826. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, 
and in 1841 he became one of the members of parliament for 
Staffordshire, retaining his seat until 1878, when he was created 
Baron Norton. Adderley's official career began in 1858, when 
he served as president of the board of health and vice-president of 
the committee of the council on education in Lord Derby's 
short ministry. Again under Lord Derby he was under-secretary 
for the colonies from 1866 to 1868, being in charge of the act 
which called the Dominion of Canada into being, and from 1874 
to 1878 he was president of the board of trade. He died on the 
28th of March 1905. Norton was a strong churchman and 
especially interested in education and the colonies. In 1842 he 
married Julia (1820-1887) daughter of Chandos, ist Lord Leigh, 
by whom he had several sons. His eldest son Charles Leigh 
(b. 1846) became 2nd Baron Norton. Another son, James 
Granville Adderley (b. 1861), vicar of Saltley, Birmingham, 
became well, known as an advocate of Christian socialism. 

See W. S. Childe-Pemberton, The Life of Lord Norton (1909). 

NORTON, CHARLES ELIOT (1827-1008), American scholar 
and man of letters, was born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
on the 1 6th of November 1827. His father, Andrews Norton 
(1786-1853) was a Unitarian theologian, and Dexter professor 
of sacred literature at Harvard; his mother was Catherine 
Eliot, Charles William Eliot, president of Harvard, being his 
cousin. Charles Eliot Norton graduated from Harvard in 1846, 
and started in business with an East Indian trading firm in 



NORTON, T. NORWALK 



Boston, for which he travelled to India in 1849. After a tour 
in Europe, he returned to America in 1851, and thenceforward 
devoted himself to literature and art. 

In 1881 Norton inaugurated the Dante Society, whose first 
presidents were Longfellow, Lowell and Norton. He translated 
the Vita N-uova (1860 and 1867) and the Divina Commcdia 
(1891-1892, 2 vols.). After work as secretary to the Loyal 
Publication Society during the Civil War, he edited from 1864- 
1868 the North American Review, in association with James 
Russell Lowell. In 1861 he and Lowell helped Longfellow in 
his translation of Dante and in the starting of the informal 
Dante Club. In 1875 he was appointed professor of the history of 
art at Harvard, a chair which was created for him and which he 
held until he became emeritus in 1898. The Archaeological Insti- 
tute of America chose him to be the first president (1879-1890). 
From 1856 until 1874 Norton spent much time in travel and 
residence on the continent of Europe and in England, and it was 
during this period that his friendships began with Carlyle, Ruskin, 
Edward FitzGerald and Leslie Stephen, an intimacy which did 
much to bring American and English men of letters into close 
personal relation. Norton, indeed, had a peculiar genius for 
friendship, and it is on his personal influence rather than on 
his literary productions that his claim to remembrance mainly 
rests. From 1882 onward he confined himself to the study of 
Dante, his professorial duties, and the editing and publication 
of the literary memorials of many of his friends. In 1883 came 
the Letters of Carlyle and Emerson; in 1886, 1887 and 1888, 
Carlyle' s Letters and Reminiscences; in 1894, the Orations and 
Addresses of George William Curtis and the Letters of Lowell. 
Norton was also made Ruskin's literary executor, and he 
wrote various introductions for the American " Brantwood " 
edition of Ruskin's works. His other publications include 
Notes of Travel and Study in Italy (1859), and an Historical 
Study of Church-building in the Middle Ages: Venice, Siena, 
Florence (1880). He organized exhibitions of the drawings of 
Turner (1874) and of Ruskin (1879), for which he compiled 
the catalogues. 

He died on the 2ist of October 1908 at " Shady-hill," the 
house where he was born. He bequeathed the more valuable 
portion of his library to Harvard. In 1862 he had married Miss 
Susan Sedgwick. He had the degrees of Litt.D. (Cambridge) 
and D.C.L. (Oxford), as well as the L.H.D. of Columbia and the 
LL.D. of Harvard and of Yale. 

NORTON, THOMAS (1532-1584), English lawyer, politician 
and writer of verse, was born in London in 1532. He was 
educated at Cambridge, and early became a secretary to the 
Protector Somerset. In 1555 he was admitted a student at the 
Inner Temple, and married Margery Cranmer, the daughter of 
the archbishop. From his eighteenth year Norton had begun 
to compose verse. We find him connected with Jasper Hey wood ; 
as a writer of " sonnets " he contributed to Tottcl's Miscellany, 
and in 1560 he composed, in company with Sackville, the earliest 
English tragedy, Gorboduc, which was performed before Queen 
Elizabeth in the Inner Temple on the i8th of January 1561. 
In 1562 Norton, who had served in an earlier parliament as the 
representative of Gatton, became M.P. for Berwick, and entered 
with great activity into politics. In religion he was inspired 
by the sentiments of his father-in-law, and was in possession 
of Cranmer's MS. code of ecclesiastical law; this he permitted 
John Foxe to publish in 1571. He went to Rome on legal business 
in 1579, and from 1580 to 1583 frequently visited the Channel 
Islands as a commissioner to inquire into the < status of these 
possessions. Norton's Calvinism grew with years, and towards 
the end of his career he became a rabid fanatic. His punishment 
of the Catholics, as their official censor from 1581 onwards, led 
to his being nicknamed " Rackmaster-General." At last his 
turbulent puritanism made him an object of fear even to the 
English bishops; he was deprived of his office and thrown into 
the Tower. Walsingham presently released him, but Norton's 
health was undermined, and on the loth of March 1584 he died 
in his bouse at Sharpenhoe, Bedfordshire. 

The Tragedie of Gorboduc was first published, very corruptly, 



in 1565, and, in better form, as The Tragedie of Feerex and 
Porrex, in 1570. Norton's early lyrics have in the main dis- 
appeared. The most interesting of his numerous anti- Catholic 
pamphlets are those on the rebellion of Northumberland and on 
the projected marriage of Mary Queen of Scots to the duke of 
Norfolk. Norton also translated Calvin's Institutes (1561) and 
Alexander Novell's Catechism (1570). 

Gorboduc appears in various dramatic collections, and was separ- 
ately edited by W. D. Cooper (Shakespeare Soc. 1847), and by 
Miss Toulmin Smith in Volkmoller's Englische Sprach- und Literatur- 
denkmale (1883). The best account of Norton, and his place in 
literary history, is that of Sidney Lee in his Dictionary of National 
Biography. (E. G.) 

NORWALK, a city of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., 
on the Norwalk river, in the township of Norwalk, adjoining 
the city of South Norwalk in the same township, and 13 m. 
W.S.W. of Bridgeport. Pop. (1900) 6125 (1023 foreign-born and 
189 negroes); (1910) 6945; of the township (1900) 19,932; (1910) 
24,211. The city is served by the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford railroad, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboats 
to New York. The city has a green with several old churches 
and some fine elms, a public library, a hospital, a state armoury 
and a county children's home. The Norwalk Chapter of the 
Daughters of the American Revolution has erected here a 
drinking fountain in memory of Nathan Hale, who obtained in 
Norwalk his disguise as a Dutch school teacher and then started 
on his fatal errand to Long Island. Norwalk has some manu- 
factures, including woollen goods and typewriting machines; 
and there is some coasting trade, oysters especially being shipped 
from Norwalk. 

The site of the township was purchased from the Indians 
in 1640 by Roger Ludlow and Daniel Patrick, Ludlow giving 
six fathoms of wampum, six coats, ten hatchets, ten hoes, ten 
knives, ten scissors, ten Jew's harps, ten fathoms of tobacco, 
three kettles of six hands, and about ten looking-glasses for all ' 
the land between the Norwalk and Saugatuck rivers and extend- 
ing one day's walk N. from the Sound. The first settlement in the 
township was made in 1650 at what is now the village of East 
Norwalk by a small company from Hartford, and the township 
was incorporated in the next year. The village was burned by 
the British under Governor Tryon on the i2th of July 1779, and 
the chair in which it is alleged Tryon sat, on Grumman's Hill, 
as he watched the flames, has been kept as a relic. Norwalk 
was incorporated as a borough in 1836 and was chartered as a 
city in 1893. 

See C. M. Selleck, Norwalk (Norwalk, 1896); and Norwalk after 
Two Hundred and Fifty Years, an Account of the Celebration oj 
the ssoth Anniversary of the Charter of the Town (South Norwalk 
1901). 

NORWALK, a city and the county-seat of Huron county, 
Ohio, U.S.A., about 55 m. W.S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900) 
7074, including 762 foreign-born and 101 negroes: (1910) 7858 
It is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the 
Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, and by interurban electric 
lines. It has a public library in which a small museum is main- 
tained by the Firelands Historical Society. The city is the 
centre of a rich agricultural district. Among its manufactures 
are machine-shop products (the Wheeling & Lake Erie has shops 
here), iron and steel, pianos and automobile fittings. 

Norwalk was settled in 1817 and was named from Norwalk, 
Connecticut; it was incorporated as a town in 1829 and 
chartered as a city in 1881. Huron county and Erie county 
immediately N. are the westernmost of the counties created 
from the " Western Reserve," and comprise the " Fire Lands " 
grant made in 1792 by the state of Connecticut to the 
people of Greenwich, Fairfield, Danbury, Ridgefield, Norwalk, 
New Haven, East Haven and New London to indemnify 
them for their fire losses during the British expeditions in 
Connecticut under Governor Tryon in 1779 and Benedict 
Arnold in 1781. The Connecticut grantees were incorporated 
in 1803 as " the proprietors of the half-million acres of land 
lying south of Lake Erie." 



NORWAY 



799 



NORWAY (Norge), a kingdom of northern Europe, occupying 
the W. and smaller part of the Scandinavian peninsula. Its 
E. frontier marches with that of Sweden, except in the extreme 
N., where Norway is bounded by Russian territory. On the 
N., W., S. and S.E. the boundary is the sea the Arctic Ocean, 
that part of the Atlantic which is called the Norwegian Sea, 
the North Sea and the Skagerrack successively. The S. extremity 
of the country is the island of Slettingen in 57 58' N., and the 
N. that of Knivskjaerodden, off the North Cape in 71 n' N. 
Of the mainland, the southernmost promontory is Lindesnaes, 
in 57 59' N., while the northernmost is Nordkyn, in 71 7' N. 
The S. of the country, that is to say, the projection between the 
Skagerrack and the North Sea proper, lies in the same latitude 
as the N. of Scotland and Labrador, and the midland of Kam- 
chatka. The most western island, Utvaer, lies off the mouth 
of the Sogne Fjord (4 30' E.), and the eastermost point of the 
country is within the Arctic lands, near Vardo (31 n' E). The 
direct length of Norway (S.W. to N.E.) is about noo m. The 
extreme breadth in the S. (about 61 N.) is 270 m., but hi the 
N. it is much less about 60 m. on the average, though the 
Swedish frontier approaches within 6 m. of a head-branch of 
Ofoten Fjord, and the Russian within 19 m. of Lyngen Fjord. 
The length of the coast line is difficult to estimate; measured 
as an unbroken line it is nearly 1700 m., but including the fjords 
and greater islands it is set down as 1 2,000. The area is estimated 
at 124,495 sq. m. 

Physical Features. Relief. The main mountain system 
of the Scandinavian peninsula hardly deserves its name of 
Kjolen 1 (the keel). It may rather be described as a plateau 
deprived of the appearance of a plateau, being on the one hand 
grooved by deep valleys, while on the other many salient peaks 
tower above its average level. Such peaks, during the later 
Glacial period, stood above the ice-field. Peaks and ridges 
were formed by the action of small glaciers cutting out each 
its circular hollow (botn) just as they still work on the remaining 
snow-fields. But where the power of the main ice-mass was at 
work, the characteristic rounded forms of base rock are seen, 
close above the sea along the coast, but even as high as 5000 ft. 
in some inland localities. The high plateau lies along the W. 
side of the peninsula, so that except in the S.E. Norway is 
mountainous throughout. Even the part excepted is hilly, 
but it partakes of the character of the long eastern or Swedish 
slope of the peninsula. Beyond the coast line their floors sink 
far below sea-level, and thus are formed the fjords and the belt 
of rugged islands which characterize almost the entire seaboard 
of Norway. Where Norway marches with Russia, a few heights 
exceed 3000 or even 4000 ft., but the land is not generally of 
great elevation. But from the point of junction with Swedish 
territory the mountains increase considerably in height. For a 
short distance, as far south as Lake Tome, the loftiest points 
lie within Norwegian territory, such as Jasggevarre (6283 ft.), 
between Lyngen and Ulfs fjords, and Kiste Fjeld (5653 ft.) 
farther inland. Thereafter the principal heights lie approxi- 
mately along the crest-line of the plateau and within Swedish 
territory. Sulitelma, however (6158 ft.), lies on the frontier. 
Southward again the higher summits fall to Norway. S. of 
Bodo, Svartisen' (" the black ice "), a magnificent snow-field 
bordering the coast, and feeding many glaciers, culminates at 
5246 ft. Thereafter, Okstinderne or Oxtinderne (6273 ft.), 
and the Store Borge Fjeld (5587 ft.) are the principal elevations 
as far as 64 N. A little S. of this latitude the so-called 
Trondhjem depression is well marked right across the central 
upland, the height of the mountains not often exceeding 4000 
ft., while the peaked form characteristic of the heights which 
rose clear of the glaciers of the later Glacial period is wanting. 
It is from this point too that Norwegian territory broadens 

1 In Norwegian the definite article (when there is no epithet) is 
added as a suffix to the substantive (masc. and fern, en, neuter et). 
Geographical terms are similarly suffixed to names, thus Suldals- 
vandet, the lake Suldal. The commonest geographical terms are: 
elv, river; vand, lake; fjeld, mountain or highland; 6, island; 
dal, valley; ness, cape; Jos, waterfall; bra, glacier; vik, vig, bay; 
tide, isthmus ; fjord. A a is pronounced aw. 



so as to include not only the highest land in the peninsula, 
but a considerable part of the general E. and S.E. slope. The 
high plateau broadens and follows the S.W. sweep of the coast. 
Pursuing it S. the Dovre Fjeld is marked off by the valleys of 
the rivers Driva and Sundal, Laagen (or Laugen) and Rauma, 
and the fjords of the coastland of Nordmore. Here Snehaetta 
reaches a height of 7615 ft., and the Romsdal (the name under 
which the Rauma valley is famous among tourists) is flanked 
by many abrupt jagged peaks up to 6000 ft. high. The valley 
of the Laagen forms the upper part of Gudbrandsdal. East of 
this and S.E. of the Dovre is another, fjeld, Rondane, in which 
Hcigronden rises to 6929 ft. South of the Otta valley is Jotunheim 
or Jb'tun Fjeld, a sparsely peopled, in parts almost inaccessible, 
district, containing the highest mountains in Scandinavia, 
Galdhopiggen reaching 8399 ft. On the seaward side of 
Jotunheim is Jostedalsbrae, a great snow-field in which Lodals- 
kaupen reaches a height of 6795 ft. South of Sogne Fjord 
(61 N.) mountains between 5000 and 6000 ft. are rare; but in 
Hallingskarvet there are points about 6500 ft. high, and in the 
Hardanger Vidda (waste), a broad wild upland E. of Hardanger 
Fjord, Haarteigen reaches 6063 ft. The highland finally sinks 
towards the S. extremity of Norway in broken masses and short 
ranges of hitls, separated by valleys radiating S.E., S. and W. 

Glaciers. The largest glacier in continental Europe is Jostedals- 
brae, with an area of 580 sq. m., the snow-cap descending to 
4000 or 4500 ft. Several of its branches fall nearly to the sea, 
as the Boiumsbrae above the Fjaerland branch of Sogne Fjord. 
The largest branch is the Nigardsbrae. Skirting Hardanger 
Fjord, and nearly isolated by its main channel and two arms, 
is the great glacier of Folgefond (108 sq. m.). Two branches 
descending from the main mass are visited by many who penetrate 
the Hardanger Buarbras on the E., falling towards Lake 
Sandven above Odde, and Bondhusbrae on the W. The extreme 
elevation of the Folgefond in 5270 ft. Continuing N. other 
considerable snow-fields are those of Hallingskarvet, the Jotun- 
heim, Snehsetta in Dovre Fjeld, and Store Borge Fjeld at the 
head of the Namsen valley. Next follow Svartisen, second in 
extent to Jostedalsbrae (nearly 400 sq. m.), the Sulitelma snow- 
field and Jokel Fjeld, between Kvaenang and Oxfjords. One 
glacier actually reaches the edge of Jokel Fjord, a branch of 
Kvaenang Fjord, so that detached fragments of ice float away 
on the water. This is the only instance of the kind in Norway. 
The Seiland snow-field, on Seiland island near Hammerfest, 
is the most northerly neve in Europe. The snow-line in Norway 
is estimated at 3080 ft. in Seiland, 5150 ft. on Dovre Fjeld, 
and from 4100 to 4900 ft. in Jotunheim. The lowness of the 
snow-line adds to the grandeur of Norwegian mountains. 

Coast. The flanks of the plateau fall abruptly to the sea 
almost throughout the coast-line, and its isolated fragments 
appear in the innumerable islands which fringe the stjar- 
mainland. This island fringe, which has its counter- gaardor 
part in a modified form along the Swedish coast, is island- 
called in Norwegian the skjargoard (skerry-fence, 
pronounced shargoord) . This fringe and the fjord-coast are most 
fully developed from Stavanger nearly as far as the North Cape. 
The channels within the islands are of incalculable value to 
coastwise navigation, -which is the principal means of communica- 
tion in Norway. The voyage northward from Stavanger may be 
made in quiet waters almost throughout. Only at rare intervals 
vessels must enter the open sea for a short distance, as off the 
port of Haugesund, or when rounding the promontory of the 
Stat or Statland, S. of Aalesund, passing the coast of Hustad- 
viken, S. of Christiansund, or crossing the mouth of some large 
fjord. At some points large steamers, following the carefully 
marked channel, pass in deep water between rocks within a 
few yards on either hand. Small ships and boats, fishing or 
trading between the fjord-side villages, navigate the ramifying 
" leads " (leder) in security. In some narrow sounds, however, 
the tidal current is often exceedingly strong. The largest island 
of the skjaergaard is Hindo of the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group. 
Its area is 860 sq. m. The number of islands is estimated at 
150,000 and their area at 8500 sq. m. Many of them are cf 



Boo 



NORWAY 



great elevation, especially the more northerly; thus the jagged 
peaks characteristic of Lofoten culminate at about 4000 ft. 
Hornelen, near the mouth of Nordfjord, 3000 ft. high, rises 
nearly sheer above the Frojfjord, and vessels pass close under the 
towering cliff. Torghatten (" the market hat "), N. of Namsos, 
is pierced through by a vast natural tunnel 400 ft. above the sea; 
and Hestmando (" horseman island "), on the Arctic circle, is 
justly named from its form. The dark blue waters of the inner 
leads and fjords are clouded, and show a milky tinge on the sur- 
face imparted by the glacier-fed rivers. Bare rock is the dominant 
feature of the coast and islands, save where a few green fields 
surround a farmstead. In the N., where the snow-line sinks low, 
the scenery at all seasons has an Arctic character. 

Christiania Fjord, opening from the N. angle of the Cattegat 
and Skagerrack, differs from the great fjords of the W. Its 

shores are neither so high nor so precipitous as theirs; 

it is shallower, and contains a great number of little 
islands. From its mouth, round Lindesnaes, and as far as the 
Bukken Fjord (Stavanger) there are many small fjords, while 
the skjaergaard provides an inner lead only intermittently. 
Immediately S. of Bukken Fjord, from a point N. of Egersund, 
the flat open coast of Jaederen, dangerous to shipping, fringing 
a narrow lowland abundant in peat-bogs for some 30 m., forms 
an unusual feature. Bukken Fjord is broad and island-studded, 
but throws off several inner arms, of which Lyse Fjord, near 
Stavanger, is remarkable for its extreme narrowness, and the 
steepness of its lofty shores. The Hardanger Fjord, penetrating 
the land for 114 m., is known to more visitors than any other 
owing to its southerly position; but its beauty is exceeded by 
that of Sogne Fjord and Nord Fjord farther N. Sogr.e is the 
largest and deepest fjord of all; its head is 136 m. from the sea, 
and its extreme depth approaches 700 fathoms. Stor Fjord 
opens inland from Aalesund, and one of its head branches, 
Geiranger Fjord, is among the most celebrated in Norway. 
Trondhjem Fjord, the next great fjord northward, which broadens 
inland from a narrow entrance, lacks grandeur, as the elevation 
of the land is reduced where the Trondhjem depression interrupts 
the average height of the plateau. The coast N. of Trondhjem, 
though far from losing its beauty, has not at first the grandeur 
of that to the south, nor are the fjords so extensive. The principal 
of these are Namsen, Folden and Vefsen, at the mouth of which 
is Alsten Island, with the mountains called Syv Sostre (Seven 
Sisters), and Ranen, not far S. of the Arctic circle. Svartisen 
sends its glaciers seaward, and the scenery increases in magnifi- 
cence. Salten Fjord, to the N. of the great snow-field, is con- 
nected with Skjerstad Fjord by three narrow channels, where 
the water, at ebb and flow, forms powerful rapids. The scenery 
N. of Salten is unsurpassed. The Lofoten and Vesteraalen 
islands are separated from the mainland by the Vest Fjord, which 
is continued inland by Ofoten Fjord. If these two be considered 
as one fjord, its length is about 175 m.,but the actual penetration 
of the mainland is little more than a fifth of this distance. The 
main fjords N. of Vesteraalen have a general northerly direction ; 
among them is Lyngen Fjord near Tromso, with high flanking 
cliffs and glaciers falling nearly to the sea. Alten Fjord is re- 
markable for the vegetation on its shores. From Lofoten N. 
there is a chain of larger islands, Senjen, Kvalo, Ringvadso, Soro, 
Stjerno, Seiland, Ingo and Magero. These extend to the North 
Cape, but hereafter the skjaergaard ends abruptly. The coast to the 
E. is of widely different character; flat mountain wastes descend 
precipitously to the sea without any islands beyond, save Vardo, 
with two low islets at the E. extremity of Norway. The fjords are 
broader in proportion to their length. The chief are Porsanger, 
Laxe and Tana, opening N., and Varanger opening E. N. of this 
fjord the land is low and the landscape monotonous; on the 
S. a few island and branch fjords break the line of the shore. 
, Stavanger Fjord has an extreme depth of 380 fathoms; 
Hardanger Fjord 355, Sogne Fjord 670, Nordfjord 340, Trond- 
hjem Fjord 300, Ranen Fjord 235, Vestfjord 340, Alten Fjord 225, 
and Varanger Fjord 230. Marine terraces are met with in the 
E. of the country, and near Trondhjem, at 600 ft. above sea- 
level; and they are also seen at a slighter elevation at the heads 



of some western fjords. Moreover, at some points (as on the 
Jaederen coast) " giant kettles " may be observed close to sea- 
level, even below the level of high tide; and these glacial forma- 
tions indicate the greater elevation of the land towards the close 
of the Glacial epoch. Former beach-lines are most commonly 
to be observed in northern Norway (e.g. in Alten Fjord), and 
in some cases there are two lines at different altitudes. The land 
above the raised beach is generally bare and unproductive, 
and human habitation tends to confine itself in consequence to 
the lower levels. 

Hydrography. In S.E. Norway there are long valleys, carrying 
rivers of considerable size, flowing roughly parallel but sometimes 
uniting as they approach the sea. The Glommen, rising N. of Roros 
in Aursund Lake, and flowing with a southerly curve parallel with the 
frontier for 350 m. to the Skagerrack, is the largest river in the 
Scandinavian peninsula. Its upper middle valley is called Osterdal, 1 
the richest timber district in Norway. Its drainage area is 16,000 
sq. m. Seven miles above its mouth it forms the fine Sarpsfos, and 
not far above this it traverses the large lake Oieren. A right bank 
tributary, the Vormen, has one of its sources (under the name of 
Laagen) in Lake Lesjekogen, which also drains in the opposite direc- 
tion by the Rauma. The stream, after watering Gudbrandsdal, 
enters Mjosen, the largest lake in Norway. It is 60 m. long, but, 
like most of the greater Norwegian lakes, has no great breadth. It 
has, however, an extreme depth of 1500 ft. The Drammen river, 
which enters a western arm of Christiania Fjord below the town 
of Drammen, is the common outlet of several large rivers. The 
Hallingdal river drains the valley of that name, and forms Lake 
Kroderen, which is connected with the Drammen river by the 
Snarum. A short distance above the junction the Drammen flows 
out of Lake Tyrifjord, 50 sq. m. in area, into which flow the united 
waters of the Rand, from the valley district of Valdres, and the 
Baegna. The whole basin of the Drammen has an area of 6600 sq. m. 
The rivers between Christiania Fjord and Lindesnaes preserve the 
characteristics of those of the Glommen and Drammen systems. 
They rise on the Hardanger Vidda or adjacent uplands. The most 
important are the Laagen (to be distinguished from the river of that 
name in Gudbrandsdal), draining the Numedal; the Skien, the 
Nid and the Otter. Lakes are very numerous, the chief, beyond 
those already named, being Nordsjo on the Skien river, Tinsjo in the 
same system, which receives the river Maan, famous as forming the 
Rjukanfos (smoking fall) of 415 ft., and Nisservand on the Nid. 
The larger lakes lie, with a certain regularity, at elevations about 
400 ft. above the sea, and it is considered that their basins were the 
heads of fjords when the land lay at a lower level, and were formed 
during an earlier glacial period than the present fjords. The great 
Lake Faemund, lying E. of the Glommen valley and drained by the 
river of the same name, which becomes the Klar in Sweden, to which 
country it mainly belongs, is similar in type to the lakes of the 
northern highlands of Sweden. The streams of the coast of Jaederen 
reach the sea through sluggish channels, brown with peat. 

Not only do the valleys of the W. far surpass in beauty those of 
the S. and E., but they carry streams of much greater volume in 
proportion, owing to the heavier average rainfall of the W. slope. 
The first to be noted is that of the Sand or Logen river, a brilliant, 
rapid stream, famous for its salmon-fishing, which debouches at 
Sand into Sands fjord. The valley which opens from Odde at the 
head of a branch (Sor fjord) of Hardanger Fjord, is noted as con- 
taining two of the finest waterfalls in Norway. The one, Lotefos 
(which is joined by the smaller Skarsfos), is a powerful cataract 
following a tortuous cleft. The other, Espelandsfos, is formed by a 
very small stream; it falls quite sheer and spreads out like a fine 
veil. The only other considerable river entering Hardanger Fjord 
is the Bjoreia, with its mouth at Vik in Eidfjord. On this stream is 
the magnificent Voringsfos. Lesser streams within the basin of the 
Hardanger form the Skjaeggedal and several other beautiful falls. 
From Hardanger N. to Romsdal the streams of the W. slope are 
insignificant, but there are several splendid valleys, such as the 
sombre Naerodal, which descends to the Naero branch of Sogne 
Fjord, or the valleys which sink S. and N. from the Jostedalsbrse to 
the head branches of Sogne Fjord and Nordfjord respectively. 
Above those of Nordfjord is a series of lakes, Olden, Loen and 
Stryn, whose milky waters are supplied almost directly from the 
Jostedal glaciers, while above Eidsfjord a corresponding trough 
contains Lake Hornindal. The next important valley is the Romsdal, 
the stream of which, the Rauma, forms the W. outlet of Lake 
Lesiekogen, as the Laagen forms the E. This lake, which lies 201 1 ft. 
above sea-level, is the most remarkable example of an indefinite 
watershed to be found in S. Norway. N. from Romsdal the Driva 
debouches into Sundals Fjord, while the Orkla, draining Orkedal, the 
Gula draining Guldal, and the Nea or Nid, draining Lake Selbu, and 



>The middle and upper parts of many valleys in Norway are 
known by different names from those of the rivers which water them, 
and such names may extend in common usage over the district on 
either side of the valley. 






NORWAY & SWEDEN 



Scale, 1:7,300,000 



OCEAN 



Boundaries of Prout'nces in Sweden ; 

Capitals of Countries C 

Capitals of Counties 



Canals 

Railways 

Fortifications 



A LongiluJc East 8" of Greenwich R 




NORWAY 



801 



forming the Lerfos, enter Trondhjem Fjord from the S., and range in 
length from 70 to loo m. The Stjordal, a beautiful wooded valjey, 
leads up from the fjord to the lowest pass over the Trondhjem 
depression (at Storlien), and is followed by the railway from 
Trondhjem into Sweden. 

N. of Trondhjem Fjord, in spite of the close proximity of the 
mountains to the W. coast, several considerable rivers are found, 
flowing generally about N.E. or S.W..in valleys nearly parallel to the 
coast. Such are the Namsen (85 m. in length) and the Vefsen, dis- 
charging into Namsen Fjord and Vefsen Fjord respectively, and the 
DunderTand, flowing into Ranen Fjord. In the basin of the same 
fjord is the short Ros river.which drains Ros Vand, second in extent 
of the Norwegian lakes. In the extreme N., where the coastward 
slope is longer, there are such large rivers as the Alten, 98 m. Jong, 
discharging into the fjord of that name, and the Tana, also giving 
name to the fjord into which it flows, and forming a great part of the 
Russo- Norwegian frontier. It is 180 m. long, and drains an area of 
4000 sq. m. 

Though the lakes of Norway are not comparable with those of 
Sweden as regards either number or size, they are very numerous and 
are estimated to cover somewhat less than one-fortieth of the total 
area. 

Glacial Action. While the coast is considered to owe its fjords and 
islands to the work of former great glaciers, the results are even more 
patent inland. The actual tracks ofthe old glaciers are constantly to 
be traced. Nowhere are the evidences of glacial action better 
illustrated than in the barren tract behind the low coastal belt ot 
Jsderen. Here are vast expanses of almost naked rock, often riven 
and piled up in fantastic forms; numerous small lakes or bogs occupy 
the rock basins, and vast numbers of perched blocks are seen, 
frequently poised in remarkable positions. The great valleys of 
Norway are of U-section and exhibit the irregular erosive action of 
the glaciers, as distinct from the regular action of the rivers. If a 
main glacier, after working steadily in the formation of its trough for 
a considerable distance, be imagined to receive an accretion of power 
at a certain point, it will begin from that point to erode more deeply. 
The result of such action is seen in the series of ledges over which the 
main rivers of Norway plunge in falls or rapids. 

Geology. Norway consists almost entirely of Archaean and Lower 
Palaeozoic rocks, imperfectly covered by glacial and other recent 
deposits. The whole of the interval between the Devonian and the 
Glacial periods is represented, so far as is known, only by a small 
patch of Jurassic beds upon the island of Ando. An archaean zone 
stretches along the W. coast from Bergen to Hammerfest, interrupted 
towards the N., by overlying patches of Palaeozoic deposits. Gneiss 
predominates, but other crystalline rocks occur subordinately. 
The Lofoten Islands consist chiefly of eruptive granite, syenite and 
gabbro. S. of a line drawn from the head of the Hardanger Fjord to 
Lake Miosen is another great Archaean area. Here again gneiss and 
granite form the greater part of the mass, but in Telemarkcn there are 
also conglomerates, sandstones and clay-slates which are believed to 
be Archaean. Between these two Archaean areas the Lower Palae- 
ozoic rocks form a nearly continuous belt which follows approxi- 
mately the watershed of the peninsula and extends from Bergen and 
Stavanger on the S. to the North Cape and Vardo in the N. They 
occur also as a broad strip inlaid in the Archaean floor, from the 
Christiania Fjord northward to Lake Mjosen. A line drawn from the 
Nase to the North Cape coincides roughly with a marked change in 
the character and structure of the Palaeozoic beds. East of this line 
even the Cambrian beds are free from overfolding, overthrusting and 
regional metamorphism. They lie flat upon the Archaean floor, or 
have been faulted into it in strips, and they are little altered except 
in the neighbourhood of igneous intrusions. W. of the line the 
rocks have been folded and metamorphosed to such an extent 
that it is often difficult to distinguish the Palaeozoic rocks from the 
Archaean. They form in fact a mountain chain of ancient date 
similar in structure to the Alps or the Himalayas. The relations of 
the two areas have been studied by A. E. Tornebohm in the Trondhjem 
region, and he has shown that the western mass has been pushed over 
the eastern upon a great thrust-plane. The relations, in fact, are 
similar to those between the Dalradian schists of the Scottish 
Highlands and the Cambrian beds of the W. co^st of Sutherland. 
In Scotland, however, it is the eastern rocks which have been pushed 
over the western. Corresponding with the difference in structure 
between the E. and the W. regions there is a certain difference in the 
nature of the deposits themselves. In the Christiania district the 
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian beds consist chiefly of shales and 
limestones. Farther north sandstones predominate, and especially 
the Sparagmite, a felspathic sandstone or arkose at the base of the 
Cambrian ; but the deposits are still sedimentary. In the Trondhjem 
district, on the other hand, belonging to the folded belt, basic tuffs 
and lavas are interstratified with the normal deposits, showing that 
in this region there was great volcanic activity during the early 
part of the Palaeozoic era. In both the E. and the W. region the 
Devonian is probably represented by a few patches of red sandstone, 
in which none but obscure remains of fossils have yet been found. 
It may be noted here that in the extreme N. of Norway, E. of the 
North Cape, there is a sandstone not unlike the Sparagmite of the S., 
which is said by Reusch to contain ice-worn pebbles and to rest upon 
a striated pavement of Archaean rocks. 

XIX. 26 



The Mesozoic era is represented only by the sandy deposits with 
seams of lignite which occur on the island of Andoen in the Vester- 
aalen. They contain remains of plants and have been correlated 
with the Lower Oolite of Great Britain. No Tertiary beds have been 
found, but Pleistocene deposits of vafious kinds are met with. The 
evidences of ice action during the Glacial Period are conspicuous 
over the whole country and are similar to those in other glaciated 
regicns. But the most remarkable features produced in recent 
geological times are the terraces which appear as if ruled on the sides 
of the valleys and fjords. They are partly platforms cut in the solid 
rock and partly accumulations of gravel and sand like a modern 
beach, and they were evidently formed by the action of waves. 
Some of them contain marine shells of living species and mark the 
former position of the sea-level; but others arc of more doubtful 
origin and may indicate the shores of lakes formed by the damming 



Do/ante Porphyry 
Gabbro, Httritt, Oiorite, tie. 

/ 




of the lower part of the fjords by means of glaciers, as in the case 
of the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy. They occur at various levels, 
and have been observed as high as 3000 ft. above the sea. 

No volcanic rocks of modern date are known in Norway, but great 
intrusions of igneous rock took place in early geological times. 
Amongst them may be mentioned the gabbro of the Jotunfjeld, and 
the elaeolite syenites and associated rocks of the Christiania region. 
The latter form the subject of a valuable series of memoirs by 
Brogger, who shows that they have all been derived from a single 
magma, and that the differentiation of this magma led to the pro- 
duction of several different types of rock. (P. LA.) 

Meteorology. The most powerful influence on the climate of 
Norway is tnat of the warm drift across the Atlantic Ocean from the 
S.W. The highest mean annual temperature in Norway -r emoera . 
is found on the S. and W. coasts, where it ranges from . f 
44-5 to 45-5 F., and the lowest is found at Karasjok and 
Kautokeino, lying at elevations of 430 and 866 ft. respectively in 
Finmarken, near the Russian frontier. Here the mean temperature 
is 26-4, while at Vardo, on the north coast, it is 33. At Roros 
(2067 ft.) at the head of the Glommen valley, and at Fjeldberg 
(3268 ft.) in the upper Hallingdal, the mean annual temperature is 
31. The longest winter is found in the interior of Finmarken, 243 
days with a mean temperature below 32 being recorded at 



802 



NORWAY 



Kautokeino, contrasted with 205 at Vardo. In the S. uplands (as at 
Fjeldberg) there is an average of 200 such days, and at Christiania 
about 1 20. On the S.W. coast there is no day of which the mean 
temperature falls below 32; the most westerly insular stations, 
however, such as Utsireand Skudeness off Bukken Fjord, record frost 
during some part of 60 days. The lowest winter average temperature 
is found in a centre of cold in the N. which extends over Swedish and 
Russian territory as well as Norwegian. The Norwegian station 
of Karasjok, within it, records 4 during December, January and 
February, and in this area there have also been observed the extreme 
minima of temperature in the country, e.g. 60-5 below zero at 
Karasjok. The contrast with the S.W. coast may be continued. 
Here at some of the island stations, the coldest month, February, 
has an average about 35, and the lowest temperature recorded at 
Ona near Chnstiansund is 10-5. It may be noted here that in several 
cases the lower-lying inland stations in the south show a distinctly 
lower winter temperature than the higher in the immediate vicinity. 
Thus the average for Roros (2067 ft.), 13, contrasts with 11 for 
Tonset; at Listad in Gudbrandsdal (909 ft.) it is 16-5, but at Jerkin 
in the Dovre Fjeld (3160 ft.) it is 17-5 . The summer is hottest in 
S.E. Norway (Christiania, July, 62-5*). On the other hand, the lowest 
summer average in the interior of Finmarken is not less than 53-5 
in July; but at Vardo it is only 48 in August, usually the warmest 
month on this coast. In the lofty inland tracts of the S.E. the July 
temperature ranges, from 59 in the valleys, to as low as 49 at the 
high station of Jerkin. The interior having a warm summer and a 
cold winter, and the coast a cool summer and a mild winter, the 
annual range of temperature is remarkably greater inland than on the 
coast. 

An important result of the warm Atlantic drift is that the fjords 
are not penetrated by the cold water from the lower depths of the 
outer ocean, and in consequence are always ice-free, except in 
winters of exceptional severity in the innermost parts of fjords, and 
along shallow stretches of coast. 

The sun is above the horizon at the North Cape continuously from 

the I2th of May to the 2Qth of July, and at Bodo, not far from the 

Arctic circle, from the 3rd of June to the 7th of July. 

, Even at Trondhjem there is practically full daylight from 

midnight the 2 ^ Q f ^j ay to ^ 2Otn Q { j u j y ven ; n t j, e extreme 

*an. g o j Norway there is no darkness from the end of April 

to the middle of August. In winter, on the other hand, the sun does 
not rise above the horizon at the North Cape from the i8th of 
November, to the 23rd of January, and at Bodo from the isth to the 
27th of December. There is only a twilight at midday. In the 
extreme S. the sun is above the horizon for 6 J hours at mid-winter. 

The prevailing winter winds are from the land seaward, while the 
_ , system is reversed in summer. The winds in Norway 

may therefore be roughly classified according to locality 
thus: 



Winter . 
Summer . 



South-east Coast 
(Skagerrack). 

N.E. 
S.W. to W. 



West Coast. North. 



S. 

N. 



S.W. 

N. 



The force of the wind is greater in winter on the coast; inland, on 
the contrary, the winter is normally calm ; and at all seasons, on the 
average, the periods of calm are longer inland than on the coast. 
The average annual number of stormy days, however, ranges from 
ten to twenty on the S. coast, from forty-five to sixty-two on the 
coast of Finmarken, and sixty to seventy at Ona; whereas in the 
interior of Finmarken the average number is four, while in the S. 
inland districts stormy days are rare. December and January are 
the stormiest months. Hailstones are rare and seldom destructive. 
Thunderstorms are not frequent. They reach a maximum average 
of ten annually in the Christiania district. 

The number of days on which rain or snow falls is greatest on the 
coast from Jaederen to Vardo, least in the S.E. districts and the 
interior of Finmarken. At the North Cape, in Lofoten, and along 
the W. coast between the Stad and Sogne Fjord, precipitation occurs 
on about 200 days in the year, although by contrast in the inner part 
of Sogne Fjord there is precipitation only on 121 days. On Dovie 
Fjeld and the S.E. coast the average is about 100 days. Snowfall 
occurs least frequently in the S. (e.e. at Mandal, 25 snowy days out 
of 116 on which precipitation occurs), increasing to 50 at Christiania, 
or Dovre Fjeld, and about the mouth of Trondhjem Fjord, to 90 at 
Vardo, and to 100 at the North Cape. From Vardo to the Dovre 
Fjeld and in the upland tracts, snow occurs at least as frequently as 
rain. Snowfall has been recorded in all months on the coast as far 
S. as Lofoten. The amount of precipitation is greatest on the coast, 
where, at certain points on the mainland between Bukken Fjord and 
Nordfjord, an annual average of 83 in. is reached or even exceeded. 
On the outer islands there is a slight decrease ; inland the decrease is 
rapid and great. In Dovre Fjeld a minimum of 12 in. is found. 
In the extreme S. of the country the average is 39 in., N. of Trondhjem 
Fjord 53 in. are recorded, and there is a well-marked maximum of 
59 in. at Svolvaer in Lofoten, N. of which there is a diminution along 
the coast to 26 in._at the North Cape. In the northern interior a 
minimum of 16 in. is recorded. Strongly marked local variations are 
observed. 

The amount of cloudiness is on the whole great. The coast of 



Finmarken has over three cloudy days to one clear day; in the 
interior of the country clear and cloudy days are about equally 
divided. Fog is most frequent on the W. and N.W. coasts in summer; 
on the S.E. coast in winter. In winter a frosty fog often occurs about 
the heads of the fjords during severe cold or with a breeze from the 
land. 

Flora. The forests of Norway consist chiefly of conifers. The 
principal forest regions are the S.E. and S. Here, in the Trondhjem 
district, and in Nordland there are extensive forests of pine and fir. 
In the coastal and fjord region of the W. the pine is the only conifer- 
ous forest tree, and forests are of insignificant extent. In S. Norway 
the highest limit of conifers is from 2500 to 3000 ft. above sea- 
level; in the inland parts of the Trondhjem region it is from 1600 to 
2000 ft. (though on the coast only from 600 to 1200); farther N. it 
falls to 700 ft. about 70 N. The birch belt reaches 3000 to 3500 ft. 
Next follow various species of willows, and the dwarf birch (betula 
nana), and last of all, before the snow-line, the lichen belt, in which 
the reindeer moss (cladonia rangiferina) is always conspicuous. A 
few trees of the willow belt sometimes extend close up to the snow- 
line. In the S. and less elevated districts the lowest zone of forests 
includes the ash, elm, lime, oak, beech and black alder; but the 
beech is rare, flourishing only in the Laurvik district. The snow 
ranunculus and the Alpine heather are abundant. The Dovre Fjeld 
is noted as the district in which the Arctic flora may be studied in 
greatest variety and within comparatively narrow limits. On the 
coastal banks the marine flora is very finely developed. 

Fauna. The great forests are still the haunt of the bear, the 
lynx, and the wolf. Bears are found chiefly in the uplands N. of 
Trondhjem, in the Telemark and the W. highlands, but the cutting 
of forests has limited their range. The wolves decreased very 
suddenly in S. Norway about the middle of the igth century, 
probably owing to disease, but are still abundant in Finmarken, and 
the worst enemy of the herds of tame reindeer. The elk occurs in the 
eastern forests, and northward to Namdal and the Vefsen district. 
The red deer is confined chiefly to the W. coast districts ; its principal 
haunt is the island of Hitteren, off the Trondhjem Fjord. On the 
high fields are found the wild reindeer, glutton, lemming and the fox 
(which is of wide distribution). The wild reindeer has decreased, 
though large tame herds are kept in some parts, especially in the N. 
The lemming is noted for its curious periodic migrations; at such 
times vast numbers of these small animals spread over the country 
from their upland homes, even swimming lakes and fjords in their 
journeys. They are pursued by beasts and birds of prey, and even 
the reindeer kill them for the sake of the vegetable matter they 
contain. Hares are very common all over Norway up to the snow- 
line. The beaver still occurs in the Christiansand district. 

Game birds are fairly abundant in most districts. The most 
notable are the two sorts of rype, the skav or dal rype (willow grouse, 
lagopus albus) and the fjeld rype (lagopus alpina). Black . 
grouse are widely distributed; hazel grouse are found ' 
mainly in the pine forests of the E. and N., as are capercailzie. 
Woodcock and snipe are fairly common. The partridge is an 
immigrant from Sweden, and occurs principally in the E. and S.E. 
A severe winter occasionally almost exterminates it. A very large 
proportion of the Norwegian avifauna consists of geese and ducks, 
various birds of prey, golden plover, &c. These birds, at the autumn 
migration, leave by three well-defined routes one from Finmarken 
into Finland, one by the Christiania valley, and one by the W. coast, 
where they congregate in large numbers on the lowlands of Jaederen. 
The Lapland bunting and snow bunting (plectrophanes laponica and 
nivalis), the snowy owl (mgetea scandiaca) and rough-legged buzzard 
(archibuleo lagopus) and sea-birds are exceedingly numerous. In 
some localities such birds as the puffin and kittiwake form great 
colonies (jugleberge, bird cliffs). 

The common seal is very frequent ; and arctic seals and occasion- 
ally the walrus visit the northern coasts ; among these the harp seal 
(phoca groenlandica) is believed to be particularly de- 
structive to the fisheries. These last are of great import- 
ance; a large number of the best food-fisheries occur 
along the coasts, including cod, herring, mackerel, coal-fish, &c. 
The basking shark was formerly of some economic importance ; the 
Japanese shark, a strictly local variety, also occurs in the neighbour- 
hood of Vardo. Various small species of whales visit the coast; 
among these the lesser rorqual may be mentioned, as an antique 
method of hunting it with bow and arrows is still practised in the 
neighbourhood of Bergen. In the fjords many invertebrates as well 
as fish are found. Of fresh-water fish the salmonidae are by far the 
most important. Next to these, perch, pike, gwyniad and eel are 
most common. 

As regards insect life, Norway may be divided into three areas, the 
S. being richer than the W., while the N. is distinct from either in the 
number of peculiarly arctic insects. 

Sport. Norway is much frequented by British anglers. Moderate 
rod-fishing for trout is to be obtained in many parts. But most of 
the owners of water rights have a full appreciation of the value of 
good fishing to sportsmen, especially when netting rights are given 
up for the sake of rod-fishing. The same applies to good shooting. 
Foreigners may not shoot without a licence, the cost of which is 100 
kroner (5 : 1 1 : o) whether on crown lands or on private properties, 
whose owners always possess the shooting rights. 



NORWAY 



803 



Population. The resident population of Norway in 1900 
was 2,221,477. The Table shows the area and population ol 
each of the administrative divisions (ami, commonly translated 
" county ") Norway is, as a whole, the most thinly populated 



Amter. 


Population 
1900. 


Area in 
sq. m. 


Southern 






Smaalenene .... 


136,167 


1, 600 


Akershus .... 
Christiania (city) 


116,896 
229,101 


2,054 
6-5 


Buskerud .... 


H2.743 


5,789 


Jarlsberg and Laurvik . 
Bratsberg .... 


101,003 
98,298 


896 
5,863 


Nedenes 


7C Q2^ 


i 608-1; 


Lister and Mandal . 
South-eastern (inland) 


/ tJ> 7*0 

78,259 


,J,WU J 

2,804 


Hedemarken 


126,703 


10,618 


Christians .... 


116,280 


9,79 


Western 






Stavanger .... 
South Bergenhus 


125,658 
132,687 


3-530-5 
6,024-5 


Bergen (city) 


72,179 


5'5 


North Bergenhus 


88,214 


7,130 


Romsdal 


36,519 


5,786 


South Trondhjem . 


134,718 


7,182 


Northern 






North Trondhjem . 


83,449 


8,788-5 


Nordland .... 


150,637 


14-513 


Tromso 


72,966 


10,131 


Finmarken .... 


33,387 


18,291 



of the political divisions of Europe. It may be noted for the 
sake of comparison that the density of population in the most 
sparsely populated English county, Westmorland, is about 
equalled by that in Smaalenene amt (85 per sq. m.), and con- 
siderably exceeded in Jarlsberg and Laurvik amt (112-7 per 
sq. m.), but is not nearly approached in any other Norwegian 
county. The two counties named are small and lie almost 
wholly within the coastal strip along the Skagerrack, which, 
with the coast-lands about Stavanger, Haugesund, Bergen 
and Trondhjem, the outer Lofoten Islands and the land about 
Lake Mjosen, are the most thickly populated portions of the 
country, the density exceeding 50 persons per sq. m. A vast 
area practically uninhabited, save in the N. by nomadic Lapps, 
reaches from the northmost point of the Norwegian frontier as 
far S. as the middle of Hedemarken, excepting a markedly more 
populous belt across the Trondhjem depression. Thus of the 
counties, Finmarken is the least thickly populated (1-8 per 
sq. m.). In such highland regions as Jotunheim and Hardanger 
Vidda habitations are hardly less scanty than in the N. About 
two-thirds of the population, then, dwell by the coast and 
fjords, and about one-quarter in the inland lowlands, leaving 
a very small upland population. The rural and urban populations 
form respectively about 76 and 24% of the whole. Of the 
chief towns of Norway, Christiania, the capital, had a population 
in 1900 of 229,101, Bergen of 72,179, Trondhjem of 38,156, 
Stavanger of 30,541, Drammen of 23,093. The towns with 
populations between 15,000 and 10,000 are Christiansand, 
Fredrikstad, Christiansund, Fredrikshald, Aalesund, Skien, 
Arendal and Laurvik. All these are ports. 

The population of Norway in 1801 was returned as 883,038. 
A rapid increase obtained from 1815 to 1835, a lesser increase 
thereafter till 1865, and a very slight increase till 1890. The 
second half of the I9th century, down to 1890, was the period 
of heaviest emigration from Norway. The vast majority of 
Norwegian emigrants go to the United States of America. But 
emigration slackened" in the last decade of the igth century, 
during which period the movement from rural districts to towns, 
which had decreased from about the middle of the century, 
revived. The number of Norwegians abroad may be taken at 
350,000. The Lapps, commonly called Finns by the Norwegians, 
and confined especially to Finmarken (which is named from 
them), are estimated at i% of the population. There are 
also a few Finns (about half the number of Lapps), whom the 
Norwegians call Kveener, a name of early origin. The excess 



of births over deaths, about as 1-4 to i, is much above the 
European average; the death-rate is also unusually low. The 
number of marriages is rather low, and the average age of 
marriage is high. The percentage of illegitimacy has shown 
some increase, but is not so high as in Sweden or Denmark. 
The percentage of longevity is high. The preponderance of 
females over males (about 1073 to 1000) is partly accounted 
for by the number of males who emigrate. The higher mortality 
of males is traced in part to the dangers of a seafaring life. 

Down to the middle of the igth century drunkenness was a 
strongly-marked characteristic of Norwegians. A strict licensing 
system was then introduced with success. Local boards wer^ 
given a wide control over the issue of licences, and in 1871 
companies (samlag) were introduced to monopolize and control 
the retail trade in spirits. Their profits do not, as in the Gothen- 
burg system, go to the municipal funds, but are applied directly 
to objects of public utility. In 1894 a general referendum 
resulted in the entire prohibition of the sale of spirits in some 
towns for five years. The control of retail trade in beer and 
wine by the samlag has been introduced to some extent. 

In Norway a strongly individual national character is to be 
expected, combined with conservatism of ancient customs 
and practices. The one finds no better illustration than the 
individuality of modern Norwegian music and painting. The 
other is still strong. Such customs as the lighting of the mid- 
summer fires and the attendant celebrations still survive. 
Peculiar local costumes are still met with, such as those associated 
with weddings. In the coastwise shipping trade and the fisheries 
of the north, high-prowed square-sailed boats are frequently 
employed which are the direct descendants of the vessels of 
the early vikings. Some examples of the ancient farmstead, 
composed of a group of wooden buildings each of a single 
chamber, are preserved, and medieval ornamental woodwork 
is met with. Wood is the principal building material except in 
some larger towns where brick and stone have superseded it. 
Where this is not the case, fires have left few, if any, ancient 
domestic buildings, but the preservation of ancient models in 
wooden houses makes Norwegian towns peculiarly picturesque. 
Norway retains a few highly interesting examples of ecclesiastical 
architecture. There are the peculiar small wooden churches 
(stavekirke) dating from the nth to the I4th century, with 
high-pitched roofs rising in tiers so as to give the building some- 
thing of the form of a pyramid. The roofs are beautifully shingled 
in wood. The wall timbers are vertical. To protect them from 
the weather, the roofs overhang deeply, and the lowest sometimes 
covers a species of external colonnade. The carving is often 
very rich. The most famous of these churches is that of Borgund 
near Laerdalsoren; another fine example is at Hitterdal on 
the Kongsberg-Telemark road. On the other hand there are a 
few Romanesque and Gothic stone churches. In some of these 
the influence of English architecture is clear, as in the metropolitan 
cathedral of Trondhjem and the nave of Stavanger cathedral. 
St Mary's Church at Bergen, however, tends towards the French 
models. A good example of the smaller stone church is at 
Vossevangen, and there are several of Late Romanesque character 
in the Trondhjem district. There are ruins of a cathedral at 
Hamar, and a few monastic remains, as at Utstein, north of 
Stavanger, and on the island of Selje off Statland. Remains 
of pure Early English work are occasionally found, as at Ogne 
in Jaederen, but the later Gothic styles were not developed 
in Norway. 

Tourist Traffic and Communications . During the later decades of 
the i gth century Norway was rapidly opened up to British, American 
and German visitors. Passenger communications from _ . 

reat Britain are maintained chiefly between Hull and 
Stavanger, Bergen, Aalesund, Christiansund and Trondhjem; Hull, 
Christiansand and Christiania; Newcastle and Stavanger, Bergen 
and the North; London and Christiania, &c. , and there are also 
passenger services from Grimsby, Grangemouth and other ports. 
Yachting cruises to the great fjords and the North Cape are also 
provided. A daily service of mail steamers works between Chris- 
ia nia and all ports to Bergen ; thence the summer service is hardly 
ess frequent to Trondhjem. From each large port small steamers 
serve the fjords and inner waters in the vicinity, and there are also 



8 04 



NORWAY 



steamers on several of the larger lakes. The season lasts from June 
to the middle of September. The voyage to the North Cape is taken 
by many in order to see the midnight sun " in June and 
Roads. July. Among the land-routes connecting the great fjords 
of the west the following may be mentioned. (l) The road from Sand 
on Sandsfjord (a branch of Bukken Fjord), which follows the Sand 
river up to the foot of Lake Suldal, near the head of which is Naes. 
From h'ere a finely engineered road runs up the Bratlandsdal, crosses 
the Horrebraekke and descends past Seljestad to Odde at the head 
of a branch of Hardanger Fjord. (2) From Eide on another branch 
of the same fjord a road runs to Vossevangen (which is connected by 
rail with Bergen) and continues N. to Stalheim, where it descends 
through the Naerddal to Gudvangen on a branch of Sogne Fjord. 
(3) From Vadheim on this fjord a road runs N. to Sandene and 
Utvik on Nordfjord. Routes N. from this fiord are (4) that from 
Faleide by Grodaas on Lake Hornindal to Hellesylt on Sunelv Fjord 
and Oje on Norangs Fjord, and (5) that from the same station or 
from Visnaes, by way of Lake Stryn, to Grotlid, and Merok on 
Geiranger Fjord. All these routes pass through magnificent scenery. 
For the same reason there should also be mentioned (6) the road 
through the Telemark, which branches from the Bratlandsdal road 
at Breifond, mounts the Haukelidsater and descends to Dalen. from 
which the Bandaks canal route gives access to Skien on the S.E. 
coast, the road continuing from Dalen E. to Kongsberg; also those 
running E. from the great fiords from Laerdalsoren on Sogne Fjord, 
branching (7) through Hallingdal, and (8) through Valdres; (9) the 
road from Grotlid to Otta in Gudbrandsdal, running N. of the 
Jotunheim ; (10) the road from Veblungsnaes on a branch of Molde 
Fjord, running through the Romsdal and over to Domaas; (n) the 
N. road across Dovre Fjeld from Domaas to Storen on the railway to 
Trondhjem. Beyond the districts thus indicated, the Sastersdal, a 
southern valley, is visited by many, and in the far N. the Lofoten 
Islands and some of the fjords, as Lyngen and Alten, are very fine. 
The mountains of Jotunheim have attracted several well-known 
mountaineers. 

The main roads of Norway, the construction of which has de- 
manded the highest engineering skill, were not brought into existence 
until the last half of the igth century. A Highways Act of 1851 
placed the roads under the immediate control of local authorities, 
but government grants are made for the construction not only of 
main roads, but in many cases of cross-roads also. In a country 
where railways are few, posting is of prime importance, and in 
Norway the system is well developed and regulated. Along all main 
roads there are posting stations (skydsstntioner , pronounced shttss- 
stashoner), hotels, inns or farms, whose owners are bound to have 
horses always in readiness; at some stations on less frequented 
roads time is allowed for them to be procured. Posting stations are 
under strict control and the tariff is fixed. The vehicles are the 
stolkjxrre (pronounced approximately stolcharer) for two passengers, 
and the kariol or carriole for one. A similar posting system obtains 
fay rowing-boats on lakes and fjords. 

The first railway, that between Christiania and Eidsvold, was 
constructed by agreement between British capitalists and the 
K 'l Norwegian government, and opened in 1854. The total 

uways. length o { railways is only about 1600 m., Norway having 
the lowest railway mileage in proportion to area of any European 
state, though in proportion to population the length of lines is com- 
paratively great. Almost the whole are state lines. Railways are 
most fully developed in the S.E., both N. and S. of Christiania. 
The principal trunk line connects Christiania with Trondhjem by 
way of Hamar and the Osterdal, Roros and Storen. Four lines cross 
the frontier into Sweden from Christiania by Kongsvinger (Kongs- 
vinger railway) and by Fredrikshald (Smaalenenes railway), from 
Trondhjem by Storlien (Meraker railway), and from Narvik on 
Ofoten Fjord, the most northerly line in the world. Among other 
important lines may be mentioned that serving Lillehammer, Otta, 
&c., in Gudbrandsdal, that running S.W. from Christiania to Dram- 
men, Skien and Laurvik; the Saetersdal line N. from Christian- 
sand; the Jaederen line from Stavanger to Egersund and 
Flekkefjord; the Bergen- Vossevangen line; and the branch from 
Hell on the Meraker railway northward to Levanger. These local 
lines form links in important schemes for trunk lines. Norwegian 
railways are divided between the standard gauge and one of 3 ft. 
6 in. ; on the N. line a change of gauge is made at Hamar. 

Some of the large lakes form important channels for inland 

... . navigation; the rivers, however, are not navigable for 

any considerable distance. A canal from Fredrikshald 

gives access N. to Skellerud, and the Bandaks canal connects Dalen 

in the Telemark with Skien. 

The post-office is well administered, and both telegraph and 
telephone systems are exceptionally extensive. 

INDUSTRIES. Agriculture. About 70 % of the total area of Norway 
is barren, and about 21 % is forest land, but the small agricultural 
area employs, directly or indirectly, about 40% of the population. 
The great majority of the peasantry are freeholders. Legislation has 
provided for the retention of landed property by families to which 
it has belonged for any considerable period thus, under certain 
conditions, a family which has parted with land can reacquire it at an 
appraisement or land alienated by its owner may on his death be 
acquired by his next of kin. The chief crops are oats barley, potatoes, 



mangcorn (a mixed crop of oats and barley), rye and wheat, the last 
being little cultivated. Cattle and sheep are kept in large numbers. 
Farmers commonly hold upland summer pastures together with 
their lowland farms, and in the open season frequently occupy a 
stzter (upland farmstead) and devote themselves to dairy work. 
Norwegian horses are small and thick-set, and remarkably sure- 
footed. In the north large herds of reindeer are kept by Lapps. 
There is an agricultural college and model farm at Aas near 
Christiania. 

Forestry. Forest industries are confined chiefly to the S.E. and 
to the Trondhjem-Namsen district. Lumbering is an important 
industry. Forestry is controlled by the Department of Agriculture, 
and its higher branches are taught at the Aas college. 

Fisheries. The sea fisheries are of high economic importance. 
The principal are the cod fisheries. In March and April the cod 
shoal on the coastal banks for the purpose of spawning, and this gives 
rise to the well-known fishery for which the Lofoten Islands are the 
principal base. In April and May shoals of capelan appear off 
Finmarken, followed by cod and other fish, small whales, &c., which 
prey upon them ; this affords a second fishery. For herring there is 
a spring fishery off Stavanger and Haugesund, and one in November 
and December off Nordland. Mackerel fisheries are important 
from Trondhjem Fjord S. to the Skagerrack. Salmon and sea-trout 
fisheries are important in the rivers and still more off the coast. 
Fishermen from Tonsberg, Tromso, Hammerfest, Vardo, Vadso, 
&c., work with the arctic fisheries, sealing, whaling, &c., from Green- 
land to Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya. A fishery board at Bergen 
administers the Norwegian fisheries. The annual value of the coast 
fisheries ranges from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000. 

Mining. Norway is not rich in minerals. Coal occurs only on 
Ando, an island in Vesteraalen. Silver is mined at Kongsberg; 
copper at Roros, Sulitelma, and Aamdal in Telemarken; iron at 
Klodeberg near Arendal and in the Dunderlandsdal (developed early 
in the 2oth century). Granite is quarried near Fredrikstad, 
Fredrikshald and Sarpsborg, and exported as paving setts and kerb- 
stones, mostly to Great Britain and Germany. Good marble is 
found near Fredrikshald, and also in the Salten and Ranen districts. 

Manufacturing Industries. The most important are works con- 
nected with the timber trade, foundries and engineering shops, 
spinning and weaving mills, brick and tile works, breweries, paper- 
mills, tobacco factories, flour-mills, glass works, and potteries, 
nail works, shipbuilding yards, rope works, factories for preserved 
food (especially fish), margarine, matches, fish guano, boots, and 
hosiery, distilleries and tanneries. The chief industrial centres are 
Christiania, Bergen, Fredrikstad and Sarpsborg, Drammen, Skien 
and Porsgrund, Trondhjem, Fredrikshald and Stavanger. Large 
water-power is ayailable in many districts. A powerful impulse was 
given to industrial enterprise by the non-renewal of the customs 
treaty with Sweden in 1897, which established a protective system 
against that country. 

Shipping and Commerce. The Norwegians, in proportion to their 
numbers, are the first nation in the world in the mercantile marine 
industry. Actually their mercantile marine is only exceeded by 
those of Great Britain, Germany and the United States. From 1850 
to 1880 the tonnage increased from 289,000 to more than 1,500,000. 
The tonnage now exceeds the latter figure, but steam has greatly 
increased the carrying power. In 1880 Norwegian steam vessels had 
a tonnage of about 52,000; they now exceed 640,000 tons. The 
annual value of imports is about 16,500,000, and of exports about 
10,000,000. The growth of both may be judged from periodic 
averages 





1851-1855. 


1866-1870. 


1886-1890. 


Imports 
Exports 


2,800,000 
2,400,000 


5,600,000 
3,000,000 


9,200,000 
6,600,000 



Great Britain and Germany are the countries principally trading with 
Norway. Great Britain takes about 40 % (by value) of Norwegian 
exports, and sends about 26% of the total imports into Norway; 
Germany takes 14 % of the exports, and sends 28 % of the imports. 
The chief articles of export are timber, wooden wares and wood pulp, 
principally to Great Britain, and fish products, principally to 
Germany, Sweden and Spain. These make 65% of the exports 
others of importance are paper, ships, ice, stone and nails. Of the 
imports about 58% by value are tor consumption, 42% material 
for production. Among the first are cereals (principally from 
Russia), groceries (from Germany), and clothing (from Germany and 
Great Britain). Among the second are coal (chiefly from Great 
Britain), hides and skins, cotton and wool, oil and machinery, 
steamships, and metal goods (from Great Britain, Germany and 
Sweden). 

Government. Norway is an independent, constitutional and 
hereditary monarchy, the union with Sweden having been dis- 
solved on the 7th of June 1905, after lasting 91 years. The 
constitution rests on the fundamental law (grundlov) promul- 
gated at Eidsvold on the i7th of May 1814, and altered in detail 
at various times. The executive is vested in the king, who 



SOUTHERN NORWAY 



County (Ami) boundaries 

Capitals of Counties .. 

Railways <*- *-M Canals 

Glaciers and SnowfieldS- 
Fortifications 



B Longitude East 8 of Greenwich 




ry W*lkc K. 



NORWAY 



805 



comes of age at eighteen. His authority is exercised through, 
and responsibility for his official acts rests with, a council of 
state consisting of a minister and councillors, who are the heads 
of finance, public accounts, church and education, defence, 
public works, agriculture, commerce, navigation and industry 
and foreign affairs. The king appoints these councillors and high 
officials generally in the state, church, army, navy, &c. He can 
issue provisional ordinances pending a meeting of parliament, 
can declare war (if a war of offence, only with the consent of 
parliament) and conclude peace, and has supreme command of 
the army and navy. The legislative body is the parliament 
(storthing), the members of which are elected directly by the 
people divided into electoral divisions, each returning one member. 
Until the election of 1906 the members were chosen by electors 
nominated by the voters. Elections take place every three 
years. The franchise is extended to every Norwegian male who 
has passed his twenty-fifth year, has resided five years in the 
country, and fulfils the legal conditions of citizenship. Under 
the same conditions, and if they or their husbands have paid 
taxes for the past year, the franchise is extended to women 
under a measure adopted by the Storthing in June 1007. 
Members of parliament must possess the franchise in their con- 
stituency, and must have resided ten years in the country; 
their age must not be less than thirty. The Storthing meets at 
Christiania, normally for two months in each year; it must 
receive royal assent to the prolongation of a session. After the 
opening of parliament the assembly divides itself into two sections, 
the upper (lagthing) consisting of one-quarter of the total number 
of members, and the lower (odelsthing) of the remainder. Every 
bill must be introduced in the Odelsthing; if passed there it is 
sent to the Lagthing, and if carried there also the royal assent 
gives it the force of law. If a measure is twice passed by the 
Odelsthing arid rejected by the Lagthing, it is decided by a 
majority of two-thirds of the combined sections. The king has a 
veto, but if a measure once or twice vetoed is passed by three 
successive parliaments it becomes law ipso facto. This occurred 
when in 1899 the Norwegians insisted on removing the sign of 
union with Sweden from the flag of the mercantile marine. 
Members of parliament are paid 133. 4d. a day during 
session and their travelling expenses. Parliament fixes taxa- 
tion, and has control of the members of the council of state, 
who are not allowed to vote in either house, though they may 
speak. 

Finance, &c. The annual revenue and expenditure are each about 
5! millions sterling. Considerable sums, however, have been raised 
by loans, principally for railways. These amounted, between 1900 
and 1906 (the financial year ending the 3lst of March) to nearly 
4,500,000. The principal sources of revenue are customs, railways, 
post office and telegraphs, the income tax (which is graduated and 
not levied on incomes below 1000 kroner or 55, 6s. 8d.), and excise. 
The principal items of expenditure are railways, defence (principally 
the army), the post office, interest on debt, the church and education, 
and justice. The Bank of Norway is a private joint-stock corpora- 
tion, in which the state has large interests. It is governed by special 
acts of parliament, and its chief officials are publicly appointed. It 
alone has the right to issue notes, which are in wide circulation. 
The Mortgage Bank (Norges Hypothekbank) was established by the 
state to grant loans on real estate. The currency of Norway is based 
on a gold standard; but the monetary unit is the krone (crown), 
of is. I |d. value, divided into 100 ore. The metric system is in use. 

Army and Navy. The army consists of the line, the militia or 
reserve (landvaern), and the second reserve (landstorm). All capable 
men of twenty-two years of age and upwards are liable for. con- 
scription (except the clergy and pilots), and when called they serve 
6 years in the line, 6 years with the reserve and 4 years with the 
second reserve. In war, men are liable to service from the 1 8th to the 
5Oth year of age. Only the line can be sent out of the country. The 
men only meet for military training from 18 to 102 days in each year. 
The peace establishment of the line is 12,000 men, with 750 officers; 
its war footing 26,000, or more, but may not exceed 18,000 without 
the authority of parliament. Of enlisted troops there are only 
fortress garrisons, and the Christiania garrison of Norwegian Guards. 
The principal fortresses are Oscarsborg on Christiania Fjord, Agdenes 
(Trondhjem Fjord), Bergen, Tonsberg and Christiansand. A number 
of Norwegian forts along the S. Swedish frontier were dismantled 
under the convention with Sweden of 1905, when a neutral zone was 
established on either side of the frontier southward from 61 N. The 
navy consists of about 1200 officers and men on permanent service; 
but all seafaring men between twenty-two and thirty-eight are liable 



for maritime conscription, and are put through some preliminary 
training. The war vessels include four battleships of 3500 to 4000 
tons each, and about 16 other vessels, besides a torpedo flotilla 
intended for coast defence only. The chief naval station is at Karl- 
johansvaern (Horten). 

Justice. Civil cases are usually brought first before a commission 
of mediation (forligelseskommisswn), from which an appeal lies to 
the local inferior courts, which are also tribunals of first instance, 
and are worked by judges on circuit and assessors. There are 
three superior courts of appeal (overretter), at Christiania, Bergen 
and Trondhjem, and one supreme court (hoiesteret). Criminal cases 
are tried either in jury courts (lagmandsret) or courts of assize 
(meddomsrel). The first is for more serious offences ; the second deals 
with minor offences and is a court of first instance. Military crimes 
are dealt with by a military judicial organization. Finally there is 
a high court of impeachment (rigsrel), before which members of 
parliament, the government, &c., are tried for misdemeanours com- 
mitted in their public capacity. 

Local Government. The country is divided into twenty counties 
(amter) (see population), the cities of Christiania and Bergen being 
included in these. Other towns are formed into communes, governed 
by representatives, from whom a council (formcend) is elected by 
themselves. Rural communes (herreder) are similarly administered, 
and their chairmen form a county council (amtsthing) for each county. 
At the head is the amtmand, the county governor. The electoral 
franchise for local council election is for men the same as the parlia- 
mentary franchise, and, like it, is extended in a limited degree to 
women. 

Religion and Education. The state religion, to which the king 
must conform, is Evangelical Lutheran. Only about 2-4% of the 
population are dissenters. All Christian sects except Jesuits are 
tolerated. The king nominates the clergy of the established church. 
Norway is divided into six bishoprics (stifter), Christiania, Hamar, 
Christiansand, Bergen, Trondhjem, Tromso; and these into deaneries 
(provstier), with subdivisions into clerical districts (prastegjeld), 
parishes and sub-parishes. The clergy take a leading part in primary 
education, which, in spite of the difficulties arising in a sparsely 
populated country, reaches a high standard. Education is com- 
pulsory, the school-going age being from 6J to 14 years in towns and 
7 to 14 years in the country. About 94% of the children of school- 
going age attend the primary schools, which are administered by 
school boards in the municipalities and the counties. Teachers must 
belong to the_ established church. Their training colleges include 
one free public college in each diocese. The municipalities and 
counties bear the cost of primary education with a state grant. 
There are continuation schools, evening schools, &c., and for secondary 
education, communal middle schools, and state gymnasier. There is 
a state-aided university at Christiania. 

AUTHORITIES. See Norway (official publication for the Paris 
Exhibition) (Eng. trans., Christiania, 1900, dealing with the land and 
its inhabitants in every aspect, and giving Norwegian bibliographies 
for each subject); A. N. Kiaer and others, Norges Land og Folk 
(Christiania, 1884 seq.); N. Rolfsen, Norge i det Nitlende Aar- 
hundrede (Christiania, 1900 seq.); Y. Nielsen, Reisehaandbog over 
Norge (loth ed., Christiania, 1903); various guidebooks in English; 
P. B. du Chaillu, The Land of the Midnight Sun (London, 1881); and 
The Land of the Lone Night (London, 1900) ; C. F. Keary, Norway 
and the Norwegians (London, 1892) ; A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, In the 
Northman's Land (London, 1896); I. Bradshaw, Norway, its Fjords, 
Fields and Fosses (London, 1896); A. Chapman, Wild Norway 
(London, 1897); E. B. Kennedy, Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia 
(London, 1903) ; E. C. Oppenheim, New Climbs in Norway (London, 
1898); W. C. Slingsby, Norway, The Northern Playground (on 
mountaineering) (Edinburgh, 1904); H. H. Reusch, Det Nordlige 
Norges Geologi (Christiania, 1892); T. Kjerulf, Udsigt over det 
sydlige Norges geologi (Christiania, 1879; a German translation 
was published at Bonn, 1880); W. C. Brogger, Die Silurischen 
Etagen 2 und 3 (Christiania, 1882); see also a series of memoirs on 
the eruptive rocks of the Christiarjia region in Videnskabsselskabets 
Skrifter (Christiania) ; A. E. Tornebohm, Grunddragen afdetcentrala 
Skandinayiensbergbyggnad, Kongl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 
vol. xxvii. No. 5 (1896); Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Meteorologischen 
Instituts (Christiania); H. Mohn, " Klima Tabeller for Norge," in 
Videnskabsselsk. Skrifter (1895 seq.); M. N. and A. BIytt, Norges 
Flora (Christiania, 1861-1877); C. Hartman, Handbok J Scandina- 
viens Flora (Stockholm, 1879); J. M. Norman, Norges Arkliske Flora 
(Christiania, 1894 seq.); Statistisk Aarbog for Kongeriget Norge 
(Christiania, annual) ; H. L. Braekstad, Constitution of the Kingdom 
of Norway (London, 1905) ; F. Nansen, Norway and the Union with 
Sweden, and Supplementary Chapter, separate (London, 1905). 
On the licensing system in Norway Foreign Office Report, Misc. 
series, 279 (London, 1893); Board of Trade Rep. on Production and 
Consumption of Alcoholic Liquors (London, 1899); H. E. Berner, 
" Braendevinsbolagene i Norge," in Nordisk Tidskrift (1891). 

(O.J.R.H.) 

History. 

Early History. Archaeological and geological researches have 
revealed a fishing and hunting population in Norway, possibly 



8o6 



NORWAY 



as far back as c. 6000 B.C. Until lately this aboriginal people, 
which was certainly non-Aryan, was held to be Lappish, but 
recent investigations seem to show that the Lapps only entered 
Norway about A.D. 900-1000, and that the original population 
was probably of Finnish race, though only distantly allied to the 
Ugro-Finns now inhabiting Finland. To them belong perhaps 
certain non-Aryan names for natural features of the country, 
such as Toten, Vefsen, Bukn. 

The time of the immigration of a Teutonic element is far from 
certain. It did not extend N. beyond the Trondhjem district 

until about the beginning of our era, but there can be 

little doubt that the immigrants' advance was ex- 
'aoa 11 tremely slow, and it is suggested, on the evidence of 

archaeology, that the Teutonic element entered S. 
Norway towards the end of the (Scandinavian) later Stone age, 
c. 1700 B.C. (see SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION). But what- 
ever were the stages of the process, the language of the older race 
was superseded by Teutonic, and those aborigines who were not 
incorporated (probably most often as slaves) were driven into 
the mountains or the islands that fringe the coast. In the high- 
lands the " Finns " maintained some independence down to 
historical times. The old English poem Beowulf mentions a 
" Finnaland " which should perhaps be located in S. Norway 
in about the 6th century, and later on the ancient laws of this 
region forbid the practice of visiting the " Finns " to obtain 
knowledge of the future. But only in Finmark, which even in 
the I3th century stretched far into Sweden and included the 
Norwegian district of Tromso, could the earlier inhabitants live 
their old life, and here they finally fell into the utmost want and 
misery. Their existence is mentioned as a thing of the past by 
a North Trondhjem writer in 1689. 

The new Teutonic element of population seems to have 
flowed into Norway from two centres; one western, probably 
from Jutland, the other eastern, from the W. coast of Sweden. 
The western stream covered Agder, Rogaland and Hordaland (the 
modern districts of Christiansand and Sondre Bergenhus), and 
finally extended N. as far as Sondmore, while the eastern stream 
flowed across Romerike and Hadeland through the Dales to the 
Trondhjem district, where it divided, one stream flowing down 
the W. coast till it met the western settlements, another pene- 
trating N. into Haalogaland (which included the modern Nord- 
land as well as Helgoland), and a third E. into the N. Swedish 
districts of Jamtland and Helsingland. The bodies of immigrants 
were no doubt more or less independent, and each was probably 
under a king. It is probable that the Horder, who gave their 
name to Hordaland and Hardanger, were a branch of the Harudes 
whom Ptolemy in the 2nd century mentions as living in Jutland, 
where their name remains in the present Hardesyssel. The 
Ryger, who gave their name to Rogaland, and the modern 
Ryfylke, are probably akin to the Rugii, an E. Germanic tribe 
at one time settled in N.E. Pomerania, where we have a remi- 
niscence of their name in Riigenwalde. The first mention of 
any tribe settled in Norway is by Ptolemy, who speaks of the 
Chaidenoi or Heiner, inhabiting the W. of his island Scandia. 
The system of settlement in Norway appears to have been 
different from fhat adopted by the same race in other lands. 
In Denmark, for instance, a group of as many as twenty settlers 
held land more or less in common, but this system, which 
demanded that a considerable extent of land should be readily 
accessible, was not feasible in the greater part of Norway, and 
except in one or two flatter districts each farm was owned, or at 
least worked, by a single family. 

When history first sheds a faint light over Norway we find each 
small district or " fylke " (Old Norse fylkir, from folk, army) 
Eaf settled under its own king, and about twenty-nine 

kingship, fylker in the country. At times a king would win an 

overlordship over the neighbouring tribes, but the 
character of the country hindered permanent assimilation. 
The king always possessed a hird, or company of warriors 
sworn to his service, and indeed royal birth and the possession of 
such a hird, and not land or subjects, were the essential attributes 
of a king. There was no law of primogeniture, and on the death 



of a king some of his heirs would take their share of the patri- 
mony in valuables, gather a hird, and spend their lives in warlike 
expeditions (see VIKINGS), while one would settle down and 
become king of the fylke. There are indications that these 
conditions were fostered by a matriarchal system, and that it 
would often occur that a wandering king would marry the 
daughter of a fylkes-king and become his heir. Probably the 
king's power was only absolute over his own hird. He was 
certainly commander-in-chief and perhaps chief priest of the 
fylke, but the administrative power was chiefly in the hands of 
the herser and possibly of an earl. The position of earls is vague, 
but it is noticeable that both those of whom we hear in Harald 
Haarfager's time take the opposite side to their king. The 
herser (Old Norse her sir), of whom there were several in each 
fylke, united high birth with wealth and political power, and with 
the holder, the class of privileged hereditary landowners from 
which they sprang, formed an aristocracy of which there seems 
little trace in the other Scandinavian countries at this period. 
Its rise in Norway is perhaps due to the fact that the nature of 
the country, as well as the individualistic system of settlement, 
left more scope for inequalities of wealth than in Denmark or 
Sweden. Once a family had become wealthy enough to fit out 
Viking ships, it must have added wealth to wealth, besides 
enormously raising its prestige. The lands of almost all the 
most powerful families were on islands, whence it was easy to 
set forth on roving expeditions. The family property of the 
earls of Lade, for instance, whose representative in the latter 
half of the gth century was the most powerful man of the district, 
was on the island of Naero. These islands had been the refuge 
of the aborigines, and it is possible that, as A. Hansen has 
suggested, the rise of the aristocracy depends here, as elsewhere, 
on a subject population. Among the proper names of thralls 
in a poem in the Elder Edda are several which can only be 
explained on the hypothesis that they are Finnish, e.g. Klums, 
Lasmer, Drumba. Harald Haarfager's decree concerning " those 
who clear forests and burn salt, fishermen and hunters " pro- 
bably refers to the Finns as a class apart. There can be no 
doubt that, in Haalogaland for instance, the aristocracy gained 
its wealth not only from the tribute extorted from the Finns in 
Finmark, but also from slave labour. 

The eight Trondhjem fylker had a common Thing or assembly 
very early, but these districts were remote, while the wealthy 
western districts were too much cut off from each other to unite 
effectively, though here also a common Thing was early estab- 
lished. The first successful attempt at unification originated 
round Vestfold, the modern Jarlsberg and Laurvik Amt on the 
Christiania fjord. Here also there was a certain degree of union 
very early, and it is possible that national feeling was fostered 
by proximity to the Danish and Swedish kingdoms. The 
district was thickly populated, and a centre of commerce. 
Tradition made the royal family a branch of the great Yngling 
dynasty of Upsala, which claimed descent from the god Frey. 
Through several generations this family had extended its 
kingdom by marriage, conquest and inheritance, and by the end 
of the reign of Halfdan the Black, it included the greater part 
of Hamar and Oslo Stift, and the fylke of Sogn, the district round 
the modern Sognefjord. 

Halfdan's son, Harald Haarfager, having no brothers, suc- 
ceeded to the whole kingdom, and was further fortunate in that 
an uncle helped him to maintain his rights. By 
866 his power was so well established in S. Norway 
that he contemplated the conquest of the whole land. f axe r. 
The chief obstacle appears to have been the resistance, 
not only of the petty kings, but also of the aristocratic families, 
who dreaded the power of a monarchy established by force, and 
consequently supported the vaguer authority of their own 
kinglets. There can be no doubt that Harald introduced a 
feudal view of obligations towards the king, and landowning 
families, who had regarded their odd, or inherited property, as 
absolutely their own, resented being forced to pay dues on it. 
In each district Harald offered the herser the opportunity of 
becoming his vassals, answerable to him for the government of 






NORWAY 



807 



the district. The increased dues and the grants of land made by 
Harald rendered the position of one of his earls more lucrative 
than that of king under the older system ; and it shows to what 
a paramount position the old aristocracy must have attained, 
that numbers of the herser and holder could not reconcile them- 
selves to the limitation of their independence, but quitted the 
lands which were their real title to influence, rather than submit 
to the new order. But the little kingdoms only made futile 
attempts at combination, except in the western districts of Agde 
(comprising the modern Lister and Mandal and Nedenaes), 
Rogaland and Hordaland. Here was the home of the " western 
Vikings " who for nearly a century had owed wealth and fame 
to their raids on the British Isles. Attack by land was impossible, 
and Harald had to gather men and ships for three years before he 
could meet the fleet of the allied kings at Hafsfjord. The 
battle (872) resulted in a victory to him, and with it all opposition 
in Norway was at an end. An expedition to Scotland and the 
Scottish isles (c. 891) dispersed enemies who could harry the 
Norwegian coast, many of them taking refuge in Iceland; and 
the earldom of the Orkneys and Shetlands became an appanage 
of the Norwegian Crown. For the moment the whole country 
was under a single king, but Harald himself destroyed his work, 
in accordance with old custom, by giving about twenty of his 
sons the title of king, and dividing the country among them, only 
qualifying this retrograde step by installing his favourite son 
Erik Blodoxe as over-king (930). Moreover, Harald had estab- 
lished no common Thing for the whole of his kingdom. Norway is 
naturally divided into three parts, and each of these remained 
more or less separate for centuries, even having separate laws 
until the second half of the i3th century. The Frostathing 
district (so called from Frosta near Trondhjem) included the 
eight Trondhjem fylker, and also Naumdal, Nordmore and 
Raumsdal. The Gulathing district consisted of Sondmore, 
Firdafylke, Sogn, Valdres, Hallingdal, Hordaland and Agde, 
and met at Gula in Hordaland. The third, the Eidsivathing, met 
on the shores of Lake Mjosen, and included the Uplands and also 
the " Vik," i.e. all the districts round Christiania fjord, until St 
Olaf established the Borgarthing at Sarpsborg as a centre for 
these latter. The king's council was composed of the local 
lenderm&nd, and thus varied with the district he happened 
to be visiting, an arrangement that had its advantages, since 
the local chiefs were acquainted with the laws of their dis- 
trict, though it was another hindrance to unification. It was 
only in 1319 that a permanent council was formed, the Rigels 
Road. 

Harald died in 933. Erik Blodoxe (Bloody-axe) only managed 
to rid himself of two rival over-kings, Olaf and Sigfred, his 
half-brothers, for on hearing of his father's death, 
the Good, another son, Haakon (g.v.), called the Good, who had 
been brought up at ^Ethelstan's court, came to Norway 
with a small force and succeeded in ejecting Erik (934)- 
After Haakon's death in 961 at the battle of Fitje, where his 
long struggle against Erik's sons and their Danish allies ter- 
minated, these brothers, headed by Harald Graafeld (grey-cloak) 
became masters of the W. districts, though the ruling spirit 
appears to have been their mother Gunhild. Earl Sigurd of 
Lade ruled the N., and the S. was held by vassal kings whom 
Haakon had left undisturbed. By 969 the brothers had succeeded 
in ridding themselves of Sigurd and two other rivals, but the 
following year Harald Graafeld was lured to Denmark and 
treacherously killed at the instigation of Earl Haakon, son of 
Sigurd, who had allied himself with the Danish king Harald 
Gormsson. With the latter's support Earl Haakon won Norway, 
but threw off his yoke on defeating Ragnfred Eriksson at 
Tingenes in 972. The S.E. districts were, however, still held by 
Harald Grenske, whose father had been slain by the sons of 
Erik. Haakon ruled ably though tyrannically, and his prestige 
was greatly increased by his victory over the Jomsvikings, a 
band of pirates inhabiting the island of Wollin at the mouth of the 
Oder, who had collected a large fleet to attack Norway. The 
date of their defeat at Hjorungavaag, now Lidvaag, is uncertain. 
But finally the earl's disregard of the feelings of the most power- 



ful " bonder," or landed proprietors, worked them up to 
revolt, and, in 995, there landed in Norway Olaf, great- 
grandson of Harald Haarfager and son of the king Tryggve 
of the Vik whom Gudrod Eriksson had slain, and whose father 
Olaf had been slain by Erik Blodoxe. 

The earl was treacherously killed by his thrall while in hiding, 
and Olaf entered unopposed upon his short and brilliant reign. 
His great work was the enforced conversion to Chris- j a trodac- 
tianity of Norway, Iceland and Greenland. In this tloa of 
undertaking both Olaf and his successor and namesake Chrisu- 
looked for help to England, whence they obtained a "nit 
bishop and priests; hence it comes that the organiza- 
tion of the early church in Norway resembles that of England. 
No more than England did Norway escape the struggle between 
Church and State, but the hierarchical party in Norway only rose 
to power after the establishment of an archiepiscopal see at 
Trondhjem in 1152, after which the quarrel raged for over a 
century. Until the year noo, when tithes were imposed, the 
priests depended for their livelihood on their dues, and Adam of 
Bremen informs us that this made them very avaricious. 

In the year 1000 Olaf fell at the battle of Svolder off Rugen, 
fighting against the combined Danish and Swedish fleets. The 
allies shared Norway between them, but the real 
power lay in the hands of Erik and Svein, sons of w e it ^ ' 
Earl Haakon. In 1015, when Erik was absent in Denmark. 
England, another descendant of Harald Haarfager 
appeared, Olaf, the son of Harald Grenske, a great-grandson 
of Harald Haarfager (see OLAF II. HARALDSSON). He defeated 
Svein at Nesje in 1016, which left him free to work towards a 
united and Christian Norway. For some years he was successful, 
but he strained the loyalty of his subjects too far, and on the 
appearance of Knut the Great in 1029 he fled to Russia. His 
death at the battle of Stiklestad on his return in 1030 was 
followed by a few years of Danish rule under Svein Knuts- 
son, which rendered Olaf's memory sweet by contrast, and 
soon the name of St Olaf came to stand for internal union and 
freedom from external oppression. In 1035 his young son 
Magnus, afterwards called the Good, was summoned from 
Russia, and was readily accepted as king. A treaty was made 
with Hardeknut which provided that whichever king survived 
should inherit the other's crown. Hardeknut died in 1042, 
and Magnus became king of Denmark, but a nephew of Knut 
the Great, Svein Estridsson, entered into league with Harald 
Haardraade (see HARALD III.), the half-brother of St Olaf, 
who had just returned from the East. As soon, however, as 
overtures weie made to him by Magnus, he forsook the cause 
of Svein, and in 1046 agreed to become joint king of Norway 
with Magnus. The difficulties arising out of this situation were 
solved by Magnus's death in 1047. 

Harald's attempts to win Denmark were vain, and in 1066 
he set about a yet more formidable task in attacking England, 
which ended with his death at Stamford Bridge in Ead of 
1066. His son Olaf Kyrre (the Quiet) shared the Harald 
kingdom with his brother Magnus until the latter's Haar- 
death in 1069, after which the country enjoyed a period 
of peace. A feature of this reign is the increasing import- 
ance of the towns, including Bergen, which was founded by Olaf. 
In 1093 Olaf was succeeded by his turbulent son Magnus Barfod 
(barefoot) and by Haakon, son of Magnus the Good. The 
latter died in 1095. Besides engaging in an unsuccessful war 
against the Swedish king Inge, in which he was defeated at 
Foxerne in nor, Magnus undertook three warlike expeditions 
to the Scottish isles. It was on the last of these expeditions, 
in 1103, that he met his death. He was succeeded by his three 
sons, Eystein, Sigurd and Okf. Olaf died young. Sigurd under- 
took a pilgrimage, from which he gained the name of Jorsalfar 
(traveller to Jerusalem). He won much booty from the Moors 
in Spain, from pirates in the Mediterranean, and finally at Sidon, 
which he and his ally Baldwin I. of Jerusalem took and sacked. 
Eystein died in 1122. Sigurd lived till 1130, but was subject 
to fits of insanity in his later years. He was the last undoubted 
representative of Harald Haarfager's race, for on his death 



fager-a 
line. 



8o8 



NORWAY 



succes- 
sions. 



Magnus. 



his son Magnus was ousted by Harald Gille, or Gilchrist, who 
professed to be a natural son of Magnus Barfod. 

Harald Gille was slain in 1136 by another pretender, and 
anarchy ruled during the reign of his sons Eystein, Inge and 
Sigurd Mund. At last Inge's party attacked and 
Disputed killed first Sigurd (1155) and then Eystein (1157). 
Inge fell in a fight against Sigurd's son Haakon Herde- 
bred in 1161, but a powerful baron, Erling, succeeded 
in getting his son Magnus made king, on the plea that the boy's 
maternal grandfather was King Sigurd Jorsalfar. Descent 
through females was not valid in succession to the throne, and 
to render his son's position more secure, Erling obtained the 
support of the Church. In 1164 the archbishop of Trondhjem 
crowned Magnus, demanding that the crown should be held 
as a fief of the Norwegian Church. Owing to such concessions 
the Church was gaining a paramount position, when a new 
pretender appeared. Sverre (O.N. Sverrir) claimed to be the 
son of Sigurd Mund, and was adopted as leader by a party 
known as the Birkebeiner or Birchlegs. He possessed military 
genius of a rare order, and in spite of help from Denmark, the 
support of the Church and of the majority of barons, Magnus 
was defeated time after time, till he met his death at the battle 
of Nordnes in 1184. The aristocracy could offer little further 
opposition. In joining hands with the Church against Sverre, 
the local chiefs had got out of touch with the small landowners, 
with whose support Sverre was able to build up a powerful 
monarchy. Sverre's most dangerous opponent was the Church, 
which offered the most strenuous resistance to his efforts to 
cut down its prerogatives. The archbishop found support in 
Denmark, whence he laid his whole see under an interdict, but 
Sverre's counter-claim of his own divine right as king had much 
more influence in Norway. 

Sverre died in 1202, his last years harassed by the rise of 
the Baglers, or " crozier-men," with a new claimant at their 
head. His son Haakon III. died two years later, 
perhaps of poison, but the Birkebeiner party in 1217 
succeeded in placing Haakon's son and namesake on the throne 
(see HAAKON IV.). In 1240 the last of the rival claimants fell, 
and the country began to regain prosperity. The acquisition 
of Iceland was at length realized. Haakon's death occurred 
after the battle of Largs in the Orkneys in 1263. The war 
with Scotland was soon terminated by his son Magnus, who 
surrendered the Hebrides and the Isle of Man at the treaty of 
Perth in 1268. Magnus saw the worthlessness of a doubtful 
suzerainty over islands which had lost their value to Norway 
since the decay of Viking enterprise. He gained his title of Law- 
Mender from the revision of the laws, which had remained very 
much as in heathen days, and which were still different for the 
four different districts. By 1 2 74 Magnus had secured the accept- 
ance of a revised compilation of the older law-books. The new 
code repealed all the old wergild laws, and provided that the 
major part of the fine for manslaughter should be paid to the 
victim's heir, the remainder to the king. Henceforward the 
council comes more and more to be composed of the king's 
court officials, instead of a gathering of the lendcrmcend or 
barons of the district in which the king happened to be. During 
Magnus's reign we hear of a larger council, occasionally called 
palliment (parliament), which is summoned at the king's wish. 
The old landed aristocracy had lost its power so completely 
that even after Magnus's death in 1 280 it was unable to reinstate 
itself during the minority of his son Erik. 

Erik was succeeded in 1299 by his brother Haakon V., who in 
1308 felt himself strong enough to abolish the dignity of the 
lendermand. This paralysis of the aristocracy is 
no doul3t partly to be ascribed to the civil wars, but 
tocracy. in part also to the gradual impoverishment of the 
country, which told especially upon this class. Russia 
had long eclipsed Norway as the centre of the fur trade, and other 
industries must have suffered, not only from the civil wars, 
but also from the supremacy of the Hanseatic towns, which 
dominated the North, and could dictate their own terms. In 
earlier times the aristocratic families had owed their wealth 



to three main sources: commerce, Viking expeditions and 
slave labour. Trade had been a favourite means of enrich- 
ment among the aristocracy up to the middle of the I3th 
century, but now it was almost monopolized by Germans, and 
Viking enterprise was a thing of the past. The third source of 
wealth had also failed, for it is dear from the laws of Magnus 
that the class of thralls had practically disappeared. This 
must have greatly contributed to shatter the power of the class 
which had once been the chief factor in the government of 
Norway. 

Haakon's daughter Ingeborg had married Duke Erik of 
Sweden, and on Haakon's death in 1319 their three-year-old 
son Magnus succeeded to the Norwegian and Swedish thrones, 
the two countries entering into a union which was not definitely 
broken till 1371. It was during this reign that Norway was 
ravaged by the Black Death. In 1343 Magnus handed over the 
greater part of Norway to his son Haakon VI., who married 
Margrete, daughter of King Valdemar III. of Denmark. Their 
young son Olaf V., already king of Denmark, succeeded to his 
father's throne on Haakon's death in 1380, but died in 1387, 
leaving the royal line extinct, and the nearest successor to the 
throne the hostile King Albrecht of Sweden, of the Mecklenburg 
family. The difficulty was met by filling the throne by election 
an innovation in Norway, though it was the custom 
in Sweden and Denmark. The choice fell on King ^. or . 
Haakon's widow Margrete. but a couple of years wegian, 
later, chiefly in order to gain German support in Swedish, 
a coming struggle with the Mecklenburgers, t 
Norwegians elected as king the young Erik of 
Pomerania, great-nephew of the queen, who henceforth acted 
as regent. Erik had claims on the Swedish and Danish thrones, 
and in 1397, at Kalmar, he was solemnly crowned king over 
the three countries, which entered into a union " never to be 
dissolved." 



Reigns of the Kings of Norway. 
Harald (I.) Haarfager .... 972-930 

Erik Blodoxe 

Haakon (I.) den Code. 

Harald (II.) Graafeld . 

(Earl Haakon of Lade 970-995) 

Olaf (I.) Tryggvesson . 

(Earls Erik and Haakon 1000-1016) 

Saint Olaf (II.) .... 

Svein, son of Knut the Great 

Magnus (I.) den Gode 

Harald (III.) Haardraade . 

Olaf (III.) Kyrre ). 

Magnus (II.) ) . 

Magnus (III.) Barfod . 

Eystein (I.) 

Sigurd (I.) Jorsalfar 

Olaf (IV.) 

Magnus (IV.) 

Harald Gille 

Sigurd (II.) Mund 

Eystein (II.) 

Inge 

Haakon (II.) Herdebred 

Magnus (V-) 1162-1184 

Sverre . . .... 1184-1202 



: 



(d. 933) 
930-934 
935-961 
961-970 

995-1000 

1016-1029 (k. 1030) 

1030-1035 

1035-1047 

1046-1066 

1066-1093 

1066-1069 

1093-1103 

1103-1122 

1103-1130 

1103-1116 

1130-1135 

1130-1136 

"36-1155 
1136-1157 
1136-1161 
1161-1162 



Haakon (III.) 



Haakon (IV.) den 

Magnus (VI.) 

Erik 

Haakon (V.) . 

Magnus (VII.) 

Haakon (VI.) 

Olaf (V.) 

Margrete 

Erik of Pomerania 



garnle 



1202-1204 
. 1217-1263 
1263-1280 
. 1280-1299 
. 1290-1319 
. 1319-1343 
. 1343-1380 
. 1381-1387 
. 1387-1389 
- 1389- 

AUTHORITIES. P. A. Munch, Del norske Folks Historic indtil 
1397 (1852-1863); J. E. Sars, Vdsigt over den norske Historic, Deel 
i.-ii. (1873-1877); R. Keyser, Norges Stats- og Retsforfatning (1867), 
and Den norske kirke under Katholicismen (1856); A. Taranger, Den 
Angelsaksiske kirkes Indflydelse paa den norske (1891); A. C. Bang, 
Stoat und Kirche in Norwegen bis zum Schlusse des ijten Jakrhunderts 
(Munich, 1875); A. M. Hansen, Landndm i Norge (1904); A. Bugge, 
Studier over de norske Bjers selvstyre og handel for Hanseattrnes tid 
(1899); F. Bruns, Die Lubecker 'Bergenfahrer und ihre Chronistik 
(Berlin, 1900) ; articles by G. Storm, Y. Nielsen, E. Hertzberg and 



NORWAY 



809 



others in the Historisk Tidskrift (Christiania) and other periodicals ; 
also the articles by K. v. Armira, O. Bremer, K. Kaalund and V. 
Gudmundsson in Pauls Grundriss der germanischen Philologic (vol. 
iii., Strassburg, 1000). The above works are published in Christiania 
except where otherwise stated. In English, there is a history of 
Norway by H. H. Boyesen in the Story of the Nations series (London, 
1900), and there are historical notes in G. Vigfusson and F. Y. 
Powell's Corpus poeticum Boreale (Oxford, 1883). The most im- 
portant original sources are: Snorre Sturlasson s Heimskringla, or 
Lives of the Kings of Norway (up to 1177), of which there is an 
English translation by W. Morris and E. Magnusson, with a valuable 
index volume compiled by the latter, in the Saga Library, vols. iii.- 
vi. (London, 1893-1905). The original Icelandic text is edited by 

F. Jonsson (Copenhagen, 1893-1901). For a critical investigation 
into the sources of Snorri and the contemporary historians, see G. 
Storm, Snorre Sturlasson's Historieskrivning (Copenhagen, 1873, 
with map of ancient Norway), and F. Jonsson, Den oldnorske og 
oldislandske Litteraturs Historie (Bd. ii. Del. ii., Copenhagen, 1901). 
Of later sagas, Sverre's Saga (Fornmanna Sogur, vol. viii., Copen- 
hagen) is translated by J. Sephton, Northern Library (vol. iv., 
London, 1899), and Haakon's Saga is given with a translation by 

G. W. Dasent in vols. ii. (text) and iv. (translation) of the Chronicles 
and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1894). Other 
important sources are: Diplomatarium Norvegicum, ed. C. Unger, 
Christiania, and Norges Gamle Love indtil 1397, ed. R. Keyser and 
P. A. Munch (5 vols., Christiania, 1846-1895). (B. S. P.) 

1397-1814. The history of Norway from 1397 down to the 
union with Sweden in 1814 falls naturally into four divisions. 
First, in 1450, the triple bond gave place to a union in 
which Norway became more firmly joined to Denmark. Next, 
in 1536, as the result of the Reformation, Norway sank 
almost to the level of a province. After 1660 she gained 
something in status from the establishment of autocracy in 
Denmark, and at the close of the period she became a con- 
stitutional kingdom on a footing of approximate equality with 
Sweden. But for the convulsions to which some of these changes 
gave rise, Norway possesses during this period but little history 
of her own, and she sank from her former position as a con- 
siderable and independent nation. The kings dwelt outside her 
borders, her fleet and army decayed, and her language gradually 
gave place to Danish. Germans plundered her coasts 
and monopolized her commerce, and after 1450 Danes 
began to appropriate the higher posts in her adminis- 
tration. When in 1448 Karl Knutsson was chosen king by the 
Swedes, and Christian of Oldenburg by the Danes, it was by 
force that Norway fell to the latter. On the 24th of November 
1449 the Norwegians protested against Christian's assumption 
of sovereignty over them, and against separation from the 
Swedes. Next year, however, the Swedes assented to the 
separation. Christian I. (1450-1481) gave estates and offices 
in Norway] to his Danish subjects and raised money by pawning 
her ancient possessions, the Orkneys and Shetland islands, to 
the king of Scotland. His son Hans (1482-1513) purchased the 
obedience of the Norwegian nobles by concessions to their power. 
The imposing union continued in name, but the weakness of the 
nation and its government was strikingly illustrated when the 
Germans in Bergen besieged a monastery in which their enemy 
Olaf Nilsson, a high official, had taken refuge. 

After the downfall of Christian II. (1513-1524) the position of 
Norway in relation to Denmark was changed for the worse. 
She was ruled for a century and a quarter by Danish 
'ceata officials; the churches and monasteries of Norway 
*"''' were sacked by Danes, and Danes were installed as 
pastors under the Lutheran system, which the Norwegians were 
compelled to accept in 1539. Soon Norway was dragged by 
Denmark into the so-called Seven Years' War of the North 
(1563-70). However, the power of the Hanse League in Bergen 
was broken. The rule of the Oldenburg dynasty proved neglect- 
ful rather than tyrannical, and under it the mass of the peasants 
was not flagrantly oppressed. Christian IV. (1588-1648), who 
founded Christiania, may almost be said to have discovered 
Norway anew. He reformed its government and strove to 
develop its resources, but his policy .involved Norway in the loss 
of the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedalen, which 
were ceded to tne Swedes by the peace of Bromsebro 
(1645). The Danish war of revenge against Carl X. 
of Sweden resulted in further territorial loss by Norway. By the 



peace of Roskilde (1658) she was compelled to renounce the 
counties of Trondhjem and Baahus, and although the former 
was restored by the peace of Copenhagen, two years later, her 
population fell below half a million. The Swedes had now 
acquired the rich provinces in the south and south-west of the 
Scandinavian peninsula, and their ambition to extend their 
frontiers to the North Sea became more pronounced and more 
possible of accomplishment. From the middle of the I7th 
century, however, the Dutch and English made their influence 
felt, and the political status of Norway could no longer be 
regarded as a purely Scandinavian affair. The establishment 
of hereditary autocracy in Denmark by Frederick III. in 1660 
conferred many benefits upon Norway. Personal liberty perhaps 
suffered, but the Norwegian peasant remained a freeman while 
his counterpart in Denmark was a serf. Norwegian law was 
revised and codified under Christian V. (1670-1699), who was 
well served by the Norwegians in his attempt to regain the lost 
provinces. 

Under the sons of these monarchs, Frederick IV. and Carl 
XII., Norway was once more compelled to pay for Danish 
aggression. Her shipping was destroyed, and in 1716, 
when driven from continental Europe, the Swedish century. 
hosts fell upon her. Two years later, however, the 
death of Carl XII. at the border fortress of Frederikshald 
averted the danger. During this war Peter Tordenskjold, the 
greatest among a long series of Norwegian heroes who served in 
the Danish fleet, won undying fame. Before the close of the i8th 
century something had been done towards dispelling the in- 
tellectual darkness. Holberg, though he flourished outside 
Norway, was at least born there, and by stemming the tide of 
German influence he made the future of Norwegian literature 
possible. At the close of the century Hans Nielson Hauge, the 
Wesley of Norway, appeared, while the growth of the timber 
trade with England gave rise to a great increase in wealth and 
population. In a century and a half the number of the 
Norwegian people was doubled, so that by 1814 Norway 
comprised some 900,000 souls. In 1788 the oppressive law 
that grain should be imported into Norway only from 
Denmark was repealed, and thanks to Danish policy Norway 
actually drew financial profit from the wars of the French 
Revolution. 

The Norwegian national movement was to render a decade at 
the beginning of the igth century more memorable in Norwegian 
history than any century which had passed since the Bfgi aa iaf 
Calmar Union. In 1800 the Danish government com- fNor- 
mitted the Norwegians to the second Armed Neutrality, wetfaa 
and therefore to a share in the battle of Copenhagen, "atioaal 
by which it was broken up. It was not until 1807, " 
however, that Norway was fully involved in the Napoleonic wars. 
Then, after the bombardment of Copenhagen, she was compelled 
by Danish policy to embrace the cause of Napoleon against both 
England and Sweden. Commerce was annihilated, and the 
supply of food failed. The national distress brought into the 
forefront of politics national leaders, among whom Count 
Hermann Jasper von Wedel-Jarlsberg was the most conspicuous. 
As yet, however, patriotism went no further than a demand for 
an administration distinct from that of Denmark, which was 
conceded in 1807, and for a university nearer home than Copen- 
hagen. In 1811 the government assented to the foundation of 
the university of Christiania. (W. F. R.) 

1814-1907. After a union of nearly 400 years between 
Norway and Denmark, the Danish king, Frederick VI., without 
consulting the Norwegians, ce4ed Norway to Sweden gy eatt 
by the treaty of Kiel (January 14, 1814). Some leading to 
time previously Sweden had joined the allies in their the union 
struggle against Napoleon, while Denmark had, un- ^"* 
wisely, sided with the French. In 1813 the Swedish 
crown prince, Bernadotte, afterwards King Carl XIV., 1 pro- 
ceeded to Germany and took command of one of the armies 
of the allies. After the power of Napoleon had been broken at 

'In 1810 he was elected heir to the Swedish throne, in succession 
to the childless king Carl XIII., who died in 1818. 



8io 



NORWAY 



the battle of Leipzig, he advanced against Denmark, and King 
Frederick soon saw himself compelled to accede to the cession of 
Norway, which had long been the aspiration of the Swedes, 
especially after the loss of Finland in 1809. In the treaty of Kiel 
Frederick VI. absolved the Norwegians from their oath cf 
allegiance, and called upon them to become the loyal subjects 
of the Swedish king. But the Norwegians, who had not been 
consulted in the matter, refused to acknowledge the treaty, 
declaring that, while the Danish king might renounce his right 
to the Norwegian crown, it was contrary to international law 
to dispose of an entire kingdom without the consent of its people. 
A meeting of delegates was convened at Eidsvold, not far from the 
Norwegian capital, where, on the ijth of May 1814, a constitu- 
tion, framed upon the constitutions of America, of France (1791), 
and of Spain (1812), was adopted. Among its most important 
features are that the Storthing, or National Assembly, is a 
single-chamber institution, and that the king is not given an 
absolute veto, or the right to dissolve the Storthing. The 
Danish governor of Norway, Prince Christian Frederick, was 
unanimously elected king. Soon afterwards the Swedes, under 
the crown prince, invaded Norway. The hostilities lasted 
only a fortnight, when Bernadotte opened negotiations with 
the Norwegians. A convention was held at Moss, where it was 
proposed that the Norwegians should accept the Swedish king 
as their sovereign, on the condition that their constitution of the 
1 7th of May should remain intact, except with such alterations 
as the union might render necessary. An extraordinary Storthing 
was then summoned at Christiania, and on the 4th of November 
1814 Norway was declared to be " a free, independent, and 
indivisible kingdom, united with Sweden under one king." A 
month previously Prince Christian Frederick had laid down 
his crown and left the country. 

The union was more fully defined by the " Act of Union," 
which was accepted by the national assemblies of both countries 
in the following year. In the preamble to the act it is clearly 
stated that the union between the two peoples was accomplished 
" not by force of arms, but by free conviction," and the Swedish 
foreign minister declared to the European Powers, on behalf 
of Sweden, that the treaty of Kiel had been abandoned, and that 
it was not to this treaty, but to the confidence of the Norwegian 
people in the Swedish, that the latter owed the union with 
Norway. The constitution framed at Eidsvold was retained, 
and formed the Grundlov, or fundamental law of the kingdom. 
The union thus concluded between the two countries was really 
an offensive and defensive alliance under a common king, each 
country retaining its own government, parliament, army, navy 
and customs. 

In Sweden the people received only an imperfect and erroneous 
insight into the nature of the union, and for a long time believed 
it to be an achievement of the Swedish arms. They had hoped 
to make Norway a province of Sweden, and now they had entered 
into a union in which both countries were equally independent. 
During the first fifteen years the king was represented in Norway 
by a Swedish viceroy, while the government was, of course, 
composed only of Norwegians. Count Wedel Jarlsberg was the 
first to be entrusted with the important office of head of the 
Norwegian government, while several of Prince Christian 
Frederick's councillors of state were retained, or replaced by 
others holding their political views. The Swedish Count von 
Essen was appointed the first viceroy of Norway, and was 
succeeded two years afterwards by his countryman Count von 
Morner, over both of whom Count Wedel exercised considerable 
influence. 

During the first years of the union the country suffered from 
poverty and depression of trade, and the finances were in a 
Strained d e pl ra ble condition. The first Storthing was chiefly 
relations occupied with financial and other practical measures. 
between In order to improve the finances of the country a bank 
siortAfcil * Norwa X was founded, and the army was reduced to 
one half. The paid-up capital of the bank was pro- 
cured by an extraordinary tax, and this, together with the grow- 
ing discontent among the peasantry, brought about a rising in 



Hedemarken, the object of which was to dissolve the Storthing and 
to obtain a reduction in the taxation. The rising, however, soon 
subsided, and the bountiful harvest of 1819 brought more prosper- 
ous times to the peasantry. Meanwhile, however, the financial 
position of the country had nearly endangered its independence. 
The settlement with Denmark with regard to Norway's share of 
the national debt common to both, assumed threatening propor- 
tions. In the interest of Denmark, the allied powers asked for a 
speedy settlement, and in order to escape their collective inter- 
vention, Bernadotte, who had now succeeded to the throne of 
Sweden and Norway, on the death (February 5, 1818) of the old 
king Carl XIII., accepted England's mediation, and was enabled 
in September 1819 to conclude a convention with Denmark, 
according to which Norway was held liable for only 3,000,000 
specie dollars (nearly 700,000). But the Norwegians considered 
that this was still too much, and the attitude of the Storthing 
in 1821 nearly occasioned a fresh interference of the powers. 
The Storthing, however, yielded at last, and agreed to raise a 
loan and pay the amount stipulated in the convention, but the 
king evidently had his doubts as to whether the Norwegians 
really intended to fulfil their obligations. As his relations with 
the Storthing had already become strained, and as he was 
occupied at that time with plans, which it is now known meant 
nothing less than a coup d'ttat in connexion with the revision 
of the Norwegian constitution, he decided to adopt military 
preparations, and in July 1821 he collected a force of 3000 
Swedish and 3000 Norwegian troops in the neighbourhood of 
Christiania, ostensibly for the mere purpose of holding some 
manoeuvres. In a circular note (June i) to the European 
powers, signed by the Swedish foreign minister, Engstrom 
but it is not difficult to recognize the hand of the king as the 
real author the minister complained bitterly of the treatment 
the king had met with at the hands of the Storthing, and repre- 
sented the Norwegians in anything but a favourable light to the 
powers, the intention being to obtain their sympathy for any 
attempt that might be made to revise the Norwegian constitution. 
About this time another important question had to be settled 
by the Storthing. The Storthings of 1815 and 1818 had already 
passed a bill for the abolition of nobility, but the king had on 
both occasions refused his sanction. The Norwegians maintained 
that the few counts and barons still to be found in Norway were 
all Danish and of very recent origin, while the really true and 
ancient nobility of the country were the Norwegian peasants, 
descendants of the old jarls and chieftains. According to the 
constitution, any bill which has been passed by three successively 
elected Storthings, elections being held every third year, becomes 
law without the king's sanction. When the third reading of the 
bill came on, the king did everything in his power to obstruct 
it, but in spite of his opposition the bill was eventually carried 
and became law. 

In 1822 Count Wedel Jarlsberg retired from the government. 
He had become unpopular through his financial policy, and 
was also at issue with the king on vital matters. In Royal 
1821 he had been impeached before the Rigsret, the proposals 
supreme court of the realm, for having caused the for consti- 
state considerable losses. JonasCollett(i772-i8si)was *",* 
appointed as his successor to the post of minister of 
finance. The king had by this time apparently abandoned his 
plan of a coup d'itat, for in the following August he submitted 
to the Storthing several proposals for fundamental changes 
in the constitution, all of which aimed at removing all that was 
at variance with a monarchical form of government. The 
changes, in fact, were the same as he had suggested in his circular 
note to the Powers, and which he knew would be hailed with 
approval by his Swedish subjects. When the Storthing met 
again in 1824 the royal proposals for the constitutional changes 
came on for discussion. The Storthing unanimously rejected 
not only the king's proposals, but also several others by private 
members for changes in the constitution. The king submitted 
his proposals again in the following session of the Storthing, and 
again later on, but they were always unanimously rejected. In 
1830 they were discussed for the last time, with the same result. 



NORWAY 



811 



The king's insistence was viewed by the people as a sign of 
absolutist tendencies, and naturally excited fresh alarm. In the 
eyes of the people the members of the opposition in the Storthing 
were the true champions of the rights and the independence which 
they had gained in 1814. 

For several years the Norwegians had been celebrating the 
1 7th of May as their day of independence, it being the anniversary 
The king's f tne adoption of the constitution of 1814; but as the 
absolutist tension between the Norwegians and the king increased, 
tend- th e latter began to look upon the celebration in the 
endes. \ight of a demonstration directed against himself, 
and when Collett, the minister of finance, was impeached 
before the supreme court of the realm for having made certain 
payments without the sanction of the Storthing, he also con- 
sidered this as an attack upon his royal prerogatives. His 
irritation knew no bounds, and although .Collett was acquitted 
by the supreme court, the king, in order to express his irritation 
with the Storthing and the action they had taken against one of 
his ministers, dissolved the national assembly with every sign 
of displeasure. The Swedish viceroy at the time, Count Sandels, 
had tried to convince him that his prejudice against the celebra- 
tion of the i yth of May was groundless, and for some years the 
king had made no objection to the celebration. In 1827 it was, 
however, celebrated in a very marked manner, and later in the 
same year there was a demonstration against a foolish political 
play called The Union, and this being privately reported to the 
king in as bad a light as possible, he thought that Count Sandels, 
who had not considered it worth while to report the occurrence, 
was not fitted for his post, and had him replaced by Count Beltzar 
Bojilaus Platen (1766-1829), an upright but narrow-minded 
statesman. Count Platen's first act was to issue a proclamation 
warning the people against celebrating the day of independence; 
and in April 1828 the king, against the advice of his ministers, 
summoned an extraordinary Storthing, his intention being to 
wrest from the Storthing the supremacy it had gained in 1827. 
He also intended to take steps to prevent the celebration of the 
1 7th of May, and assembled a force of 2000 Norwegian soldiers in 
the neighbourhood of the capital. The king arrived in Christiania 
soon after the opening of the extraordinary Storthing. He did 
not succeed, however, in his attempt to make any constitutional 
changes, but the Storthing met the king's wishes with regard to 
the celebration of the I7th of May by deciding not to continue 
the celebration, and the people all over the country quietly 
acquiesced. The following year trouble broke out again. The 
students had decided to celebrate the I7th of May with a festive 
gathering, which, however, passed off quietly. But large masses 
of the people paraded the streets, singing and shouting, and 
gathered finally in the market-place. There was a little rioting, 
_. and the police and the military eventually dispersed 

battle the people and drove them to their homes with sword 
of the and musket. This episode has become known as the 
*< Da ule of the market-place," and did much to 
pface increase the general ill-feeling against Count Platen. 
His health eventually broke down from disappointment and 
vexation at the indignities and abuse heaped upon him. He 
died in Christiania at the end of the year, and his post remained 
vacant for several years, the presidency of the Norwegian 
government in the meantime being taken by Collett, its oldest 
member. 

By the July Revolution of 1830 the political situation in 
Europe became completely changed, and the lessons' derived 
^ from that great movement reached also to Norway. 
political The representatives of the peasantry, for whom the 
power constitution had paved the way to become the ruling 
element in political life, were also beginning to dis- 
tinguish themselves in the national assembly, where 
they now had taken up an independent position against the 
representatives of the official classes, who in 1814 and afterwards 
had played the leading and most influential part in politics. This 
party was now under the leadership of the able and gifted Ole 
Ueland, who remained a member of every Storthing from 183310 
1869. The Storthing of 1833 was the first of the so-called 



otthe 
" 



" peasant Storthings." Hitherto the peasantry had never been 
represented by more than twenty members, but the elections in 
1833 brought their number up to forty-five, nearly half of the 
total representation. The attention of this new party was 
especially directed to the finances of the country, in the admini- 
stration of which they demanded the strictest economy. They 
often went too far in their zeal, and thereby incurred consider- 
able ridicule. 

About this time the peasant party found a champion in the 
youthful poet Henrik Wergeland, who soon became one of the 
leaders of the '' Young Norway " party. He was a werge- 
republican in politics, and the most zealous upholder land; op- 
of the national independence of Norway and of her poiedby 
full equality with Sweden in the union. A strong Wea>mvem - 
opposition to Wergeland and the peasant party was formed by 
the upper classes under the leadership of another rising poet and 
writer, Johan Sebastian Welhaven, and other talented men, who 
wished to retain the literary and linguistic relationship with 
Denmark, while Wergeland and his party wished to make the 
separation from Denmark as complete as possible, and in every 
way to encourage the growth of the national characteristics and 
feeling among the people. He devoted much of his time, by 
writing and other means, to promote the education of the people; 
but although he was most popular with the working and poorer 
classes, he was not able to form any political party around him, 
and at the time of his death he stood almost isolated. He died 
in 1845, and his opponents became now the leaders in the field 
of literature, and carried on the work of national reconstruction 
in a more restrained and quiet manner. The peasant party still 
continued to exist, but restricted itself principally to the assertion 
of local interests and the maintenance of strict economy in 
finance. 

The violent agitation that began in 1830 died away. The 
tension between the king and the legislature, however, still 
continued, and reached its height during the session of 1836, 
when all the royal proposals for changes in the constitution were 
laid aside, without even passing through committee, and when 
various other steps towards upholding the independence of the 
country were taken. The king, in his displeasure, decided to 
dissolve the Storthing; but before it dispersed it proceeded to 
impeach Lovenskiold, one of the ministers, before the supreme 
court of the realm, for having advised the king to dissolve the 
Storthing. He was eventually sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 
kroner (about 550), but he retained his post. Collett, another 
minister who had greatly displeased the king by his conduct, 
was dismissed; but unity in the government was brought about 
by the appointment of Count Wedd Jarlsberg as viceroy of 
Norway. From this time the relations between the king and the 
Norwegian people began to improve, whereas in Sweden he was, 
in his later years, not a little disliked. 

When the king's anger had subsided, he summoned the Stor- 
thing to an extraordinary session, during which several important 
bills were passed. Towards the dose of the session an Tbe 
address to the king was agreed to, hi which the Stor- national 
thing urged that steps should be taken to place Norway ** 
in political respects upon an equal footing with Sweden, "**' 
especially in the conduct of diplomatic affairs with foreign 
countries. The same address contained a petition for the use 
of the national or merchant flag in all waters. According to 
the constitution, Norway was to have her own merchant flag, 
and in 1821 the Storthing had passed a resolution that the flag 
should be scarlet, divided into four by a blue cross with white 
borders. The king, however, refused his sanction to the resolu- 
tion, but gave permission to use the flag in waters nearer home; 
but beyond Cape Finisterre the naval flag, which was really the 
Swedish flag, with a white cross on a red ground in the upper 
square, must be carried. In reply to the Storthing's address the 
king in 1838 conceded the right to all merchant ships to carry the 
national flag in all waters. This was hailed with great rejoicings 
all over the country; but the question of the national flag for 
general use had yet to be settled With regard to the question 
raised in the address of the Storthing about the conduct of 



8l2 



NORWAY 



diplomatic affairs, and other matters concerning the equality of 
Norway in the union, the king in 1839 appointed a committee of 
four Norwegians and four Swedes, who were to consider and 
report upon the questions thus raised. 

During the sitting of this first " Union Committee " its powers 

were extended to consider a comprehensive revision of the Act 

of Union, with the limitation that the fundamental 

Itestn of ... . ..... 

King CaH conditions of the union must in no way be interfered 
johnn; with. But before the committee had finished their 
succeeded re port the king died (March 8th 1844), and was suc- 
by Oscar I. cee( j e( j by n j s son Oscar I. According to the constitu- 
tion the Norwegian kings must be crowned in Throndhjem 
cathedral, but the bishop of Throndhjem was in doubt whether 
the queen, who was a Roman Catholic, could be crowned, and 
the king decided to forego the coronation both of himself and his 
queen. The new king soon showed his desire to meet the wishes 
of the Norwegian people. Thus he decided that in all documents 
concerning the internal government of the country Norway 
should stand first where reference was made to the king as 
sovereign of the two kingdoms. After having received the report 
of the committee concerning the flag question, he resolved (June 
zoth, 1844) that Norway and Sweden should each carry its own 
national flag as the naval flag, with the mark of union in the upper 
corner; and it was also decided that the merchant flag of the 
two kingdoms should bear the same mark of union, and that only 
ships sailing under these flags could claim the protection of the 
state. 

The financial and material condition of the country had now 
considerably improved, and King Oscar's reign was marked by 
the carrying out of important legislative work and reforms, 
especially in local government. New roads were planned and 
built all over the country, the first railway was built, steamship 
routes along the coast were established, lighthouses were erected 
and trade and shipping made great progress. The king's reign 
was not disturbed by any serious conflicts between the two 
countries. No change took place in the ministry under the 
presidency of the viceroy Lovenskiold upon King Oscar's 
accession to the throne, but on the death or retirement of some 
of its members the vacant places were filled by younger and 
talented men, among whom was Fredrik Stang, who in 1845 
took over the newly established ministry of the interior. During 
the ScMeswig-Holstein rebellion (1848-1850) and the Crimean 
War King Oscar succeeded in maintaining the neutrah'ty of 
Norway and Sweden, by which Norwegian shipping especially 
benefited. The abolition of the English navigation acts in 1850 
was of great importance to Norway, and opened up a great future 
for its merchant fleet. 

In 1826 a treaty had been concluded with Russia, by which 
the frontier between that country and the adjoining strip of 
Norwegian territory in the Polar region was definitely 
*/'/T' n5 delimited; but in spite of this treaty Russia in 1851 
Russia. demanded that the Russian Lapps on the Norwegian 
frontier should have the right to fish on the Norwegian 
coast, and have a portion of the coast on the Varanger fjord 
allotted to them to settle upon. The Norwegian government 
refused to accede to the Russian demands, and serious complica- 
tions might have ensued if the attention of Russia had not been 
turned in another direction. While his father had looked 
to Russia for support, King Oscar was more inclined to secure 
western powers as his allies, and during the Crimean War he 
concluded a treaty with England and France, according to 
which these countries promised their assistance in the event of 
any fresh attempts at encroachment on Norwegian or Swedish 
territory by Russia. In consequence of this treaty the relations 
between Norway and Sweden and Russia became somewhat 
strained; but after the peace of Paris in 1856, and the accession 
of Alexander II., whose government was in favour of a peaceful 
policy, the Russian ambassador at Stockholm succeeded in 
bringing about more friendly relations. 

Owing to the king's ill-health, his son, the crown prince Carl, 
was appointed regent in 1857, and two years later, when King 
Oscar died, he succeeded to the thrones of the two countries as 



Carl XV. He was a gifted, genial and noble personality, and 
desired to inaugurate his reign by giving the Nor- Death of 
wegians a proof of his willingness to acknowledge the Oscar I.; 
claims of Norway, but he did not live to see his wishes accession 
in this respect carried out. According to the constitu- otCarl 
tion, the king had the power to appoint a viceroy for 
Norway, who might be either a Norwegian or Swede. Since 1829 
no Swede had held the post, and since 1859 no appointment of a 
viceroy had been made. But the paragraph in the constitution 
still existed, and the Norwegians naturally wished to have this 
stamp of " provinciality " obliterated. A proposal for the 
abolishment of the office of viceroy was laid before the Question 
Storthing in 1859, and passed by it. The king, whose of Nor- 
sympathies on this question were known, had been wegiaa 
appealed to, and had privately promised that he would ** e >.^ 
sanction the proposed change in the constitution; but as soon 
as the resolution of the Storthing became known in Sweden, a 
violent outcry arose both in the Swedish press and the Swedish 
estates. Under the pressure that was brought to bear upon the 
king in Sweden, he eventually refused to sanction the resolution 
of the Storthing; but he added that he shared the views of his 
Norwegian counsellors, and would, when " the convenient 
moment " came, himself propose the abolition of the office of 
viceroy. 

In the following year the Swedish government again pressed the 
demands of the Swedish estates for a revision of the Act of Union, 
which this time included the establishment of a Swedish 
union or common parliament for the two countries, on proposals 
the basis that, according to the population, there tor re- 
should be two Swedish members to every Norwegian, vision of 
The proposal was sent to the Norwegian government, f,^ ^ 
which did not seem at all disposed to entertain it; but 
some dissensions arose with regard to the form in which its reply 
was to be laid before the king. The more obstinate members 
of the ministry resigned, and others, of a more pliable nature, 
were appointed under the presidency of Fredrik Stang, who 
had already been minister of the interior from 1845 to 1856. 
The reconstructed government was, however, in accord with the 
retiring one, that no proposal for the revision of the Act of Union 
could then be entertained. The king, however, advocated the 
desirability of a revision, but insisted that this would have to 
be based upon the full equality of both countries. In 1863 the 
Storthing assented to the appointment by the king of a Union 
committee, the second time that such a committee had been 
called upon to consider this vexatious question. It was not 
until 1867 that its report was made public, but it could not 
come on for discussion in the Storthing till it met again in 1871. 
During this period the differences between the two countries 
were somewhat thrust into the background by the Danish 
complications in 1863-1864, which threatened to draw the two 
kingdoms into war. King Carl was himself in favour of a 
defensive alliance with Denmark, but the Norwegian Storthing 
would only consent to this if an alh'ance could also be effected 
with at least one of the western powers. 

In 1869 the Storthing passed a resolution by which its sessions 
were made annual instead of triennial according to the constitu- 
tion of 1814. The first important question which the first yearly 
Storthing which met in 1871 had to consider was once more the 
proposed revision of the Act of Union. The Norwegians had 
persistently maintained that in any discussion on this question 
the basis' for the negotiations should be (i) the full equah'ty of the 
two kingdoms, and (2) no extension of the bonds of the union 
beyond the line originally defined in the act of 1815. However, 
the draft of the new act contained terms in which the supremacy 
of Sweden was presupposed and which introduced important 
extensions of the bonds of the union; and, strangely enough, the 
report of the Union committee was adopted by the new Stang 
ministry, and even supported by some of the most influential 
newspapers under the plausible garb of " Scandinavianism." 
In these circumstances the " lawyers' party," under the leader- 
ship of Johan Sverdrup, who was to play such a prominent part' 
in Norwegian politics, and the " peasant party," led by Soren 



NORWAY 



Jaaboek, a gifted peasant proprietor, who was also destined to 
become a prominent figure in the political history of the country, 
Fouada- f rme d an alliance, with the object of guarding against 
tion of the any encroachment upon the liberty and independence 
Norwegian which the country had secured by the constitution of 
atioaal lgl4 This was the foundation of the great national 
party, which became known as the " Venstre " (the 
left), and which before long became powerful enough to exert 
the most decisive influence upon the political affairs of the 
country. When, therefore, the proposed revision of the Act of 
Union eventually came before the Storthing in 1871, it was re- 
jected by an overwhelming majority. The position which the 
government had taken up on this question helped to open the 
eyes of the Norwegians to some defects in the constitution, which 
had proved obstacles to the development and strengthening of 
the parliamentary system. 

In 1872 a private bill came before the Storthing, proposing that 
the ministers should be admitted to the Storthing and take part 
in its proceedings. After a number of stormy debates, 
0/admrt- ^ ne kill was successfully carried under the leadership 
taace of f Johan Sverdrup by a large majority, but the govern- 
miaisters ment, evidently jealous of the growing powers and 
to seats la influence of the new liberal party in the Storthing, 
"hi S ' 0r ~ advised the king to refuse his sanction, although the 
government party itself had several times in the 
preceding half-century introduced a similar bill for admitting the 
ministers to the Storthing. At that time, however, the opposition 
had looked with suspicion on the presence of the ministers in the 
national assembly, lest their superior skill in debate and political 
experience should turn the scale too readily in favour of govern- 
ment measures. Now, on the contrary, the opposition had 
gained more experience and had confidence in its own strength, 
and no doubt found that the legislative work could better be 
carried on if the ministers were present to explain and defend 
their views; but the government saw in the proposed reform the 
threatened introduction of full parliamentary government, by 
which the ministry could not remain in office unless supported by 
a majority in the Storthing. Before the Storthing separated the 
liberals carried a vote of censure against the government; but 
the king declared that the ministers enjoyed his confidence 
and took no further notice of the vote. Two of the ministers, 
who had advised the ratification of the bill, resigned, however; 
and a third minister, who had been in the government since 
1848, resigned also, and retired from public life, foreseeing the 
storm that was brewing on the political horizon. Numerous 
public meetings were held all over the country in support of the 
proposed reform, and among the speakers was Johan Sverdrup, 
now the acknowledged leader of the liberal party, who was hailed 
with great enthusiasm as the champion of the proposed reform. 
This was the political situation when King Carl died (i8th 
September 1872). He was succeeded by his brot her, who ascended 
Death of the throne as Oscar II. In the following year he 
Carl g ave jjj s sanction to the bill for the abolition of the 

office of viceroy, which the Storthing had again 
passed, and the president of the ministry was after- 
wards recognized as the prime minister and head of the 
government in Christiania. Fredrik Stang, who was the pre- 
sident of the ministry at the time, was the first to fill this office. 
In the same year Norway celebrated its existence for a thousand 
years as a kingdom, with great festivities. 

In 1874 the government, in order to show the people that they 
to some extent were willing to meet their wishes with regard to 
Proposals ^ e great question before the country, laid before the 
by the Storthing a royal proposition for the admittance of the 
Storthing ministers to the national assembly. But this was to 
for full jj e accompanied by certain other constitutional changes, 
pop " ** such as giving the king the right of dissolving the Stor- 
thingat hispleasure, and providingfixed pensions for ex- 
ministers, which was regarded as a guarantee against the majority 
of the assembly misusing its new power. The bill which the 
government brought in was unanimously rejected by the Stor- 
thing, the conservatives also voting against it, as they considered 



Oscar/ 



the guarantees insufficient. The same year, and again in 1877, 
the Storthing passed the bill, but in a somewhat different form 
from that of 1872. On both occasions the king refused his 
sanction. 

The Storthing then resorted to the procedure provided by the 
constitution to carry out the people's will. In 1880 the bill was 

passed for the third time, and on this occasion by the _ 

,f. The king"* 

overwhelming majority of 93 out of 113. Three veto _ 

Storthings after three successive elections had now 
carried the bill, and it was generally expected that the king and 
his government would at length comply with the wishes of the 
people, but the king on this occasion also refused his sanction, 
declaring at the same time that his right to the absolute veto 
was " above all doubt." Johan Sverdrup, the leader of the 
liberal party and president of the Storthing, brought the question 
to a prompt issue by proposing to the Storthing that the bill, 
which had been passed three times, should be declared to be the 
law of the land without the king's sanction. This proposal was 
carried by a large majority on the gth of June 1880, but the 
king and his ministers in reply declared that they would not 
recognize the validity of the resolution. 

From this moment the struggle 'may be said to have centred 
itself upon the existence or non-existence of an absolute veto on 
the part of the crown. The king requested the faculty g^.-^ 
of law at the Christiania university to give its opinion between 
on the question at issue, and with one dissentient the the king 

learned doctors upheld the king's right to the absolute *J" l ' h * 

f . Storthing. 

veto in questions concerning amendments of the con- 
stitution, although they could not find that .it was expressly 
stated in the fundamental law of the country. The ministry also 
advised the king to claim a veto in questions of supply, which 
still further increased the ill-feeling in the country against the 
government, and the conflict in consequence grew more and more 
violent. 

In the midst of the struggle between the king and the Storthing, 
the prime minister, Fredrik Stang, resigned, and Christian 
August Selmer (1816-1889) became his successor; 
and this, together with the appointment of another 
member to the ministry, K. H. Schweigaard, plainly 
indicated that the conflict with the Storthing was to be continued. 
In June 1882 the king arrived in Christiania to dissolve the 
Storthing, and on this occasion delivered a speech from the 
throne, in which he openly censured the representatives of the 
people for their attitude in legislative work and on the question 
of the absolute veto, the speech creating considerable surprise 
throughout the country. Johan Sverdrup and Bjornstjerne 
Bjornson, the popular poet and dramatist, called upon the 
people to support the Storthing in upholding the resolution of 
the gth of June, and to rouse themselves to a sense of their 
political rights. The elections resulted in a great victory for the 
liberal party, which returned stronger than ever to the Storthing, 
numbering 83 and the conservatives only 31. The ministry, 
however, showed no sign of yielding, and, when the new Storthing 
met in February 1883, the Odelsthing (the lower division of the 
national assembly) decided upon having the question i mlteaca . 
finally settled by impeaching the whole of the ministry meat of 
before the Rigsret or the supreme court of the realm, minister* 

The jurisdiction of the Rigsret is limited to the trial *^ '*' 

M i 11. i stortntngi 

of offences against the state, and there is no appeal I8&J ^ 

against its decisions. The charges against the ministers 
were for having acted contrary to the interests of the country by 
advising the king to refuse his sanction first, to the amendment 
of the law for admitting the ministers to the Storthing; secondly, 
to a bill involving a question of supply; and thirdly, to a bill 
by which the Storthing could appoint additional directors on the 
state railways. 

The trial of the eleven ministers of the Selmer cabinet began in 
May 1883 and lasted over ten months. In the end the The minis- 
Rigsret sentenced the prime minister and seven of his try "- 
ministers to be deprived of their offices, while three, '!"','' * t 
who had either recommended the king to sanction 
the bill for admitting the ministers to the Storthing, or had 



NORWAY 



entered the cabinet at a later date, were heavily fined. The 
excitement in the country rose to feverish anxiety. Rumours of 
all kinds were afloat, and it was generally believed that the king 
would attempt a coup d'ttat. Fortunately the king after some hesi- 
tation issued (nth March 1884) an order in council announcing 
that the judgment of the supreme court would be carried into 
effect, and Selmer was then called upon to resign his position as 
prime minister. King Oscar, however, in his declara- 
t ; on U pheld the constitutional prerogative of the 
crown, which, he maintained, was not impaired by 
the judgment of the Rigsret. The following month the 
king, regardless of the large liberal majority in the Storthing, 
asked Schweigaard, one of the late ministers, whose punishment 
consisted in a fine, to form a ministry, and the so-called " April 
ministry " was then appointed, but sent in its resignation in 
the following month. Professor Broch, a former minister, next 
failed to form a ministry, and the king was at last compelled to 
appoint a ministry in accordance with the majority in the 
First Storthing. In June 1884 Johan Sverdrup was asked 

Liberal to form one. He selected for his ministers leading 
ministry men on the liberal side in the Storthing, and the first 
I8S4 ' liberal ministry that Norway had was at length 
appointed. The Storthing, in order to satisfy the king, passed 
a new resolution admitting the ministers to the national assembly, 
and this received formal sanction. 

During the following years a series of important reforms was 
carried through. Thus in 1887 the jury system in criminal 
matters was introduced into the country after violent opposition 
from the conservatives. A bill intended to give parishioners 
greater influence in church matters, and introduced by Jakob 
Sverdrup. the minister of education, and a nephew of the prime 
minister, met, however, with strong opposition, and was eventu- 
ally rejected by the Storthing, the result being a break-up of the 
ministry and a disorganization of the liberal party. In June 1889 
the Sverdrup ministry resigned, and a conservative one was 
formed by Emil Stang, the leader of the conservatives in the 
Storthing, and during the next two years the Storthing passed 
various useful measures; but the ministry was eventually 
wrecked on the rock of the great national question which about 
this time came to the front that of Norway's share in the 
transaction of diplomatic affairs. At the time of the union in 
1814 nothing had been settled as to how these were to be con- 
ducted, but in 1835 a resolution was issued, that when the 
The ues- Swedish foreign minister was transacting diplomatic 
tioa at matters with the king which concerned both countries, 
diplomatic or Norway only, the Norwegian minister of state in 
attendance upon the king at Stockholm should be 
present. This arrangement did not always prove 
satisfactory to the Norwegians, especially as the Swedish 
foreign minister could not be held responsible to the Norwegian 
government or parliament. 

By a change in the Swedish constitution in 1885 the ministerial 
council, in which diplomatic matters are discussed, came to 
consist of the Swedish foreign minister and two other 
Ivorwerian mem ^ ers f l ^ e cabinet on behalf of Sweden, and of 
claim. the Norwegian minister at Stockholm on behalf of 
Norway. The king, wishing to remedy this disparity, 
proposed that the composition of the council should be determined 
by an additional paragraph in the Act of Union. The representa- 
tives of the Norwegian government in Stockholm proposed that 
three members of the cabinet of each country should constitute 
the ministerial council. To this the Swedish government was 
willing to agree, but on the assumption that the minister of foreign 
affairs should continue to be a Swede as before, and this the 
Norwegians, of course, would not accept. At the king's instiga- 
tion the negotiations with the Swedish government were resumed 
at the beginning of 1891, but the Swedish Riksdag rejected 
the proposals, while the Norwegian Storthing insisted upon 
" Norway's right, as an independent kingdom, to full equality 
in the union, and therewith her right to watch over her foreign 
affairs in a constitutional manner." The Stang ministry then 
resigned, and a liberal ministry, with Steen, the recognized 



leader of the liberal party after Sverdrup's withdrawal from 
politics, as prime minister, was appointed. 

The new ministry had placed the question of a separate minister 
of foreign affairs for Norway prominently in their programme, but 
little progress was made during the next few years. Questioaot 
Another and more important question for the country, separate 
as far as its shipping and commerce are concerned, consular 
now came to the front. The Storthing had in 1891 "** 
appointed a committee to inquire into the practicability of 
establishing a separate Norwegian consular service, and in 1892 
the Storthing, acting upon the committee's report, determined 
to establish a consular service. The king, influenced bv public 
opinion in Sweden, refused his sanction, and the Norwegian 
government in consequence sent in their resignation, whereupon 
a complete deadlock ensued. This was terminated by a com- 
promise to the effect that the ministry would return to office on 
the understanding that the question was postponed by common 
consent. The following year the Storthing again passed a 
resolution calling upon the Norwegian government to proceed 
with the necessary measures for establishing the proposed 
consular service for Norway, but the king again refused to take 
any action in the matter. Upon this the liberal ministry resigned 
(May 1893), and the king appointed a conservative government, 
with Emil Stang as its chief. Thus matters went on till the end 
of 1894, when the triennial elections took place, with the result 
that the majority of the electors declared in favour of national 
independence on the great question then before the country. 
The ministry did not at once resign, but waited till the king 
arrived in Christiania to open the Storthing (January 1895). The 
king kept the country for over four months without a responsible 
government, during which time the crisis had become more acute 
than ever. A coalition ministry was at last formed, with 
Professor G. F. Hagerup as prime minister. A new committee, 
consisting of an equal number of Norwegians and Swedes, was 
appointed to consider the question of separate diplomatic 
representation; but after sitting for over two years the com- 
mittee separated without being able to come to any agreement. 

The elections in 1897 proved again a great victory for theliberal 
party, 79 liberals and 35 conservatives being returned, and in 
February 1898 the Hagerup ministry was replaced by a liberal, 
once more under the premiership of Steen. Soon afterwards the 
bill for the general adoption of the national or " pure " flag, as 
it was called, was carried for the third time, and became law 
without the king's sanction. In 1898 universal political suffrage 
for men was passed by a large majority, but the proposal to 
include women received the support of only 33 votes. 

In January 1902, on the initiative of the Swedish foreign 
minister, another committee, consisting of an equal number of 
leading Norwegians and Swedes, was appointed by fhe 
the king to investigate the consular question. The crisis of 
unanimous report of the committee was to the effect l902 ' 
that " it was possible to appoint separate Norwegian 
consuls exclusively responsible to Norwegian authority and 
separate Swedish consuls exclusively responsible to Swedish 
authority." The further negotiations between the two govern- 
ments resulted in the so-called communiquS of the 24th of March 
1903, which announced the conclusion of an agreement between 
the representatives of the two countries for the establishment 
of the separate consular service. The terms of the communiqui 
were submitted to a combined Norwegian and Swedish council 
of state on the 2ist of December 1903, when they were unani- 
mously agreed to and were signed by the king, who commissioned 
the Norwegian and the Swedish governments to proceed with the 
drafting of the laws and regulations for the separate consular 
services. In due course the Norwegian government submitted 
to the Swedish government their draft of the proposed laws and 
regulations, but no reply was forthcoming for several months. 
About this time the Swedish foreign minister, Mr Lagerheim, 
who had zealously worked for a friendly solution of the consular 
question, resigned, and in November the same year Bostrom, the 
Swedish prime minister, suddenly submitted to the Norwegian 
government a number of new conditions under which the Swedish 



NORWAY 



815 



government was prepared to agree to the establishment of separate 
consuls. This came as a surprise to the Norwegians in view 
of the fact that the basis for the establishment of separate 
consuls had already been agreed upon and confirmed by the 
king in December 1903. According to Bostrom's proposals the 
Norwegian consuls were to be placed under the control of the 
Swedish foreign minister, who was to have the power to remove 
any Norwegian consul . The Norwegians felt it would be beneath 
the dignity of a self-governing country to agree to the Swedish 
proposals, and that these new demands were nothing less than 
a. breach of faith with regard to the terms of agreement arrived 
at two years before by both governments and approved and 
signed by the king. The Norwegian government would have 
.been perfectly justified if, after this, they had withdrawn from 
the negotiations, but they did not wish to jeopardize the oppor- 
tunity of arriving at a friendly settlement, and Hagerup, the 
Norwegian prime minister, proceeded to Stockholm to confer 
with Bostrom; but no satisfactory agreement could be arrived 
at. There was therefore nothing left but for the Norwegians 
to take matters into their own hands. 

On the 8th of February 1905 Hagerup announced to the 
Norwegian Storthing that the negotiations had fallen through, 
and on the I7th the Storthing decided unanimously to refer 
the matter to a special committee. Owing to some difference of 
opinion between the members of his ministry, Hagerup resigned 
on the ist of March and was succeeded by Christian Michelsen, 
who formed a ministry composed of members of both political 
parties. The special committee decided that a bill should be 
immediately submitted to the Storthing for the establishment of 
a Norwegian consular service and that the measure should come 
into force not later than the ist of April 1906. An attempt was 
made by the Swedish crown prince, acting as Prince Regent 
during the king's illness, to enter into new negotiations with the 
Norwegian government, but the proposals were not favourably 
received in Norway. In April 1905 Bostrom resigned, which 
was considered to be a move on the part of Sweden to facilitate 
negotiations with Norway. The bill for the establishment of 
Norwegian consuls was passed by the Storthing without a 
dissentient voice on the 23rd of May, and it was generally 
expected that the king, who again had assumed the reins of 
government, would sanction the bill, but on the 27th of May, 
in spite of the earnest entreaties of his Norwegian ministers, 
the king formally refused to do so. The Norwegian Ministry 
immediately resigned, but the king informed the ministers that 
Deciara- ne cou ^ not accept their resignation. They, however, 
tioo of declined to withdraw it. A few days afterwards the 
independ- Norwegian government informed the Storthing of the 
eace. king's refusal, whereupon the assembly unanimously 

agreed to refer the matter to the special committee. On the 
7th of June the Storthing met to hear the final decision of 
the government. Michelsen, the prime minister, informed the 
Storthing that all the members of the government had resigned 
in consequence of the king's refusal to sanction the consular 
law, that the king had declined to accept the resignation, and 
that, as an alternative government could not be formed, the 
union with Sweden, based upon a king in common, was con- 
sequently dissolved. The president of the Storthing submitted 
a resolution that the resigning ministry should be authorized to 
exercise the authority vested in the king in accordance with the 
constitution of the country. The resolution was unanimously 
adopted. 

King Oscar, on receiving the news of the action of the Nor- 
wegian Storthing, sent a telegraphic protest to the Norwegian 
prime minister and to the president of the Storthing. 
* The Swedish government immediately decided to 
Sweden, summon an extraordinary session of the Swedish 
parliament for the 2oth of June, when a special com- 
mittee was appointed to consider what steps should be taken by 
Sweden. On the 25th of July the report of the committee was 
laid*before the Riksdag, in which it was stated that Sweden 
could have no objection to enter into negotiations about the 
severance of the union, when a vote to that effect had been 



given by a newly-elected Storthing or by a national vote in the 
form of a referendum by the Norwegian people. The report 
was unanimously adopted by the Swedish Riksdag on the 27th 
of July, and on the following day the Norwegian Storthing 
decided that a general plebiscite should be taken on the i3th 
of August, when 368,211 voted in favour of the dissolution and 
only 184 against it. It was thereupon agreed that representatives 
of Norway and of Sweden should meet at Karlstad in Sweden 
on the 3 ist of August to discuss and arrange for the severance of 
the union. The negotiations lasted till the 23rd of September, 
though more than once they were on the point of being broken 
off. The agreement stipulated a neutral zone on both sides of the 
southern border between the two countries, the Norwegians 
undertaking to dismantle some fortifications within that zone. 
The agreement was to remain in force for ten years, and could 
be renewed for a similar period, unless one of the countries gave 
notice to the contrary. The Karlstad agreement was 
ratified by the Norwegian Storthing on the 9th of 
October and by the Swedish Riksdag on the 1 6th of the VH. 
same month. On the 27th of October King Oscar 
issued a proclamation to the Norwegian Storthing, in which he 
relinquished the crown of Norway. The Norwegian government 
was thereupon authorized by the Storthing to negotiate with 
Prince Charles of Denmark and to arrange for a national vote as 
to whether or no the country would approve of his election for the 
Norwegian throne. The plebiscite resulted in 259,563 votes 
for his election and 69,264 against. On the i8th of November 
the Storthing unanimously elected Prince Charles as king of 
Norway, he taking the name of Haakon VII. On the 25th of 
November the king and his consort, Queen Maud, the youngest 
daughter of King Edward VII. of England, entered the Norwegian 
capital. Their coronation took place in the Trondhjem cathedral 
the following year. 

In 1907 parliamentary suffrage was granted to women with 
the same limitation as in the municipal suffrage granted to them 
in 1901, viz. to all unmarried women over 25 years, who pay 
taxes on an income of 300 kroner (about 16) in the country 
districts and on 400 kroner (about 22) in the towns, as well as to 
all married women, whose husbands pay taxes on similar incomes. 
Norway was thus the first sovereign country in Europe where 
the parliamentary vote was granted to women. (H. L. B.) 

NORWEGIAN LITERATURE 

Early Norse literature is inextricably bound up with Icelandic 
literature. Iceland was colonized from Norway in the 9th 
century, and the colonists were drawn chiefly from the upper and 
cultured classes. They took with them their poetry and literary 
traditions. Old Norse literature is therefore dealt with under 
Iceland (<?..). (See also EDDA, SAGA, RUNES.) 

The modern literature of Norway bears something of the same 
relation to that of Denmark that American literature bears 
to English. In each case the development and separation of 
a dependency have produced a desire on the part of persons 
speaking the mother-tongue for a literature that shall express 
the local emotions and conditions of the new nation. Two notable 
events led to the foundation of a separate Norwegian literature: 
the one was the creation of the university of Christiania in 1811, 
and the other was the separation of Norway from Denmark 
in 1814. Before this time Norwegian writers had been content, as 
a rule, to publish their works at Copenhagen. The first name 
on the annals of Danish literature, Peder Clausen, is that of a 
Norwegian; and if all Norse writers were removed from that 
roll, the list would be poorer by some of its most illustrious names, 
by Holberg, Tullin, Weasel, Treschow, Steffens and Hauch. 

The first book printed in Norway was an almanac, brought 
out in Christiania in 1643 by a wandering printer named Tyge 
Nielsen, who brought his types from Copenhagen. But the first 
press set up definitely in Norway was that of Valentin Kuhn. 
brought over from Germany in 1650 by the theologian Christian 
Stephensen Bang (1580-1678) to help in the circulation of his 
numerous tracts. Bang's Christianiae Stads Beskrifuelse (1651), 
is the first book published in Norway. Christen Jensen (d. 1653) 



8i6 



NORWAY 



was a priest who collected a small glossary or glosebog of the local 
dialects, published in 1656. Gerhard Milzow (1620-1688), the 
author of a Presbyterologia Nonvegica (1679), was also a Norse 
priest. The earliest Norwegian writer of any original merit was 
Dorthe Engelbrechtsdatter (1634-1716), afterwards the wife of 
the pastor Ambrosius Hardenbech. She is the author of several 
volumes of religious poetry which have enjoyed great popularity. 
The hymn-writer Johan Brunsmann (1637-1707), though a 
Norseman by birth, belongs by education and temper entirely 
to Denmark. Not so Fetter Dass (1647-1708) (q.v.), the most 
original writer whom Norway produced and retained at home 
during the period of annexation. Another priest, Jonas Ramus 
(1640-1718), wrote Norriges Kongers Historic (History of the 
Norse Kings) in 1719, and Norriges Beskrivelse (1735). The 
celebrated missionary to Greenland, Hans Egede (1686-1758), 
wrote several works on his experiences in that country. Peder 
Hersleb (1680-1757) was the compiler of some popular treatises 
of Lutheran theology. Frederik Nannestad, bishop of Trondh- 
jem (1693-1774), started a weekly gazette in 1760. The 
missionary Knud Leem (1697-1774) published a number of 
works on the Lapps of Finmark, 'one at least of which, his 
Beskrivelse over Finmarkens Lapper (1767), still possesses con- 
siderable interest. The famous Erik Pontoppidan (1698-1764) 
cannot be regarded as a Norwegian, for he did not leave Denmark 
until he was made bishop of Bergen, at the age of forty-nine. On 
the other hand the far more famous Baron Ludvig Holberg 
(1684-1754), belongs to Denmark by everything but birth, 
having left Norway in childhood. 

A few Norsemen of the beginning of the i8th century dis- 
tinguished themselves chiefly in science. Of these Johan Ernst 
Gunnerus (1718-1773), bishop of Trondhjem, was the first man 
who gave close attention to the Norwegian flora. He founded 
the Norwegian Royal Society of Sciences in 1760, with Gerhard 
Schoning (1722-1780) the historian and Hans Strom (1726-1797) 
the zoologist. Peder Christofer Stenersen (1723-1776), a writer 
of occasional verses, merely led the way for Christian Braumann 
Tullin (1728-1765), a lyrical poet of exquisite genius, who is 
claimed by Denmark but who must be mentioned here, because 
his poetry was not only mainly composed in Christiania, but 
breathes a local spirit. Danish literature between the great 
names of Evald and Baggesen presents us with hardly a single 
figure which is not that of a Norseman. The director of the 
Danish national theatre in 1771 was a Norwegian, Niels Krog 
Bredal (1733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical dramas 
in Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), 
was the principal tragedian of the time, yi the French taste. 
It was a Norwegian, J. H. Wessel (1742-1785), who laughed this 
taste out of fashion. In 1772 the Norwegian poets were so 
strong in Copenhagen that they formed a Norske Selskab (Nor- 
wegian Society), which exercised a tyranny over contemporary 
letters which was only shaken when Baggesen appeared. Among 
the leading writers of this period are Claus Frimann (1746-1829), 
Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839), Claus Fasting (1746-1791), 
Johan Wibe (1748-1782), Edvard Storm (1749-1794), C. H. Pram 
(1756-1821), Jonas Rein (1760-1821), Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), 
and Lyder Christian Sagen (1771-1850), all of whom, though 
Norwegians by birth, find their place in the annals of Danish 
literature. To these poets must be added the philosophers Niels 
Treschow (1751-1833) and Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), and in 
later times the poet Johannes Carsten Hauch (1790-1872). 

The first form which Norwegian literature took as an inde- 
pendent thing was what was called " Syttendemai-Poesi," or 
The poetry of the i7th of May, that being the day on which 

"Trefoil." -Norway obtained her independence and proclaimed 
her king. Three poets, called the " Trefoil," came 
forward as the inaugurators of Norwegian thought in 1814. 
Of these Conrad Nicolai Schwach (1793-1860) was the least 
remarkable. Henrik Anker Bjerregaard (1792-1842), born in 
the same hamlet of Ringsaker as Schwach, had a much brighter 
and more varied talent. His Miscellaneous Poems, collected at 
Christiania in 1829, contain some charming studies from nature, 
and admirable patriotic songs. He brought out a tragedy of 



Magnus Barfods Sonner (Magnus Barefoot's Sons) and a lyrical 
drama, Fjeldeventyrel (The Adventure in the Mountains) (1828). 
He became judge of the supreme court of the diocese of Chris- 
tiania. The third member of the Trefoil, Mauritz Kristoffer 
Hansen (1794-1842), was a schoolmaster. His novels, of which 
Ottar de Bretagne (1819) was the earliest, were much esteemed in 
their day, and after his death were collected and edited (8 vols., 
1855-1858), with a memoir by Schwach. Hansen's Poems, 
printed at Christiania in 1816, were among the earliest publi- 
cations of a liberated Norway, but were preceded by a volume 
of Smaadigte (Short Poems) by all three poets, edited by Schwach 
in 1815, as a semi-political manifesto. These writers, of no great 
genius in themselves, did much by their industry and patriotism 
to form a basis for Norwegian literature. 

The creator of Norwegian literature, however, was the poet 
Henrik Arnold Wergeland (1808-1845) (9- v -)t a man of great 
genius and enthusiasm, who contrived within the limits 
of a life as short as Byron's to concentrate the labours 
of a dozen ordinary men of letters. He held views in 
most respects similar to those pronounced by Rousseau 
and Shelley. His obscurity and extravagance stood in the way 
of his teaching, and his only disciples in poetry were Sylvester 
Sivertson (1809-1847), a journalist of talent whose verses were 
collected in 1848, and Christian Monsen (1815-1852). 

A far more wholesome and constructive influence was that of 
Johann Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven (1807-1873) (g.v.), 
who was first brought to the surface by the conservative reaction 
in 1830 against the extravagance of the radical party. A savage 
attack on Henrik Wergeland' s Poetry, published in 1832, caused 
a great sensation, and produced an angry pamphlet in reply 
from the father, Nikolai Wergeland. The controversy became 
the main topic of the day, and in 1834 Welhaven pushed it into 
a wider arena by the publication of his beautiful cycle of satirical 
sonnets called Norges Damring (The Dawn of Norway), in which 
he preached a full conservative gospel. He was assisted in his 
controversy with Wergeland by Henrik Hermann Foss (1790- 
1853), author of Tidsnornerne (The Norns of the Age) (1835) 
and other verses. 

Andreas Munch (1811-1884) took no part in the feud between 
Wergeland and Welhaven, but addicted himself to the study of 
Danish models independently of either. He published a 
series of poems and dramas, one of which latter, Kong 
Sverres Ungdom (1837), attracted some notice. His popularity com- 
menced with the appearance of his Poems Old and New in 1848. 
His highest level as a poet was reached by his epic called Konge- 
datterens Brudefart (The Bridal Journey of the King's Daughter) 
( 1 86 1 ) . Two of his historical dramas have enjoyed a popularity greatly 
in excess of their merit; these are Solomon de Caus (1854) and Lord 
William Russell (1857). 

A group of minor poetical writers may now be considered. Magnus 
Brostrup Landstad (1802-1880) was born on Maaso, an island in the 
vicinity of the North Cape, and, therefore, in higher lati- Minor 
tudes than any other man of letters. He was a hymn- writer poets. 
of merit, and he was the first to collect, in 1853, the Norske 
Folkeviser or Norwegian folk-songs. Landstad was ordered by the 
government to prepare an official national hymn-book, which was 
brought out in 1861. Peter Andreas Jensen (1812-1867) published 
volumes of lyrical poetry in 1838, 1849, 1855 and 1861, and two 
dramas. He was also the author of a novel, En Erindring (A 
Souvenir), in 1857. Aasmund Olafsen Vinje (1818-1870) was a 
peasant of remarkable talent, who was the principal leader of the 
movement known as the " maalstraev," an effort to distinguish 
Norwegian from Danish literature by the adoption of a peasant 
dialect, or rather a new language arbitrarily formed on a collation 
of the various dialects. Vinje wrote a volume of lyrics, which he 
published in 1864, and a narrative poem, Storegut (Big Lad) (1866), 
entirely in this fictitious language, and he even went so far as to 
issue in it a newspaper, Dolen (The Dalesman), which appeared from 
1858 to Vinje's death in 1870. In these efforts he was supported by 
Ivar Aasen and by Kristoffer Janson (b. 1841) the philologist, 
the author of an historical tragedy, Jon Arason (1867); several 
novels: Fraa Bygdom (1865); 'Torgrim (1872); Fra Dansketidi 
(1875); Han og Ho (1878); and Austanfyre Sol og Vestanfyre 
Maane (East of the Sun and West of the Moon) (1879); besides a 
powerful but morbid drama in the ordinary language of Norway, 
En Kvindeskjebne (A Woman's Fate) (1879). In 1882 he left Norway 
for America as a Unitarian minister, and from this exile he sent home 
in 1885 what is perhaps the best of his books, The Sa%a of the Prairie. 
Superior to all the preceding in the quality of his lyrical writing was 
the bishop of Christiansand, Jorgen Moe (1813-1882). He is. 



NORWAY 



817 



however, better known by his labours in comparative mythology, in 
conjunction with P. C. Asbjornsen (see ASBJORNSEN AND MOE). 

The names of the Norwegians Ibsen (q.v.) and Bjornson (q.v.), in 
the two fields of the drama and the novel, stand out prominently in 
modern tne E u . r pean literature of the later igth century; and 
novelists two wr " ters f novels who owe much to their example are 

d ~ Jonas Lie (q.v.), and Alexander Kielland (1849-1906). 
. Nicolai Ramm Ostgaard (1812-1872) to some extent pre- 

ceded Bjornson in his graceful romance En Fjeldbygd (A 
Mountain Parish), in 1852. Frithjof Foss (l83O-i899),who 
wrote under the pseudonym of Israel Dehn, attracted notice by seven 
separate stories published between 1862 and 1864. Jacobine Camilla 
Collett (1813-1895), sister of the poet Wergeland, wrote Amtmandens 



i pioneer 

pation of women in Norway. Anne Magdalene Thoresen (1810- 
1903), a Dane by birth, wrote a series of novels of peasant life in the 
manner of Bjornson, of whom she was no unworthy pupil. One of 
her best novels is Signes Historic (1864). She also wrote some lyrical 
poetry and successful dramas. The principal historian of Norway is 

Peter Andreas Munch (1810-1863), whose multifarious 
r ' writings include a grammar of Old Norse (1847); a col- 

'ection of Norwegian laws until the year 1387 (1846-1849) ; 
a study of Runic inscriptions (1848); a history and description 
of Norway during the middle ages (1849); and a history of the 
Norwegian people in 8 vols. (1852-1863); Jakob Aall (1773-1844) 
was associated with Munch in this work. Christian Berg (1775 
1852) was another worker in the same field. Jakob Rudolf Keyser 
(1803-1864) printed and annotated the most important documents 
dealing with the medieval history of Norway. Carl Richard Unger 
(b. 1817) took part in the same work and edited Morkinskinna in 
1867. His edition of the elder Edda (1867) forms a landmark in the 
study of Scandinavian antiquities. Oluf Rygh (1833-1899) contri- 
buted to the archaeological part of history. The modern language of 
Norway found an admirable grammarian in Jakob Olaus Lokke 
(1829-1881). A careful historian and ethnographer was Ludvig 
Kristensen Daa (1809-1877). Ludvig Daae (b. 1834) has written 
the history of Christiania, and has traced the chronicles of Norway 
during the Danish possession. Bernt Moe (1814-1850) was a careful 
biographer of the heroes of Eidsvold. Eilert Lund Sundt (1817- 
1875) published some very curious and valuable works on the 
condition of the poorer classes in Norway. Professor J. A. Friis 
(b. 1821) published the folk-lore of the Lapps in a series of valuable 
volumes. The German orientalist, Christian Lassen (1800-1876) 
was a Norwegian by birth. Lorentz Dietrichson (b. 1834) wrote 
voluminously both on Swedish and Norwegian, chiefly on Norwegian 
art and literature. In jurisprudence the principal Norwegian 
authorities are Anton Martin Schweigaard (1808-1870) and Frederik 
Stang (1808-1884) Peter Carl Lasson (1798-1873) and Ulrik Anton 
Motzfelt (1807-1865) were the lights of an earlier generation. In 
medical science, the great writer of the beginning of the igth century 
was Michael Skjelderup (1769-1852), who was succeeded by Frederik 
Hoist (1791-1871). Daniel Cornelius Danielsen (b. 1815) was a 
prominent dermatologist; but probably the most eminent of 
modern physiologists in Norway is Carl Wilhelm Boeck (1808-1875). 
The elder brother of the last-mentioned, Christian Peter Bianco 
Boeck (1798-1877), also demands recognition as a medical writer. 
Christopher Hansteen (1784-1873) was professor of mathematics at 
the university for nearly sixty years. Michael Sars (1805-1869) 
obtained a European reputation through his investigations in 
invertebrate zoology. He was assisted by his son Georg Ossian Sars 
(b. 1837). Baltazar Matthias Keilhau (1797-1858) and Theodor 
Kjerulf (1825-1888) have been the leading Norwegian geologists. 
Mathias Numsen Blytt (1789-1862) represents botany. His Norges 
Flora, part of which was published in 1861, was left incomplete at 
his death. Niels Henrik Abel (1802-1829) (q.v.) was a mathe- 
matician of extraordinary promise; Ole Jakob Broch (1818-1889) 
must be mentioned in the same connexion. Among theological 
writers may be mentioned Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824), author 
of the sect which bears his name; Svend Borchman Hersleb (1784- 
1836); Stener Johannes Stenersen (1789-1835); Wilhelm Andreas 
Wexels (1797-1866); a writer of extraordinary popularity; and 
Carl Paul Caspar! (1814-1892), a German of Jewish birth, who 
adopted Christianity and became professor of theology in the 
university of Christiania. 

The political crisis of 1884-1885, which produced so remarkable 
an effect upon the material and social life of Norway, was not 
without its influence upon literature. There had 
nf f H we d to the great generation of the 'sixties, led by 
' Ibsen and Bjornson, a race of entirely prosaic writers, 
of no great talent, much exercised with " problems." The 
movement which began in 1885 brought back the fine masters 
of a previous imaginative age, silenced the problem-setters, and 
encouraged a whole generation of new men, realists of a healthier 
sort. In 1885 the field was still held by the three main names of 



modern Norse literature Ibsen, Bjornson and Lie. Henrik 
Ibsen proceeded deliberately with his labours, and his name at the 
same time grew in reputation and influence. The advance of 
Bjornstjerne Bjornson was not so regular, because it was dis- 
turbed by political issues. Moreover, his early peasant tales 
once more, after having suffered great neglect, grew to be a force, 
and Bjornson's example has done much to revive an interest 
in the art of verse in Norway. Jonas Lie, the most popular 
novelist of Norway, continued to publish his pure, fresh and 
eminently characteristic stories. His style, colloquial almost to 
a fault, has neither the charm of Bjornson nor the art of some 
of the latest generation. Ibsen, Bjornson and Lie continued, 
however, to be the three representative authors of their country. 
Kristian Elster (1841-1881) showed great talent in his pessimistic 
novels Tora Trondal (1879) and Dangerous People (1881). 
Kristian Gloersen (b. 1838) had many affinities with Elster. 
Arne Garborg (1851) was brought up under sternly pietistic 
influences in a remote country parish, the child of peasant 
parents, in the south-west corner of Norway, and the gloom 
of these early surroundings has tinged all his writings. The 
early novels of Garborg were written in the peasant dialect, 
and for that reason, perhaps, attracted little attention. It was 
not until 1890 that he addressed the public in ordinary language, 
in his extraordinary novel, Tired Men, which produced a deep 
sensation. Subsequently Garborg returned, with violence, to 
the cultivation of the peasant language, and took a foremost 
part in the maalstreev. A novelist of considerable crude force 
was Amalie Skram (1847-1905), wife of the Danish novelist, 
Erik Skram. Her novels are destitute of literary beauty, but 
excellent in their local colour, dealing with life in Bergen and the 
west coast. But the most extravagant product of the prosaic 
period was Hans Jaeger (b. 1854), a sailor by profession, who 
left the sea, obtained some instruction and embarked on literature. 
Jasger accepted the naturalistic formulas wholesale, and outdid 
Zola himself in the harshness of. his pictures of life. Several of 
Jzger's books, and in particular his novel Morbid Love (1893), 
were immediately suppressed, and can with great difficulty be 
referred to. Knud Hamsun (b. 1860) has been noted for his 
egotism, and for the bitterness of his attacks upon his fellow- 
writers and the great names of literature. Hamsun is seen at 
his best in the powerful romance called Hunger (1888). A writer 
of a much more pleasing, and in its quiet way of a much more 
original order, is Hans Aanrud (b. 1863). His humour, applied 
to the observation of the Ostland peasants Aanrud himself 
comes from the Gulbrandsdal is exquisite; he is by far the 
most amusing of recent Norwegian writers, a race whose fault it 
is to take life too seriously. His story, How Our Lord made Hay 
at Asmund Bergemellum's (1887), is a little masterpiece. Peter 
Egge (b. 1869) , a young novelist and playwright from Trondhjem, 
came to the front with careful studies of types of Norwegian 
temperament. In his Jacob and Christopher (1900) Egge also 
proved himself a successful writer of comedy. Gunnar Heiberg 
(b. 1857), although older than most of the young generation, 
has but lately come into prominence. His poetical drama, The 
Balcony, made a sensation in 1894, but ten years earlier his 
comedy of Aunt Ulrica should have awakened anticipation. 
His strongest work is Love's Tragedy (1904). Two young writers 
of great promise were, removed in the very heyday of success, 
Gabriel Finne (1866-1899) and Sigbjorn Obstfelder (1866-1900). 
The last mentioned, in The Red Drops and The Cross, published 
in 1897, gave promise of something new in Norwegian literature. 
Obstfelder, who died in a hospital in Copenhagen inAugust 1900, 
left an important book in MS., A Priest's Diary (1901). 

Verse was banished from Norwegian literature, during the 
years that immediately preceded 1885. The credit of restoring 
it belongs to Sigurd Bodtker, who wrote an extremely naturalistic 
piece called Love, in the manner of Heine. The earliest real 
poet of the new generation is, however, Niels Collett Vogt (b. 
1864), who published a little volume of Poems in 1887. Arne 
Dybfest (1868-1892), a young anarchist who committed suicide, 
was a decadent egotist of the most pronounced type, but a 
poet of unquestionable talent, and the writer of a remarkably 



8i8 



NORWEGIAN SEA NORWICH, EARL OF 



melodious prose. In 1891 was printed in a magazine Vilhelm 
Krag's (b. 1871) very remarkable poem called Fandango, and 
shortly afterwards a collection of his lyrics. Vogt and V. Krag 
continued to be the leading lyrical writers of the period, and 
although they have many imitators, they cannot be said to have 
found any rivals. Vilhelm Krag turned to prose fiction, and 
his novels Isaac Seehuusen (1900) and Isaac Kapcrgast (1901) 
are excellent studies of Westland life. More distinguished as 
a novelist, however, is his brother, Thomas P. Krag (b. 1868), 
who published a series of romantic novels, of which Ada Wilde 
(1897) is the most powerful. His short stories are full of delicate 
charm. Hans E. Kinck (b. 1865) is an accomplished writer of 
short stories from peasant life, written in dialect. Bernt Lie 
(b. 1868) is the author of popular works of fiction, mainly for 
the young. Sven Nilssen (b. 1864) is the author of a very success- 
ful novel, The Barque Franciska (1901). With him may be 
mentioned the popular dramatist and memoir-writer, John 
Paulsen (b. 1851), author of The Widow's Son. Johan Bojer 
(b. 1872) has written satirical romances, of which the most 
powerful is The Power of Faith (1903). Jakob Hilditch (b. 
1864) has written many stories and sketches of a purely national 
kind, and is the anonymous author of a most diverting parody 
of banal provincial journalism, Tranviksposten (1900-1901). 

The leading critics are Carl Naerup (b. 1864) and Hjalmar 
Christensen (b. 1869), each of whom has published collections 
of essays dealing with the aspects of recent Norwegian literature. 
The death of the leading bibliographer and lexicographer of 
Norway, Jens Braage Halvorsen (1845-1900), inflicted a blow 
upon the literary history of his country; his Dictionary of 
Norwegian Authors (1885-1900) left for completion by Half dan 
Koht is one of the most elaborate works of its kind ever 
undertaken. Among recent historians of Norway much activity 
has been shown by Ernst Sars (b. 1835) and Yngvar Nielsen 
(b. 1843). The great historian of northern jurisprudence was 
L. M. B. Aubert (1838-1896), and in this connexion T. H. 
Aschehoug (b. 1822) must also be mentioned. The leading 
philosopher of Norway in those years was the Hegelian Marcus 
Jakob Monrad (b. 1816), whose Aesthetics of 1889 is his master- 
piece. 

The close of 1899 and the beginning of 1900 were occupied 
by a discussion, in which every Norwegian author took part, 
The as to the adoption of the landsmaal, or composite 

"maal" dialect of the peasants, in place of the rigsmaol or 
m " m Dano-Norwegian. Political prejudice greatly em- 

eny ' bittered the controversy, but the proposition that the 
landsmaal, which dates from the exertions of Ivar Aasen (q.v.) 
in 1850, should oust the language in which all the classics of 
Norway are written, was opposed by almost every philologist 
and writer in the country, particularly by Bjornson and Sophus 
Bugge (b. 1833). On the other side, Arne Garborg's was almost 
the only name which carried any literary weight. The maal 
has no doubt enriched the literary tongue of the country with 
many valuable words and turns of expression, but there the 
advantage of it ends, and it is difficult to feel the slightest 
sympathy with a movement in favour of suppressing the language 
in which every one has hitherto expressed himself, in order to 
adopt an artificial dialect which exists mainly on paper, and 
which is not the natural speech of any one body of persons 
throughout the whole of Norway. 

AUTHORITIES. La Norvlge litteraire, by Paul Botten-Hansen 
(1824-1869), is an admirable piece of bibliography, but comes down 
no farther than 1866. Jens Braage Halvorsen (1845-1900) left 
his admirable and exhaustive Norsk Forfalter-Lexikon, 1814-1880 
(Norwegian Dictionary of Authors) incomplete; but the work was 
continued by Halfdan Koht. See also Henrik Jaeger. Illustreret 
norsk literaturhistorie (Christiania, 1892-1896) ; to which an appendix 
Siste Tidsrum 1890-1904 was added by Carl Naerup in 1905; Ph. 
Schweitzer, Geschichte der skandinavischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1889); 
F. W. Horn, History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North (Eng. 
trans., Chicago, 1884); Edmund Gosse, Northern Studies (2nd ed., 
1882). (E. G.) 

NORWEGIAN SEA, the sea enclosed between Norway, the 
Shetland and Faeroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Spitsbergen 
and Bear Island. Its basin is bounded on the E. by the Spits- 



bergen platform, the continental shelf of the Barents Sea and 
the Norwegian coast: on the S. and S.W. by the North Sea, 
the Wyville-Thomson ridge, the Faeroe-Iceland ridge and the 
Iceland-Greenland ridge; on the W. by the coast of Greenland 
and on the N., so far as is known, by a ridge extending from 
Greenland to Spitsbergen. The Norwegian Sea is thus placed 
between the basins of the Atlantic on the one side and of the 
Arctic Ocean on the other: the mean depth of the submarine 
ridge separating it from the former being about 300 fathoms, 
and from the latter probably about 400 fathoms. The basin 
itself consists of a series of deeps, separated from one another 
by transverse ridges. Nansen and Helland-Hansen give the 
following results of measurements of the area: 



2-58 million sq. km. 

1-79 

1-65 
1-05 
0-30 ,, 
4-12 million cubic km. 
1600 metres. 



Area of surface . . 
Water area at 600 metres 

1000 
2000 
3000 
Volume .... 
Mean depth . . . 

The Norwegian Sea forms the meeting-place of waters coming 
from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans, and it also receives coastal 
waters from the North Sea and connecting areas, and from the 
Barents Sea. As communication with other basins is cut off 
comparatively near the surface, the inflow and outflow of waters 
must take place entirely in the upper strata, and the isolated 
water in the deep basin has typical physical characters of its 
own. 

The distribution and circulation of these waters are of great com- 
plexity, and have formed the subject of study by oceanographers 
since the region was Prst opened up by the Norwegian North Atlantic 
Expedition, 1876-1878. Much fresh light has been thrown on the 
subject by the work of the International Council for the study of the 
sea, and more particularly by the Norwegian investigators Nansen 
and Helland-Hansen, whose report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine 
Investigations (vol. ii. No. 2, 1909) contains a complete survey of 
present knowledge. (H. N. D.) 

NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, EARL OF (i583?-i663), 
English soldier, was the son of George Goring of Hurstpierpoint 
and Ovingdean, Sussex, and of Anne Denny, sister of Edward 
Denny, earl of Norwich. He was knighted in 1608, and became 
a favourite at court, benefiting largely from monopolies granted 
by Charles I. He became Baron Goring in 1628, and privy 
councillor in 1639. When the troubles between Charles and his 
parliament became acute Goring devoted his fortune freely 
to the royal cause; and the king in November 1644 renewed 
for him the title of earl of Norwich which had become extinct 
at his uncle's death. He went with the queen to Holland in 
1642 to raise money for the king, and in the autumn of the next 
year he was seeking arms and money from Mazarin in Paris. 
His proceedings were revealed to the parliament in January 
1644 by an intercepted letter to Henrietta Maria. He was 
consequently impeached of high treason, and prudently remained 
abroad until 1647 when he received a pass from the parliament 
under a pretext of seeking reconciliation. Thus he was able to 
take a prominent part in the Second Civil War of 1648 (see 
GREAT REBELLION). He commanded the Kentish levies, which 
Fairfax dispersed at Maidstone and elsewhere, and was forced 
to surrender unconditionally at Colchester. He was condemned 
to exile in November 1648 by a vote of the House of Commons, 
but in the next month the vote was annulled. Early in the next 
year a court was formed under Bradshaw to try Norwich and 
four others. All five were condemned to death on the 6th of 
March, but petitions for mercy were presented to parliament, 
and Norwich's life was spared by the Speaker's casting vote. 
Shortly after his liberation from prison in May he joined the 
exiled court of Charles II., by whom he was employed in fruitless 
negotiations with the duke of Lorraine. He became captain 
of the king's guard at the Restoration, and in consideration of 
the fortune he had expended in the king's service a pension of 
2000 a year was granted him. He died at Brentford on the 
6th of January 1663. By his wife Mary Nevill (d. 1648), daughter 
of the 6th Lord Abergavenny, he had four daughters and two 
sons: George, Lord Goring (q.v.); and Charles, who fought 



NORWICH 



819 



in the Civil War, succeeded his father in the earldom, and 
died without heirs in March 1671. 

NORWICH, a city and one of the county-seats of New London 
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Norwich, at the 
point where the Yantic (which expands here in " The Cove ") 
and Shetucket rivers join and form the Thames. Pop. (1900) 
of the township, 24,637, which included that of the city (17,251, 
including 4597 foreign-born) ; (1910) of the city, 20,367, and of the 
township, 28,219. Thecity area in 1906 was 5-63 sq. m. Norwich 
is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford and the 
Central Vermont railways, by steamers from New York and 
New London, and by interurban electric lines connecting with 
Willimantic, New London and other neighbouring places. The 
city is at the head of navigation on the Thames river, whose 
channel is 100-200 ft. wide and 14 ft. deep. The residential 
and older portion of the city is built on the rising ground between 
the valleys of the two streams; along their banks lies the 
business district. In Sachem Street is the grave of Uncas 
(d. c. 1682), a Mohegan Indian chief and friend of the early 
settlers; the corner-stone of the granite monument over the 
grave was laid by President Andrew Jackson in 1833. North-east 
of the Roman Catholic Cemetery, in the extreme eastern part of the 
city, is a monument to Miantonomo, a sachem of the Narragan- 
set tribe of Indians, who was put to death here. Among the 
principal buildings and institutions are the Congregational 
Church, organized in 1660; the Norwich Free Academy (1856) 
and its Slater Memorial Hall, in which are the Peck Library 
and an Art Museum, and the Converse Art Annex and Art 
Collection; the Otis Public Library (1848); the William W. 
Backus Hospital; a state hospital for the insane and a state 
armoury. In the i8th century, and early in the igth, Norwich 
had a lucrative trade with the Atlantic ports and the West 
Indies, but later manufacturing became the most important 
industry; the manufactures including textiles, cutlery, fire- 
arms, paper, electrical supplies, printing presses, &c. In 
1905 the factory products were valued at $6,022,391. With 
the city's growth in manufacturing there has been a large 
increase in the foreign element in the population. The muni- 
cipality owns and operates the waterworks, and gas and electric- 
lighting plants. 

Norwich was settled in 1659 by colonists from Saybrook 
under the leadership of Captain John Mason (1600-1672), who 
had crushed the power of the Pequot Indians in Connecticut 
in 1637, and the Rev. James Fitch (1622-1702), who became 
a missionary to the Mohegans. 1 The tract was purchased from 
the Mohegan chiefs, Uncas, Owaneco and Attawanhood, and 
the settlement was called Mohegan until 1662, when the present 
name was adopted. During and preceding the War of Independ- 
ence the citizens of Norwich were ardent Whigs, various members 
of the well-known Huntington family being among their leaders. 2 
In December 1767, in reply to a message from Boston, a town- 
meeting forbade the use of tea, wines, liquors and foreign 
manufactures; in 1770 all citizens were forbidden to hold 

1 The principal village of the Mohegans was originally, it seems, 
on the site of Norwich. Subsequently the village of Mohegan (on 
the W. bank of the Thames, about 3 m. S. of Norwich) became their 
principal settlement, and the remnant, numbering about 100 indi- 
viduals of mixed blood in 1904, still live here and m the vicinity. 

1 Norwich was the birthplace of Benjamin Huntington (1736- 
1800), a member of the Continental Congress in 1780-1784 and 1787- 
1788, a representative in Congress in 1789-1791, iudge of the state 
superior court in 1793-1798, and first mayor of Norwich m 1784- 
1796; of Jabez Huntington (1719-1766), a patriot leader and major- 
general of Connecticut militia during the War of Independence; of 
his son, Jedediah Huntington (1743-1818), also a patriot leader, a 
brigadier-general in the Continental Army (1777-1783), and a founder 
of the Society of the Cincinnati; of Jedediah's brother, Ebenezer 
Huntington (1754-1834), a soldier and in 1810-1811 and 1817- 
1819 a representative in Congress; and of Jedediah's nephew,_Jabez 
Williams Huntington (1788-1847), a jurist, a representative in 
Congress in 1829-1834, and a member of the U.S. Senate in 1840- 
1847. Samuel Huntington (1731-1796) removed to Norwich about 
1758, was a member of the Continental Congress in 1776-1783 and its 
president in 1779-1781, was a signer of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, a justice of the supreme court of Connecticut in 1774-1784, 
and governor of Connecticut in 1786-1796. 



intercourse with a schoolmaster who had continued to drink 
tea, and in 1776 a town-meeting directed the town clerk to 
proceed with his duties without reference to the Stamp Act. 
Norwich was chartered as a city in 1784. Among the early 
settlers in Ohio many were inhabitants of Norwich. Benedict 
Arnold was a native of Norwich; Mrs Lydia H. Sigourney 
was born here in a house still standing; Donald G. Mitchell 
(" Ik Marvel ") was also born here; and Norwich was the 
home after 1825 of William Alfred Buckingham (1804-1875), 
war governor of Connecticut. 

See F. M. Caulkins, History of Norwich (Hartford, 1866). 

NORWICH, a city and county of a city, municipal, county 
and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Norfolk, 
England; 114 m. N.E. by N. from London. Pop. (1901), 
111,733. It is served by the Great Eastern railway and also 
by the Midland and Great Northern joint line. The Great 
Eastern company owns the Thorpe and Victoria stations, and 
the joint line the City station. The city lies in the valley of the 
Wensum, which joins the Yare immediately below. The ancient 
city lay in a deep bend of the Wensum, and the walls (1294- 
1342), with their many towers and twelve gatehouses, of which 
fragments only remain, were 4 m. in circuit. These narrow 
limits, however, were long ago outgrown, for Evelyn writes in 
1671 that " the suburbs are large, the prospects sweete, with 
other amenities, not omitting the flower gardens, in which all 
the inhabitants excel." The castle, standing high upon a stsep 
mound, is still partly surrounded by earthworks and a ditch 
spanned by a very early bridge. Only the early Norman square 
keep remains, with four tiers of arcading without, and an ornate 
doorway into the great tower. The building long served as a 
prison, but, on the erection of a new gaol without the city, was 
acquired in 1884 by the corporation and in 1894 adapted as a 
museum and art gallery. 

The cathedral church of the Holy Trinity lies between the 
castle and the river, on low ground. In 1094 the seat of the East 
Anglian bishopric was removed by Bishop Herbert de Lozinga 
or Lorraine from Thetford to Norwich, where in 1096 he laid 
the foundation of the cathedral and dedicated it in 1101, 
establishing at the same time a Benedictine monastery. As 
completed by his successor before the middle of the 1 2th century 
the cathedral in style was purely Norman; and it still retains 
its original Norman plan to a great degree. Changes and 
additions, however, were made from time to time the Early 
English lady chapel (demolished about 1580) belonging to the 
middle of the I3th century; the Perpendicular spire, erected 
after the collapse of two previous spires of wood, to the isth; 
the west window and porch and the lierne stone vaulting of the 
nave, with its elaborate 328 bosses, to the isth, and to the i6th 
the vaulting of the transepts and Bishop Nix's chantry, whilst 
the fine cloisters, 175 ft. square, 12 ft. wide, with 45 windows, 
in style mainly Decorated, were begun in 1297 and not com- 
pleted till 1430. The following are the dimensions in feet of 
the cathedral: total length, 407; length of nave, 204; length 
of transepts, 178; breadth of nave and aisles, 72; total height 
of spire, 315 (in England exceeded by Salisbury only); height 
of tower, 140^; height of nave, 69!; height of choir, 83!. The 
chief entrance on the west is a Perpendicular archway, above 
which is an immense window filled with poor modern stained 
glass. The nave within is grand and imposing, of great length, 
divided by fourteen semicircular arches, whose massive piers 
are in two instances ornamented with spiral mouldings. The 
triforium is composed of similar arches. The side aisles are low, 
their vaultings plain. The choir, extending westward some way 
beyond the crossing, is of unusual length, and terminates in an 
apse. The oak stalls and misereres are very richly carved 
work of the isth century. A curious quatrefoil, opening on the 
north side of the presbytery, beneath the confessio or relic 
chapel, deserves mention. There is a monumental effigy of 
Bishop Goldwell (c. 1499), and another of Bishop Bathurst 
(1837) by Sir F. Chantrey. Mural monuments are plentiful. 
Sir William Boleyn, great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth, is 
buried on the south side of the presbytery, in the midst of which 



820 



NORWICH NORWOOD 



stood the tomb of Bishop Herbert, the founder. Of three 
circular apsidal chapels two remain; and in one the Jesus 
chapel the ancient colouring has been renewed. Two richly 
sculptured gateways lead to the cathedral the Erpingham 
gate (1420) and the Ethelbert gateway (c. 1300). The bishop's 
palace and the deanery are buildings of high antiquity, but both 
have undergone many alterations. The latter has a well-restored 
chapel. A beautiful Early Decorated ruin in the palace garden, 
known as " Bishop Salmon's gateway," is supposed to have been 
the porch to the great hall (c. 1319). The diocese covers nearly 
all Norfolk, the greater part of Suffolk, and a small part of 
Cambridgeshire. 

Of the remarkable number of churches, over forty in all, 
St Peter Mancroft is by many esteemed the finest parish church 
in England. Measuring 212 by 70 ft., it has a richly ornamented 
tower and fleche, 148 ft. high, with a beautiful peal of twelve 
bells, a long, light clerestory of thirty-four windows, a fine 
carved oak roof, a remarkable font cover, and the tomb of Sir 
Thomas Browne (d. 1682). The majority of the Norwich 
churches are of Perpendicular flint work, mostly of the 15th 
century. St Andrew, St Stephen, St Michael Coslany, with the 
fine Perpendicular Thorpe chapel, St John Maddermarket, 
St Lawrence, St Giles, with a tower 126 ft. high, St Gregory, 
St Helen, St Swithin, and St Michael at Plea (so called from the 
archdeacon's court held here) are also noticeable. The Roman 
Catholic church of St John the Baptist, begun in 1884 from 
designs by Sir G. G. Scott, occupies a commanding position outside 
St Giles's gate. At Carrow, E. of the city, there remain the hall, 
a decorated doorway, and other fragments of a Benedictine 
nunnery. 

The grammar school is a Decorated edifice, formerly a chapel 
of St John, of c. 1316, with a " carnary " or crypt below. Among 
its scholars were Sir Edward Coke, Lord Nelson, Raja Brooke 
and George Borrow, the traveller and author, in whose work 
Lavengro (chap, xiv.) occurs a noteworthy description of Norwich. 
St Andrew's Hall (124 by 64 ft.) is the seven-bayed nave of the 
Black Friars' church, rebuilt with the aid of the Erpinghams 
between 1440 and 1470. It is a splendid specimen of Perpen- 
dicular work, with its twenty-eight clerestory windows and 
chestnut hammer-beam roof, and has served since the Reforma- 
tion as a public hall, in which from 1824 have been held the 
triennial musical festivals. It was restored in 1863. The guild- 
hall, on the site of an earlier tolbooth, is a fine flint Perpendicular 
structure of 1408-1413; the mayor's council-chamber, with 
furniture of the time of Henry VIII., is an interesting specimen 
of a court of justice of that period. The city regalia, kept here, 
include several objects of historical interest, amongst them a 
sword of a Spanish admiral captured by Nelson, with his auto- 
graph letter presenting it to the city, and a curious figure formerly 
used in the procession of the mayor elect through the city. 
Other public buildings include a shire hall, within the castle 
precincts, corn exchange, agricultural hall, volunteer drill hall, 
barracks and gaol on Mousehold Heath, the Norfolk and Norwich 
Library, rebuilt in 1900 after a fire, and a theatre. Educational 
establishments, besides the grammar school, include the Norwich 
and Ely Diocesan Training College, and the Municipal Technical 
Institute. The museum in the castle contains collections of 
British birds, insects, fossils, antiquities, and MSS. and early 
books. The chief charitable institutions are the Norfolk and 
Norwich Hospital, lunatic asylum, blind asylum and schools, 
Jenny Lind Infirmary for children, a soldiers' and sailors' 
institute, St Giles's or old men's hospital (an ancient foundation), 
and Doughty's Hospital (1687). 

The principal industries include foundries and engineering 
works, iron and wire fence works, brewing, brick works, chemical 
works, tanneries, and the production of mustard, starch, and 
crSpe, gauze and lace; and there are large boot and shoe 
factories. The great cattle market lies below the castle. The 
municipal, county and parliamentary boroughs are coextensive. 
The parliamentary borough returns two members. The city 
is governed by a lord mayor (this title having been conferred 
in 1910), 16 aldermen and 48 councillors. Area, 7905 acres. 



History. There is no conclusive evidence that Norwich. 
(Northwic, Norwic) was an important settlement before the 
coming of the Angles. Caistor-by-Norwich, 4 m. S. of Norwich, 
is on the site of what was probably a Romano-British country 
town. A few Roman remains have been discovered in Norwich, 
itself, but not enough to indicate any real occupation or habita- 
tion. According to tradition Uffa made a fortification here 
about 570, but its history as a royal borough cannot be traced 
before the reign of i3Ethelstan (924-940), when it possessed a 
mint. After being destroyed by the Danes Norwich enjoyed 
a period of prosperity under Danish influence and was one of the 
largest boroughs in the kingdom at the Conquest. Ralph de 
Guader, earl of East Anglia under William I., formed the nucleus 
of a French borough with different customs from the English, 
and after his forfeiture, which involved the ruin of many of the 
old burgesses, a masonry castle was built and the centre of 
burghal life gradually transferred to the new community west 
of it. By 1158, when Henry II. granted the burgesses a charter 
confirming their previous liberties, the two boroughs seem to 
have amalgamated. A fuller charter given by Richard I. in 
1194 and confirmed by later sovereigns made Norwich a city 
enjoying the same liberties as London. From Henry IV. the 
citizens obtained a charter (1404), making their city a county 
with a mayor and two sheriffs instead of four bailiffs, and Henry 
V. added twenty-four aldermen and sixty common councilmen 
(1418). The cathedral precinct became parcel of the city at 
the Dissolution and in 1556 the neighbouring hamlets were 
incorporated in the county of Norwich. The charter of Charles II. 
(1683) remained in force till 1835, when one sheriff was removed 
and the number of aldermen, common councilmen and wards 
diminished. Since 1298 Norwich has been represented in parlia- 
ment by two members. Two annual fairs, existing before 1332, 
were formally granted to the city in 1482. One was then held 
in Lent, the other began on the feast of the Commemoration of 
St Paul (the 3Oth of June). These have been succeeded by the 
Maunday Thursday horse and cattle fair, and the pleasure 
fairs of Easter and Christmas. The market, which must have 
existed before the Conquest, was held daily in the I3th century, 
when citizens enclosed stalls by royal licence. Edward III. 
made Norwich a staple town, and the importance of its trade 
in wool and worsted dates from his reign. 

See Victoria County History, Norfolk; W. Hudson, Records of the 
City of Norwich (1906). 

NORWICH, a village and the county-seat of Chenango 
county, New York, U.S.A., on the Chenango river, 42 m. N.E. 
of Binghamton. Pop. (1910 census), 7422. It is served by 
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the New York, 
Ontario & Western railways. The village has three parks, two 
libraries the Guernsey Memorial Library and the D. L. Follett 
Memorial Law Library and the Chenango Valley Home for 
Aged Women. Norwich is in a dairying and farming region, 
where hops especially are grown; and there are bluestone 
quarries in the vicinity. There are a variety of manufactures, 
and the New York, Ontario & Western has repair shops and 
division headquarters here. The first settlement was made in 
1792, and the village was incorporated in 1857. 

NORWOOD, a southern district of London, England, partly 
in Surrey and partly in the county of London (metropolitan 
borough of Lambeth). The district is hilly and well wooded, 
hence the name. It is divided into Upper, Lower and South 
Norwood, all consisting principally of villa residences and detached 
houses inhabited by the better classes. Among numerous 
institutions are almshouses for the poor of St Saviour's, South- 
wark, opened at South Norwood in 1863, a Jewish convalescent 
home in 1869, and the Royal Normal College and Academy of 
Music for the Blind at Upper Norwood in 1872. At Gipsy Hill, 
Upper Norwood, lived Margaret Finch, queen of the Gipsies, 
who died in 1740 at the age of 109, and was buried in the church- 
yard at Beckenham. 

NORWOOD, a township in Norfolk county, Massachusetts, 
about 14 m. S.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 5840 (1497 foreign- 
born); (1910) 8014; area about 10 sq. m. Norwood is served 



NORWOOD NOSARI 



821 



by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The town- 
ship is traversed by the Neponset river. It has the Morrill 
Memorial Library (12,000 volumes in 1909). Norwood's manu- 
factories include printing-ink and glue factories, tanneries, an 
iron foundry, and the printing-presses and binderies of J. S. 
Gushing Co., H. M. Plimpton & Co., and the Norwood Press Co. 
Originally the South or Second Precinct of Dedham, Norwood 
was incorporated as a township (with the addition of a part of 
Walpole) under its present name in 1872. 

See D. Hamilton Hurd, History of Norfolk County, Massachusetts 
(Philadelphia, 1864). 

NORWOOD, a city of Hamilton county, Ohio, U.S.A., adjoining 
Cincinnati on the N. E. Pop. (1900), 6480 (718 f oreign-born) ; 
(1910) 16,185. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South Western 
and the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern railways, and by 
interurban electric railways. Norwood has various manufactures, 
but as one of the hill suburbs of Cincinnati it is primarily a place 
of residence. It has a Carnegie library (a branch of the public 
library of Cincinnati) and a Catholic maternity hospital. Norwood, 
originally called Sharpsburg, was settled about 1798, laid out 
as a town in 1873, incorporated as a village in 1888, and chartered 
as a city in 1903. 

NORZAGARAY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, on the Quingua river, about 25 m. N. by E. 
of Manila. Pop. (1903), 5131. The inhabitants are engaged 
chiefly in the cultivation of rice and Indian corn, and in lumber- 
ing; good timber grows on the neighbouring mountains, and 
some iron and gold have been found in this region. Near the 
town there is a sulphur spring. The language is Tagalog. 

NOSAIRIS (also known as Ansayrii, sometimes Ansariyeh), 
the people who inhabit the mountainous country of N. Syria, 
which is bounded on the S. by the north end of the Lebanon at 
the Nahr el-Keblr (Eleutherus), on the N. by Mt Casius, Antioch 
and the Nahr el-'Asi (Orontes). Various settlements of them 
are found also in Antioch itself and in Tarsus, Adana, and a few 
other places, while in harvest time they come down as far as the 
Biq'a (Buka'a). From the time of Strabo until about two 
centuries ago, the country was famed for its wine, but now more 
for its tobacco (especially at Latakia). The total number of 
Nosairis inhabiting this country is variously estimated at from 
120,000 to 150,000. 

The origin of the name Nosairi is uncertain. Among the more 
possible explanations is that the name is derived from that of 
Mahommed Ibn Nusair, who was an Isma'ilite follower of the 
eleventh imam of the Shiites at the end of the 9th century. 
This view has been accepted by Nosairi writers, but they transfer 
Ibn Nusair to the 7th century and make him the son of the 
vizier of Moawiya I., while another tradition (cf. Abulfeda, Ceog. 
vol. ii. p. n, No. 7) identifies him with Nusair, a freedman 
of the caliph 'All. It is, however, noteworthy that Pliny 
(Hist. not. v. 81) gives the name Nazerini to the inhabitants of 
this district. In this part of Syria paganism remained even 
up to the middle ages (cf. Archives de I'Orient latin, vol. ii. 2, 
P- 375), and there is a complete absence of churches of the 5th 
to the 7th centuries in these mountains. In the 7th century the 
Arabs invaded Syria, but do not seem to have got into these 
mountains. At the end of the loth century, however, the Isma'- 
ilite propaganda won some success among the people. Their 
strongholds were taken by Raymond in 1099, and later Tancred 
secured the very summits. In 1132-1140 the Assassins (q.v.) 
gained possession of their chief towns, but Saladin recovered 
them in 1188. In 1317 the sultan Bibars endeavoured to con- 
vert them to orthodox Islam, and built many mosques, but Ibn 
Batiita (i. 177) says they did not use them. A fatwa of 
Ibn Taimlyya (d. 1327) of this time shows that the Nosairis 
were regarded with fear and hatred by the orthodox. For the 
next 500 years they were given over to their own internal 
disputes, until they came under the power of Ibrahim Pasha 
in 1832. At the present time they are under the direct ad- 
ministration of the Turks. 

The religion of the Nosairis seems to have been almost the same 
in the first years of the 5th century A.H. (nth century A.D.) 



as it is to-day, judging by the references in the sacred books of 
the Druses. As set forth in their own sacred book, the Majmu', 
it seems to be a syncretism of Isma'ilite doctrines and the ancient 
heathenism of Harran. The ages of the world are seven in 
number, each of these having its own manifestation of deity. 
But the manifestation of the 7th age is not a Mahdi who is yet 
to come, but the historical person 'Ali ibn abu Talib. This is 
stated in the crudest form in Sura 1 1 of the Majmu' : " I testify 
that there is no god but 'Ali ibn abu Talib." 'Ali is also called 
the Ma'na (" Idea "; cf. the Logos of the New Testament), 
hence the Nosairis are also called the Ma'nawlyya. 'Ali created 
Mahomet, who is known as the Ism (" Name "), and a trinity is 
formed by the addition of Salman ul-FarisI, who is the Bab 
(" Door "), through whom the propaganda is made, and through 
whom one comes to God. A mysterious symbol much used in 
their ceremonies of initiation consists of the three letters 'Ain, 
Mint, Sin, these being the initials of "Ali, Mahomet and Salman. 
Of these three, however, 'Ali is the supreme. In Sura 6 of the 
Majmu' the Nosairi says: " I make for the Door, I prostrate 
myself before the Name, I worship the Idea." Each of the seven 
manifestations of God in the ages of the world has been opposed 
by an adversary. 

The Nosairis are divided into four sects, (i) The Haidaris 
(from the name haidari, " lion," given to 'Ali on account of his 
valour) are the most advanced. (2) The Shamalis or Shamsis 
preserve many traces of the old nature-worship. 'Ali (i.e. the 
supreme god) is the heaven, Mahomet is the sun, Salman the 
moon. (3) On the other hand the Kalazis, so named from a 
sheik Mahommed ibn Kalazi (cf. E. Salisbury in the Journal 
of the American Oriental Society, viii. 237), or Qamaris, hold 
that the supreme god ('Ali) is the moon, not the sun. Their 
poetry addressed to the moon is translated by C. Huart in the 
Journal asialique, ser. vii. vol. xiv. pp. 190 ff. (4) The Ghaibis 
are worshippers of the air, for God is invisible. In this they come 
nearer to the ordinary Isma'ilite doctrine. Religion is restricted 
among the Nosairis to the initiated, who must be adults over 
fifteen years of age and of Nosairi parentage. The initiator, 
who must not be a relative, becomes a spiritual father, and the 
relation cannot be broken except by his consent. The initiation 
consists of three stages. In the first the novice is received and 
told to meditate on the three mystic letters; in the second, 
after a period of forty days, he is taught the titles of the 16 
suras of the Majmu'; in the third, after seven or nine months 
(intended to correspond with the ordinary period of gestation), 
he is taught Suras 5, 6 and 9, learns the meaning of the three 
mystic letters and goes through a further period of instruction 
from his initiator. The initiated are divided into two classes, 
the sheiks, who are recruited from the families of sheiks only, 
and the ordinary members. 

The Nosairis are believers in metempsychosis. The pious 
Nosairi takes his rank among the stars, but the body of the 
impious undergoes many transformations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ren Dussaud, Histoiredela religion des Nosairis 
(Paris, 1900); St Guyard, " Le Fatwa d'Ibn Taimiyyah sur les 
Nosairis," in Journal asiatique (ser. vi. vol. xviii. pp. 158 ff). List of 
forty Nosairi MSS. by I. Catafago in Journal asiatique (ser. vii. vol. 
viii. pp. 523 ff). C. Huart, " La Poesie religieuse des Nosairis," 
Journal asiatique (ser. vii. vol. xiv. pp. 190 ff). The Kitab ul Bakuta, 
containing the Majmu', was pubjished at Beirut, 1863, and trans- 
lated for the most part by E. Salisbury in the Journal of the Amer. 
Or. Soc. (viii. 227-308). (G. W. T.) 

NOSARI, or NAVSARI, a town in India, in the state of Baroda, 
on the left bank of the Puma river, 147 m. by rail N. of Bombay. 
Pop. (1901), 21,451. It is an ancient place, known to Ptolemy 
as Nasaripa. It was one of the earliest settlements of the 
Parsees in Gujarat, after their banishment from Persia in the 
1 2th century. It is still the home of their mobeds, or sacerdotal 
class, and contains their most venerated " fire temple." Many 
small industries are carried on, including the weaving of the 
kusti, or sacred thread of the Parsees. There is also considerable 
trade by both rail and water, for the river is navigable. The 
public buildings and the private houses, especially those in the 
suburbs, are unusually good. 



822 



NOSE NOTARY 



NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the 
connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. nares, 
nostrils, nasus, nose, Fr. nez), the organ of the sense of smell 
(q.v.) in man and other animals (see OLFACTORY SYSTEM). The 
projecting feature above the mouth, to which the word is usually 
restricted in man, is, in the case of the lower animals, called 
snout or muzzle, or, if much prolonged, proboscis or trunk. 
" Nostril," the external opening into the nose, is from O.Eng. 
nosthyrl (thyrl or thirl, hole or opening). 

NOSOLOGY (Gr. vbaos, disease, and Xoyos, science), that 
branch of medical science which deals with the classification 
of diseases; the term is applied also to a collection of diseases, 
and to the special character of a particular disease and the 
different opinions concerning it. 

NOSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 
pleasantly situated on the Freiberger Mulde, 51 m. S.E. from 
Leipzig by the railway to Dresden via Dobeln, and at the junction 
of a line to Moldau. Pop. (1905), 4879. It possesses an ancient 
castle crowning a height above the river, and has extensive 
manufactures of boots and shoes, leather and paper. In the 
immediate vicinity are the ruins of the Cistercian monastery 
of Altenzella, or Altzella, founded in 1145, and a noted school 
of philosophy during the I3th-i5th centuries. In the chapel, 
which was built in 1347 and restored in 1787, lie the remains 
of ten margraves of Meissen, members of the family of Wettin. 
The foundation was secularized in 1544. The valuable annals, 
Chronicon vetere Cellense majus and Chronicon minus, giving 
a history of Saxony during the I5th and I4th centuries, were 
removed to the university library of Leipzig in 1544. They are 
printed in Band xvi. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. 
scriptores (1859). 

See E. Beyer, Das Cistsrcienstift und Kloster Alt-Celle (Dresden, 
1855). 

NOSSI-BE\ properly N6sy-be, i.e. " Great island," an island 
about 8 m. off the N.W. coast of Madagascar, in 13 23' S., 
48 15' E. It is 14 m. long by 10 broad, and has an area of 130 
sq. m. Nossi-be is volcanic, the N. and S. parts of older, the 
central part of more modern date. Besides a number of true 
volcanic craters (Lokobe, the highest point, is 1486 ft. above the 
sea) there are numerous crater-lakes level with the ground 
(see Nature, March 1877, p. 417). The climate is similar to that 
of Mayotte (see COMORO ISLANDS), and the neighbouring islet 
of Nossi-komba, about 2000 ft. above the sea, serves for a sana- 
torium. Pop. (1902), 9291. Hellville, the chief town (so called 
after De Hell, governor of Reunion at the time of the French 
annexation), is a port of call for the Messageries Maritimes and 
a centre for the coasting trade along the western shores of 
Madagascar. There is excellent anchorage, and a pier 800 ft. 
long. The soil is very fertile, and there are forests of palms and 
bamboos. The chief products are coffee, sesame, the sugar-cane, 
cocoa, vanilla and tobacco. There are numerous sugar factories 
and rum distilleries. 

In 1837 Tsiomeko, chief tainess of one of the numerous divisions 
of the western Malagasy known under the common name of 
Sa.kala.va, was expelled by the Hova and fled to Nossi-be and 
Nossi-komba. Failing assistance from the imam of Muscat, 
she accepted French protection in 1840, ceding such rights as 
she possessed on the N.W. coast of the mainland. The French 
took possession in 1841, and in 1849 an unsuccessful attempt 
was made to expel them. The administration was entrusted 
to a subordinate of the governor of Mayotte until 1896, when 
Nossi-b6 was placed under the administration of Madagascar 
(?.f.). (J- Si.*) 

NOSTALGIA (Gr. vbaros, return home, and 0X705, grief), 
home-sickness, the desire when away to return home, amounting 
sometimes to a form of melancholia. 

NOSTRADAMUS (1503-1566), the assumed name of MICHEL 
DE NOTREDAME, a French astrologer, of Jewish origin, who was 
born at St Remi in Provence on the i3th of December 1503. 
After studying humanity and philosophy at Avignon, he took 
the degree of doctor of medicine at Montpellier in 1529. He 
settled at Agen, and in 1544 established himself at Salon near 



Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great 
distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In 
1555 he published at Lyons a book of rhymed prophecies under 
the title of Centuries, which secured him the notice of Catherine 
de' Medici; and in 1558 he published an enlarged edition with 
a dedication to the king. The seeming fulfilment of some of 
his predictions increased his influence, and Charles IX. named 
him physician in ordinary. He died on the 2nd of July 1566. 

The Centuries of Nostradamus have been frequently reprinted, 
and have been the subject of many commentaries. In 1781 they 
were condemned by the papal court, being supposed to contain a 
prediction of the fall of the papacy. Nostradamus was the author of 
a number of smaller treatises. See Bareste, Nostradamus (Paris, 
1840). 

NOSTRUM (neuter of Lat. noster, our), the name given to 
preparations of which the ingredients are not made publicly 
known, a patent or " quack " medicine; it is taken from the 
label ( ;< of our own make ") formerly attached to such medicines. 

NOTARY, or NOTARY PUBLIC. In Roman law the notarius 
was originally a slave or freedman who took notes (nolae) of 
judicial proceedings in shorthand. The modern notary corre- 
sponds rather to the tabellio or tabularius than to the notarius. 
In canon law it was a maxim that his evidence was worth that 
of two unskilled witnesses. 

The office of notary in England is a very ancient one. It 
is mentioned in the Statute of Provisors, 25 Edward III. stat. 
4. The English notary is an ecclesiastical officer, nominated, 
since the Peterpence Dispensations Act 1533-1534, by the 
archbishop of Canterbury through the master of the faculties 
(now the judge of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York), 
in order to secure evidence as to the attestation of important 
documents. All registrars of ecclesiastical courts must be 
notaries. A notary's duties, however, are mainly secular. " The 
general functions of a notary consist in receiving all acts 
and contracts which must or are wished to be clothed with an 
authentic form; in conferring on such documents the required 
authenticity; in establishing their date; in preserving originals 
or minutes of them which, when prepared in the style and with 
the seal of the notary, obtain the name of original acts; and in 
giving authentic copies of such acts " (Brooke, On the Office 
of a Notary, chap. iii.). The act of a notary in authenticating 
or certifying a document is technically called a " notarial act." 
In most countries the notarial act is received in evidence as a 
semi-judicial matter, and the certificate of a notary is probative 
of the facts certified. But English law does not recognize 
the notarial act to this extent. An English court will, in certain 
cases, take judicial notice of the seal of a notary, but not that 
the facts that he has certified are true, except in the case of a 
bill of exchange protested abroad. 

The most important part of an English notary's duty is the 
noting and protest of foreign bills of exchange in case of non- 
acceptance or non-payment. This must be done by a notary in 
order that the holder may recover. He also prepares ship pro- 
tests and protests relating to mercantile matters, and authenti- 
cates and certifies copies of documents and attests instruments 
to be sent abroad. The office of notary is now usually held 
by a solicitor. In London he must be free of the Scriveners' 
Company. 

In Scotland, before the reign of James III., papal and imperial 
notaries practised until the 29th of November 1469, when an act 
was passed declaring that notaries should be made by the king. It 
would appear, however, that for some time afterwards there were 
in Scotland clerical and legal notaries the instruments taken 
by the latter bearing faith in civil matters. In 1551 an act was 
passed directing sheriffs to bring or send both kinds of notaries 
to the lords of session to be examined; and in a statute, passed 
in 1555, it was ordained that no notary, " by whatsoever power 
he be created," should use the office " except he first present 
himself to the said lords, showing his creation, and be admitted 
by them thereto." It does not appear that this statute vested 
the right of making notaries in the court of session ; but in 1 563 
it was by law declared that no person should take on him the 
office, under the pain of death, unless created by the sovereign's 



NOTE NOTICE 



823 



special letters, and thereafter examined and admitted by the 
lords of session. Since then the Court of Session has in Scot- 
land exercised exclusive authority on the admission of notaries 
in all legal matters, spiritual and temporal. The position of 
notaries in Scotland is somewhat higher than it is in England. 

In the United States, notaries are appointed by the governors 
of the states, and their authority to act is limited to the state 
to which they are appointed. They are state officers, and their 
duties in the main are attesting deeds and other instruments, 
and taking affidavits and depositions; all such documents 
which are intended to be used in the federal courts must have 
the notarial seal affixed. They also protest bills of exchange, and 
in some states they have the powers of a justice of the peace. 

In France, notaries receive all acts and contracts to which the 
parties thereto must give or desire to give the authenticity 
attached to the acts of a public authority; they certify the date, 
preserve the originals and give copies or duplicates. Notaries are 
nominated by the president of the republic on the recommenda- 
tion of the keeper of the seals. They cannot act as notaries and 
practise as advocates, or hold any magisterial office, nor must 
they engage in business. Notaries are divided into three classes: 
those of towns which have a court of appeal ; those of towns which 
have a court of first instance; those of the other towns and com- 
munes. The first and second classes can practise wherever the 
jurisdiction of their courts extends; the third class only in their 
canton. They must obtain the sanction of the minister of 
justice should they desire to change from one district to another. 
They must serve an apprenticeship of six years (with exceptions) 
to a notary of the class to which they desire to belong. Every 
notary is bound in a certain sum fixed by the government as 
security for the due discharge of his duties. Since 1896 the 
remuneration of the more important classes of notaries has 
been regulated by law. Each district has a chamber of notaries, 
which exercises disciplinary powers over its members. 

In Germany, notaries are appointed by the president of the 
courts of law and the minister of justice in their respective 
states; they carry on their profession for their own benefit, 
and do not, except in Wiirttemberg, receive any fixed salary, but 
take fees from the parties they represent. They may not refuse 
their services, save on good and sufficient ground. In some 
German states, notably Saxe-Weimar and Hesse-Darmstadt, 
there are no notaries. In Wiirttemberg, Baden, Bavaria, 
Alsace-Lorraine, Rhenish Prussia and Austria, they form a 
distinct class, while in the other German states they generally 
combine the notarial office with that of advocate. There is no 
code of rules for the whole empire, the new Burgerliches Geselz- 
buch leaving it to each state to frame its own regulations. 

NOTE (Lat. nola, mark, sign, from noscere, to know), a mark, 
particularly a sign by which a musical sound (also called a note) 
is indicated in writing (see MUSICAL NOTATION). The term is 
also applied to an abstract or memorandum of documents, 
speeches, &c. This appears to have been first in legal use, 
especially in the process of the transfer of land by fine and 
recovery (see FINE). Further extensions of this meaning are to 
an explanation, comment or addition, added in the margin or at 
the foot of the page to a passage in a book, &c., or to a com- 
munication in writing shorter or less formal than a letter. 

The ordinary distinction between note and letter is reversed 
in diplomacy. Diplomatic notes are written communications 
exchanged between diplomatic agents or between them and the 
ministers of foreign affairs of the government to which they are 
accredited; they differ from ordinary letters in having a more 
formal character and in dealing with matters of more immediate 
and definite importance: e.g. the notification of adhesion to a 
treaty, of the re-establishment of diplomatic relations after a 
war, &c. Sometimes, by agreement, a mere exchange of notes 
has the force of a convention. Collective notes are those signed by 
the representatives of several powers acting in concert. Some- 
times identical notes are substituted for collective, i.e. notes 
identical as to form and substance, but signed and delivered 
separately by the representatives of the several powers. Thus 
in 1822, at the congress of Verona, in order to overcome the 



objection of Great Britain to any interference of the European 
concert in Spain, identical notes were presented to the Spanish 
government instead of a collective note. Circular notes are 
those addressed by one power to the other powers generally, 
e.g. that addressed by Thiers (November 9, 1 870), on the proposed 
armistice, to the representatives of the great powers accredited 
to the government of national defence. Confidential notes are 
directed to inspiring confidence by giving an explicit account 
of the views and intentions of the plenipotentiaries and their 
governments. Such a note was sent, for instance, by the 
plenipotentiaries of the allied powers at the conference of Poros, 
on the 8th of December 1828, to Capo dTstria, the Greek presi- 
dent, to instruct him confidentially as to the results of their 
deliberations. The so-called notes verbales are unsigned, and are 
merely of the nature of memoranda (of conversations, &c.). 
Notes ad referendum are addressed by diplomatic agents to their 
own governments asking for fresh powers to deal with points not 
covered by their instructions, which they have had to " refer." 
Diplomatic notes are usually written in the third person; but this 
rule has not always been observed (see P. Pradier-Fodere, Cours 
de droit diplomatique, Paris, 1899; vol. ii. p. 524). 

For notes of hand or promissory notes see NEGOTIABLE INSTRU- 
MENTS and BILL OF EXCHANGE, and for notes passing as currency sec 
BANKS AND BANKING, BANK-NOTE and POST. 

NOTHOMB, JEAN BAPTISTE, BARON (1805-1881), Belgian 
statesman and diplomat, was born at Messancy in Luxemburg 
on the 3rd of July 1805. He was educated at the Athenaeum of 
Luxemburg and the university of Liege. He was in Luxemburg 
when the revolution of August broke out, but was nominated 
a member of the commission appointed to draw up the con- 
stitution. He was a member of the national congress, and 
became secretary-general of the ministry of foreign affairs under 
Surlet de Chokier. He supported the candidature of the duke of 
Nemours, and joined in the proposal to offer the crown to Prince 
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, being one of the delegates sent to 
London. When the Eighteen Articles were replaced by the 
Twenty-four less favourable to Belgium, he insisted on the 
necessity of compliance, and in 1839 he faced violent opposition 
to support the territorial cessions in Limburg and Luxemburg, 
which had remained an open question so long as Holland refused 
to acknowledge the Twenty-four Articles. His Essai historique 
el politique sur la revolution beige (1838) won for him the praise 
of Palmerston and the cross of the Legion of Honour from Louis 
Philippe. In 1837 he became minister of public works, and to 
him was largely due the rapid development of the Belgian 
railway system, and the increase in the mining industry. In 1 840 
he was sent as Belgian envoy to the Germanic confederation, 
and in 1841, on the fall of the Lebeau ministry, he organized the 
new cabinet, reserving for himself the portfolio of minister of 
the interior. In 1845 he was defeated, and retired from parlia- 
mentary life, but he held a number of diplomatic appointments 
before his death at Berlin on the 6th of September 1881. 

See T. Juste, Souvenirs du baron Nothomb (Brussels, 1882). 

NOTICE, a term primarily meaning knowledge (Lat. nolilia), 
as in " judicial notice "; thence it comes to signify the means 
of bringing to knowledge, as in " notice to quit "; at last it 
may be used even for the actual writing by which notice is given. 
The most important legal uses of the word are judicial notice 
and the equitable doctrine of notice. Judicial notice is the 
recognition by courts of justice of certain facts or events without 
proof. Thus in England the courts take judicial notice of the 
existence of states and sovereigns recognized by the sovereign 
of England, of the dates of the calendar, the date and place of 
the sittings of the legislature, &c. The equitable doctrine of 
notice is that a person who purchases an estate, although for 
valuable consideration, after notice of a prior equitable right, 
will not be enabled by getting in the legal estate to defeat that 
right. On the other hand, a purchaser for valuable consideration 
without notice of an adverse title is as a rule protected in his 
enjoyment of the property. Other common uses of the word 
are notice to quit, i.e. a notice required to be given by landlord 
to tenant, or by tenant to landlord in order to terminate a tenancy 



824 



NOTKER NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF 



(see LANDLORD AND TENANT) ; notice of dishonour, i.e. a notice 
that a bill of exchange has been dishonoured; notice of action, 
i.e. a. notice to a person of an action intended to be brought 
against him, which is required by statute to be given in certain 
cases; notice of trial, i.e. the notice given by a plaintiff to a 
defendant that he intends to bring on the cause for trial; notice 
in lieu of personal service of a writ, i.e. by advertisement or 
otherwise; notice given by one party in an action to the other, 
at a trial, to produce certain documents in his possession 
or power; notice to treat, given under the Land Clauses Acts 
by public bodies having compulsory powers of purchasing land 
as a preliminary step to putting their powers in force. Notice 
may be either express or constructive. The latter is where 
knowledge of a fact is presumed from the circumstances of the 
case, e.g. notice to a solicitor is usually constructive notice to 
the client. Notice in some cases may be either oral or written. 
It is usually advisable to give written notice even where oral 
evidence is sufficient in law, as in the case of notice to quit. 
The American use of notice is practically the same as in England. 

NOTKER, a name of frequent occurrence in the ecclesiastical 
history of the middle ages. NOTKER BALBULUS (c. 840-912) was 
a native of northern Switzerland, and for many years magisier 
in the school of St Gall. He compiled a martyrology and other 
works, but is famous for his services to church music and for the 
" sequences " of which he was the composer. He was canonized 
in 1513. His life is in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum, April 
6th. NOTKER LABEO (d. June zoth, 1022) was also an instructor 
at St Gall. His numerous translations, including those of the 
Old Testament Psalms, the categories of Aristotle, the De 
nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae of Martianus Capella, and the 
De consolatione of Boethius, into Old High German, may 
possibly have been the work of his pupils. They possess con- 
siderable philological interest, and have been edited by E. G. 
Graff (Berlin, 1837-1847), and by P. Piper under the title 
N others und seiner Schule Schriften (1883-1884). 

See J. Kelle, Die Sankt Caller deutschen Schriften und Notker 
Labeo (Munich, 1888); G. Meyer von Knonau, " Lebensbild des 
heiligen Notker," in Mitteil. Antiq. Gesellschaft Zurich (1877). 

NOTO, a city of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, and 
20 m. S.W. of it by rail, 520 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 
22,564. The present town, rebuilt after the earthquake of 1693, 
has some fine buildings of the early i8th century. The older 
town lies 5 m. direct to the north (1378 ft.). It was the ancient 
Netum, a city of Sicel origin, left to Hiero II. by the Romans 
by the treaty of 263 B.C. and mentioned by Cicero as a foederata 
civitas (Verr. \. 51. 133), and by Pliny as Latinae conditionis 
(H.N. iii. 8. 14). The remains of this city are almost entirely 
hidden beneath the ruins of the medieval town, except three 
chambers cut in the rock, one of which is shown, by an inscription 
in the library at Noto, to have belonged to the gymnasium, 
while the other two were keroa, or shrines of heroes. But explora- 
tions have brought to light four cemeteries of the third Sicel 
period, and one of the Greek period, of the 3rd and 2nd centuries 
B.C. There are also catacombs of the Christian period and some 
Byzantine tombs. See P. Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1897, 
69-90. Four miles to the S. of Noto, on the left bank of the 
Tellaro (Belarus) (E. Pais, Alakta, Pisa, 1891, p. 75 seq.) stands 
a stone column about 35 ft. in height, which is believed to be 
a memorial of the surrender of Nicias. This is uncertain; but, 
in any case, in the 3rd century B.C. a tomb was excavated in 
the rectangular area which surrounds it, destroying apparently 
a pre-existing tomb. The later burial belongs to the necropolis 
of the small town of Heloron, 750 yds. to the S.E., some remains 
of which have been discovered. It was a small advanced post of 
Syracuse, belonging probably to the 6th century B.C. See P. 
Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1899, 241. 

NOTT, ELIPHALET (1773-1866), American divine, was born 
on the 25th of June 1773 at Ashford, Connecticut. He was 
left an orphan without resources, but graduated in 1795 at 
Brown University. In 1804 he became president of Union 
College, Schenectady, New York, a position which he held till 
his death on the 2Qth of January 1866. He found the college 



financially embarrassed, but succeeded in placing it on a sound 
footing. He was known also as the inventor of the first stove 
for anthracite coal. His publications include sermons, Counsels 
to Young Men (1810), and Lectures on Temperance (1847). 

Life by C. van Santvoord (ed. Tayler Lewis, 1876). 

NOTT, SIR WILLIAM (1782-1845), English general, was the 
second son of Charles Nott, a Herefordshire farmer, who in 
1794 became an innkeeper at Carmarthen. William Nott was 
indifferently educated, but he succeeded in obtaining a cadet- 
ship in the Indian army and proceeded to India in 1800. In 
1825 he was promoted to the command of his regiment of native 
infantry; and in 1838, on the outbreak of the first Afghan war, 
he was appointed to the command of a brigade. From April to 
October 1839 he was in command of the troops left at Quetta, 
where he rendered valuable service. In November 1840 he 
captured .helat, and in the following year compelled Akbar 
Khan and other tribal chiefs to submit to the British. On 
receiving the news of the rising of the Afghans at Kabul in 
November 1841, Nott took energetic measures. On the 23rd of 
December the British envoy, Sir Wiliiam Hay Macnaghten, 
was murdered at Kabul; and in February 1842 the weak and 
incompetent commander-in-chief, General Elphinstone, sent 
orders that Kandahar was to be evacuated. Nott at once decided 
to disobey, on the supposition that Elphinstone was not a free 
agent at Kabul; and as soon as he heard the news of the massacre 
in the Khyber Pass, he urged the government at Calcutta to 
maintain the garrison of Kandahar with a view to avenging the 
massacre and the murder of Macnaghten. In March he inflicted 
a severe defeat on the enemy near Kandahar, and in May 
drove them with heavy loss out of the Baba Wali Pass. In 
July he received orders from Lord Ellenborough, the governor- 
general of India, to evacuate Afghanistan, with permission to 
retire by Kabul. Nott arranged with Sir George Pollock, now 
commander-in-chief, to join him at Kabul. On the 3oth of 
August he routed the Afghans at Ghazni, and on the 6th of 
September occupied the fortress, from which he carried away, 
by the governor-general's express instructions, the gates of the 
temple of Somnath; on the i7th he joined Pollock at Kabul. 
The combined army recrossed the Sutlej in December. Nott's 
services were most warmly commended; he was immediately 
appointed resident at Lucknow, was presented with a sword 
of honour, and was made a G.C.B. In 1843 he returned to 
England, where the directors of the East India Company voted 
him a pension of 1000 per annum. He died at Carmarthen 
on the ist of January 1845. 

See Memo-irs^ and Correspondence of Sir William Nott, edited by 
J. H. Stocqueier (2 vols., London, 1854); Charles R. Low, The 
Afghan War 1838-1842 (London, 1879), and Life and Correspondence 
of Sir George Pollock (London, 1873); Sir J. W. Kaye, History of 
the War in Afghanistan (2 vols., London, 1851). 

NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF. The English title of earl of 
Nottingham has been held by different families, notably by the 
Mowbrays (1377 to 1475; merged in the Norfolk title from 
1397), the Howards (1596-1681), and the Finches (1681; since 
1729 united with that of Winchilsea). For the Howard line see 
the separate article below. Here only the ancestors of the Finch 
line are dealt with. 

HENEAGE FINCH (1621-1682), first earl of Nottingham in 
the Finch line, lord chancellor -of England, was descended from 
an old family (see FINCH, FINCH-HATTON), many of whose 
members had attained to high legal eminence, and was the eldest 
son of Sir Heneage Finch, recorder of London, by his first wife 
Frances, daughter of Sir Edmund Bell of Beaupre Hall, Norfolk. 
In the register of Oxford university he is entered as born in 
Kent on the 23rd of December 1621, and probably his native 
place was Eastwell in that county. He was educated at 
Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he remained 
till he became a member of the Inner Temple in 1638. He was 
called to the bar in 1645, and soon obtained a lucrative practice. 
He was a member of the convention parliament of April 1660, 
and shortly afterwards was appointed solicitor-general, being 
created a baronet the day after he was knighted. In May of the 
following year he was chosen to represent the university of 



NOTTINGHAM, EARL OF 



82.5 



Oxford, and in 1665 the university created him a. D.C.L. In 
1670 he became attorney-general, and in 1675 lord chancellor. 
He was created Baron Finch in 1674, and earl of Nottingham 
in May 1681. He died in Great Queen Street, London, on the 
i8th of December 1682, and was buried in the church of Raven- 
stone in Bucks. 

His contemporaries of both sides of politics agree in their high 
estimate of his integrity, moderation and eloquence, while his 
abilities as a lawyer are sufficiently attested by the fact that he is 
still spoken of as " the father of equity." His most important contri- 
bution to the statute book is The Statute of Frauds." While 
attorney-general he superintended the edition of Sir Henry Hobart's 
Reports (1671). He also published Several Speeches and Discourses 
in the Tryal of the Judges of King Charles I. (1660) ; Speeches to both 
Houses of Parliament (1679) ; Speech at the Sentence of Viscount 
Stafford (1680). He left Chancery Reports in MS., and notes on 
Coke's Institutes. 

DANIEL FINCH (1647-1730), second earl, son of the preceding, 
entered parliament for Lichfield in 1679. He was one of the 
privy councillors who in 1685 signed the order for the proclamation 
of the duke of York, but during the whole of the reign of James 
II. he kept away from the court. At the last moment he hesitated 
to join in the invitation to William of Orange, and after the 
abdication of James II. he was the leader of the party who 
were in favour of a regency. He declined the office of lord 
chancellor under William and Mary, but accepted that of 
secretary of state, retaining it till December 1693. Under 
Anne he in 1702 again accepted the same office in the ministry 
of Godolphin, but finally retired in 1704. On the accession 
of George I. he was made president of the council, but in 1716 
he finally withdrew from office. He succeeded to the earldom 
of Winchilsea (with which the Nottingham title now became 
united) on the gth of September 1729, and died on the ist of 
January 1730. 

NOTTINGHAM, CHARLES HOWARD, IST EARL OF I (1536- 
1624), English lord high admiral (also known as 2nd Lord 
Howard of Effingham), was the eldest son of William, ist Baron 
Howard of Effingham, lord high admiral, by his wife, Margaret, 
daughter of Sir Thomas Gamage of Coity in Glamorganshire, and 
was born in 1536. He was nearly connected with Queen Eliza- 
beth, his father's sister, Elizabeth Howard, being mother of Anne 
Boleyn. During Mary's reign he is said to have served at sea 
with his father, and on the accession of Elizabeth his kinship, 
together with his good looks and abilities, secured his early 
advancement. In 1559 he was sent as ambassador to France 
to congratulate Francis II. on his accession, and in 1569 was 
general of the horse under the earl of Warwick for suppressing 
the Roman Catholic rebellion in the north. The next year 
he commanded a squadron of ships to watch the Spanish fleet 
which came to conduct the queen of Spain from Flanders, on 
which occasion " His lordship, accompanied with 10 ships only 
of Her Majestie's Navy Royal, environed their Fleet in a most 
strange and warlike sort, enforced them to stoop gallant and to 
vail their bonnets for the queen of England." 2 In the parlia- 
ments of 1563 and 1572 he represented Surrey, and succeeded 
to his father's title on the 29th of January 1573. He was 
installed a knight of the Garter on the 24th of April 1574, and 
made lord chamberlain of the household, an appointment which 
he retained till May 1585, when he became lord high admiral 
of England. He also filled the offices of lord lieutenant of Surrey 
and high steward of Kingston-upon-Thames. He was one 
of the commissioners at the trial of the conspirators in the 
Babington Plot and of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, and, accord- 
ing to Davison, Elizabeth's secretary of state, it was owing 
chiefly to his persuasion and influence that Elizabeth signed 
the death-warrant. 3 

In December 1 587 he hoisted his flag on the " Ark." His 
letters at this time reflect vividly his sense of the impending 
danger. " For the love of Jesus Christ, Madam," he writes 
to Elizabeth, " awake thoroughly and see the villainous treasons 
round about you, against your Majesty and your realm, and 

1 i.e. In the Howard line ; see above. 

2 Fuller's Worthies, ii. 361. 

1 Nicolas's Life of Davison, pp. 232, 258, 281. 



draw your forces round about you like a mighty prince to defend 
you. Truly, Madam, if you do so, there is no cause for fear." 4 
On the approach of the Armada on the 6th of July 1 588, Howard 
describes thus the disposal of his forces: " I have divided 
myself here into three parts, and yet we lie within sight of one 
another, so as if any of us do discover the Spanish fleet we give 
notice thereof presently the one to the other and thereupon 
repair and assemble together. I myself do lie in the middle 
of the channel with the greatest force. Sir Francis Drake hath 
20 ships and 4 or 5 pinnaces which lie beyond Ushant and Mr 
Hawkins with as many more lieth towards Scilly." 6 He directed 
the various engagements (see ARMADA), and stayed himself 
to conduct the attack on the " San Lorenzo," stranded off 
Calais, arriving in consequence at the great fight off Gravelines 
some time after the engagement had begun. His tactics have 
been criticized both by contemporary and by later authorities, 
but his position was a perilous one, opposed to an overwhelming 
force of the enemy, and rendered still more difficult by the 
queen's untimely economy, Howard himself contributing largely 
to the naval expenses and to the relief of the numerous seamen 
poisoned by bad food and landed at Margate. " It were too 
pitiful to have men starve after such a service."' Instead of 
risking all in a pitched battle with the enemy, a course which 
probably appealed more to his dashing subordinates, he resolved 
to pursue the less heroic method of " plucking their feathers 
little by little"; 7 and his prudence, while justified by the 
extraordinary results, was also greatly praised by so good a 
judge as Raleigh. Shortly afterwards, under Howard's directions, 
a " Relation of Proceedings " was drawn up (now printed in the 
Navy Records Society Publications, i. 1-18). 

In 1596 Howard arid Essex commanded the expedition against 
Cadiz, when a squadron of the enemy's ships was destroyed 
and two of the number brought home. Howard's intention was 
to limit the expedition entirely to naval operations, but 
Essex insisted on landing, and Howard, who had been specially 
charged by Elizabeth to protect her favourite, 8 was obliged to 
follow in his support. The town was sacked and the forts 
destroyed; the naval prizes, however, but for this diversion 
would have been more numerous. The council of war then 
refusing to countenance any further attempts on land, 
Howard and Essex returned with the expedition to England. 
On the 22nd of October 1596 Howard was created earl of 
Nottingham. 

In February 1598, on a scare of an intended invasion, he was 
ordered to take measures for the defence of the country, and 
again in 1599, when he was appointed " Lord Lieut. -general 
of all England," and exercised full authority both over the army 
and the navy. He took a leading part in suppressing the 
rebellion of Essex, and served as a commissioner on his trial in 
February 1601. In December 1602 he entertained Elizabeth 
at Arundel House, but made no attempt to rival the gorgeous 
and expensive entertainments given to the queen by some of 
his contemporaries. Elizabeth's favour, in his case, required no 
courting by such methods, and it was to Nottingham that she 
named James as her successor on her deathbed. He continued 
to hold his office as lord high admiral under the new king, and 
in 1605 was despatched as ambassador to Spain, where his great 
reputation, together with his amiable character, perfect temper 
and unfailing courtesy, secured the successful negotiation of 
peace. He served on numerous commissions, including those 
on the union of the two kingdoms in 1604, for the trial of the 
conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot and of Henry Garnett in 
1606, and for reviewing the articles and rules of the order of 
the Garter in 1618, and he attended Princess Elizabeth on her 
marriage to the elector palatine with a squadron to Flushing 
in 1613. Nottingham, who, unlike many of the Howards, was 

1 Navy Records Society: Papers Relating to the Spanish Armada, 
June 23rd, i. 225. 

6 Howard to Walsingham, July 6. Ib. i. 245. 
Ib. ii. 183. 

7 Ib. i. 341 and Cal. of State P. Dom. 1581-1590, p. 516. 

8 See H.'s letter to Essex on this subject, Hist. MSS. Contm. 
Marquess of Salisbury's MSS. vt. 239. 



826 



NOTTINGHAM 



a staunch Protestant, 1 was commissioner in Surrey for inquiring 
after recusants, 2 and in the diocese of Winchester for hearing 
ecclesiastical causes; he sat on the government commission for 
discovering and expelling Roman Catholic priests, and was 
mentioned in 1602 from Douay as one of the three enemies most 
feared by the recusants. 3 

On the report of the commission on the navy in 1618 and of 
the abuses then exposed, Lord Nottingham, though no blame 
was attached to himself, being now an old man over eighty years 
of age, vacated his office of lord high admiral, receiving the sum 
of 3000 with a pension of 1000, and being granted a special 
precedence, limited to his person, as earl of Nottingham of the 
earlier Mowbray creation, and still keeping the lord-lieutenancy 
of Surrey. He died at Haling House, near Croydon, on the I4th 
of December 1624, and was buried at Reigate, a monument 
being afterwards placed to his memory in St Margaret's church 
at Westminster. He was a striking and almost heroic figure in 
the Elizabethan annals, no unworthy leader of such men as 
Drake, Hawkins and Raleigh, the defender of his country at 
a time of imminent peril, and by his splendid character and 
services he was placed beyond the reach of the intrigues and 
jealousies which troubled the reputation of many of his con- 
temporaries and above even the suspicion of ill-doing. 

Lord Nottingham married (i), in July 1563, Catherine,daughter 
of Henry Carey, ist Lord Hunsdon, cousin to the queen, by whom 
he had, besides three daughters, two sons William, who died 
in his father's lifetime, and Charles (1570-1642), who succeeded 
as second earl of Nottingham; and (2), when in his 68th year, 
Margaret, daughter of James Stuart, earl of Murray, by whom 
he had two sons, the youngest of whom, on the death of his 
half-brother without male issue, succeeded as third earl of 
Nottingham; on his dying childless in April 1681 the earldom 
became extinct, the barony of Effingham passing to the 
descendants of the first earl of Nottingham's younger brother, 
Sir William Howard, from whom the fourth earl of Effingham 
(creation of 1837) and I4th baron Howard of Effingham (b. 
1866), who succeeded in 1898, was descended. 

NOTTINGHAM, a city and county of a city, municipal, county 
and parliamentary borough, and county town of Nottingham- 
shire, England. Pop. (1901) 239,743. It stands on the left 
(north) bank of the Trent and its tributary the Leen. It is 
125 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway, and is 
also served by the Great Central and Great Northern railways. 
Water communications are afforded by the Grantham canal 
eastward, by the Nottingham and Erewash canals westward, com- 
municating with the Cromford canal in Derbyshire, and by the 
Trent. The plan of the town is irregular, and the main thorough- 
fares are generally modern in appearance, many of the old narrow 
streets having been wholly altered or renewed. About the centre 
of the town is an open market-place some 5! acres in area, said 
to be the largest of its kind in England. Nottingham Castle 
occupies a fine site to the S., on an abrupt rocky hill. The ancient 
remains are not large, including only a restored Norman gateway 
and fragments of the fortifications. In 1878 the site was acquired 
on lease by the corporation, and the building was opened as the 
Nottingham and Midland Counties Art Museum. The church of 
St Mary is a fine Perpendicular cruciform structure, with a 
central tower. St Peter's church is mainly Perpendicular, 
but shows traces of an earlier building. St Nicholas' church, 
near the castle, is a plain building of brick dating from 1676. 
There are several handsome modern churches, among which is 
the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Barnabas, from the designs 
of A. W. Pugin, erected in 1842-1844. There are a large number 
of Nonconformist places of worship. The principal secular 
buildings are the guildhall and city sessions court (1887), tjie 
shire hall, the Albert Hall and the Exchange; there are two 
principal theatres, the Theatre Royal and the Empire Theatre. 
Among educational establishments the principal is University 
College, for which a fine range of buildings was opened in 1881, 

1 See esp. his letter to Walsingham, Naval Record Soc. Pub. i. 65. 
1 Hist. MSS. Comm. Marquess of Salisbury's MSS. iv. 203. 
1 Col. St Pap. Dom. 1601-1603, p. 181. 



containing the free municipal library and the museum of natural 
history. The free grammar school, founded in 1513, for some 
time in disuse, was revived in 1807, and on its removal in 1868 
to new buildings, became known as the High School. There are 
also the Nottingham High School for girls; the blue-coat 
school, founded in 1723; the People's College, founded in 1846; 
two technical schools; the Congregational Institute; and the 
Nottingham school of art, for which a fine building was erected 
in 1865 in the Italian style. The Midland Baptist college was 
transferred from Chilwell to Nottingham in 1882. 

The General Hospital was founded in 1781, and there are the 
Nottingham and Midland eye infirmary, the county asylum 
and the Midland institution for the blind. The Arboretum and 
the Forest are the principal public pleasure-grounds; the county 
cricket club plays matches on the Trent Bridge ground, and there 
is a racecourse at Colwick, E. of the city. To the N.W., but 
within the city boundaries, are the industrial districts of Radford 
and Basford, beyond which lies Bulwell, with collieries, limestone 
quarries and earthenware manufactures. Bestwood Park, in 
the vicinity, contained a hunting lodge of Henry I., being included 
in Sherwood Forest. To the N., Sherwood is a growing resi- 
dential district; another extends towards Gedling on the E. 
Southward, across the Trent, West Bridgford is another large 
residential suburb. To the W. is Lenton, and Beeston has 
become a populous suburb mainly owing to the establishment of 
large cycle and motor works. 

Nottingham itself became an important seat of the stocking 
trade towards the close of the i8th century. It was here that 
Richard Arkwright in 1769 erected his first spinning frame, 
and here also James Hargreaves had the year previously removed 
with his spinning jenny after his machine had been destroyed by 
a mob at Blackburn. Nottingham has devoted itself chiefly to 
cotton, silk and merino hosiery. Up to 1815 point lace was also 
an important manufacture. In 1808 and 1809 John Heathcoat 
obtained patents for machines for making bobbin net, which 
inaugurated a new era in the lace manufacture. The industries 
also include bleaching, the dyeing, spinning and twisting of silk, 
the spinning of cotton and woollen yarn, tanning, engineering and 
brewing, while cycle works and tobacco factories are important, 
and the industries have the advantage of the close proximity 
of coal-mines. Besides the general market there is a large cattle 
market. 

Nottingham received its style of a city and county of a city 
by letters patent of the 7th of August 1897. The parliamentary 
borough returns three members to parliament, being divided 
into W., E. and S. divisions. The city is governed by a mayor, 
1 6 aldermen and 48 councillors. Area, 10,935 acres. 

History. The advantageous position of Nottingham (Snoten- 
gaham, Notingeham) on the Trent, where it was crossed by an 
ancient highway, accounts for its origin, whether in Roman or 
Saxon times. The Saxon form of the name is taken to refer to 
the caves, anciently used as dwelling-places, which were hollowed 
out of the soft sandstone. Examples of these occur in the Castle 
rock, in the Rock Holes W. of the castle, in the suburb of Sneinton 
and elsewhere. It was chosen by the Danes for their winter 
quarters in 868, and constituted one of their five burghs. In 922 
it was secured and fortified by Edward the Elder, who in 924 
built a second " burgh " opposite the first and connected with it 
by a bridge over the river. yEthelstan, the successor of Edward 
the Elder, established there a royal mint. In 1013 the town 
submitted to Sweyn. William I. erected a castle, and mention 
of a new borough occurs in Domesday Book, and this seems to be 
the first evidence of the existence of the " French borough " 
which grew up in Nottingham under the Normans, and was 
distinguished from the English borough by the different customs 
which prevailed in it. Parliaments were held at Nottingham in 
J 334> J 337 an d 1357, and it was the scene of the conference of 
the judges with Richard II. in August 1387. Several important 
persons have been imprisoned in the castle, among others David 
II. of Scotland. Edward IV. assembled his troops at Nottingham 
in 1461; and it was the headquarters of Richard III. before the 
battle of Bosworth in 1485. In 1642 Charles I. finally broke with 



NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 



827 



the Parliament by setting up his standard at Nottingham, and 
during the ensuing Civil War the castle was held by each of the 
two parties more than once. In 1644 it was dismantled by 
Cromwell's orders. 

Henry II. granted the first extant charter, which confirmed 
to the burgesses the liberties they had under Henry I., referred 
to a market on Saturdays, and forbade the working of dyed cloth, 
except in Nottingham, within ten leagues of the borough. This 
was confirmed by John, who also granted a gild-merchant. 
Henry III. allowed the burgesses to hold the town in fee-farm, 
and Edward I. granted them a mayor and two bailiffs, one to 
be chosen from each borough. Henry VI. confirmed all preceding 
privileges, first incorporated the mayor and burgesses, and 
granted that the town, except the castle and the gaol, should be 
a county of itself. Two sheriffs were to replace the two bailiffs. 
This charter remained, except for temporary surrenders under 
Charles II. and James II., the governing charter of the corpora- 
tion until the Municipal Act of 1835. Nottingham returned 
two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885, when the 
number was increased to three. Edward I. granted an eight- 
days' fair in September and a fifteen-days' fair in November, 
the last altered by Richard II. to a five-days' fair in February. 
Two other fairs were granted by Anne; one large fair, Goose 
Fair, is still held. This begins on the first Thursday in October 
and lasts three days. The markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays 
are held by prescriptive right. Besides the Reform riots of 1831, 
Nottingham witnessed in 1811 the Luddite disturbances. In 
1870 Nottingham was made the seat of a suffragan bishop of the 
diocese of Lincoln, but as it is now in the diocese of Southwell 
there is no suffragan bishopric. 

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE, or NOTTS, an inland county of England, 
bounded N.W. by Yorkshire, W. by Derbyshire, S. by Leicester- 
shire and E. and N.E. by Lincolnshire. The area is 843-4 sq. m. 
The N. is included in the great plain of York, and in the extreme 
N. there is some extent of marshes. The valley of the lower 
Trent and that of the Idle are also very flat. In the S.W. between 
Nottingham and Warsop, the undulations swell into considerable 
elevations, reaching near Mansfield a height over 600 ft. This 
district includes the ancient Sherwood Forest (<?..). Some 
portions of it are still retained in their original condition, and 
there are many very old oaks, especially in the portion known as 
the Dukeries (?..). The county generally is finely wooded, 
although to the E. of the valley of the Soar there is a considerable 
stretch of wolds. The principal rivers are the Trent, the Erewash, 
the Soar and the Idle. The Trent, which enters the county near 
Thrumpton in the S.W., where it receives the Erewash from the 
N. and the Soar from the S., flows N.E. past Nottingham and 
Newark, where it takes a more northerly direction, forming the 
N. part of the E. boundary of the county till it reaches the Isle 
of Axholm (Lincolnshire). The Soar forms for a short distance 
the boundary with Leicestershire, and the Erewash the boundary 
with Derbyshire. The Idle, which is formed of several streams 
in Sherwood Forest, flows N. to Bawtry, and then turns E. to 
the Trent. 

Geology. All formations, from Lower and Middle Coal Measures, 
overlain unconformably by Permian, to Lower Lias, crop out suc- 
cessively eastward across the county, with a general but slight dip 
away from the Pennine uplift. The strike of the Carboniferous rocks 
veers from S. to E. in the S. ; that of younger formations bends to 
S.W. The Coal Measures, about 3000 ft. thick, continue the Derby- 
shire Coalfield. A boring at Ruddmgton proved the lowest measures, 
underlain by Millstone Grit. The remaining Lower and Middle 
Measures below the important Top Hard Coal, with the Kilburn, 
Main, Deep Hard and Soft Coals, crop out in the south and alone the 
Erewash Valley; higher strata farther N. All these consist of shale, 
clay and little sandstone. They contain Carbonicola acuta, C. 
robusta, Neurofteris heterophylla, Alethopteris and Lepidodendron, 
showing essentially non-marine conditions. But several thin marine 
beds occur. The highest measures, divisible into red Etruria Marls, 
Newcastle Sandstones and a red sandy Keele series have been 
proved underground in eastward succession. A thin basal breccia, a 
sandy and marly group, the Magnesian Limestone with Productus 
horridus and Schizodus obscurus (granular dolomite typically, its 
upper part locally a dolomitic sandstone, the Mansfield building- 
stone), red gypsiferous Middle Marls, an Upper Limestone, and 
Upper Red Marls, collectively 550 ft. thick in the north of Notting- 



hamshire, terminate a Permian outcrop continuous from Durham, 
but dying out at Nottingham. Only the lowest divisions persist so 
far. The more extensive Trias overlaps southward on to the Carbon- 
iferous. Its lower sandstones (Bunter, 600 ft. thick, consisting of 
Lower Red Sandstone with breccias, and Pebble Beds; Keuper 
Waterstones, 200 ft. in the east, mainly brown sandstones, con- 
glomeratic at the base and containing the fish Semionotus) form an 
undulating wooded district. Higher red and pale green Keuper 
Marl (700 ft.), with subordinate sandstones and gypsum, makes a low 
agricultural tract on the E., traversed longitudinally by the Trent. 
Black Rhaetic shales succeed with Pteria (Avicula) contorla, Proto- 
cardium rhaeticum and bone-beds, below light-coloured marls and 
limestones (" White Lias "). Lower Lias, almost up to the Semi- 
costatus zone, crops out within the county. The basal Planorbis zone 
contains argillaceous limestones, worked for hydraulic cement at 
Barnston, and saurian remains. Of two types of Glacial boulder- 
clay, mainly confined to the Triassic and Jurassic clays on the E. 
and S.E., one containing Carboniferous and some extraneous boulders 
probably came with the Pennine ice from the N.W. The other, 
uppermost where both occur, and full of chalk and flint, belongs to 
the Chalky Boulder Clay of the North Sea ice. Glacial gravels cap 
the higher ground of the Triassic sandstones. Church Hole, one of 
the Magnesian Limestone caves of Creswell Crags, yielded remains of 
cave-lion, bear, mammoth, rhinoceros, &c. Older river-gravels flank 
the pasture land of the Trent alluvium. 

Climate and Agriculture. As the higher regions of Derbyshire and 
Yorkshire attract the rain clouds, the climate of Nottinghamshire 
is above the average in dryness; thus, the mean annual rainfall at 
Bawtry is 23-57 > n - and at Nottingham 26-83 m. On this account 
crops ripen nearly as early as in the S. counties. The soil of about 
one-half the county is gravel and sand, including Sherwood Forest, 
where it inclines to sterility, and the valley of the Trent, where there 
is a rich vegetable mould on a stratum of sand or gravel. The land 
along the banks of the Trent is equally suitable for crops and pasture. 
The farms generally are of moderate size, the great majority being 
under 300 acres. Most of the immediate occupants are tenants^at- 
will. Roughly four-fifths of the total area is under cultivation. 
Apples and pears are grown in considerable quantities, but there are 
not many orchards of large size. Shorthorns are the favourite breed 
of cattle, and dairy farming is considerably prosecuted. The old 
forest breed of sheep is almost extinct, Leicesters and various crosses 
being common. 

Industries. Coal is mined chiefly on the S.W. border of the county 
near Nottingham and near Mansfield; there are also mines near 
Worksop. Clay, sandstone and limestone are also extensively raised. 
The lace and hosiery industries are of old establishment in the county, 
Nottingham being the principal centre. There are silk, worsted and 
cotton mills. A large number of hands are employed in machinery 
works, and the cycle and motor manufacture of Beeston is important. 
The manufacture of tobacco and cigars is considerable at Nottingham 
and Hucknall Torkard. 

Communications. The main line of the Midland railway touches 
the S.W. border of the county, with an alternative route through 
Nottingham, and branches thence N. through Hucknall and Mansfield 
to Worksop, to Newark and Lincoln, from Mansfield to Southwell 
and Newark, &c. The main line of the Great Central railway serves 
Nottingham and Hucknall. That of the Great Northern railway 
serves Newark and Retford, with a branch to Nottingham and local 
lines in that vicinity. A branch of the Great Central railway, 
formerly (till 1908) the main line of the Lancashire, Derbyshire and 
East Coast railway, enters the county on the W. from Chesterfield, 
and crosses the Dukeries by Ollerton to Dukeries Junction (G.N.R.) 
and Lincoln. The Sheffield-Grimsby line of the Great Centra! crosses 
the N. of the county by Worksop and Retford. The Trent is navig- 
able throughout the county, and the Idle between Bawtry and the 
Trent. The principal canals centre upon Nottingham. 

Population and Administration. The area of the ancient 
county is 539,756 acres, with a population in 1001 of 514,578. 
The area of the administrative county is 540,123. The county 
contains the city and county and municipal borough of Notting- 
ham (pop. 239,743), and the municipal boroughs of Retford or 
East Retford (12,340), Mansfield (21,445) and Newark (14,992). 
The urban districts are Arnold (8757), Beeston (8960), Carlton 
(10,041), Eastwood (4815), Hucknall Torkard (15,250), Hucknall 
under Huthwaite (4076), Kirkby in Ashfield (10,318), Mansfield 
Woodhouse (4877), Sutton in Ashfield (14,862), Warsop (2132), 
West Bridgford (7018), Worksop (16,112). For parliamentary 
purposes the ancient county is divided into four divisions 
(Bassetlaw, Newark, Rushcliffe and Mansfield), each returning 
one member; and the parliamentary borough of Nottingham 
returns one member for each of its three divisions. There are 
one court of quarter sessions and seven petty sessional divisions. 
The boroughs of Newark and Nottingham have separate com- 
missions of the peace, also separate courts of quarter sessions; 



828 



NOUMENON 



that of East Retford has a separate commission of the peace. 
The total number of civil parishes is 266. The ancient county 
contains 231 ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in 
part; it is situated principally in the diocese of Southwell and 
partly in the diocese of York. 

History. The earliest Teutonic settlers in the district which 
is now Nottinghamshire were an Anglian tribe who, not later 
than the 5th century, advanced from Lincolnshire along the 
Fosseway, and, pushing their way up the Trent valley, settled 
in the fertile districts of the S. and E., the whole W. region from 
Nottingham to within a short distance of Southwell being then 
occupied by the vast forest of Sherwood. At the end of the 6th 
century Nottinghamshire already existed as organized territory, 
though its W. limit probably extended no farther than the Saxon 
relics discovered at Oxton and Tuxford. Nottingham after the 
treaty of Wedmore became one of the five Danish boroughs. 
On the break-up of Mercia under Hardicanute, Nottinghamshire 
was included in the earldom of the Middle English, but in 1049 
it again became part of Leofric's earldom of Mercia, and descended 
to Edwin and Morkere. The first mention of the shire of Notting- 
ham occurs in 1016, when it was harried by Canute. The 
boundaries have remained practically unaltered since the time 
of the Domesday Survey, and the eight Domesday wapentakes 
were unchanged in 1610; in 1719 they had been reduced to six, 
their present number, Oswaldbeck being absorbed in Bassetlaw, 
of which it forms the North Clay division, and " Side " in Thur- 
garton. Nottinghamshire was originally included in the diocese 
and province of York, .and in 1291 formed an archdeaconry 
comprising the deaneries of Nottingham, Newark, Bingham and 
Retford. By act of parliament of 1836 the county was trans- 
ferred to the diocese of Lincoln and province of Canterbury, with 
the additional deanery of Southwell. In 1878 the deaneries of 
Mansfield, South Bingham, West Bingham, Collingham, Tuxford 
and Worksop were created, and in 1884 most of the county was 
transferred to the newly-created diocese of Southwell, the 
deaneries being unchanged. The deaneries of Bawtry, Bulwell, 
Gedling, East Newark and Norwell were created in 1888. Until 
1568 Nottinghamshire was united with Derbyshire under one 
sheriff, the courts and tourns being held at Nottingham until 
the reign of Henry III., when with the assizes for both counties 
they were removed to Derby. In the time of Edward I. the 
assizes were again held at Nottingham, where they are held at 
the present day. The Peverel Court, founded before 1113 for the 
recovery of small debts, had jurisdiction over 127 towns in 
Nottinghamshire, and was held at Nottingham until 1321, in 
1330 at Algarthorpe and in 1790 at Lenton, being finally abolished 
in 1849. The most interesting historic figure in the Domesday 
Survey of Nottinghamshire is William Peverel. His fief repre- 
sents the honour of Nottingham, and in 1068 he was appointed 
constable of the castle which William the Conqueror had raised 
at Nottingham. The Cliftons of Clifton and the Byrons of 
Newstead held lands in Nottinghamshire at the time of the 
Survey. Holme Pierrepoint belonged to the Pierrepoints from 
the time of Edward I.; Shelford was the seat of the Stanhopes, 
and Langer of the Tibetots, afterwards earls of Worcester. 
Archbishop Cranmer was a descendant of the Cranmers of 
Aslockton near Bingham. 

The political history of Nottinghamshire centres round the 
town and castle of Nottingham, which was seized by Robert of 
Gloucester on behalf of Maud in 1140; captured by John in 
1191; surrendered to Henry III. by the rebellious barons in 
1264; formed an important station of Edward III. in the Scottish 
wars; and in 1397 was the scene of a council where three of the 
lords appellant were appealed of treason. In the Wars of the 
Roses the county as a whole favoured the Yorkist cause, Notting- 
ham being one of the most useful stations of Edward IV. In 
the Civil War of the i7th century most of the nobility and 
gentry favoured the Royalist cause, but Nottingham Castle 
was garrisoned for the parliament, and in 1651 was ordered to 
be demolished. 

Among the earliest industries of Nottinghamshire were the 
malting and woollen industries, which flourished in Norman 



times. The latter declined in the i6th century, and was super- 
seded by the hosiery manufacture which sprang up after the 
invention of the stocking-loom in 1589. The earliest evidence 
of the working of the Nottinghamshire coalfield is in 1259, 
when Queen Eleanor was unable to remain in this county on 
account of the smoke of the sea-coal. Collieries are scarcely 
heard of in Nottinghamshire in the i7th century, but in 1620 
the justices of the peace for the shire report that there is no fear 
of scarcity of corn, as the counties which send up the Trent for 
coal bring corn in exchange, and in 1881 thirty-nine collieries 
were at work in the county. Hops were formerly extensively 
grown, and Worksop was famous for its liquorice. Numerous 
cotton-mills were erected in Nottinghamshire in the i8th century, 
and there were silk-mills at Nottingham. The manufacture of 
tambour lace existed in Nottinghamshire in the i8th century, and 
was facilitated in the igth century by the manufacture of 
machine-made net. From 1295 the county and town of Notting- 
ham each returned two members to parliament. In 1572 East 
Retford was represented by two members, and in 1672 Newark- 
upon-Trent also. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county 
returned four members in two divisions. By the act of 1885 it 
returned four members in four divisions; Newark and East 
Retford were disfranchised, and Nottingham returned three 
members in three divisions. 

Antiquities. At the dissolution of the monasteries there were 
no fewer than forty religious houses in Nottinghamshire. The 
only important monastic, remains, however, are those at New- 
stead, but the building is partly transformed into a mansion 
which was formerly the residence of Lord Byron (see HUCKNALL 
TORKARD). There are also traces of monastic ruins at Beauvale, 
Mattersey, Radford and Thurgarton. The finest parish church 
in the county is that of Newark. The churches of St Mary, 
Nottingham, and of Southwell were collegiate churches; South- 
well, now a cathedral, is a splendid building, principally Norman. 
The churches of Balderton, Bawtry, Hoveringham, Mansfield 
and Worksop are also partly Norman, and those of Coddington, 
Hawton and Upton St Peter near Southwell, Early English. Of 
the old castles, the principal remains are those at Newark, but 
there are several interesting old mansions, as at Kingshaugh, 
Scrooby, Shelford and Southwell. Wollaton Hall, near Notting- 
ham, is a fine old building (c.i 580). The finest residences of more 
modern date are Welbeck and others in the Dukeries (q.v.). 

See Victoria County History, Nottinghamshire; R. Thoroton, The 
Antiquities of Nottinghamshire (Loud., 1677; republished with 
additions by J. Thoresby, 3 vols., Lond., 1797); Thomas Bailey, 
Annals of Nottinghamshire (4 vols., Lond., 1852-1856); J. P. 
Briscoe, Old Nottinghamshire (1881); J. Ward, Descriptive Catalogue 
of Books relating to Nottinghamshire (Nottingham, 1892). 

NOUMENON (Gr. voovfj.evov, a thing known, from votiv), 
a philosophical term put into currency by Kant and not much 
used except in definite reference to his doctrine. In the Kantian 
system the term " noiimena " means things-in-themselves as 
opposed to " phenomena " or things as they appear to us. 
According to Kant the human mind is such that it can never 
penetrate by its speculative powers to things-in-themselves, 
but can only know phenomena. Thus we have the odd position 
that noiimena, or the contents of the intelligible world, are just 
the things to which thought can never penetrate. The term, 
however, is a relic of an early period of Kant's mental develop- 
ment. In his fully mature or critical position he held that the 
noiimenal world was inaccessible to the speculative reason, and 
yet that we are not altogether excluded from it, since the practical 
reason, i.e. our capacity for acting as moral agents, assures us 
of the existence of a noiimenal world wherein freedom, God and 
immortality have a real place. The relation of noumena to 
phenomena in the Kantian system is a most difficult one; and, 
in view of the fact that the acutest intellects of Europe have been 
engaged vainly for more than a century in reconciling the various 
passages on the subject, the safest conclusicn is that they are 
irreconcilable. The course adopted by Kant's immediate 
successors in German idealism was to reject the whole conception 
of noumena, for the reason that what is essentially unknowable 
has no existence for our intelligence. Kant, however, protested 



NOVALICHES NOVARA 



829 



strongly against this development when it was propounded by 
Fichte, and held that he had precluded it by his " refutation 
of idealism": he stood unshakably to the belief in an absolutely 
real world behind phenomena. Kant's position may be illogical 
as he himself stated it; but it is the expression of a sound 
principle: we must connect it with his general tendency to 
recognize the dynamic side of things. He saw, what so many 
of his successors failed to see, that the world as we know it is 
an expression of power; and he could not imagine whence the 
power could come if not from a world beyond phenomena. 
(See KANT; PHENOMENON.) (H. ST.) 

NOVALICHES, MANUEL PAVIA Y LACY, IST MARQUIS DE 
(1814-1896), Spanish marshal, was born at Granada on the 
6th of July 1814. He was the son of Colonel Pavia, and after 
a few years at the Jesuit school of Valencia he entered the Royal 
Artillery Academy at Segovia. In 1833 he became a lieutenant 
in the guards of Queen Isabella II., and during the Carlist War 
from 1833 to 1840 he became general of division in the latter 
year at the early age of twenty-six. The Moderate party made 
him war minister in 1847, and sent him to Catalonia, where 
his efforts to put down a Carlist rising were not attended with 
success. He had been made a senator in 1845, and marquis in 
1848. He was sent out to Manila in 1852 as captain-general 
of the Philippine Islands. In April 1854 he crushed with much 
sternness a formidable insurrection and carried out many 
useful reforms. On his return to Spain he married the countess 
of Santa Isabel, and commanded the reserves in the Peninsula 
during the war with Morocco. He refused the war portfolio 
twice offered him by Marshals O'Donnell and Narvaez and 
undertook to form a cabinet of Moderates in 1864 that lived 
but a few days. He volunteered to crush the insurrection in 
Madrid on the 22nd of June 1866, and when the revolution broke 
out in September 1868 accepted the command of Queen Isabella's 
troops. He was defeated by Marshal Serrano at the bridge of 
Alcolea on the 28th of September 1868, and was so badly wounded 
in the face that he was disfigured for life He kept apart during 
the revolution and went to meet King Alfonso when he landed 
at Valencia in January 1875. The Restoration made the marquis 
de Novaliches a senator, and the new king gave him the Golden 
Fleece. He died in Madrid on the 22nd of October 1896. 

NOVALIS, the pseudonym of FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, FREIHERR 
VON HARDENBERG (1772-1801), German poet and novelist. The 
name was taken, according to family records, from an ancestral 
estate. He was born on the 2nd of May 1772 on his father's 
estate at Oberwiederstedt in Prussian Saxony. His parents were 
members of the Moravian (Herrnhuter) sect, and the strict religious 
training of his youth is largely reflected in his literary works. 
From the gymnasium of Eisleben he passed, in 1 790, as a student 
of philosophy, to the university of Jena, where he was befriended 
by Schiller. He next studied law at Leipzig, when he formed 
a friendship with Friedrich Schlegel, and finally at Wittenberg, 
where, in 1794, he took his degree. His father's cousin, the 
Prussian minister Hardenberg, now offered him a government 
post at Berlin; but the father feared the influence upon his son 
of the loose-living statesman, and sent him to learn the practical 
duties of his profession under the Kreisamtmann (district 
administrator) of Tennstedt near Langensalza. In the following 
year he was appointed auditor to the government saltworks 
in Weissenfels, of which his father was director. His grief at 
the death in 1797 of Sophie von Kiihn, to whom he had become 
betrothed in Tennstedt, found expression in the beautiful 
Hymnen an die Nacht (first published in the Athenaum, 1800). 
A few months later he entered the Mining Academy of Freiberg 
in Saxony to study geology under Professor Abraham Gottlob 
Werner (1750-1817), whom in the fragment Die Lehrlinge zu 
Sais he immortalized as the " Meister." Here he again became 
engaged to be married, and the next two years were fruitful in 
poetical productions. In the autumn of 1799 he read at Jena 
to the admiring circle of young romantic poets his Geistliche 
Lieder. Several of these, such as " Wenn alle untreu werden," 
" Wenn ich ihn nur habe," " Unter tausend frohen Stunden," 
still retain, as church hymns, great popularity. In 1800 he was 



appointed Amtshaitptmann (local magistrate) in Thuringia, and 
was preparing to marry and settle, when pulmonary consumption 
rapidly set in, of which he died at Weissenfels on the 25th of 
March 1801. 

His works were issued in two volumes by his friends Ludwig 
Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel (2 vols. 1802; a third volume was 
added in 1846). They are for the most part fragments, of which 
Heinrich von Ofterdingen, an unfinished romance, is the chief. 
It was undertaken at the instance of Tieck, and reflects the 
ideas and tendencies of the older Romantic School, of which 
Hardenberg was a leading member. Heinrich von Ofterdingen's 
search for the mysterious " blue flower " is an allegory of the 
poet's life set in a romantic medieval world. Novalis, however, 
did not succeed in blending his mystic and philosophical concep- 
tions into a harmonious whole. The " fragments " contain 
idealistic though paradoxical views on philosophy, art, natural 
science, mathematics, &c. 

There are editions ot his collected works by C. Meisner and B. Wille 
(1898), by E. Heilborn (3 vols., 1901), and by J. Minor (3 vols., 
1907). Heinrich von Ofterdingen was published separately by T. 
Schmidt in 1876. Novalis's Correspondence was edited by J. M. 
Raich in 1880. See R. Haym, Die romantische Schule (Berlin, 1870); 
A. Schubart, Novalis' Leben, Dickten und Denken (1887); C. Busse, 
Novalis' Lyrik (1898); J. Bing, Friedrich von Hardenberg (Hamburg, 
1809), E. Heilborn, Friedrich von Hardenberg (Berlin, 1901). Carlyle s 
fine essay on Novalis (1829) is well known. 

NOVARA, a town and episcopal see, of Piedmont, Italy, 
capital of the province of Novara, 31 m. by rail W. of Milan, 
538 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1006) 37,962 (town), 48,694 
(commune). Railways diverge hence to Varallo Sesia, Orta, 
Arona (for Domodossola), Busto Arsizio, Milan, Vigevano and 
Vercelli. Previous to 1839 Novara was still surrounded by its 
old Spanish ramparts, but it is now an open, modern-looking 
town. Part of the old citadel is used as a prison. The cathedral 
dates from the 4th century (?), but (with the exception of the 
octagonal dome-roofed baptistery belonging to the first part 
of the loth century, and separated from the west e'nd by an 
atrium) was rebuilt between 1860 and 1870 after designs by 
Antonelli; the church of S Gaudenzio, dedicated to Bishop 
Gaudentius (d. 417), who is buried under the high altar, rebuilt 
by Pellegrino Tibaldi about 1570, has a baroque campanile and 
a dome 396 ft. high, the latter added by Antonelli in 1875-1878; 
and San Pietro del Rosario is the church in which the papal 
anathema was pronounced against the followers of Fra Dolcino. 
The two first contain pictures by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The 
city also contains handsome market-buildings erected in 1817- 
1842, a large hospital dating from the 9th century and a court- 
house constructed in 1346. The town has also a museum of 
Roman antiquities. The principal industry is the carding and 
spinning of silk; there are also iron- works and foundries, cotton 
mills, rice-husking mills, organ factories, dye-works and printing 
works. 

Novara, the ancient Novaria, according to Pliny a place of 
Celtic origin, according to Cato (but wrongly) of Ligurian origin, 
was a municipal city, and lay on the road between Vercellae 
and Mediolanum. Its rectangular plan may well be a survival 
of Roman days. Dismantled in 386 by Maximus for siding with 
his rival Valentinian, it was restored by Theodosius; but it 
was afterwards ravaged by Radagaisus (405) and Attila (452). 
A dukedom of Novara was constituted by the Lombards, a 
countship by Charlemagne. In mo the city was taken and 
burned by the emperor Henry V. Before the close of the I2th 
century it accepted the protection of Milan, and thus passed into 
the hands, first, of the Visconti, and, secondly, of the Sforzas. In 
1706 the city, which had long before been ceded by Maria 
Visconti to Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, was occupied by the Savoy 
troops. At the peace of Utrecht it passed to the house of Austria 
with the duchy of Milan; but, having been occupied by Charles 
Emmanuel in 1734, it was granted to him in the following year. 
Under the French it was the chief town of the department of 
Agogna. Restored to Savoy in 1814, it was in 1821 the scene 
of the defeat of the Piedmontese by the Austrians, and in 1849 
of the more disastrous battle which led to the abdication of 



8 3 o 



NOVA SCOTIA 



Charles Albert and an Austrian occupation of the city. The 
painter Gaudenzio Ferrari was a native of Novara; and so was 
Peter Lombard. (T. As.) 

NOVA SCOTIA, a province of the Dominion of Canada, lying 
between 43 25' and 47 N. and 59 40' and 66 25' W., and 
composed of the peninsula proper and the adjoining island of 
Cape Breton (q.v.), which is separated from the mainland by 
the Strait of Canso. The extreme length from S.W. to N.E. is 
374 m. (N.S. 268, C.B. 108); breadth 60 to 100 m.; area 21,428 
sq. m. The isthmus of Chignecto, n m. wide, connects it with 
the province of New Brunswick. 

Physical Features. Nova Scotia is intersected by chains of 
hills. The Cobequid Mountains, stretching from E. to W. and 
terminating in Cape Chignecto, form the chief ridge. Several 
of the elevations are as high as noo ft., and are cultivable 
almost to their summits. Lying on each side of this range are 
two extensive tracts of arable land. A ridge of precipices runs 
for 130 m. along the Bay of Fundy from- Brier Island at the 
farthest extremity of Digby Neck and culminates in Capes 
Split and Blomidon. Here and there rocks, from 200 to 600 ft. 
in height and covered with stunted firs, overhang the coasts. 
Beyond them lies the garden of Nova Scotia, the valley of the 
Annapolis. The Atlantic coast from Cape Canso to Cape Sable 
is high and bold, containing many excellent harbours, of which 
Halifax (Chebucto Bay) is the chief. The N. shore is, as a rule, 
low, with hills Some distance from the coast. Of its harbours 
the most important is Pictou. Of the inlets the most remarkable 
is Minas Basin, the eastern arm of the Bay of Fundy; it pene- 
trates some 60 m. inland, and terminates in Cobequid Bay, 
where the tides rise sometimes as high as 53 ft., while on the 
opposite coast, in Halifax Harbour, the spring tides scarcely 
exceed 7 or 8 ft. The height of the Fundy tides has, however, 
been often exaggerated, the average being 42-3 ft. Many islands 
occur along the coast, particularly on the S.E.; of these the 
most celebrated is Sable Island (q.v.). The rivers are, with few 
exceptions, navigable for coasting vessels for from 2 to 20 m. 
The principal are the Annapolis, Avon, Shubenacadie, the East, 
Middle and West rivers of Pictou, the Musquodoboit and the 
Lahave. The largest of the fresh-water lakes is Lake Rossignol, 
situated in Queen's county, and more than 20 m. long. Ship 
Harbour Lake, 15 m. in length, and Grand Lake are in Halifax 
county. 

Geology. The Lower Cambrian formation forms an almost con- 
tinuous belt along the Atlantic coast, varying in width from 10 to 
75 m. and covering an area estimated at 8500 sg. m. It is interrupted 
by large masses of intrusive granite, extending from the extreme 
S.W. of the province as far as Halifax, and cropping out in detached 
areas as far as Cape Canso. This part of the province is rugged and 
sterile, and abounds in small lakes and peat bogs. Along the N.E. 
coast extends a Carboniferous area, including two large and pro- 
ductive coal-fields in Cumberland and Pictou counties, and continued 
in the coal-fields of Cape Breton. On the S. coast of the Bay of Fundy, 
and at Minas Basin and Channel, the Triassic Red Sandstone forma- 
tion predominates, more or less protected by a narrow rim of trap 
rock, culminating at its E. end in the basaltic promontory of 
Blomidon (Blow-me-down). The Cobequid Mountains are a mass of 
slates, quartzites and intrusive rocks (apparently Siluro-Cambrian). 
At the Joggins, near Cape Chignecto, occurs a splendid exposure, rich 
in curious minerals and fossils, and very celebrated among geologists. 

Climate; Flora and Fauna. The climate of Nova Scotia is more 
temperate than that of New Brunswick, and more equable than that 
of the inland provinces, though not so dry. Spring and winter begin 
about a fortnight later than in Ontario. Dense fogs often drift in 
from the Atlantic, but are not considered unhealthy. 

Most of the principal birds of North America are to be found, 
and the game of the country includes moose, caribou, duck, teal, 
geese, woodcock, partridge, snipe, plover, &c. The game laws are 
strict and well enforced. The chief wild animals are bears, foxes 
and wild-cats. Wolves, once numerous, are now extinct. The 
natural flora does not differ greatly from that of the New England 
states. The sweet-smelling may-flower, or trailing arbutus (Epigaea 
repens), grows extensively, and has long been the provincial emblem. 

Population. The population increases slowly, having risen 
only from 440,572 in 1881 to 459,574 in 1901, an average of 21-8 
to the square mile (total area, 2i,428sq.m.). The rural population 
is grouped along the river valleys, and the natural increase is 
normal, but there is a large emigration to the manufacturing 



cities of the E. states and to the Canadian N.W. The great mass 
of the people are of British descent, but in parts of Cape Breton 
are found descendants of the early French settlers; in Lunenburg 
and the S.E. is a large German colony; near Halifax are a number 
of negroes from the West Indies, and scattered through the 
province are about 2000 Micmac Indians, who now confine 
themselves chiefly to the making of bows and arrows, baskets 
and trinkets; though they carry on a certain amount of mixed 
farming. Few are of absolutely pure Indian blood. The settlers 
of English and Scotch descent are about equal in numbers, but 
the latter have been more prominent in the development of the 
province. The Irish are found chiefly in Halifax and in the 
mining towns of Cape Breton. Roman Catholics, Presbyterians 
and Baptists predominate, though the Church of England is 
strong in Halifax, and still retains a certain social prestige. 

Administration. The executive authority is in the hands of 
a lieutenant-governor appointed for five years by the federal 
government, and of a council appointed from and responsible to 
the local legislature. This consists of a lower house of assembly, 
and of a legislative council of twenty life members, which the 
assembly has frequently, but in vain, endeavoured to abolish. 
The municipal system was introduced subsequent to federation, 
and is modelled on that of Ontario. 

The revenue is chiefly made up of the Dominion subsidy 
(see ONTARIO), and of royalties on mining concessions, chiefly 
those on coal. Owing to the great increase of mining in Cape 
Breton, its payments towards the revenue are larger in pro- 
portion than those of the mainland. 

Education. Primary education is free and compulsory; secondary 
education is also free but optional. In each county one high school is 
raised to the rank of an academy, free to all qualified students in the 
county, and receives an additional grant. Roman Catholics have 
not won the right of separate schools, as in Ontario, but in Halifax 
and other districts where that church is strong, a compromise has been 
arranged. Thus the two Roman Catholic colleges, St Francis Xavier 
(English) at Antigonish, and St Anne (French) at Church Point 
(Digby county), and most of the convents are in affiliation with the 
public school system. There are also many private schools, chiefly 
for girls, and under denominational control. But while primary and 
secondary education is widespread and of good quality, higher 
education has suffered from denominational bickerings, and the 
universities are still too many and top small. They are: King's 
College, Windsor (Anglican), founded in 1790; Acadia University, 
Wolfville (Baptist, 1839); St Francis Xavier, Antigonish (Roman 
Catholic, 1866); and Dalhousie University, Halifax (Undenomina- 
tional), established by charter in 1818, reorganized in 1863, the 
largest and the most efficient, possessing faculties of arts, science, 
medicine and law. The province supports a normal school and 
schools of agriculture and of horticulture at Truro, and has voted 
$100,000 for a College of Technology at Halifax. 

Commerce and Manufactures. Nova Scotia is naturally a sea-going 
province, and till about 1881 had the largest tonnage, in proportion 
to population, in the world. Since then, her shipping has greatly 
diminished, though Halifax is still one of the chief winter ports of 
the Dominion, and Sydney is also a favourite port of call for steamers 
in need of " bunker " coal. The water-power provided by the rivers 
supports many manufactures. Several sugar-refineries exist, and a 
large trade is carried on with Bermuda and the West India islands. 

Fisheries. The fisheries of Nova Scotia are the most important in 
Canada, and the value of their products ($7,841,602 in 1904) is about 
one-third that of the whole Dominion. Lobsters, cod and mackerel 
constitute the bulk of the catch. Many boats are also fitted out in 
Lunenburg, Digby, Yarmouth and other ports for the Grand Banks of 
Newfoundland. A bounty is paid by the Dominion government, and 
attempts are being made to introduce more scientific methods a*uiong 
the fishermen. The vessels are manned by over 25,000 men, and 
many more are employed in the lobster canneries and kindred 
industries. Trout and salmon abound in the inland lakes and 
streams. 

Lumber. Lumbering was long the chief industry of the province, 
and is still very important, though the percentage of forest left uncut 
is only about 30%. The network of small lakes and rivers enables 
the logs to be brought to the mills with great ease, and little rough 
timber is now exported. The chief export is that of spruce deals, 
almost entirely from Halifax. The manufacture of wood-pulp for 
paper is also carried on. 

Minerals. Bituminous coal is mined in various parts of Cape 
Breton (q.v.) and in the counties of Cumberland and Pictou. The 
seams dip at a low angle, and are of great thickness, especially in 
Pictou county. The total product exceeds 5,000,000 tons, annually, 
more than two-thirds that of the whole Dominion. Of this over half 
is mined in the neighbourhood of Sydney, Cape Breton. Other 



NOVA SCOTIA 



831 



NOVA SCOTIA 

and 
PRINCE EDWARD I. 



EDWARD 

ISLAND 



Scale, 1:3.600,000 

English Miles 
o r p 40 80 



Provincial Capitals 
Railways ............... 



T L A 



* 



C E 



Longitude Westoaof Greepwich 




important centres are Springhill, Acadia Mines, Stellarton and Glace 
Bay (C.B.). It is shipped as far west as Montreal, and to the New 
England states. Iron is largely produced, chiefly in the vicinity of 
the Cumberland and Pictou coal-fields. The deposits include magne- 
tite, red haematite, specular, limonite and carbonate ores. Blast 
furnaces are in operation, especially at New Glasgow, Sydney and 
North Sydney, though most of the ore used at Sydney is imported 
from Newfoundland. The quarries of easily worked limestone, the 
product of which is used as a " flux " in the blast furnaces, add to 
the value of the iron deposits. Gold occurs in workable quantities 
in the quartz all along the Atlantic coast, and several small but 
successful mining enterprises are in operation, yielding about 
$500,000 annually. Large deposits of gypsum occur, especially at 
Windsor in Hants county. Manganese and copper are also worked 
on a small scale. 

Agriculture. The attention paid to lumbering, fishingand shipping, 
and the subsequent emigration westwards have lessened the impor- 
tance of this industry. Mixed farming is however largely carried on, 
and of late years dairy farming has been greatly extended and im- 
proved, and much butter and cheese is exported to England. Both 
the Dominion and the provincial governments have endeavoured to 
introduce scientific methods. Nova Scotia ranks second to Ontario 
in its production of apples and peaches. The centre of this industry 
is the valley of the Annapolis, where, it is said, one " may ride for 
fifty miles under apple-blossoms." At the head of the Bay of Fundy 
and on Minas Basin the low-lying meadows produce splendid crops 
of hay. Owing to high Fundy tides, the air in the neighbourhood 
is constantly in motion, the result being a cool temperature, even in 
the height of summer, which is well fitted for stock-raising. 

Roads and Railroads. Road-making machines are employed for 
the improvement of the ordinary highways, and steel bridges are 
replacing the 'wooden structures; but the roads in the country 
districts still leave much to be desired. The Intercolonial railway, 
owned and worked by the Dominion government, is the chief means 
of communication with the other provinces, and for the carriage of 
local traffic. Besides the main line from Halifax to Amherst, a 
branch runs from Truro to Sydney, and another from Oxford Junction 
to Pictou and Stellarton. The Canadian Pacific railway has running 
rights over it from St John (N.B.) to Halifax; on its completion, 
similar rigjits will be granted from Moncton to Halifax to the Grand 
Trunk Pacific. The Dominion Atlantic railway extends from 
Windsor Junction, near Halifax, to Yarmouth; the Nova Scotia 



Central railway from Lunenburg to Middleton on the Dominion 
Atlantic railway. A line along tne Atlantic coast connects Halifax 
and Yarmouth, whence a daily line of steamers sails for Boston. 
Other lines connect Halifax with a number of the S.W. coast and 
inland towns, and a line has been projected from New Glasgow to 
Guysborough and the coast. Several smaller lines are owned by the 
various coal-mining companies. Telegraph and telephone lines 
extend all over the province, and there are two cable stations one 
at Canso and the other at Sydney. The Marconi Company has 
stations for wireless telegraphy at Halifax, Cape Sable, Sable Island 
and Glace Bay. 

History. Nova Scotia may well have been the Markland of 
early Norse and Icelandic voyages, and Cape Breton was visited 
by the Cabots in 1497-1498, but not till 1604 was any attempt 
at permanent colonization made by Europeans. In that year 
an expedition was headed by a Frenchman, Pierre de Guast, 
Sieur de Monts (i56o-c. 1630), who had received from Henry IV. 
full powers to explore and take possession of all lands in North 
America lying between the 4oth and 46th parallels of north 
latitude. De Monts and his friend de Poutrincourt (d. 1615), 
endeavoured to form settlements at Port Royal (now Annapolis), 
St Croix (in New Brunswick) and elsewhere, but quarrels broke 
out with the Jesuits, and in 1613 the English colonists of Virginia 
made a descent upon them, claimed the territory in right of the 
discovery by the Cabots, and expelled the greater part of the 
inhabitants. In 1621 Sir William Alexander obtained from 
James I. a grant of the whole peninsula, which was named in 
the patent, Nova Scotia, instead of Acadia,_ the old name given 
to the colony by the French. During the reign of Charles I. the 
still existing order of Baronets of Nova Scotia was instituted, 
and their patents ratified in parliament. The treaty of St 
Germain-en-Laye (1632) confirmed France in the possession of 
Acadia, Cape Breton and New France; but fierce feuds broke 
out among the French settlers, and in 1654 a force sent out by 
Cromwell took possession of the country, but by the treaty of 
Breda (1667) it was restored to France by Charles II. Continual 



8 3 2 



NOVAT1ANUS NOVAYA ZEMLYA 



fighting went on between the French and the British colonists 
of New England, the Indians taking part, usually on the side of 
the French; in 1710 the province was finally captured by Great 
Britain and ceded to her in 1713 by the treaty of Utrecht, under 
the name of " Acadia or Nova Scotia," the French remaining 
masters of Cape Breton. Perpetual quarrels went on concerning 
the boundaries of the district ceded; the English claim comprised 
the present Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, most of New 
Brunswick and the Gaspe peninsula, while the French restricted 
it to the S. half of what is now Nova Scotia. In 1749 Halifax 
was founded as a counterpoise to Louisbourg in Cape Breton, 
and over 4000 colonists sent out, but the French opposed the new 
settlers. In 1755 about 6000 French were suddenly seized by 
Governor Charles Laurence (d. 1760) and hurried into exile. 
After undergoing many sufferings, some eventually found their 
way back, while others settled in Cape Breton, or in distant 
Louisiana. By the treaty of Paris in 1763, France resigned all 
claim to the country. In 1769 Prince Edward Island (formerly 
Isle St Jean) was made a separate government. Meanwhile, 
immigration from the New England colonies had filled the fertile 
meadows left vacant by the Acadians. A later influx of American 
Loyalists led in 1784 to the erection of New Brunswick into a 
separate colony. In the same year, Cape Breton was also 
separated from Nova Scotia but reunited in 1820. 

During the wars of the American and French revolutions 
Halifax grew apace. Hither, in June 1813, came the " Shannon " 
with her prize the " Chesapeake," captured off Boston harbour. 
Meanwhile, between 1784 and 1828, a large Scottish emigration, 
chiefly from the Highlands, had settled in the counties around 
Pictou, and the lumbering industry rose to great proportions. 
Agriculture was for some time neglected, but in 1818 the letters 
of " Agricola " (John Young, 1773-1837) gave it an impetus. 
Representative institutions had been granted as early as 1758, 
but power long rested mainly in the hands of a Council of Twelve, 
comprising the chief justice, the Anglican bishop and other high 
officials. In 1848, after a long struggle, responsible government 
was won by the legislative assembly, led by Joseph Howe. 

In these political struggles, education was often the battle- 
ground, the fight ending in 1864 in the establishment of free 
primary and secondary schools by Dr (afterwards Sir Charles) 
Tupper, and the re-organization on an undenominational basis 
of Dalhousie University (see HALIFAX). In 1867 the province 
entered the new Dominion of Canada. For some years after- 
wards an agitation in favour of repeal was maintained, but 
gradually died away. Since then its history is a record of 
uneventful progress. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For history, see Duncan Campbell, Nova Scotia, 
(i 8 73); T. C. Haliburton (" Sam Slick "), Historical and Statistical 
Account of Nova Scotia (1829); Beamish Murdoch, History of Nova 
Scotia or Acadia (1865) ; Sir John Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia 
(1900). Consult L'Abb6 H. R. Casgrain, Un Pelerinage au pays 
d'Evangeline (1888), on the French side; F. Parkman, Montcalm and 
Wolfe, on the other. For general information, see S. E. Dawson, 
North America (1897); Sir Wm. Dawson, Acadian Geology (4th ed., 
1891); J. C. Hopkins, Canada: an Encyclopaedia (6 vols., 1898-1899). 

NOVATIANUS, Roman presbyter, and one of the earliest 
antipopes, founder of the sect of the Novatiani or Novatians, 
was born about the beginning of the 3rd century. On . the 
authority of Philostorgius (H.E. viii. 15) he has been called a 
native of Phrygia, but perhaps the historian merely intended 
to indicate the persistence of Novatianism in Phrygia at the 
time when he wrote. Little is known of his life, and that only 
from his opponents. His conversion is said to have taken place 
after an intense mental struggle; he was baptized by sprinkling, 
and without episcopal confirmation, when in hourly expectation 
of death; and on his recovery his Christianity retained all the 
gloomy character of its earliest stages. He was ordained at Rome 
by Fabian, or perhaps by an earlier bishop; and during the 
Decian persecution he maintained the view which excluded from 
ecclesiastical communion all those (lapsi) who after baptism 
had sacrificed to idols a view which had frequently found 
expression, and had caused the schism of Hippolytus. Bishop 
Fabian suffered martyrdom in January 250, and, when Cornelius 



was elected his successor in March or April 251, Novatian 
objected on account of his known laxity on the above-mentioned 
point of discipline, and allowed himself to be consecrated bishop 
by the minority who shared his views. He and his followers 
were excommunicated by the synod held at Rome in October 
of the same year. He is said by Socrates (H.E. iv. 28) to have 
suffered martyrdom under Valerian. After his death the 
Novatians spread rapidly over the empire; they called them- 
selves KaOapoi, or Puritans, and rebaptized their converts from 
the Catholic view. The eighth canon of the council of Nice 
provides in a liberal spirit for the readmission of the clergy of 
the jco.0a.poi to the Catholic Church, and the sect finally dis- 
appeared some two centuries after its origin. . Novatian has 
sometimes been confounded with his contemporary Novatus, 
a Carthaginian presbyter, who held similar views. 

Novatian was the first Roman Christian who wrote to any con- 
siderable extent in Latin. Of his numerous writings three are 
extant: (l) a letter written in the name of the Roman clergy to 
Cyprian in 250; (2) a treatise in thirty-one chapters, De trinitate; 
(3) a letter written at the request of the Roman laity, De cibis 
judaicis. They are well-arranged compositions, written in an 
elegant and vigorous style. The best editions are by Welchman 
(Oxford, 1724) and by Jackson (London, 1728); they are translated 
in vol. ii. of Cyprian's works in the Ante-Nicene Theol. Libr. (Edin- 
burgh, 1869). The Novatian controversy can be advantageously 
studied in the Epistles of Cyprian. 

NOVATION, a legal term derived from the Roman law, in 
which novatio was of three kinds substitution of a new 
debtor (expromissio or delegatio), of a new creditor (cessio 
nominum vel actionum), or of a new contract. In English law 
the term (though it occurs as early as Bracton) is scarcely 
naturalized, the substitution of a new debtor or creditor being 
generally called an assignment, and of a new contract a merger. 
It is doubtful, however, whether merger applies except where 
the substituted contract is one of a higher nature, as where a 
contract under seal supersedes a simple contract. Where one 
contract is replaced by another, it is of course necessary that the 
new contract should be a valid contract, founded upon sufficient 
consideration (see CONTRACT). The extinction of the previous 
contract is sufficient consideration. The question whether there 
is a novation most frequently arises in the course of dealing 
between a customer and a new partnership, and on the assignment 
of the business of a life assurance company with reference to 
the assent of the policyholders to the transfer of their policies. 
The points on which novation turns are whether the new firm 
or company has assumed the liability of the old, and whether 
the creditor has consented to accept the liability of the new 
debtors and discharge the old. The question is one of fact in 
each case. See especially the Life Assurance Companies Act 1872, 
s. 7, where the word " novations " occurs in the marginal note to 
the section, and so has quasi-statutory sanction. Scots law seems 
to be more stringent than English law in the application of the 
doctrine of novation, and to need stronger evidence of the 
creditor's consent to the transfer of liability. In American law, 
as in English, the term is something of a novelty, except in 
Louisiana, where much of the civil law is retained. 

NOVAYA ZEMLYA (Nova Zembla, " new land "), an Arctic 
land off the coast of European Russia, to which it belongs, 
consisting of two large islands separated by a narrow winding 
channel, the Matochkin Shar. It lies between 70 31' and 
77 6' N., and between 5 i3s' and 69 2' E. It forms an elongated 
crescent, being nearly 600 m. long with a width of 30 to 90 m., 
and an area of about 36,000 sq. m. It separates the Barents 
Sea on the W. from the Kara Sea on the E. With Vaygach 
Island, between it and the mainland, Novaya Zemlya forms a 
continuation of the Pae-Khoy hills. Vaygach is separated from 
it by the Kara Strait, 30 m. wide, and from the continent by 
the Yugor or Ugrian Strait, only 7 m. across. On the E. coast 
of Novaya Zemlya, especially between the Matochkin Shar 
and 75 N., there are a number of fjord-like inlets such as 
Chekina, Rasmyslov and Medvizhiy bays. The greater part 
of the W. coast is fretted into bays and promontories, and a 
large number of islets lie off it. At the S. extremity there are 
a number of fjords and the wide bay of Sakhanikha. Then 



NOVEL 



833 



farther N. is tht Kostin Shar, a strait separating Mezhdu- 
sharskiy Island from the coast, and having at its N. entrance 
South Goose Cape, which forms the S. extremity of Goose 
Land (Gusinaya Zemlya) in 72 N. Next follows Moller Bay, 
between Goose Land and Cape Britvin, with several minor bays 
affording anchorages. On the W. coast of the N. island are 
Krestovaya, Mashigin and Nordenskjold bays, and to the N. 
are several groups of islands Gorbovyi, Pankratiev, the Gulf 
Stream Islands and the Orange Islands. Off the E. coast that 
called Pakhtusov (actually divided by a strait into two) may 
be mentioned. Little is known of the interior of Novaya Zemlya. 
It is mountainous throughout. Transverse chains are thrown 
off from the main chain, and are separated by deep narrow valleys, 
some of which are watered by streams of considerable size, which, 
at the spring thaw, bring down a remarkable bulk of detritus. 
The general slope of the land is steeper on the E. than on the 
W., and at the N. and S. extremities there is a descent to a 
comparatively low plateau. In the S. this plateau is broken by 
several parallel ridges, with level valleys between them, dotted 
with numerous small lakes. On either side of the Matochkin 
Shar the hills reach 40x30 ft. and upwards. The more elevated 
region is covered with snow-fields which feed glaciers in some 
cases, while the N. seems to be covered with a great ice-sheet. 

Geology. The geological structure of the central region is of the 
most varied description. The primary rocks which appear at 
Mitushev Kamen are overlaid with thick beds of quartzites and clay- 
slates containing sulphide of iron, with subordinate layers of talc or 
mica slate, and thinner beds of fossiliferous limestone, Silurian or 
Devonian. More recent clay-slates and marls belonging to the middle 
Jurassic occur in the western coast-region about Matochkin Shar. 
About 74 N. the crags of the E. coast are composed Oi grey sand- 
stone, while in 76 Barents's Islands, and possibly a much greater 
part of the N. coast, show Carboniferous strata. Traces of Eocene 
deposits have not been discovered on Novaya Zemlya. During the 
Glacial period its glaciers were much larger than at present, whilst 
during a later portion of the Quaternary period (to judge by the 
marine fossils found as high as 300 ft. above the sea) Novaya Zemlya, 
like the whole of the arctic coast of Russia, was submerged for 
several hundred feet. At present it appears to partake of the move- 
ment of upheaval common to the whole of N. Russia. 

Climate. Novaya Zemlya is colder than Spitsbergen (which lies 
more to the N.) as in some degree it shares in the continental con- 
ditions of northern Russia and Siberia. The middle and northern 
parts of the W. coast are not so cold as the E. On the W. coast 
the temperature appears to decrease S. of the Matochkin Shar, being 
reduced by a cold current from the Kara Sea through Kara Strait. 
On the other hand, the climate of the northern part of the W. coast 
is affected by a relatively warm drift from the W. Under this 
influence there are years when the islands can be circumnavigated 
without difficulty. In the Matochkin Shar region the snow-line is 
estimated at about 1 800 to 2000 ft. Glaciers are rare S. of 72 N. 

Flora and Fauna. Grass does not grow to any extent except in 
Goose Land. Elsewhere even the leaved lichens are precarious, 
though the leather lichens flourish. Of Phanerogams, only the 
Dryas octopetala covers small areas of the debris, interspersed with 
isolated Cochlearia, &c., and, where a layer of thinner clay has been 
deposited in sheltered places, the surface is covered with saxifrages, 
&c. ; and a carpet of mosses allows the arctic willow (Salix polaris) 
to develop. Where a thin sheet of humus, fertilized by lemmings, 
has accumulated, a few flowering plants appear, but even so their 
brilliant flowers spring direct from the soil, concealing the developed 
leaflets, while their horizontally spread roots grow out of proportion ; 
only the Salix lanata rises to 7 or 8 in., sending out roots I in. 
thick and 10 to 12 ft. long. This applies only to the better-known 
neighbourhoods of Matochkin Shar and Kostin Shar; N. of 74 N. 
very few species have been found. The phanerogamic flora of 
Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach numbers about two hundred species. 
As to the genetic connexions of the Novaya Zemlya flora, it appears, 
according to M. Kjellmann's researches, to belong to the Asiatic 
rather than to the European arctic region. 

The interior of Novaya Zemlya shows hardly a trace of animal life, 
save here and there a vagrant bird, a_ few lemmings, an ice^fox, a 
brown or white bear, and at times immigrant reindeer. Even insects 
are few. The sea-coast, however, is occupied by countless birds, 
which come from the S. for the breeding season, and at certain parts 
of the sea-coast the rocks are covered with millions of guillemots, 
while great flocks of ducks of various sorts, geese and swans swarm 
every summer on the valleys and lakes of the south. Whales, 
walruses, various seals and dolphins are frequently met with. Only 
two species of fish are of any importance the goltzy (So/mo alpinus) 
in the western rivers, and the omul (Salmo omul) in the eastern. 

The numbers of sea mammals and birds attracted Russian hunters, 
and even in the l6th century they had extended their huts (slano- 
vishttha) to the extreme N. of the island. Many of them wintered for 
xix. 27 



years on Novaya Zemlya without great loss from scurvy. Owing to 
the ice in the White Sea Russian hunters found Novaya Zemlya less 
easy of access than did the Norwegians. But about 1877 systematic 
attempts at settlement were made by the Russian government, 
several families of Samoyedes being established at stations on the 
W. coast of the S. island, the chief of which is Karmakuly on Moller 
Bay, where there is a church. Novaya Zemlya is included in the 
Russian province of Archangel. 

History. Novaya Zemlya seems to have been known to 
Novgorod hunters in the nth century; but its geographical 
discovery dates from the great movement for the discovery of 
the N.E. passage. In 1353 Sir Hugh Willoughby sighted what 
was probably Goose Land; Richard Chancellor penetrated 
into the White Sea. In 1556 Stephen Borough reached the S. 
extremity of the island, being the first western European to do 
so. William Barents touched the island (1594) at Sukhoy Nos 
(73 46'), and followed the coast N. to the Orange Islands and 
S. to the Kostin Shar. Rumours of silver ore having been found 
induced the Russian government to send out expeditions during 
the second half of the iSth century. In 1760 Sawa Loshkin 
cruised along the E. coast, spent two winters there, and in the 
next year, after having reached Cape Begehrte (Begheerte), 
returned along the W. coast, thus accomplishing the first cir- 
cumnavigation; but the valuable records of his voyage have 
been lost. In 1768 the Russian Lieutenant Rozmyslov reached 
Goose Land and penetrated into the Kara Sea by the Matochkin 
Shar, where he spent the winter; in the following year he pursued 
the exploration of the Kara Sea, but was compelled to return 
and abandon his ship. The first real scientific information about 
the island is due to the expeditions (1821-1824) of Count Feodor 
Petrovich Liitke (1707-1882), after whom part of the N. island 
is named Lutke Land. Nearly all the W. coast as far as Cape 
Nassau, as well as Matochkin Shar, was mapped, and valuable 
scientific information obtained. In 1832 Lieutenant Pakhtusov 
mapped the E. coast as far as Matochkin Shar; and in 1835 
Pakhtusov and Tsivolka his pilot, or commander of his second 
ship, mapped the coast as far as 74 24'. The next expedition 
was that of the naturalist Karl von Baer in 1838. A new era 
of scientific exploration began in 1868, while Norwegian sea- 
hunters brought in valuable geographical information. In 1870 
the Norwegian Captain Johannesen penetrated as far as 79 
E., in 76 13' N., and afterwards accomplished the second 
circumnavigation of Novaya Zemlya. These explorations led 
the way for the famous voyages of Baron Nordenskiold (1875- 
1878), which included investigations in Novaya Zemlya. In 
1877 the Russian Lieutenant, Tyaghin, attempted to cross the 
S. island, and in 1878 M. Grinevetskiy succeeded in doing so. 
Among later expeditions may be mentioned those of C. Nossilov 
(1887-1892), T. N. Chernychev (1895) who made a crossing of 
the S. island, H. J. Pearson (1895 and 1897), Lieutenant Borisov 
(1899 and 1900) and 0. Ekstam (1900 and 1903). 

See accounts of the expeditions above mentioned, and especially, 
among earlier works, K. E. von Baer, Expedition a Novaia Zemlia et 
en Lapponie (St Petersburg, 1838, &c.); and among later works 
H. J. Pearson, Beyond Petsora Eastward, with botanical and geological 
appendices by H. W. Feilden (London, 1899); also I. Sporer, 
Nowaja Senuja (Gotha, 1867); A. P. Engelhardt, A Russian 
Province of the North (Archangel, of which the author was governor), 
translated by H. Cooke (London, 1899). 

NOVEL (from novettus, diminutive of Lat. ntnux, new; through 
the Italian novella), the name given in literature to a study of 
manners, founded on an observation of contemporary or recent 
life, in which the characters, the incidents and the intrigue are 
imaginary, and, therefore, " new " to the reader, but are founded 
on lines running parallel with those of actual history. 

I. With the word novel is identified a certain adherence to 
the normal conditions of experience. A novel is a sustained 
story which is, indeed, not historically true, but might very easily 
be so. It is essentially a modern form of literature that is to say, 
it makes its appearance when the energy of a people has con- 
siderably subsided or has taken purely civic forms, and is ready 
to contemplate and to criticize pictures drawn from conventional 
manners. The novel has been made the vehicle for satire, for 
instruction, for political or religious exhortation, for technical 



834 



NOVEL 



information; but these are side issues. The plain and direct 
purpose of the novel is to amuse by a succession of scenes painted 
from nature, and by a thread of emotional narrative. 

It was not until the i8th century that it began to be a 
prominent factor in literary life, and not until the ipth that it 
took a place in it which was absolutely predominant. The 
novel requires, from those who are content to be only fairly 
proficient in it, less intellectual apparatus than any other species 
of writing. This does not militate against the fact that the 
greatest novelists, always a small class, produce work which is as 
admirable in its art as the finest poetry. But the novel adapts 
itself to so large a range of readers, and covers so vast a ground 
in the imitation of life, that it is the unique branch of literature 
which may be cultivated without any real distinction or skill, 
and yet for the moment may exercise a powerful purpose. 

2. Classical Antiquity. The place held by the novel in an- 
tiquity offers interesting analogies with its position in modern 
times. It was Voltaire, in his Pyrrhonisms de I'histoire, who set 
the fashion of calling the Cyropaedeia a novel, but it is probable 
that Xenophon, in composing this great work on the education 
of Cyrus, had a purpose that was didactic and historical rather 
than imaginative. The vogue of the novel really began in 
Alexandrian times, when social life was so far settled in tradition 
that the pleasure of reflecting on reality had definitely set in. 
In the 2nd century B.C. a certain Aristides wrote, in six books, 
the Milesiaka, which was probably the beginning of the modern 
novel. These Tales of Miletus, the town in which Aristides lived, 
are lost, but from existing imitations of them in Greek and Latin 
we can gather that they consisted of humorous and sarcastic 
episodes of contemporary life. There seems to be good evidence 
that the bulk of these novelettes, and of the tales which followed 
them, dealt mainly with the adventures of lovers. In the 2nd 
century A.D. Lucian preserved for us invaluable pictures of the 
life in which he moved: his Lucius or the Ass and his True 
History are fantastic and extraordinary fictions in which the 
nature of the novel is not unfrequently approached. But a 
Syrian Christian, Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in the 4th century, 
may claim to have come much closer to it in his Aethiopica, 
which has the unique merit of being a perfectly pure love story, 
in which the marvellous is not absolutely banished, but in which 
on the whole the solid structure of experience is preserved. 
In the 6th century, as is supposed, a Greek who is called Longus 
(A6y-yos) , but of whose life nothing is known, wrote the voluptuous 
pastoral story of Daphnis and Chloe, which is far superior to all 
other remnants of Greek fiction which have come down to us, 
and which is the only one of them which can strictly be called a 
novel. In Latin literature, the Golden Ass of Apuleius is mani- 
festly a translation of a lost Greek book, to which Lucian also 
was indebted. It is probable that in the great age of Roman 
literature prose fiction was cultivated, but we should be limited 
to pure conjecture as to its scope, if we did not possess a fragment 
of a work which is absolutely invaluable to the comparative 
student of literature. If the Salyricon of Petronius was not an 
isolated phenomenon and it is highly improbable that this was 
the case then the Romans of the Neronian epoch understood 
to the full the secret of how to produce in prose a satirical, not 
to say cynical, study of manners in fiction. The Salyricon is not 
less skilfully managed than such later novels as Gil Bias or 
Peregrine Pickle, and it is of the same class. From the extent 
of the principal episode which has been preserved, it is supposed 
that this novel was not a short tale of intrigue, but was a sus- 
tained record, drawn up with careful and lengthy observation of 
manners, for the single purpose of entertainment. Unfortunately 
this extraordinary work remains not merely solitary in its class, 
but itself a fragment. In early Christian times, such books as 
The Shepherd of Hermas, and the productions of Palladius and of 
Synesius, indistinctly testified to a certain appetite for prose 
fiction. 

3. Italian. It was in northern Italy that the novel of modern 
Europe (both the literary type and the name) came into existence. 
A collection of tales, called // Novellino or Cento novelle antiche 
(although only 66 of the 100 survive), was composed at the 



end of the r3th century, and started this class of literature in 
Europe. These anonymous stories are of extraordinary diversity, 
chivalrous, mythological, moral and scandalous. The medieval 
view of women and priests and peasants is found in its full 
development, and there is something of the realistic reflection 
of customs which was to flourish later in a whole class of fiction. 
The earliest Italian novelist whose name is connected with his 
writings is Francesco da Barberino (1264-1348), whose Docu- 
menti d' 'Amor were first published in 1640. He was followed by 
the celebrated Giovanni Boccaccio, who wrote his Filocopo 
about 1339 and the Decameron some nine years later. Of his 
disciples the most eminent was Francesco Sacchetti (1335-1400), 
a Florentine. Sacchetti's Trecente novelle, which remained in 
MS. until the i8th century (i 724), are ironical and realistic studies 
of the life around him in Tuscany. To Giovanni Fiorentino is 
attributed a collection of 50 tales, called // Pecorone, printed 
first in 1558, but written in 1378. Shakespeare was indebted to 
one of these stories for the plot of The Merchant of Venice. A 
great name in the evolution of European fiction is that of Tom- 
maso Guardato, called Masuccio (i4i5?-i477?); he was a native 
of Salerno, and was the first of the south Italian novelists. 
Masuccio imitated no one; his conceptions and his observations 
are wholly his own. His Novellino, printed at Naples in 1476, 
is divided into five books, each containing ten stories. These 
deal satirically with the three favourite subjects of the age 
namely, jealous husbands, unfaithful wives and debauched 
priests. He was followed in this, as well as in his vivacity, by 
Antonio Cornazzano (i43i?-isoo?), an inhabitant of Piacenza, 
who wrote Italian with much greater purity than Masuccio, 
but less vigour. His stories were frequently reprinted, under 
the title of Proverbii. Of the novels of Giovanni Brevio (1480?- 
1562?) only five have been preserved, but these are of unusual 
merit. We then reach Matteo Bandello (1480-1561), long the 
most famous of all the Italian novelists, whose Novelle, first 
issued in 1554, were eagerly read in all parts of Europe; they are 
214 in number. After Bandello the decline of the Italian novella 
is evident. Francesco Maria Molza (1480-1544), whose stories 
appeared in 1547, was a rival to Bandello, and has been preferred 
to him by several modern critics. The Ragionamenti d'Amor 
(1548) of Agnolo Firenzuola (1493-1545) was the work of a poet 
writing in richly embroidered prose. After Firenzuola the great 
school of Italian story-tellers declined. There was no more novel 
writing of any importance in Italy until the close of the i8th 
century, when an admiring study of German literature produced 
the romances of Alessandro Verri (1741-1816) and Ugo Foscolo 
(1778-1827). The first Italian novelist of merit in recent times, 
however, is Alessandro Manzoni (1785-1873), whose / Promessi 
Sposi (1825) enjoyed an unbounded popularity. Manzoni had 
a troop of imitators, but no rivals. In the fourth quarter of the 
igth century Italy produced some very brilliant and original 
novelists, in particular Giovanni Verga (b. 1840), Matilda Serao 
(b. 1856) and Gabriele d'Annunzio (b. 1863). 

4. France. In the I4th century, when Italy was already 
proceeding in a modern direction, France was satisfied with 
ancient tales of Fierabras or Les Quatre fils d'Aynon, which 
were nothing but epics told in rambling prose. It was not 
until about 1450 that the anonymous Quinze joies du mariage 
showed the French to be influenced by the Italian discovery 
of the novelette of manners. The author of this extraordinary 
work was perhaps Antoine de la Sale who seems certainly to 
have written the whole of the Cent nouvelles nouvelles, imitated 
from Boccaccio and Sacchetti. This bud of realistic fiction, 
however, was immediately nipped by the romances of chivalry, of 
Spanish extraction, which were only destroyed by the vogue of 
Don Quixote. The translation of Montalvo's celebrated Amadis 
de Gaule enjoyed at this time an extraordinary popularity. 

The habit of telling tales freely in prose was not, however, 
formed in France until after 1500. Bonaventure DespeViers 
(d. 1544) was the author of the Cymbalum mundi, and of 
Nouvelles recreations, mordant satires and gay stories. Probably 
to this age also belongs the semi-fabulous B6roalde de Verville, 
who is supposed to be the author of a collection of facetious 



NOVEL 



835 



anecdotes and conversations, Le Moyen de Panenir. These, 
and other experiments in fiction, lead us up to Rabelais, whose 
magnificent genius adopted as its mode of address the chain of 
burlesque prose narratives which we possess in Gargantua and 
Pantagruel, recording the family history of a race of giant kings, 
but his influence on the novel is insignificant. It was half a 
century later that, in the romantic pastoral of Astree, published 
in 1610, France may be said to have achieved her first attempt 
at a novel. This famous book was written by Honore d'Urfe; 
in spite of its absurdities it is full of talent, and succeeds, for 
the first time in the history of French narrative, in depicting 
individual character. D'Urfe was followed, with less originality, 
by MarinLeRoyde Gomberville (1600-1674), who was theauthor 
of a Mexican romance, Polexandre, and by Gombauld (1570?- 
1666), the author of Endymion (1624). These were fictions of 
interminable adventures, broken by an infinite number of 
episodes; they seem tedious enough to us nowadays, but with 
their refinement of language, and their elevation of sentiment, 
they fascinated readers like Madame de Sevigne. To Gomberville, 
who has been called the Alexandre Dumas of the i7th century, 
succeeded Mdlle de Scuddry (1607-1701), who preserved the 
romantic framework of the novel, but filled it up with modern 
and familiar figures disguised under ancient names. Her huge 
romans a clef, tiresome as they are, form the necessary stepping- 
stone between Astree, in which the novel was first conceived, 
and La Princesse de Cleves, where at last it found perfect 
expression. Meanwhile, the elephantine heroic romances were 
ridiculed by Charles Sorel in his Francion (1622) and Le Berger 
extravagant (1628). Later examples of a realistic reaction 
against the pompous beauty of Gomberville and Scudery were 
the Roman comique (1651) of Scarron and Le Roman bourgeois 
(1666) of Furetiere. 

All these, however, were mere preparations. The earliest 
novelist of France is Marguerite de la Vergne, comtesse de La 
Fayette (1634-1693), and the earliest genuine French novels 
were her Princesse de Montpensier (1662), and her far more im- 
portant Princesse de Cleves (1678). Madame de La Fayette was 
the first writer of prose narrative in Europe who portrayed, as 
closely to nature as she could, the actual manner and conversa- 
tions of well-bred people. To show that she was capable of 
writing in the old style, she published, with the help of Segrais, 
in 1670, a Zayde, which is in the Spanish manner affected by 
Mdlle de Scudery. It was long before the peculiar originality 
of the Princesse de Cleves was appreciated. Meanwhile La 
Fontaine, in 1669, published a fine romance of Psyche, partly 
in verse, and Fenelon, in 1699, his celebrated Telemaque. The 
influence of La Bruyere on the novelists, although he wrote no 
novels, must not be overlooked. But the Princesse de Cleves 
remained the solitary novel of moral analysis when its author 
died and the i7th century closed. The successes of Alain Rene 
Lesage seemed to be wholly reactionary. His realistic novels, 
Gil Bias and Le Diable boiteux, depended upon their comic 
force, their picaresque vivacity, rather than upon the sober 
study of average human character. But Marivaux (1688-1763) 
took up the psychological novel again, and produced in Marianne 
(1731) and Le Paysan parvenu (1735) analytical stories of 
Parisian manners and character which were wholly modern in 
form. If Marianne was deliberate, the exquisite Manon Lescaut 
(1731), by the Abbe Prevost d'Exiles (1697-1763), was almost 
an accident; but, between them, these simultaneous works 
started the French novel of the analysis of emotion. The brilliant 
stories of Voltaire, which began with Zadig and included Candide, 
hardly belonged to this category; they are rather satires and 
diversions, in which class must also be placed the fashionable 
boudoir novels of Crebillon fils, La Morliere and others. But 
the English taste, exemplified mainly by Richardson, Sterne 
and Fielding, prevailed, and its effect was seen again in the 
imperfect novels of Diderot and Rousseau. The Nouiielle 
Helo'ise and the Emile of the latter are not skilfully constructed 
as stories, but they mark the starting-point of the novel which 
aims at familiarising the public mind with great ideas in an 
attractively romantic form. The moral purpose is equally 



evident in the famous Paul el Virginie of Bernardin de St 
Pierre. It was less didactically present in Mme de Stael's 
Delphine (1802) and Corinne (1807), where the misinterpreted 
woman of genius, so often depicted since, is first introduced 
to French novel-readers. It was not, however, until about 
1830 that the novel began to be one of the main channels of 
imaginative writing in France, and the development of this 
kind of fiction was one of the main features of the romantic 
revival. Stendhal showed that, without any of the charms 
of style, and relying exclusively upon minute psychological 
observation, the record of a human life could be made enthrall- 
ingly interesting. Alexandre Dumas, under the direct influence 
of Sir Walter Scott, allowed his tropic imagination to revel and 
riot in brilliant chains of adventure. The imaginative novel 
was admirably conceived by George Sand. But it was Balzac 
who filled canvas after canvas with the astounding intensity of 
life itself, and who insisted with irresistible force that the function 
of the novel is to draw a consistent and unprejudiced picture 
of humanity under the strain of a succession of probable passions. 
This has been clearly comprehended by the host of later French 
novelists, whose record cannot be traced here, to be the function 
of the novel, as Mme de La Fayette invented it, as Marivaux 
and Prevost developed it, and as George Sand and Balzac 
finally laid down its laws and settled its borders. Certain dates, 
however, must be recorded in the briefest record of the evolution 
of the French novel, and 1856 is one of these; in that year 
Gustave Flaubert published Madame Bovary, a work in which 
the rival realistic and romantic tendencies are combined with 
a mastery that had not been approached and has not since 
been equalled. Another is 1871, when Zola began to roll out 
the enormous canvas of Les Rougon-Macquarl. Yet another 
in 1880, when Boule de suif first revealed in Maupassant a novelist 
whose creations were not merely amusing and striking, but 
absolutely convincing and logical. 

5. English. If we take no heed of translations of Latin 
stories, such as those from the Gesta Romanorum, we may say 
that the beginning of prose fiction in England is Le Morte 
d' Arthur, of Sir Thomas Malory, finished in or about 1470, 
and printed by Caxton in 1485. The great merits of this writer 
were that he got rid of the medieval burden of allegory, essayed 
an interpretation of the human heart, and invented a lucid and 
vigorous style of narrative. But his book became, as Professor 
W. Raleigh has said, " the feeder of poetry rather than of prose," 
and it gave no inkling of the methods of the modern novel. 
The same may be said of such versions of the Charlemagne 
Amadis and Palmeria cycles of romances as Huon of Bordeaux, 
published by Lord Berners, perhaps in 1535, and innumerable 
others. It was the novella of Italy from which the English novel 
first faintly started. Between 1560 and 1580 versions of the 
Italian novelists became exceedingly popular in England. 
Paynter in introducing the tales of Bandello and Straparola 
struck the true novelist's note by offering them not as works of 
morality or edification, but " instead of a merry companion to 
shorten the tedious toil of weary ways." The appreciation of 
these Italian stories led to the composition of the Euphues of 
Lyly (1579), a book of great interest and merit, which has been 
called " the first original prose novel written in English." This 
is somewhat to exaggerate, since Euphues is rather a work of 
elegant philosophy than a narrative. Lyly had many imitators, 
Munday, Greene, Dickenson, Barnabe Rich, Lodge, Nash and 
others, who formed a school of prose fiction which was not 
without a certain romantic beauty, but which possessed as little 
narrative vigour as possible. To compare a story written by 
Sacchetti in 1385 with one written by Greene in 1585 is to 
perceive that not merely had no progress been made towards the 
modern novel, but that a great deal of ground had been lost. 
The genius of the Elizabethan age lay in the direction of lyrical 
and dramatic poetry, not of prose fiction. The absence of the 
comic element in Elizabethan romances is very marked. M. 
Jusserand has claimed a peculiar merit in this and other respects 
for the Jack Wilton of Nash (1594), which, as he points out, is 
the earliest English example of picaresque literature. During 



8 3 6 



NOVEL 



the reign of the heroic romances in France, their vogue violently 
affected the English book-market. The huge storiesof Calprenede 
and Gomberville were imported, and translated and imitated 
to the exclusion of every other species of prose fiction, between 
1645 and 1670. The long-winded books of Mdlle de Scudery, 
especially Cassandra and The Great Cyrus, were read so univers- 
ally in England as to leave their stamp on the national manners. 
Of original English romances, written in competition with the 
French masterpieces of tenderness and chivalry, the Parthenissa 
of Lord Orrery (1654) is the best known. The first definite 
stand against these Gallicized romances was made by two 
dramatists, Aphara Behn and William Congreve. Congreve's 
Incognita (1692) is remarkable for its light raillery and humour, 
and perhaps deserves as well as any 17th-century composition to 
be called the earliest novel in English. The stories of Mrs Behn 
have the merit of a romantic simplicity of narrative, but they 
are dull and devoid of art. But the novel still lingered, unwilling 
to make its appearance in England, and its place was taken during 
the age of Anne by the labours of the essayists. So rich is the 
character painting, so lively the touches of social colour in the 
Spectator and Taller, that these periodicals have, by enthusiastic 
critics, been styled brilliant examples of prose fiction. But it 
is obvious that in the delightful essays of Addison and Steele 
there was no attempt made at construction, that the sustained 
evolution of characters was not essayed, and that even in the 
studies of Mr Bickerstaff's Club anything like a plot was studiously 
avoided. Yet these are all essential characteristics of Jhe novel, 
and until they make their appearance in English literature we 
must not say that the secret has been discovered. Very near to 
the mystery, if he did not quite grasp it, was Daniel Defoe, who 
introduced into his narrative a minute and rude system of 
realistic observation, by way of giving an impression of truth 
to it. This exactitude he combined with a survival of the old 
picaresque method, the result being those strange and entertain- 
ing works Colonel Jack (1722) and Roxana (1724). Still closer 
he came to positive success in the immortal narrative of Robinson 
Crusoe, in which the fascination of the desolate island was first 
worked up in English. 

6. Not even yet had the English novel been invented. It came 
into the world in 1740 from the unconscious hands of Samuel 
Richardson (1680-1761), who had hit upon the notion that 
morality might be helped and young persons of inexperience 
protected by the preparation of a set of letters exchanged between 
imaginary persons. The result was Pamela: or Virtue Rewarded, 
a book which is in every strict sense the earliest English novel. 
It has even a claim to be considered the earliest European novel 
of the modern kind, for the assumption of French criticism that 
Richardson borrowed his ideas and his characters from the 
Marianne of Marivaux is not supported by evidence. There is 
no reason to suppose that Richardson met with the name of 
Marivaux earlier than 1749.. At all events, it would seem to be 
certain that, whether in France or England, the fourth decade of 
the i8th century saw the spontaneous conception of this " new 
species of writing." The name of the heroine of Richardson's 
book was Miss Pamela Andrews, and the second English novel 
was Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742), which started as a mere 
burlesque of Pamela, but proceeded upon admirably original 
lines of its own, in a study of the humours and manners of con- 
temporary country life.. Fielding rejected the epistolary artifice 
of Richardson, and told his story in a straightforward narrative, 
broken indeed by arguments and ejaculations which bound the 
new novel to the old essay of the Spectator type. The creative 
force of Fielding filled the pages of this book with a crowd of 
vividly-presented characters, and this marked a step in advance, 
for Richardson's practice was to concentrate minute attention 
upon only one or two figures. It was from Richardson that 
the next important fiction came, in the shape of the long-drawn 
tragedy of Clarissa (1748). But a third great novelist was now 
at work; in 1748 appeared the Roderick Random of Smollett, 
and here we have neither the sculptural manner of Richardson 
nor the busy world of Fielding's realism, but a comic impression 
founded on an artful employment of emphasis and exaggeration. 



Smollett gives us neither breathing statues nor a crowd of men 
and women, but a gallery of " freaks," arranged with great art, 
indeed, but exhibited in such a way as to expose not their likeness 
but their unlikeness to the common stock of humanity. It is 
very important to note this curious divergency between the three 
great writers, because they exemplified the three classes into 
which almost all subsequent novels can with more or less ease be 
divided. The. next move was made by Fielding, who in 1749 
published his Tom Jones.. Starting with the pungent horror of 
hypocrisy ever before him, Fielding constructs a fragment of the 
world in which men and women are seen, without exaggeration, 
plying their daily trades under the eye of an impartial observer 
who can penetrate to their secret motives. ^This was a great 
advance, and a still greater one was the sustained skill with which 
the author conducted the plot, the interwoven series of the actions 
of his characters. l may almost be said that until the publica- 
tion of Tom Jones no novel with a real plot had been conceived 
in English. The rivalry of the great novelists of this time was 
of signal help to them, and there can be no question that the 
astounding richness of Tom Jones stirred Smollett to the exercise 
of increased energy in Peregrine Pickle (1751), a coarse and savage 
book, illuminated by brilliant flashes of humour. A better, 
because a tenderer and truer study of life was Amelia, which 
Fielding published in the same year; yet most readers have 
found this novel a little languid after Tom Jones. But if the 
ideal of life depicted in it was quieter and sadder, it was perhaps 
for that very reason more in harmony with the facts of life. 
Now Richardson, who had long been silent, reasserted his mastery 
of epistolary analysis in the huge History of Sir Charles Grandison 
( I 7S3)> in which, as its admirers claimed, " all the recesses of the 
human heart are explored and its whole texture unfolded." 
Richardson had scarcely been affected by the experiments of 
his contemporaries, of the very nature of which he affected to 
be ignorant, and the result is that in his third and last novel he 
depends entirely on qualities which he had already developed, 
and owes nothing to the discoveries of others. 

7. With this book, the first great group of English novels 
comes to a close, and we may observe that in these eight stories 
everything is to be found, in germ if not in full evolution, which 
was during the next century and a half to make the abundant 
out-put of the English novel prominent. New forms, above all 
new subjects, were to present themselves to the imagination of 
capable British novelists, but the starting-point of every ex- 
periment was to be discovered in the ripest work of Richardson, 
Fielding and Smollett. Their influence was manifest in the 
writings of the second school of English novelists, in whom, 
however, several interesting varieties of subject and treatment 
were discovered. The Tristram Shandy (1759-1766) of Sterne, is 
the most masterly example in English of a humour which goes 
direct to pathos for its most " sentimental " effects, and of the 
kind of loosely-strung, reflective fiction which is hardly a narra- 
tive at all. Neither Tristram Shandy nor A Sentimental Journey 
(1768) can properly be included among novels. In Rasselas 
(1759) Dr Johnson showed that the new kind of writing could 
be used to give entertainment to a sermon and in this he was 
to have a multitude of followers. In Chrysal (1760) Charles 
Johnstone (d. 1800) showed that the picaresque romance could 
still exist, tinctured by the newly-found art of the novelist. In 
The Castle ofOtranto (1764) Horace Walpole adapted the methods 
of the novelist to a pseudo-historical theme of horror and romance, 
and prophesied of Walter Scott. In The Vicar of Wakefield 
(1766) Goldsmith was indebted to most of his immediate pre- 
decessors, but fused their qualities in an amalgam of gentle wit 
and delicate sweetness and conversational brevity which has 
made his one loosely-constructed novel a foremost classic of our 
literature. Thus, in the one quarter of a century which divides 
Pamela from The Vicar of Wakefield, English novel-writing was 
born, grew into full maturity, and adopted its adult and final 
forms. 

8. During the remainder of the i8th century, little or nothing 
was done to extend the range of prose fiction in England; but one 
or two of those departments of novel-writing which had already 



NOVEL 



837 



been invented were developed and adapted to changing taste. 
In particular, the rapid increase of reticence and refinement in 
conversation made such a novel in letters as Smollett's Humphrey 
Clinker (1771) repulsively coarse to women of delicacy, who 
were charmed on the other hand with the Evelina of Frances 
Burney (-1778). These two typical books are composed on the 
same plan, yet essentially a whole age lies between the former 
and the latter. What has been called " the novel of the tea- 
table " now came into existence, and the i8th century was 
about to close in mediocrity, when its credit was partially saved 
by a development of Horace Walpole's romance of terror in the 
vigorous and sensational narratives of Anne Radcliffe (1764- 
1823), whose Mysteries of Udolpho appeared in 1794. The same 
year saw the publication of Caleb Williams, in which William 
Godwin (1756-1836) evolved a tragic theory of politics. A finer 
study than either of the works just mentioned, although not 
truly a novel, was the gorgeous and sinister Vathek (1786) of 
William Beckford, an oriental tale of horror. In all these books 
there existed an element of grotesque mingled 'with romantic 
colour, which announced the coming revival. 

9. The two schools here indicated, and they may be roughly de- 
fined as the school of the Tea-Table and the school of the Skeleton- 
in-the-Cupboard, did not, however, betray their real significance 
until the second decade of the igth century, when after several 
unimportant efforts, they developed into the novel of psycho- 
logical satire and the romance of historical imagination. Two 
writers, the greatest who had yet attempted to address English 
readers through prose fiction, almost simultaneously came 
forward as the protagonists in these two spheres of work. Jane 
Austen published Sense and Sensibility in 1811, Walter Scott 
Waverley in 1814. These were epoch-making dates; in each 
case a new era opened for the countless readers of novels. The 
first-named writer, all exactitude, conscience and literary art, 
worked away at her " little bit (two inches wide) of ivory" ; the 
other, with bold and flowing brush, covered vast spaces with 
his stimulating and noble compositions. 'It is, however, to be 
noted that the isolation in which we now regard these great 
writers a solitude a deux only broken in measure by the presence 
of Miss Maria Edgeworth is an optical delusion due to the veils 
of distance. The bookshops from 1810 to 1820 and onwards were 
thronged and glutted with novels, many of them infinitely more 
successful, as far as sales were concerned, than the most popular 
of Miss Austen's works. The novels of Miss Austen were written 
between 1796 and 1810, although published from 1811 to 1818; 
those of Sir Walter Scott date from 1814 (Waverley) to 1829 
(Anne of Geierstein). Practically speaking, no additions were 
made to the formula of the social novel or of the historical 
romance, to the study of national manners, that is to say, from 
the satirical or from the picturesque point of view, until a quarter 
of a century later. 

10. The next artist in prose fiction whose force of invention 
was sufficient to start the novel on wholly fresh tracks was born 
forty years later than Scott. This was Charles Dickens, whose 
Pickwick Papers (1836) marks another epoch in novel writing. 
His career of prodigal production ceased abruptly in 1870, by 
which time it had long been obvious that he was the pioneer of a 
great and diverse school of novelists, all born within the second 
decade of the century. Of these Thackeray was not really 
made obvious until Vanity Fair (1849), nor Charlotte Bronte till 
Jane Eyre (1847), nor Mrs Gaskell till Mary Barton (1848), nor 
George Eliot till Adam Bede (1859). The most noticeable point 
on which the five illsstrious novelists of the Early Victorian age 
resembled one another and differed from all their predecessors, 
was the sociological or even humanitarian character of their 
writings. All of them had projects of moral or social reform close 
at heart, all desired to mend the existing scheme of things. In 
several of them, particularly in Dickens and Miss Bronte', the 
element of insubordination is extremely marked; it is present in 
them all; and a determination not to be content to see life 
beautifully, through coloured glasses, or to be content with a 
sarcastic travesty of it, but to realize in detail its elements of 
pain and injustice. The novel, which had already learned to 



compete with all the amusing sections of literature, became the 
successful rival of the serious ones also. The task of the novelist 
was, therefore, so far as the indication of the scope of his particular 
kind of art is concerned, now complete. The names of Anthony 
Trollope, Charles Kingsley, Charles Reade, George Meredith, 
Thomas Hardy and Robert Louis Stevenson represent, in their 
least challenged form, different movements in novel-writing 
during the second half of the igth century; we must be content 
here to refer for particulars concerning them to the separate 
biographical articles. 

11. Spain. Prose narrative in Spain practically begins in the 
iSth century with chronicles and romances of chivalry, tempered 
occasionally and faintly by some knowledge of what had been 
attempted in Italy by Boccaccio. The Spanish version of 
Amades de Gaula, in which the romance of knight errantry 
culminated, belongs to 1508; the lost original is supposed to 
have been Portuguese. This was the only book of its class 
which is saved from the burning in Don Quixote; it was followed 
by Palmerin of England. These interminable books, and a 
hundred worse than they, occupied the leisure of 16th-century 
readers of both sexes. Without approaching the form of novels, 
they prepared the ground for novel-reading. The exploration 
of America led to the composition of monstrous tales of the New 
World, which generally took the form of continuations of Amades. 
A new thing was begun in 1554, when the anonymous picaresque 
romance of Lazarillo de Tormes started the story of fantastic 
modern adventure; this highly entertaining book has been 
called the 16th-century Pickwick, and Mr Fitzmaurice-Kelly 
remarks that it " fixed for ever the type of the comic prose epic." 
The pastoral romance, in the hands of Jorge de Montem6r (d. 
1561), who wrote an insipid Diana which was popular for a while 
throughout Europe, took readers a step backward, away from 
the ultimate path of the novel. It is of interest to us, however, 
to note that it was in one of these " vain imaginings," in his 
pastoral romance of Galatea, that Cervantes approached the 
field of fiction, in 1585. Few of his peculiar merits are to be 
found in this early work; he turned' for the present to the 
composition of plays. It was not until 1604 that he returned 
to prose fiction by printing his immortal Don Quixote, which 
made an epoch in the history of the novel. This book was 
originally intended to ridicule the already fading passion for the 
romances of chivalry, but it proceeded much further than that, 
and there is hardly any branch of fiction which may not be 
traced back to the splendid initiation of some chapter of Don 
Quixote. In 1613 Cervantes published his twelve Exemplary 
Novels; these are not so well known as the great romance, and 
they owed not a little of their form to Italian sources, but they 
are very brilliant. One of the best anonymous Spanish stories 
of the period, The Mock Aunt, is a type of excellence in facetious 
narrative of the sarcastic class; this is now commnonly attributed 
to Cervantes himself. No other novelist of Spain has moulded 
the thought of Europe, but the heroic romance which occupied 
so much of the attention of France in the i7th century was 
invented by a little-known Spanish soldier, P6rez de Hita, who, 
about 1600, wrote fantastic stories about Granada and the 
Moors. The farcical romance of Fray Gerundio de Campazas, 
1758, by J. F. de Isla (1703-1718), competed in popularity with 
Gil Bias. Speaking broadly, however, Spain made no appreci- 
able progress in novel-writing from the days of Cervantes to 
those of Walter Scott, when the Waverley Novels began to find 
such artless imitators as Martinez de la Rosa and Zorrilla. But 
the first original novelist of Spain was Cecilia Bohl de Faber 
(Fernan Caballero) (1796-1877), whose La Gaviota, 1848, a study 
of life in an Andalusian village, was the earliest Spanish novel, in 
the modern sense. She was followed by Valera (1824-1904), by 
Alarc6n (1833-1891), by Pereda (b. 1834), by Perez Gald6s 
(b. 1845) and by Palacio Valdes (b. 1853), in whom the tendencies 
of recent European fiction have been competently illustrated 
without any striking contributions to originality. * 

1 2. Germany. The cultivation of the novel in its proper sense 
began late in Germany. It is usual to consider that H. J. C. von 
Grimmelshausen (i625?-i675) is the earliest German novelist; 



8 3 8 



NOVELDA NOVEMBER 



his very curious romance, Abenteuerliche Simplicius Simplicis- 
simus, was printed at Mompelgard in 1669. This is an account of 
the adventures of a simple-minded fellow during the Thirty Years' 
War, and is a chain of episodes, brilliantly recorded, but hardly 
a novel. Early in the 1 8th century, an extraordinary number of 
imitations of Defoe's great romance were published in Germany, 
and these are known to scholars as the Robinsanaden. Later on, 
Wieland imitated Don Quixote, but the earliest German novel 
which possesses original value is the celebrated work of Goethe, 
The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). The still more cele- 
brated Wtthelm Meister did not appear until 1 796. A third novel, 
Elective Affinities, was published by Goethe in 1809. Meanwhile, 
a very characteristic group of picturesque stories had been issued 
by Johann Paul Richter (Jean Paul) (1763-1825), destined to 
have a wide influence upon romantic literature throughout 
Europe. Purely romantic were the stories of Tieck, of Brentano, 
of Arnim, of Fouque, of Kleist, of Immermann. The German 
novelists of this period wrote like poets, deprived of the discipline 
of verse. In later times novels of high merit have been written 
by Gustav Freytag, Wilibald Alexis (1798-1871), called the 
German Walter Scott, Laube, Fontane, Ebers, Jeremias Gotthelf , 
Berthold Auerbach, Spielhagen, Heyse and many others, but the 
1 9th century produced no German novelist of commanding 
originality. 

13. Russia. In Russia alone, among the countries of central 
and eastern Europe, the novel has developed with a radical 
originality. Until the second quarter of the igth century the 
prose fiction of Russia was confined to imitators of Sir Walter 
Scott, but about the year 1834 Gogol (1809-1852) began to 
revolt against the historico-romantic school and to produce 
stories in which an almost savage realism was curiously blended 
with the Slavonic dreaminess and melancholy. Since then the 
Russian novel has consistently been the novel of resignation and 
pity, but wholly divorced from sentimentality. Gogol was suc- 
ceeded by Gontcharor, Tourgeniev, Dostoievski, Pissemski 
1820-1881) and Tolstoi, forming the most consistent and, 
doubtless, the most powerful school of novelists which Europe 
saw in the igth century. The influence of these writers on the 
rest of the world was immense, and even in England, where 
it was least acutely felt, it was significant. That the Russians 
have indicated the path to new fields in the somewhat outworn 
province of novel-writing is abundantly manifest. 

14. Oriental. In a primitive form, the novel has long been 
cultivated in Asia. It was introduced into China, but whence 
is unknown, in the I3th century, and Le Kuan-chung was the 
first Chinese novelist. The productions of this writer and of his 
followers are tales of bloody warfare, or record the adventures 
of travellers. The novel called The Twice-Flowering Flum- Trees, 
belonging to the i6th (or I7th) century, is a typical example 
of the moral Chinese novel, written with a virtuous purpose. 
Professor Giles holds that the novel of China reached its highest 
point of development in The Dream of the Red Chamber, an 
anonymous story of the end of the I7th century; this is a 
panorama of Chinese social life, " worked out with a completeness 
worthy of Fielding." Prose stories began to be met with in the 
literature of Japan early in the loth century. But the inventor 
of the Japanese novel was a woman of genius, Murasaki no 
Shikibu, whose Genji Monogatari has been compared to the 
writings of Richardson; it was finished in 1004 and may, there- 
fore, be considered the oldest novel in the world. This book, 
which is one of the great classics of Japan, was widely imitated. 
After the classic period novel- writing was long neglected in Japan, 
but the humours of 17th-century life were successfully translated 
into popular fiction by Saikaku (1641-1693), and later by Jisho 
and Kiseki, who collaborated in a great number of remarkable 
stories. 

See Dunlpp, The History of Fiction (1816); Borroneo, Catalogo 
de' novellieri ilaliani (1805); Em. Gebhart, Conteurs du moyen dge 
(1901); E. M. de Vogue, Le Roman russe (1886); Forsyth, Novels 
and Novelists of the isth Century (1871); Bever and Sansot-Orland, 
(Euvres galantes des conteurs iialiens (1903); Rivadeneyra, Biblio- 
teca de autores espanoles (1846-1880); Gosse, A Century of French 
Romance (1900-1902); G. Pellissier, Le Mouvemenl litleraire au 



XIX" siecle (1889); Zola, Les Romanciers naturalistes (1880); 
Le Roman experimental (1879); Brunetiere, Le Roman naturaliste 
(1883); W. Raleigh, The English Novel (1894); V. Chauvin, Les 
Romanciers grecs et latins (1862); Fancan, Le Tombeau des romans 
(1626). (E. G.) 

NOVELDA, a town of E. Spain, in the province of Alicante; 
on the right bank of the river Vinalop6, and on the railway from 
Madrid to Alicante. Pop. (1900) 11,388. The country around 
is flat and fertile, producing much wine, dates, oranges, oil, saffron 
and aniseed. In the town there are tanneries, and manufactures 
of alcohol, chocolate and soap. The women make fine lace. In 
the neighbouring village of Salinetas de Elda there are warm 
sulphur and saline baths. 

NOVELLI, ERMETE (1851- ), Italian actor and play- 
wright, was born in Lucca on the 5th of March 1851, the son of a 
prompter. He made his first appearance in 1866, and played 
character and leading comedy parts in the best companies 
between 1871 and 1884. By 1885 he had his own company, 
and made a great success in Paris in 1898 and 1902. He estab- 
lished in Rome in 1900 a new theatre, the Casa di Goldoni, on 
the lines of the Comedie Francaise. He dramatized Gaboriau's 
Monsieur Lecoq, and alone or in collaboration wrote several 
comedies and many monologues. 

NOVELLO, VINCENT (1781-1861), English musician, son of 
an Italian who married an English wife, was born in London 
on the 6th of September 1781. As a boy he was a chorister 
at the Sardinian chapel in Duke Street, Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
where he learnt the organ; and from 1796 to 1822 he became 
in succession organist of the Sardinian, Spanish (in Manchester 
Square) and Portuguese (in South Street, Grosvenor Square) 
chapels, and from 1840 to 1843 of St Mary's chapel, Moorfields. 
He was an original member of the Philharmonic Society, of the 
Classical Harmonists and of the Choral Harmonists, officiating 
frequently as conductor. In 1849 he went to live at Nice, where 
he died on the 9th of August 1861. He composed an immense 
quantity of sacred music, much of which is still deservedly 
popular; but his great work lay in the introduction to England 
of unknown compositions by the great masters. The Masses 
of Haydn and Mozart were absolutely unknown in England until 
he edited them, as were also the works of Palestrina, the treasures 
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, and innumerable great compositions 
now well known to every one. His first work, a collection of 
Sacred Music, as performed at the Royal Portuguese Chapel, 
which appeared in 1811, has the additional interest of giving 
a date to the practical founding of the publishing firm with which 
his name is associated, as Novello issued it from his own house; 
and he did the same with succeeding works, till his son JOSEPH 
ALFRED NOVELLO (1810-1896), who had started as a bass singer, 
became a regular music publisher in 1829. It was the latter 
who really created the business, and who has the credit of 
introducing cheap music, and departing from the method of 
publishing by subscription. From 1841 Henry Littleton 
assisted him, becoming a partner in 1861, when the firm became 
Novello & Co., and, on J. A. Novello's retirement in 1866, sole 
proprietor. Having incorporated the firm of Ewer & Co. in 
1867, the title was changed to Novello, Ewer & Co., and still 
later back to Novello & Co., and, on Henry Littleton's death 
in 1888, his two sons carried on the business. 

Vincent Novello had several other children besides his son 
Joseph Alfred. Four of his daughters (of whom the youngest, 
Mary, married Charles Cowden Clarke) were gifted singers; 
but the most famous was CLARA NOVELLO (1818-1908), whose 
beautiful high soprano and pure style made her one of the 
greatest vocalists, alike in opera, oratorio and on the concert 
stage, from 1833 onwards. In 1843 she married Count Gigliucci, 
but after a few years returned to her profession, and only retired 
in 1860. Charles Lamb wrote a poem (To Clara N.) inherpraise. 

NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine), the ninth month of the old 
Roman year, which began with March. By the Julian arrange- 
ment, according to which the year began with the ist of January, 
November became the eleventh month and had thirty days 
assigned to it. The nth of November was held to mark the 



NOVERRE NOVGOROD 



839 



beginning of winter; the sacred banquet called epulum Jovis 
took place on the i3th. It is said that the senate desired to 
rename the month in honour of Tiberius his birthday occurring 
on the i6th, but the emperor declined, saying, " What will you 
do, Conscript Fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars?" The 
Anglo-Saxon names for November were Windmonath, " wind- 
month " and Blodmonath " bloodmonth." In the calendar of 
the first French republic November reappeared partly as 
Brumaire and partly as Frimaire. The principal November 
festivals in the calendar of the Roman Church are: All Saints' 
Day on the ist, All Souls' on the 2nd, St Martin's on the nth, 
the Presentation of the Virgin on the 2ist, St Cecilia's on the 
22nd, St Catherine's on the 25th and St Andrew's on the 3Oth. 
St Hubert commemorated on the 3rd. In the English calendar 
All Saints' and St Andrew's are the only feasts retained. 

NOVERRE, JEAN GEORGES (1727-1810), French dancer and 
ballet master, was born in Paris on the 2gth of March 1727. 
He first performed at Fontainebleau in 1743, and in 1747 com- 
posed his first ballet for the Opera Comique. In 1748 he was 
invited by Prince Henry of Prussia to Berlin, but a year later 
he returned to Paris, where he mounted the ballets of Gliick 
and Piccini. In 1755 he was invited by Garrick to London, 
where he remained two years. Between 1758 and 1760 he 
produced several ballets at Lyons, and published his Lettres 
sur la danse et les ballets. From this period may be dated the 
revolution in the art of the. ballet for which Noverre was re- 
sponsible. (See PANTOMIME and BALLET.) He was next engaged 
by the duke of Wurttemburg, and afterwards by the empress 
Maria Theresa, until, in 1775, he was appointed, at the request 
of Queen Marie Antoinette, mailre des ballets of the Paris Opera. 
This post he retained until the Revolution reduced him to 
poverty. He died at St Germain on the igthof November 1810. 

Noverre's friends included Voltaire, Frederick the Great and David 
Garrick (who called him " the Shakespeare of the dance "). The 
ballets of which he was most proud were his La Toilette de Vtnus, 
Les Jalousies du serail, L' Amour corsaire and Le Jaloux sans rival. 
Besides the letters, Noverre wrote Observations sur la construction 
d'une nouwlle salle de I'Opera (1781); Lettres sur Garrick ecrites a 
Voltaire (1801) ; and Lettre a un artiste sur les fetes publigues (1801). 

NOVGOROD, a government of N.W. Russia, bounded W. and 
N. by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, S.E. by 
Vologda, Yaroslav and Tver, and S.W. by Pskov, stretching 
from S.W. to N.E. 450 m. Area, 47,223 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 
i.555,7- The S. is occupied by the Valdai plateau, in which are 
the highest elevations of middle Russia (600 to over 1000 ft.), 
as well as the sources of nearly all the great rivers of the country. 
The plateau is deeply furrowed by valleys with abrupt slopes, 
and descends rapidly towards the basin of Lake Ilmen in the 
W. (only 60 ft. above the sea-level). The N.E. of the government 
belongs to the lacustrine region of N.W. Russia. This tract 
is dotted over with innumerable sheets of water, of which 
Byelo-ozero (White Lake) and Vozhe are the largest of more 
than 3000. Immense marshes, overgrown with thin forests 
of birch and elm, occupy more than one-seventh of the entire 
area of the government; several of them have an area of 300 
to 450 sq. m. each. They admit of being crossed only when 
frozen. Six centuries ago they were even less accessible, but 
the slow upheaval of N.W. Russia, going on at the rate of 3 or 
more feet per century, has exercised a powerful influence upon 
the drainage of the country. Of recent years artificial drainage 
has been carried out on a large scale. The forests still occupy 
55% of the total area of the government. 

Geologically, Novgorod exhibits in the W. vast beds of Devonian 
limestones and sandstones; these are elsewhere overlaid with 
Carboniferous limestone, dolomite, sandstones and marls. The 
Devonian gives rise to salt-springs, especially at Staraya Russa (S. 
of Lake Ilmen), and contains iron-ores, while the more recent forma- 
tion has coal strata of inferior quality. The whole is covered with 
a thick sheet of boulder-clay, very often arranged in ridges or eskers, 
the bottom moraine of the N. European ice-sheet of the Glacial 
period. Numerous remains of the neolithic Stone Age are found, 
especially round the extinct lakes. The Baltic and Caspian Sea 
basins are connected by the Mariinsk, Tikhvin and Vyshniy-Volochok 
canals, while the Alexander-von-Wurttemberg canal connects the 
tributaries of the White Sea with those of the Baltic. The chief 
river is the Volkhov, which flows from Lake Ilmen into Lake Ladoga. 



Other navigable rivers are the Syas, also flowing into Lake Ladoga, 
and the Sheksna and the Molpga, tributaries of the Volga. The 
Msta and the Lovat are the principal streams in the basin of Lake 
Ilmen. All boats from the Volga to St Petersburg pass through 
this government. 

The yearly average temperature at Novgorod is only 40 Fahr. 
(14-5 in January, 62-5 in July). The severe climate, the marshy 
or stony soil, and the want of grazing grounds render agriculture 
unprofitable, though it is carried on everywhere. The yield of 
rye and other cereals is insufficient for the wants of the inha- 
bitants. Fireclay, coal and turf are extracted in commercial 
quantities. Building, smith-work, fishing, shipbuilding, dis- 
tilleries, glass and match factories, sawmills and a variety of 
domestic industries give occupation to about 40,000 families. 
Hunting is still profitable. But most of the inhabitants are 
dependent on the river-boat traffic; and nearly one-fourth of 
the able-bodied males are annually driven to other parts of Russia 
in search of work. The Novgorod carpenters and masons have 
long been renowned. Trade is chiefly in grain and timber, and 
in manufactures and grocery wares from St Petersburg. The 
fairs are numerous, and several of them (Kirilovsk monastery, 
Staraya Russa and Cherepovets) show considerable returns. 

The inhabitants are almost exclusively Great-Russians, but 
they are discriminated by some historians from the Great- 
Russians of the basin of the Oka, as showing remote affinities 
with the Little-Russians. They belong mostly (96 J%) to the 
Orthodox Greek Church, but there are many Nonconformists. 
There are 10,000 Karelians and 9000 Chudes, with some Jews 
and some Germans. Novgorod is well provided with educa- 
tional institutions, and primary education is widely diffused in 
the villages. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

NOVGOROD (formerly known as Velikiy-Novgorod, Great 
Novgorod), a town of Russia, capital of the government of the 
same name, and the seat of an archbishop of the Orthodox Greek 
Church, situated 119 m. by rail S. of St. Petersburg, on the low 
flat banks of the Volkhov, 2 m. below the point where it issues 
from Lake Ilmen. Pop. (1900) 26,972. The present town is but 
a poor survival of the wealthy city of medieval times. It con- 
sists of a kremlin (old fortress), and of the city, which stands on 
both banks of the river, connected by a handsome stone bridge. 
The kremlin was much enlarged in 1044, and again in 1116. Its 
stone walls, originally palisades, were begun in 1302, and much 
extended in 1490. Formerly a great number of churches and 
shops, with wide squares, stood within the enclosure. Its his- 
torical monuments include the cathedral of St Sophia, built in 
1045-1052 by architects from Constantinople to take the place of 
the original wooden structure (989), destroyed by fire in that 
year. Some minor changes were made in 1688 and 1692, but 
otherwise (notwithstanding several fires) the building remained 
unaltered until its restoration in 1893-1900. It contains many 
highly-prized relics, including bronze doors of the I2th century, 
one brought reputedly from Sigtuna, the ancient capital of 
Sweden. Another ancient building in the kremlin is the 
Yaroslav Tower, in the square where the Novgorod vyeche 
(common council) used to meet; it still bears the name of " the 
court of Yaroslav " ; and was the chancellery of the secretaries 
of the vyeche. Other remarkable monuments of ancient Russian 
architecture are the church of St. Nicholas erected in 1135, the 
Snamenski cathedral of the I4th century, and churches of the 
I4th and isth centuries. Within the town itself there are four 
monasteries and convents, two of them dating from the nth 
century and two from the I2th century; and the large number 
in the immediate neighbourhood shows the great extent which 
the city formerly had. A monument to commemorate the 
thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Russia (the calling 
in of the Varangians by Novgorod in 862) was erected in 1862. 
Another monument commemorates the repulse of the Napoleonic 
invasion of 1812. 

The date at which the Slavs first erected forts on the Volkhov 
(where it leaves Lake Ilmen and where it flows into Lake Ladoga) 
is unknown. That situated on a low terrace close by Lake 
Ilmen was soon abandoned, and Novgorod or " New-town " 



NOVIBAZAR NOVI LIGURE 



(in contradistinction to the Scandinavian Aldegjeborg or 
Ladoga) was founded by Scandinavian sea-rovers as Holmgard 
on another terrace which extended a mile lower on both banks of 
the river. The older fort (Gorodishche) still existed in the i3th 
century. Even in the pth century the new city on the Volkhov 
exercised a kind of supremacy over the other towns of the lake 
region, when its inhabitants in 862 invited the Varangians, under 
the leadership of Rurik, to the defence of the Russian towns of the 
north. Down to the end of the loth century Novgorod was in 
some sort depended on Kiev; yet in 997 its inhabitants obtained 
from their own prince Yaroslav a charter which granted them 
self-government. For five centuries this charter was the bulwark 
of the independence of Novgorod. From the end of the loth 
century the princes of Novgorod, chosen either from the sons of 
the great princes of Kiev (until 1136) or from some other branch 
of the family of Rurik, were always elected by the vyeche; but 
they were only its military defenders, and their delegates were 
merely assessors in the courts which levied taxes for the military 
force raised by the prince. The vyeche invariably expelled the 
princes as soon as they provoked discontent. Their election was 
often a subject of dispute between the wealthier* merchants and 
landowners and the poorer classes; and Novgorod, which was 
dependent for its corn supply upon the land of Suzdal, was 
sometimes compelled to accept a prince from the Suzdal branch 
instead of from that of Kiev. After 1270 the city often refused to 
have princes at all, and the elected mayor was the representative 
of the executive. Novgorod in its transactions with other cities 
took the name of " Sovereign Great Novgorod " (Gospodin 
Velikiy Novgorod). The supreme power was in the hands of the 
vyeche. The city, which had a population of more than 80,000, 
was divided into wards, and each ward constituted a distinct 
commune. The wards were subdivided into streets, which 
corresponded to the prevailing occupations of their inhabitants, 
each of these again being quite independent with regard to its 
own affairs. 

Trade was carried on by corporations. By the Volkhov and 
the Neva, Novgorod then known also as Naugart and Nov- 
werden had direct communication with the Hanseatic and 
Scandinavian cities, especially with Visby or Wisby on the 
island of Gotland. The Dnieper brought it into connexion with 
the Bosporus, and it was intermediary in the trade of Constan- 
tinople with northern Europe. The Novgorod traders penetrated 
at an early date to the shores of the White Sea, hunted on 
Novaya.Zemlya in the i ith century, colonized the basins of the 
northern Dvina, descended the Volga, and as early as the I4th 
century extended their trading expeditions beyond the Urals 
into Siberia. Two great colonies, Vyatka and Vologda, organized 
on the same republican principles as the metropolis, favoured the 
further colonization of N.E. Russia. 

At the same time a number of flourishing minor towns such as 
Novyi Torg (Torzhok), Novaya Ladoga, Pskov, and many others 
arose in the lake region. Pskov soon became quite independent, 
and had a history of its own; the others enjoyed a large measure 
of independence, still figuring, however, as subordinate towns in 
all circumstances which necessitated common action. It is said 
that the populaiion of Novgorod in the I4th century reached 
400,000, and that the pestilences of 1467, 1508 and 1533 carried 
off no fewer than 134,000 persons. These figures, however, seem 
to relate rather to the whole Ilmen region. 

Novgorod's struggle against the Suzdal region (now the govern- 
ment of Vladimir) began as early as the i2th century. In the 
following century it had to contend with the Swedes and the 
Germans, who were animated not only by the desire of territorial 
acquisition, but also by the spirit of religious proselytism. The 
advances of both were checked by battles at Ladoga and Pskov in 
1 240 and 1 242 respectively. Protected by its marshes, Novgorod 
escaped the Mongol invasion of 1240-42, and was able to repel the 
attacks of the princes of Moscow by whom the Mongols were 
supported. It also successfully resisted the attacks of Tver, and 
aided Moscow in its struggle against this -powerful neighbour; 
but soon the ambition of the growing Moscow state was turned 
against itself. The first serious invasion, in 1332, was rolled back 



with the aid of the Lithuanians. But in 1456 the great prince of 
Moscow succeeded in imposing a heavy tribute. Ivan III. of 
Moscow took possession of the colonies in the northern Dvina and 
the Perm regions, and began two bloody wars, during which 
Novgorod fought for its liberty under the leadership of Martha 
Boretskaya, the mayor. In 1475-1478 Ivan III. entered 
Novgorod, abolished its charters, and carried away 1000 of the 
wealthier families, substituting for them families from Moscow; 
the old free city then recognized his sovereignty. A century later 
Ivan IV. (the Terrible) abolished the last vestiges of the inde- 
pendence of the city. Having learned that a party favourable 
to Lithuania had been organized in Novgorod, he took the 
field in 1570. and entered the city (much weakened by the 
recent pestilences) without opposition. His followers killed the 
heads of the monasteries, the wealthier of the merchants 
and clergy, and burned and pillaged the city and villages. No 
fewer than 15,000 men. women and children were massacred 
at Novgorod alone (60,000 according to some authorities). A 
famine ensued, and the district of Novgorod fell into utter 
desolation. Thousands of families were transported to Moscow, 
Nizhniy-Novgorod, and other towns of the principality of 
Moscow. In the beginning of the i7th century Novgorod was 
taken and held for seven years by the Swedes; and in the i8th 
century the foundation of St Petersburg ultimately destroyed 
its trade. Its position, however, on the water highway from the 
Volga to St Petersburg and on the trunk road from Moscow to 
the capital, still gave it some commercial importance; but even 
this was destroyed by the opening of the Vishera canal, connecting 
the Msta with the Volkhov below the city, and by the construction 
of the railway from St Petersburg to Moscow, which passes 46 m. 
to the east of Novgorod. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE). 

NOVIBAZAR, NOVI-BAZAR, or NOVTPAZAR (ancient Rassia, 
Rascia, or Ra.shka, Turkish Yenipazar, i.e. " New Market "), a 
sanjak of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo. Pop. 
(1905) about 170,000. Novibazar is a mountainous region, 
watered by the Lim, which flows north into Bosnia, and by 
several small tributaries of the Servian Ibar. About three- 
fourths of the inhabitants are Christian Serbs, and the remainder 
are chiefly Moslem Albanians, with a few gipsies, Turkish 
officials and about 3000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers. The local 
trade is mainly agricultural. The sanjak is of great strategic 
importance, for it is the N.W. part of the Turkish empire, on the 
direct route between Bosnia and Salonica, and forms a wedge of 
Turkish territory between Servia and Montenegro. The union 
of these powers, combined with the annexation of Novibazar, 
would have impeded the extension of Austrian influence towards 
Salonica. But by the treaty of Berlin (1878) Austria-Hungary 
was empowered to garrison the towns of Byelopolye, Priyepolye, 
Plevlye and other strategic points within the sanjak, although 
the entire civil administration remained in Turkish hands. 
This decision was enforced in 1879. The chief approaches from 
Servia and Montenegro have also been strongly fortified by the 
Turks. 

Novibazar, the capital of the sanjak, is a town of about 12,000 
inhabitants, on the site of the ancient Servian city of Rassia. 
Near it there are Roman baths, and the old church of St Peter 
and St. Paul, the metropolitan church of the bishopric of Rassia, 
in which Stephen Nemanya, king of Servia, passed from the 
Roman to the Greek Church in 1143. 

NOVICE (through French from Lat. nomcitis or novilius, one 
who has newly arrived, novus, new), a person who joins a religious 
order on probation. He or she is subject to the authority of the 
superior, wears the dress of the order, and obeys the rules. At 
the end of the " novitiate," which must last at least one year, 
the novice is free to leave without taking the vows, and the order 
is free to refuse to allow him or her to take them. The word was 
early used of a beginner in any art or science, hence an inex- 
perienced person. 

NOVI LIGURE, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of 
Alessandria, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, situated among 
wooded hills, 646 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 17,868. It 
was the scene of a victory by the Austrians and Russians under 



NOVO-BAYAZET NOWGONG 



841 



Suvorov over the French in 1 799. It is now an important railway 
junction, the main lines from Turin and Milan to Genoa con- 
verging here. Cotton, silk, coal briquettes, &c., are also manu- 
factured here. 

NOVO-BAYAZET, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the 
government of Erivan, 35 m. E.N.E. of the town of Erivan, and 
4 m. W. of Gok-chai Lake, 5870 ft. above the sea. Pop. 8507 in 
1897, mainly Armenians. An Armenian village which stood here 
was destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in 1 736, and it was not 
till the Turkish War of 1828-29 that the site was again occupied 
by Armenian refugees from the Turkish town of Bayazet or 
Bayazid. 

NOVOCHERKASSK, a town of Russia, capital of the Don 
Cossacks territory, situated on a hill 400 ft. above the plain, at 
the confluence of the Don with the Aksai, 45 m. from the Sea of 
Azov, and 32 m. by rail N.E. from Rostov. Pop. (1897) 52,005. 
It was founded in 1805, when the inhabitants of the Cherkassk 
$tanitsa (now Old Cherkassk) were compelled to leave their 
abodes on the banks of the Don on account of the frequent 
inundations. The town is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox 
Greek Church, and possesses a cathedral (1904), a museum, the 
palace of the ataman (chief) of the Cossacks, and monuments to 
M. I. Platov (a Cossack chief) and T. Yermak (1904), the con- 
queror of West Siberia. Wide suburbs extend to the S.W., and 
the right bank of the Aksai is dotted with the villas of the Cossack 
officials. Manufactures make slow progress. An active trade is 
carried on in corn, wine and timber (exports), and manufactures 
and grocery wares (imports). 

NOVOGEORGIEVSK. (i) A town of Russia, usually known 
under the name of KRYLOV, in the government of Kherson, 
at the confluence of the Tyasmin with the Dnieper, 17 m. W.N.W. 
of Kremenchug. Its fort was erected by the Poles in 1615. 
The inhabitants carry on a lively trade in timber, grain and 
cattle, and have a few flourmills and candle-works. Pop. 
(1897) 11,214. ( 2 ) A first-class fortress of Russian Poland (called 
Modlin till 1831), at the confluence of the Narev (Bug) with the 
Vistula, 23 m. by rail N.W. of Warsaw. Modlin was first fortified 
under the Napoleonic regime in 1807, and in the wars of 1813 
and 1830-31 underwent several sieges. Since that time the 
Russians have made many additions to the works, and the 
place now forms, with Warsaw, Ivangorod and Brest-Litovsk, 
the so-called Polish Quadrilateral. The strength of Nbvo- 
georgievsk lies mainly in the new circle of eight powerful forts, 
erected at a mean distance of 10 m. from the enceinte. The 
importance of the fortress lies in the fact that it prevents Warsaw 
from being turned by a force on the lower Vistula and commands 
the railway between Danzig and Warsaw. 

NOVOMOSKOVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Ekaterinoslav, 16 m.-N.E. of the town of Ekaterinoslav. Includ- 
ing several villages which have been incorporated with it, it 
extends for nearly 7 m. along the right bank of the Samara, a 
tributary of the Dnieper. In the i7th century the site was 
occupied by several villages of Zaporogian Cossacks, known 
under the name of Samarchik. In 1687 Prince Golitsuin founded 
here the Ust-Samara fort, which was destroyed after the treaty 
of the Pruth (1711), but rebuilt in 1736, and the settlement of 
Novoselitsy established. The inhabitants of Novomoskovsk, 
who numbered 23,381 in 1900, are chiefly engaged in agriculture, 
though some are employed in tanneries, and there is a trade in 
horses, cattle, tallow, skins, tar and pitch. In the immediate 
neighbourhood is the Samarsko-Nikolayevskiy monastery, which 
is visited by many pilgrims. 

NOVO-RADOMSK, or RADOMSKO, a town of Russian Poland, 
in the government of Piotrk6w, 28 m. by rail S.S.W. of the 
town of Piotrkow. It has factories for bentwood furniture, 
woollens and cloth, tanneries, ironworks and sawmills, and is 
the centre of a very active trade. Pop. (1900) 14,464, many 
being Jews. 

NOVOROSSIYSK, a seaport town of S. Russia, in the Cherno- 
morsk or Black Sea territory, on a bay of the same name (also 
named Tsemes), on the N.E. coast of the Black Sea. Pop. 
(1900) 40,384. The bay, nearly 3 m. wide at its entrance on the 



E., and 5 m. deep from E. to W., is exposed to the N.E. wind 
(bora), which sweeps down from the Caucasus Mountains with 
great violence. There is an artificial harbour (1893) protected 
by a mole. Novorossiysk is connected by a branch railway to 
Tikhoryetskaya (169 m.) with the main Caucasian line, which 
crosses the Volga near Tsaritsyn, and has become an important 
centre for the export of corn, and since the petroleum wells 
of Groznyi in northern Caucasia were tapped it has become 
an entrepot for the export of petroleum. Cement is manufac- 
tured. Large grain elevators have been built, and a new com- 
mercial town has grown up. Besides cereals, which amount to 
69% of the whole, the exports consist of petroleum and 
petroleum waste, oilcake, linseed, timber, bran, millet seed, 
wool, potash, zinc ore and liquorice, the total annual value 
ranging between 3^ and si millions sterling. The imports are 
small. Some 1500 acres in the vicinity of the town are planted 
with vines. Novorossiysk has belonged to Russia since 1829. 

NOWELL, ALEXANDER (c. 1507-1602), dean of St Paul's, 
London, was the eldest son of John Nowell of Read Hall, Whalley, 
Lancashire, by his second wife Elizabeth Kay of Rochdale. 
He was educated at Middleton, Lancashire, and at Brasenose 
College, Oxford, where he is said to have shared rooms with 
John Foxe the martyrologist. He was elected fellow of Brasenose 
in 1526. In 1543 he was appointed master of Westminster 
school, and in December 1551 prebendary of Westminster. 
He was elected in September 1553 member of parliament for 
Looe in Cornwall in Queen Mary's first parliament, but in 
October 1553 a committee of the house reported that, having 
as prebendary of Westminster a seat in convocation, he could 
not sit in the House of Commons. He was also deprived of his 
prebend, probably as being a married man, before May 1554, 
and sought refuge at Strassburg and Frankfort, where he 
developed puritan and almost presbyterian views. He submitted, 
however, to the Elizabethan settlement of religion, and was 
rewarded with the archdeaconry of Middlesex, a canonry at 
Canterbury and in 1560 with the deanery of St Paul's. His 
sermons occasionally created some stir, and on one occasion 
Elizabeth interrupted his sermon, telling him to stick to his 
text and cease slighting the crucifix. He held the deanery of 
St Paul's for forty-two years, surviving until the I3th of February 
1602. Nowell is believed to have composed the Catechism 
inserted before the Order of Confirmation in the Prayer Book 
of 1549, which was supplemented in 1604 and is still in use; 
but the evidence is not conclusive. Early in Elizabeth's reign, 
however, he wrote a larger catechism, to serve as a statement 
of Protestant principles; it was printed in 1570, and in the'same 
year appeared his " middle " catechism, designed it would seem 
for the instruction of " simple curates." Nowell also established 
a free school at Middleton and made other benefactions for 
educational purposes. He was twice married, but left no 
children. 

See Ralph Churton, Life of Alexander Nowell (Oxford, 1809); G. 
Burnet, History of the Reformation (new ed., Oxford, 1865) ; and 
R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of England. Also the Works of 
John Strype; the Publications of the Parker Society; the Calendar 
of State Papers, Domestic; and the Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. Iv. 

NOWGONG, a town of India, headquarters of the Bundelkhand 
agency and a military cantonment, in the native state of Chhatar- 
pur, on the border of the British district of Jhansi. Pop. (1901) 
11,507. It has accommodation for a force of all arms. The 
college for the education of the sons of chiefs in Central India, 
opened here in 1872, was abolished in 1898, owing to the small 
attendance. 

NOWGONG, a town and district of British India, in the 
Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. 
The town is situated on the Kalang river. Pop. (1001) 4430. 
The district of Nowgong has an area of 3843 sq. m. It consists 
of a wide plain overgrown with jungle and canebrakes, intersected 
by numerous tributaries of the Brahmaputra, and dotted with 
shallow marshes. The Mikir hills cover an area of about 65 m. 
by 35 in the S. of the district; the highest peak is about 3500 ft. 
The slopes are very steep, and are covered with dense forest. 



842 



NOWSHERA NUBAR PASHA 



The Kamakhya hills near the bank of the Brahmaputra, are 
about 1500 ft. high. On the summit of the highest peak is a 
celebrated temple of Kamakhya, the local goddess of love, 
where three annual festivals are held. The staple crop is rice. 
Tea cultivation and manufacture are carried on by European 
capital and under European supervision, though the soil and 
climate are not so favourable as in Upper Assam. The population 
in 1901 was 261,160, showing a decrease of 24-8% in the decade, 
due to the extreme unhealthiness of the climate. In the previous 
ten years the number of deaths recorded from fever and kala 
azar was 93,824. The section of the Assam-Bengal railway 
from Gauhati to the hills passes through part of the district, 
but not very near Nowgong town; and feeder roads to the 
stations lead from the main road that runs parallel to the Kalang 
river. 

See Nowgong District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905). 

NOWSHERA, or NAUSHAHRA, a town and cantonment in 
Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier Province of 
India, situated on the right bank of the Kabul river 27 m. E. of 
Peshawar. Pop. (1901) 9518. It is the headquarters of a 
brigade in the ist division of the northern army, and also the 
junction for the frontier railway that runs to the station of 
Mardan and continues to Dargai and Malakand on the route to 
Chitral. 

NOY, WILLIAM (1577-1634), English jurist, was born on the 
family estate of Pendrea in Buryan, Cornwall, in 1577, his 
father belonging to a family whose pedigree is included in the 
visitation of Cornwall in 1620. He went to Exeter College, 
Oxford, but left without taking a degree. He entered Lincoln's 
Inn in 1594. From 1603 until his death he was elected, with 
one exception, to each parliament, sitting invariably for a 
constituency of his native county. For several years his sym- 
pathies were in antagonism to the court party. Every commis- 
sion that was appointed numbered Noy among its members, 
and even those who were opposed to him in politics acknowledged 
his learning. A few years before his death he was drawn over 
to the side of the court, and in October 1631 he was created 
attorney-general, but was never knighted. It was through his 
advice that the impost of ship-money was levied. Noy had long 
suffered from stone, and died in great agony on the 9th of 
August 1634; two days later he was buried at New Brentford 
church. His principal works are On the Grounds and Maxims of 
the Laws of this Kingdom (1641) and The Compleat Lawyer (1661). 

NOYON, a city of N. France, in the department of Oise, 
67 m. N.N.E. of Paris by the railway to Brussels. Pop. (1906) 
5968. Noyon is built at the foot and on the slopes of a hill, and 
traversed by a small stream, the Verse, which joins the Oise 
i m. farther down. The old cathedral of Notre-Dame, con- 
structed on the site of a church burned in 1131, is a fine example 
of the transition from Romanesque to Gothic architecture. 
In plan it is a Latin cross, with a total length from E. to W. of 
about 340 ft.; the height of the nave vaulting is 75 ft. The west 
front has a porch, added in the I4th century, and two unfinished 
towers, their upper portions dating from the I3th century; 
its decorations have been greatly mutilated. The nave consists 
of eleven bays, including those of the W. front, which, in the 
interior, forms a kind of transept. In the windows of the aisles, 
the arches of the triforium, and the windows of the clerestory 
the round type is maintained; but double pointed arches appear 
in the lower gallery; and the vaults of the roof, originally 
six-ribbed, were rebuilt after a fire in 1293 in the prevailing 
Pointed style. The transepts have apsidal terminations. Side 
chapels were added in the N. aisle in the I4th century and in the 
S. aisle in the isth and the i6th, one of the latter (isth) is especi- 
ally rich in decorations. The flying buttresses of the building 
were restored in the igth century in the style of the i2th century. 
From the N.W. corner of the nave runs the western gallery of a 
fine cloister erected in 1230; and next to the cloister is the 
chapter-house of the same date, with its entrance adorned with 
statues of the bishops and other sculpture. The bishops' tombs 
within the cathedral were destroyed during the Revolution. 
The chapel of the bishops' palace is an example of the Early 



Pointed style; the canons' library was built of wood early in 
the i6th century; and the town-hall (Gothic and Renaissance) 
dates from 1485-1523. Among the town manuscripts is the 
Red Book or communal charter of Noyon. Remains of the 
Roman walls may be traced. There is a statue to Jacques 
Sarrazin, the painter (1592-1660), a native of the town. Noyon 
has good trade in grain and live-stock, and contains chemical 
and artificial manure works, tanneries and ironfoundries and 
carries on sawmilling and sugar manufacture. 

Noyon, the ancient Noviomagus Veromanduorum, was 
christianized by St Quentin at the close of the 3rd century; 
and about 530 St Medard, bishop of the district of Vermandois, 
transferred his see thither from St Quentin. The episcopate 
of St Eligius towards the middle of the 7th century, the burial 
of Chilperic I., the coronation of Pippin the Short in 752, and 
on the same occasion the coronation of his infant son Carloman 
with the title of king of Noyon, the coronation of Charlemagne 
in 768 and the election of Hugh Capet in 987, the plunder of the 
town by the Normans in 859 are the chief events in the history 
of Noyon down to the loth century. Till the Revolution the 
bishopric was one of the ecclesiastical peerages of the kingdom. 
At the beginning of the i2th century Noyon easily obtained a 
communal charter through the favour of its bishops. The extent 
of the bishopric was considerably curtailed towards the middle 
of the 1 2th century by the breaking off of the diocese of Tournai. 
Noyon was ravaged by the English and the Burgundians during 
the Hundred Years' War. In 1516 a truce was signed there 
by Francis I. and Charles V. The city was captured by the 
Spaniards in 1552, and afterwards by the Leaguers, who were 
expelled in 1594 by Henry IV. John Calvin was born at Noyon 
in 1509. 

See A. Lefranc, Histoire de Noyon jusqu'a la fin du XIII' siecle 
(Paris, 1887). 

NOZU, MICHITSURA, MARQUESS (1840-1908), Japanese 
field-marshal, was born in Satsuma. He fought against the 
Satsuma rebels in 1877, became a genera) in 1894 and led the 
Hiroshima division at the battle of Pingyang (1894). He 
succeeded Yamagata in the command-in-chief of the Manchurian 
army, and fought in that capacity throughout the China- Japan 
War, being raised to the rank of viscount (1895). He commanded 
the fourth army in the Russo-Japanese War, and received a 
marquessate at its close. He died in 1908. 

NUBAR PASHA (1825-1899), Egyptian statesman, was born 
at Smyrna in January 1825, the son of an Armenian merchant 
named Moghreditch, who had married a relative of Boghos Bey, 
an influential minister of Mehemet Ali. Boghos had promised to 
interest himself in the future of his young relative, and at his 
suggestion he was sent first to Vevey, and then to Toulouse, to be 
educated by the Jesuits, from whom he acquired a very perfect 
knowledge of French, and perhaps that singular suppleness and 
subtlety of character by which he was mainly distinguished. 
Before he was eighteen he went to Egypt, and after some eighteen 
months' training as secretary to Boghos, who was then minister of 
both commerce and foreign affairs, he was made second secretary 
to Mehemet Ali. In 1845 he became first secretary to Ibrahim 
Pasha, the heir apparent, and accompanied him on a special 
mission to Europe. Abbas Pasha, who succeeded Ibrahim in 
1848, maintained Nubar in the same capacity, and sent him in 
1850 to London as his representative to resist the pretensions of 
the sultan, who was seeking to evade the conditions of the treaty 
under which Egypt was secured to the family of Mehemet Ali. 
Here he was so completely successful that he was made a bey; 
in 1853 he was sent to Vienna on a similar mission, and remained 
there until the death of Abbas in July 1854. The new viceroy, 
Said, at once dismissed him from office, but two years after- 
wards appointed him his chief secretary, and later gave him 
charge of the important transport service through Egypt to 
India. Here Nubar was mainly instrumental in the completion 
of railway communication between Cairo and Suez, and ex- 
hibited strong organising ability combined with readiness of 
resource. After a second time falling a victim to Said's caprice 
and being dismissed, he was again sent to Vienna, and returned as 



NUBIA 



843 



principal secretary to Said, a position he held till Said's death in 
January 1863. 

On the accession of Ismail Pasha, Nubar Bey was in the prime 
of life. He was already on friendly terms with him; he even 
claimed to have saved his life at all events, it was a coincidence 
that the two had together refused to travel by the train the 
accident to which caused the death (on the i4th of May 1858) of 
the prince Ahmed, who would otherwise have succeeded Said. 
Ismail, himself a more capable man than his immediate pre- 
decessors, at once recognized the ability of Nubar, and charged 
him with a mission to Constantinople, not only to notify his 
accession, but to smooth the way for the many ambitious projects 
he already entertained, notably the completion of the Suez Canal, 
the change in title to that of khedive and the change in the order 
of succession. In the first of these he was completely successful; 
the sultan, believing as little as every one else that the canal 
was anything more than a dream, gave his consent at a price the 
moderation of which he must afterwards have regretted. The 
gratified Ismail created Nubar a pasha, and the sultan himself, 
persuaded to visit Cairo, confirmed the title so rarely accorded to a 
Christian. Half the work was, however, yet to be done, and 
Nubar was sent to Paris to complete the arrangements, and to 
settle the differences between Egypt and the Canal Company. In 
what he used to call " an expensive moment of enthusiasm," he 
left these differences to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon 
III. and cost Egypt four millions sterling. On his return he was 
made Egypt's first minister of public works, and was distinguished 
for the energy which he threw into the creation of a new depart- 
ment; but hi 1866 he was made minister of foreign affairs, and 
at once went on a special mission to Constantinople, where he 
succeeded in the other two projects that had been left in abeyance 
since his last visit. In June 1867 Ismail was declared khedive 
of Egypt, with succession in favour of his eldest son. Nubar 
new had a harder task to undertake than ever before. The 
antiquated system of " capitulations " which had existed in the 
Ottoman empire since the isth century had grown in Egypt to 
be a practical creation of seventeen imperia in imperio: seven- 
teen consulates of seventeen different powers administered seven- 
teen different codes in courts before which alone their subjects 
were amenable. A plaintiff could only sue a Frenchman in the 
French court, with appeal to Aix; an Italian in the Italian 
court, with appeal to Ancona; a Russian in the Russian court, 
with appeal to Moscow. Nubar's bold design, for which alone he 
deserves the credit, was to induce these seventeen powers to 
consent to abandon their jurisdiction in civil actions, to sub- 
stitute mixed International Courts and a uniform code binding 
on all. That in spite of the jealousies of all the powers, in spite 
of the opposition of the Porte, he should have succeeded, places 
him at once in the first rank of statesmen of his period. Nubar 
made no attempt to get rid of the criminal jurisdiction exer- 
cised by the consular representatives of the foreign powers 
such a proposal would have had, at that time, no chance of 
success. 

The extravagant administration of Ismail, for which perhaps 
Nubar can hardly be held wholly responsible, had brought Egypt 
to the verge of bankruptcy, and Ismail's disregard of the judg- 
ments of the Court at last compelled Great Britain and France 
to interfere. Under pressure, Ismail, who began to regret the 
establishment of the International Courts, assented to a mixed 
ministry under Nubar, with Rivers Wilson as minister of finance 
and de Blignieres as minister of public works. Nubar, finding 
himself supported by both Great Britain and France, tried to 
reduce Ismail to the position of a constitutional monarch, and 
Ismail, with an astuteness worthy of a better cause, took ad- 
vantage of a somewhat injudicious disbandment of certain 
regiments to incite a military rising against the ministry. 
The governments of Great Britain and France, instead of 
supporting the ministry against the khedive, weakly con- 
sented to Nubar's dismissal; but when this was shortly fol- 
lowed by that of Rivers Wilson and de Blignieres they realized 
that the situation was a critical one, and they succeeded in 
obtaining from the sultan the deposition of Ismail and the sub- 



stitution of his son Tewfik as khedive (1879). Nubar remained 
out of office until 1884. 

In the interval Great Britain had intervened in Egypt the 
battle of Tel-el-Kebir had been fought, Arabi had been banished, 
and Sir Evelyn Baring (afterwards earl of Cromer) had succeeded 
Sir Edward Malet. The British government, under the advice 
of Baring, insisted on the evacuation of the Sudan, and Sherif 
having resigned office, the more pliant Nubar was induced to 
become premier, and to carry out a policy of which he openly 
disapproved, but which he considered Egpyt was forced to 
accept under British dictation. At this period he used to say, 
" I am not here to govern Egypt, but to administer the British 
government of Egypt. I am simply the greaser of the official 
wheels." It might have been well if Nifbar had confined himself 
to this modest programme, but it was perhaps hardly to be 
expected of a man of his ability and restless energy. It must be 
admitted, however, that the characters of Nubar and Lord 
Cromer were not formed to run hi harness, and it was with no 
surprise that the public learnt in June 1888 that he had been 
relieved of office, though his dismissal was the direct act of the 
khedive Tewfik, who did not on this occasion seek the advice 
of the British agent. Riaz Pasha, who succeeded him, was, with 
one interval of eight months, prime minister until April 1894, 
when Nubar returned to office. By that time Lord Cromer had 
more completely grasped the reins of administration as well as 
of government, and Nubar had realized more clearly the role 
which an Egyptian minister was called on to play: Lord Cromer 
was the real ruler of Egypt, and the death of Tewfik in 1890 
had necessitated a more open exercise of British authority. 
In November 1895 Nubar completed his fifty years of service, 
and, accepting a pension, retired from office. He lived little 
more than three years longer, spending his tune between Cairo 
and Paris, where he died in January 1899 at the age of seventy- 
four. (C. F. M. B.) 

NUBIA, a region of north-east Africa, bounded N. by Egypt, 
E. and W. by the Red Sea and the Libyan Desert respectively, 
and extending S. indefinitely to about the latitude of Khartum. 
It may be taken to include the Nile valley from Assuan near the 
First Cataract southwards to the confluence of the White and 
Blue Niks, stretching in this direction for about 560 m. between 
1 6 and 24 N. Nubia, however, has no strictly defined limits, 
and is little more than a geographical expression. The term 
appears to have been unknown to the ancients, by whom every- 
thing south of Egypt was vaguely called Ethiopia, the land of 
the dark races. It is first associated historically, not with any 
definite geographical region, but with the Nobatae, a negro people 
removed by Diocletian from Kharga oasis to the Nile valley above 
Egypt (Dodecaschoenus), whence the turbulent Blemmyes had 
recently been driven eastwards. From Nuba, the Arabic form 
of the name cf this people, comes the modern Nubia, a term 
about the precise meaning of which no two writers are in accord. 
Within the limits indicated the country consists mainly of sandy 
desert and rugged and arid steppes and plateaus through which 
the Nile forces its way to Upper Egypt. In this section of the 
river there occurs a continuous series of slight falls and rapids, 
including all the historical " six cataracts," beginning below 
Khartum and terminating at Philae. Between those places the 
river makes a great S-shaped bend, the region west of the Nile 
within the lower bend being called the Bayiida Desert, and that 
east of the Nile the Nubian Desert. The two districts roughly 
correspond to the conventional divisions of Upper and Lower 
Nubia respectively. Except along the narrow valley of the Nile 
only the southernmost portion of Nubia contains arable land. 
The greater part is within the almost rainless zone. An auri- 
ferous district lies between the Nile and the Red Sea, in 22 N. 
Politically the whole of Nubia is now included either in Egypt or 
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and has no administrative existence. 

Ethnology. As an ethnical expression the term Nuba or 
Nubian has little value. Rejected by the presumable descend- 
ants of Diocletian's Nobatae, who now call themselves Berber 
or Barabara, it has become synonymous in the Nile valley with 
" slave," or " negro slave." This is due to the large number of 



NUBLE 



slaves drawn by Arab dealers from the NQba negroes of Kordofan, 
who appear to constitute the original stock of the Nubian races 
(but see HAMITIC RACES). On the other hand, the name has 
never included all the inhabitants of Nubia. Peoples of three 
distinct stocks inhabit the country the comparatively recent 
Semitic Arab intruders, mainly in Upper Nubia, the Beja 
(? Hamitic) family of tribes (the Ababda, Bisharin, Hadendoa, 
Beni-Amer, &c.), everywhere between the Nile and the Red Sea; 
and the Nubians (Nuba or Barabira), in Lower Nubia, where 
they are now almost exclusively confined to the banks of the 
Nile, from Assuan southwards to Dongola. Ethnologically these 
modern Nubians are a very mixed people, but their affiliation to 
negroes or negroids, which is based on physical and linguistic 
grounds, is confirmed by what is known of the history of the 
Nilotic peoples. 

The first inhabitants of the region beyond Egypt appear to 
have been the Uaua, whose name occurs in an inscription on a 
tomb at Memphis of the Vlth Dynasty, and again constantly in 
subsequent inscriptions down to the time of the Ptolemies, as the 
chief negro race to the south of Syene. (For the history of the 
country during this period see ETHIOPIA). It thus appears that 
throughout the historic period down to the arrival of the Romans 
the Nile-country above Egypt was occupied by a negro people. 
Egyptian monuments are found as far south as Mount Barkal 
(Napata), but no Egyptian settlements beyond Syene. Hence 
these Uaua negroes probably remained unaffected, or very 
slightly affected, by foreign elements until about the 3rd century 
A.D. Their domain then began to be encroached upon from the 
east by the Blemmyes, who have been identified with the present 
Beja of the Nubian desert. It was owing to their incessant raids 
that Diocletian withdrew the Roman garrisons above the 
cataracts, and called in the warlike Nobatae to protect the 
Egyptian frontier from their attacks. These negro Nobatae, 
originally from Kordofan, as is now evident, had advanced to the 
Great Oasis (Kharga) in Upper Egypt, whence they passed into 
the Nile valley between the cataracts. Here they absorbed the 
older Uaua of kindred stock, and ultimately came to terms with 
the Blemmyes. The two races even became intermingled, and, 
making common cause against the Romans, were defeated by 
Maximinus in 451. 

The Blemmyes, remaining pagan after the Nubas had embraced 
Christianity (6th century) were soon after driven from the Nile 
valley eastwards to the kindred Megabares, Memnons and other 
nomads, who, with the Troglodytes, had from time immemorial 
held the whole steppe region between the Nile and the Red Sea 
from Axum to Egypt. Here their most collective name was 
Bugaitae (BoiryaT<xO, as appears from the Axumite inscription, 
whence the forms Buja, Beja, which occur in the oldest Arab 
records, and by which they are still known. 

In the 7th century the Arabs who had conquered Egypt 
penetrated into Lower Nubia, where the two Jawabareh and 
Al-Gharbiya tribes became powerful, and amalgamated with the 
Nubas of that district. Their further progress south was barred 
by the Christian kings of Dongola (q.v.) until the I4th century, 
when the Arabs became masters of the whole region. Still 
later another element was added to the population in the intro- 
duction by the Turkish masters of Egypt of a number of 
Bosnians. These Bosnians (Kalaji as they called themselves) 
settled in the country and intermarried with the Arabs and 
Nubians, their descendants still holding lands between Assuan and 
Derr. Hence it is that the Nubians of this district, fairest of all 
the race, still claim Arab and Osmanli (Bosnian) descent. 

Nevertheless, the Nubian type remains essentially negro, being 
characterized by a very dark complexion, varying from a 
mahogany brown and deep bronze to an almost black shade, with 
tumid lips, large black animated eyes, doli-chocephalic head 
(index 73, 72), hair often woolly or strongly frizzled, and scant 
beard worn under the chin like the figures of the fugitives (Uaua?) 
in the battle-pieces sculptured on the walls of the Egyptian 
temples. At the same time the nose is much larger and the 
zygomatic arches less prominent than in the full-blood negro. 
The Nilotic Nubians are on the whole a strong muscular people, 



essentially agricultural, more warlike and energetic than the 
Egyptians. Many find employment as artisans, small dealers, 
porters and soldiers in Egypt, where they are usually noted for 
their honesty, and frank and cheerful temperament. Since the 
overthrow of the native Christian states all have become Mahom- 
medans, but not of a fanatical type. Although a native of Dongola, 
the mahdi, Mahommed Ahmed, found his chief support, not 
among his countrymen, but among the more recently converted 
Kordofan negroes and the nomad Arabs and Beja. (For ethno- 
logy see also HAMITIC RACES, BEJA, ABABDA, BISHARIN, 
HADENDOA, &c.). 

Language. Little is known of the language of the ancient Nubians 
or of its connexion, if any, with the language, known as Meroitic, 
of the " Ethiopians " who preceded them. The hieroglyphs and 
inscriptions in Meroitic belong mostly to the first six centuries A.D. ; 
the existing Nubian MSS. are medieval and are written chiefly in 
Greek letters, and in form and character resemble Coptic. They are, 
with one exception, written on parchment and contain lives of saints, 
&c., the exception being a legal document. The most noteworthy of 
these MSS. was found near Edfu, in Upper Egypt, early in the 
2Oth century and purchased for the British Museum in 1908. Euty- 
chius, patriarch of Alexandria about 930, included " Nubi " among 
the six kinds of writing which he mentions as current among the 
Hamitic peoples, and Nubi " also appears among a list of six 
writings mentioned in an ancient manuscript now in the Berlin 
Museum. 

The modern Nubian tongue, clearly the descendant of the Nubian 
of the MSS., is very sonorous and expressive. Its distinctly negro 
character is betrayed in the complete absence of grammatical gender, 
in its primitive vowel-system and highly-developed process of 
consonantal assimilation, softening all harsh combinations, lastly, 
in the peculiar infix.; inserted between the verbal root and the plural 
pronominal object, as in at tokki-j-ir = l shake them. As in Bantu, 
the verb presents a multiplicity of forms, including one present, 
three past and futuretenses. with personal endings complete, passive, 
interrogative, conditional, elective, negative and other forms, each 
with its proper participial inflexions. In Lepsius's grammar the 
verbal paradigm fills altogether no pages. 

Of the Nilotic as distinguished from the Kordofan branch of the 
Nuba language there are three principal dialects current from 
Assuan along the Nile southwards to Meroe, as under: 

I. NORTHERN: Dialect of Bam Kenz or Maltokki, from the first 
cataract to Sebu' and Wadi al-'Arab, probably dating from 
the Diocletian period. 

II. CENTRAL : The Mahal or Marisi, from Korosko to Wadi Haifa 
(second cataract). Here the natives are called Saidokki, 
in contradistinction to the northern Mattokki. 
III. SOUTHERN: Dongolawi, throughout the province of Dongola 
from the second cataract to J. Deja near Meroe, on the 
northern frontier of the Arab district of Dar Shagia. By 
the Mahasi people it is called Biderin Bannid, " language 
of the poor," or, collectively with the Kenz, Oshkirin 
Bannid, " language of slaves.' 

The northern and southern varieties are closely related to each 
other, differing considerably from the central, which shows more 
marked affinities with the Kordofan Nuba, possibly because the 
Saidokki people are later arrivals from Kordofan. For topography, 
&c. and archaeology, see SUDAN Anglo-Egyptian and EGYPT. 

AUTHORITIES. C. R. Lepsius, Nubische Grammatik (Berlin, 1880), 
and Briefe aus Aegypten, Aethiopien, &c. (Berlin, 1852); D. R. 
Maclver, Areika (Oxford, 1909); Nubian Texts, edited by E. A. 
Wallis Budge (British Museum, 1909) ; F. LI Griffith, " Some old 
Nubian Christian Texts " in Journal of Theological Studies (July, 
1909); E. A. WalHs Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (London, 1907); 
J. Ward, Our Sudan, its Pyramids and Progress (London, 1905); 
E. Ruppell, Reisen in Nubien, Kordofan, &c. (Frankfort a. M., 
1829); F. Caillaud, Voyage a Meroe (Paris, 1826); L. Reinisch, Die 
Nuba-Sprache (Vienna, 1879); Memoirs of the Soci6t6 kh6diviale 
de Geographic, Cairo; J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia, &c. 
(London, 1.819); G. Waddington and B. Hanbury, Journal of a Visit 
to some parts of Ethiopia (London, 1822); E. F. Gau, Nubische 
Denkmaler (Stuttgart, 1821). Consult also the bibliography under 
SUDAN. 

RUBLE, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by Linares, 
E. by the Argentine Republic, S. by Concepcion and W. by 
Concepcion and Maule. Area, 3407 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 152,935. 
The province lies partly in the great central valley of Chile, noted 
for its fine climate and fertility, and partly on the western 
slopes of the Andes. The Itata river, which forms the southern 
boundary, and its principal tributary, the Nuble, form the 
drainage system of the province. Agriculture and grazing are 
the principal industries. Wheat is largely produced, and there 
are vineyards in some localities. Stock-raising is pursued 
chiefly in the east, where the pastures are rich and the water 



NUCERIA ALFATERNA NUISANCE 



845 



supply unfailing. The state railway from Santiago to the southern 
provinces passes through Nuble, from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and sends 
off a branch from Bulnes W. to Jan Tome on the Bay of Con- 
ception. The capital is Chilian, and the only other important 
town is Bulnes, a railway junction and active commercial centre. 
The hot baths of Chilian, in the eastern part of the province on 
the slope of the volcano of that name, about 7000 ft. above sea 
level, are very popular in Chile. 

NUCERIA ALFATERNA (mod. Nocera Inferiore, q.v.), an 
ancient town of Campania, Italy, in the valley of the Sarnus 
(Sarno), about 10 m. E. of the modern coast line at Torre Annun- 
ziata, and 8 m. E. of Pompeii. In the period before the Roman 
supremacy it appears to have been the chief town in the valley 
of the Sarnus, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae and Surrentum 
all being dependent upon it. The coins of the town bear the 
head of the river god. It maintained its allegiance to Rome 
till 309 B.C. when it joined the revolted Samnites. In 308 it 
repulsed a Roman attempt to land at the mouth of the Sarnus, 
but in 307 it was besieged and surrendered. It obtained favour- 
able terms, and remained faithful to Rome even after Cannae. 
Hannibal reduced it in 216 by starvation, and destroyed and 
plundered the town. The inhabitants returned when peace was 
restored. Even during the Social War Nuceria remained true to 
Rome, though the dependent towns joined the revolt; after it 
they were formed into independent communities, and Nuceria 
received the territory of Stabiae, which had been destroyed by 
Sulla in 89 B.C., as a compensation. In 73 B.C. it was plundered 
by Spartacus. Of the buildings of the ancient city nothing 
at all is to be seen; but on the hillsides on the S. are remains 
of villas of the Roman period, and here tombs have been 
found. (T. As.) 

NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of 
fruit), the central portion of things, round which other parts of 
the same thing or other things collect together. The term is 
particularly applied to the central mass of protoplasm in a plant 
or animal cell (see CYTOLOGY). 

NUER, a Nilotic negro people of the upper Nile, dwelling in the 
swampy plains south of Fashoda and at the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
confluence, and having for neighbours the Dinka, whom they 
resemble. They are long-legged and flat-footed, and live, like 
the aquatic birds, on fish, roots and river plants. They tattoo 
tribal marks on the forehead, and the women pierce the upper 
lips. A few Nuer families live on the floating islets of grass and 
reeds brought down by the river in flood. 

NUEVA SAN SALVADOR, or SANTA TECLA, the capital of the 
department of La Libertad, Salvador; on the railway between 
San Salvador (10 m. N.) and the Pacific port of La Libertad. 
Pop. (1905) about 18,000. The town was founded in 1854, and 
intended to replace the capital, San Salvador, which was ruined 
by an earthquake in that year but soon afterwards rebuilt. 
Nueva San Salvador is an attractive town with a large and 
growing trade. 

NUEVO LEON, a northern state of Mexico, bounded N., E. 
and S.E. by Tamaulipas, S. and S.W. by San Luis Potosi and 
W. and N. by Coahuila. Pop. (1900) 327,937; area 23,592 
sq. m. Nuevo Le6n lies partly upon the great Mexican plateau 
and partly upon its eastern slopes, the Sierra Madre Oriental 
crossing the state N.W. to S.E. A branch of the Sierra Madre 
extends northward from the vicinity of Salinas, but its elevations 
are low. The average elevation of the Sierra Madre within the 
state is slightly under 5500 ft. The general character of the 
surface is mountainous, though the western and south-western 
sides are level and dry as in the adjoining state of Coahuila. 
In the N. the general elevation is low, the surface sandy and 
covered with cactus and mesquite growth, and hot, semi-arid 
conditions prevail. The eastern slopes receive more rain and are 
well clothed with vegetation, but the lower valleys are sub- 
tropical in character and are largely devoted to sugar production. 
The higher elevations have a dry, temperate, healthful climate. 
There are many rivers and streams, notably the Salado, Pesqueria 
and Presas, but none is navigable within the state, though many 
furnish good water power. Agriculture is the principal industry, 



the chief products being sugar, barley, Indian corn and wheat. 
Rum is a by-product of the sugar industry, and " mescal " is 
distilled from the agave. The gathering and preparation of 
" ixtle " fibres from the agave and yucca forms another im- 
portant industry, the fibre being sent to Tampico for export. 
Stock-raising receives considerable attention; there are about a 
score of large cattle ranges, and there is a considerable export 
of live cattle to Texas and to various Mexican states. Consider- 
able progress has been made in manufacturing industries, and 
there are a large number of sugar-mills, cotton factories, woollen 
mills, smelting works and iron and steel works. The state is well 
served with railways, the capital, Monterrey, being one of the 
most important railway centres in northern Mexico. The 
Mexican National line crosses the northern half of the state and 
has constructed a branch from Monterrey to Matamoros, and a 
Belgian line (F. C. de Monterrey al Golfo Mexicano) runs from 
Tampico N.N.W. to Monterrey, and thence westward to Trevifio 
(formerly Venadito) in Coahuila, a station on the Mexican Inter- 
national. The other principal towns are: Linares, or San Felipe 
de Linares (pop. 20,690 in 1900), 112 m. by rail S.E. of the capital 
in a rich agricultural region; Lampazos, or Lampazos de 
Naranjo (7704), 96 m. by rail N.W. of the capital; Cadereyta 
Jiminez, Garcia, Santiago and Doctor Arroyo, the last in the 
extreme southern part of the state. 

NUGENT, ROBERT NUGENT, EARL (1702-1788), Irish 
politician and poet, son of Michael Nugent, was born at Carlans- 
town, Co. Westmeath. He was tersely described by Richard 
Glover as " a jovial and voluptuous Irishman who had left 
popery for the Protestant religion, money and widows." His 
change of religion took place at a very early period in life; he 
married in 1736 Anna (d. 1756), daughter of James Craggs, the 
secretary of state, a lady who had already been twice given in 
marriage. His wife's property comprised the borough of St 
Mawes in Cornwall, and Nugent sat for that constituency from 
1741 to 1754, after which date he represented Bristol until 1774, 
when he returned to St Mawes. He was a lord of the treasury 
from 1754 to 1759 and president of the board of trade from 1766 
to 1768. He married in 1757 Elizabeth, dowager-countess of 
Berkeley, who brought him a large fortune. His support of the 
ministry was so useful that he was created in 1767 Viscount 
Clare, and in 1776 Earl Nugent, both Irish peerages. He died on 
the i3th of October 1788. Lord Nugent was the author of some 
poetical productions, several of which are preserved in the second 
volume of Dodsley's Collections (1748). The earldom descended 
by special remainder to the earl's son-in-law, George Nugent 
Temple Grenville, marquess of Buckingham, and so to his 
successors, the dukes of Buckingham and Chandos. 

NUISANCE (through Fr. noisance, nuisance, from Lat. nocere, 
to hurt), that which gives offence or causes annoyance, trouble 
or injury. In English law nuisance is either public or private. 
A public or common nuisance is defined by Sir J. F. Stephen as 
" an act not warranted by law, or an omission to discharge a 
legal duty, which act or omission obstructs or causes incon- 
venience or damage to the public in the exercise of rights common 
to allHis Majesty's subjects "(Digestof theCriminalLaw,p.i2o). 
A common nuisance is punishable as a misdemeanour at common 
law, where no special provision is made by statute. In modern 
times many of the old common law nuisances have been the 
subject of legislation. It is no defence for a master or employer 
that a nuisance is caused by the acts of his servants, if such acts 
are within the scope of their employment, even though such 
acts are done without his knowledge and contrary to his orders. 
Nor is it a defence that the nuisance has been in existence for a 
great length of time, for no lapse of time will legitimate a public 
nuisance. 

A private nuisance is an act or omission which causes incon- 
venience or damage to a private person, and is left to be redressed 
by action. There must be some sensible diminution of these 
rights affecting the value or convenience of the property. " The 
real question in all the cases is the question of fact, whether the 
annoyance is such as materially to interfere with the ordinary 
comfort of human existence " (Lord Romilly in Crump v. 



NUKHA NUMANTIA 



Lambert, 1867, L.R. 3 Eq. 409). A private nuisance, differing 
in this respect from a public nuisance, may be legalized by un- 
interrupted use for twenty years. It used to be thought that, 
if a man knew there was a nuisance and went and lived near it, 
he could not recover, because, it was said, it is he that goes to 
the nuisance and not the nuisance to him. But this has long 
ceased to be law, as regards both the remedy by damages and 
the remedy by injunction. 

The remedy for a public nuisance is by information, indictment, 
summary procedure or abatement. An information lies in cases 
of great public importance, such as the obstruction of a navigable 
river by piers. In some matters the law allows the party to take 
the remedy into his own hands and to " abate " the nuisance. 
Thus, if a gate be placed across a highway, any person lawfully 
using the highway may remove the obstruction, provided that no 
breach of the peace is caused thereby. The remedy for a private 
nuisance is by injunction, action for damages or abatement. An 
action lies in every case for a private nuisance; it also lies where the 
nuisance is public, provided that the plaintiff can prove that he has 
sustained some special injury. In such a case the civil is in addition 
to the criminal remedy. In abating a private nuisance, care must 
be taken not to do more damage than is necessary for the removal 
nl the nuisance. 

In Scotland there is no recognized distinction between public 
a.id private nuisances. The law as to what constitutes a nuisance 
is substantially the same as in England. A list of statutory nuisances 
will be found in the Public Health (Scotland) Act 1867, and amend- 
ing acts. The remedy for nuisance is by interdict or action. 

The American law on the subject is practically the same as the 
English law. 

NUKHA, a town of Russian Caucasia, in the government of 
Elizavetpol, and previous to 1819 the capital of the khanate of 
Sheki, lying 57 m. N.E. of the town of Elizavetopol, at the S. 
foot of the main chain of the Caucasus. Pop. (1861) 22,618; 
(1897) 24,811; mainly Tatars, with some Armenians. The 
cupola of the church in the fortress is 2455 ft. above the sea-level, 
in 41 12' 18" N. and 47 12' f E. The fortress, a square 
enclosure, erected in 1765, contains the palace, built in 1790 in 
the original Persian style. The leading industry is the breeding 
of silkworms and the spinning of silk. Nukha was a mere 
village down to the middle of the i8th century, when it was 
chosen by Hajji Chelyabi, the founder of the khanate of Sheki, 
as his residence. The Russian occupation dates from 1807, 
though the annexation was not completed till 1819. 

NULLAH (Hindostani for an arm of the sea, stream or water- 
course), a steep narrow valley. Like the wadi of the Arabs, the 
nullah is characteristic of mountainous or hilly country where 
there is little rainfall. In the drier parts of India, and in many 
parts of Australia there are small steep-sided valleys penetrating 
the hills, clothed with rough brushwood or small trees growing 
in the stony soil. During occasional heavy rains torrents rush 
down the nullahs and quickly disappear. There is little local 
action upon the sides, while the bed is lowered, and consequently 
these valleys are narrow and steep. 

NULLIFICATION, the process of making null or of no effect 
(Lat. nullus, none). In United States history the term is 
applied to the process by which a state either (a) in fact suspended, 
or (6) claimed a constitutional right of suspending, the operation 
of a federal law within its own territory. The doctrine of 
nullification as a constitutional theory was probably never 
held by a majority of the states or of the American people at 
any one time, though before 1860 most of the states asserted 
or practised it. The belief in nullification was based on the 
theory that the union of the states was a voluntary one, each 
member retaining its sovereignty, though for purposes of con- 
venience delegating certain powers of government to an agent 
the federal government. The powers of this agent were strictly 
limited by the Constitution, and should it transcend these 
powers the states must interpose to protect their rights. This 
view held that the Supreme Court created by the Constitution 
was not a proper tribunal to decide causes arising beyond the 
Constitution or relating to the nature of the Union, but that 
its jurisdiction was limited to cases arising under the Constitu- 
tion. If the Federal government usurped a right belonging to 
the state, the latter, being a sovereignty, must judge for itself. 
As later perfected by John C. Calhoun (?..), the theory of 



nullification required a practice as follows. A state aggrieved 
by a law of the Federal congress might, in constituent convention, 
suspend the operation of the objectionable law, and report its 
action to the other states. If three-fourths of them should 
decide that the law in question was not unconstitutional, then 
in effect it became ratified (see United States Constitution, 
art. v.). The dissatisfied state must then submit or must draw 
out of the union by the act of secession (see SECESSION, and 
CONFEDERATE STATES). This theory of the right of nullification 
was considered by those who held it to be in accord with the 
principles laid down in the Constitution. It must be distin- 
guished from secession, which was considered a sovereign right, 
one above the Constitution; yet nullification presumed the 
sovereignty of the state. 

The earliest assertions of the doctrine of nullification are 
found in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798-1799, 
written respectively by T'homas Jefferson and James Madison 
in protest against the Alien and Sedition Acts of Congress. 
Nullification was first practised in 1809 by Pennsylvania, the 
governor ordering out the state troops to resist the execution 
of a decree of a Federal court. In the New England states, 
1809-1815, the United States laws relating to embargo, non- 
intercourse and army enlistments were nullified by state action. 
From 1825-1829 the state of Georgia forcibly prevented the 
execution of Federal laws and court decrees relating to the 
Indians within her borders and in Alabama, 1832-1835, there 
was a similar nullification. The only example of nullification 
in which theory and practice coincided was the nullification 
in 1832 by South Carolina of the Federal tariff laws. In this 
the state acted upon the theory outlined above which was 
perfected by Calhoun. In the last decade before the Civil War 
fourteen of the Northern states in the so-called " Personal 
Liberty laws " nullified the Federal statutes relating to slaves 
and slavery by making it a crime for their citizens to obey these 
laws and by setting the state administration against the Federal 
officials. Since the Reconstruction the Southern states have 
in practice effected a nullification of the Fourteenth and 
Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution providing for negro 
suffrage. 

See John C. Calhoun, Works, vols. i. and vi. (New York, 1853- 
1855); P- F. Houston, Critical Study of Nullification in South 
Carolina (New York, 1897) ; C. W. Loring, Nullification and Secession 
(New York, 1893); E. P. Powell, Nullification and Secession in the 
United States (New York, 1897); and U. B. Phillips, Georgia and 
States Rights (Washington, 1902). (W. L. F.) 

NUMANTIA, an ancient hill fortress in northern Spain, in 
the province of Soria (Old Castile), overhanging the village of 
Garray, near the town of Soria, on the upper Douro. Here, 
on a small isolated high plateau in the middle of the valley, 
was the stronghold which played the principal part in a famous 
struggle between the conquering Romans and the native Spaniards 
during the years 154-133 B.C. Numantia was especially con- 
cerned in the latter part of this war from 144 onwards. It 
was several times unsuccessfully besieged. Once the Roman 
general Hostilius Mancinus with his whole army was compelled 
to surrender (137). Finally, Scipio Aemilianus, Rome's first 
and only general in that age, with some 60,000 men drew round 
the town 6 m. of continuous entrenchments with seven camps 
at intervals. After 15 months (134-133) he reduced by hunger 
the 6000-8000 Numantine soldiers, much as Caesar afterwards 
reduced Alesia in Gaul. The result was regarded as a glorious 
victory, and in Roman literature the fall of Numantia was 
placed beside the fall of Carthage (149 B.C.). In truth, the 
maintenance in effective condition of so large a Roman force 
in so remote and difficult a region was in itself a real achievement 
and such as at that time no one but Scipio could have performed. 
He redeemed by organized strategy the vacillations and follies 
of statesmen who had sat at home and sent out inadequate 
expeditions or incompetent commanders. The site was, under 
the Roman Empire, occupied by a Roman town called Numantia, 
and the Itinerary tells of a Roman road which ran past it. It 
is to-day a " Monumento Nacional " of Spain, and has yielded 
remarkable discoveries to the skilful excavations of Dr Schulten 



NUMA POMPILIUS NUMBER 



847 



(1905-1910), who has traced the Celtiberian town, the lines 
of Scipio and several other Roman camps dating from the 
Numantine Wars. (F. J. H.) 

NUMA POMPILIUS, second legendary king of Rome (715- 
672 B.C.), was a Sabine, a native of Cures, and his wife was 
the daughter of Titus Tatius, the Sabine colleague of Romulus. 
He was elected by the Roman people at the close of a year's 
interregnum, during which the sovereignty had been exercised 
by the members of the senate in rotation. Nearly all the early 
religious institutions of Rome were attributed to him. He set 
up the worhip of Terminus (the god of landmarks), appointed 
the festival of Fides (Faith), built the temple of Janus, reorgan- 
ized the calendar and fixed days of business and holiday. He 
instituted the flamens (sacred priests) of Jupiter, Mars and 
Quirinus; the virgins of Vesta, to keep the sacred fire burning 
on the hearth of the city; the Salii, to guard the shield that 
fell from heaven; the pontifices and augurs, to arrange the 
rites and interpret the will of the gods; he also divided the 
handicraftsmen into nine gilds. He derived his inspiration from 
his wife, the nymph Egeria, whom he used to meet by night in 
her sacred grove. After a long and peaceful reign, during which 
the gates of Janus were closed, Numa died and was succeeded 
by the warlike Tullus Hostilius. Livy (xl. 29) tells a curious 
story of two stone chests, bearing inscriptions in Greek and 
Latin, which were found at the foot of the Janiculum (181 B.C.), 
one purporting to contain the body of Numa and the other his 
books. The first when opened was found to be empty, but the 
second contained fourteen books relating to philosophy and 
pontifical law, which were publicly burned as tending to under- 
mine the established religion. 

No single legislator can really be considered responsible for 
all the institutions ascribed to Numa; they are essentially 
Italian, and older than Rome itself. Even Roman tradition 
itself wavers; e.g. the fetiales are variously attributed to Tullus 
Hostilius and Ancus Marcius. The supposed law-books, which 
were to all 'appearance new when discovered, were clearly 
forgeries. 

See Livy i. 18-21; Plutarch, Numa; Dion. Halic. ii. 58-76; 
Cicero, De republica, ii. 13-15. For criticism: Schwegler, Romische 
Geschichte, bk. xi. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early 
Roman History, ch. xi. ; W. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, i. ; E. Pais, Storia di 
Roma, i. (1898), where Numa is identified with Titus Tatius and made 
out to be a river god, Numicius, closely connected with Aeneas; 
J. B. Carter, The Religion of Numa (1906); O. Gilbert, Geschichte 
und Topographic der Stadt Rom im Altertum (1883-1885) ; and ROME : 
Ancient History. 

NUMBER 1 (through Fr. nombre, from Lat. numerus; from 
a root seen in Gr. vkiifiv to distribute), a word generally ex- 
pressive of quantity, the fundamental meaning of which leads 
on analysis to some of the most difficult problems of higher 
mathematics. 

i. The most elementary process of thought involves a distinc- 
tion within an identity the A and the not-A within the sphere 
throughout which these terms are intelligible. Again A may be 
a generic quality found in different modes Aa, Ab, Ac, &c.; for 
instance, colour in the modes, red, green, blue and so on. Thus 
the notions of " one," " two," and the vague " many " are 
fundamental, and must have impressed themselves on the human 
mind at a very early period: evidence of this is found in the 
grammatical distinction of singular, dual and plural which 
occurs in ancient languages of widely different races. A more 
definite idea of number seems to have been gradually acquired 
by realizing the equivalence, as regards plurality, of different 
concrete groups, such as the fingers of the right hand and those 
of the left. This led to the invention of a set of names which in 
the first instance did not suggest a numerical system, but denoted 
certain recognized forms of plurality, just as blue, red, green, &c., 
denote recognized forms of colour. Eventually the conception of 
the series of natural numbers became sufficiently clear to lead 
to a systematic terminology, and the science of arithmetic was 
thus rendered possible. But it is only in quite recent times that 
the notion of number has been submitted to a searching critical 
1 See also NUMERAL. 



analysis: it is, in fact, one of the most characteristic results of 
modern mathematical research that the term number has been 
made at once more precise and more extensive. 

2. Aggregates (also called manifolds or sets). Let us assume the 
possibility of constructing or contemplating a permanent system 
of things such that (i) the system includes all objects to which 
a certain definite quality belongs; (2) no object without this 
quality belongs to the system; (3) each object of the system is 
permanently recognizable as the same thing, and as distinct 
from all other objects of the system. Such a collection is called 
an aggregate: the separate objects belonging to it aie called its 
elements. An aggregate may consist of a single element. 

It is further assumed that we can select, by a definite process, 
one or more elements of any aggregate A at pleasure: these 
form another aggregate B. If any element of A remains un- 
selected, B is said to be a part of A (hi symbols, B<A): if not, 
B is identical with A. Every element of A is a part of A. If 
B<A and C<B, then C<A. 

When a correspondence can be established between two 
aggregates A and B in such a way that to every element of A 
corresponds one and only one element of B, and conversely, A 
and B are said to be equivalent, or to have the same power (or 
potency); in symbols, A</>B. If A^B and B<*>C, then AooC. 
It is possible for an aggregate to be equivalent to a part of 
itself: the aggregate is then said to be infinite. As an example, 
the aggregates 2, 4, 6, ... 2n, &c., and i, 2, 3, ... n, &c., are 
equivalent, but the first is only a part of the second. 

3. Order. Suppose that when any two elements a, b of an 
aggregate A are taken there can be established, by a definite 
criterion, one or other of two alternative relations, symbolized 
by a<b and a>b, subject to the following conditions: (i) If 
a>b, then b<a, and if a<b, then b>a; (2) If o>6and b>c, 
then a>c. In this case the criterion is said to arrange the 
aggregate in order. An aggregate which can be arranged in order 
may be called ordinable. An ordinable aggregate may, hi general, 
by the application of different criteria, be arranged in order in a 
variety of ways. According asa<6ora>6 we shall speak of a 
as anterior or posterior to b. These terms are chosen merely for 
convenience, and must not be taken to imply any meaning 
except what is involved in the definitions of the signs > and < for 
the particular criterion in question. The consideration of a 
successior of events in time will help to show that the assumptions 
made are not self-contradictory. An aggregate arranged in 
order by a definite criterion will be called an ordered aggregate. 
Let a, b be any two elements of an ordered aggregate, and 
suppose a<b. All the elements c (if any) such that a<c<b are 
said to fall within the interval (a, b). If an element b, posterior 
to a, can be found so that no element falls within the interval 
(a, b), then a is said to be isolated from all subsequent elements, 
and b is said to be the element next after a. So if b'<a, and no 
element falls within the interval (b', a) , then a is isolated from all 
preceding elements, and b' is the element next before a. As 
will be seen presently, for any assigned element a, either, neither, 
or both of these cases may occur. 

An aggregate A is said to be well-ordered (or normally ordered) 
when, in addition to being ordered, it has the following pro- 
perties: (i) A has a first or lowest element a which is anterior 
to all the rest; (2) if B is any part of A, then B has a first 
element. It follows from this that every part of a well-ordered 
aggregate is itself well-ordered. A well-ordered aggregate may 
or may not have a last element. 

Two ordered aggregates A, B are said to \K similar (A.SE.B) when 
a one-one correspondence can be set up between their elements 
in such a way that if b, b' are the elements of B which correspond 
to any two elements a, a' of A, then b>b' or b<b' according as 
a>a'ora<a'. For example, (1,3,5, .. )-^( 2 ,4'6, . . .), because 
we can make the even number in correspond to the odd 
number (in i) and conversely. 

Similar ordered aggregates are said to have the same order-type. 
Any definite order-type is said to be the ordinal number of every 
aggregate arranged according to that type. This somewhat 
vague definition will become clearer as we proceed. 



NUMBER 



4. The Natural Scale. Let a be any element of a well-ordered 
aggregate A. Then all the elements posterior to a form an 
aggregate A', which is a part of A and, by definition, has a first 
element a'. This element a' is different from a, and immediately 
succeeds it in the order of A. (It may happen, of course, that 
a' does not exist; in this case a is the last element of A.) Thus 
in a well-ordered aggregate every element except the last (if 
there be a last element) is succeeded by a definite next element. 
The ingenuity of man has developed a symbolism by means of 
which every symbol is associated with a definite next succeeding 
symbol, and in this way we have a set of visible or audible signs 
i, 2, 3, &c. (or their verbal equivalents), representing an aggregate 
in which (i) there is a definite order, (2) there is a first term, 
(3) each term has one next following, and consequently there is 
no last term. Counting a set of objects means associating them 
in order with the first and subsequent members of this con- 
ventional aggregate. The process of counting may lead to three 
diffeient results: (i) the set of objects may be finite in number, 
so that they are associated with a part of the conventional aggre- 
gate which has a last term; (2) the set of objects may have the 
same power as the conventional aggregate; (3) the set of objects 
may have a higher power than the conventional aggregate. 
Examples of (2) and (3) will be found further on. The order-type 
of i, 2, 3, &c., and of similar aggregates will be denoted by w; 
this is the first and simplest member of a set of transfinite ordinal 
numbers to be considered later on. Any finite number such as 
3 is used ordinally as representing the order-type of i, 2, 3 or 
any similar aggregate, and cardinally as representing the power 
of i, 2, 3 or any equivalent aggregate. For reasons that will 
appear, w is only used in an ordinal sense. The aggregate 
i, 2, 3, &c., in any of its written or spoken forms, may be called 
the natural scale, and denoted by N. It has already been shown 
that N is infinite: this appears in a more elementary way from 
the fact that (i. 2, 3, 4,. . .)<(2, 3, 4, 5, . . . ), where each 
element of N is made to correspond with the next following. 
Any aggregate which is equivalent to the natural scale or a part 
thereof is said to be countable. 

5. Arithmetical Operations. When the natural scale N has 
once been obtained it is comparatively easy, although it requires 
a long process of induction, to define the arithmetical operations 
of addition, multiplication and involution, as applied to natural 
numbers. It can be proved that these operations are free 
from ambiguity and obey certain formal laws of commutation, 
&c., which will not be discussed here. Each of the three direct 
operations leads to an inverse problem which cannot be solved 
except under certain implied conditions. Let a, b denote any 
two assigned natural numbers: then it is required to fi*nd 
natural numbers, *, y, z such that 

a = 6+x, a = by, 0=2* 

respectively. The solutions, when they exist, are perfectly 
definite, and may be denoted by a b, a/6 and V a; but they 
are only possible in the first case when a>b, in the second when 
a is a multiple of b, and in the third when a is a perfect 6th 
power. It is found to be possible, by the construction of certain 
elements, called respectively negative, fractional and irrational 
numbers, and zero, to remove all these restrictions. 

6. There are certain properties, common to the aggregates 
with which we have next to deal, analogous to those possessed 
by the natural scale, and consequently justifying us in applying 
the term number to any one of their elements. They are stated 
here, once for all, to avoid repetition; the verification, in each 
case, will be, for the most part, left to the reader. Each of the 
aggregates in question (A, suppose) is an ordered aggregate. 
If a, j3 are any two elements of A, they may be combined by two 
definite operations, represented by + and X, so as to produce 
two definite elements of A represented by a+/3 and aX/3 (or 
a/3) ; these operations obey the formal laws satisfied by those of 
addition and multiplication. The aggregate A contains one 
(and only one) element t, such that if a is any element of A 
(i included), then a+i>a, and <u=a. Thus A contains the 
elements i, t+t, t+t+t, &c., or, as we may write them, t, 21, 
31, . . .nu. . .such that mt+t=(m+)i and tmXm=mm; 



also t<2t<3i . . . We may express this by saying that A 
contains an image of the natural scale. The element denoted 
by i may be called the ground element of A. 

7. Negative Numbers. Let any two natural numbers a, b be 
selected in a definite order a, b (to be distinguished from b, a, in 
which the order is reversed). In this way we obtain from N an 
aggregate of symbols (a, b) which we shall call couples, or more 
precisely, if necessary, polar couples. This new aggregate may 
be arranged in order by means of the following rules: 

Two couples (a, b), (a', b') are said to be equal if a +6' = a' +6. 
In other words (a, b), (a 1 , b') are then taken to be equivalent 
symbols for the same thing. 

If a+b'>a'+b, we write (a, b)>(a f , b'); and if a+b'<a'+b, 
we write (a, b)<(a', b'). 

The rules for the addition and multiplication of couples are: 

(a, 6)+(a', 6') = (o+a', 6+6') 

(a, 6)X(a', 6') = (aa'+66', ab'+a'b). 

The aggregate thus defined will be denoted by N; it may be 
called the scale of relative integers. 

If i denotes (2, i) or any equivalent couple, (a, b)+i= 
(a+2, b+i) > (a, 6) and (a, 6) Xi = (2a+b, 0+26) = (a, 6). Hence 
i is the ground element of N. By definition, 24=1+1= (4, 2) = 
(3, i): and hence by induction mt=(t+i, i), where m is any 
natural integer. Conversely every couple (a, b) in which a>b 
can be expressed by the symbol (a b)i. In the same way, every 
couple (a, b) in which 6>o can be expressed in the form (b a)i', 
where t' = (i, 2). 

8. It follows as a formal consequence of the definitions that 
t+t'=(2, i)+(i, 2) = (3, 3) = (i, i). It is convenient to denote 
(i, i) and its equivalent symbols by o, because 



(a, 

(a, 6)X(i, i)=(o+6,o+6)=(l, i); 

hence t+t' = o, and we can represent N by the scheme 

. . . 31', 21', i', o, i, 21, 3. ... 

in which each element is obtained from the next before it by the 
addition of i. With this notation the rules of operation may be 
written (m, n, denoting natural numbers) 
mi+m 



mm', 



' = (m n)iif m>n 
m)i' m<n 
t'Xni' = mni, 



with the special rules for zero, that if a is any element of N, 
a+o = o, 0X0=0. 

To each element, a, of N corresponds a definite element a' such 
that o+a' = o; if a = o, then a' = o, but in every other case a, a' 
are different and may be denoted by mi, nu'. The natural 
number m is called the absolute value of nu and mi'. 

9. If o, |3 are any two elements of N, the equation +/3 = a 
is satisfied by putting =a+/3'. Thus the symbol a /3 is always 
interpretable as a+/3', and we may say that within N subtraction 
is always possible; it is easily proved to be also free from 
ambiguity. On the other hand, a//3 is intelligible only if the 
absolute value of ojs a multiple of the absolute value of ft. 

The aggregate N has no first element and no last element. 
At the same time it is countable, as we see, for instance, by 
associating the elements o, at, 61' with the natural numbers 
i, 20, 26+1 respectively, thus 

(N) i, 2, 3, 4-5-6. ... 

(N) O, I, t', 21, 2t', 31. . . 

It is usual to write +o (or simply a) for at and a for at'; 
that this should be possible without leading to confusion or 
ambiguity is certainly remarkable. 

10. Fractional Numbers. We will now derive from N a 
different aggregate of couples [a, b] subject to the following rules: 

The symbols [a, 6], la', b'], are equivalent if ab' = a'b. Accord- 
ing as a6' is greater or less than a'b we regard [a, b] as being greater 
or less than [a', 6']. The formulae for addition and multiplication 



are 



a,6 
a,b 



=[ab'+a'b, 661 



X[a', 6']=[oa', 66']. 



All the couples [a, a\ are equivalent to [i, i], and if we denote 



NUMBER 



849 



this by v we have [a, b]+v = [a+b, b]>[a, b], [a, b]Xv = [a, b], 
so that v is the ground element of the new aggregate. 

Again 2u=t>+u = (2, i), and by induction mv=[m, i]. More- 
over, if a is a multiple of b, say mb, we may denote [a, b] by mv. 

11. The new aggregate of couples will be denoted by R. It 
differs from N and N in one very important respect, namely, 
that when its elements are arranged in order of magnitude (that 
is to say, by the rule above given) they are not isolated from 
each other. In fact if [a, b] = a, and [a', b'] = a', the element 
[a+a', b+b'] lies between a and a'; hence it follows that between 
any two different elements of R we can find as many other 
elements as we please. This property is expressed by saying 
that R is in close order when its elements are arranged in order 
of magnitude. Strange as it appears at first sight, R is a count- 
able aggregate; a theorem first proved by G. Cantor. To see 
this, observe that every element of R may be represented by a 
" reduced " couple [a, 6], in which a, b are prime to each other. 
If [a, b], [c, d] are any two reduced couples, we will agree that 
[a, b] is anterior to [c, d] if either (i) o+6< c-\-d, or (2) a+6 = 
c-\-d, but a<c. This gives a new criterion by which all the 
elements of R can be arranged in the succession 

[i. i], [i, 2], [2, i], [i, 3], [3. Li, [i. 4]. [2, 31- [3. 2], [4, I]- - - 
which is similar to the natural scale. 

The aggregate R, arranged in order of magnitude, agrees with 
N in having no least and no greatest element; for if a denotes 
any element [a, 6], then [20-1, 26]<a, while [20+1, 26] >o. 

12. The division of one element of R by another is always 
possible; for by definition 

[c, d] X [ad, be] = [acd, bed] = [a, b], 

and consequently [a, 6]-r-[c, d] is always interpretable as [ad, be]. 
As a particular case [m, i]-s-[n, i] = [m, n], so that every element 
of R is expressible in one of the forms mv, mv/nv. It is usual to 
omit the symbol v altogether, and to represent the element 
[m, n] by m/n, whether m is a multiple of n or not. Moreover, 
m/i is written m, which may be done without confusion, because 
m/i+n/i = (m+n)/i, and w/iXn/i = mw/i, by the rules given 
above. 

13. Within the aggregate R subtraction is not always practic- 
able; but_this limitation may be removed by constructing an 
aggregate R related to R in the same way as N to N. This may 
be done in two ways which lead to equivalent results. We may 
either form symbols of the type (a, |3), where a, /3 denote elements 
of R, and apply the rules of 7 ; or elsejorm symbols of the type 
[a, ft], where a, /3 denote elements of N, and apply the rules of 
10. The final result is that R contains a zero element, o, a 
ground element v, an element v' such that u+v' = o, and a set 
of elements representable by the symbols (m/n)v, (m/n)v'. In 
this notation the rules of operation are 



i 

\ nn 
,_mn' m'n 




m' = mn' = m , _jm_ , u _._ v > JOIL 
- '~ v ~n ' n' ' n ' n m'n 



mn 

o /3 = o+/3', where 
0+0 = 0, 0X0 = 0. 



=o; 



Here a and /3 denote any two elements of R. If P=(m/n)v, 
then 0' = (m/X, and if /3 = (m/n)v r , then ft' = (w/)u. If /3 = o, 
then/3' = o. _ 

14. When R is constructed by means of couples taken from N, 
we must put [w, n<] = [mi', ni'] = (m/n)v, [m^ m'] = [mi', m] = 
(m/n)v r , and [o, a] = o, if a is any element of N except o. The 
symbols [o, o] and [a, o] are inadmissible; the first because it 
satisfies the definition of equality ( 10) with every symbol 
[a, 0], and is therefore indeterminate; the second because, 
according to the rule of addition, 

[o,o]+M = Ko]=[a,o], 

which is inconsistent with +i. 



In the same way, if o denotes the zero element of R, and any 
other element, the symbol o/o is indeterminate, and /o in- 
admissible, because, by the formal rules of operation, /o+u=/o, 
which conflicts with the definition of the ground element v. 

It b usual to write + (or simply J for jj-u, and - for v'. 

Each of these elements is said to have the_absolute value m/n. 
The criterion for arranging the elements of R in order of magni- 
tude is that, if , 77 are any two elements of it, >ij when TJ 
is positive; that is to say, when it can be expressed in the 
form (mjn)v. 

15. The aggregate R is very important, because it is the 
simplest type of a field of rationality, or corpus. An algebraic 
corpus is an aggregate, such that its elements are representable 
by symbols a, /3, &c., which can be combined according to the 
laws of ordinary algebra; every algebraic expression obtained 
by combining a finite number of symbols, by means of a finite 
chain of rational operations, being capable of interpretation as 
representing a definite element of the aggregate, with the single 
exception that division by zero is inadmissible. Since, by the 
laws of algebra, a-a=o, and a/a=i, every algebraic field con- 
tains R, or, more properly, an aggregate which is an image of R. 

1 6. Irrational Numbers. Let a denote any element of R; 
then a and all lesser elements form an aggregate, A say; the 
remaining elements form another aggregate A\ which we shall 
call complementary to A, and we_may write R = A+A'. Now 
the essence of this separation of R into the parts A and A' may 
be expressed without any reference to a as follows: 

I. The aggregates A, A' are complementary^ that is, their 
elements, taken together, make up the whole of R. 

II. Every element of A is less than every element of A'. 

III. The aggregate A' has no least element. (This condition 
is artificial, but saves ^distinction of cases in what follows.) 

Every separation R = A-j-A' which satisfies these conditions 
is called a cut (or section), and will be denoted by (A, A') We 
have seen that every rational number a can be associated with 
a cut. Conversely, every cut (A, A) in which A has a last element 
a is perfectly definite, and specifies a without ambiguity. But 
there are other cuts in which A has no last element. For instance, 
all the elements (a) of R such that either a^ o, or else a> o and 
o. 2 <2, form an aggregate A, while those for which a>o and 
a 2 >2, form the complementary aggregate A'. This separation 
is a cut in which A has no last element; because if p/q is any 
positive element of A, the element (3/>+4?)/(2/>+3?) exceeds 
p/q, and also belongs to A. Every cut of this kind is said to define 
an irrational number. The justification of this is contained in 
the following propositions: 

(1) A cut is a definite concept, and the assemblage of cuts 
is an aggregate according to definition; the generic quality of 
the aggregate being the separation of R into two complementary 
parts, without altering the order of its elements. 

(2) The aggregate of cuts may be arranged in order by the rule 
that (A, A') < (B, B') if A is a part of B. 

(3) This criterion of arrangement preserves the order of 
magnitude of all rational numbers. 

(4) Cuts may be combined according to the laws of algebra, 
and, when the cuts so combined are all rational, the results are 
in agreement with those derived from the rational theory. 

As a partial illustration of proposition (4) let (A, A'), (B, B') be 
any two cuts; and let C' be the aggregate whose elements are ob- 
tained by forming all the values of +&', where o' is any element of 
A' and ft' is any element of B'. Then if C is the complement of C', 
it can be proved that (C, C') is a cut; this is said to be the sum of 
(A, A') and (B, B'). The difference, product and quotient of two cuts 
may be denned in a similar way. If n denotes the irrational cut 
chosen above for purposes of illustration, we shall have n' = (C, C') 
where C' comprises all the numbers o'/3' obtained by multiplying any 
two elements, a', &' which are rational and positive, and such that 
o' s >2, 0' 2 >2. Since o' J /S' 2 >4 it follows that o'/8' is positive and 
greater than 2 ; it can be proved conversely that every rational 
number which is greater than 2 can be expressed in the form o'/3'. 
Hence n* = 2, so that the cut n actually gives a real arithmetical 
meaning to the positive root of the equation x 1 = 2 ; in other words we 



850 



NUMBER 



may say that n defines the irrational number V 2 . The theory of cuts, 
in fact, provides a logical basis for the treatment of all finite 
numerical irrationalities, and enables us to justify all arithmetical 
operations involving the use of such quantities. 

17. Since the aggregate of cuts (ZT say) has an order of 
magnitude, we may construct cuts in this aggregate. Thus 
if a is any element of Zt, and 3 is the aggregate which consists 
of a and all anterior elements of Zt, we may write Zl=a+a', 
and (3, 8') is a cut in which a has a last element a. It is a 
remarkable fact that no other kind of cut in Zt is possible; in 
other words, every conceivable cut in Zl is defined by one of its own 
elements. This is expressed by saying that Zt is a continuous 
aggregate, and Zl itself is referred to as the numerical continuum 
of real numbers. The property of continuity must be carefully 
distinguished from that of close order ( u); a continuous 
aggregate is necessarily in close order, but the converse is not 
always true. The aggregate Zt is not countable. 

18. Another way of treating irrationals is by means of 
sequences. A sequence is an unlimited succession of rational 
numbers ttli ,, <,,... o m , *.. 

(in order-type w) the elements of which can be assigned by a 
definite rule, such that when any rational number e, however 
small, has been fixed, it is possible to find an integer m, so that 
for all positive integral values of n the absolute value of 
(a m + n a m ) is less than e. Under these conditions the sequence 
may be taken to represent a definite number, which is, in fact, 
the limit of a m when m increases without limit. Every rational 
number a can be expressed as a sequence in the form (a, a,a,.. .), 
but this is only one of an infinite! variety of such representations, 
for instance 

i =(.9, -99, -999, . . .)= (I 2 |, . . . ^~- . . . ) 

and so on. The essential thing is that we have a mode of re- 
presentation which can be applied to rational and irrational 
numbers alike, and provides a very convenient symbolism to 
express the results of arithmetical operations. Thus the rules 
for the sum and product of two sequences are given by the 
formulae 

(0i, flz, flj, - . -}~\~(bi, bz, by, . . .} ~(a\-}~bi t a-t-^-bz, Gi-}-bi . . .) 

(fll, fl2 03, * - - ) X (bi, b-2, 63, . . . ) = (01&1, fl2&2, flj&S . .) 

from which the rules for subtraction and division may be at once 
inferred. It has been proved that the method of sequences is 
ultimately equivalent to that of cuts. The advantage of the 
former lies in its convenient notation, that of the latter in giving 
a clear definition of an irrational number without having recourse 
to the notion of a limit. 

19. Complex Numbers. If a is an assigned number, rational 
or irrational, and n a natural number, it can be proved that there 
is a real number satisfying the equation x n = a, except when n 
is even and a is negative: in this case the equation is not satisfied 
by any real number whatever. To remove the difficulty we 
construct an aggregate of polar couples i*, y\ , where x, y are any 
two real numbers, and define the addition and multiplication 
of such couples by the rules 

x,y\+\x\ /]=!*+*'. -v-'.-yj:- 

* yJX{*i y\ = \xx yy , xy +xy}. 

We also agree that {x, y\<[x', y'\, if x<x' or if x=x' and 
y<y'. It follows that the aggregate has the ground element 
{i, o}, which we may denote by<r; and that, if we writer for the 
element jo, i}, T* = [ i, o) = a. 

Whenever m, n are rational, \m, n\=m<T-\-nr, and we are 
thus justified in writing, if we like, x<r+yr for \x, y\ in all circum- 
stances. A further simplification is gained by writing x instead 
of xa, and regarding T as a symbol which is such that T 2 = i , 
but in other respects obeys the ordinary laws of operation. It 
is usual to write i instead of T; we thus have an aggregate 3 
of complex numbers x+yi. In this aggregate, which includes 
the real continuum as part of itself, not only the four rational 
operations (excluding division by (o, o}, the zero element), but 
also the extraction of roots, may be effected without any restric- 
tion. Moreover (as first proved by Gauss and Cauchy), if 



ao, fli, . . . fln are any assigned real or complex numbers, the 
equation aoZ . +aiZ -i + +0n _ l2+a ,, = o , 

is always satisfied by precisely n real or complex values of z, with 
a proper convention as to multiple roots. Thus any algebraic 
function of any finite number of elements of 3 is also contained 
in 3, which is, in this sense, a closed arithmetical field, just as 
ZT is when we restrict ourselves to rational operations. The 
power of 3 is the same as that of tt. 

20. Transfinite Numbers. The theory of these numbers is 
quite recent, and mainly due to G. Cantor. The simplest of 
them, co, has been already defined (4) as the order-type of the 
natural scale. Now there is no logical difficulty in constructing 
a scheme 



,,,. 



,, 



indicating a well-ordered aggregate of type u immediately 
followed by a distinct element i : for example, we may think 
of ah 1 positive odd integers arranged in ascending order of 
magnitude and then think of the even number 2. A scheme of 
this kind is said to be of order-type (w+i); and it will be 
convenient to speak of (w+i) as the index of the scheme. 
Similarly we may form arrangements corresponding to the 



indices 



u+2, u+3 . . . cc+n, 



where n is any positive integer. The scheme 
is associated with (j+o) = 2to; 

Wll, ttl2, ttn ... I 7*21) U?2, Wj3 ...]...[ tt n i, U n 1 ... | ... 

with u.o) or W 2 ; and so on. Thus we may construct arrange- 
ments of aggregates corresponding to any index of the form 



where n, a, b, . . . I are all positive integers. 

We are thus led to the construction of a scheme of symbols 

I. i, 2, 3, ... n ... 

<>+!, . . . u-\-n, . . . 
>, 2U+I, . . . 2a-\-n, . . . 



II.- 



of, 



, w*+2 . . . uf+n, . 



\tf, 



III. 



i, ... ut M +n, 



The symbols <j>(<a) form a countable aggregate: so that we 
may, if we like (and in various ways) , arrange the rows of block 
(II.) in a scheme of type (a: we thus have each element a suc- 
ceeded in its row by (o + 1 ) , and the row containing (o>) succeeded 
by a definite next row. The same process may be applied to 
(III.), and we can form additional blocks (IV.), (V.), &c., with 
first elements w 4 =w w "' 0)5= o)" 4 ' &c. All the symbols in which 
a occurs are called transfinite ordinal numbers. 

21. The index of a finite set is a definite integer however the 
set may be arranged; we may take this index as also denoting 
the power of the set, and call it the number of things in the set. 
But the index of an infinite ordinable set depends upon the way 
in which its elements are arranged; for instance, ind. (i, 2, 3, 
. . . )=w, but ind. (i, 3, 5, . . . | 2, 4, 6, . . . ) = 2&>. Or, 
to take another example, the scheme 



i,3. 5, - 

2, 6, IO, 





. 2 (2n I) 



2", 2 m . 3, 2". 5, 



. 2 m (2n i 



where each row is supposed to follow the one above it, gives a 
permutation of (i, 2, 3, . . . ), by which its index is changed 
from w to w 2 . It has been proved that there is a permutation 
of the natural scale, of which the index is <Ko)), anv assigned 
element of (II.) ; and that, if the index of any ordered aggregate 
is <Kw), the aggregate is countable. Thus the power of all 
aggregates which can be associated with indices of the class (II.) 
is the same as that of the natural scale; this power may be 
denoted by a. Since a is associated with all aggregates of a 



NUMBER 



851 



particular power, independently of the arrangement of their 
elements, it is analogous to the integers, i, 2, 3, &c., when used to 
denote powers of finite aggregates; for this reason it is called the 
least transfinite cardinal number. 

22. There are aggregates which have a power greater than 
a: for instance, the arithmetical continuum of positive real 
numbers, the power of which is denoted by c. Another one is 
the aggregate of all those order-types which (like those in II. 
above) are the indices of aggregates of power a. The power of 
this aggregate is denoted by \. According to Cantor's theory 
it is the transfinite cardinal number next superior to a, which for 
the sake of uniformity is also denoted by K . It has been con- 
jectured that *i = c, but this has neither been verified nor 
disproved. The discussion of the aleph-numbers is still in a 
Controversial stage (November 1907) and the points in debate 
cannot be entered upon here. 

23. Transfinite numbers, both ordinal and cardinal, may 
be combined by operations which are so far analogous to those 
of ordinary arithmetic that it is convenient to denote them by 
the same symbols. But the laws of operation are not entirely 
the same; for instance, 20) and W2 have different meanings: 
the first has been explained, the second is the index of the 
scheme (fli 61 | flz 62 I 0j &s | . . . | ajb | . . . ) or any similar 
arrangement. Again if n is any positive integer, na=a" = a. 
It should also be observed that according to Cantor's principles 
of construction every ordinal number is succeeded by a definite 
next one; but that there are definite ordinal numbers (e.g. 
to, to 2 ) which have no ordinal immediately preceding them. 

24. Theory of Numbers. The theory of numbers is that 
branch of mathematics which deals with the properties of the 
natural numbers. As Dirichlet observed long ago, the whole 
of the subject would be coextensive with mathematical analysis 
in general; but it is convenient to restrict it to certain fields 
where the appropriateness of the above definition is fairly 
obvious. Even so, the domain of the subject is becoming more 
and more comprehensive, as the methods of analysis become 
more systematic and more exact. 

The first noteworthy classification of the natural numbers is into 
those which are prime and those which are composite. A prime 
number is one which is not exactly divisible by any number except 
itself and I ; all others are composite. The number of primes is 
infinite (Eucl Elem. ix. 20), and consequently, if n is an assigned 
number, however large, there is an infinite number (a) of primes 
greater than n. 

If m, n are any two numbers, and m>n, we can always find a 
definite chain of positive integers (qi, TI), (qi, r a ), &c., such that 

3 , &c. 



with n>fi>rj>r3 . . .; the process by which they are calculated 
will be called residuation. Since there is only a finite number of 
positive integers less than n, the process must terminate with two 
equalities of the form 



rit-i = g+ir. 

Hence we infer successively that r is a divisor of rt_i, rt_i,. . .r\, 
and finally of m and n. Also r* is the greatest common factor of m, 
n: because any common factor must divide r\, r?, and so on down to 
r; and the highest factor of r* is ri, itself. It will J>e convenient to 
write r = dv (m, n). If ri = I, the numbers m, n are said to be prime 
to each other, or co-primes. 

25. The foregoing theorem of residuation is of the greatest im- 
portance; with the help of it we can prove three other fundamental 
propositions, namely: 

(1) If m, n are any two natural numbers, we can always find two 
other natural numbers *, y such that 

dv(m,n) =xm yn. 

(2) If m, n are prime to each other, and p is a prime factor of mn, 
then p must be a factor of either m or n. 

(3) Every number may be uniquely expressed as a product of 
prime factors. 

Hence if n p a q^ry ... is the representation of any number n as 
the product of powers of different primes, the divisors of n are the 
terms of the product 

(i +p+p*+ . . . -H>") (i +?+... +&) (i+r+. . . +rr). . . 
their number is (o+i) (0-j-l) (7+1) . . .; and their sum is 
II (p a+t l ) -T- 1 1 (p i ). This includes I and n among the divisors of n. 

26. Totients. By the totient of n, which is denoted, after Euler, by 
<t>(n), we mean the number of integers prime to n, and not exceeding 
n. If n = p a , the numbers not exceeding n and not prime to it are 



p, ip, . (p*p), p a of which the number is />""': hence <t>(p*) = 
p* p a ~'. If m, n are prime to each other, <t>(mn) <t>(m)4>(n) ; and 
hence for the general case, if n = p*(pn . . . ,<t>(n) = llp*~ l (p i), 
where the product applies to all the different prime factors of . If 
di, dt, &c., are the different divisors of n, 



For example, i5=<Ki5)+*(5)+<H3)+(i)=8+4+2 + i. 

27. Residues and congruences. It will now be convenient to 
include in the term " number " both zero and negative integers. 
Two numbers a, b are said to be congruent with respect to the modulus 
m, when (a b) is divisible by m. This is expressed by the notation 
a = b (mod m), which was invented by Gauss. The fundamental 
theorems relating to congruences are 

a = b and c=sd (mod m), then a*=c=b^d, and ab=cd. 
If ha=hb(mod m) then 0=6 (mod m/d), where d = A\(h, m). 

Thus the theory of congruences is very nearly, but not quite, 
similar to that of algebraic equations. With respect to a given 
modulus m the scale of relative integers may be distributed into m 
classes, any two elements of each class being congruent with respect 
to m. Among these will be <t>(m) classes containing numbers prime to 
m. By taking any one number from each class we obtain a complete 
system of residues to the modulus m. Supposing (as we shall always 
do) that m is positive, the numbers o, I, 2, . . . (m i) form a 
system of least positive residues; according as m is odd or even, 
o, i,='=2, . . . J (m i), or o,= t i,=2, . . . =t=J(m 2),Jm form a 
system of absolutely least residues. 

28. The Theorems of Fermat and Wilson. Let r\, r t , . . . ri 
where t = $(m), be a complete set of residues prime to the modulus 
m. Then if x is any number prime to m, the residues xr\, xr t , . . . xrt 
also form a complete set prime to m ( 27). Consequently 
xri-xrt . . . xr,=rir t . . .rt, and dividing by r\r* . . . rt, which is 
prime to the modulus, we infer that 

**(") = i (mod m). 

which is the general statement of Format's theorem. If m is a prime 
p, it becomes x^^i (mod p). 

For a prime modulus p there will be among the set x, 2X, 3*. . . . 
(p l)x just one and no more that is congruent to I: let this be 
xy. \iy=.x, we must have * 2 I = (* l) (x + 1 )=o, and hence x= = 1: 
consequently the residues 2, 3, 4, ... (p 2) can be arranged in 
i (P~$) pairs (x, y) such that xy=i. Multiplying them all together, 
we conclude that 2.3.4. .(/ 2) = iand hence, since i.(p l) = I, 

(p-i)!=-i (mod p). 

which is Wilson's theorem. It may be generalized, like that of 
Fermat, but the result is not very interesting. If m is composite 
(m l ) ! + 1 cannot be a multiple of m : because m will have a prime 
factor * which is less than m, so that (m l)!=o (mod p). Hence 
Wilson s theorem is invertible : but it does not supply any practical 
test to decide whether a given number is prime. 

29. Exponents, Primitive Roots, Indices. Let p denote an odd 
prime, and x any number prime to p. Among the powers 
x, x 1 , **,... X"" 1 there is certainly one, namely x f ~ l , which 
= i (mod p) ; let x* be the lowest power of x such that x 1 = i . Then 
e is said to be the exponent to which x appertains (mod p): it is 
always a factor of (p l) and can only be I when x=l. The 
residues x for which e = /> i are said to be primitive roots of p. They 
always exist, their number is <t>(p i), and they can be found by a 
methodical, though tedious, process of exhaustion. If g is any one of 
them, the complete set may be represented by g, g", g*, . . . &c. 
where a, 6, &c., are the numbers less than (p l) and prime to it, 
other than I. Every number x which is prime to p is congruent, 
mod p, to g', where i is one of the numbers I, 2, 3, ... (p i); this 
number i is called the index of x to the base g. Indices are analogous 
to logarithms: thus 

ind(,(*y)=ind e ;+ind B 7. indj(x*) A ind .v (mod pl). 

Consequently tables of primitive roots and indices for different 
primes are of great value for arithmetical purposes. Jacobi's Canon 
Arithmeiicus gives a primitive root, and a table of numbers and 
indices for all primes less than 1000. 

For moduli of the forms 2p, p m , 2p" there is an analogous theory 
(and also for 2 and 4) ; but for a composite modulus of other forms 
there are no primitive roots, and the nearest analogy is the representa- 
tion of prime residues in the form a 1 {P x* . . . .where o, p, 7, . . . 
are selected prime residues, and x, y, z, . . . are indices of restricted 
range. For instance, all residues prime to 48 can be exhibited in the 
form 5* 7" 13', where x = o, i, 2, 3; y=o, i; z=o, l; the total 
number of distinct residues being 4.2.2 = 16=^(48), as it should be. 

30. Linear Congruences. The congruence a'x==b' (mod m') has 
no solution unless dv(a', m') is a factor of b'. If this condition is 
satisfied, we may replace the given congruence by the equivalent 
one ax=b (mod m), where a is prime to b as well as to m. By residua- 
tion ( 24, 25) we can find integers h, k such that ahmk = i, and 
thence obtain x=bh (mod m) as the complete solution of the given 
congruence. To the modulus m' there are m'/m incongruent solutions. 
For example, I2*==3O (mod 2:) reduces to 2x=5 (mod 7) whence 
x=6(mod7)=6, 13, 20 (mod 21). There is a theory of simultaneous 



NUMBER 



linear congruences in any number of variables, first developed with 
precision by Smith. In any particular case, it is best to replace as 
many as possible of the given congruences by an equivalent set 
obtained by successively eliminating the variables x, y, z, . . . in 
order. An important problem is to find a number which has given 
residues with respect to a given set of moduli. When possible, the 
solution is of the form x==a (mod m), where m is the least common 
multiple ol the moduli. Supposing that p is a prime, and that we 
have a corresponding table of indices, the solution of ax=b (mod p) 
can be found by observing that ind x=ind &-ind o (mod p-i). 

31. Quadratic Residues. Law of Reciprocity. To an odd prime 
modulus p, the numbers I, 4, 9, ... (p-l) 2 are congruent to 
residues only, because (p-^x) t =x' i . Thus for p = 5, we have 



, . , 

I, 4, 9, 16=1, 4, 4, I respectively. There are therefore 
quadratic residues and it^-l) quadratic non-residues prime to p; 
and there is a corresponding division of incongruent classes of 
integers with respect to p. The product of two residues or of two non- 
residues is a residue; that of a residue and a non-residue is a non- 
residue; and taking any primitive root as base the index of any 
number is even or odd according as the number is a residue or a non- 
residue. Gauss writes aRp, aNp to denote that o is a residue or non- 
residue of p respectively. 

Given a table of indices, the solution of s 2 ^a(mod p) when possible, 
is found from zind *=ind o (mod p-l), and the result may be 
written in the form x= r (mod p). But it is important to discuss 
the congruence # 2 = a without assuming that we have a table of 
indices. It is sufficient to consider the case X 2 =q (mod p), where q 
is a positive prime less than p; and the question arises whether the 
quadratic character of q with respect to p can be deduced from that of 
p with respect to q. The answer is contained in the following theorem, 
which is called the law of quadratic reciprocity (for real positive odd 
primes): if *, Q are each or one of them of the form 471 + 1, then 
p, q are each of them a residue, or each a non-residue of the other; 
but if p, q are each of the form 4+3, then according as p is a residue 
or non-residue of q we have q a non-residue or a residue of p. 

Legendre introduced a symbol f-J which denotes + I or -I ac- 

cording as mRq or mNq (5 being a positive odd prime and m any 
number prime to q); with its help we may express the law of re- 
ciprocity in the form 



This theorem was first stated by Legendre, who only partly 
proved it; the first complete proof, by induction, was published by 
Gauss, who also discovered five (or six) other more or less inde- 
pendent proofs of it. Many others have since been invented. 

There are two supplementary theorems relating to -I and 2 
respectively, which may be expressed in the form 



T) -(-*** G) =(- 



where p is any positive odd prime. 
It follows from the definition that 



and that \ j = \ -J , if m =m' (mod q). As a simple application of 

red to find t 
e have 

/6\ 
~ "In/ - 



the law of reciprocity, let it be required to find the quadratic char- 
acter of II with respect to 1907. We have 



i907/ 



because6Nii. Hence . 

Legendre's symbol was extended by Jacob! in the following 
manner. Let P be any positive odd number, and let p, p', p", &c. be 
its (equal or unequal) prime factors, so that P = pp'p*. . . . Then 
if Q is any number prime to P, we have a generalized symbol defined 



This symbol obeys the law that, if Q is odd and positive, 



with the supplementary laws 



It is found convenient to add the conventions that 



(*)-( 



when Q and P are both odd ; and that the value of the symbol is o 
when P, Q are not co-primes. 



In order that the congruence x* = a (mod m) may have a solution 
it is necessary and sufficient that o be a residue of each distinct prime 
factor of m If these conditions are all satisfied, and m~2'p*q*. . ., 
where p, q, &c., are the distinct odd prime factors of m, being t in all, 
the number of incongruent solutions of the given congruence is 
2', 2 t+l or 2 <+ *, according as K<2, ic = 2, or /c>2 respectively. The 
actual solutions are best found by a process of exhaustion. It should 

be observed that f ^ = I is a necessary but not a sufficient condition 



for the possibility of the congruence. 

32. Quadratic forms. It will be observed that the solution of the 
linear congruence ax=b (mod m) leads to all the representations of b 
in the form ax+my, where x, y are integers. Many of the earliest 
researches in the theory of numbers deal with particular cases of the 
problem: given four numbers m, a, b, c, it is required to find all the 
integers x, y (if there be any) which satisfy the equation ax 2 +bxy+ 
cy 2 = m. Format, for instance, discovered that every positive prime of 
the form 4n + l is uniquely expressible as the sum of two squares. 
There is a corresponding arithmetical theory for forms of any degree 
and any number of variables; only those of linear forms and binary 
quadratics are in any sense complete, as the difficulty of the problem 
increases very rapidly with the increase of the degree of the form 
considered or of the number of variables contained in it. 

The form ax 2 +bxy+cyf will be denoted by (o, b, c ) (x, y) 1 or more 
simply by (a, b, c) when there is no need of specifying the variables. 
If k is the greatest common factor of a, b, c, we may write (a, b, c) = 
k(a', b', c') where (a', b', c') is a primitive form, that is, one for which 
dv (a', b', c') = l. The other form is then said to be derived from 
(a', b', c') and to have a divisor k. For the present we shall concern 
ourselves only with primitive forms. Writing D = b t -^ac, the 
invariant D is called the determinant of (a, b,c), and there is a first 
classification of forms into definite forms for which D is negative, and 
indefinite forms for which D is positive. The case D = o or a positive 
square is rejected, because in that case the form breaks up into the 
product of two linear factors. It will be observed that D = o, I (mod 
4) according as b is even or odd; and that if ft* is any odd square 
factor of D there will be forms of determinant D and divisor k. 

If we write x' = ax+fiy, y' = yx+Sy, we have identically 

(a, 6, c) (*',/)' = (a', b', c') (x, y)* 
where 

a' = aa? + 607 + 07* 
V = 



Hence also 

D' = b*-4a'c' = (a5 -/3"y) 2 (i 2 -4<ic) = (aS -0r)> D. 
Supposing that a, 0, y, 5 are integers such that aS fiy = n, a number 
different from zero, (a, b, c) is said to be transformed into (a', b', c') by 

the substitution ( a 'jj of the nth order. If 2 = i, the two forms 

are said to be equivalent, and the equivalence is said to be proper or 
improper according as n = l or n= I. In the case of equivalence, 
not only are x', y integers wherever *, y are so, but conversely; 
hence every number representable by (a, b, c) is representable by 
(a', b', c') and conversely. For the present we shall deal with proper 
equivalence only and write /~/' to indicate that the forms /, /' are 
properly equivalent. Equivalent forms have the same divisor. A 
complete set of equivalent forms is said to form a class; classes of the 
samedivisorare said to form an order, and of these the most important 
is the principal order, which consists of the primitive classes. It is a 
fundamental theorem that for a given determinant the number of 
classes is finite; this is proved by showing that every class must 
contain one at least of a certain finite number of so-called reduced 
forms, which can be found by definite rules of calculation. 

33. Method of Reduction. This differs according as D is positive 
or negative, and will require some preliminary lemmas. Suppose 
that any complex quantity z = #+yi is represented in the usual way 
by a point (x, y) referred to rectangular axes. Then by plotting 
off all the points corresponding to (az+/3) / (yz+&), we obtain 
a complete set of properly equivalent points. These all lie 
on the same side of the axis of x, and there is precisely one of 
them and no more which satisfies the conditions: (i.) that it 
is not outside the area which is bounded by the lines 2*= =*=l; (ii.) 
that it is not inside the circle x*+y* = l ; (iii.) that it is not on the 
line 2x = i, or on the arcs ol the circle x 2 +y i = l intercepted by 
2x = i and * o. This point will be called the reduced point equiva- 
lent to 2. In the positive half-plane (y>o) the aggregate of all 
reduced points occupies the interior and half the boundary of an 
area which will be called the fundamental triangle, because the areas 
equivalent to it, and finite, are all triangles bounded by circular arcs, 
and having angles \*, JTT, o and the fundamental triangle may be 
considered as a special case when one vertex goes to infinity. The 
aggregate of equivalent triangles forms a kind of mosaic which fills 
up the whole of the positive half-plane. It will be convenient to 
denote the fundamental triangle (with its half-boundary, for which 
x<o)by V ; for a reason which will appear later, the set of equivalent 
triangles will be said to make up the modular dissection of the positive 
half-plane. 



NUMBER 



853 



Now let /* = (a 1 , b', c') be any definite form with a' positive and 
determinant A. The root of aV+6'z+c' =o which is represented 
by a point in the positive half-plane is 



and this is a reduced point if either 

(i.) V <a'<c' 

(ii.) b' =o', a' 

(iii.)o' = 



Cases (ii.) and (iii.) only occur when the representative point is on the 
boundary of V. A form whose representative point is reduced is 
said to be a reduced form. It follows from the geometrical theory 
that every form is equivalent to a reduced form, and that there are 
as many distinct classes of positive forms of determinant A as 
there are reduced forms. The total number of reduced forms is 
limited, because in case (i.) we have A = 4oc 6 2 > 3ft 2 , so that b <V iA, 
while 4a 2 <4ac< A+fr^iA; in case (ii.) A = 4oc a 2 >3<z 2 , or else 
o = 6 = c = V SA; in case (iii.) A=4o 2 & 2 >3fr 2 ,4a 2 = A+^<|A,orelse 
a = 6 = e = V|A. With the help of these inequalities a complete set 
of reduced forms can be found by trial, and the number of classes 
determined. The latter cannot exceed J A ; it is in general much less. 

With an indefinite form (a, b, c) we may associate the representative 
circle 

a(x*+y>)+bx+c=o, 

which cuts the axis of x in two real points. The form is said to be 
reduced if this circle cuts V; the condition for this is a(a =*= J6+e) <o, 
which can be expressed in the form 3a 2 + (o6) 2 <D, and it is hence 
clear that the absolute values of a, b, and therefore of c, are limited. 
As before, there are a limited number of reduced forms, but they 
are not all non-equivalent. In fact they arrange themselves, accord- 
ing to a law which is not very difficult to discover, in cycles or periods, 
each of which is associated with a particular class. The main result 
is the same as before: that the number of classes is finite, and that 
for each class we can find a representative form by a finite process of 
calculation. 

34. Problem of Representation. It is required to find out whether 
a given number m' can be represented by the given form (o', b', c'). 
One condition is clearly that the divisor of the form must be a factor 
of m'. Suppose this is the case ; and let m, (a, b, c) be the quotients 
of m' and (o', b', c') be the divisor in question. Then we have now 
to discover whether m can be represented by the primitive form 
(o, 6, c). First of all we will consider proper representations 

m = (a, b, c)_ (a, y) 1 
where a, y are co-primes. Determine integers ft, i such that oi 0y = i , 

and apply to (a, b, c) the substitution ( ' ^) ; the new form will be 
(m, n, I), where 

Consequently n* = D (mod 4m), and D must be a quadratic residue 
of m. Unless this condition is satisfied, there is no proper repre- 
sentation of m by any form of determinant D. Suppose, however, 
that n ! = D (mod 4m) is soluble and that HI, n*, &c. are its roots. 
Taking any one of these, say nv, we can find out whether (m, Hi, k) and 

(o, 6, c) are equivalent; if they are, there is a substitution ( ' ^) 

which converts the latter into the former, and then m = aa i +bay+cy*. 
As to derived representations, if m = (a, b, c) (tx, ty)', then m must 
have the square factor P, and ml? = (a, b, c) (x, y) 2 ; hence every- 
thing may be made to depend on proper representation by primitive 
forms. 

35. Automorphs. The Pettian Equation. A primitive form 
(o, b, c) is, by definition, equivalent to itself; but it may be so in 
more ways than one. In order that (o, b, c) may be transformed into 

'itself by the substitution f * ^) , it is necessary and sufficient that 

(y, s) = ( au, ' \(t-bu)l 
where (/, u) is an integral solution of 

If D is negative and D>4, the only solutions are /= *2, = o; 
D= -3 gives (*2, o), (*i, =*=i); D = -4 gives (2, o), (o, i). 
On the other hand, if D> o the number of solutions is infinite, and if 
(<i, i) is the solution for which I, u have their least positive values, 
all the other positive solutions may be found from 



The substitutions by which (a, b, c) is transformed into itself are called 
its automorphs. In the case when D = o (mod 4) we have t = 2T, 
= 2U, D = 4N, and (T, U) any solution of 



This is usually called the Pellian equation, though it should properly 
be associated with Fermat, who first perceived its importance. The 



minimum solution can be found by converting V N into a periodic 
continued fraction. 

The form (a, 6, c) may be improperly equivalent to itself; in this 
case all its improper automorphs can be expressed in the form 

/ X , (+6X)/2o\ 
V(-6X)/2t, -X / 

where K 1 DX 1 = 4oc. In particular, if b si o (mod a) the form (a, b,c) 
is improperly equivalent to itself. A form improperly equivalent to 
itself is said to be ambiguous. 

36. Characters of a form or class. Genera. Let (a, b, c) be any 
primitive form; we have seen above ( 32) that if o, 0, y, & are any 
integers 

4(ao 2 +607 +cy')(a0' +b0S +cP) = b* - (ai -07)'D 

where b' = 2aa0+b(a&+f3y) +2cyi. Now the expressions in brackets 
on the left hand may denote any two numbers m, n representable 
by the form (o, b, c) ; the formula shows that 4mn is a residue of D, 
and hence mn is a residue of every odd prime factor of D, and if p is 

any such factor the symbols l-r) and (T) will have the same value. 

Putting (a, b, c) =f, this common value is denoted by (4) and called 
a quadratic character (or simply character) of / with respect to p. 



Since a is representable by / (x = i , y = o) the value ( ) is the same as 

( T) . For example, if D = 140, the scheme of characters for the 

six reduced primitive forms, and therefore for the classes they 
represent, is 



(i. o, 35) 

(4.^2.9) 



(5. o. 7) 

(3, 2, 12) 



In certain cases there are supplementary characters of the type 
( j ) and ( -7 j , and the characters ( 4 ) are discriminated according 

as an odd or even power of p is contained in D; but in every case 
there are certain combinations of characters (in number one-half of 
all possible combinations) which form the total characters of actually 
existing classes. Classes which have the same total character are 
said to belong to the same genus. Each genus of the same order 
contains the same number of classes. 

For any determinant D we have a principal primitive class for 
which all the characters are + ; this is represented by the principal 
form (i, o, n) or (i, i, it) according as Disof theform4or4n-f-i. 
The corresponding genus is called the principal genus. Thus, when 
D = 140, it appears from the table above that in the primitive 
order there are two genera, each containing three classes; and the 
non-existent total characters are H and K 

37. Composition. Considering X, Y as given lineo-linear functions 
of (x, y), (x', y') defined by the equations 



X ^ 

Y=qoxx'+qixy'+q,x'y+q,yy' 

we may have identically, in x, y, x', y', 

(A, B, C) (X. Y) 2 = (a, b, c) (*, y)'X(a', b', c') (*',/)' 
and, this being so, the form (A, B, C) is said to be compounded of 
the two forms (a, b. c), (a 1 , b', c'), the order of composition being 
indifferent. In order that two forms may admit of composition into 
a third, it is necessary and sufficient that their determinants be in the 
ratio of two squares. The most important case is that of two 
primitive forms <t>, x of the same determinant; these can be com- 
pounded into a form denoted by<x or x<t> which is also primitive and 
of the same determinant as ^ or x- If A, B, C are the classes to which 
<t>, x, <i>x respectively belong, then any form of A compounded with 
any form of B gives rise to a form belonging to C. For this reason we 
write C=AB = BA, and speak of the multiplication or composition 
of classes. The principal class is usually denoted by i, because when 
compounded with any other class A it gives this same class A. 

The total number of primitive classes being finite, k, say, the series 
A, A 2 , A', &c., must be recurring, and there will be a least exponent 
e such that A = i. This exponent is a factor of h, so that every class 
satisfies A* = I. Composition is associative as well as commutative, 
that is to say, (AB)C = A(BC); hence the symbols AI, Ai,. . . A 
for the h different classes define an Abelian group (see GROUPS) of 
order h, which is representable by one or more base-classes 
BI, Bj, . . . B,- in such a way that each class A is enumerated once 
and only once by putting 

A = BiB. . .B< (x^m, yn, ...*p) 

with mn ...*-= h, and B!~ = BI" = . . . = B^ = i . Moreover, the bases 
may be so chosen that m is a multiple of n, n of the next correspond- 
ing index, and so on. The same thing may be said with regard 



NUMBER 



to the symbols for the classes contained in the principal genus, 
because two forms of that genus compound into one of the same 
kind. If this latter group is cyclical, that is, if all the classes of 
the principal genus can be represented in the form i, A, A 2 , ._. . A*~ l , 
the determinant D is said to be regular; if not, the determinant is 
irregular. It has been proved that certain specified classes of 
determinants are always irregular; but no complete criterion has 
been found, other than working out the whole set of primitive classes, 
and determining the group of the principal genus, for deciding 
whether a given determinant is irregular or not. 

If A, B are any two classes, the total character of AB is found by 
compounding the characters of A and B. In particular, the class A 2 , 
'which is called the duplicate of A, always belongs to the principal 
genus. Gauss proved, conversely, that every class in the principal 
genus may be expressed as the duplicate of a class. An ambiguous 
class satisfies A 2 = i, that is, its duplicate is the principal class; and 
the converse of this is true. Hence if Bi, 82, ... B< are the base- 
classes for the whole composition-group, and A = Bi I B2 v . . . B,' 
(as above) A 2 = l, if 2x=o or m, 2y = o or n, &c.; hence the number 
of ambiguous classes is 2'. As an example, when D = 1460, there 
are four ambiguous classes, represented by 

(i, o, 365), (2, 2, 183), (5, o, 73), (10, 10, 39); 

hence the composition-group must be dibasic, and in fact, if we put 
Bi, B 2 for the classes represented by (11, 6, 34) and (2, 2, 183), we 
have Bi 10 = B2 2 = l and the 20 primitive classes are given by 
Bi I B 2 v (x^ 10, y 2). In this case the determinant is regular and 
the classes in the principal genus are I, Bi 2 , Bi 4 , Bi 8 , Bi'. 

38. On account of its historical interest, we may briefly consider 
the form x L -\-y t , for which D = 4. If p is an odd prime of the foim 
4 + l, the congruence W 2 = 4 (mod 4^) is soluble ( 31) ; let one of 
its roots be m, and m^+^^lp. Then (p, m, 1) is of determinant 4, 
and, since there is only one primitive class for this determinant, we 
must have (p, m, l)~ (i, o, i). By known rules we can actually find 

a substitution /"' ^) which converts the first form into the second; 
this being so, (_ ) will transform the second into the first, and we 

shall have p = -r 2 +6 2 , a representation of p as the sum of two squares. 
This is unique, except that we may put p = ( at 'y) 2 + ( 5) 2 . We also 
have 2 I 2 +I 2 while no prime 41+3 admits of such a representation. 
The theory of composition for this determinant is expressed by 
the identity (* 2 +;y 2 ) (x' 2 +/ 2 ) = (xx'd=yy') 2 +(xy'=<=yx')' i ; and by re- 
peated application of this, and the previous theorem, we can show 
that if N =2 a tPf. . ., where p, q, . . . are odd primes of the form 
we can find solutions of N=* 2 +>> 2 , and indeed distinct 



solutions. For instance 65 = l 2 +8 2 = 4 2 +7 2 , and conversely two 
distinct representations N =x*-\-y* = M 2 +t 2 lead to the conclusion that 
N is composite. This is a simple example of the application of the 
theory of forms to the difficult problem of deciding whether a given 
large number is prime or composite; an application first indicated by 
Gauss, though, in the present simple case, probably known to Fermat. 
39. Number of classes. Class-number Relations. It appears fiom 
Gauss's posthumous papers that he solved the very difficult problem 
of finding a formula for &(D), the number of properly primitive classes 
for the determinant D. The first published solution, however, was 
that of P. G. L. Dirichlet; it depends on the consideration of series 
of the form 2(ax 2 +6xy+cy 2 )~ l ~* where i is a positive quantity, 
ultimately made very small. L. Kronecker has shown the connexion 
of Dirichlet's results with the theory of elliptic functions, and ob- 
tained more comprehensive formulae by taking (a, b, c) as the 
standard type of a quadratic fcrm, whereas Gauss, Diiichlet, and 
most of their successors, took (a, 2b, c) as the standard, calling 
(tfac) its determinant. As a sample of the kind of formulae that 
are obtained, let p be a prime of the form 471+3; then 



2a-2/3, 



log 



log D tan 



where in the first formula 2o means the sum of all quadratic residues 
of p contained in the series I, 2, 3,. . .$(p~l) and 2/3 is the sum 
of the remaining non-residues; while in the second formula (/, ) is 
the least positive solution of f pu? = i, and the product extends to 
all values of 6 in the set I, 3, 5,. . .(4^ 1) of which p is a non- 
residue. The remarkable fact will be noticed that the second formula 
gives a solution of the Pellian equation in a trigonometrical form. 

Kronecker was the first to discover, in connexion with the complex 
multiplication of elliptic functions, the simplest instances of a very 
curious group of arithmetical formulae involving sums of class- 
numbers and other arithmetical functions; the theory of these re- 
lations has been greatly extended by A. Hurwitz. The simplest of 
all these theorems may be stated as follows. Let H (A) represent the 
number of classes for the determinant A, with the convention that 
i and not I is to be reckoned for each class containing a reduced form 
of the type (o, o, a) and J for each class containing a reduced form 
(o, a, o) ; then if n is any positive integer, 



2 

K-0,+1, 

where *(n) means the sum of the divisors of n, and *(n) means the 
excess of the sum of those divisors of n which are greater than V n 



over the sum of those divisors which are less than V n. The formula 
is obtained by calculating in two different ways the number of 
reduced values of z which satisfy the modular equation J(nz) = J(z), 
where J(z) is the absolute invariant which, for the elliptic function 
P( U '< 21 gs) is gs 3 -T- (ga 3 27g 3 2 ), and z is the ratio of any two primitive 
periods taken so that the real part of iz is negative (see below, 68). 
It should be added that there is a series of scattered papers by 
J. Liouville, which implicitly contain Kronecker's class-number 
relations, obtained by a purely arithmetical process without any use 
of transcendents. 

40. Bilinear Forms. A bilinear form means an expression of the 
type Sa.jtZij'i (i = i, 2,...m; k = i, 2,...n); the most important 
case is when m = n, and only this will be considered here. The 
invariants of a form are its determinant [a nn ] and the elementary 
factors thereof. Two bilinear forms are equivalent when each can 
be transformed into the other by linear integral substitutions 
x' =2ox, y' = 2/Sy. Every bilinear form is equivalent to a reduced 

r 
form ZeiXiyt, and r = n, unless [<!] =o. In order that two forms may 

be equivalent it is necessary and sufficient that their invariants 
should be the same. Moreover, if a~b and c~d, and if the invariants 
of the forms a+Xc, b+\d are the same for all values of X, we shall 
have a+Xc~6+X<i, and the transformation of one form to the other 
may be effected by a substitution which does not involve X. The 
theory of bilinear forms practically includes that of quadratic forms, 
if we suppose x>, yi to be cogredient variables. Kronecker has de- 
veloped the case when n 2, and deduced various class- relations for 
quadratic forms in a manner resembling that of LiouviHe. So far 
as the bilinear forms are concerned, the main result is that the 
number of classes for the positive determinant 011022 ai2i2i = A is 
l2|*(A)+*(A)[+2, where is I or o according as A is or is not a 
square, and the symbols 4>, * have the meaning previously assigned 
to them ( 39). 

41. Higher Quadratic Forms. The algebraic theory of quadratics 
is so complete that considerable advance has been made in the much 
more complicated arithmetical theory. Among the most important 
results relating to the general case of n variables are the proof that 
the class-number is finite; the enumeration of the arithmetical 
invariants of a form ; classification according to orders and genera, 
and proof that genera with specified characters exist; also the de- 
termination of all the rational transformations of a given form into 
itself. In connexion with a definite form there is the important 
conception of its weight; this is defined as the reciprocal of the 
number of its proper automorphs. Equivalent forms are of the same 
weight; this is defined to be the weight of their class. The weight 
of a genus or order is the sum of the weights of the classes contained 
in it ; and expressions for the weight of a given genus have actually 
been obtained. For binary forms the sum of the weights of all the 
genera coincides with the expression denoted by H(A) in 39. The 
complete discussion of a form requires the consideration of (n2) 
associated quadratics; one of these is the contra variant of the given 
form, each of the others contains more than n variables. For certain 
quaternary and senary classes there are formulae analogous to the 
class-relations for binary forms referred to in 39 (see Smith, Proc. 
R.S. xvi., or Collected Papers, i. 510). 

Among the most interesting special applications of the theory are 
certain propositions relating to the representation of numbers as 
the sum of squares. In order that a number may be expressible as the 
sum of two squares it is necessary and sufficient for it to be of the 
form PQ 2 , where P has no square factor and no prime factor of the 
form 4rt+3. A number is expressible as the sum of three squares if, 
and only if, it is of the form m?n with n= i, 2 3 (mod 8) ; when 
m = l and n=3 (mod 8), all the squares are odd, and hence follows 
Fermat's theorem that every number can be expressed as the sum 
of three triangular numbers (one or two of which may be o). Another 
famous theorem of Fermat's is that every number can be expressed' 
as the sum of four squares; this was first proved by Jacobi, who also 
proved that the number of solutions of n = * 2 +;y 2 +z 2 +( 2 is 8*(n), if 
n is odd, while if n is even it is 24 times the sum of the odd factors of 
n. Explicit and finite, though more complicated, formulae have been 
obtained for the number of representations of n as the sum of five, 
six, seven and eight squares respectively. As an example of the 
outstanding difficulties of this part of the subject may be mentioned 
the problem of finding all the integral (not merely rational) auto- 
morphs of a given form /. When/ is ternary, C. Hermite has shown 
that the solution depends on finding all the integral solutions of 
F(x, y, z)+t? = l, where F is the contravariant of/. 

Thanks to the researches of Gauss, Eisenstein, Smith, Hermite 
and others, the theory of ternary quadratics is much less incomplete 
than that of quadratics with four or more variables. Thus methods 
of reduction nave been found both for definite and for indefinite 
forms; so that it would be possible to draw up a table of repre- 
sentative forms, if the result were worth the labour. One specially 
important theorem is the solution of axP+byt+cz 1 =o ; this is always 
possibleif be, ca, ab are quadratic residues of o, b, c respectively, 
and a formula can then be obtained which furnishes all the solutions. 

42. Complex Numbers. One of Gauss's most important and far- 
reaching contributions to arithmetic was his introduction of complex 



NUMBER 



855 



integers 0+61, where a, b are ordinary integers, and, as usual, "* = I. 
In this theory there are four units = i, = t; the numbers i*(o+6t) 
are said to be associated; a hi is the conjugate of a+bi and we 
write N(a = 6i)=a 2 +6 2 , the norm of a+bi, its conjugate, and asso- 
ciates. The most fundamental proposition in the theory is that the 
process of residuation ( 24) is applicable; namely, if m, n are any 
two complex integers and N(m)>N(n), we can always find integers 
q, r such that m qn+r with N(r)^iN(nJ. This may be proved 
analytically, but is obvious if we mark complex integers by points 
in a plane. Hence immediately follow propositions about resolutions 
into prime factors, greatest common measure, &c., analogous to 
those in the ordinary theory; it will only be necessary to indicate 
special points of difference. 

We have 2 = t(i+) s , so that 2 is associated with a square' a 
real prime of the form 4n+3 is still a prime, but one of the form 
4n+i breaks up into two conjugate prime factors, for example, 
5 = (l 2)(l +2t) An integer is even, semi-even, or odd according 
as it is divisible by (i +i) 2 , (i +t) or is prime to (i +*'). Among four 
associated odd integers there is one and only one which = I (mod 2 + 
2) ; this is said to be primary; the conjugate of a primary 
number is primary, and the product of any number of primaries is 
primary. The conditions that a+bi may be primary are 6=0 (mod 
2) 0+6 1 = (mod 4). Every complex integer can be uniquely 
expressed in the form t" 1 (i+i)"o a 60cr ..., where o^m<4, and 
a, b, c, . . . are primary primes. 

With respect to a complex modulus m, all complex integers may 
be distributed into N(m) incongruous classes. If m = h(a+bi) where 
a, b are co-primes, we may take as representatives of these classes 
the residues x+yi where *=o, i, 2,. . .|(o 2 +6 2 )A 1|; y = o, I, 2, 
. . .(h l). Thus when 6 = we may take x=o, i, 2,...(h i); 
y = o, i, 2,. . .(h i), giving the V residues of the real number h; 
while if a+bi is prime, i, 2, 3,. . .(o ! +6 2 l) form a complete 
set of residues. 

The number cf residues of m that are prime to m is given by 



where the product extends to all prime factors of m. As an analogue 
to Fermat s theorem we have, for any integer prime to the modulus, 

A^>C)= i (mod m),xN(#)-i= i (mod p) 

according as m is composite or prime. There are <f>|N(/>) ij 
primitive roots of the prime p; a primitive root in the real theory for 
a real prime 471 + 1 is also a primitive root in the new theory for each 
prime factor of (4/1+1), but if /> = 4+3 be a prime its primitive 
roots are necessarily complex. 
43. If p, q aie any two odd primes, we shall define the symbols 



(-} and (") by the congruences 



mod q), 

it being undeiitood that the symbols stand for absolutely least 
residues. It follows that (* j = i or I according as p is a quadratic 
residue of q or not; and thatKi only if p is a biquadratic 



residue of q. If p, q are primary primes, we have two laws of 
reciprocity, expressed by the equations 

t = 



z \2/ t \p! t 
To these must be added the supplementary formulae 



a+bi being a primary odd prime. In words, the law of biquadratic 
reciprocity for two primary odd primes may'be expressed by saying 
that the biquadratic characters of each prime with respect to the 
other are identical, unless = 9=3+21 (mod 4), in which case they 
are opposite. The law of biquadratic reciprocity was discovered by 
Gauss, who does not seem, however, to have obtained a complete 
proof of it. The first published proof is that of Eisenstein, which is 
very beautiful and simple, but involves the theory^f lemniscate 
functions. A proof on the lines indicated in Gauss's posthumous 
papers has been developed by Busche; this probably admits of 
simplification. Other demonstrations, for instance Jacobi's, depend 
on cyclotomy (see below). 

44. Algebraic Numbers. The first extension of Gauss s complex 
theory was made by E. E. Kummer, who considered complex 
numbers represented by rational integral functions of any roots of 
unity, thus including the ordinary theory and Gauss's as special 
cases. He was soon faced by the difficulty that, in some cases, the 
law that an integer can be uniquely expressed as the product of prime 
factors appeared to break down. To see how this happens take the 
equation 7j 2 +i)+6 = o, the roots of which are expressible as rational 



integral functions of 23rd roots of unity, and let 17 be either of the 
roots. If we define 017+6 to be an integer, when a, b are natural 
numbers, the product of any number of such integers is uniquely 
expressible in the form /ij+m. Conversely every integer can be 
expressed as the product of a finite number of indecomposable 
integers a+bri, that is, integers which cannot be further resolved into 
factors of the same type. But this resolution is not necessarily 
unique: for instance 6 = 2.3= ~l(l+ 1 )' where 2, 3, 17, 17 + 1 are all 
indecomposable and essentially distinct. To see the way in which 
Kummer surmounted the difficulty consider the congruence 

u 1 + +6= o(mod p) 

where p is any prime, except 23. If 2^Rp this has two distinct 
roots MI, i; and we say that 077+6 is divisible by the ideal prime 
factor of p corresponding to ui, if oi+6=o (mod p). For instance, 
if = 2 we may put i=o, j = i and there will be two ideal factors 
of 2, say pi and pi such that 017+6=0 (mod p\) if 6=0 (mod 2) and 
077+6=0 (mod pi) if 0+6=0 (mod 2). If both these congruences are 
satisfied, 0=6=0 (mod 2) and o7+6 is divisible by 2 in the ordinary 
sense. Moreover (o77+6)(ci7+d) = (bc+ad ac)it + (bd 6ac) and if 
this product is divisible by pi, 6d=o (mod 2), whence either 017+6 
or 07 +d is divisible by pi ; while if the product is divisible by pi we 
have bc+ad+bd 7ac = Q (mod 2) which is equivalent to (0+6) 
(c+d) = o (mod 2), so that again either 017+6 or 07+0" is divisible by 
pi. Hence we may properly speak of pi and pi as prime divisors. 
Similarly the congruence 2 ++6=o (mod 3) defines two ideal 
prime factors of 3, and 017+6 is divisible by one or the other of these 
according as 6=0 (mod 3) or 20+6=0 (mod 3); we will call these 
prime factors pt, pt. With this notation we have (neglecting unit 
factors) 

2=ptpi, 3 = pspt, n=pipi, i+it = pip4. 

Real primes of which 23 is a non-quadratic residue are also primes 
in the field (17) ; and the prime factors of any number 017+6, as well 
as the degree of their multiplicity, may be found by factorizing 
(6o ! O6+6 2 ), the norm of (017+6). Finally every integer divisible 
by pi is expressible in the form 2n = (1+17)71 where m, ware natural 
numbers (or zero) ; it is convenient to denote this fact by writing 
pi = [2, 1+17], and calling the aggregate 2m + (i+i7)n a compound 
modulus with the base 2, 1+17. This generalized idea of a modulus 
is very important and far-reaching; an aggregate is a modulus when, 
if a, are any two of its elements, a+p and a ft also belong to it. 
For arithmetical purposes those moduli are most useful which can be 
put into the form [ai, ai,...a n ] which means the aggregate of all the 
quantities Xiai+Xia.i+...+x n a, obtained by assigning to (xi,Xi,...x,), 
independently, the values 61 *i, =2, &c. Compound moduli may 
be multiplied together, or raised to powers, by rules which will be 
plain from the following example. We have 

s 2 = [4, 2(1+17), (l+1j) I ]=[4-2+2lJ,-5+17]=[4, 12, -5+77] 

= [4. -5+1] = [4. 3+1] 
hence 
pi' = pi'.pi = [4- 3 +ll X [2, i +17] = [8, 4 +417, 6 +217, 3 +417 +17'] 

= [8,4+417,6+277, -3+3l] = (l- 1 )['/+2, 17-6, 3] = (77-i)[i,77]. 
Hence every integer divisible by pi* is divisible by the actual integer 
(17 1) and conversely; so that in a certain sense we may regard pi 
as a cube root. Similarly the cube of any other ideal prime is of the 
form (O77+6)[1, 77]. According to a principle which will be explained 
further on, all primes here considered may be arranged in three 
classes; one is that of the real primes, the others each contain ideal 
primes only. As we shall see presently all these results are intimately 
connected with the fact that for the determinant 23 there are three 
primitive classes, represented by (i, i, 6) (2, i, 3), (2, i, 3) re- 
spectively. 

45. Rummer's definition of ideal primes sufficed for his particular 
purpose, and completely restored the validity of the fundamental 
theorems about factors and divisibility. His complex integers were 
more general than any previously considered and suggested a defini- 
tion of an algebraic integer in general, which is as follows : if 01,01, ...o. 
are ordinary integers (i.e. elements of R, 7), and satisfies an 
equation of the form 

0+a,0"- 1 +o,0"- l +. . . +0^,0+0. =o, 

6 is said to be an algebraic integer. We may suppose this equation 
irreducible; 6 is then said to be of the nth order. The n roots 
0, 6', 0*,...fr*~ l) are all different, and are said to be conjugate. 
If the equation began with Oo9" instead of 8*, 9 would still be an 
algebraic number; every algebraic number can be put into the form 
0/m, where m is a natural number and 6 an algebraic integer. 

Associated with 8 we have afield (or corpus) Q = R(0) consisting of 
all rational functions of 8 with real rational coefficients; and in like 
manner we have the conjugate fields H' = R(9'). &c. The aggregate 
of integers contained in il is denoted by o. 

Every element of ft can be put into the form 



where d>, c\,...c^\ are real and rational. If these coefficients are 
all integral, w is an integer; but the converse is not necessarily true. 
It is possible, however, to find a set of integers ui, WI...M, belong- 
ing to JJ, such that every integer in Q can be uniquely expressed in 
the form 



856 



NUMBER 



where hi, AS , ... An are elements of N which may be called the 
co-ordinates of o> with respect to the base <o t , U2, "n. Thus o 
is a modulus ( 44), and we may write o = [ioi, 012, ... o) n ]. Having 
found one base, we can construct any number of equivalent bases 
by means of equations such as uj' = Zci,->, where the rational integral 

coefficients a 1 are such that the determinant |c nB J= *i. 
If we write 

/' /' / 

<i> 1, CO 2, ... 01 n 

IT It If 

CO i, CO 2, . . . CO 

"I"" 1 *' "4"" 1 *' i" 

A is a rational integer called the discriminant of the field. Its value 
is the same whatever base is chosen. 

If a is any integer in 12, the product of a and its conjugates is a 
rational integer called the norm of a, and written N(o). By consider- 
ing the equation satisfied by a we see that N(a) =aai where a, is an 
integer in 12. It follows from the definition that if o, are any two 
integers in 12, then N(oj8) = N(a)N(/3); and that for an ordinary real 
integer m, we have N(m) =m". 

46. Ideals. The extension of Kummer's results to algebraic 
numbers in general was independently made by J. W. R. Dedekind 
and Kronecker; their methods differ mainly in matters of notation 
and machinery, each having special advantages of its own for 
particular purposes. Dedekind's method is based upon the notion 
of an ideal, which is defined by the following properties: 

(i.) An ideal m is an aggregate of integers in Q. 

(ii.) This aggregate is a modulus ; that is to say, if /, M' are any two 
elements of m (the same or different) n~n' is contained in m. Hence 
also m contains a zero element, and AI+M' is an element of m. 

(iii.) If M is any element of m, and a any element of 0, then co/u is 
an element of tn. It is this property that makes the notion of an 
ideal more specific than that of a modulus. 

It is clear that ideals exist; for instance, o itself is an ideal. 
Again, all integers in 12 which are divisible by a given integer a (in o) 
form an ideal; this is called a principal ideal, and is denoted by 
oo. Every ideal can be represented by a base ( 44, 45), so that 
we may write m = \m, 1*1, . . . n*], meaning that every element of m 
can be uniquely expressed in the form 'Shim, where A, is a rational 
integer. In other words, every ideal has a base (and therefore, of 
course, an infinite number of bases). If a, b are any two ideals, and 
if we form the aggregate of all products off obtained by multiplying 
each element of the first ideal by each element of the second, then 
this aggregate, together with all sums of such products, is an ideal 
which is called the product of a and b and written ab or ba. In 
particular oa=a, O 2 = o ,oa . o0 = oa/3. This law of multiplication is 
associative as well as commutative. It is clear that every element 
of ab is contained in a : it can be proved that, conversely, if every 
element of c is contained in a, there exists an ideal b such that ab = c. 
In particular, if a is any element of a, there is an ideal a' such that 
Oa = aa'. A prime ideal is one which has no divisors except itself 
and o. It is a fundamental theorem that every ideal can be resolved 
into the product of a finite number of prime ideals, and that this 
resolution is unique. It is the decomposition of a principal ideal into 
the product of prime ideals that takes the place of the resolution of 
an integer into its prime factors in the ordinary theory. It may 
happen that all the ideals in O are principal ideals; in this case every 
resolution of an ideal into factors corresponds to the resolution of an 
integer into actual integral factors, and the introduction of ideals 
is unnecessary. But in every other case the introduction of ideals 
or some equivalent notion, is indispensable. When two ideals have 
been resolved into their prime factors, their greatest common 
measure and least common multiple are determined by the ordinary 
rules. Every ideal may be expressed (in an infinite number of ways) 
as the greatest common measure of two principal ideals. 

47. There is a theory of congruences with respect to an ideal 
modulus. Thus a=0 (mod m) means that o /3 is an element of 
m. With respect to tn, all the integers in 12 may be arranged in a finite 
number of incongruent classes. The number of these classes is 
called the norm of tn, and written N(m). The norm of a prime ideal 
p is some power of a real prime p; if N(p) =p f , p is said to be a prime 
ideal of degree/. If m, n are any two ideals, then N(mn) =N(tn)N(n). 
If N(tn) =ra, then m=o (mod m), and there is an ideal m' such that 
vm = mm'. The norm of a principal ideal Da is equal to the absolute 
value of N(a) as defined in 45. 

The number of incongruent residues prime to m is 



where the product extends to all prime factors of tn. If is any 
element of o prime to m, 

wKra)=i (mod m). 

Associated with a prime modulus p for which N (p) =pf we have 
<t>(pf l) primitive roots, where <t> has the meaning given to it in the 
ordinary theory. Hence follow the usual results about exponents, 
indices, solutions of linear congruences, and so on. For any modulus 
m we have N(m) =S<Kb), where the sum extends to all the divisors 
of m. 



48. Every element of o which is not contained in any other ideal 
is an algebraic unit. If the conjugate fields J2, Q', . . . &""'> consist 
of ri real and 2r 2 imaginary fields, there is a system of units i, 62, . . . e,, 
where r = r,+r 2 I, such that every unit in Q is expressible in the 
form e=pi a e s 4 . . . r* where p is a root of unity contained in 12 and 
a,b,...l are natural numbers. This theorem is due to Dirichlet. 

The norm of a unit is +1 or -I ; and the determination of all the 
units contained in a given field is in fact the same as the solution of a 
Diophantine equation 

F(hi, Aj,...A) = i. 

For a quadratic field the equation is of the form h?-rih = ==i, 
and the theory of this is complete; but except for certain special 
cubic corpora little has been done towards solving the important 
problem of assigning a definite process by which, for a given field, a 
system of fundamental units may be calculated. The researches of 
Jacobi, Hermite, and Minkowsky seem to show that a proper exten- 
sion of the method of continued fractions is necessary. 

49. Ideal Classes. If m is any ideal, another ideal n can always be 
found such that inn is a principal ideal; for instance, one such 
multiplier is m~ 1 N(m). Two ideals tn ; tn' are said to be equivalent 
(m~m') or to belong to the same class, if there is an ideal n such 
that mn, tn'n are both principal ideals. It can be proved that two 
ideals each equivalent to a third are equivalent to each other and 
that all ideals in 12 may be distributed into a finite number, h, of 
ideal classes. The class which contains all principal ideals is called 
the principal class and denoted by O. 

If m, n are any two ideals belonging to the classes A, B respectively, 
then mn belongs to a definite class which depends only upon A, B 
and may be denoted by AB or BA indifferently. Thus the class- 
symbols form an Abelian group of order h, of which O is the unit 
element; and, mutatis mutandis, the theorems of 37 about com- 
position of classes still hold good. 

The principal theorem with regard to the determination of h is the 
following, which is Dedekind's generalization of the corresponding 
one for quadratic fields, first obtained by Dirichlet. Let 

r(*)-ZN(m)-' 

(at) 

where the sum extends to all ideals m contained in 2; this converges 
so long as the real quantity i is positive and greater than i. Then 
K being a certain quantity which can be calculated when a funda- 
mental system of units is known, we shall have 



The expression for K is rather complicated, and very peculiar; it 
may be written in the form 

R 

"fVA| 

where |VA| means the absolute value of the square root of the dis- 
criminant of the field, r\, r% have the same meaning as in 48, w is 
the number of roots of unity in Q, and R is a determinant of the form 
|/i(e>)J. of order (n+rj-i), with elements which are, in a certain 
special sense, " logarithms " of the fundamental units i, 62, . . . ,. 

50. The discriminant A enjoys some very remarkable properties. 
Its value is always different from =*= i ; there can be only a finite 
number of fields which have a given discriminant; and the rational 
prime factors of A(12) are precisely those rational primes which, in Q, 
are divisible by the square (or some higher power) of a prime ideal. 
Consequently, every rational prime not contained in A is resolvable, 
in 0, into the product of distinct primes, each of which occurs only 
once. The presence of multiple prime factors in the discriminant 
was the principal difficulty in the way of extending Kummer's 
method to all fields, and was overcome by the introduction of com- 
pound moduli---for this is the common characteristic of Dedekind's 
and Kronecker's procedure. 

51. Normal Fields. The special properties of a particular field 12 
are closely connected with its relations to the conjugate fields 
12', 12", . . . fl*"" 1 '. The most important case is when each of the 
conjugate fields is identical with 12: the field is then said to be 
Galoisian or normal. The aggregate R(0, 6', . . . flf"-") of all 
rational functions of 8 and its conjugates is a normal field: hence 
every arithmetical field of order n is either normal, or contained in a 
normal field of a higher order. The roots of an equation /(0)=o 
which defines a normal field are associated with a group of substitu- 
tions: if this is Abelian, the field is called Abelian; if it is cyclic. 
the field is called cyclic. A cyclotomic field is one the elements of 
which are all expressible as rational functions of roots of unity; in 
particular the complete cyclotomic field Cm, of order 4>(m), is the 
aggregate of all rational functions of a primitive mth root of unity. 
To Kronecker is due the very remarkable theorem that all Abelian 
(including cyclic) fields are cyclotomic: the first published proof of 
this was given by Weber, and another is due to D. Hilbert. 

Many important theorems concerning a normal field have been 
established by Hilbert. He shows that if Q is a given normal field 
of order m, and p any of its prime ideals, there is a finite series of 
associated fields I2i, 12j, &c., of orders m\, mi, &c., such that rm=o 
(mod. m f +i). and that if r i = mlm t , p' l ' = p.-, a prime ideal in Of. 
If 12j is the last of this series, it is called the field of inertia 



NUMBER 



857 



( Trdgheitskdrper) for p : next after this comes a nother field of still lower 
order called the resolvingfield (Zerlegungskorper) for p, and in this field 
there is a prime of the first degree, p w , such that pi + i=p*, where 
k=mjmi. In the field of inertia pj^i remains a prime, but becomes 
of higher degree; in Qj_i, which is called the branch-field (Ver- 
zweigungskorper) it becomes a power of a prime, and by going on in this 
way from the resolving field to Q, we obtain (1+2) representations 
for any prime ideal of the resolving field. By means of these 
theorems, Hilbert finds an expression for the exact power to which a 
rational prime f> occurs in the discriminant of 2, and in other ways 
the structure of Q becomes more evident. It may be observed that 
whem m is prime the whole series reduces to Q and the rational field, 
and we conclude that every prime ideal in is of the first or with 
degree: this is the case, for instance, when m = 2, and is one of the 
reasons why quadratic fields are comparatively so simple in character. 
$2. Quadratic Fields. Let m be an ordinary integer different from 
+ 1, and not divisible by any square: then if x, y assume all ordinary 
rational values the expressions x+yV m are the elements of a field 
which may be called S2(Vm). It should be observed that V m means 
one definite root of x* m=o, it does not matter which: it is con- 
venient, however, to agree that V m is positive when m is positive, 
and i'V m is negative when m is negative. The principal results 
relating to n will now be stated, and will serve as illustrations of 

44-51. 
In the notation previously used 



according as m = l (mod 4) or not. In the first case A=, in the 
second A =un. The field Q is normal, and every ideal prime in it is 
of the first degree. 

Let q be any odd prime factor of m; then g = q ! , where q is the 
prime ideal [q, %(q+->]m)] when m = l (mod 4) and in other cases 
[q, V m]. An odd prime p of which m is a quadratic residue is the 
product of two prime ideals p, p', which may be written in the form 
IP, l(a+V)], \p,\(a Vm)] or [p, o+Vm], [p,a VH. according as 
m = \ (mod 4) or not: here a is a root of x ! =m (mod p), taken so as 
to be odd in the first of the two cases. All other rational odd primes 
are primes in p. For the exceptional prime 2 there are four cases to 
consider: (i.) if m = i (mod 8), then2 = [2,i(i-fVm)]X[2,i(i V)]. 
(ii.) If m=5 (mod 8), then 2 is prime: (iii.) if m=2 (mod 4), 
2 = [2,Vm] 2 : (iv.) if m=3 (mod=4), 2 = [2,i+V) 2 . Illustrations will 
be found in 44 for the case m = 23. 

53. Normal Residues. Genera. Hilbert has introduced a very 
convenient definition, and a corresponding symbol, which is a gene- 
ralization of Legendre's quadratic character. Let n, m be rational 

integers, m not a square, ai any rational prime; we write ( ) =+l 
if, to the modulus w, n is congruent to the norm of an integer con- 
tained in J2(V m) ; in all other cases we put I ' ) = I . This new 

symbol obeys a set of laws, among which may be especially noted 
In, w\ Iw, n\ /n\ , In, m\ 

lury = rirj = w and nrJ = +I> whenever n < m are p me 

top. 

Now let q t , g 2 , . . . ?i be the different rational prime factors of 
the discriminant of fi(V) ; then with any rational integer a we may 
associate the t symbols 



(a, m\ la, m\ la m\ 

qi ' ' \ 52 / ' " ' \ qt I 



and call them the total character of a with respect to Q. This 
definition may be extended so as to give a total character for every 
ideal a in iJ, as follows. First let Q be an imaginary field (m<o) ; 
we put r = t, n = N(a), and call 



In, m\ In, m\ 

\ qi I ' " ' \ Or I 



the total character of a. Secondly, let Q be a real field ; we first 
determine the t separate characters of I , and if they are all positive 
we put n= + N(a), r t, and adopt the r characters just written 
above as those of a. Suppose, however, that one of the characters 
of i is negative; without loss of generality we may take it to be 
that with reference to q t . We then put r = t l, S= N(a) taken 



with such a sign that 



() = 



+ i, and take as the total character 



of a the symbols for i = i , 2, ...(/- 1). 

With these definitions it can be proved that all ideals of the same 
class have the same total character, and hence there is a distribution 
of classes into genera, each genus containing those classes for which 
the total character is the same (cf. 36). 

Moreover, we have the fundamental theorem that an assigned set 
of r units I corresponds to an actually existing genus if, and only if, 
their product is + 1 , so that the number of actually existing genera 
is 2 T ~ l . This is really equivalent to a theorem about quadratic forms 
first stated and proved by Gauss; the same may be said about the 



next proposition, which, in its natural order, is easily proved by the 
method of ideals, whereas Gauss had to employ the theory of ternary 
quadratics. 

Every class of the principal genus is the square of a class. 

An ambiguous ideal in H is defined as one which is unaltered by 
the change of V" to V > (that is, it.is the same as its conj ugate) and 




namely, those factors of A, including o, which are not divisible by 
any square. It is a fundamental theorem, first proved by Gauss, 
that the number of ambiguous classes is equal to the number of 
genera. 

54. Class-Number. The number of ideal classes in the field IJ(V m) 
may be expressed in the following forms : 

(i.) m<o: 



i. 2 -A); 




(ii.) m>o: 



In the first of these formulae T is the number of units contained in 
Q; thus r = 6 for A = 3, T = 4 for A= 4, r 2 in other cases. 
In the second formula, t is the fundamental unit, and the products are 

taken for all the numbers of the set (1,2,. . .A) for which f-j =+i, 
( H = i respectively. In the ideal theory the only way in 

which these formulae have been obtained is by a modification of 
Dirichlet's method ; to prove them without the use of transcendental 
analysis would be a substantial advance in the theory. 

55. Suppose that any ideal in n is expressed in the form [ui, us] ; 
then any element of it is expressible as x<jn+yut, where x, y are 
rational integers, and we shall have N (xui+ywi)=ax*+bxy+cy*, 
where a, b, c are rational numbers contained in the ideal. If we put 
x = ax'+0y',y = yx'+Sy', where a, 0, y, 5 are rational numbers such 
that aijj-y ==*=!, we shall have simultaneously (a, 6, c) (x, y) 1 
= (a', b', c') (x 1 , y') 1 as in 32 and also 

(a', b', c 1 ) fX, /)' = Nix'Caw, +TC*) +/(#* +&*) I = N(*V, +y V,), 
where [w'i, w'j] is the same ideal as before. Thus all equivalent forms 
are associated with the same ideal, and the numbers representable 
by forms of a particular class are precisely those which are norms of 
numbers belonging to the associated ideal. Hence the class-number 
for ideals in Q is also the class-number for a set of quadratic forms; 
and it can be shown that all these forms have the same determinant 
A. Conversely, every class of forms of determinant A can be 
associated with a definite class of ideals in n(V), where m=A or 
}A as the case may be. Composition of form-classes exactly 
corresponds to the multiplication of ideals: hence the complete 
analogy between the two theories, so long as they are really in con- 
tact. There is a corresponding theory of forms in connexion with a 
field of order n: the forms are of the order n, but are only very 
special forms of that order, because they are algebraically resolvable 
into the product of linear factors. 

56. Complex Quadratic Forms. Dirichlet, Smith and others, have 
discussed forms (a, b, c) in which the coefficients are complex integers 
of the form m+ni; and Hermite has considered bilinear forms 
axx'+bxy'+b'x'y+cyy', where x 1 , y', b' are the conjugates of x, y, b 
and a, c, are real. Ultimately these theories are connected with 
fields of the fourth order; and of course in the same way we might 
consider forms (a, b, c) with integral coefficients belonging to any 
given field of order n : the theory would then be ultimately connected 
with a field of order 2n. 

57. Kronecker's Method. In practice it is found convenient to 
combine the method of Dedekind with that of Kroneckcr, the main 
principles of which are as follows. Let F( x, y, z, . . .) be a poly- 
nomial in any number of indeterminates (umbrae, as Sylvester calls 
them) with ordinary integral coefficients; if n is the greatest common 
measure of the coefficients, we have F = nE, where E is a primary or 
unit form. The positive integer n is called the divisor of F; and the 
divisor of the product of two forms is equal to the product of the 
divisors of the factors. Next suppose that the coefficients of F are 
integers in a field Q of order . Denoting the conjugate forms by 
F', F", . . . F<"-'>, the product FF'F" . . . F<"-'>=/E, where / is a 
real positive integer, and E a unit form with real integral coef- 
ficients. The natural number / is called the norm of F. If F, G 
are any two forms (in Q) we have N(FG) =N(F)N(G). Let the 
coefficients of F be ai, oj, &c., those of G ft, ft, &c., and those of FG 
Tit T, &c. ; and let p be any prime ideal inQ. Then if p is the 
highest power of p contained in each of the coefficients a,-, and p" the 
highest power of p contained in each of the coefficients ft, p" + * is 
the highest power of p contained by the whole set of coefficients >(. 
Writing dv(oi, at,...) for the highest ideal divisor of 01, o s , &c., 
this is called the content of F; and we have the theorem that the 



858 



NUMBER 



product of the contents of two forms is equal to the content of the 
product of the forms. Every form is associated with a definite ideal 
m, and we have N(F) = N(m) if m is the content of F.and N(m) has 
the meaning already assigned to it. On the other hand, to a given 
ideal correspond an indefinite number of forms of which it is the 
content; for instance ( 46, end) we can find forms ax+(ly of which 
any given ideal is the content. 

58. Now let ui, a*, ... a* be a basis of o; HI, s, . . . u a a set of 
indeterminates; and 



is called the fundamental form of J2. It satisfies the equation 
N(x-)=o, or 

F(x)=x+y l x"- 1 + . . . +U B =o 

where Uj, Us, . . . U n are rational polynomials in u\, Ui, . . .u n with 
rational integral coefficients. This is called the fundamental 
equation. 

Suppose now that p is a rational prime, and that p = pq 6 r <: . . . 
where p, q, r, . . . &c., are the different ideal prime factors of p, 
then if F(x) is the left-hand side of the fundamental equation there 
is an identical congruence 

F{*)-tP()HQC*)HR()}*. -(mod p) 

where P(x), Q(x), &c., are prime functions with respect to p. The 
meaning of this is that if we expand the expression on the right-hand 
side of the congruence, the coefficient of every term x'ui m . . . u n ' 
will be congruent, mod p, to the corresponding coefficient in F(x). 
If/, g, h,&c., are the degrees of p, q, r, &c. ( 47), then/, g,h,... are 
the dimensions in x, u\, Ui,. . . u n of the forms of P, Q, R, respectively. 
For every prime p, which is not a factor of A, a =&==. . , = i 
and F(x) is congruent to the product of a set of different prime 
factors, as many in number as there are different ideal prime factors 
ot p. In particular, if p is a prime in J2, F(z) is a prime function 
(mod p) and conversely. 

It generally happens that rational integral values 01, a?, . . . a n 
can be assigned to HI, Ut, . . . u n such that Up, the last term in the 
fundamental equation, then has a value which is prime to p. Suppos- 
ing that this condition is satisfied, let 01011+020)2+ . . .+o n w n = a; 
and let PI (a) be the result of putting x = a, i=o,- in P(x). Then 
the ideal p is completely determined as the greatest common 
divisor of p and Pi(a) ; and similarly for the other prime factors 
of p. There are, however, exceptional cases when the condition 
above stated is not satisfied. 

59. Cyclotomy. -It follows from de Moivre's theorem that the 
arithmetical solution of the equation x m l =o corresponds to the 
division of the circumference of a circle into m equal parts. The case 
when m is composite is easily made to depend on that where m is a 
power of a prime; if m is a power of 2, the solution is effected by a 
chain of quadratic equations, and it only remains to consider the 
case when m = q", a. power of an odd prime. It will be convenient to 
write/n=<(m) =g~i(g-l) ; if we also put r = e'*il>*, the primitive 
roots of x m = l will be M in number, and represented by r, r", 1*, &c. 
where I, a, b, &c., form a complete set of prime residues to the 
modulus m. These will be the roots of an irreducible equation 
/(*)=o of degree M; the symbol /(x) denoting (x m l)-^-(x m l"l). 
There are primitive roots of the congruence xn = I (mod m) ; let g 

be any one of these. Then if we put r"^ = rk, we obtain all the roots 
of f(x)=o in a definite cyclical order (ri, r^ . . .?>) ; and the change 
of r into r" produces a cyclical permutation of the roots. It follows 
from this that every cyclic polynomial in r\, .-2, . . .r/ with rational 
coefficients is equal to a rational number. Thus if we write l+ag 

-\-bg i +.+kgn~ 1 = n, we have, in virtue of n = r" ,ri a r. ..r l i.-i k r l i t = r n , 
and, if we use S to denote cyclical summation, S(ri a r 2 !> . . >>') = 
r n +r"'+. . . +r r ""*~ I , the sum of the nth powers of all the roots 
of f(x) =o, and this is a rational integer or zero. Since every cyclic 
polynomial is the sum of parts similar to S(ri"r2 6 . . .r/i')> the theorem 
is proved. Now let e, f be any two conjugate factors of /*, so that 
ef=n, and let 

IK =r<+'i+e+r< + 2+ . . . +f^(/_o, (i = i, 2, . . .e) 
then the elementary symmetric functions ST;,-, ZT^T;', &c., are cyclical 
functions of the roots of f(x)=o and therefore have rational values 
which can be calculated: consequently 571, 772, . . .17., which are called 
the /-nomial periods, are the roots of an equation 



with rational integral coefficients. This is irreducible, and defines a 
field of order e contained in the field defined by f(x) =o. Moreover, 
the change of r into r" alters n< into TK+I, and we have the theorem 
that any cyclical function of 171, r^, ... re, is rational. Now let h, k 
be any conjugate factors of / and put 

Zi=Ti+rn.k,+T i +a> e +. .^'+(/-A)e (t = I| 2, 3.) 

then ?I,?I.H, fi+j,- ?i+(*-o will be the roots of an equation 

G(f) = fHi?*- 1 +c 2 r M +. . . +c=o, 

the coefficients of which are expressible as rational polynomials in TJI. 
Dividing h into two conjugate factors, we can deduce from G(f) =o 
another period equation, the coefficients of which are rational poly- 
nomials in 7)2, fi, and so on. P>y choosing for e, h, &c., the successive 
prime factors of p, ending up with 2, we obtain a set of equations of 



prime degree, each rational in the roots of the preceding equations, 
and the last having n and rj- 1 for its roots. Thus to take a very 
interesting historical case, let m 1 7, so that it = 1 6 = 2 4 , the equations 
are all quadratics, and if we take 3 as the primitive roct of 17, they 
are 

4=o, f 2 -i?f-i=o 



If two quantities (real or complex) o and b are represented in the 
usual way by points in a plane, the roots of x 2 +ax+b=o will be 
represented by two points which can be found by a Euclidean con- 
struction, that is to say, one requiring only the use of rule and com- 
pass. Hence a regular polygon of seventeen sides can be inscribed 
in a given circle by means of a Euclidean construction; a fact first 
discovered by Gauss, who also found the general law, which is that a 
regular polygon of m sides can be inscribed in a circle by Euclidean 
construction if and only if <t>(m)_ is a power of 2; in other words 
m = 2"P where P is a product of different odd primes, each of which is 
of the form 2" + l. 

Returning to the case m = q t , we shall call the chain of equations 
F(i)) =o, &c., when each is of prime degree, a set of Galoisian auxili- 
aries. We can find different sets, because in forming them we can 
take the prime factors of M in any order we like; but their number 
is always the same, and their degrees always form the same aggregate, 
namely, the prime factors of it. No other chain of auxiliaries having 
similar properties can be formed containing fewer equations of a given 
prime degree p; a fact first stated by Gauss, to whom this theory is 
mainly due. Thus if m =g we must have at least (K i) auxiliaries 
of order q, and if g-l =2*P . . ., we must also have a quadratics, 
/3 equations of order p, and so on. For this reason a set of Galoisian 
auxiliaries may be regarded as providing the simplest solution of the 
equation f(x) =o. 

60. When m is an odd prime p, there is another very interesting 
way of solving the equation (x"-i) + (x-i) =o. As before let 
(n, r 2 , TP-I) be its roots arranged in a cycle by means of a 
primitive root of x'~ 1 = i (mod p) ; and let e be a primitive root of 
e"- 1 = i. Also let 



- l (k=2, 3,. . .p-2) 
so that 6k is derived from 0\ by changing e into *. 

The cyclical permutation (ri, r 2 , . . ,r p -i) applied to 9t converts 
it into e **; hence 9i0t/0i+i is unaltered, and may be expressed 
as a rational, and therefore as an integral function of e. It is found 
by calculation that we may put 



.i S 



= I, 2, . 



while 



In the exponents of ^t(e) the indices are taken to the base g used to 
establish the cyclical order (n, r 2 . . fp-i). Multiplying together the 
(p2) preceding equalities, the result is 

01*- 1 = -MtofcW - .*P-.W =R(0 

where R(e) is a rational integral function of the degree of which, in 
its reduced form, is less than <f>(pi). Let p be any one definite root 
= R(e), and put 0i = p: then since 



we must take 0* = p*/lM2 . . . ^_i = R*()p*, where R*() is a 
rational function of f, which we may suppose put into its reduced 
integral form; and finally, by addition of the equations which 
define 9\, 02, &c., 



If in this formula we change p into e~*p, and n into r^i, it still 
remains true. 

It will be observed that this second mode of solution employs a 
Lagrangian resolvent 0i ; considered merely as a solution it is neither 
so direct nor so fundamental as that of Gauss. But the form of the 
solution is very interesting; and the auxiliary numbers <l/(t) have 
many curious properties, which have been investigated by Jacobi, 
Cauchy and Kronecker. 

61. When m=q*, the discriminant of the corresponding cyclotomic 
field is g A , where \ = q"~ I (xq K i). The prime q is equal to q**, 
where n = 4>(m) =q"~ l (qi), and q is a prime ideal of the first degree. 
If p is any rational prime distinct from g, and / the least exponent 
such that pf = i (mod. m), f will be a factor of n, and putting n/f=e, 
we have p = fipi . . .p, where pi, p . . . p are different prime ideals 
each of the /th degree. There are similar theorems for the case 
when m is divisible by more than one rational prin.e. 

Kummer has stated and proved laws of reciprocity for quadratic 
and higher residues in what are called regular fields, the definition of 
which is as follows. Let the field be R(e : " r ' / *), where p is an odd 
prime; then this field is regular, and p is said to be a regular prime, 
when h, the number of ideal classes in the field, is not divisible by p. 
Kummer proved the very curious fact that p is regular if. and only if, 
it is not a factor of the denominators of the first \(p 3) Bernoullian 



NUMBER 



859 



numbers. He also succeeded in showing that in the field 
the equation a f +0 f +y''=o has no integral solutions whenever h is 
not divisible by p 2 . What is known as the " last " theorem of Fermat 
is his assertion that if m is any natural number exceeding 2, the 
equation x m +y m =z n> has no rational solutions, except the obvious 
ones for which xyz=o. It would be sufficient to prove Fermat's 
theorem for all prime values of m, and whenever Rummer's 
theorem last quoted applies, Fermat's theorem will hold. Fermat's 
theorem is true for all values of m such that 2<m<ioi, but no 
complete proof of it has yt t been obtained. 

Hubert has studied in considerable detail what he calls Kummer 
fields, which are obtained by taking x, a primitive pth root of unity, 
and y any root oi 3^0 = 0, where o is any number in the field R(x) 
which is not a perfect pth power in that field. The Kummer field is 
then R (x, y), consisting of all rational functions of x and y. Other 
fields that have been discussed more or less are general cubic fields, 
some special biquadratic and a few Abelian fields not cyclic. 

Among the applications of cyc'.otomy may be mentioned the 
proof which it affords of the theorem, first proved by Dirichlet, that if 
m, n are any two rational integers prime to each other, the linear 
form mx-\-n is capable of representing an infinite number of primes. 

62. Gauss's Sums. Let m be any positive real integer ; then 



-= m i 

2 



i+i 



This remarkable formula, when m is prime, contains results which 
were first obtained by Gauss, and thence known as Gauss's sums. 
The easiest method of proof is Kronecker's, which consists in finding 

the value oif{e**' m dz/(i-e""')}, taken round an appropriate 
contour. It will be noticed that one result of the formula is that the 
square root of any integer can be expressed as a rational function of 
roots of unity. 

The most important application of the formula is the deduction 
from it of the law of quadratic reciprocity for real primes : this was 
done by Gauss. 

63. One example may be given cf some remarkable formulae 
giving explicit solutions of representations of numbers by certain 
quadratic forms. Let p be any odd prime of the form 711+2; then 
we shall have p = jn+2 =x*- s rTf, where x is determined by the 
congruences 

2* g ()?(];,) i ( mod &' *=3 (mod 7). 

This formula was obtained by Eisenstein, who proved it by investigat- 
ing properties of integers in the field generated by i)*-2i)-7=> 
which is a component of the field generated by seventh rootf of unity. 
The first formula of this kind was given by Gauss, and relates to the 
case = 4n + i =**+/; he conceals its connexion with complex 
numbers. Probably there are many others which have not yet been 
stated. 

64. Higher Congruences. Functional Moduli. Suppose that p is 
a real prime, and that /(*), </>(*) are polynomials in * with rational 
integral coefficient.. The congruence f(x)=<t>(x) (mod p) is identical 
when each coefficient of / is congruent, mod p, to the corresponding 
coefficient of <t>. It will be convenient to write, under these circum- 
stances, / 4>(mod P) and to say that /, <t> are equivalent, mod p. 
Every polynomial of degree h is equivalent to another of equal or 
lower degree, which has none of its coefficients negative, and each of 
them less than p. Such a polynomial, with unity for the coefficient 
of the highest power of x contained in it, may be called a reduced 
polynomial with respect to p. There are, in all, * reduced poly- 
nomials of degree h. A polynomial may or may not be equivalent to 
the product of two others of lower degree than itself; in the latter 
case it is said to be prime. In every case, F being any polynomial, 
there is an equivalence F-cfi/s . . . fi where c is an integer and 
/i, fi,fi are prime functions; this resolution is unique. Moreover, 
it follows from Fermat's theorem that [F(x)\'~(x'),\F(x)\' a ~F(x' a ), 
and so on. 

As in the case of equations, it may be proved that, -when the modulus 
is prime, a congruence /(*)= o (mod p) cannot have more incongruent 
roots than the index of the highest power of * in f(x), and that if 
x=is a solution, /(*)- (*-{)/, (*), where /,(*) is another polynomial. 
The solutions of x'=x are all the residues of p; hence x"-x~x(x + 1 ) 
(x+2) . . .(x+p-l), where the right-hand expression is the product 
of all the linear functions which are prime to p. A generalization 
of this is contained in the formula 

x(x""- l -l)~-af(x) (mod />) 

where the product includes every prime function /(*) of which the 
degree is a factor of m. By a process similar to that employed in 
finding the equation satisfied by primitive mth roots of unity, we 
can find an expression for the product of all prime functions of a 
given degree m, and prove that their number is (m> i) 



where o, 6, c ... are the different prime factors of m. Moreover, 
if F is any given function, we can find a resolution 
F~cF,F,...F,,(mod#) 



where c is numerical, F 1 is the product of all prime linear functions 
which divide F, F is the product of all the pnme quadratic factors, 
and so on. 

65. By the functional congruence <t>(x)=\l>(x) (mod />,/(*)) is meant 
that polynomials U, V can be found such that (f>(x) <l>(x) +p\J + 
V/(i) identically. We might also write</>(*)~ ^(*) (mod p,f(x)) ; but 
this is not so necessary here as in the preceding case of a simple 
modulus. Let m be the degree of /(*) ; without loss of generality 
we may suppose that the coefficient cf x* is unity, and it will be 
further assumed that/(x) is a prime function, mod p. Whatever the 
dimensions of </>(*), there will be definite f unctions x(x),tf>iOc) such that 
*(*)=/(*)x(*)+*i(*) where <t>i(x) is of lower dimension than /(x) ; 
moreover, we may suppose ^i(ac) replaced by the equivalent reduced 
function <fo(.v) mod p. Finally then, <t>=<t>i (mod p,f(x)) where ^ is a 
reduced function, mod p, of order net greater than (m-i). If we 
put p m =n, there will be in all (including zero) n residues to the com- 
pound modulus (p, f) : let us denote these by Ri, Rj, ...R. 
Then (cf. 28) if we reject the one zero residue (R,, suppose) and 
take any function^ of which the residue is not zero, the residues of 
<t>Ri, <t>R 2 , . . . <R_i will all be different, and we conclude that 
<t>*- l = i (mod p, f). Every function therefore satisfies <t>*~ 4> 
(mod p, f); by putting <f> = x we obtain the principal theorem stated 
in 64. 

A still more comprehensive theory of compound moduli is due to 
Kronecker; it will be sufficiently illustrated by a particular case. 
Let m be a fixed natural number; X, V, Z, T assigned polynomials, 
with rational integral coefficients, in the independent variables 
x,y,z; and let U be any polynomial of the same nature as X, Y, Z, T. 
We may write U-o (mod m, X, Y, Z, T) to express the fact that 
there are integral polynomials M, X', Y', Z', T' such that 

U =JM+X'X-1-Y'Y+Z'Z+TT 

identically. In this notation U V means that U-V o. The 
number of independent variables and the number of functions in the 
modulus are unrestricted; there may be no number m in the 
modulus, and there need not be more than one. This theory of 
Kronecker's is admirably adapted for the discussion of all algebraic 
problems of an arithmetical character, and is certain to attain a high 
degree of development. 

It is worth mentioning that one of Gauss's proofs of the law of 
quadratic reciprocity (Colt. Nachr. 1818) involves the principle of a 
compound modulus. 

66. Forms of Higher Degree. Except for the case alluded to at the 
end of 55, the theory of forms of the third and higher degree is still 
quite fragmentary. C. Jordan has proved that the class number is 
finite. H. Poincar6 has discussed the classification of ternary and 
quaternary cubics. With regard to the ternary cubic it is known 
that from any rational solution of /=o we can deduce another by a 
process which is equivalent to finding the tangential of a point 
(x\, y\, Zi) on the curve, that is, the point where the tangent at 
(xi, yi, 21) meets the curve again. We thus obtain a scries of solutions 
(*i, yi, Zi), (x,, yt, zj), &c., which may or may not be periodic. E. Lucas 
and J. I. Sylvester have proved that for certain cubics / = o has no 
rational solutions; for instance x J +y'-Az* = p has rational solutions 
only if A = a6(a+6)/c l , where a, ft, c are rational integers. Waring 
asserted that every natural number can be expressed as the sum of 
not more than 9 cubes, and a'so as the sum of not more than 19 
fourth powers; these propositions have been neither proved nor 
disproved. 

67.. Results derived from Elliptic and Theta Functions. For the 
sake of reference it will be convenient to give the expressions for the 
four Jacobian theta functions. Let a be any complex quantity such 
that the real part of tw is negative; and let q = e"". Then 



I +23 cos 2irv-\-2q t cos 4> +2qP cos 6r+ 



800(11) =2g**e 1 ''' 
- w 

= ndV)(l+2g*- 1 cos 21TP+2*'-*), 

i 

Coi () = 1-23 cos 2-rv +2q l cos 4*r - 2of cos 6rv + 

= H(l -a") (I -20*- 1 cos 2jrr+g 4 '- 1 ), 
i 

O a (v) = 23' cos TC+ 20* cos 3r+22*'' cos 5r+ . . . 

= 23* cos Tt>n(l -f)(l +2q* cos 2iro+g << ), 

i 

9u(r) = 23* sin *v-2q' sin 3*17 +2g v sin s>-. . . 

= 23* sin m>U(i-q*) (1-22" cos zn+q"). 

i 

Instead of 0>(o), &c., we write 0oo, &c. Clearly 0u=o; we have 
the important identities 

u ' = Teooe,o0oi eoo^ftn'+flio 4 
where 9n' means the value of dBu(v)ldv for p = o. If, now, we put 



860 



NUMBER 



-i-. dn w, 



so that *+^ I, we shall have 

0-o7 =v "' sn "' 

and, supposing for simplicity that ia is a real negative quantity, 

TrO<a* = 2 K, a>w0oo 2 = 2:'K', a)=t'K'/K, 

the notation being that which is now usual for the elliptic functions. 
It is found that 

ir.. _ 2 | _ 2!I*_ sjn (25 i) TM, 

1 1 q" 




cos 2iir. 
From the last formula, by putting u = o, we obtain 



and hence, by expanding both sides in ascending powers of q, and 
equating the coefficients of o", we arrive at a formula for the number 
of ways of expressing n as the sum of two squares. If 8 is any odd 
divisor of , including I and n itself if n is odd, we find as the co- 
efficient of g" in the expansion of the left-hand side 4S(-i)* (a ~ l) ; 
on the right-hand side the coefficient enumerates all the solutions 
= ( x) 2 -f- ( y) 2 , taking account of the different signs (except for o 2 ) 
and of the order in which the terms are written (except when x? =>*). 
Thus if n is an odd prime of the form 4^ + 1, S(-i) 3t ) = 2, and the 
coefficient of g" is 8, which is right, because the one possible com- 
position n =a 2 +& 2 may be written n =( a) 2 +( 6) 2 =( 6) 2 +(o) 2 , 
giving eight representations. 

By methods of a similar character formulae can be found for the 
number of representations of a number as the sum of 4, 6, 8 squares 
respectively. The four-square theorem has been stated in 41 ; the 
eight-square theorem is that the number of representations of a 
number as the sum of eight squares is sixteen times the sum of the 
cubes of its factors, if the given number is odd, while for an even 
number it is sixteen times the excess of the cubes of the even factors 
above the cubes of the odd factors. The five-square and seven- 
square theorems have not been derived from g-senes, but from the 
general theory of quadratic forms. 

68. Still more remarkable results are deducible from the theory of 
the transformation of the theta functions. The elementary formulae 



=0oo(w,)), 9oo(iU>-f-l) =9m(u, w), 

*""*, g, _I)--,V=SS,,<,), 

e f _ A = v ^3? 10 (, u ) , 

\co a/ 



where V i<<> is to be taken in such a way that its real part is 
positive. Taking the definition of K given in 67, and considering 
K as a function of a, we find 



For convenience let /t s (o))=er: then the substitutions (w,u+i) and 
(u, &T 1 ) convert o into <7/(<7 I ) and (l a) respectively. Now if 
a, /3, 7, 6 are any real integers such that aS /}y = I, the substitution 
[w,(aa+f})/(yu+&)\ can be compounded of (u.co+l) and (u, u~'); 
the effect on a will be the same as if we apply a corresponding substi- 
tution compounded of [a, <7/(<r 1)| and [<r, I v]. But these are 
periodic and of order 3, 2 respectively] ; therefore we cannot get more 
than six values of a, namely 



a I I 



, , , 

l I a 



and any symmetrical function of these will have the same value at 
any two equivalent places in the modular dissection ( 33). Their 
sum is constant, but the sum of their squares may be put into the 
form 



hence (* 

F. Klein writes 



1 -j-ff 2 (ff i ) 2 has the same value at equivalent places. 



this is a transcendental function of u, which is a special case of a 



Fuchsian or automorphic function. It is an analytical function of 
g 2 , and may be expanded in the form 



where c\, Ci, &c., are rational integers. 

69. Suppose, now, that a, b, c, d are rational integers, such that 
dv(a, 6, c, d) = I and ad bc = n, a positive integer. Let (oa>+6)/ 
(cia-\-d) =<*>'; then the equation J(oo') =J(u) is satisfied if and only if 
u'~ a, that is, if there are integers a,/3, 7,8 such that ai (87 = 1, and 



'+/3) =O. 

If we write^(w) = nll(i +"'), where the product extends to all prime 
factors (p) of n, it is tound that the values of w fall into ^() equiva- 
lent sets, so that when w is given there are not more than <}/(n) 
different values of J (&>') Putting J(oi')=J', J(i>)=J, we have a 
modular equation 

/i(J',J)-o 

symmetrical in J, J', with integral coefficients and of degree ^(n). 
Similarly when dv(a, b, c, d) =T we have an equation / T (J , J) =o of 
order ^(n/r 2 ) ; hence the complete modular equation for transforma- 
tions ofjjhe nth order is 

F(J'J)=H/r(J',J)=0, 
the degree of which is *(), the sum of the divisors of n. 

Now if in F(J', J) we put J' = J. the result is a polynomial in J 
alone, which we may call G(J). To every linear factor of G corre- 
sponds a class of quadratic forms of determinant (if 4n) where 
/c 2 <4 and K is an integer or zero: conversely from every such form 
we can derive a linear factor (J o) of G. Moreover, if with each form 
we associate its weight ( 41) we find that with the notation of 39 
the degree of G is precisely SH(4n ic 2 ) e n , where n = i when n 
is a square, and is zero in other cases. But this degree may be found 
in another way as follows. A complete representative set of trans- 
formations of order n is given by u' = (au+b)/d, with ad = n, 
hence 




and by substituting for J(u) and J /^ii_l their values in terms of 



q, we find that the lowest term in the factor expressed above is either 
g~ 2 /!7 2 8or g~ 2a ' <i /i728, or a constant, according as a<d, a>d or 
a = d. Hence if v is the order of G(J), so that its expansion in g 
begins with a term in q-*' we must have 



extending to all divisors of n which exceed V Comparing this with 
the other vlue, we have 

ZH(4- K 2 ) = 



as stated in 39. 

70. Each of the singular moduli which are the roots of G(J)=O 
corresponds to exactly one primitive class of definite quadratic forms, 
and conversely. 

Corresponding to every given negative determinant A there is 
an irreducible equation <fr(j)=o, where j'=i728J, the coefficients 
of which are rational integers, and the degree of which is k( A). 
The coefficient of the highest power of j is unity, so thatj is an arith- 
metical integer, and its conjugate values belong one to each primitive 
class of determinant A. By adjoining the square roots of the 
prime factors of A the function ^(j) may be resolved into the product 
of as many factors as there are genera of primitive classes, and the 
degree of each factor is equal to the number of classes in each genus. 
In particular, if ji, i, J(A+l)| is the only reduced form for the 
determinant A, the value of _;' is a real negative rational cube. At 

the same time its approximate value is exp I 2ri I +744 = 

744 e"V A, so that, approximately, eV A =m*+744 where m is a 
rational integer. For instance eV " = 884736743-9997775 ...= 
96o 3 +744 very nearly, and for the class (i, i, n) the exact value of 
j is goo 3 . Four and only four other similar determinants are known 
to exist, namely n, 19, 67, 163, although thousands have 
been classified. According to Hermite the decimal part of e"V 163 
begins with twelve nines; in this case Weber has shown that the 
exact value ofj is -2 18 -3 3 -5 3 -23 3 -29 3 . 

71. The f unction j(u) is the most fundamental of a set of quantities 
called class-invariants. Let (a, b, c) be the representative of any class 
of definite quadratic forms, and let a be the root of a&-\-bx-+-c = O 
which has a positive imaginary part ; then F (a) is said to be a class- 

invariant for (a, b, c) if F (" , ,)=F(a>) for all real integers 
\y 



ft, y, 8 such that 08 0y i. This is true for j(a) whatever <a may 
be, and it is for this reason that j is so fundamental. But, as will be 
seen from the above examples, the value of j soon becomes so large 
that its calculation is impracticable. Moreover, there is the diffi- 
culty of constructing the modular equation /i(J, J') =o (69), which 



NUMBER 



has only been done in the cases when n =2, 3 (the latter by Smith in 
Proc. Land. Math. Soc. ix. p. 242). 

For moderate values of A the difficulty can generally be removed 
by constructing algebraic functions of j. Suppose we have an irre- 
ducible equation 

x m +ClX m-l + . . 




the coefficients of which are rational functions ofj(u). If we apply 
any modular substitution to'=S(to), this leaves the equation un- 
altered, and consequently only permutates the roots among them- 
selves: thus if Xi(w) is any definite root we shall have Xi(w') = 
*<(to), where i may or may not be equal to I. The group of unitary 
substitutions which leave all the roots unaltered is a factor of the 
complete modular group. If we put y = x(nta), y will satisfy an equa- 
tion similar to that which defines x, with j' written for i; hence, since 

4 4' art* r*nnnr*t*tf*f\ Kw t-fitt wiii^*is^n t. f * *'\t\ * I-,,..-.. ....*![ I..,.,., ('(iirittnn 

ng * we can in 

. . . ,. ., ^ ., and then the 

equation *l/(x, x)=o defines a set of singular moduli, each one of which 
belongs to a certain value of to and all the quantities derived from 
it by the substitutions which leave x(w) unaltered. 

As one of the simplest examples, let n=2, x i -J(<a)=y i -j (u')=o. 
Then the equation connecting x, y in its complete form is of the ninth 
degree in each variable; but it can be proved that it has a rational 
factor, namely 

and tf in this we put x = y = u, the result is 

*-2tt 3 -495tt 2 +2 4 .3 3 .5 3 =o, 

the roots of which are 12, 20, -15, -15. It remains to find the 
values of to, to which they belong. Writing 72(10) = ^ j, it is found 
that we may define 72 in such a way that 72(0)+!) = e~**V J 7j(<o). 
7i(-"~ 1 ) =72(40), whence it is found that 



We shall therefore have 72(201) =72(10) for all values of such that 
= 1, 7+7a-HSH357 2 So (mod 3). 



Putting (a, 0, y, 5) = (o, -I, I, o) the conditions are satisfied, and 
2w = i'V2. Now j(i) = 1728, so that 72(0 = 12; and since j(w) is 
positive for a pure imaginary, 7 2 (iV2)=2O. The remaining case is 
settled by putting 



with a, 0, y, S satisfying the same conditions as before. One solution 
is (-1, 2, i, i) and hence w 2 +3<o+4=o, so that 72 f 2 * J =-15- 

Besides 72, other irrational invariants which have been used with 
effect are 73 = -\l (j-l^2&), the moduli K, K', their square and fourth 
roots, the functions/, /i,/i defined by 

and the function ij(n<o)/j/(to) where ij(o>) is defined by 

+ CC 



72. Another powerful method, developed by C. F. Klein and 
K. E. R. Fricke, proceeds by discussing the deficiency olfi(j,j')=o 
considered as representing a curve. If this deficiency is zero, j and j' 
may be expressed as rational functions of the same parameter, and 
this replaces the modular equation in the most convenient manner. 
For instance, when n = 7, we may put 



The corresponding singular moduli are found by solving <t>(r) = 
<t>(r'). For deficiency I we may find in a similar way two auxiliary 
functions x, y connected by some simple equation >l>(x, y) =o not ex- 
ceeding the fourth degree, and such that j, j are each rational 
functions 'of x and y. 

Hurwitz has extended this field of research almost indefinitely, 
not only by generalising the formulae for class-number sums, such 
as that in 69, but also by bringing the modular-function theory into 
connexion with that of algebraic correspondence and Abelian in- 
tegrals. A comparatively simple example may help to indicate the 
nature of these researches. From the formulae given at the beginning 
of 67, we can deduce, by actual multiplication of the corresponding 



series, 



_ 
o =9*00801910= 2 -T- 



rt=i 3. 
L =0> *i, 



i,5. 9. 



where 



extended over all the representations 



If, now, we write 



861 

In a similar .way 



we shall have 

dji : dji : dji = 9j : floi : oo 
where 810, 0oi, 9<, are connected by the relation ( 67) 



which represents, in homogeneous co-ordinates, a quartic curve of 
deficiency 3. For this curve, or any equivalent algebraic figure, 
ji(w), J2(to) and j(w) supply an independent set of Abelian integrals 
of the first kind. If we put x = V, y = V*'. it is found that 

f = i'fto) f = i~T ) C xdx = \-( 
j y j jf j y 

so that the integrals which the algebraic theory gives in connexion 
with x t +y t -i=o are directly identified with ji(w), jj(w), j(u), 

provided that we put x = -Jn(w). 

Other functions occur in this theory analogous to ji(u), but such 
that in the g-series which are the expansions of them the coefficients 
and exponents depend on representations of numbers by quaternary 
quadratic forms. 

73. In the Berliner Sitzungsberichte for the period 1883-1890, 
L. Kronecker published a very important series of articles on elliptic 
functions, which contain many arithmetical results of extreme 
elegance; some of these Kronecker had announced without proof 
many years before. A few will be quoted here, without any attempt 
at demonstration; but in order to understand them, it will be 
necessary to bear in mind two definitions. The first relates to the 

Legendre-Jacobi symbol (-J . If a, b have a common factor we put 
(2| =o; while if a is odd and 6=2*c, where c is odd, we put 

(?) =( ) (- ) . The other definition relates to the classification of 
W \o/ W 

discriminants of quadratic forms. If D is any number that can be 
such a discriminant, we must have D=o or I (mod. 4), and in every 
case we can write D = DoQ 2 , where Q 2 is a square factor of D, and 
Do satisfies one of the following conditions, in which P denotes a 
product of different odd primes: 

Do = P, with P= I (mod 4) 

D =4P, P= -I (mod 4) 

Do = 8P, P=;l (mod 4). 

Numbers such as Do are called fundamental discriminants; every 
discriminant is uniquely expressible as the product of a fundamental 
discriminant and a positive integral square. 

Now let DI, D2 be any two discriminants, then DiD2 is also a dis- 
criminant, and we may put DiDj = D = DoQ 2 , where Do is funda- 
mental : this being done, we shall have 



where we are to take A, fe = 1,2, 3, ...+.; m, n=o, j, 2, .. . 00 
except that, if D<o, the case m = n = o is excluded, and that, it 
D>o, (2am+bn)T?n\J where (T, U) is the least positive solution of 
T 2 -DU 2 =4. The sum X applies to a system of representative 



,, 

primitive forms (a, 6, c) for the determinant D, chosen so that o is 
prime to Q, and b, c are each divisible by all the prime factors of Q. 

, c); and 
or D>o. 

, itions that 

F(ry)=F(x)F(}>), and that the sums on both sides are convergent. 
By putting F(x) =X-I-P, where P is a real positive quantity, it 
can be deduced from the foregoing that, if Dj is net a square, and if 
Di is different from I, 



T H(D l Q')H(D 2 Q 2 )=Lt S 

po a, b, c 

where the function H (d) is defined as follows for any discriminant d : 



d>o 



T+UVd 



862 



NUMBER 



h(d) meaning the number of primitive forms for the determinant d. 
This is a generalisation of a theorem due to Dirichlet. 

Then, is another formula which, in a certain sense, is the generalisa- 
tion of Gauss's sums ( 62) in cyclotomy. Let \f/(u, v) denote the 
function 0u(w+) -s-0oi(u)f) m (v) and let Di, D 2 be any two funda- 
mental discriminants such that DiDj is also fundamental and 
negative : then 



2s- 



_ /DA /D 

. uv I* 



25, 



,6,cA , 

where, on the left-hand side, we are to sum for s< = i, 2, 3 . . fD,-| ; 
and on the right we are to take a complete set of lepresentative 
primitive forms (a, 6, c) for the determinant DiD 2 , and give to m, n 
all positive and negative integral values such that am*+bmn+cri> is 
odd. The quantity T is 2, if DiD< 4, r = 4 if DiD 2 =-4, r = 6 if 
DtDj=-3. By putting D 2 = i, we obtain, alter some easy trans- 
formations, 



J=I S A TfilO 2 

which holds for any fundamental discriminant -A. For instance, 
taking a = iK'/K, and A=3, we have flic 2 =2icK/ir, and Zgi(" >2 ' l ' mB+ " 2 )= 
2tKV3 sn 4_K. a ver ;g ca tion is afforded by making 2K approach 

3 

the value w, in which case q, K vanish, while the limit of g/ is J, 

. T 

whence the limiting value of sn-t is that of 6gS/KV3, which 

= 6/4V3=V3/2, as it should be. 

Several of Kronecker's formulae connect the solution of the 
Pellian equation with elliptic modular functions: one example may 
be given here. Let D be a positive discriminant of the form 871+5, 
let (T, U) be the least solution of T 2 -DU 2 = i : then, if h(D) is the 
number of primitive classes for the determinant D, 



where the product on the right extends to a certain sixth part of 
those values of 2x/t' which are singular, and correspond to the field 
2(V-D),or in other words are connected with the class invariant 
7(V~D). For instance, if D = 5, the equation to find (x/c') 2 is 



one root of which is given by (2KK') 2 =9-4V5 = T-UV5 which is 
right, because in this case /?(D) = I. 

74. Frequency of Primes. The distribution of primes in a finite 
interval (a, a+ft) is very irregular, if we change a and keep 6 constant. 
Thus if we put n\n, the numbers /i+2, ^1+3, . . . (ji-\-n i) are 
all composite, so that we can form a run of consecutive composite 
numbers as extensive as we please; on the other hand, there is 
possibly no limit to the number of cases in which p and p-\-2 are both 
primes. Legendre was the first to find an approximate formula for 
F(:t), the number of primes not exceeding x. He found by induction 

F(x) = x -r- (log,*- 1 -08366) 

which answers fairly well when x lies between 100 and 1,000,000, 
but becomes more and more inaccurate as v increases. Gauss found, 
by theoretical considerations (which, however, he does not explain), 
the approximate formula 



(where, as in all that follows, log x is taken to the base e). This 
value is ultimately too large, but when x exceeds a million it is nearer 
the truth than the value given by Legendre's formula. 

By a singularly profound and original analysis, Riemann suc- 
ceeded in finding a formula, of the same type as Gauss's, but more 
exact for very large values of x. In its complete form it is very 
complicated; but, by omitting terms which ultimately vanish (for 
sufficiently large values of x) in comparison with those retained, the 
formula reduces to 

F(x)=A+S(-iWLL(*-' m ) ( = i, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, . . .) 

m 

where the summation extends to all positive integral values of m 
which have no square factor, and n is the number of different prime 
factors of m, with the convention that when m l, ( l)* 1 = I. The 
symbol A denotes a constant, namely 

dx 



and L is used in the sense given above. 

P. L. Tchebichev obtained some remarkable results on the 
'frequency of primes by an ingenious application of Stirling's theorem. 
One of these is that there will certainly be (k + l) primes between a 
and 6, provided that 

a <^- 2V 6 -1|R log 6 (log by ~^(^ k + 2 5)-^ 
where R = | log2 + J log 3 + J log $-& log 30=0-921292 .... From 



this may be inferred the truth of Bertrand's conjecture that 
there is always at least one prime between a and (20-2) if 20 > 7. 
Tch6bichev's results were generalized and made more precise by 
Sylvester. 

The actual calculation of the number of primes in a given interval 
may be effected by a formula constructed and used by D. F, E 
Meissel. The following table gives the values of F(n) tor various 
values of re, according to Meissel's determinations : 

n F(n) 

20,000 2,262 

100,000 9,592 

500,000 41.538 

1,000,000 78,498 

Riemann's analysis mainly depends upon the properties of the 
function . 

f(s)-2n- (n = i,2,3, ...), 

n 

considered as a function of the complex variable i. The above 
definition is only valid when the real part of i exceeds I ; but it can be 
generalized by writing 



where the integral is taken from x = +00 along the axis of real 
quantities to x = t, where is a very small positive quantity, then 
round a circle of radius e and centre at the origin, and finally from 
x=( to * = +w along the axis of real quantities. This function 
f (z) is of great importance, and has been recently studied by von 
Mangoldt Landau and others. 

Reference has already been made to the fact that if I, m are co- 
primes the linear form lx-\-m includes an infinite number of primes. 
Now let (a, b, c) be any primitive quadratic form with a total generic 
character C ; and let Ix+m be a primitive linear form chosen so that 
all its values have the character C. Then it has been proved by 
Weber and Meyer that (a, 6, c) is capable of representing an infinity 
of primes all of the linear form lx-\-m. 

75. Arithmetical Functions. This term is applied to symbols such 
as <(>(n), <J>(n), &c., which are associated with n by an intrinsic arith- 
metical definition. The function <f>(n) was written fn by Euler, 
who investigated its properties, and by proving the formula 

00 +00 

Il(i-g') = 254(35*+!) deduced the result that 

I 00 

/=/(- 

where on the right hand we are to take all positive values of s such 
that ra-i(3s 2 s) is not negative, and to interpret /o as n, if this term 
occurs. J. Liouville makes frequent use of this function in his papers, 
but denotes it by f(n). 

If the quantity x is positive and not integral, the symbol E(x) or 
[x] is used to denote the integer (including zero) which is obtained by 
omitting the fractional part of x; thus E(V2) = i, (0-7) =o, and so 
on. For some purposes it is convenient to extend the definition by 
putting E(-*) = -E(oc), and agreeing that when x is a positive 
integer, E(x)=i'-J; it is then possible to find a Fourier sine-series 
representing x- ~E(x) for all real values of x. The function E(x) has 
many curious and important properties, which have been investi- 
gated by Gauss, Hermite, Hacks, Pringsheim, Stern and others. 
What is perhaps the simplest proof of the law of quadratic reciprocity 
depends upon the fact that if p, q are two odd primes, and we put 



the truth of which is obvious, if we rule a rectangle jfr'Xg* into unit 
squares, and draw its diagonal. This formula is Gauss's, but the 
geometrical proof is due to Eisenstein. Another useful formula is 



) =E(mx)-E(x), which is due to Hermite. 



r=m - 1 
S 

Various other arithmetical functions have been devised for par- 
ticular purposes; two that deserve mention (both due to Kronecker) 
are 8*t, which means o or i according as h, k are unequal or equal, and 
sgn x, which means x-i-|x|. 

76. Transcendental Numbers. It has been proved by Cantor that 
the aggregate of all algebraic numbers is countable. Hence im- 
mediately follows the proposition (first proved by Liouville) that 
there are numbers, both real and complex, which cannot be de- 
fined by any combination of a finite number of equations with 
rational integral coefficients. Such numbers are said to be transcen- 
dental. Hermite first completely proved the transcendent character 
of e; and Lindemann, by a similar method, proved the transcendence 
of ie. Thus it is now finally established that the quadrature of the 
circle is impossible, not only by rule and compass, but even with the 
help of any number of algebraic curves of any order when the co- 
efficients in their equations are rational (see Hermite, C.R. Ixxvii., 
1873, and Lindemann, Math. Ann. xx., 1882). Another number 
which is almost certainly transcendent is Euler's constant C. It may 
be convenient to give here the following numerical values: 



NUMBERS, BOOK OF 



863 



'=3-14159 26535 89793 23846... 

e =2-71828 18284 59045 23536... 
= 0-57721 56649 01532 8606065. .. (Gauss-Nicolai) 
logio = (T logioe) =0-1 3493 4 1 840. . . (Weber) , 
the last of which is useful in calculating class-invariants. 

77. Miscellaneous Investigations. The foregoing articles 
( 24-76) give an outline of what may be called the analytical 
theory of numbers, which is mainly the work of the igth century, 
though many of the researches of Lagrange, Legendre and 
Gauss, as well as all those of Euler, fall within the i8th. But 
after all, the germ of this remarkable development is contained 
in what is only a part of the original Diophantine analysis, of 
which, beyond question, Fermat was the greatest master. The 
spirit of this method is still vigorous in Euler; but the appearance 
of Gauss's Disquisitiones arithmeticae in 1801 transformed the 
whole subject, and gave it a new tendency which was strengthened 
by the discoveries of Cauchy, Jacobi, Eisenstein and Dirichlet. 
In recent times Edouard Lucas revived something of the old 
doctrine, and it can hardly be denied that the Diophantine 
method is the one that is really germane to the subject. Even 
the strange results obtained from elliptic and modular functions 
must somehow be capable of purely arithmetical proof without 
the use of infinite series. Besides this, the older arithmeticians 
have announced various theorems which have not been proved 
or disproved, and made a beginning of theories which are still 
in a more or less rudimentary stage. As examples of the latter 
may be mentioned the partition of numbers (see NUMBERS, 
PARTITION OF, below), and the resolution of large numbers 
into their prime factors. 

The general problem of partitions is to find all the integral 
solutions of a set of linear equations 1iC i x t =m i with integral 
coefficients, and fewer equations than there are variables. The 
solutions may be further restricted by other conditions for 
instance, that all the variables are to be positive. This theory 
was begun by Euler: Sylvester gave lectures on the subject, of 
which some portions have been preserved; and various results 
of great generality have been discovered by P. A. MacMahon. 
The author last named has also considered Diophantine in- 
equalities, a simple problem in which is " to enumerate all the 
solutions of ix^-\yy in positive integers." 

The resolution of a given large number into its prime factors 
is still a problem of great difficulty, and tentative methods have 
to be applied. But a good deal has been done by Seelhoff, Lucas, 
Landry, A. J. C. Cunningham and Lawrence to shorten the 
calculation, especially when the number is given in, or can be 
reduced to, some particular form. 

It is well known that Fermat was led to the erroneous con- 
jecture (he did not affirm it) that 2 m +i is a prime whenever m is 
a power of 2. The first case of failure is when m = 32; in fact 
2 32 +i=o (mod 641). Other known cases of failure are m=2", 
with = 6, 12, 23, 26 respectively; at the same time, Eisenstein 
asserted that he had proved that the formula 2 m +i included an 
infinite number cf primes. His proof is not extant; and no other 
has yet been supplied. Similar difficulties are encountered when 
we examine Mersenne's numbers, which are those of the form 
2 P i, with p a prime; the known cases for which a Mersenne 
number is prime correspond to p= 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61. 

A perfect number is one which, like 6 or 28, is the sum of its 
aliquot parts. Euclid proved that 2 r ~ 1 (2' i) is perfect when 
(2' i ) is a prime: and it has been shown that this formula 
includes all perfect numbers which are even. It is not known 
whether any odd perfect numbers exist or not. 

Friendly numbers (numeri amicabiles) are pairs such as 220, 
284, each of which is the sum of the aliquot parts of the other. 
No general rules for constructing them appear to be known, but 
several have been found, in a more or less methodical way. 

78. In conclusion it may be remarked that the science of 
arithmetic (q.v.) has now reached a stage when all its definitions, 
processes and results are demonstrably independent of any 
theory of variable or measurable quantities such as those 
postulated in geometry and mathematical physics; even the 
notion of a limit may be dispensed with, although this idea, as 
well as that of a variable, is often convenient. For the applica- 
tion of arithmetic to geometry and analysis, see FUNCTION. 



AUTHORITIES. W. H. and G. E. Young, The Theory of Sets of 
Points (Cambridge, 1906; contains bibliography of theory of 
aggregates); P. Bachmann, Zahlenlheorie (Leipzig, 1892; the most 
complete treatise extant); Dirichlet- Dedekind, Vorlesungen uber 
Zahlentheorie (Braunschweig, 3rd and 4'h ed., 1879, 1894); K. 
Hensel, Theorie der algebratschen ZaUen (Leipzig, 1908); H. J. S. 
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers (Brit. Ass. Rep., 1859-186-? 
1865, or Coll. Math. Papers, vol. i.); D. Hilbert, " Bericht iiber die 
Theorie der algebraischen Zahlkcrper " (in Jahresber. d. deutschen 
MaA.-Vereinig., vol. iv., Berlin, 1897); Klein-Fricke, Elliptische 
Modulfunctionen (Leipzig, 1890-1892); H. Weber, Elliptische 
Functionen u. alf>ebraische Zahlen (Braunschweig, 1891). Extensive 
bibliographies will be found in the Royal Society's Subject Index, 
vol. i. (Cambridge, 1908) and Encycl. d. math. Wissenschaften, vol. L 
(Leipzig, 1898). (G. B. M.) 



NUMBERS, BOOK OF, the fourth book of the Bible, which 
takes its title from the Latin equivalent of the Septuagint 
'ApiOnoi. While the English version follows the Septuagint 
directly in speaking of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Deutero- 
nomy, it follows the Vulgate in speaking of Numbers. Since 
this book describes the way in which an elaborate census of 
Israel was taken on two separate occasions, the first at Sinai at 
the beginning of the desert wanderings and the second just 
before their close on the plains of Moab, the title is quite appro- 
priate. The name given to it in modern Hebrew Bibles from 
its fourth word Bemidhbar (" In the desert ") is at least equally 
appropriate. The other title in use among the Jews, Vayyid- 
kabber (" And he said "), is simply the first word of the book and 
has no reference to its contents. 

Numbers is the first part of the second great division of the 
Hexateuch. In the first three books we are shown how God 
raised up for Himself a chosen people and how the descendants 
of Israel on entering at Sinai into a solemn league and covenant 
with Yahweh (Jehovah) became a separate nation, a peculiar 
people. In the last three books we are told what happened to 
Israel between the time it entered into this solemn covenant 
and its settlement in the Promised Land under the successor 
of Moses. Yet, though thus part of a larger whole, the book of 
Numbers has been so constructed by the Redactor as to form 
a self -contained division of that whole. 

The truth of this statement is seen by comparing the first 
verse of the book with the last. The first is as evidently meant 
to serve as an introduction to the book as the last is to serve 
as its conclusion. This is not to say, however, that the book is all 
of a piece, or written on a systematic plan. On the contrary, no 
book in the Hexateucb gives such an impression of incoherence, 
and in none are the different strata which compose the Hexateuch 
more distinctly discernible. 

It is noteworthy that the problems of Hexateuchal criticism 
are gradually changing their character, as one after another of the 
main contentions of Biblical scholars regarding the date and 
authorship of the Hexateuch passes out of the list of debatable 
questions into that of acknowledged facts. No competent 
scholars now question the existence, hardly any one the relative 
dates, of J, E, and P. In Numbers one can tell almost at a glance 
which parts belong to P, the Priestly Code, and which to JE, the 
narrative resulting from the combination of the Judaic work of 
the Yahwist with the Ephraimitic work of the Elohist. The main 
difficulty in Numbers is to determine to which stratum of P 
certain sections should be assigned. 

The first large section (i. x. 10) is wholly P, and the last eleven 
chapters are also P with the exception of two or three paragraphs 
in chap, xxxii., while the intervening portion is mainly P with 
the exception of three important episodes and two or three 
others of less importance. The three main episodes are those of 
the twelve spies, the rebellion of Koran, Dathan and Abiram, and 
Balaam's mission to Balak. The last is the only one even of these 
three in which there is nothing belonging to P. Another passage 
which we may here mention is one where the elements of JE can 
be readily separated and assigned to their respective authors, 
viz. chaps, xi. and xii. It is generally agreed that to E belongs 
the passage describing the outpouring of the Spirit on Eldad and 
Medad and the remarkable prayer of Moses in xi. 29, " Would 
God that all the Lord's people were prophets that the Lord 



NUMBERS, BOOK OF 



would put his Spirit upon them," a prayer that closely approaches 
the New Testament idea that all Christians are " priests unto 
God." As usual, the J and E elements possess such a vivid 
character as to render them familiar to ordinary readers. The 
legislative and statistical and especially the ritualistic parts 
belonging to P are so detailed and uninteresting that they make 
no impression on a reader's memory, and P's diffuseness, always 
undue, reaches a climax in chap. vii. where the offerings presented 
by each tribe at the dedication of the Tabernacle are actually 
described in such full detail that six, in themselves extremely 
uninteresting, verses are repeated in identical terms no fewer 
than twelve times. Compare also the very similar repetitions and 
diffuseness in chap. xxix. 

Perhaps, however, the most illuminating example of the 
difference between traditions as recorded in J or E and traditions 
as given by P is found in the very first passage that occurs after 
the first long section of P describing the order of march of the 
several tribes and the position of the ark in the very centre of the 
host, both when encamped and on the march. Notwithstanding 
all this, in x. 30 we find Moses entreating Hobab, the son of Reuel 
his father-in-law, to come along with the Israelites to be " eyes " 
unto them; and in x. 33 it is stated that the ark went before 
them to seek out a resting-place for them. Whether we ascribe 
this whole passage simply to JE or consider, as many scholars 
do, that the first statement is by J and the second by E, it is clear 
that these statements directly contradict P's elaborate scheme, 
according to which the people march, tribe by tribe, with the ark 
in the very centre of the square, and guided by the pillar of 
cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night. There can be 
equally little doubt that these statements are much more 
likely to be in accordance with fact than P's. The latter's 
elaborate plans go on the supposition that great masses of 
men, women and children could be moved about over the 
desert as easily as pawns on a chess-board; but even the 
greatest military leader the world has seen would have been 
unable to preserve such complicated formations amid the 
difficulties inevitable on a desert march; and the more carefully 
an intelligent reader has studied the details of P's plan, the more 
astonished will he be to read the statement in x. 33 as to the 
position of the ark, and to learn that Moses, instead of simply 
following the pillar of cloud, requests Hobab to determine the 
line of march and select the sites for encampment. No clearer 
proof could be desired of the utterly uncritical spirit of the age in 
which the Hexateuch got its present form than that this detailed 
account should be immediately followed by two short para- 
graphs in palpable contradiction of the whole plan of camp and 
march so elaborately worked out in the preceding narrative. 

The fact is that Numbers is the result of a long literary process 
of amalgamation both of traditions and of documents, a process 
that began in the dosing decades of the Qth century B.C. and did 
not finally end till the 2nd century B.C., the earliest date being 
that of J, and the latest probably that of the various addenda to 
Balaam's prophecies, e.g. xxiii. 106, xxiv. 96, xxiv. 18-24. 
Balaam's prayer in xxiii. lob is not only metrically superfluous, 
but the personal, individual note in it is quite out of keeping with 
every other reference in this poem, which is purely national. 
This addition may therefore have been originally the marginal 
note of a pious scribe which was afterwards transferred to the 
text. In xxiv. 24 Kittim is a name originally derived from 
Kitium, a city of Cyprus. The meaning of " Kittim " was 
then extended to include the inhabitants of all the islands 
and coast-lands of the Mediterranean. Hence it might mean 
not only Macedonia or Greece, but even Italy. In Dan. xi. 
30 it is certainly applied to Rome, the Vulgate rendering it 
" Romam " there just as that version translates it here by " Italia." 
Hence Baentsch would refer this oracle to the time of Antiochus 
JV. (Epiphanes) and even to the embassy of Popillius Laenas in 
168 B.C. when that haughty Roman humiliated the Syrian king 
by drawing a circle round him with his cane, and daring him to 
step out of it till he had given him an answer. 

The book falls naturally into three sections, chronologically 
arranged: (i) Chaps, i.-x. 10, Israel's twenty days' sojourn at Sinai 
during which a census of the people is taken and various laws are 



promulgated by Moses. (2) Chaps, x. ll-xxii., incidents that oc- 
curred during the march of Israel from Sinai to the plains of Moab. 
These incidents seem to have been chosen for the purpose of casting 
light on the religious history and character of the people and showing 
how later generations explained the origin of various place names, 
cf. Taberah and Kibrothhattaavah, xi. 3, 34, and modes or objects of 
worship, cf. the worship of the brazen serpent, xxi. 4-11, which, as we 
learn from 2 Kings xviii. 4, continued down to the time of Hezekiah. 
(3) Chaps, xxii. 2-xxxvi., Israel's sojourn in the plains of Moab, their 
experiences while there, and the taking of a second census, prelimin- 
ary to the invasion of Canaan. 

Two examples of the very miscellaneous contents of the book will 
suffice to show the different literary strata of which it is composed. 

(A) We shall take first the account given in chap. xvi. of the 
rebellion of Korah, Dathan and Abiram. There would be originally 
four independent narratives, J, E, and two very distinct strata of P, 
which we may call P 1 and I" or P*, i.e. later supplements to P. The 
narratives of J and E can no longer be distinguished except from 
slight "linguistic data, perceptible only to Hebrew scholars; but the 
three stages of development are quite apparent even in translations. 

1. The first narrative is that of JE, which relates how two 
Reubenites, Dathan and Abiram, rebelled against the civil authority 
of Moses.andwere punished by being buried alive.they and their house- 
holds. Read together verses 16, 2a, 12-15 a d 25-34, omitting 326, i.e. 
" and all the men that appertained unto Korah and all their goods," a 
clause due to the Redactor, who put it in to unite the narratives, 
forgetting that Korah, not being a Reubenite, could not have had 
his tent with its belongings among the tents of the Reubenites. 

2. The second narrative is P 1 , which tells how Korah, himself a 
Levite, at the head of 250 Israelites rebelled against the religious 
authority of Moses and Aaron because of the privileges conferred on 
the tribe of Levi. Korah and his associates maintained that the other 
tribes, belonging as they did to a holy people, had as much right as the 
Levites to approach Yahweh directly, without the mediation of any 
Levite, and offer sacrifices and even incense to Yahweh. Read 
together verses 10, 26-7, 19-24. 

3. The third narrative is P 2 , which relates how Korah at the head 
of 250 Levites protested against the priestly privileges of Aaron, 
claiming that all the Levites had as much right to sacrifice and offer 
incense to Yahweh as Aaron and his sons had. Read together 
verses 8-n and 16 and 17. In both P 1 and P 2 the disputants are 
summoned from their tents and ordered to assemble before the 
Dwelling of Yahweh ; and in both cases the same fate overtook the 
rebels. Fire descended from heaven and consumed Korah and his 
confederates. It is to be noticed that in both P 1 and P 1 incense is 
burned in pans or censers, so that even the author of P* knew 
nothing about an altar of incense. Indeed in xvii. 3 and 4 the altar 
is spoken of in such a way as to imply that there was only one altar, 
viz. the altar of burnt-offering, xvi. 2 proves that according to the 
second account the members of Korah's band, so far from being all 
Levites, as they are represented to have been in verses 8-n : were 
probably, with the exception of Korah himself, leading members of 
the secular tribes. In xxvii. 3 we find a proof, all the more conclusive 
from being incidental, that Korah's followers were not all Levites; 
for, had they been so, it could never have occurred to the daughters 
of Zilpahad to repudiate the idea that their father, a Manassite, had 
had a share in Korah's conspiracy. Of course none of the narratives 
is found in its entirety, anything common to two or more of them 
being given only once; and great skill has been shown in weaving 
them together. 

(B) The story of Balaam as we have it in chaps, xxii.-xxiv. is an 
amalgam of J and E with later additions; but xxxi. 8, 16 proves 
that Balaam was not unknown to P. According to E, Balak sent 
certain Moabite princes all the way to Pethor on the Euphrates to 
ask Balaam to come and curse Israel. But Elohim came to Balaam 
by night and forbade him to go.. So the princes returned disap- 
pointed. A second and still more influential embassy having been 
sent, Elohim again appeared by night, and this time permitted Balaam 
to go on condition that he said nothing but what Elohim bade him 
say. The journey being a long one and across a difficult desert, 
requiring a caravan well equipped with camels, the princes of Moab 
waited till Balaam was ready to accompany them. When Balaam 
reached the frontier of Moab Balak was waiting to welcome him, but 
could not refrain from asking why he had not come with the first 
embassy. With equal frankness Balaam replied that, though he 
had come now, he had no power to say anything but what Elohim 
might put into his mouth. On being taken to Bamoth-Baal he 
was met by Elohim. Thereupon, instead of cursing the Israelites, 
Balaam blessed them. Though bitterly disappointed Balak still 
attempted to effect his purpose and took Balaam to the top of 
Pisgah, with the result that Israel received a second blessing. 
Balak, now utterly disheartened, abandoned his project altogether. 

According to J, Balaam was among his own people the Bne- 
Ammon when Balak sent messengers to him with presents such as 
soothsayers generally received, asking him to come and curse a 
people that had come up out of Egypt. Balaam protested that, 
though he were to receive a houseful of silver and gold, he could not 
go beyond the word of Yahweh, his God. Nevertheless his scruples 
were somehow overcome; and, without consulting Yahweh, he 



NUMBERS, PARTITION OF 



865 



agreed to go. As the journey was not a long or dangerous one, the 
servants of Balak returned at once to inform their master of their 
success, leaving Balaam to follow at his own convenience. So 
Balaam, still without consulting Yahweh, saddled his ass and set out 
for Moab, attended only by two servants. The land through which 
he had to pass, so far from being a desert, was a land of oil and wine; 
and when Balaam was riding along a narrow path between two vine- 
yards, the angel of Yahweh would have slain him, had not his ass 
swerved and saved him. That this episode belongs to J no one need 
ever forget, since the only parallel in Scripture to the speaking ass 
is the serpent that spoke in Eden. Balaam, after being sternly 
rebuked, was allowed to proceed, but only on condition that " the 
word that I shall speak to thee, that thou shall speak." Balak met 
Balaam at Ar-Moab, whence they went to Kiriath-Huzoth and thence 
to the top of Peor. There Balaam blessed Israel. Balak angrily 
taunted Balaam with having lost the honours intended for him, and 
bade him flee to his own place. Balaam reminded Balak of his 
declaration that he could not go beyond the word of Yahweh, and 
then boldly announced the respective destinies of Israel and Moab, 
xxiv. 15-19. 

As seven is the perfect number and as Balaam had ordered seven 
altars to be built, the Redactor thought it would be well to have 
seven Meshalim or metrical oracles; and so he added other three 
which are certainly not pertinent to the situation, as they allude not 
merely to the Assyrian empire but to the Macedonian, and even, as 
some maintain, to the Roman empire, cf. xxiv. 24. 

The poetical quotations in Numbers are of the utmost im- 
portance, not only as helping to determine the date of the book 
but as indicating the value of poetry in its bearing on history. In 
xxi. 14 we have a poetical quotation from a lost volume of early 
poetry entitled " The Book of the Wars of Yahweh." It is highly 
probable that Deborah's song was also originally in this book; 
and when we compare the statement in that song as to Israel's 
full fighting strength, viz. 40,000 men, with the statements in the 
prose of Numbers as to 600,000 men and more, we at once 
realise how much closer to actual facts we are brought by early 
poetry than by the later prose of writers like P. Perhaps it is in 
chap. xxxi. that we have the clearest proof of the non-historical 
character of the book. There we are told that 12,000 Israelites, 
without losing a single man, slew every male Midianite, children 
included, and every Midianite woman that had known a man, 
and took so much booty that there had to be special legislation 
as to how is should be divided. But if this were actual fact, how 
could the Midianites have ever reappeared in history? And yet 
in Gideon's time they were strong enough to oppress Israel. 
From this chapter, unhistorical as it must be, we see how the 
legislation of Israel, whatever its character or origin, was referred 
back to Moses the great Law giver of Israel. (J. A. P.*) 

NUMBERS, PARTITION OF. This mathematical subject, 
created by Euler, though relating essentially to positive integer 
numbers, is scarcely regarded as a part of the Theory of Numbers 
(see NUMBER). We consider in it a number as made up by the 
addition of other numbers: thus the partitions of the successive 
numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c., are as follows: 

i; 

2, n; 

3, 21, "i; 

4, 31, 22, 211, mi; 

5, 41, 32, 311, 221, 21 1 1, inn; 

6, 51, 42, 411, 33, 321, 3III, 222, 2211, 21111, IIIIII. 

These are formed each from the preceding ones; thus, to form 
the partitions of 6 we take first 6; secondly, 5 prefixed to each 
of the partitions of i (that is, 51); thirdly, 4 prefixed to each of 
the partitions of 2 (that is, 42, 411); fourthly, 3 prefixed to each 
of the partitions of 3 (that is, 33, 321, 3111); fifthly, 2 prefixed, 
not to each of the partitions of 4, but only to those partitions 
which begin with a number not exceeding 2 (that is, 222, 2211, 
21111); and lastly, i prefixed to all the partitions of 5 which begin 
with a number not exceeding i (that is, HI HI); and so in 
other cases. 

The method gives all the partitions of a number, but we may 
consider different classes of partitions: the partitions into a 
given number of parts, or into not more than a given number 
of parts; or the partitions into given parts, either with repeti- 
tions or without repetitions, &c. It is possible, for any 
particular class of partitions, to obtain methods more or less 
easy for the formation of the partitions either of a given 
xix, i& 



number or of the successive numbers i, 2, 3, &c. And of course 
in any case, having obtained the partitions, we can count them 
and so obtain the number of partitions. 

Another method is by L. F. A. Arbogast's rule of the last and 
the last but one; in fact, taking the value of a to be unity, and, 
understanding this letter in each term, the rule gives b; c, b*; 
d, be, b 3 ; e, bd, c 2 , We, b*, &c., which, if b, c, d, e, &c., denote 
i, 2, 3, 4, &c., respectively, are the partitions of i, 2, 3, 4, &c., 
respectively. 

An important notion is that of conjugate partitions. 

Thus a partition of 6 is 42; writing this in the form j I] IX > and 

summing the columns instead of the lines, we obtain the 
conjugate partition 2211; evidently, starting from 2211, the 
conjugate partition is 42. If we form all the partitions of 6 
into not more than three parts, these are 

6, 51, 42, 33. 4"- 321, 222, 

and the conjugates are 

IIIIII, 2IIII, 2211, 222, 3III, 321, 33, 

where no part is greater than 3; and so in general we have 
the theorem, the number of partitions of n into not more than 
k parts is equal to the number of partitions of n with no part 
greater than k. 

We have for the number of partitions an analytical theory depend- 
ing on generating functions; thus for the partitions of a number n 
with the parts i, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., without repetitions, writing down 
the product 

I +x. i +* ! . I +x*. i +x* . . . , = I +x+x*+2x*. ..+Nx*+. . . , 
it is clear that, if x, xP, *T, . . . are terms of the series *, x*, x*,. . . 
for which a+/)+y+ . . n, then we have in the development of 
the product a term x", and hence that in the term NX* of the product 
the coefficient N is equal to the number of partitions of with the 
parts I, 2, _3, . . . , without repetitions; or say that the product is 
the generating function (G. F.) for the number of such partitions. 
And so in other cases we obtain a generating function. 

Thus for the function 



"l+X+2X*+..+Nx* +..., 



observing that any factor l/i x' is = \-\-x t + **'+. . . , we see 
that in the term NX* the coefficient is equal to the number of parti- 
tions of n, with the parts I, 2, 3, . . , with repetitions. 
Introducing another letter z, and considering the function 



we see that in the term JVx"z* of the development the coefficient ff 
is equal to the number of partitions of n into k parts, with the parts 
I, 2, 3, 4, . . . , without repetitions. 
And similarly, considering the function 



we see that in the term Nx* of the development the coefficient N is 
equal to the number of partitions of n into k parts, with the parts 
I, 2, 3, 4, . . . , with repetitions. 
We have such analytical formulae as 



i x 3 z. . 



= . i _ 
^ 



I X . l-X 1 



which lead to theorems in the partition of numbers. A remarkable 
theorem is 

I -x. i -x*. i -x'. i -x*. = I -x-x t +x t +x'-x a -x" + . . . , 
where the only terms are those with an exponent iCS"**"). and for 
each such pair of terms the coefficient is (-)"!. The formula shows 
that except for numbers of the form i(3n*) the number of 
partitions without repetitions into an odd number of parts is equal to 
the number of partitions without repetitions into an even number of 
parts, whereas for the excepted numbers these numbers differ by 
unity. Thus for the number n, which is not an excepted number, 
the two sets of partitions are 

n, 821, 731, 641, 632, 542 

10.1,92, 83, 74, 65, 5321, 
in each set 6. 
We have 



or, as this may be written, 



.=7^. = I +*+*+**+..., 

showing that a number n can always be made up, and in on way 
only, with the parts i, 2, 4, 8, . . . The product on the lef. -hand 
side may be taken to k terms only, thus if = 4, we have 



866 



NUMENIUS NUMERAL 



that is, any number from I to 15 can be made up, and in one way only, 
with the parts I, 2, 4, 8; and similarly any number from I to 2*-l 
can be made up, and in one way only, with the parts I, 2, 4, . . 2*~'. 
A like formula is 

i-x i-x* i-x" i-* 81 i-* 81 

x. i * ' x 3 . i x 3 ' x* . i x" x" .i x x w .ix' 
that is, 



showing that any number from 40 to +40 can be made up, and 
that in one way only, with the parts i, 3, 9, 27 taken positively or 
negatively; and so in general any number from ^-Jfo*-!) to 
+?(3*~i) can be made up. and that in one way only, with the parts 
i. 3. 9i 3*~' taken positively or negatively. 
See further COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS. (A. CA.) 

NUMENIUS, a Greek philosopher, of Apamea in Syria, Neo- 
Pythagorean and forerunner of the Neo-Platonists, flourished 
during the latter half of the 2nd century A.D. He seems to have 
taken Pythagoras as his highest authority, while at the same 
time he chiefly follows Plato. He calls the latter an " Atticizing 
Moses." His chief divergence from Plato is the distinction 
between the " first god " and the " demiurge." This is probably 
due to the influence of the Valentinian Gnostics and the Jewish- 
Alexandrian philosophers (especially Philo and his theory of the 
Logos). According to Proclus (Comment, in Timaeum, 03) 
Numenius held that there was a kind of trinity of gods, the 
members of which he designated as irarrip, iroarrris, iroirjiJia. 
(" father," " maker," " that which is made," i.e. the world), or 
irairiros, tKyovos, bwoyovos (which Proclus calls "exaggerated 
language "). The first is the supreme deity or pure intelligence 
(vow), the second the creator of the world (Srnj.Lovpjos), the 
third the world (xooyios). His works were highly esteemed by 
the Neoplatonists, and Amelius is said to have composed nearly 
100 books of commentaries upon them. 

Fragments of his treatises on the points of divergence between the 
Academicians and Plato, on the Good (in which according to Origen, 
Contra Celsum, iv. 51, he makes allusion to Jesus Christ), and on 
the mystical sayings in Plato, are preserved in the Praeparatio 
Evangelica of Eusebius. The fragments are collected in F. G. 
Mullach, Frag. phil. Grace, iii. ; see also F. Thedinga, De Numenio 
philosopho Ptatonico (Bonn, 1875); Ritter and Preller, Hist. Phil. 
Graecae (ed. E. Wellmann, 1898), 624-7; T. Whittaker, The Neo- 
Platonists (1901). 

NUMERAL (from Lat. numerus, a number), a figure used to 
represent a number. The use of visible signs to represent 
numbers and aid reckoning is not only older than writing, but 
older than the development of numerical language on the denary 
system; we count by tens because our ancestors counted on 
their fingers and named numbers accordingly. So used, the 
fingers are really numerals, that is, visible numerical signs; and 
in antiquity the practice of counting by these natural signs 
prevailed in all classes of society. In the later times of antiquity 
the finger symbols were developed into a system capable of 
expressing all numbers below 10,000. The left hand was held 
up flat with the fingers together. The units from i to 9 were 
expressed by various positions of the third, fourth, and fifth 
fingers alone, one or more of these being either closed on the palm 
or simply bent at the middle joint, according to the number 
meant. The thumb and index were thus left free to express the 
tens by a variety of relative positions, e.g. for 30 their points 
were brought together and stretched forward ; for 50 the thumb 
was bent like the Greek F and brought against the ball of the 
index. The same set of signs if executed with the thumb and 
index of the right hand meant hundreds instead of tens, and the 
unit signs if performed on the right hand meant thousands. 1 

The fingers serve to express numbers, but to make a per- 
manent note of numbers some kind of mark or tally is needed. 
A single stroke is the obvious representation of unity; higher 
numbers are indicated by groups of strokes. But when the 
strokes become many they are confusing, and so a new sign 

1 The system is described by Nicolaus Rhabda of Smyrna (8th 
century A.D.), ap. N. Caussinus, De eloquentia sacra et humana 



must be introduced, perhaps for 5, at any rate for 10, 100, 1000, 
and so forth. Intermediate numbers are expressed by the 
addition of symbols, as in the Roman system ccxxxvi=236. 
This simplest way of writing numbers is well seen in the Baby- 
lonian inscriptions, where all numbers from i to 99 are got by 
repetition of the vertical arrowhead T =1. and a barbed sign 
^ = 10. But the most interesting case is the Egyptian, because 
from its hieratic form sprang the Phoenician numerals, and from 
them in turn those of Palmyra and the Syrians, as illustrated in 
table i. Two things are to be noted in this table first, the way 
in which groups of units come to be joined by a cross line, and then 
run together into a single symbol, and, further, the substitution 
in the hundreds of a principle of multiplication for the mere 
addition of symbols. The same thing appears in Babylonia, 
where a smaller number put to the right of the sign for 100 
(T-) is to be added to it, but put to the left gives the number of 
hundreds. Thus ^T*=iooo, but T*'< = IIO. The Egyptians 
had hieroglyphics for a thousand, a myriad, 100,000 (a frog), a 
million (a man with arms stretched out in admiration), and even 
for ten millions. 

Alphabetic writing did not do away with the use of numerical 
symbols, which were more perspicuous, and compendious than 
words written at length. But the letters of the alphabet them- 
selves came to be used as numerals. One way of doing this was 
to use the initial letter of the name of a number as its sign. This 
was the old Greek notation, said to go back to the time of Solon, 
and usually named after the grammarian Herodian, who described 
it about A.D. 200. I stood for i, II for 5, A for 10, H for 100, 
X for 1000, and M for 10,000; II with A in its bosom was 50, 
with H in its bosom it was 500. Another way common to the 
Greeks, Hebrews, and Syrians, and which in Greece gradually 
Syriac. Palmyrene. Phoenician. Hieratic. Hieroglyphic. 




Palmer in Journ. of Philology, ii. 247 sqq. 





/ 




f 




fl 




tv 




r 8 - 




7 




7 




rr-7 




o 




; 




7 




O 




700 




ooo 




yeoo 




GOOD 




70000 
Z' 

TVi 


VI' 

displaced t 

Iptfrprs Stan 



/ 


i 


W.i 


I 


i 


/; 


n 


n*i 


II 


2 


in 


in 


1*1 


in 


3 


nn 


Mil 


4 <a i a i 


nn 


4 


^ 3 


II III 


11 


Hill 


S 


/y 


nnn 


tt 


nun 


6 


B 


UN III 


/^ 


mini 


7 


/ij 


n mm. 


=^ <=?. 


mi mi 


8 


//>/g 


in in in 


v. v 


in in m 


9 


-7 


-> 


/6x \ 


n 


10 


\-9 


i 


IX 


in 


ii 


m& ? 


nuiiiii-^ 


^x 


iiiiniiin 


19 


3- 


3^. 


^ 


nn 


20 


'3 


=^ 


\^ 


inn 


21 


-=> 


-^ 


X 


nnn 


30 


83 


// // 
*s // 


~^- 


nnnn 


40 


-"03 


-'## 


^ 


nnnnn 


5 


533 


4W 


J* 


nnnnnn 


60 


"'SSS 


^^r S^ /J 


>? 


nnn nnnn 


70 


3533 


M## 


^i 


nnnn nnnn 


So 


5333 


jij if y//y 


A 


nnn nnn nnn 


90 


~3=r 


y l>j ioi -^j 


^ 


?> 


IOO 


~3 


(^_) loll 


^J 


G) &) 


20O 


-3W 




J> 


fp OO 


300 



TABLE I. 

displaced the Herodian numbers, was to make the first nine 
letters stand for the units and the rest for the tens and hundreds. 



NUMERAL 



867 



With the old Semitic alphabet of 22 letters this system broke 
down at " = 400, and the higher hundreds had to be got by 
juxtaposition; but when the Hebrew square character got the 
distinct final forms 1, o, j, >\, \ these served for the hundreds from 
500 to 900. The Greeks with their larger alphabet required but 
three supplemental signs, which they got by keeping for this 
purpose two old Phoenician letters which were not used in 
writing (F or g= i =6, and 9 = P=9o), and by adding sampim 
for 900.' 

Among the Greeks the first certain use of this system seems to 
be on coins of Ptolemy II. The first trace of it on Semitic 
ground is on Jewish coins of the Hasmoneans. It is the founda- 
tion of gematria as we find it in Jewish book and in the apoca- 
lyptic number of the beast (TOP piJ = 666). But we do not 
know how old gematria is; the name is borrowed from the 
Greek. 

The most familiar case of the use of letters as numerals is 
the Roman system. Here C is the initial of centum and M of 
tnille; but instead of these signs we find older forms, consisting 
of a circle divided vertically for 1000 and horizontally, 9, or in 
the cognate Etruscan system divided into quadrants, , for 
100. From the sign for 1000, still sometimes roughly shown 
in print as do, comes D , the half of the symbol for half the number ; 
and the older forms of L, viz. J. or J,, suggest that this also was 
once half of the hundred symbol. So V (Etruscan A) is half of X, 
which itself is not a true Roman letter. The system, therefore, 
is hardly alphabetic in origin, though the idea has been thrown 
out that the signs for 10, 50, and too were originally the Greek 
X, "9, <, which were not used in writing Latin. 2 

When high numbers had to be expressed systems such as 
we have described became very cumbrous, and in alphabetic 
systems it became inevitable to introduce a principle of periodicity 
by which, for example, the signs for i, 2, 3, &c., might be used 
with a difference to express the same number of thousands. 
Language itself suggested this principle, and so we find in 
Hebrew S or in Greek ,0=1000. So further /3Mv, |3M., or simply 
0. = 20,000 (2 myriads). If now the larger were always written 
to the left of the smaller elements of a number the diacritic 
mark could be dispensed with in such a case as /3co\a (instead of 
,$a>Xa) = 283i, for here it was plain that j3 = 2ooo, not =2, since 
otherwise it would not have preceded w=8oo. We have here 
the germ of the very important notion that the value of a symbol 
may be periodic and defined by its position. The same idea had 
appeared much earlier among the Babylonians, who reckoned 
by powers of 60, calling 60 a soss and 60 sixties a sar. On the 
tablets of Senkerah a list of squares and cubes is given on this 
principle, and here the square of 59 is written 58-1 that is, 
58X60+1; and the cube of 30 is 7-30 that is, 7 sar+3o soss 
= 7X6o 2 +3oX6o. Here again we have value by position; 
but, as there is no zero, it is left to the judgment of the reader to 
know which power of 60 is meant in each case. The sexrgesimal 
system, long specially associated with astronomy, has left a 
trace in our division of the hour and of the circle, but as language 
goes by powers of 10 it is practically very inconvenient for most 
purposes of reckoning. The Greek mathematicians used a sort 
of decimal system; thus Archimedes was able to solve his problem 
of stating a number greater than that of the grains of sand 
which would fill the sphere of the fixed stars by dividing numbers 
into octades, the unit of the second octade being id 8 and of the 
third to 16 . So too Apollonius of Perga teaches multiplication 
by regarding 7 as the irvdnriv or 70, 700 and so forth. One must 
then find successively the product of the several pythmens of the 
multiplier and the multiplicand, noticing in each case what are 
tens, what hundreds, and so on, and adding the results. The 
want of a sign for zero made it impossible mechanically to 
distinguish the tens, hundreds, &c., as we now do. 

1 The Arabs, who quite changed the order of the alphabet and 
extended it to twenty-eight letters, kept the original values of the old 
letters (putting 4. for D and cj for f), while the hundreds from 500 
to 1000 were expressed by the new letters in order from * tofr- In 
the time of Caliph Walid (A.D. 705-715) the Arabs had as yet no signs 
of numeration. 

1 See further Fabretti, Paldographische Studien. 



Very early, however, a mechanical contrivance, the abacus, had 
been introduced for keeping numbers of different denominations 
apart. This was a table with compartments or columns for 
counters, each column representing a different value to be given 
to a counter placed on it. This might be used either for concrete 
arithmetic say with columns for pence, shillings and pounds; 
or for abstract reckoning say with the Babylonian sexagesimal 
system. An old Greek abacus found at Salamis has columns 
which, taken from right to left, give a counter the value of i, 
10, 100, looo drachms, and finally of i talent (6000 drachms) 
respectively. An abacus on the decimal system might be ruled 
on paper or on a board strewed with fine sand, and was then 
a first step to the decimal system. Two important steps, 
however, were still lacking: the first was to use instead 
of counters distinctive marks (ciphers) for the digits from 
one to nine; the second and more important was to get a 
sign for zero, so that the columns might be dispensed with, and 
the denomination of each cipher seen at once by counting the 
number of digits following it. These two steps taken, we have 
at once the modern so-called Arabic numerals and the possibility 
of modern arithmetic; but the invention of the ciphers and zero 
came but slowly, and their history is a most obscure problem. 

What is quite certain is that our present decimal system, in 
its complete form, with the zero which enables us to do without 
the ruled columns of the abacus, is of Indian origin. From the 
Indians it passed to the Arabians, probably along with the 
astronomical tables brought to Bagdad by an Indian ambassador 
in 773 A.D. At all events the system was explained in Arabic 
in the early part of the 9th century by the famous Abu Ja'far 
Mohammed b. Musa al-Khwarizml (Hovarezmi), and from that 
time continued to spread, though at first slowly, through the 
Arabian world. 

In Europe the complete system with the zero was derived from 
the Arabs in the 1 2th century, and the arithmetic based on this 
system was known by the name of algoritmus, algorithm, 
algorism. This barbarous word is nothing more than a tran- 
scription of Al-Khwarizml, as was conjectured by Reinaud, and 
has become plain since the publication of a unique Cambridge MS. 
containing a Latin translation perhaps by Adelhard of Bath 
of the lost arithmetical treatise of the Arabian mathematician.' 
The arithmetical methods of Khwarizml were simplified by later 
Eastern writers, and these simpler methods were introduced to 
Europe by Leonardo of Pisa in the West and Maximus Planudes 
in the East. The term zero appears to come from the Arabic sifr 
through the form zephyro used by Leonardo. 

Thus far modern inquirers are agreed. The disputed points are 
(i) the origin and age of the Indian system, and (2) whether or not 
a less developed Indian system, without the zero but with the_ nine 
other ciphers used on an abacus, entered Europe before the rise of 
Islam, and prepared the way for a complete decimal notation. 

TABLE II. 

1234 5678 90 
Nana Ghat (Indian) * - = y VI 

Cave Inscriptions 

(Indian) 6 5i 1 h <fi 1 1 3 

Devanagari' ...I^^-VSH IC^o 

Eastern Arabic 7 I^S^fl' 



Ghobar' . 
Boetius' 



I TT 



g 



I. The use of numerals in India can be followed back to the 
Nana Ghat inscriptions, supposed to date from the early part of the 
3rd century B.C. These are signs for units, tens and hundreds, as 

8 Published by Boncompagni in Trattatid' aritmetica (Rome, 1857). 
4 From Sir E. C. Bayley's paper in J.R.A.S. (1882). 

6 From Burnell's South Indian Palaeography (1874). 

Of the loth century. (From Burnett, op. cit.) ,. 

7 Of the loth century; from a MS. written at Shirilz. (From 
Woepcke, Mbnoire sur la propagation des chiffres indiens.} 

8 From a MS. at Paris. (From Woepcke, op. cit.) 

Erlangen (Altdorf) MS. (From Woepcke, op. cit.) 



868 



NUMERIANUS NUMIDIA 



in the other old systems we have dealt with. Like the Indian 
alphabet, they are probably derived from abroad, but, as in the case 
of the alphabet, their origin is obscure. The forms of the later 
Indian numerals for the nine digits appear to be clearly derived 
from the earlier system. In table II. the first two lines give forms 
earlier than the introduction of the system of position, while tne 
Devanagari in the third line was used with a zero and position value. 
The " cave " numerals were employed during the first centuries of 
the Christian era. The earliest known example of a date written 
on the modern system is of A.D. 738, while the old system is found in 
use as late as the early part of the 7th century (Bayley). On the 
other hand, there is some evidence that a system of value by position 
was known to Sanskrit writers on arithmetic in the 6th Christian 
century. These writers, however, do not use ciphers, but symbolical 
words and letters, so that it is not quite clear whether they refer to 
a system which had a zero, or to a system worked on an abacus, 
where the zero is represented by a blank column. There is no proof 
as yet for the use of any system of position in India before the 6th 
century, and nothing beyond conjecture can be offered as to its 
origin. 

2. In Europe, before the introduction of the algorithm or full 
Indo-Arabic system with the zero, we find a transition system in 
which calculations were made on the decimal system with an abacus, 
but instead of unit counters there were placed in the columns 
ciphers, with values from one to nine, and of forms that are at bottom 
the Indian forms and agree most nearly with the numerals used by 
the Arabs of Africa and Spain. For among the Arabs themselves 
there were varieties in the forms of the Indian numeral, and in 
particular an eastern and a western type. The latter is called 
ghobar (dust), a name which seems to connect it with the use of a 
sand-spread tablet for calculation. The abacus with ciphers instead 
of counters was used at Rheims about 970-980 by Gerbert, who after- 
wards was pope under the title of Sylvester II., and it became well 
known in the nth century. Where did Gerbert learn the use of the 
abacus with ciphers ? There is no direct evidence as to this, for the 
story in William of Malmesbury, that he stole it from an Arab in 
Spain, is generally given up as fabulous. On the other hand, no 
evidence is offered for an earlier use of the abacus with ciphers, except 
a passage describing the system in the Geometria ascribed tt> Boetius. 
If this book is genuine the Indian numerals were known in Europe 
and applied to the abacus in the 5th century, and Gerbert only 
revived the long-forgotten system. On this view we have to explain 
how Boetius got the ciphers. The Geometria ascribes the system to 
the " Pythagorici " i.e. the Neo-Pythagoreans and it has been 
thought possible that the Indian forms for the numerals reached 
Alexandria, along with the cruder form of value by position involved 
in the use of the abacus without a zero, before direct communication 
between Europe and India ceased, which it did about the 4th century 
A.D. It is then further conjectured by Woepcke that the ghobar 
numerals of the western Arabs were by them borrowed from the 
system of Boetius before the full Indian method with the zero 
reached them; and thus the resemblance between these forms 
and those in MSS. of Boetius, which are essentially the same as 
in other MSS. of the nth century, would be explained. This view, 
however, presents great difficulties, of which the total disappearance 
of all trace of the system between Boetius and Gerbert is only one. 
We have no proof that the Indians ever used such an abacus, or that 
they had value by position at so early a date as is required, and the 
ghobar numerals are too similar to those of the eastern Arabs to 
make it very credible that the two systems had been separated for 
centuries. The genuineness of the Geometria is maintained by 
Moritz Cantor, but it has been attacked on other grounds than that 
of the passage about the abacus; and on the whole it is still an open 
question whether the abacus with ciphers is not the outcome of an 
early imperfect knowledge of the Arabic system, Gerbert or some 
other having got the signs and a general idea of value by position 
without having an explanation of the zero. 

See M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1880); 
also M. Chasles, papers in the Comptes rendus (1843) ; G. Friedlein, 
Die Zahlzeichen und das elementare Rechnen der Griechen und Romer, 
&c. (1869); F. Woepcke, Sur V introduction de I'arithmetique indien 
en accident (Rome, 1859), and Memoire sur la propagation des chiffres 
indiens (Paris, 1863). For the palaeography of the Indian numerals 
see Burnell, Elements of S. Indian Palaeography (1874) ; and Sir E. C. 
Bayley in J.R.A.S. (1882, 1883). For Boetius compare Friedlein's 
edition of his arithmetic and geometry (Leipzig, 1867), and Weissen- 
born in Zeitsch. Math. Phys. xxiv. Other references to the copious 
literature will be found in Cantor and Friedlein, who also discuss the 
subject of the notation for fractions, which cannot be entered on here. 
For systems passed over here, see Pihan, Expose des signes de numera- 
tion usites chez les peuples orientaux (Paris, 1860). (W. R. S.) 

NUMERIANUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, son of the Roman 
emperor Cams. On the death of his father, whom he accom- 
panied on his expedition against the Persians, he was proclaimed 
emperor (December, A.D. 283). He resolved to abandon the 
campaign, and died mysteriously on his way back to Europe, 
eight months afterwards- Arrius Aper, praefect of the praetorian 



guards, his father-in-law, who was suspected of having 
murdered him, was slain by Diocletian, whom the soldiers had 
already proclaimed his successor. Numerianus is represented 
as having been a man of considerable literary attainments, and 
of remarkably amiable character. 

NUMIDIA, the name given in ancient times to a tract of 
country in the north of Africa, extending along the Mediterranean 
from the confines of Mauretania to those of the Roman province 
to Africa. When the Romans first came into collision with 
Carthage in the 3rd century B.C., the name was applied to the 
whole country from the river Mulucha (now the Muluya), about 
ico m. W. of Oran, to the frontier of the Carthaginian territory, 
which nearly coincided with the modern regency of Tunis. It 
is in this sense that the name Numidia is used by Polybius and 
all historians down to the close of the Roman republic. The 
Numidians, as thus defined, were divided into two great tribes, 
the Massyli on the east, and the Massaesyli on the west 
the h'mit between the two being the river Ampsaga, which 
enters the sea to the west of the promontory called Tretum, 
now known as the Seven Capes. At the time of the second 
Punic War the eastern tribe was governed by Massinissa, who 
took the side of the Romans in the contest, while Syphax 
his rival, king of the Massaesyli, supported the Carthaginians. 
At the end of the war the victorious Romans confiscated 
the dominions of Syphax, and gave them to Massinissa, 
whose sway extended from the frontier of Mauretania to the 
boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also south and 
east as far as the Cyrenaica (Appian, Punica, 106), so that the 
Numidian kingdom entirely surrounded Carthage except to- 
wards the sea. Massinissa. who reached a great age, retained the 
whole of these dominions till his death in 148 B.C. and was suc- 
ceeded in them by his son Micipsa, who died in 1 18. For the war 
with Rome which followed the death of Micipsa see JUGURTHA. 

After the death of Jugurtha as a captive at Rome in 106, the 
western part of his dominions was added to those of Bocchus, 
king of Mauretania, while the remainder (excluding perhaps the 
territory towards Cyrene) continued to be governed by native 
princes until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, in 
which Juba I., then king of Numidia, who had espoused the 
cause of the Pompeians, was defeated by Caesar, and put an end 
to his own life (46 B.C.). Numidia, in the more restricted sense 
which it had now acquired, became for a short time a Roman 
province under the title of Africa Nova, but in the settlement of 
affairs after the battle of Actium it was restored to Juba II. (son 
of Juba I.), who had acquired the favour of Augustus. Soon 
afterwards, in 25 B.C., Juba was transferred to the throne of 
Mauretania, including the whole western portion of the ancient 
Numidian monarchy as far as the river Ampsaga, while the 
eastern part was added to the province of Africa, i.e. that 
part which had been called Africa Nova before it was given to 
Juba. It retained the official title, though it may also have been 
known as Numidia; together with Africa Vetus it was governed 
by a proconsul, and was the only senatorial province in which 
a legion was permanently stationed, under the orders of the 
senatorial governor. In A.D. 37 the emperor Gaius put an end 
to this arrangement by sending a legatus of his own to take over 
the command of the legion, thus separating the military from 
the civil administration, and practically separating Numidia or 
Africa Nova from Africa Vetus, though the two were still united 
in name (Tac. Hist. 4. 48). Under Septimus Severus (A.D. 193- 
211) Numidia was separated from Africa Vetus, and governed by 
an imperial procurator (procurator per Numidiam) ; finally, under 
the new organization of the empire by Diocletian, Numidia 
became one of the seven provinces of the diocese of Africa, being 
known as Numidia Cirtensis, and after Constantine as N. Con- 
stantina, corresponding closely in extent to the modern French 
province of Constantine. During ah 1 this period it reached a high 
degree of civilization, and was studded with numerous towns, 
the importance of which is attested by inscriptions (see vol. 
viii. of the Corpus inscriptionum), and by the massive remains 
of public buildings. The invasion of the Vandals in A.D. 428 
reduced it to a condition of gradual decay; and the invasion of 



NUMISMATICS 



869 



the Arabs in the 8th century again brought desolation on the 
land, which was aggravated by continual misgovernment till the 
conquest of Algeria by the French in 1833. 

The chief towns of Numidia under the Romans were: in the north, 
Cirta, the capital, which still retains the name Constantine given it by 
Constantine ; Rusicada on the coast, serving as its port, on the site 
now occupied by Philippeville; and east of it Hippo Regius, well 
known as the see of St Augustine, near the modern Bona. To the 
south in the interior were Theveste (Tebessa) and Lambaesis 
(Lambessa) with extensive and striking Roman remains, connected 
by military roads with Cirta and Hippo respectively. Lambaesis 
was the seat of the legion III. Augusta, and the most important 
strategic centre, as commanding the passes of the Mons Aurasius, a 
mountain block which separated Numidia from the Gaetulian tribes 
of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent 
by the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns there were 
altogether twenty which are known to have received at one time or 
another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th 
century the Notitia enumerates no less than 123 sees whose bishops 
assembled at Carthage in 479. 

For bibliography and account of Roman remains, see under 
AFRICA, ROMAN. 

NUMISMATICS (Lat. numisma, nomisma, a coin; from the 
Greek, derived from voidffiv, to use according to law), the 
science treating of coins (Low Lat. cuneus, a die) and medals 
(Low Lat. medalla, a small coin). 

The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks in the 7th 
century before the Christian era. By the 4th century the whole 
civilized world used money (q.v.), each state gerterally having its 
proper coinage. This has continued to be the case to the present 
time; so that now there are few nations without a metal 
currency of their own, and of these but a small proportion are 
wholly unacquainted with the use of coins. 

Coins, although they confirm history, rarely correct it, and 
never very greatly. The earliest belong to a time and to nations 
as to which we are not otherwise wholly ignorant, and they do 
not afford us that precise information which would fill in any 
important details of the meagre sketch of contemporary history. 
We gain from them scarcely any direct historical information, 
except that certain cities or princes issued money. When in 
later times the devices and inscriptions of the coins give more 
detailed information, history is far fuller and clearer, so that the 
numismatic evidence is rarely more than corroborative. There 
are, indeed, some remarkable exceptions to this rule, as in the 
case of the Bactrian and Indian coins, which have supplied the 
outlines of a portion of history which was otherwise almost 
wholly lost. The value of the corroborative evidence afforded 
by coins must not, however, be overlooked. It chiefly relates to 
chronology, although it also adds to our knowledge of the 
pedigrees of royal houses. But perhaps the most interesting 
manner in which coins and medals illustrate history is in their 
bearing contemporary, or nearly contemporary, portraits of the 
most famous kings and captains, from the time of the first 
successors of Alexander the Great to the present age, whereas 
pictures do not afford portraits in any number before the latter 
part of the middle ages; and works of sculpture, although 
occupying in this respect the same place as coins in the last- 
mentioned period and under the Roman empire, are neither so 
numerous nor so authentic. There is no more delightM com- 
panion in historical reading than a cabinet of coins and medals. 
The strength and energy of Alexander, the ferocity of Mith- 
radates, the philosophic calmness of Antoninus, the obstinate 
ferocity of Nero, and the brutality of Caracalla are as plain on the 
coins as in the pages of history. The numismatic portraits of 
the time following the founding of Constantinople have less 
individuality; but after the revival of art they recover that 
quality, and maintain it to our own day, although executed in 
very different styles from those of antiquity. From this last 
class we can form a series of portraits more complete and not less 
interesting than that of the ancient period. 

While coins and medals thus illustrate the events of history, 

they have an equally direct bearing on the belief of the nations 

by which they were issued; and in this reference lies 

o ogy- no sma jj p art o f their value in connexion with history. 

The mythology of the Greeks, not having been fixed in sacred 



writings, nor regulated by a dominant priesthood, but having 
grown out of the different beliefs of various tribes and isolated 
settlements, and having been allowed to form itself comparatively 
without check, can scarcely be learned from ancient books. Their 
writers give us but a partial or special view of it, and modern 
authors, in their attempts to systematize, have often but 
increased the confusion. The Greek coins, whether of kings or 
cities, until the death of Alexander, do not, with a few negligible 
exceptions, represent the human form. Afterwards, on the regal 
coins, the king's head usually occupies the obverse and a subject, 
usually sacred, is placed on the reverse. The coins of Greek 
cities under the empire have usually an imperial portrait and a 
reverse type usually mythological. The whole class thus affords 
us invaluable evidence for the reconstruction of Greek mytho- 
logy. We have nowhere else so complete a series of the different 
types under which the divinities were represented. There are 
in modern galleries very few statues of Greek divinities, including 
such as were intended for architectural decoration, which are in 
good style, fairly preserved, and untouched by modern restorers. 
If to these we add reliefs of the same class, and {he best Graeco- 
Roman copies, we can scarcely form a complete series of the 
various representations of these divinities. The coins, however, 
supply us with the series we desire, and we may select types 
which are not merely of good work, but of the finest. The mytho- 
logy of ancient Italy, as distinct from that of the Greek colonies 
of Italy, is not so fully illustrated by the coins of the country, 
because these are for the most part of Greek design. There are, 
however, some remarkable exceptions, especially in the money 
of the Roman commonwealth, the greater number of the types 
of which are of a local character, including many that refer to the 
myths and traditions of the earliest days of the city. The coins of 
the empire are especially important, as bearing representations 
of those personifications of an allegorical character to which 
the influence of philosophy gave great prominence in Roman 
mythology. 

Coins are scarcely less valuable in relation to geography than 
to history. The position of towns on the sea or on rivers, the race 
of their inhabitants, and many similar particulars are ^ 
positively fixed on numismatic evidence. The informa- graphy. 
tion that coins convey as to the details of the history of 
towns and countries has a necessary connexion with geography, 
as has also their illustration of local forms of worship. The 
representations of natural productions on ancient money are of 
special importance, and afford assistance to the lexicographer. 
This is particularly the case with the Greek coins, on which 
these objects are frequently portrayed with great fidelity. We 
must recollect, however, that the nomenclature of the ancients 
was vague, and frequently comprised very different objects 
under one appellation, and that therefore we may find very 
different representations corresponding to the same name. 

The art of sculpture, of which coin-engraving is the offspring, 
receives the greatest illustration from numismatics. Not only is 
the memory of lost statues preserved to us in the designs 
of ancient coins, but those of Greece afford admirable 
examples of that skill by which her sculptors attained their great 
renown. The excellence of the designs of very many Greek 
coins struck during the period of the best art is indeed so great 
that, were it not for their smallness, they would form the finest 
series of art-studies in the world. The Roman coins, though at 
no time to be compared to the purest Greek, yet represent not 
unworthily the Graeco-Roman art of the empire. From the 
accession of Augustus to the death of Commodus they are often 
fully equal to the best Graeco-Roman statues. This may be 
said, for instance, of the dupondii struck in honour of Livia by 
Tiberius and by the younger Drusus, of the sestertii of Agrippina, 
and of the Flavian emperors, and of the gold coins of Antoninus 
Pius and the two Faustinas, all which present portraits of 
remarkable beauty and excellence. The Italian medals of the 
Renaissance are scarcely less useful as records of the progress and 
characteristics of art, and, placed by the side of the Greek and 
Roman coins, complete the most remarkable comparative series 
of monuments illustrating the history of the great schools of art 



Art. 



870 



NUMISMATICS 



[DEFINITIONS 



Literature. 



that can be brought together. Ancient coins throw some light 
upon the architecture as well as upon the sculpture of the nations 
by which they were struck. Under the empire, the Roman coins 
issued at the city very frequently bear representations of im- 
portant edifices. The Greek imperial coins struck in the provinces 
present similar types, representing the most famous temples and 
other structures of their cities, of the form of some of which we 
should otherwise have been wholly ignorant. The art of gem- 
engraving among the ancients is perhaps most nearly connected 
with their coinage. The subjects of coins and gems are so similar 
and so similarly treated that the authenticity of gems, that most 
difficult of archaeological questions, receives the greatest aid 
from the study of coins. 

After what has been said it is not necessary to do more than 
mention how greatly the- study of coins tends to illustrate the 
contemporary literature of the nations which issued 
them. Not only the historians, but the philosophers 
and the poets, are constantly illustrated by the money of their 
times. This was perceived at the revival of letters; and during 
the 1 7th and i8th centuries coins were very frequently engraved 
in the larger editions of the classics. 

The science of numismatics is of comparatively recent origin. 
The ancients do not seem to have formed collections, although 
they appear to have occasionally preserved individual 
specimens for their beauty. Petrarch has the credit 
science. ^ having been the first collector of any note; but it 
is probable that in his time ancient coins were already 
attracting no little notice. The importance of the study of all 
coins has since been by degrees more and more recognised, 
and at present no branch of the pursuit is left wholly unexplored. 
Besides its bearing upon the history, the religion, the manners, 
and the arts of the nations which have used money, the science 
^ num i smat i cs has a special modern use in relation to 
art. Displaying the various styles of art prevalent 
in different ages, coins supply us with abundant 
means for promoting the advancement of art among ourselves. 
If the study of many schools be at all times of advantage, it is 
especially so when there is little originality in the world. Its 
least value is to point out the want of artistic merit and historical 
commemoration in modern coins, and to suggest that modern 
medals should be executed after some study of the rules which 
controlled the great works of former times. 

Definitions, The following are the most necessary numismatic 
definitions. 

I . A coin is a piece of metal of a fixed weight, stamped by authority 
of government, and employed as a circulating medium. 1 

2. A medal is a piece, having no place in the currency, struck to 
commemorate some event or person. Medals are frequently com- 
prised with coins in descriptions that apply to both equally; thus, 
in the subsequent definitions, by the term coins, coins and medals 
must generally be understood. 

3. The coinage of a country is usually divided into the classes of 
gold, silver and bronze (copper), for which the abbreviations^,^, 
and fiL are employed in catalogues. In addition to these metals, 
and to the modifications of them created by the presence of varying 
amounts of alloy, certain other compounds were frequently used, 
notably electrum, billon, brass and potin. 



Pr ctteai 



1 This definition excludes, on the one hand, paper currencies and 
their equivalents among barbarous nations, such as cowries, because 
they are neither of metal nor of fixed weight, although either 
stamped or sanctioned by authority, and, on the other hand, modes 
of keeping metal in weight, like the so-called Celtic " ring-money," 
because it is not stamped, although perhaps sanctioned by authority. 
The latter has attracted much attention, but it is by no means made 
out that the rings were made with the primary intention of serving 
as money. But it is a very common usage among savage or semi- 
savage races to wear all their wealth in the form of ornaments (as a 
woman may even now wear her dowry as ornaments in the form of 
coins) and to use the ornaments (or cut-off portions of them, " skill- 
ings ") whenever occasion arises as a medium of exchange. These 
rings then were doubtless used in this manner, but they were no more 
money than were any other precious possessions which could be used 
in exchange. There is no good evidence for the use of the little 
Gaulish " wheels " as money. On these questions see Blanchet, 
Monn. gaul. pp. 24-29. On the border of the definition are such 
prehistoric " dumps " of metal as have been found at Enkomi in 
Cyprus and at Cnossus in Crete; one of these indeed seems to bear 
traces of a mark of some kind. 



4. Electrum (tj\tKTpoi>, ^X<*rpos, XtiwAs xpw<5s), a compound metallic 
substance, consisting of gold with a considerable alloy of silver. 
Pliny makes the proportion to have been four parts of gold to one of 
silver. 2 The material of early coins of Asia Minor struck in the cities 
of the western coast is the ancient electrum. The amount of silver 
varies very considerably with time and place. Gold largely alloyed 
with silver, not struck by the ancient Greeks or their neighbours, 
should be termed pale gold, as in the case of some of the late Byzantine 
coins. 

5. Billon, a term applied to the base metal of some Roman coins, 
and also to that of some medieval and modern coins. It contains 
about one-fifth silver to four-fifths copper. When the base silver 
coins are replaced by copper washed with silver the term billon 
becomes inappropriate. 

6. Brass, a mixture of copper and zinc. It may be used as an 
equivalent to the orichalcum of the Romans, a fine kind of brass of 
which the sestertii and dupondii were struck, but it is commonly 
applied indiscriminately to the whole of their copper currency under 
the empire. 

7. Potin, an alloy of copper and tin (therefore a variety of bronze) 
used for some late Gaulish coins. 

8. Various other metallic substances have been used in coinage, 
including iron (in Peloponnesus) and an alloy of copper and nickel 
employed for some Bactrian coins. The so-called " glass coins " of 
the Arabs are merely coin-weights. 

9. The forms of coins have greatly varied in different countries 
and at different periods. The usual form in both ancient and 
modern times has been circular, and generally of no great thickness. 

10. Coins are usually measured by millimetres, or by inches and 
tenths, the greatest dimension being taken, or, when they are square 
or oval, the greatest dimension in two directions. 

1 1 . The weight of a coin is of great importance, both in determining 
its genuineness and in distinguishing its identity. Metric weights 
are used by most numismatists except in England, where troy 
weight is still in general use. 

12. The specific gravity of a coin may be of use in determining 
the metals in its composition. 

13. Whatever representations or characters are borne by a coin 
constitute its type. The subject of each side is also called a type, 
and, when there is not only a device but an inscription, the latter 
may be excluded from the term. This last is the general use. No 
distinct rule has been laid down as to what makes a difference of 
type, but it may be considered to be an essential difference, however 
slight. 

14. A difference too small to constitute a new type makes a 
variety. 

15. A coin is a duplicate of another when it agrees with it in all 
particulars but those of exact size and weight. Strictly speaking, 
ancient coins are rarely, if ever, duplicates, except when struck 
from the same pair of dies. 

16. Struck coins are those on which the designs are produced by 
dies impressed on the blank piece (or flan) of metal by some form of 
hammering or pressure; they are distinguished from cast coins 
made by running metal into a mould. 

17. Of the two sides of a coin, that is called the obverse which bears 
the more important device. In early Greek coins it is the convex 
side, or the side impressed by the lower die; in Greek and Roman 
imperial it is the side bearing the head; in medieval and modern 
that bearing the royal effigy, or the king's name, or the name of the 
city; and in Oriental that on which the inscription begins. The 
other side is called the reverse. 

18. The field of a coin is the space unoccupied by the principal 
devices or inscriptions. Any detached independent device or 
character is said to be in the field, except when it occupies the 
exergue. 

19. The exergue is that part of the reverse of a coin which is below 
the main device, and distinctly separated from it; it often bears a 
secondary inscription. Thus, the well-known inscription CONOB 
occupies the exergue of the late Roman and early Byzantine gold 
coins. 

20. The edge of a coin is the surface of its thickness. 

21. By the inscription or inscriptions of a coin all the letters 
it bears are intended; an inscription is either principal or 
secondary. 

22. In describing coins the terms right and left mean the right 
and left of the spectator, not the heraldic and military right and left, 
or those of the coin. 

23. A bust is the representation of the head and neck; it is 
commonlv used of such as show at least the collar-bone, other busts 
being called heads. A head properly means the representation of a 
head alone, without any part of the neck, but it is also commonly used 



* Hist. nat. xxxiii. 23; cp. xxxvii. II. Pliny distinguishes two 
kinds of " electron," amber, and this metallic substance. In Greek 
poetry the name seems to apply to both, but it is generally difficult 
to decide which is meant in any particular case. Sophocles, however, 
where he mentions r&iri V&p&ewv fatKTpov, . . . *al riv 'IfSucdv xptwi* 
(Ant. 1037-1039), can scarcely be doubted to refer to the metallic 
electrum. 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



871 



when any part of the neck above the collar-bone is shown. The 
present article follows custom in the use of the terms bust and 
head. When the neck is clothed, the bust is said to be draped. 

24. A bust or head is either facing, usually three-quarter face, or 
in profile, in which latter case it is described as to right or to left. 
Two busts may be placed in various relative positions, as jugate or 
confronted. 

25. A bust wearing a laurel-wreath is said to be laureate. 

26. A bust bound with a regal fillet (diadem) is called diademed. 

27. A bust wearing a crown with rays is said to be radiate. 

28. An object in the field of a coin which is neither a letter nor 
a monogram is usually called a symbol. This term is, however, only 
applicable when such an object is evidently the badge of a town or 
individual. The term adjunct, which is sometimes employed instead 
of symbol, is manifestly incorrect. 

29. A mint-mark is a difference placed by the authorities of the 
mint upon all money struck by them, or upon each new die or 
separate issue. 

30. A coin is said to be " over-struck " or " re-struck " when it 
has been struck on an older coin, of which the types are not altogether 
obliterated. 

31. A double-struck coin is one in which the die or dies have shifted 
so as to cause a double impression. 

32. A coin which presents two obverse types, or two reverse types, 
or of which the types of the obverse and reverse do not correspond, 
is called a mule; it is the result of mistake or caprice. 

Arrangement of Coins. No uniform system has as yet been 
applied to the arrangement of all coins. It is usual to separate 
them into the three great classes of ancient coins (comprising 
Greek and Roman), medieval and modern, and Oriental coins. 
The details of these classes have been differently treated, both 
generally and specially. The arrangement of the Greek series 
has been first geographical, under countries and towns, and then 
chronological, for a further division; that of the Roman series, 
chronological, without reference to geography; that of the 
medieval and modern, the same as the Greek; and that of the 
Oriental, like the Greek, but unsystematically a treatment 
inadmissible except in the case of a single empire. Then, again, 
some numismatists have separated each denomination or each 
metal, or have separated the denominations of one metal and not 
of another. There has been no general and comprehensive 
system, constructed upon reasonable principles, and applicable to 
every branch of this complicated science. Without laying down 
a system of rules, or criticizing former modes of arrangement, 
we offer the following as a classification which is uniform without 
being servile. 

1. Greek Coins. All coins of Greeks, or barbarians who adopted 
Greek money, struck before the Roman rule or under it, but without 
imperial effigies. The countries and their provinces are placed in a 
geographical order from west to east, according to the system of 
Eckhel, with the cities in alphabetical order under the provinces, and 
the kings in chronological order. The civic coins usually precede 
the regal, as being the more important. The coins are further 
arranged chronologically, the civic commencing with the oldest and 
ending with those bearing the effigies of Roman emperors. The 
gold coins of each period take precedence of the silver and the silver 
of the copper. The larger denominations in each metal are placed 
before the smaller. Coins of the same denomination and period are 
arranged in the alphabetical order of the magistrates' names, or the 
letters, &c., that they bear. 

2. Roman Coins. All coins issued by the Roman commonwealth 
and empire, whether struck at Rome or in the provinces. The 
arrangement is chronological, or, where this is better, under geo- 
graphical divisions. 

3. Medieval and Modern Coins of Europe. All coins issued by 
Christian European states, their branches and colonies, from the 
fall of the empire of the West to the present day. This class is 
arranged in a geographical and chronological order, as similar as 
possible to that of the Greek class, with the important exception 
of the Byzantine coins and the coins following Byzantine systems, 
which occupy the first place. The reason for this deviation is that 
the Byzantine money may be regarded not only as the principal 
source of medieval coinage but as the most complete and important 
medieval series, extending as it does without a break throughout 
the middle ages. The regal coins usually precede the civic ones, as 
being the more important. The medals of each nation should be 
arranged in two series: (i) medals of rulers, according to their dates; 
(2) medals of private persons, as far as possible according to the artists. 

4. Oriental Coins. All coins bearing inscriptions in Eastern 
languages, excepting those of the Jews, Phoenicians and Cartha- 
ginians, which are classed with the Greek coins from their close 
connexion with them. These coins should be arranged under the 
following divisions: Ancient Persian, Arab, Modern Persian, Indian, 
Chinese and coins of the Far East. 



This method of arrangement will be found to be as uniform as 
it can be made, without being absolutely mechanical. It differs in 
some important particulars from most or all of those which have 
previously obtained; but these very differences are the result of 
the consideration of a complete collection, and haye therefore an 
inductive origin. A general uniformity is no slight gain, and may 
well reconcile us to some partial defects. 

I. GREEK COINS 

There are some matters relating to Greek coins in general 
which may be properly considered before they are described in 
geographical order. These are their general character, the chief - 
denominations, with the different talents of which they were the 
divisions, their devices and inscriptions, their art, and the mode 
of striking. 

The period during which Greek coins were issued was probably 
not much less than a thousand years, commencing about the 
beginning of the yth century B.C. and generally ending at the 
death of Gallienus (A.D. 268). If classed with reference only 
to their form, fabric, and general appearance they are of three 
principal types the archaic Greek, the ordinary Greek, and the 
Graeco-Roman. The coins of the first class are of silver, electrum 
and sometimes gold. They are thick lumps of an irregular 
round form, bearing on the obverse a device, with in some cases 
an accompanying inscription, and on the reverse a square or 
oblong incuse stamp (quadratum incusum), usually divided in a 
rude manner. The coins of the second class are of gold, electrum, 
silver and bronze. They are much thinner than those of the 
preceding class, and usually have a convex obverse and a slightly 
concave or flat reverse. The obverse ordinarily bears a head in 
bold relief. The coins of the third class are, with very few 
exceptions, of bronze. They are flat and broad, but thin, and 
generally have on the obverse the portrait of a Roman emperor. 
Many Greek cities, however, during the empire issued quasi- 
autonomous coins bearing the head of some deity or personifica- 
tion. Greek coins thus fall mainly into the classes of autono- 
mous, quasi-autonomous and imperial. The coinage of Roman 
colonies in Greek as in other lands is usually distinguished by 
Latin inscriptions. 

Since Greek coinage originated in Asia Minor, the coins were ad- 
justed to the weight-systems there in use, and these go back to a 
Babylonian origin. But it is possible that some of the 
standard of Greece proper had a native origin. The unit * 
of weight in the East was the shekel (siglos). This was s y" ems ~ 
A of the manah (mina, mna), and this ^> of the talent (talanton). 
This scale the Greeks modified, in that, starting from the siglos as 
unit, they invented a money-mina of 50 sigli, with a money-talent of 
60 minae or 3000 sigli. The siglos-units (and corresponding standards) 
chiefly employed in Asia Minor were the following (the relation 
between gold and silver at the time of the invention of these units 
seems to have been 13} :l): 

Gold shekel, 8-40 grammes. 

Phoenician silver shekel, 7-44 g.=j t of 111-72 g. of silver, which 

was equivalent to 8-4 g. of gold. 
Babylonian or Persic silver shekel, 11-17 g- = T*O of 111-72 g. of 

silver, which was equivalent to 8-4 g. of gold. 

Thus one gold shekel was the equivalent of 15 Phoenician or 10 
Babylonian silver shekels. Side by side with this system was another 
in which the weights were exactly double of those just given; a 
shekel of the heavier system might be regarded as a double shekel 
of the lighter. Various Babylonian weights are extant, dating from 
2000 B.C. downwards, which prove the existence of minae of the two 
systems. The gold shekel standard was almost invariably used for 
gold coins, sometimes also for electrum. The Babylonian and 
Phoenician standards were also sometimes used for gold or electrum 
as well as silver. A weight more or less approaching that of the gold 
shekel or its multiples seems to have been usual all over the civilized 
world in Greek times; e.g. the Phocaean standard of 16-52 g. was 
but a modification of it. But for silver in Greece proper, from a very 
early period, the following standards prevailed : the Aeginetic (unit, 
didrachm or stater, of 12-6 g.) and the Euboic-Attic (stater of 8-72 g.), 
with its modification the Corinthian. The Euboic-Attic standard 
attained enormous importance owing to the spread of Athenian trade 
and the adoption of the weight by Alexander of Macedon. It was 
used for both gold and silver. The Corinthian standard differed only 
in its divisional system, the stater being divided into thirds instead 
of halves. From it were derived some of the standards in use among 
the Greeks of S. Italy. Other standards of more local importance 
were: the Campanian, used in a large part of S. Italy (didrachm 
originally of 7-41 g., afterwards reduced), and perhaps derived from 



872 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



the Phoenician; the Rhodian (instituted about 400 B.C., tetra- 
drachm about 15 g.) ; and the cistophoric (from about 200 B.C., with 
a tetradrachm of about 12-73 g.). 

Denomlna- The following table exhibits the weights in grammes 
tions. of the principal denominations of the Greek systems : 





Gold Shekel 
System. 


Babylonian 
or Persic. 


Phoenician. 


Aeginetic. 


Euboic-Attic. 


Double shekel, distater or tetradrachm 
Shekel, stater or didrachm .... 


16-80 
8-40 
4-20 


22-40 
1 1 -20 
5-60 


14-92 
7-46 
373 


25-20 
12-60 
6-30 


17.44 

8-72 
4'3 6 


Third or tetrobol 
Twelfth or obol 


2-80 
0-70 


373 
o-93 


2-49 
0-62 


4-48 

I-I2 


2-92 
o-73 



Classes. 



The term stater is usually applied to the didrachm, but also to the 
tetradrachm, and at Cyrene to the drachm. 

The bronze standards have been less fully discussed. Some notice 
of them will be given under different geographical heads. 

In the types of Greek coins (using the term in its restricted sense) 
the first intention of the designers was to indicate the city or state by 
which the money was issued. The necessity for distinctive 
Types. devices was most strongly felt in the earlier days of the 
art, when the obverse of a coin alone bore a design, and, if any 
inscription, only the first letter, or the first few letters, of the name 
of the people by whom it was issued. Whatever may have been the 
original significance of the type in itself, religious or otherwise, it was 
adopted for the coinage at least in the earliest times because it 
was the badge by which the issuing authority was recognized. It 
was only with the increased complexity of the denominations in later 
times, when new distinguishing types had to be found, that as in 
the 4th century B.C. the religious motive in the choice of types came 
deliberately into play. 

Greek coins, if arranged according to their types, fall into three 
classes: (i) civic coins, and regal without portraits of sovereigns; 
(2) regal coins bearing portraits; and (3) Graeco- 
Roman coins, whether with imperial heads or not. The 
coins of the first class have either a device on the obverse and the 
quodratum incusum on the reverse, or two devices; and these 
last are again either independent of each other, though connected 
by being both local, or and this is more common that on the 
reverse is a kind of complement of that on the obverse. It will be 
best first to describe the character of the principal kinds of types 
of the first class, and then to notice their relation. It must be 
noted that a head or bust is usually an obverse type, and a figure 
or group a reverse one, and that, when there is a head on both 
obverse and reverse, that on the former is usually larger than the 
other, and represents the personage locally considered to be the 
more important of the two. We must constantly bear in mind 
that these types are local if we would understand their meaning. 
In the following list the types of Greek coins of 
cf^"*' cities, and of kings, not having regal portraits, are 
cola's. '" classed in a systematic order, without reference to 
their relative antiquity. 

1. Head or figure of a divinity worshipped at the town, or by 
the people, which issued the coin, as the head of Athena on 
coins of Athens, and the figure of Heracles on coins of Boeotian 
Thebes. Groups are rare until the period of Graeco-Roman 
coinage. 

2. Natural or artificial objects (a) animal, often sacred to a 
divinity of the place, as the owl (Athens) and perhaps the 
tortoise (Aegina); (b) tree or plant, as the silphium (Cyrene) 
and the olive-branch (Athens); (c) arms or implements of 
divinities, as the arms of Heracles (Erythrae), the tongs of 
Vulcan (Aesernia). It is difficult tc connect many objects com- 
prised in this class with local divinities. Some of them, as the 
tunny at Cyzicus, are doubtless only so connected because the 
chief industry of a place was placed under the tutelage of its 
chief divinity. 

3. Head or figure of a local genius (a) river-god, as the 
Gelas (Gela); (b) nymph of a lake, as Camarina (Camarina); 
(c) nymph of a fountain, as Arethusa (Syracuse). 

4. Head or figure of a fabulous personage or half-human 
monster, as a Gorgon (Neapolis Macedoniae), the Minotaur 
(Cnossus). 

5. Fabulous animal, as Pegasus (Corinth), a griffin (Panti- 
capaeum), the Chimaera (Sicyon). 

6. Head or figure of a hero or founder, as Ulysses (Ithaca), the 



Lesser Ajax (Locri Opuntii), Taras, founder of Tarentum 
(Tarentum). 

7. Objects connected with heroes animal connected with 
local hero, as the Calydonian boar or his jaw-bone (Aetolians). 

8. Celebrated real 
or traditional sacred 
localities, as moun- 
tains on which divini- 
ties are seated, the 
labyrinth (Cnossus). 

9. Representations 
connected with the 

public religious festivals and contests, as a chariot victorious 
at the Olympic games (Syracuse). 

The relation of the types of the obverse and reverse of a coin 
is a matter requiring careful consideration, since they frequently 
illustrate one another. As we have before observed, this relation 
is either that of two independent objects, which are connected 
only by their reference to the same place, or the one is a kind of 
complement of the other. Among coins illustrating the former 
class we may instance the beautiful silver didrachms of Camarina, 
having on the obverse the head of the river-god Hipparis and on 
the reverse the nymph o'f the lake carried over its waters by a swan, 
and those of Sicyon, having on the obverse the Chimaera and on 
the reverse a dove. The latter class is capable of being separated 
into several divisions. When the head of a divinity occurs on the 
obverse of a coin, the reverse is occupied by an object or objects 
sacred to that divinity. Thus the common Athenian tetra- 
drachms have on the one side the head of Athene and on the 
other an owl and an olive-branch; the tetradrachms of the 
Chalcidians in Macedonia have the head of Apollo and the lyre; 
and the copper coins of Erythrae have the head of Heracles and 
his weapons. The same is the case with subjects relating to the 
heroes: thus there are drachms of the Aetolian League which 
have on the obverse the head of Atalanta and on the reverse 
the Calydonian boar, or his jaw-bone and the spear-head with 
which he was killed. In the same manner the coins of Cnossus, 
with the Minotaur on the obverse, have on the reverse a plan of 
the Labyrinth. Besides the two principal devices there are often 
others of less importance, which, although always sacred, and 
sometimes symbols of local divinities, are generally indicative of 
the position of the town, or have some reference to the families 
of magistrates who used them as badges. Thus, for example, 
besides such representations as the olive-branch sacred to 
Athene on the Athenian tetradrachms, as a kind of second 
device dolphins are frequently seen on coins of maritime places; 
and almost every series exhibits many symbols which can only 
be the badges of the magistrates with whose names they occur. 
Regal coins of this class, except Alexander's, usually bear 
types of a local character, owing to the small extent of most 
of the kingdoms, which were rather the territories of a city 
than considerable states at the period when these coins were 
issued. 

The second great class that of coins of kings bearing portraits 
is necessarily separate from the first. Religious feeling affords 
the clue to the long exclusion of regal portraits the 
feeling that it would be profane for a mortal to take 
a place always assigned hitherto to the immortals. 
Were there any doubt of this, it would be removed by 
the character of the earliest Greek regal portrait, that of 
Alexander, which occurs on coins of Lysimachus. This is not 
the representation of a living personage, but of one who was not 
only dead but had received a kind of apotheosis, and who, 
having been already called the son of Zeus Ammon while living, 
had been treated as a divinity after his death. He is therefore 
portrayed as a young Zeus Ammon. Probably, however, 
Alexander would not have been able, even when dead, thus to 
usurp the place of a divinity upon the coins, had not the Greeks 
become accustomed to the Oriental " worship " of the sovereign, 
which he did not discourage. This innovation rapidly produced 
a complete change; every king of the houses which were raised 
on the ruins of the Greek empire could place his portrait on the 






GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



873 



money which he issued, and few neglected to do so, while the 
sovereigns of Egypt and Syria even assumed divine titles. 

The reign of Alexander produced another great change in 
Greek coinage, very different from that we have noticed. He 
suppressed the local types almost throughout his empire, and 
compelled the towns to issue his own money, with some slight 
difference for mutual distinction. His successors followed the 
same policy; and thus the coins of this period have a new 
character. The obverses of regal coins with portraits have the 
head of the sovereign, which in some few instances gives place to 
that of his own or his country's tutelary divinity, while figures of 
the latter sort almost exclusively occupy the reverses. Small 
symbols, letters, and monograms on the reverses distinguish the 
towns in this class. 

The Graeco-Roman coins begin, at different periods, with the 
seizure by Rome of the territories of the Greek states. They are 
almost all bronze; and those in that metal are the 
Roman. m st characteristic and important. In their types we 
see a further departure from the religious intention of 
those of earlier times in the rare admission of representations, 
not only of eminent persons who had received some kind of 
apotheosis, such as great poets, but also of others who, although 
famous, were not, and in some cases probably could not have 
been, so honoured. We also observe on these coins many types 
of an allegorical character. 

The following principal kinds of types may be specified, in 
addition to those of the two previous classes, (i) Head or 
figure of a famous personage who either had received a kind of 
apotheosis, as Homer (Smyrna), or had not been so honoured, 
as Herodotus (Halicarnassus) and Lais (Corinth). (2) Pictorial 
representations, always of a sacred character, although occasion- 
ally bordering on caricature. We may instance, as of the latter 
sort, a very remarkable type representing Athene playing on the 
double pipe and seeing her distorted face reflected in the water, 
while Marsyas gazes at her from a rock a subject illustrating 
the myth of the invention of that instrument (Apamea Phrygiae). 
(3) Allegorical types, as Hope, &c., on the coins of Alexandria of 
Egypt, and many other towns. These were of Greek origin, and 
owed their popularity to the sculpture executed by Greeks under 
the empire; but the feeling which rendered such subjects 
prominent was not that of true Greek art, and they are essentially 
characteristic of the New Attic school which attained its height 
at Rome under the early emperors. 

There is a class of coins which is always considered as part of 
the Graeco-Roman, although in some respects distinct. This 
is the colonial series, struck in Roman coloniae, and having 
almost always Latin inscriptions. As, however, these coloniae 
were towns in all parts of the empire, from Emerita in Spain 
(Merida) to Bostra in Arabia, in the midst of a Greek population 
and often of Greek origin, their coins help to complete the series 
of civic money, and, as we might expect, do not very markedly 
differ from the proper Greek imperial coins except in having 
Latin inscriptions and showing a preference for Roman types. 

We have now to speak of the meaning of the inscriptions of 
Greek coins. These are either principal or secondary ; but the former 
are always intended when inscriptions are mentioned 
without qualification, since the secondary ones are non- 
essential. The inscription of civic money is almost always 
the name of the people by which it was issued, in the genitive 
plural, as A8HNAIIiN on coins of the Athenians, SYPAKOZIfiN 
on coins of the Syracusans, or the name of the city in the genitive 
singular, as AKJrATANTOS at Agrigentum. The inscription of 
regal money is the name, or name and title, of the sovereign in 
the genitive, as AAEHANAPOY, or BAZIAEflS AAEHANAPOY, 
on coins of Alexander the Great. Instead of this genitive an ad- 
jective is sometimes found, as ' APKO!>IK&>> on early Arcadian coins, 
' A\iavSpfun on staters of Alexander of Pherae. This genitive or 
adjectival form implies a nominative understood, which has been 
generally supposed to be vbiuano. " money," or the name of some 
denomination. 

There are a few instances in which a nominative of this kind is 
expressed on coins *AENOZ EMI ZHMA, " I am the badge 
of Phaeno (?) or Phanes " on an archaic Ionian coin; FOPTYNOS 
TO IIAIMA, "the striking, struck niece, or type of Gortys"; 
*AI2TION TO IIAIMA ZEY0A APTYPION (silver money), or 
KOMMA ("striking" or "struck piece"); and K.OTYOS 



XAPAKTHP ("engraving" or "engraved piece"). Seuthes (end of 
5th century B.C.) and Cotys (ist century B.C.), semi-barbarian Thra- 
cians, afford no evidence for Greek usage. The other instances (all 
archaic) point to the nominative understood in early times being in 
reality some word meaning type, or badge. But, if so, this latent 
nominative was eventually superseded by one meaning " money " 
or " coin." Thus the staters of Alexander of Pherae are inscribed 
'AXeJivSpeios, his drachms 'AXt<u>pefa. Probably from the 4th 
century onwards " coin " was always understood. Occasionally 
the name of the issuing authority is found in the nominative, as 
K6/w (at Cumae), AdmXe (Zancle-Messana), 'A0. A Kivn on a 
late coin probably issued by the Athenians in Delos, TApas at 
Tarentum. These are by no means always descriptive of the type, 
but merely a straightforward way of naming the issuing authority. 
The simple inscriptions of the early period of Greek coinage are under 
the kings and the Roman empire replaced by elaborate legends, most 
of which, however, fall under the description above given. A 
certain number of inscriptions directly describe the type (not merely 
giving the name of its owner) as ZoxriiroXis (the goddess of Gela) or 
Ni/ia (at Terina). Others, especially in Roman times, indicate the 
reason of issue, as 'lovSalas toXawuJos on coins of Judaea under 
Vespasian, or names of festivals for which the coins were issued. 
These, however, properly belong to the class of secondary inscriptions 
which either describe secondary ' types, as A6AA, " rewards," 
accompanying the representation of the arms given to the victor 
in the exergues of Syracusan decadrachms, 1 or are the names of 
magistrates or other officers, or in regal coins those of cities, or are 
those of the engravers of the dies, of whom sometimes two were 
employed, one for the obverse and the other for the reverse, or are 
dates. These inscriptions are often but abbreviations or monograms, 
especially when they indicate cities on the regal coins. 

The importance of Greek coins as illustrating the character of 
contemporary art cannot be easily overrated. They are beyond all 
other monuments the grammar of Greek art. Their geo- 
graphical and historical range is only limited by Greek 
history and the Greek world; as a series they may be 
called complete; in quality they are usually worthy of a place beside 
contemporary sculpture, having indeed a more uniform merit ;_ they 
are sometimes the work of great artists, and there is no question of 
their authenticity, nor have they suffered from the injurious hand of 
the restorer. Thus they tell us what other monuments leave untold, 
filling up gaps in the sequence of works of art, and revealing local 
schools known from them alone. 

The art of coins belongs to the province of relief, which lies between 
the domains of sculpture and of painting, partaking of the character 
of both, but most influenced by that which was dominant in each age. 
Thus in antiquity relief mainly shows the rule of sculpture; in the 
Renaissance that of painting. 

It may be expected that Greek coins will bear the impress of the 
sister art of sculpture, filling up the gaps in the sequence of examples 
of the art of which we have remains, telling us somewhat of that 
which has but a written tradition. Our first duty is to endeavour to 
place the documents in the best order, separating the geographical 
from the historical indications, first examining the evidence of local 
schools, then those of the succession of styles. It is from coins alone 
that we can discover the existence of great local schoojs, reflecting 
the character of the different branches of the Hellenic race. In 
tracing the changes in these schools we gain a great addition to our 
ideas of the successive styles, and can detect new examples of those 
which owe their fame to the leading masters. But in dealing with 
works in relief we have the advantage due to their intermediate 
character. In our larger geographical horizon we can trace the 
character of the successive styles, not of sculpture only, but also of 
sculpture and painting. 

Greek coins clearly indicate three great schools, each with its 
subordinate groups. The school of central Greece holds the first 
place, including the northern group centred in Thrace 
and Macedonia, and the southern in the Peloponnesus, schools. 
with the outlying special schools of Crece and Cyrene. 
The Ionian school has its northern group, Ionia, Mysia and 
Aeolis, and its southern, Rhodes and Caria. Beyond these are 
certain barbarous and semi-barbarous groups, of which the 
most important is that of eastern Asia Minor, Persia and 
Phoenicia, with Cyprus. The school of the West comprises the 
two groups of Italy and Sicily. 

The whole duration of the schools is limited, by the repulse of 
the Persians and the accession of Alexander, from 480 to 332 B.C. 
Before this age all is archaic, and it is hard to trace local character- 
istics. After it, the centralizing policy of the sovereigns and the 
fall of the free cities destroyed local art. In certain cultivated 
centres under enlightened kings a local art arose, but it speedily 
became general, and we have thus to think of a succession of styles 

1 The arms on the Syracusan decadrachms represent a reward 
given to the victors in the Assinarian games (see below). 



8 7 4 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



Central 
Greece. 



during the rest of the life of Greek art. The century and a half 
of the local schools is significantly the great age of this art. 

In the study of each school we have first to determine its 
character, and then to look in its successive phases for the 
influence of the great masters of style. Two dangers must 
be avoided. We must not too sharply divide the sculptors 
and the painters as if they always were true to the special 
functions of their arts. It is well to bear in mind that the 
earliest great painter, Polygnotus, was a portrayer of character, 
KaXAs ij0o7pd<>os, rflu&s, as Aristotle calls him, whereas the 
latest great sculptors represented expression (rd irdftj). Thus 
since rflos is the special province of sculpture, and rd. iraOri of 
painting, sculpture first weighed down the balance, afterwards 
painting; but it must be remembered that relief can be truer 
to painting than sculpture in the round, which is more limited 
by the conditions of the material and mechanical necessities. 
Our second danger is due to the ease with which local qualities 
may be ascribed to the influence of a leading style. It is also 
to be borne in mind that the movement of art in coins was during 
one period slower than in sculpture hence an influence more 
general than particular. Pheidias and Myron do not make their 
mark so much as Polyclitus. In all cases the direct influence 
of great masters is to be looked for later than their age. 

The school of central Greece in its southern group, comprehend- 
ing Attica, is remarkable for its widespread extent. It has its 
colonies in Magna Graecia at Thurium, an Athenian 
foundation, probably at Terina, and in Macedonia at 
Amphipolis and Chalcidice under Athenian rule. It 
alone shows instances comparable to the works of Pheidias, though 
its most numerous fine works are of the age of Polyclitus and 
that of Praxiteles and Scopas. Its qualities may be seen by 
comparison of the same subjects as treated by the other schools 
and groups. The earliest works are marked more than any 
others by the qualities of high promise which characterized the 
Aeginetan marbles the same dignified self-restraint and calm 
simplicity. Next we perceive a series strong in style, and 
showing that lofty dignity, that reposeful embodiment of 
character, which are the stamp of the works of Pheidias and his 
contemporaries. The subjects are more remarkable for fidelity, 
breadth and boldness than for delicacy of execution or elabora- 
tion of ornament. Every subject is ideal, even the portrayal 
of animal form. Thus the character shows us what divinity is 
intended and the ideality what is intended by the representation 
of beast or bird. From these works we pass to those which 
reflect the style of the time of Praxiteles and Scopas, when the 
influence of painting began to be felt, and art inclined towards 
feeling and descended to sentiment. Still, to the last, character 
rules these coins, and the chief difference we see is in the increased 
love of beauty for its own sake and the fondness for representing 
movement, not to the exclusion of repose, but by its side. In 
other respects there is little change except in the finer execution 
and more ornamental quality of the work. Even when the 
greatest achievement of the Sicilian school, the female head on 
the decadrachms of Syracuse, is copied by the Locrians and the 
Messenians, the larger quality of the school of Greece asserts 
itself, and the copy is better than the original: there is less 
artifice and more breadth. The northern group is at first ruder, 
in the age of Pheidias severer, and afterwards it merges into the 
greater softness of its southern rival. If it copies, as Larissa may 
copy Syracuse and Neapolis in Campania, it again asserts its 
superior simplicity, and we prefer the copy to the original. 

The Ionian school lacks the sequence which the rest of the 
Greek world affords. It is broken by the baneful influence of 
Ionia l ^ e P ers ' an dominion, and consequently the best works 
belong to the earliest and latest part of the period. 
The earliest coins, of the Aeginetan age, present nothing special; 
the later, of the time of Praxiteles and Scopas, comprise works 
not inferior to those of central Greece, and remarkable, like the 
Western and the Cretan, as the sole records of a school otherwise 
unknown. They are markedly characterized by the qualities 
of the style of feeling, that of Praxiteles and Scopas; but more 
than this, they are the expression of that style in pictorial form. 



They represent expression, and they treat it as it could not be 
treated in sculpture in the round, portraying locks streaming 
in the air and flowing draperies. It must be remembered that, 
while Hellas produced the great sculptors, western Asia Minor 
bred the great painters after Polygnotus, himself a sculptor in 
painting rather than a painter. In the native land of Zeuxis, 
Parrhasius and Apelles we see the evidence of the rule of painting. 
The technical skill is inferior to that of the West, yet the skill in 
modelling is far greater, and has no parallel in the medallic work 
of any other time or country. 

The school of the West, if we except such outlying examples of 
the art of Hellas as those of Thurium and Terina, has its highest 
expression in Italy, its most characteristic in Sicily. 
It has distinctive qualities throughout the age. Even W ' est 
in the earlier period we trace a striving after beauty and a 
delicacy of finish, with a weakness of purpose, that mark 
the school with an influence increasing to a time long after the 
extinction of its rivals. At the same time there is a knowledge 
of the capacity of the materials and the form of the coin and 
a masterly power of finish, on the whole a completeness of 
technical skill which is unequalled. The result in the lower 
subjects is splendid, if wanting in variety, but in the higher we 
miss the noble achievements of the greater schools. So far there 
is a general agreement in the northern and southern groups. 
Yet the Italian shows a nobler and simpler style, with some 
affinity to that of central Greece, which we look for in vain in 
Sicily, though we are dazzled by the rich beauty of the magni- 
ficent series of coins which marks her wealthiest age. Sicilian 
art has this apparent advantage, that the great cities, save 
Syracuse, perished in the Carthaginian invasion, or under the 
tyranny of the elder Dionysius. Thus we have no important 
works save of Syracuse during the second half of our period, and 
cannot judge fully to what this school would have fallen. The 
key to this exceptional development of Greek art is found in 
the absence of sculptors or painters in the West, except only 
Pythagoras of Rhegium at the very beginning of the age, whose 
influence is thought to be traceable on the money of his native 
town. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that many of the 
Sicilian die-engravers, as Phrygillos (to mention one whose 
signature is actually found on an intaglio) were gem-engravers. 
The Western art is that of engravers accustomed to minute and 
decorative work, uninfluenced by sculpture or painting. Their 
designs will not bear enlargement, which only enhances the 
charm of those of the other leading schools. Those of the 
great Syracusan decadrachms are small; those of the minute 
hectae of Cyzicus are large. 

The most important of the lesser schools is the Cretan. Crete, 
retaining the primitive life of older Hellas, was never truly 
civilized, but to the last enjoyed the privileges and 
exhibited the faults of an undeveloped condition. 
Producing in the age of high art neither sculptor nor painter 
of renown, the Cretans, to judge from their coins, were copyists of 
nature or art. At first rude, their work acquires excellence in 
design, but never in execution. While we see their poor reproduc- 
tions of the designs of the Peloponnesus, we are amazed by their 
skill m portraying nature. Their gods are seated in trees with a 
background of foliage. Their bulls are sketched as they wandered 
in the meadows. All fitness for the mode of relief, as well as for 
the material and the shape of the coin, is entirely ignored. 
Hence a delight in foreshortening, and a free choice of subject 
with no reference to the circle in which it must be figuied. In 
spite, however, of their skill, the Cretans never attempted the 
three-quarter face, which is at once the best suited to the surface 
of a coin and the most trying to the skill of the artist. Yet their 
work is delightfully fresh, as if done in the open air. There is no 
idealism, but much life and movement. In a word, the school is 
naturalistic and picturesque. Its works are of the highest value 
in the study of Greek art, but as examples of the application of 
that art to coins they are to be used with caution. Nowhere else 
do we see the artist so freely copying nature and art, nowhere so 
unshackled by academic rules, nowhere so little aware of the 
limitation of his province. 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



875 



It is important to study the mode in which Greek money was 
coined, because the forms of the pieces thus receive explanation, 
and true coins are discriminated from such modern falsifi- 
cations as have been struck, and in some degree from those 
coining. ^ wn ich have been cast. Our direct information on the 
subject is extremely scanty, but we are enabled by careful inference 
to obtain a very near approximation to the truth on all the most 
important points. 

Of the dies used by the Greeks exceedingly few have been pre- 
served. In the museum at Sofia is an iron die for the reverse of a 
coin of Philip II. of Macedon; and several Gaulish dies exist. Most 
ancient dies are of bronze, others of hardened iron or steel. The 
blanks were, as a rule, first cast, sometimes in a spherical form, some- 
times in a form more resembling that assumed by the finished coin. 
The blank was placed between two dies, the lower, let into an anvil, 
producing the obverse, the other, let into the end of a bar, producing 
the reverse. The bar was struck with a hammer, so that the blank 
received at the same time the impressions of both dies. This general 
rule was of course often modified ; in some parts of the Greek world 
the dies were hinged together, in others not ; and this arrangement of 
hinging the dies came in at different times in different places. The 
machinery of striking was probably much elaborated under the 
Roman empire, but a collar seems never to have been used in ancient 
times. Greek dies must usually have worn out very quickly; hence 
an enormous number of slightly varying representations of the same 
type. But the idea that it is uncommon to find two Greek coins 
from the same die is exaggerated. A great number of early Italian 
and Roman, and a few Greek coins, of large size, were cast in moulds, 
not struck ; and under the empire many coins, originally struck, were 
reproduced, not always fraudulently, by casting; but the genuine 
ancient coin of small size is, as an almost invariable rule, struck and 
not cast. 

We may now pass on to notice the Greek coinage of each 
country, following Eckhel's arrangement. The series begins 
greek with Spain, Gaul and Britain, constituting the only 
Coinage of great class of barbarous Greek coinage. It must not 
the Far be supposed that the money of the whole class is of 
West. one general character; on the contrary, it has very 
many divisions, distinguished by marked peculiarities; it has, 
however, everywhere one common characteristic its devices are 
corrupt copies of those of Greek or Roman coins. The earliest of 
these barbarous coinages begin with the best imitaticns of the 
gold and silver money of Philip II. of Macedon. They probably 
first appeared to the north of his kingdom, but the gold soon 
spread as far as Gaul, and even found their way into southern 
Britain, by which time the original types had almost disappeared 
through successive degradations. Next in order of time are the 
silver imitations of Roman coins, the victoriati and denarii of the 
commonwealth, which began in Spain and passed into Gaul, being 
current with the gold money of Greek origin; even in Britain 
the later coinage shows much Roman influence. The copper 
money of Spain follows the imitated silver types ; that of 
Gaul and Britain, though showing Roman influence, is more 
original. 

Side by side with these large coinages we find Greek money 
of colonies in Gaul and Spain, and a far ampler issue of 
Phoenician coins by the Carthaginian kings and cities 
of the Peninsula. The coinage of Hispania, corre- 
sponding to the modern Spain and Portugal, was issued during 
a period of about four centuries, closing in A.D. 41. There are 
four classes of money, which in the order of their relative anti- 
quity, are Greek, of two groups, Carthaginian, Romano-Iberian 
and Latin. The first or older group of Greek money (from before 
c. 350 B.C.) belongs to the widespread currency, which reveals 
the maritime power of the lonians of Phocaea. It consists of 
fractions of the drachm of the Phocaean standard, from the 
diobol or third downwards. Its later pieces are of the Phocaean 
colony of Emporiae, founded by the earlier settlement of Massilia. 
Next in order and in part contemporary, beginning before the 
middle of the 3rd century B.C., come the drachms of Emporiae, 
which betray the influence of Siculo-Punic art. Their standard 
is probably Carthaginian. Of the neighbouring Rhoda, a Rhodian 
colony, there is similar money. Carthaginian coins of Spain 
begin in the same period with the issues of the great colony of 
Gades, following the same weights as the Emporian drachms. 
These are followed by the issues of the Barcides from 234 to 210 
B.C., with Carthaginian types and of Phoenician weight, struck 
of six denominations, from the hexadrachm to the hemidrachm. 



Spain. 



Sefior Zobel de Zangr6niz has classea them to Spain, on the 
grounds of provenance and the possession of the silver mines 
by the Barcide kings, against Miiller, who attributes them to 
Africa. The types are Carthaginian, and present some interesting 
subjects. The true Iberian currency begins not long after the 
Punic. The later drachms of Emporiae, ultimately following 
the weight of the contemporary Roman denarius, have Iberian 
legends, and form the centre of a group of imitations issued by 
neighbouring native tribes with their distinctive inscriptions. 
This coinage ceased when the Roman province was formed in 
206 B.C. A little before this date the Romans had begun to 
introduce Latin money; about this time, however, they took 
the backward step of permitting native coinages of Latin weight. 
Probably they found that native legends and types were more 
welcome to their subjects than those of Rome. Consequently 
this coinage of Spain under the republic, which lasted until 
133 B.C., may be almost considered national. The two provinces 
Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior have this marked 
difference: the coins of the nearer province, of silver and bronze, 
have always Iberian inscriptions on the reverse, and are clearly 
under distinct Roman regulation; those of the farther are 
apparently of independent origin, and consequently bear Iberian, 
Phoenician, Libyo-Phoenician and Latin legends, but they are 
of bronze alone. The interest of these coins lies mainly in their 
historical and geographical information. They bear the names 
of tribes, often the same as those of the town of mintage. The art 
is poor, and lacks the quaint originality and decorative quality of 
that of Gaul. Ultimately the native money was wholly latinized 
(133 B.C.), silver was no longer issued, and although the Ulterior 
continued to have its own coinage, in the Citerior only Emporiae 
and Saguntum were allowed to strike coins. Political circum- 
stances for a time renewed the coinage under Sertorius (80-72 
B.C.) in the modified form of a bilingual currency. The purely 
Latin issues of the two provinces, and under the empire more 
largely (from 27 B.C.) of the three, Tarraconensis, Baetica and 
Lusitania, present little of interest. They closed in the reign of 
Caligula (A.D. 37-41), though in later times purely Roman money 
in gold and silver was issued at different times in Hispania down 
to the establishment of the Visigothic kingdom. 

The imperial money of Hispania introduces us to one of the 
two great classes of provincial coins under the empire; the 
larger of these was the Greek imperial, bearing Greek inscriptions, 
the smaller the Roman colonial, with Latin inscriptions, deriving 
its name from the circumstance that among Greek-speaking 
nations the coloniae were distinguished by the use of the Latin 
language on their money. In the coinage of Hispania, issued by 
a nation adopting Latin for official use, the aspect of the coinage 
is colonial, though it was not wholly issued by colonies. Many 
of the Spanish towns belong to the kindred class of municipia; 
others are neither coloniae nor municipia. In Hispania the 
obverse of the coin bears, as usual in the colonial class, the head 
of the emperor or of some imperial personage, the reverse a 
subject proper to the town. The priest guiding a plough drawn 
by an ox and a cow is peculiarly proper to a colonia, as portraying 
the ceremony of describing the walls of the city, so also an ox, 
with the same reference, the altar of the imperial founder, or, as 
connected with his cultus, a temple, probably in some cases that 
of Roma and Augustus. Other types, however, portray the 
old temples in restored Roman shapes, or indicate directly by 
fishes, ears of corn and more rarely bunches of grapes, the pro- 
ducts of the country. Some original and grotesque types have 
a markedly local character. The money of Augusta Emerita 
(Merida) in Lusitania, a colony of pensioners (emiriti), is specially 
interesting, including as it does the silver issues of P. Carisius, the 
legatus of Augustus. 

The coinage commonly called that of Gaul belongs to the people 
more properly than to the country, for it comprehends pieces 
issued by the Gauls or other barbarians from the 
borders of Macedonia and Illyricum to the English 
Channel and the Bay of Biscay, through Pannonia, part 
of Germany, Helvetia and Gaul. It influenced the money 
of northern Italy, and, crossing the Channel, produced that of 



The 

Haul*. 



876 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



Britain, which has its own distinctive features. Four classes 
of coinage are found in these vast limits. Arranging them by 
date, they are the money of the Greek colony of Massilia and her 
dependencies, that of the Gauls and other barbarians of central 
and western Europe, that which can be classed to the tribes and 
chiefs of Gaul and the imperial coinage of that country. The 
coins of the Gauls and other barbarians outside Gallia include the 
gold coins known as " rainbow cups " (Regenbogenschiissekheri) , 
which seem to have been an original currency of the tribes in- 
habiting the Bohemian and Bavarian districts, and other gold 
and silver coins (the later series bearing names in Latin char- 
acters) which circulated in Noricum, Pannonia, Helvetia, Upper 
Germany, &c. 

The great mart of Massilia (Marseilles), founded about 600 B.C. 
by the Phocaeans, was the centre of the Greek settlements of Gaul 
Massilia an< ^ northern Spain. Emporiae was her colony, with 
other nearer towns of inferior fame. Yet Massilia 
always held the first place, as is proved by the abundance of her 
money. At first it consisted of Phocaean obols, part of the 
widespread Western currency already noticed in speaking of 
Emporiae. These were succeeded by Attic drachms, some of 
which, about Philip of Macedon's time, are beautiful in style and 
execution. Their obverse type is the head of Artemis, crowned 
with olive, at once marking the sacred tree, which had grown 
from a branch carried by the colonists, so tradition said, with a 
statue of the goddess, from Ephesus, and proclaiming the value 
of the olive-groves of Massilia. On the reverse we note the 
Asiatic lion, common to it and the last colony of Phocaea, the 
Italian Velia in Lucania. These coins circulated extensively in 
southern Gaul, and were much imitated by the barbarians on 
both sides of the Alps. 

The Gauls, on their predatory incursions into Greece, must 
have seized large quantities of the gold coinage circulating there, 
Oaul. but ** i s P ro bable that the gold staters of Philip (PI. 
I. fig. 14), from which the chief types of the Gaulish 
gold are derived (PI. I. fig. i), had already found their way, inde- 
pendently of such raids, by means of trade along the Danube 
valley into the districts then inhabited by the Gauls. This is 
clear from the fact that the gold coins of Alexander were never, 
his silver rarely, imitated by the Gauls, yet these were in circula- 
tion at the time of the incursions. Nor did the influence of 
Philip's silver travel far west. But his gold money evidently 
travelled through central Europe to Gallia. The money of Gallia 
before the complete Roman conquest, to which it may be anterior 
in its commencement by half a century, belongs in the gold to 
degraded types of the earlier widespread currency. The un- 
doubted gold and electrum of this imitative class, identified as 
bearing regal or geographical names, are extremely limited. By 
far the most interesting coin of the group is the gold piece which 
bears the name at full length of the brave and unfortunate 
Vercingetorix. The silver money is comparatively common. 
The Gauls were ready to copy any types that came in 
their way, so that in the coinage of Gaul we find imitations 
of the coinage of Tarentum, Campania, various Spanish cities 
such as Rhoda, and Roman coins of the republic and early 
empire. The effect of the silver of Massilia and other Greek 
colonies is especially noticeable in S. Gaul, and the Roman 
denarius naturally exerted a strong influence. The bronze money 
of Gaul is still more abundant than the silver, and has a special 
interest from its characteristic types. Some of the later local 
coins are casts of an alloy of copper and tin called potin, but 
merely a variety of bronze. The Roman coins recall those of 
Hispania, but are limited to a few coloniae. They range in date 
from Antony and Augustus to Claudius. The best-known coins 
of this time, those struck at the colony of Copia Lugdunum 
(Lyons) with the " Altar of Roma and Augustus," belong, how- 
ever, strictly speaking, to the Roman series. The coins of 
Nemausus (Nimes), commemorating the conquest of Egypt in 
the crocodile chained to a palm-tree, were sometimes made in 
the shape of the hind-leg of an animal, evidently for dedication 
in the sacred fountain, from the mud of which all the specimens 
of this variety are derived. 



The ancient coinage of Britain is the child of that of Gaul, 
retaining the marks of its parentage, yet with characters of its 
own due to independent growth. Money first came in Britain 
trade by the easiest sea-passage, and, once established in 
Kent, gradually spread north and west, until the age of the earlier 
Roman wars, when it was issued in Yorkshire, probably in 
Lincolnshire, and in a territory of which the northern limits are 
marked by the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge, Huntingdon, 
Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Gloucester and Somerset. 
The oldest coins are gold imitations of Philip's staters, which, 
whether struck in Gaul or Britain, had a circulation on the British 
side of the Channel. They are the prototypes of all later money. 
From a careful comparison of their weights with those of later 
coins, and from a study of the gradual degradation of the types, 
Evans places the origin of the coinage between 200 and 1 50 B.C. 
Its close may be placed about the middle of the ist century A.D. 
The inscribed coins occupy the last century of this period, being 
contemporary with uninscribed ones. The uninscribed coins 
are of gold, silver, bronze and tin, the gold being by far the most 
common. There is small variety in the types, nearly all in gold 
and silver, and some in copper, presenting in more or less degraded 
form the original Gaulish type for gold. It may be suspected 
that all new types and the extremely barbarous descendant of 
the tin series are of the age of the inscribed coins, or but little 
earlier. The Channel Islands are remarkable for a peculiar 
coinage of billon, a very base silver, presenting the usual types 
modified by Gaulish grotesqueness. The place of this group 
in the British series is merely accidental; in character as in 
geography it is Gaulish. 

The inscribed coins are evidently in most cases of chiefs, 
though it is certain that one town (Verulamium) and some tribes 
had the right of striking money. The most interesting coins are 
those of known chiefs and their families of Commius, probably 
the active prince mentioned by Caesar, of Dubnovellaunus, 
mentioned in the famous Ancyra inscription, which has been 
called the will of Augustus, and most of all the large and interest- 
ing series of Cunobelinus, Shakespeare's Cymbeline (PI. I. fig. 2), 
his brother Epaticcus, and his father Tasciovanus. It is evident 
from the coins and historical evidence collected by Evans that 
Tasciovanus had a long reign. His chief town, as we learn from 
his money, was Verulamium. His coins are in three metals, 
repeat the traditional types, and present new ones, some showing 
a distinctly Roman influence. The money of Epaticcus is scanty, 
but that of Cunobelinus, with Camulodunum (Colchester) for his 
chief town, is even more abundant than his father's, indicating 
a second long reign, and having the same general characteristics. 
The gold shows a modification of the traditional type, the silver 
and bronze the free action of Roman influence and a remarkable 
progress in art. With the death of this prince not long before 
A.D. 43 the bulk of the British coinage probably ceases, none being 
known of his sons, Adminius, Togodumnus and the more famous 
Caractacus, but the coins of the Iceni may have continued as 
late as A.D. 5, and the Brigantes issued silver coins as late as 
the time of Cartimandua, whose name is partly preserved on one 
of them. 

The ancient coins of Italy occupy the next place. They appear 
to have been struck during a period of more than 500 years, the 
oldest being probably of the beginning of the 6th ltalyf 
century B.C. and the latest somewhat anterior to the 
time of Julius Caesar. The larger number, however, are of the 
age before the great extension of Roman power, which soon led 
to the use of Roman money almost throughout Italy. There are 
two great classes, which may be called the proper Italian and the 
Graeco-Italian; but many coins present peculiarities of both. 
The proper Italian coins are of gold, silver and bronze. Of these, 
the gold coins are extremely rare, and can never have been 
struck in any large numbers. The silver are comparatively 
common, but the bronze are very numerous and characteristic. 
A few of the earliest gold and silver coins of Etruria have a 
perfectly plain reverse. The most remarkable bronze coins of this 
class are of the kind called aes grave, most of which were the early 
proper coinage of Rome, although others are known to have been 



NUMISMATICS 



PLATE I. 




XIX. 876. 



GREEK COINS. 



PLATE II. 



NUMISMATICS 




GREEK AND ROMAN COINS. 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



877 



issued by other Italian cities. These are very thick coins, some 
of which are of great size, while most have a rude appearance. 
They are always cast, and were preceded by formless lumps of 
bronze, known as aes rude, which were not properly a state- 
coinage. The designs of the Italian coins are generally, if not 
always, of Greek origin, although the influence of the native 
mythology may be sometimes traced. The inscriptions are in 
Latin, Oscan or Etruscan, and follow a native orthography; 
sometimes on the earlier coins they are retrograde. The art of 
this class is generally poor, or even barbarous. The denomina- 
tions are common to Greek money, except in the case of the bronze, 
which follows a native system. Of this system the early proper 
Roman coins afford the best known examples. The Graeco- 
Italian coins are of gold, silver and bronze. The silver and 
bronze are very common, and the gold comparatively so, although 
struck by fev: states or cities. A number of the cities of S. Italy 
issued in the 6th century coins with an incuse design on the 
reverse repeating with slight modifications the design of the 
obverse. The designs are of Greek origin, although here, as in 
the proper Italian coins, but less markedly, native influence can 
be detected. This influence is evident in the frequent occurrence 
of types symbolically representing rivers, showing a bias towards 
the old nature-worship, and still more in the use of Latin in- 
scriptions, with half-Italian forms of the letters on coins other- 
wise Greek. Of the best art of ancient Italian money we have 
already spoken, and we shall have occasion to mention some of its 
most beautiful examples. The denominations of the gold and 
silver coins are unquestionably derived from those of Greece, 
according to the weight of the Attic talent, the heaviest 
gold piece being the stater or 3Oooth part of that talent; in 
silver there are few tetradrachms, the didrachms are extremely 
common, and smaller denominations are usually not rare. We 
thus learn that the silver currency was chiefly of didrachms, 
smaller pieces being less used, and larger ones scarcely used at 
all. It is important here to notice that the interchange of the 
native or Italian bronze coinage with the Greek silver coinage 
led to a double standard, silver and bronze. The bronze standard, 
as might be suspected, was of Italian origin, the silver of foreign 
introduction. 

The peculiarity of the Italian bronze is that in its oldest cast 
form it was of such weight as to show the absence in some parts 
of the country of silver equivalents. It was long after silver had 
been introduced everywhere, with struck bronze equivalents, 
before the heavy coinage (aes grave) went out of circulation. 
The silver money is at first remarkable for the evidence it affords 
of its extraneous character in presenting two standards. After- 
wards it becomes equivalent to the bronze, or supplies equivalent 
pieces, and is quite regular. The original condition of the Italian 
currencies is best illustrated by the money of Etruria in the 
4th and 3rd centuries B.C. Etruria, be it remembered, was an 
early goal of oriental commerce by sea. At the great mart of 
Populonia, and in the country round, we find, besides a few gold 
coins, not only silver coins of two different foreign standards, 
the Euboic and the so-called Persic, but also cast aes grave and 
later struck bronze pieces. Without discussing the origin of these 
various currencies it is enough to note that they bear witness to 
the effects of a widely-spread commerce, and show that here was 
the meeting-point of the native system and of foreign ones. 

In Italy the aes grave long ruled. Originally it was libral, the 
principal coin being the as, nominally of the weight of the Italic 
pound of 273 grammes; this, at least, is the weight of the earliest 
Roman coinage. Oh the other hand, the aes grave of some places 
in E. Italy, as Hatria and Ariminum, is heavier. The successive 
reductions of the as belong to Roman numismatics, and it is only 
necessary here to add that they affected the local bronze coinages 
as Italy fell under the rule of the republic. The silver coinages, 
on the other hand, survived for a longer time throughout the 
Greek cities. Apart from the complicated silver coinage of 
Etruria, and from the Roman issues, we find in central Italy 
a few silver coins (the unit of 1-18 grammes being the equivalent, 
at the rate of 1-250, of a bronze as of n-io oz.) and a large silver 
coinage of didrachms and smaller denominations in lower Italy. 



This was chiefly issued by the wealthy marts which dotted the 
coasts of Campania, Calabria, Lucania and the Bruttii. We 
find Etruscan inscriptions on the coins of Etruria, and Oscan on 
some of those of middle and lower Italy, where they are eclipsed 
in number and style by the Greek issues. The chief silver 
standards of S. Italy are (i) the Campanian (with a didrachm 
of 7-41 grammes); (2) the Italic, with a stater of 8-16 grammes, 
divided into thirds; and (3) the Tarentine, with a stater of 8-32 
grammes, divided into halves. The Tarentine stater was known 
as vovufias. The independent coinage of Italy, with one exception, 
came to an end in 89 B.C. 

Beginning in the north of Italy, the first coins that strike us 
are those of Populonia in Etruria. The silver money of this 
place is generally of the peculiar fabric in which the reverse is left 
perfectly plain. The aes grave of upper and middle Italy was 
largely dominated by the issues of the Roman mints at Rome 
and Capua (to be treated later). Samnium shows us a curious 
revival of native silver money after the local coinage of the Italian 
towns had been almost abolished by Rome. It was the result of 
the Social or Marsic War of the confederate tribes, who struck 
for Italy against the Roman supremacy during the years between 
90 and 88 B.C. The coins present the head of Italia, and reverse 
types, of which the most striking are warriors, varying in number, 
taking an oath over a sacrificial pig, and a bull for Italy goring 
the prostrate wolf of Rome. The inscriptions are Oscan or 
Latin. 

Certain of the Greek towns of Italy deserve special mention for 
the splendour of their coinage beautiful in style and delicate in 
execution. I n Campania (leaving the Romano-Campanian greet 
for later notice) the two most interesting currencies are of , vns . 
Cumae and Neapolis, the modern Naples. Cumae presents . 
silver money of the archaic and the early fine style, 
in which last we first observe the peculiar na'ivet6 of western 
Greek art before it had attained elaboration. The abundant silver 
coins of Neapolis are of the early and the late fine periods and of the 
decline. The types are usually the head of the siren Parthenope, 
more rarely Athene; the reverse presents the man-headed bull 
common on Campanian money, and possibly meant for the river-god 
Achelous, father of the Sirens. The bronze money is of good style, 
and age has beautified it with the rich blue or green patina due to the 
sulphurous soil. When we reach Calabria the Greek money startles 
us in astonishing wealth of beauty in the currency of the opulent and 
luxurious mart of Tarentum, second only to Syracuse in the whole 
West, of all the main periods of art, and including in the age of its 
present prosperity and its fall (the time of the contest with Rome) 
the most abundant gold issues of any Greek city. The gold money of 
Tarentum (see Plate) is a delight to the eye, with the varied beauty 
of its gem-like types, which, while they show the gem-engraver's art, 
prove the medallist's knowledge of the rich but opaque metallic 
material. Several heads of divinities adorn these coins, and the chief 
reverse types relate to the legendary founder, Taras, son of Poseidon. 
Always a youth, he appears as a charioteer, perhaps as a horseman, 
and riding on a dolphin the familiar Tarentine type. The most 
remarkable subject represents him with outstretched arms praying 
to Poseidon, probably in allusion to the Tarentines' appeal to Sparta 
for aid about 346 B.C. (PI. I. fig. 3). The silver coinage is chiefly of 
didrachms of reduced Corinthian weight. The prevalent type is 
Taras seated on a dolphin ; in the earliest money the type is single, 
and repeated incuse on the reverse; afterwards this subject occupies 
the reverse, and, itself a charming composition, is delightfully varied. 
On the early fine coins the people or demos, personified generally as 
a youth, often holding a spindle, occupies the obverse, but gives place 
in the 4th century to a horseman in various attitudes, affording great 
scope to the engraver's skill ; probably he is Taras himself, save when 
he is a full-grown warrior. These representations illustrate the 
famed horsemanship of the Tarentines, and refer to contests and 
games which were probably local. Heraclea in Lucania shows us 
didrachms of the fine age, with heads of Athene and subjects con- 
nected with Heracles: the contest with the Nemean lion is most 
skilfully treated, and the series is very characteristic of the gem- 
engraver's art. The powerful city of Metapontum begins with early 
coins having the incuse reverse, and then displays a long series 
stretching down to the decline of art. The constant type, which 
recurs with the heraldic instinct of the West, is the ear of barley, 
reminding us of the " golden harvest " (xpwovv Bipot) which the 
Metapontines dedicated at Delphi. Like the Tarentine badge, it 
first occupies the obverse, then the reverse, balanced by a charming 
series of heads of divinities. Persephone is the most appropriate 
counterpart; we also note heads of Concordia ('Oit&mia) and Hygieia, 
marked by an ingenuous grace peculiar to the early fine work of the 
Western school, of Leucippus the founder as a helmeted warrior 
(occurring on a rare tetradrachm and the usual didrachms), and 
many other types of unusual variety and originality of conception. 



878 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



Poseidonia issued coins from the archaic period (beginning with 
the usual incuse fabric) to its capture by the Lucanians early 
in the 4th century. Its successor Paestum began to coin about 
300, and was allowed to keep its mint open even after 89 B.C., 
when all other local mints in Italy were closed, until the time of 
Tiberius. 

The ancient Sybaris, famous for her luxury, has left archaic coins; 
she was, however, destroyed by Croton in 510 B.C. The Athenian 
colony of Thurium eventually arose near the site of the old Sybaris 
in 443, and immediately began to issue a splendid series of coins. 
Not only is the face of the coin occupied by the head of Athene, and 
the great currency, as at Athens, of tetradrachms, but the severe 
beauty of the style points to the direct influence of the art of central 
Greece (PI. I. fig. 4). The head of Athene is covered by a helmet 
adorned first with a wreath of olive and then a splendid figure of the 
sea-monster Scylla. The reverse shows a bull butting (flofcpios), in 
a strikingly ideal form. Probably the obverse type affords the nearest 
reflection of the masterpiece of Pheidias, or at least the closest 
following of his style. 

Velia, the last colony of Phocaea, whose citizens sailed away to 
the far west rather than submit to the Persian tyrant (544 B.C.), 
shows coins from its foundation. The pieces of fine work witness to 
an Asiatic origin in the types of the lion, devouring the stag or as 
a single device, while the obverse displays the head of Athene so 
much in favour in Magna Graecia. The style, which lacks strength 
but not beauty, is Italian, and we see no trace of the pictorial qualities 
of Ionian art, which indeed had not taken its mature form when 
the exiles left the mother country. 

The Bruttii are the first native Italians whom we find striking 
a fair Greek coinage. Their gold and silver is of late style, the gold 
presenting the head of Poseidon and Thetis on a &ea-hprse, the 
silver the head of Thetis and the figure of Poseidon, both with other 
subjects. Caulonia has early coins running down to the early fine 
period, mythologically interesting in type, and the later with a 
beautifully designed stag on the reverse. For Croton the ruling type 
is the tripod. The eagle occurs on the obverse and the tripod on the 
reverse. The bird of Zeus is inferior to that at Agrigentum, as this 
again is inferior to the eagle of Elis. We note also beautiful types of 
Heracles seated, one of marvellously delicate work, on the reverse of 
which Apollo aims an arrow at the Python from behind his tripod 
a remarkable composition. The other Heracles types form a most 
interesting series of recollections, " memory sketches," of a famous 
statue, the pose of which recalls the so-called Theseus of the 
Parthenon, while the obverse presents the head of the Hera Lacinia 
worshipped on the promontory close by. The latest coins, like the 
parallel ones of Metapontum, are weak and pretty. The money of the 
Locri Epizephyrii affords two curious types of reverse, Eirene seated, 
of fine style, with the legend EIPHNH AOKPUN, and the later yet 
more remarkable subject of Roma seated while Pistis crowns her, the 
legend being PfiMA HISTI2 AOKPiiN. There are beautiful coins 
of the little known town of Pandosia, bearing the head of the nymph 
Pandosia (?) ; the reverse has the river Crathis, a splendid head of the 
Lacinian Hera, and Pan. 

Rhegium was closely connected with Messene in Sicily opposite, 
and thus the great Sicilian currency of tetradrachms prevails. 
Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium from 494 to 476 B.C., early in his rule 
acquired Messene through Samian adventurers. The coins of both 
towns at first present Samian types, and then, the Samians having 
been expelled, Anaxilaus commemorates his Olympic victory in the 
mule-car. The same type appears at Messene and last longer. 
In both cases the reverse bears a running hare, an animal which 
Anaxilaus introduced into Sicily. The later 5th-century coinage of 
Rhegium shows a seated figure of the Rhegine Demos, and a fine head 
of Apollo, by the engraver Hippocrates. 

The little-known town of Terina is illustrious as having produced 
a series of silver didrachms which, on the whole, is the most beautiful 
in Italy (PI. I. fig. 5). The obverse has the head of a goddess, who 
is portrayed winged on the reverse a wonderfully fine subject, well 
conceived and most delicately executed in a variety of different 
attitudes, some recalling the Victories which adorn the balustrade 
of the temple of Wingless Victory at Athens. Very curiously, the 
money of Terina begins with an archaic coin which bears on the 
reverse the named figure of a Wingless Victory, surrounded by the 
olive-wreath. 

The coinage of Sicily is Greek. The Hellenic and Carthaginian 
colonies of the coast left the barbarous natives undisturbed in the 
SJcll inland country, and both issued Greek money, the 

Punic with a tincture of Phoenician style. The coinage 
ranges from the 6th century B.C. until the subjugation of the 
island by the Romans, after which a few cities struck colonial 
or imperial coins for a short space. The marked periods are 
those of the preponderance of Syracuse from 480 to 212 B.C., 
interrupted by the great Carthaginian wars, which were fatal 
to the cities of the southern coast. The coinage is in gold 
and electrum, mainly issued at Syracuse, in silver and in bronze. 
The standard is Attic, except the earliest money of the Chalcidian 



colonies Himera, Zancle (Messene), and Naxos, which follows the 
Aeginetan weight. The metrology of Sicily has a distinct 
relation to that of Italy. Here also there is a double standard, 
silver and bronze, and in consequence an intrusive silver coin, 
differing but little from the obol, weighing 0-87 instead of -73 
grammes, the silver equivalent of the bronze litra, whose name 
it borrows. The litra in bronze was the Sicilian pound of 218 
grammes, equal to half an Attic mina, and to two-thirds of the 
Roman libra or pound. So important was the litra in Sicily 
that the silver litra supplanted the obol, and the didrachm was 
sometimes called a stater of ten litrae, the decadrachm a piece of 
fifty litrae, pentecontalitron. The leading coin is the tetra- 
drachm, not, as in Italy, the didrachm. 

The Sicilian money is of extremely careful artistic work, not 
unfrequently even in the case of bronze allowing for a more 
rapid execution of the die; and the highest technical excellence 
is attained. The art is that of the southern branch of the great 
Western school, generally more skilful than the art of southern 
Italy, but less varied. The earlier fine work has a naive beauty 
peculiar to the West and almost confined to Sicily; all that 
follows is evidently gem-engravers' work. These coins are 
remarkable for the frequency of artists' signatures, which for 
the short period of highest skill are almost universal on the 
larger silver money of Syracuse, and occur less frequently on 
that of the other great cities. Among these artists may be 
mentioned Exacestidas (at Camarina), Eucleidas, Eumenes, 
Phrygillus (at Syracuse), Euacnetus (Syracuse, Camarina, 
Catana), Cimon (Messana, Syracuse PI. I. figs. 7, 8), Heracleidas 
and Choirion (Catana). As in Italy, the decline is more rapid 
than elsewhere in the Greek world, in consequence of the 
inherent weakness of the style; but it is in part due to the 
calamities of the island, as of lower Italy. 

The fame won by the tyranni and other leading aristocrats of 
Sicily in the great national contests of Hellas, in the race with 
the quadriga, the mule-car and the horse, led to the introduction 
and supremacy of types commemorating these victories, probably 
in most cases those achieved at Olympia. It is obvious that no 
success could be so appropriately figured on the coinage; the 
charioteer or the horseman, not the city, was the victor, but at 
the same time the renown of the city was indissolubly connected 
with the citizen who won it. Hence these types are almost 
confined to states ruled by tyranni or oligarchies; outside Sicily 
they are practically only found at Rhegium when it was closely 
connected with Sicily, at Cyrene, in the money of Philip II. of 
Macedon and at Olynthus and in Euboea. The horseman is not 
a frequent type; the mule-car is limited to Messene (and 
Rhegium); but the quadriga becomes the stereotyped subject 
for the reverse of the great Sicilian tetradrachms the bulk of 
the coinage and only escapes heraldic sameness by a charming 
variety in the details. In the age of finest art a divinity of the 
city takes, in Homeric guise, the place of the charioteer, or 
Victory herself so wins the contest; commonly she hovers 
above, about to crown the charioteer or the horses. Yet more 
interesting are the types connected with nature-worship, 
especially those portraying river-gods in the form of a man- 
headed bull, or a youth with the budding horns of a calf, or in the 
shape of a dog, and also the subjects of the nymphs of fountains. 
These types occur on either side of the coin. On nearly all, 
one side (in early times the reverse, later the obverse) is held by 
the head of a divinity, Persephone and Athene taking the first 
place. 

The leading position which Syracuse held in the island makes 
it proper to notice her splendid currency first, the finest for 
knowledge of the materials, for skill in suitably filling ncuse 
the space, and for delicacy of execution in the whole y 
range of Greek money, though we miss the noble simplicity 
of Greece, the strong feeling of western Asia Minor, and the 
simple picturesqueness of Crete. Syracuse was founded in 
734 B.C. by Archias of Corinth, an origin which, remembered 
on both sides, served her well in later history. In the 6th 
century, perhaps while still under the oligarchy of the Geomori, 
she issued her most archaic silver money, which, primitive as 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



879 



it is, gives promise of the care of the later coinage, and begins 
the agonistic types, thus indicating some early victory at a great 
Hellenic contest. Gelo, tyrant of Gela, .won the chariot race at 
Olympia in 488 B.C., secured Syracuse in 485 B.C., and, when 
the Carthaginians, probably by agreement with Xerxes, invaded 
Sicily, utterly routed them at the great battle of Himera (480 
B.C.), the Salamis of the West. These events find their record 
in the issue and subjects of his Syracusan money, which, however, 
was struck, as usual in that age, in the name of the people. 
The chariot type is varied, for Victory appears hovering above 
the charioteer, about to crown the horses, and the coins issued 
after the great battle show the lion of Libya beneath the car in 
the exergue (PI. I. fig. 6). These last pieces are fixed in date by 
the famous story how Gelo's wife Demarete, having gained 
favourable terms for the vanquished Carthaginians, was presented 
by them with a hundred talents of gold, by means of which 
were coined the great silver pieces of fifty litrae or ten drachms, 
which were called after her Demareteia. They bear the head of 
Victory, crowned with laurel, and the quadriga and lion. The 
battle of Himera and the death of Gelo (478 B.C.) fix the date of 
these remarkable coins, which close the archaic series of Syracuse 
and give us a fixed point in Greek art, at about 479 B.C. 

Hiero I. (478-466 B.C.), the brother and successor of Gelo, 
continues the same types, alluding, as Head well remarks (loc. 
fit.), to his great victory over the Etruscans off Cuniae (474 B.C.), 
by the marine monster in the exergue of the reverse which 
denotes the vanquished maritime power. It is to be noted that 
as Gelo introduces the Victory in the chariot type, so in the 
horseman type we now first see Victory crowning the rider. 
Gelo had won an Olympic victory in the four-horse contest, 
Hiero in the horse-race, though he also won with the four horses 
in the Pythian games. With Hiero's money we say farewell 
to archaic art. The female heads on the obverse now have the 
eye in profile and show beauty and variety, and the horses are 
even exceptionally represented in rapid action. With the short 
rule of Thrasybulus, the last brother of the house, it came to an 
end, and the age of the democracy (466-406 B.C.) began. The 
victories by land and sea of Gelo and Hiero had established the 
power of the city on a sure basis, and fifty years of prosperity 
followed. To the earlier part of this age belong the beautiful 
transitional coins in which the female heads are marked by a 
youthful simplicity of beauty combined with fanciful and even 
fantastic treatment of the hair; the reverses remain extremely 
severe. Towards the close of this age, beginning about 430, 
there are very fine works, the first signed coins, with the old 
dignity yet with greater freedom of style, the horses of the 
quadriga in rapid movement. 

The victory of Syracuse in the contest with Athens was the 
occasion for the reissue of ten-drachm pieces, commonly but 
erroneously called medallions. On the reverses of these are a 
victorious chariot and a panoply of arms, representing the 
prizes offered at the games by which the Syracusans com- 
memorated the defeat of the Athenians on the Assinarus in 
413. On the obverses is the head of the local nymph Arethusa. 
The designs are by the artists Cimon (PI. I. fig. 8), Euaenetus, 
and a third who is nameless. These pieces continued to 
be issued down to about 360 B.C. through the Dionysian 
period. Contemporary with them are numerous splendid tetra- 
drachms signed and unsigned as well as the first gold 
and bronze issued by Syracuse. The interference of Dion 
in Syracusan politics (357-353) was marked by the intro- 
duction of an electrum coinage, and of a silver didrachm of 
Corinthian type, corresponding in weight to the tridrachm of 
Corinth, and with the same types, the head of Athena and the 
Pegasus. The Dionysian dynasty closed in anarchy, until 
Syracuse appealed to Corinth, and Timoleon was sent to restore 
order (344 B.C.). His advent marks an epoch in Sicilian coinage. 
He restored the gold coinage and issued various silver coi is 
which allude to Corinth and to liberty, and under his influence 
many small cities in Sicily awoke to political life as members of 
Timoleon's league and issued a scanty but interesting bronze 
coinage. The Syracusan democracy was overthrown in 317 B.C. 



and the city seized by Agathocles (317-289 B.C.), the worst 
of the tyrants of Syracuse. In the course of his reign he adopted 
the royal style, and his coins, a reflection of earlier work, give 
his name first without and then with the title king a double 
innovation. The most interesting of his corns are those which 
bear allusions to his campaign in Africa. 

The tyrant Hicetas (288-280 B.C.) and the next ruler, Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus (278-275 B.C.), continue the coinage, Pyrrhus 
issuing money in the name of the Syracusans and also striking 
his own pieces. The departure of Pyrrhus led to the establish- 
ment by Hiero II. (c. 270-216 B.C.) of a dynasty which, so long 
as he ruled, restored the ancient prosperity and preponderance 
of the rule of his namesake. At first content with inscribing 
his name alone, he soon not only takes the title of king, conferred 
on him in the early years of his reign, but also places his portrait 
on the money. Of his time is the beautiful portrait of his queen 
Philistis. The money of the short reign of Hieronymus (215- 
214 B.C.) and of the brief democracy which fell before the Romans 
(214-212 B.C.) close the independent series of this great city. 
But her name still appears in bronze money issued after the 
conquest. 

Taking the rest of the money of Sicily in alphabetical order, we 
first note a very fine bronze coin bearing a beautiful female head, 
perhaps that of Sicilia, crowned with myrtle, and a lyre, nth 
which belongs to the time of Timoleon's league. This coin %~. r 
is conjecturally attributed to Adranum. The first great 
town is Agrigentum, represented by archaic, transitional, 
and fine coins, the fine series ending with the overthrow of the city 
by the Carthaginians in 406 B.C. a blow from which it never re- 
covered. The usual types are the eagle and the fresh-water crab, 
but in the age of finest art we see two eagles devouring a hare (cf. 
Aeschylus, Agam. 109 seq.) and a victorious chariot; these occur in 
the rare decadrachm (PI. I. fig. 9), on which the river-god Acragas 
himself drives the car, and the tetradrachms. The eagle is superior 
to that of Croton, inferior to that of Elis. Many of the bronze coins 
are of good work. The type most worthy of note is the head of a 
river-god, with the name Acragas, which was that of the local stream, 
and on the reverse an eagle standing on an Ionic capital, the Olympic 
turning-post. The success of Agrigentum at the games is attested by 
Pindar, while Virgil (Aen. iii. 704), Gratius (Cyneg. 526) and Silius 
Italic us (xiv. 210) mention its ancient renown for horses. 

The money of Camarina is of especial beauty and interest. Camar- 
ina struck but few coins before the year of liberation (461 ), soon after 
which was issued a didrachm having on the obverse a helmet upon a 
round shield and on the reverse a pair of greaves, between which is a 
dwarf palm. This piece is followed by tetradrachms and didrachms 
of the best period, most beautiful in style, and varying a little from 
difference of age. The tetradrachms bear on the obverse the head 
of Heracles in the lion's skin, and on the reverse Athena as a victor at 
the Olympic games in a quadriga. It was Athena, protector of the 
city (iro\i Aox< IIoXXAs) , whose sacred grove was made more illustrious 
by the success of Psaumis. The didrachms have on the obverse the 
head of a river-god, portrayed as a young man with small horns and 
with wet hair. Of the two rivers of Camarina, the Oanus and the 
Hipparis, the Hipparis is here represented, for in one case the name 
is given on the coin. Pindar seems to show the same preference, for, 
while he merely mentions the Oanus (rarafjAr . . . "Q<u>a>), bespeaks 
of the sacred channels by which the Hipparis watered the city (atiavin 
6x*Toin, "Ivrapit olau- dp5 arpa.T6f). On the reverse the nymph 
Camarina ('Qxtamv Otoyarfp . . . Kafiaptva) is seen carried across 
her lake (tyxP'<" > M/IKO*) by a swan swimming with expanded 
wings, while she aids it by spreading her veil in the manner of a sail. 
Some of these didrachms have on either side, around the chief 
device, fresh-water fishes. The series of Catana comprises fine archaic 
tetradrachms and others of the time of the best art. The archaic 
tetradrachms have the types of a river in the form of a man-headed 
bull and of the figure of Victory, of a type remarkably advanced for 
the time at which they were struck. From 476 to 461, under the 
name of Aetna, its coinage is represented especially by a unique 
tetradrachm (PI. I. fig. 10), with a wonderful head of Silenus, and Zeus 
as the god of the volcano holding a thunderbolt and a sceptre made 
of a vine-branch; before him is an eagle perched on one of the 
Aetnaean pines. The head of Apollo succeeds, with for reverse the 
victorious quadriga, in one case passing the turning-post, an Ionic 
column. Historically interesting is a small silver coin issued by 
Catana and Leontini in alliance between 405 and 403. Eryx towards 
the end of the 5th century produced some rare tetradrachms on 
which Eros is represented at the knees of his mother, asking for the 
dove which she holds. 

Gela is represented by coins of which the archaic tetradrachms 
must be especially mentioned. They have on the obverse the fore- 
part of the river-god Gelas, whence the city took its nar.ie. The Gelas 
is represented as a bull, haying the face of a bearded man. On the 
reverse is a victorious quadriga, in some examples represented passing 



88o 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



an Ionic column, as on coins of Catana. A beautiful tetradrachm 
represents the city goddess (Sosipolis) placing a wreath on the head 
of the monstrous river-god. A little later is a tetradrachm which has 
types of the head of the Gelas as a young man horned, surrounded 
by three fishes, and on the reverse Victory in a biga with a wreath 
above. Small gold coins, and a didrachm representing a Geloan 
cavalryman spearing an Athenian hoplite, are among the coins issued 
shortly before the fall of Gela in 405. The money of Himera is of 
great interest. The oldest didrachms of Himera, which probably 
Began in the 6th century B.C., bear on the obverse a cock and on the 
reverse an incuse pattern ; later, a hen. During the time that There 
of Agrigentum held the city (before 480 to 472), the crab of 
Agrigentum appears on the didrachms. The transitional tetra- 
drachms bear on the one side a victorious quadriga and on the other a 
nymph sacrificing, near whom a little Silenus stands under the stream 
of a fountain issuing from a lion's head in a wall. Leontini is repre- 
sented by tetradrachms with the'head of Apollo and the victorious 
car, which gives place to a lion's head. The series of Messene begins, 
when the town was called Zancle, or, as it is written upon the coins, 
Dancle, with early drachms or smaller pieces of the Aegmetan weight, 
and of very archaic work. On the obverse is a dolphin, and around 
it a sickle; on the reverse the earliest pieces repeat the same design 
incuse (as in the earliest coinage of S. Italy), but later we find a shell 
in the midst of an incuse pattern. The place is said to have received 
its name on account of the resemblance of the harbour to a sickle 
(fd'yicXoK or ffry/cXi/). Next to these first coins of Zancle may be 
placed, as the oldest piece of the Attic weight, a tetradrachm with 
the Samian types, a lion's scalp on one side and on the other the 
head of a calf, and bearing the inscription ME2SENION. This 
coin was doubtless struck during the rule of the Samians, who 
took the place about 494 B.C., at the instigation of Anaxilaus, tyrant 
of Rhegium, by whom they were subsequently expelled (Thucyd. 
vi. 4). The next pieces are the earliest of those which have on the 
obverse the mule-car and on the reverse a running hare, like the 
contemporary coins of Rhegium, with the same devices and equally 
of the rule of Anaxilaus. These types cease at Rhegium, though 
they continue at Messene, some of the tetradrachms bearing them 
being of the age of fine art. About 450 there must have been a 
temporary restoration of the Zancleans, who struck a tetradrachm 
with Poseidon and the dolphin as types. A fine piece of rather later 
date represents Pan caressing a hare. When the town had been seized 
(287 B.C.) by the Mamertini, money was struck with their name. 
Naxos is represented by early Aeginetic drachms with an archaic 
head of Dionysus. Immediately after the year of liberation (461) it 
produced a tetradrachm with a head of Dionysus and, on the reverse, 
a squatting Silenus, remarkable for the study of anatomical detail 
(see PI. I. fie. 1 1). These types are repeated in a less severe style some 
fifty years later, when also an engraver Procles signs some pretty 
didrachms. Segesta is represented by coins from about 480 B.C. 
We first notice the head of the nymph Segesta and a hound, probably 
the river-god Crimisus; then the same type for reverse associated 
with a young hunter accompanied by two hounds a charming 
composition. Another interesting type is a victorious car driven by 
Persephone, who carries ears of corn. 

In the series of the city of Selinus the first coins are didrachms, 
bearing on the obverse a leaf and on the reverse an incuse square. 
The city and the river of the same name no doubt derived their 
name from the plant ak\ivov (probably wild celery, A pium graveolens) , 
the leaf of which must be here intended. Tetradrachms and 
didrachms of transitional and of good art have devices of more than 
usual interest. The obverse exhibits a river-god, sometimes the 
Selinus, sometimes the Hypsas, sacrificing at an altar to the god of 
healing, while on the didrachm a wading-bird is sometimes seen 
behind him, as if departing. The obverse of the didrachms shows 
Heracles subduing the bull, and the reverse of the tetradrachms 
generally shows a quadriga in which Apollo stands drawing his bow, 
while Artemis is charioteer. The reference in all these cases must be 
to the driving away of the pestilence from the neighbourhood of 
Selinus by the draining of the marshes. 

The Siculo-Punic coins, that is, those actually struck by the 
Carthaginians in Sicily, will best be dealt with under Carthage, 
below. 

The islands of Melita, Gaulos and Cossura near Sicily issued late 
coins which belong to the African series, showing a curious mixture of 
Phoenician and Egyptian elements in some of their types. Of Lipara 
there is heavy bronze money on the Sicilian system, having on the 
obverse a head of Hephaestus, or sometimes a figure of the same 
divinity seated, holding a hammer and a vase, which he seems to 
have just formed. 

In the Tauric Chersonese there are interesting coins, in the 
three metals, of the city of Panticapaeum, the modern Kertch. 
Their obverse usually bears the head of Pan and their 
reverse a griffin and other subjects; some are of fine 
e. Ac. Greek style. The gold is of higher weight than usual, 
owing to the cheapness of the metal at this place. 
The money of Sarmatia, of Dacia, and of upper and lower 
Moesia, is chiefly bronze of the Graeco-Roman class. In 



Sarmatia we may notice the autonomous and imperial pieces 
of Olbia, which alone amongst Greek cities produced a series 
of cast bronze coins, and in Dacia the series bearing the name 
of the province. The Roman colonia Viminacium in upper 
Moesia is represented by numerous coins of a late time. Of 
Istrus, in lower Moesia, there are drachms having a strange type 
on the obverse, representing two beardless heads, side by side, 
the one upright and the other upside down; on the reverse is 
an eagle devouring a fish. The style of these coins is in general 
fair, though it sometimes approaches to barbarism. Apollonia 
Pontica produced fine silver coins with a head of Apollo and an 
anchor. There are abundant Greek imperial coins of Marciano- 
polis and Nicopolis, while Tomi is represented in this class as 
well as by autonomous money. 

The coins of Thrace are of high interest. Here and in Mace- 
donia we observe the early efforts of barbarous tribes to coin 
the produce of their silver mines, and the splendid 
issues of the Greek colonies; and we see in the weights 
the influence of the Asiatic Greeks and the Athenians. The 
oldest coins are of the early sth century B.C., and there are 
others of all subsequent times, both while the country was 
independent and while it was subject to the Romans, until 
the cessation of Greek coinage. Some of the best period are of 
the highest artistic merit. So long as they maintain any general 
distinctive peculiarities of fabric and design, that is, from their 
commencement until the age of Philip, the Thracian coins 
resemble those of Macedonia. The money of Abdera comprises 
tetradrachms and smaller coins of the periods of archaic and 
fine art, all but the latest of the Phoenician standard, ultimately 
superseded by the Persic. The principal type is a seated griffin, 
copied from its mother-city, Teos. The reverse type, an incuse 
square, has at first four divisions, but in the age of the finest 
art contains a variety of beautiful subjects, the signets of the 
magistrates. Aenus is remarkable for the great beauty of some 
of its coins. These are tetradrachms of Attic weight, of the late 
archaic and best ages. The interesting turning-point from growth 
to maturity is seen in a vigorous head of Hermes in profile, 
wearing the petasus. A little later is the splendid series of 
facing heads, the broad, severe, and sculptural treatment of 
which is truly admirable, and far superior to the more showy 
handling of the same subject in later drachms. A goat is the 
reverse type of the larger coins. The money of the city of 
Byzantium begins with coins on the Persic standard of good 
style, having on the obverse a bull above a dolphin and on the 
reverse an incuse square of four divisions, and closes with the 
series of bronze coins issued under the empire. The star and 
crescent type first appears in the Roman period. Of Maronea, 
anciently famous for its wine, there is an interesting series, 
among which we notice fine tetradrachms of Phoenician weight, 
having on the obverse a prancing horse and on the reverse a 
vine within a square. The standard changes to Persic, of which 
there is a beautiful series of didrachms. Then the series is in- 
terrupted by the rule of the Macedonian kings, and resumed in 
a barbarous coinage of the native Thracians, issued in the second 
and first centuries before the Christian era, consisting of spread 
Attic tetradrachms with the types of the head of beardless 
Dionysus crowned with ivy and on the other side his figure. 
The Greek imperial coins of Pautalia and Perinthus are worthy 
of notice. Among those of the latter town we may mention 
fine pieces of Antoninus Pius and Severus, and large coins, 
commonly called medallions, of Caracalla and other emperors. 
The money of the imperial class issued by Philippopolis, Serdica 
and Trajanopolis should also be noticed. In the Thracian 
Chersonese the most important series is one of small autonomous 
silver pieces, probably of the town of Cardia. There is a limited 
but highly interesting group of coins of Thracian kings and 
dynasts. The earliest are of kings of the Odrysae, including 
Sparadocus and Seuthes I., who began to reign in 424 B.C., 
and whose money bears the two remarkable inscriptions SEY0A 
KOMMA and SEY0A APFYPION. It closes with the issues of 
Roman vassals, such as Cotys IV. (A.D. 12-19). Lysimachus, 
commonly classed as king of Thrace, belongs to the group of 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



881 



Mace- 
donia. 



Alexander's western successors (see below). Among the islands 
of Thrace, Imbros with its trace of Pelasgic worship, and, equally 
with Lemnos, showing evidence of Athenian dominion, and 
Samothrace with the Asiatic worship of Cybele yield in interest 
to Thasos. Here a long and remarkable currency begins with 
very early Persic didrachms, the obverse type a Silenus carrying 
a nymph, the reverse an incuse square of four divisions. Under 
the Athenian supremacy we see a decline of weight, and in style 
the attainment of high excellence. After this we observe coins 
of Phoenician weight, bearing for their obverse types the head 
of Dionysus. These are of the best period of art, and some 
tetradrachms are among the very finest Greek coins. The head 
of Dionysus is treated in a sculptural style that is remarkably 
broad and grand. The massive, powerful features, and the formal 
hair, nearly falling to the neck in regular curls like those of the 
full beard, are relieved by a broad wreath of ivy-leaves, designed 
with great delicacy and simplicity. The reverse bears a Heracles 
kneeling on one knee and discharging his bow a subject 
powerfully treated. Of a far later period there are large 
tetradrachms, much resembling those of Maronea, with the 
same type of the beardless Dionysus, but on the reverse 
Heracles. 

The money of Macedonia both civic and regal is of great 
variety and interest. It begins at an early time, probably 
towards the end of the 6th century B.C. The old pieces 
are of silver, bronze having come into use a century 
later, and gold about the middle of the 4th century 
B.C. The character of the coinage resembles that of Thrace; 
the earliest pieces are of the Phoenician, Babylonic and Attic 
standards. The most remarkable denominations are the pieces 
of eight and twelve Phoenician drachms. The largest coins are 
of the time of Alexander I. (498-454), and somewhat earlier, 
and indicate the metallic wealth of the country more than its 
commercial activity. The chief groups of coins are those of the 
Pangaean, Bisaltian, Strymonian and Chalcidian districts, of 
the kings of Macedon and Paeonia, and of Macedon under the 
Romans. This last series begins with the coins of the " regions " 
issued by permission of the senate and bearing the name of the 
Macedonians, from 158 to 150 B.C.; these are followed by coins 
of the Roman generals against Andriscus and of the pretender 
himself, and, from 146 onwards, of the Roman province. Under 
the empire a large series of bronze coins was issued in the name 
of the Koinon, i.e. the provincial diet. As regards the earlier 
civic coinage: the coinage of Acanthus comprises fine archaic 
tetradrachms of Attic weight and others of Phoenician weight 
and very vigorous in style, of the commencement of the period 
of good art. The type of their obverse is a lion seizing a bull 
(cf. Herodot. vii. 125 f.). The money of Aeneia is chiefly interest- 
ing from its bearing the head of the hero Aeneas; and on one 
extraordinary coin of archaic fabric, an Attic tetradrachm, the 
subject is the hero carrying Anchises from Troy, preceded by 
Creusa carrying Ascanius; this is in date before 500 B.C. The 
town of Amphipolis is represented by a long series. There are 
Phoenician tetradrachms of about 400 B.C. having on the obverse 
a head of Apollo, facing, sometimes in a splendid style, which 
recalls the art of the immediate successors of Pheidias (PI. I. fig. 
12). The reverse type is a flaming race- torch in an incuse square. 
The territory of Chalcidice is eminent for the excellence of some 
of its silver coins. There is a very early Attic tetradrachm of 
Olynthus, with a quadriga, and an eagle within a double square, 
which reminds us of the idea of the great Sicilian currencies, 
the record of Olympic victory. The Phoenician tetradrachms 
of the best period struck by the Chalcidian League (39^-379 B.C., 
and later), Olynthus being probably the mint, are of great stylistic 
interest (PI. I. fig. 13). The obverse bears the head of Apollo in 
profile crowned with laurel. It is in very high relief and treated 
with great simplicity, though not with the severity of somewhat 
earlier pieces. The delicacy of the features is balanced by the 
simple treatment of the hair and the broad wreath of laurel. 
On the reverse is a lyre. There is an early series of coins of Lete, 
none later than about 480. The obverse type is a satyr with a 
nymph, and on the reverse is an incuse square divided fourfold, 



first diagonally and then in squares. Mende has money of Attic 
weight, the types being connected with Silenus, who on a tetra- 
drachm of fine style is portrayed reclining, a wine-vase in his 
hand, on the back of an ass; the reverse bears a vine. Of 
Neapolis (Datenon) there are early coins with the Gorgon's 
head and the incuse square, which in the period of fine art gives 
way to a charming head of the " Virgin Goddess " crowned with 
olive. The coins of Philippi in the three metals are mainly of 
the time of Philip II., who, having found a rich gold mine near 
Crenides, changed its name to Philippi. The gold coins are 
Attic staters, the silver pieces of the Phoenician or Macedonian 
weight, like Philip's own money. The earliest bear the name of 
the " Thasians of the Mainland," who immediately preceded 
Philip's colony. All bear the head of young Heracles in a lion's 
skin, and a tripod. Imperial pieces were struck by the city as 
a colonia. There is a long but late series of Thessalonica which 
in the time of the regions was the mint of the second region; 
the numerous bronze coins of the Roman period show a figure of 
Cabirus among other types. Uranopolis has a few coins with 
very curious astronomical types, probably issued by the eccentric 
Alexarchus, brother of Cassander. The issues of the Thraco- 
Macedonians are extremely interesting. They are all just 
anterior to, or it may be contemporary with, Alexander I. of 
Macedon. The leading coins are octadrachms of the Phoenician 
standard. They have usually but one type, the reverse bearing 
a quadripartite incuse square. Their sudden appearance and 
heavy weight are due to the working of the silver mines on the 
border of Macedonia and Thrace. The usual types are a warrior 
leading a horse or a yoke of oxen. The coins bear the names of 
the Bisaltae, Getas, king of the Edoni, the Orrescii and other 
tribes. Besides these there are very curious Attic decadrachms 
of the Derronians of Sithonia, bearing the unusual type of an 
ox-car, in which is a figure seated, and on the reverse a symbol 
of three legs. 

The oldest coins of the Macedonian kings are of Alexander I., from 
498 to 454 B.C., the contemporary of Xerxes. These are Phoenician 
octadrachms, having on the obverse a cavalryman by the 
side of a horse, and coins of a lower denomination with the 
same or a similar type. The money of Alexander's 
successors illustrates the movement of art, but it is not 
until the reign of Philip II. that we have an abundant coinage. He 
first strikes gold pieces, chiefly Attic didrachms, from the produce of 
his mine near Philippi (PI. I. fig. 14). They are of fair style, and bearon 
the obverse the head of Ares. On the reverse is a victorious Olympic 
biga. These coins were afterwards known as QMrrtuu. and the gold 
money of Alexander as 'AXfav5pioi appellations which probably 
did not include larger or smaller pieces. Horace calls the gold coins 
of Philip " Philips (" regale nomisma Philippos," Epist. 11. I, 232). 
The silver coinage of Philip is mainly composed of tetradrachms 
of the Phoenician standard (PI. I. fig. 15). Their type of obverse is a 
head of Zeus and of reverse either a horseman wearing a causia or a 
victor in the horse-race with a palm these last coins being the best 
of Philip's, although the horse is clumsy. 

The coinage of Alexander the Great, both in the number of the 
cities where it was issued and in its abundance, excels all other 
Greek regal money; but its art is, without being despicable, far 
below excellence. The system of both gold and silver is Attic. The 
gold coins are distaters or gold tetradrachms, staters or didrachms 
(see PI. I. fig. I7),hemistatersordrachms,with their half or a smaller 
denomination. The types of the distaters or staters, which last were 
the most common pieces, are for the obverse the head of Athena and 
for the reverse Victory bearing a naval standard. The largest silver 
piece is the decadrachm, which is of extreme rarity. The types of 
the tetradrachms and most of the lower coins are on the obverse the 
head of Heracles in the lion's skin and on the reverse Zeus seated, bear- 
ing on his hand an eagle (PI. I. fig. 16). The head has been supposed 
to be that of Alexander, but this is not the case, although there may 
be some assimilation to his portrait. The great currency was of 
tetradrachms. The coinage was struck in different cities, dis- 
tinguished by proper symbols and monograms. The classification of 
the series is difficult, but is gradually advancing. (For Alexander's 
Eastern coinage see iv. Oriental Coins.) 

The coinage of Alexander is followed by that of Philip Arrhidaeus, 
with the same types in gold and silver. That of Alexander IV. was 
issued by Ptolemy I. alone. In these coins the types of Alexander 
were modified, the dead king being represented with the ram's hop 
of Ammon, and wearing an elephant's skin head-dress and aegis. 
Meanwhile Seleucus, Lysimachus, Antigonus, king of Asia, struck 
Alexander's money with their own names, and the tetradrachms of 
Macedonia were generally of this kind until the time of Philip V. 
The same coinage, marked by a large flat form, was reissued later by 



Mace- 



882 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



various cities, especially of western Asia, when the Romans, after the 
battle of Magnesia in 190 B.C., restored the liberties which Alexander 
had granted. The series of Alexandrine money is interrupted by 
various small coinages and the later issues of Lysimachus, king of 
Thrace, with a fine portrait head of Alexander with the ram's horn, 
as the son of Zeus Ammon, a work sometimes worthy of Lysippus 
and an excellent indication of his style. The reverse has a figure of 
Athena holding a little Victory (PI. I. fig. 19). The coins of Demetrius 
I. (Poliorcetes) comprise fine tetradracnms, some of the types of which 
have an historic reference. They bear either on the obverse his 
portrait with a bull's horn and on the reverse a figure of Poseidon, or 
on the one side a winged female figure (Victory) on the prow of a 
galley, blowing a trumpet, and on the other Poseidon striking with 
his trident. The latter types cannot be doubted to relate to the great 
naval victory which Demetrius gained over Ptolemy in 306; the 
Victory reproduces the " Victory of Samothrace," dedicated by 
Demetrius and now in the Louvre. The tetradrachms of Antigonus 
I. (Gonatas), which are of inferior style and work to those of 
Demetrius, have types which appear to refer in like manner to the 
great event of his time. The obverse type is a Macedonian buckler 
with the head of Pan in the midst, and the reverse type Athene 
Promachos. The head of Pan is supposed to have been taken as a 
device in consequence of the panic which led to the discomfiture of 
the Gauls at Delphi. Another pair of types, the head of Poseidon 
and Apollo seated on the prow of a warship, probably refers to the 
victory of Leucolla about 258 B.C. The tetradrachms of Philip V. 
have on the obverse a head in the helmet of Perseus, representing 
probably Philip's son, Perseus, in the character of that hero. The 
reverse bears a club. Other tetradrachms and smaller coins have a 
simple portrait of Philip. The tetradrachms of Perseus are of fair 
style, considering the time at which they were struck. They bear 
on one side the king's head and on the other an eagle on a thunder- 
bolt. Andriscus (Philip VI., 150-149 B.C.) issued tetradrachms some 
of which represent him as Perseus. The coins of the Paeonian kings 
(from about 359 to 286 B.C.) show Macedonian influence, but are 
semi-barbarous. 



Thessafy. 



The coin systems of northern Greece, Thessaly, Epirus, 
Corcyra, Acarnania and Aetolia present certain difficulties 
which disappear if we consider them as originally 
Aeginetan, modified in the west by Corinthian, and 
later by Roman, influence. The coinage of Thessaly represents 
very few specimens of a remote period, while pieces of the best 
time are numerous. These are in general remarkably like the 
finest coins of Sicily and Italy, although the style is simpler. 
The prevalence of the horse and horseman is significant. The 
money of the Thessalian Confederacy, being of late date (196- 
146 B.C.), is of little interest. The commonest types are the head 
of Zeus crowned with oak and the Thessalian Athena Itonia in 
a fighting attitude. The coinage is resumed in imperial times. 
Numerous small places, such as Gomphi, Homolium, Lamia, 
Phalanna, produced coins of considerable beauty; more exten- 
sive are the issues of Pharsalus, Pherae (with fine coins of the 
tyrant Alexander), and especially Larissa. The last series begins 
with archaic pieces and some of the early period of good art, 
but sometimes of rather coarse execution. The small silver 
pieces have very interesting reverse types relating to the nymph 
of the fountain, and to be compared for mutual illustration 
with the didrachms of Terina and with some of those of Elis. 
These are followed by coins of fine work. The usual obverse 
type is the head of Larissa, the nymph of the fountain, facing, 
and on the reverse is generally a horse, either free or drinking. 
The head is treated in a very rich manner, like that of the 
fountain-nymph Arethusa, facing, on tetradrachms of Syracuse; 
indeed, the debt to the Sicilian type is obvious. The bronze money 
is also good. The wine-producing island of Peparethus, off the 
Thessalian coast, is represented by a remarkable series of Attic 
tetradrachms (about 500-480 B.C.) with a variety of types, 
partly Dionysiac. 

The coinage of Illyria (strictly Illyris or Illyricum) is usually of 
inferior or rude art ; the pieces are Aeginetic, ultimately changing to 
... .^ Corinthian, and then, in 229 B.C., to the standard of the 
Roman Victoriatus. Of Apollonia there is a large series. 
The earliest (early 4th century) have the Corcyraean types of the 
Cow and the calf and the floral pattern; the latest, usually the 
head of Apollo and three nymphs dancing round a fire, the outer 
ones holding torches. Dyrrhacnium, which never bears on its coins 
the more famous name of Epidamnus, is represented by an im- 
portant series. First there are reduced Aeginetan didrachms with 
Corcyraean types. These are succeeded by tridrachms with 
Corinthian types, and of Corinthian weight ; and then the old types 



are resumed, but the standard is that of the victoriatus. Dyrrhachium, 
it must be remembered, was founded partly by Corcyraean and partly 
by Corinthian colonists. The Illyrio-Epirote mining towns, Damas- 
tium, &c., struck barbarous silver coins in the 4th century ; on some 
of the small pieces we see an ingot of metal or a miner's pick. 

The coins of Epirus are of higher interest and beauty than those of 
Illyria. Of the Epirots there are bronze coins of the regal period 
(342-272 B.C.), and both silver and bronze of the republic 
(238-168 B.C.), with the heads of the Dodonaean Zeus and tplrus. 
Dione, together or apart. Ambracia is represented by silver pieces, 
with on the one side a head of Dione, on the other the obelisk of 
Apollo Agyieus. 

The series of Greek imperial money of Nicopolis must also be 
mentioned. The coinage of the kings begins under Alexander I. 
His coins have been found in the three metals, but they are rare. It 
is probable that both gold and silver were struck in Italy while he 
was in that country. The coins of Pyrrhus in all metals are of high 
interest, and remarkable for their beauty, though the style is usually 
florid. Th^re can be little doubt that they were for the most part 
struck in Italy and Sicily, at Tarentum and Syracuse. The tetra- 
drachm has for the type of the obverse a head of the Dodonaean Zeus 
crowned with oak and for that of the reverse Dione seated. A fine 
didrachm bears on the obverse a head of Achilles helmeted, with for 
the reverse Thetis on a sea-horse carrying the shield of her son. 
Among the copper coins of Pyrrhus we must remark the beautiful 
ones with the portrait of his mother Phthia. 

.The coinage of the island of Corcyra begins with very early reduced 
Aeginetic didrachms and drachms of the 6th century. The types are 
the cow suckling the calf and the floral pattern, as at 
Dyrrhachium. These leading subjects are varied in later tonyra. 
times by others illustrating the Corinthian origin of the nation, its 
maritime power, and the fame of its wine. Not the least curious are 
the bronze pieces with galleys bearing their names, as Freedom, 
Glory, Orderly Government, Corcyra, Comus, Cypris, Victory, Youth, 
Preserver, Fame, Light-bearer. The abundant bronze series goes on 
under the emperors. 

The coins of Acarnania are not remarkable for beauty or for 
variety in their types. The money of several cities in the 4th 
century B.C. is Corinthian in types and weight. That of 
the Acarnanian League (229-168 B.C.) bears the head of Acar- 
the Acheloiis as a man-headed bull and the seated Apollo aaala. 
Actius. Of Leucas the silver coins show the archaic cultus-figure 
of Aphrodite Aeneias. 

In Aetolia the gold and silver coins of the Aetolian League have 
some merit (279168 B.C.). The gold pieces have on the obverse the 
head of Athena or that of Heracles in the lion's skin and on 
the reverse Aetclia personified, seated on Gaulish and Aetolia. 
Macedonian shields (a figure dedicated after the repulse of the 
Gauls; Paus. x. 18, 7). These subjects recur, with others indicating 
the hunter-life of the population, on the silver money; of especial 
interest are the head of Atalanta and the Calydonian boar, and the 
spear-head with which he was slain. On some of the copper the spear- 
head and the jaw-bone of the boar are seen. 

The coinage of Locris.Phocis and Boeotia is entirely on theAeginetic 
standard. The'coins of the Locri Epicnemidii are mainly didrachms, 
struck at Opus, with the head of Persephone and the __i 
figure of the Lesser Ajax in a fighting attitude, sometimes Locrls. 
accompanied by his name. These coins were struck between 369 
and 338 B.C., and are remarkable for the manner in which a Syracusan 
head is copied, if indeed the dies were not actually in some cases made 
in the western city. 

The money of Phocis begins at a very early age, some time in the 
6th century B.C., and extends in silver down to the conquest by 
Philip (346 B.C.). The prevalent type is a bull's head. 
The generals Onymarchus andPhalaecus in the Sacred War Phocis. 
placed their names on bronze coins. Delphi, geographically included 
in Phocis, strikes very remarkable money, wholly distinct in types from 
the Phocian. The principal subjects are heads of rams and goats, the 
symbols of Apollo as a pastoral divinity, a dolphin (A polio Delphinius), 
the omphalos and tripod, and a negro's head, which has not been 
satisfactorily explained. The Amphictyonic Council struck beautiful 
didrachms, probably on the occasion of Philip's presidency (346 B.C.), 
with the head of Demeter, and the Delphian Apollo seated on the 
omphalos. Under Hadrian and the Antonines there is an imperial 
coinage of Delphi, some pieces bearing the representation of the temple 
of Apollo, on one type the letter E appearing between the columns of 
the face, representing the mystic Delphic El, on which Plutarch wrote 
a treatise. 

The coinage of Boeotia is chiefly of a period anterior to the 
reign of Alexander, under whom the political importance of 
Thebes and the whole country came to an end. The BoeotJ 
standard until the end of the 4th century is Aeginetic. 
The main characteristic of the money is the almost exclusive use 
of the Boeotian shield as the obverse type, marking the federal 
character of the issues. These were struck by various cities, 
or by Thebes as ruling the League. The earliest pieces are 
drachms, presumably of Thebes, issued between 600 and 550 B.C. 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



883 



These are followed by didrachms of the same and other cities 
until the time of the Persian War. The result of the unpatriotic 
policy of Thebes and most of the towns of Boeotia was the 
degradation of the leading city, and the coins reveal the curious 
fact that Tanagra for a time became the centre of the League- 
coinage. We now notice the abandonment of the old incuse 
reverse and the adoption of regular types, the wheel at Tanagra 
and the amphora at Thebes. These types increase, and indicate 
several cities during the short period of Athenian influence 
(456-446 B.C.). The democratic institutions were next over- 
thrown, and Thebes became again the head of Boeotia, and 
struck alone and in her own name, not in that of the League. 
To the earlier part of this period belong splendid didrachms with 
reverse types chiefly representing Heracles, subsequently varied 
by heads of Dionysus in a series only less fine. With the peace 
of Antalcidas (387 B.C.) Thebes lost her power, the League was 
dissolved, and the other Boeotian cities issued a coinage of some 
merit. In 379 B.C. Thebes became the chief state in Greece, 
and the patriotic policy of Pelopidas and Epaminondas is shown 
in the issue of the Boeotian coins at the great city without any 
name but that of a magistrate. Among those which occur is 
ETTAM, or EIIAMI. who can scarcely be any other than the 
illustrious general (PI. I. fig. 18). After the battle of Chaeronea 
(338 B.C.), swiftly followed by the destruction of Thebes, the 
coinage is comparatively unimportant, save only for the appear- 
ance of new league-money of Attic weight, with the head 
of Zeus and the figure of Poseidon, between 288 and 244 B.C. 

In Attica the great series of Athens is dominant. Eleusis 
issued a small bronze coinage of good style in the 4th century. 
Atb as Oropus and the island of Salamis also had an unim- 
portant coinage. The Athenian coinage, apparently 
introduced by Solon, begins with didrachms on the Eubcic 
standard, which, owing to the fame of the Athenian money, 
received the name of Attic. The type is an owl, the reverse 
having only the incuse square. These didrachms were suc- 
ceeded under Peisistratus by the well-known Attic tetradrachms 
with head of Athena on the obverse, and owl and olive-spray on 
the reverse (PI. I. fig. 20). The change supposed to have been 
introduced by Hippias (Pseudo-Arist. Oecon. ii. 4) was merely one 
of nomenclature; by calling in the coinage and reissuing it at 
double its old nominal value he only paid back half of what he 
had received. To what had previously been called didrachms 
he gave the name of tetradrachms, by which they have since 
been known. An obol bearing the name of Hippias himself, 
and types similar to those of Athens, was probably issued by 
him during his exile. From the time of the Persian wars the 
helmet of Athena is adorned with three olive-leaves. A rare 
decadrachm corresponds at Athens to the Demareteia at Syra- 
cuse, and was probably issued for similar reasons in commemora- 
tion of victory over the barbarians. Otherwise historical events 
seem to have left little record in the coinage and the Athenians 
deliberately affected archaism in the style of their coins, which 
bear no mark of the splendour of Athens as the centre of the 
sculptor's art. No doubt commercial reasons dictated this 
conservative policy, which makes the coinage of Athens a 
disappointment in numismatics. Her money was precious for 
its purity not only in the Greek world but among distant bar- 
barians, so that imitations reach us from the Punjab and from 
southern Arabia, and any change would have injured its wide 
reception. There are many divisions of silver coinage with the 
types a little varied, and some different ones; and towards the 
end of the 5th century (probably in 407 B.C.) gold and bronze 
were introduced. The gold, of good quality and bad style, was 
never plentiful. The Macedonian empire put an end to the 
autonomy of Athens, and when the money is again issued it is 
of a wholly new style and the types are modified. The great 
series of spread tetradrachms may be dated from about 229 B.C., 
and lasted probably until the time of Augustus. The obverse 
type is a head of Athena with a richly-adorned helmet, 
unquestionably borrowed from the famous statue by Pheidias in 
ivory and gold, but a poor shadow of that splendid original, and 
an owl on an amphora within an olive-wreath. The earliest coins 



have the monograms of two magistrates, the later the names of 
two who are annual (although the nature of their offices is not 
certain possibly they were \UTovpyiai), and, during the period 
146-86, a third name, of the treasurer of the prytany in which 
the coin was issued. Among the names are those of Antiochus 
(175 B.C.), afterwards Antiochus IV. of Syria, and of Mithradates 
the Great (PI. II. fig. i) and his creature, Aristion (87-86 B.C.); 
but comparatively few of the coins can be dated exactly. Mithra- 
dates issued the only gold staters in this series. The symbols in 
the field often represent local statues of great interest. The 
abundance of this money shows the great commercial importance 
of Athens in these later times. Under the empire Athens issued 
only quasi-autonomous coins, but these are of great archaeo- 
logical value as they bear representations of the Acropolis, with 
the grotto of Pan, the statue of Pallas Promachus, the Parthenon, 
and the Propylaea, with the steps leading up to the latter; of 
the theatre of Dionysus, above which are caverns in the rock, 
and higher still the Parthenon and the Propylaea; and of 
various statues and groups of sculpture. Megara and other 
places in Megaris issued a small but interesting coinage. 

The money of the island of Aegina is of especial interest since 
with it coinage originated, so far as Greece proper is concerned, 
probably fairly early in the 7th century B.C. There 
is no good evidence for connecting the institution of Ae t laf - 
the coinage with Pheidon, king of Argos, who established a 
system of measures and weights, known as the Pheidonian. 
The weight of the coins is of course on the Aeginetic standard. 
The oldest pieces are very primitive didrachms, bearing on the 
obverse a sea-tortoise and on the reverse a rude incuse stamp 
(PL II. fig. 2). Afterwards the stamp becomes less rude, and later 
has a peculiar shape. The sea-tortoise is also replaced by a 
land-tortoise. There are some coins of the early part of the fine 
period of excellent work. The great currency was of didrachms. 
The bronze coins are not remarkable, but some appear to be of 
an earlier time than most Greek pieces in this metal. 

The series of Achaea begins under the Achaean League in 
the time of Epaminondas, with a fine Aeginetic stater and 
smaller coins in the name of the Achaeans. The later 
silver coins are either Attic tetrobols or Aeginetic * M 

hemidrachms. On all but the earliest, i.e. after about 280 B.C., 
monograms or symbols indicate the cities which were members 
of the league; on the later bronze coins the names are given in 
full. The type of the silver is the head of Zeus Homagyrius, the 
reverse bearing the monogram of the Achaeans in a laurel- 
wreath. The oldest bronze tepeats the silver types; the later 
bear a standing Zeus and a seated Demeter, with the name of 
the city at full length. About forty-five cities are represented by 
this coinage. 

Corinth is represented by a very large series of coins, the weight 
of which is always on the Corinthian standard, equivalent to Attic 
but differently divided, the Corinthian tridrachm, the ^^ 
chief coin, corresponding to the Attic didrachm. The 
oldest pieces, of the 6th century B.C. (some perhaps even earlier), 
bear on the obverse Pegasus with the letter 9, koppa, the initial 
of the name of Corinth, and on the reverse an incuse pattern. In 
course of time (about 500 B.C.) the head of Athena in an incuse 
square occupies the reverse. The incuse square disappears, as 
generally elsewhere, in the early period of fine art. Of the age 
of the excellence and decline of art we find beautiful work, 
though generally wanting in the severity of the highest Greek 
art (PI. II. fig. 3) . Pegasus is ordinarily seen galloping, but some- 
times standing or drinking, the koppa is usually retained, and the 
helmet of Athena, always Corinthian, is sometimes bound with 
an olive-wreath. The smaller coins have the same reverse, but 
on the obverse a charming series of types, principally female 
heads, mostly representing Aphrodite. There are some drachms 
with Bellerophon in a combatant attitude mounted on Pegasus 
on the one side and the Chimaera on the other. The autonomous 
bronze money is poor, but often of fair work, and interesting, 
especially when the type relates to the myth of Bellerophon. 
In 46 B.C. this city was made a colonia; and we have a large 
and interesting series of the bronze coins struck by it as such, 



884 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



including the remarkable type of the tomb of Lais. The coins of 
the " colonies " of Corinth form a long and important series, 
struck by Acarnanian towns with Corcyra, and in the west by 
Locri Epizephyrii in Italy and Syracuse. Some of these cities 
were not strictly colonies of Corinth, but the Pegasus staters 
struck by them form a homogeneous group. They range from 
the time of Dion (357 B.C.) to nearly the end of the 3rd century. 
The coins are distinguished by the absence of the koppa, and 
bear the names or monograms of the cities. 

There are bronze coins of Patrae as an important Roman colonia, 
and silver and bronze money of Phlius, both of the period of good 
art. The coinage of Sicyon, on the Aeginetic standard 
Patrae, dominant in the rest of the Peloponnesus, is disappoint- 
Sicyoa, &c. f or a f amous artistic centre. It begins shortly before 
the period of fine art; in that age the silver is abundant and well 
executed, but the leading types, the Chimaera and the flying dove 
within an olive-wreath, are wearying in their repetition, and good 
work could not make the Chimaera an agreeable subject. Small coins 
with types of Apollo are the only subjects which suggest the designs 
of the great school of Sicyon. 

The money of the Eleans is inferior to none in the Greek world in 
its art, which reaches the highest level of dignified restraint, and in the 
variety of its types, which are suggested by a few subjects. 
The leading types are connected, as we might expect, with 
the worship of Zeus and Hera and Victory, the divinities of the great 
Panhellenic contest at Olympia, and the coinage is rather the money 
of Olympia than of the Eleans as a civic community. The prevalent 
representations are the eagle and the winged thunderbolt of Zeus, 
the head of Hera and the figure of Victory. The series begins early 
in the 5th century B.C. with coins, some of which are didrachms 
(Aeginetic), having as subjects an eagle carrying a serpent or a hare, 
and on the reverse a thunderbolt or Victory bearing a wreath 
archaic types which in their vigour promise the excellence of later 
days. From 471 to 421 B.C., while Elis was allied with the Spartans, 
such types continue; the eagle and Victory (sometimes seated) are 
both treated with great force and beauty, and the subject of seated 
Zeus is remarkable for its dignity. The Argive alliance (421-400 B.C.) 
seems marked by the pre-eminence given to Hera, whose head may 
suggest the famous statue of Polycleitus at Argos. About the same 
time was issued a didrachm with a noble head of Zeus (PI. II. fig. 4), 
which probably recalls, though it is not a copy of, the Zeus of Pheidias. 
This alliance broken, the old types recur. Magnificent eagles, some 
admirably designed on a shield, and eagles' heads (see PI. II. fig. 5), the 
seated Victory, and fantastically varied thunderbolts mark this age. 
Among the artists' signatures at this time is AA, which may repre- 
sent the sculptor Daedalus of Sicyon. In 364 B.C. the coinage is 
interrupted for a year, the Pisatans, who conducted the festival then, 
issuing small gold coins; these are immediately followed by Elean 
money with the heads of Zeus and the nymph Olympia. Aristotimus, 
who was tyrant in 272 B.C., issued coins with his initials. The coinage 
closes with imperial money, some types of which have a local interest, 
notably two of Hadrian bearing the head and figure of Zeus, copied 
from the famous statue by Pheidias. 

Cephallenia gives us the early silver coins of Cranii, the money of 

Pale, of charming style, with the figure of Cephalus on the reverse, 

f. . , and that of Same, all cities of this island. Of the island of 

a " Zacynthus there are silver pieces, usually of rather coarse 

' work, but sometimes of the style of the best Cephallenian 

money. Some struck in 357 bear the name of Dion of Syracuse, who 

collected the forces for his expedition in this island. The coins of 

Ithaca are of bronze. They are of interest on account of their 

common obverse type, which is a head of Odysseus. 

Returning to the mainland, we first notice the money of Messene, 
or the Messenians. The earliest coin is a splendid Aeginetic didrachm, 
., having on the obverse a head of Persephone, and excels in 

design the similar subjects on the money of Syracuse, from 
which it must have been copied, for it is of about the time of Epamin- 
ondas. It shows the purer style of Greece, which, copying Syracusan 
work, raised its character. On the reverse is a figure of Zeus, inspired 
by the work of Hageladas. The other silver coins are of about the 
period of the Achaean League. The bronze money is plentiful, but 
Laconla no *~ interesting. Lacedaemon, as we might have expected, 
has no early coins, the silver money being mostly of the 
age of the Achaean League, but the King Areus (309-265 B.C.) and 
the tyrant Nabis (207-192 B.C.) are represented by Attic tetra- 
drachms. On a tetradrachm of the time of the former is a figure of 
the Apollo of Amyclae. Among the types of the autonomous bronze 
pieces may be noticed the head of the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus, 
with his name. The series of Argos in Argolis begins early in the 
Aiyolls 5^ century. The standard is Aeginetic. The first pieces 
are the drachm and smaller denominations with a wolf, 
half-wolf or wolf's head on the obverse, and A on the reverse. A rare 
iron coin was issued with these types. At the end of the 5th century 
begin the didrachms, which have for the obverse type the head of the 
Polycleitan Hera a design which is not equal to that of the coins ol 
Elis, the style being either careless or not so simple. The reverse 



type of the drachm represents Diomedes stealthily advancing with 
the palladium in his left hand and a short sword in his right. A 4th- 
century drachm of Epidaurus represents the famous seated figure of 
Asclepius by Thrasymedes of Pares. 

Of the money of Arcadia some pieces are doubtless among the 
most ancient struck by the Greeks; and the types of these and later 
coins are often connected with the remarkable myths of . .. 
this primeval part of Hellas, showing particularly the 
remains of its old nature-worship. The first series to be noticed is 
that of the Arcadian League; it begins about 500 B.C. with hemi- 
drachms having the type of Zeus Lycaeus seated, the eagle repre- 
sented as if flying from his hand, and a female head. Of a later time, 
From the age of Epaminondas, there are very fine coins (issued from 
Megalopolis) with the head of Zeus, and Pan seated. The coins of 
Heraea begin deep in the 6th century B.C. The earliest have for 
obverse type the veiled head of Hera, and on the reverse the beginning 
of the name of the town. The silver coins of Mantinea (beginning 
early in the 5th century) have on the obverse a bear, representing 
Callisto, the mother of Areas, who was worshipped here, and on the 
reverse the letters MA, or three acorns, in an incuse square. Later 
coins, especially the bronze, have subjects connected with the worship 
of Poseidon at this inland town. The silver coins of Pheneus must 
be noticed as being of fine work. The didrachms of the age of 
Epaminondas have a head of Persephone, and Hermes carrying the 
child Areas. The obverse type is interesting as a copy of the 
Syracusan subject, as in Locris and Messene. As in Locris, the 
merit is in the greater force and simplicity of the face, here most 
successful, the hair being treated more after the Syracusan manner 
than after that of the Messenians, who simplified the whole subject. 
The finest coin attributed to Stymphalus is a magnificent didrachm 
of the age of Epaminondas, with a head of the local Artemis laureate, 
and Heracles striking with his club. The smaller silver coins have 
on the one side a head of Heracles and on the other the head and neck 
of a Stymphalian bird. There were representations of these birds in 
the temple of Artemis. The series of Tegea is not important, but 
two of the reverse types of its bronze coins are interesting as relating 
to the myth of Telephus and to the story that Athena gave a jar 
containing the hair of Medusa to her priestess Sterope, daughter of 
Cepheus, in order that she might terrify the Argives shoujd they 
attack Tegea in the absence of Cepheus, when Heracles desired his 
aid in an expedition against Sparta. Iron coins were issued by Tegea, 
and also perhaps by Heraea. 

The peculiar position of Crete and her long isolation from 
the political, artistic and literary movements of Hellas have 
been already touched on. It is not until the age of 
Philip V. that Crete appears in the field of history, 
and then only as the battle-ground of rival powers. The most 
remarkable influence of this age was when Athens, by the 
diplomacy of Cephisodorus, succeeded about 200 B.C. in drawing 
the Cretans into a great league against Philip V. of Macedon. 
That this project took actual shape is proved by the issue at 
all the chief mints of the island of tetradrachms with the well- 
known types of Athens, to be distinguished from the Atticizing 
types of other cities at this time. 

The oldest coins are probably of about 500 B.C., but few cities 
seem to have issued many until a hundred years later. Then 
there is a great outburst of coinage, sometimes beautiful, some- 
times barbarously careless, which lasts until the age of Alexander, 
when the local currency was probably in great part replaced by 
Alexandrine coins. At the end of the 3rd century the local 
coinages are revived until the Roman conquest (67 or 66 B.C.). 
The chief issue is of silver; bronze is less abundant; and gold 
is all but unknown. The Cretan types have a markedly local 
character, yet they copy in some instances other coinages. The 
chief divinities on the pieces are Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Heracles 
and Britomartis, and the leading myths are those of Minos, the 
story of the Minotaur and the labyrinth being prominent, and 
also that of Europa. There is frequent reference to nature- 
worship as in Sicily, yet with a distinctive preference for trees, 
the forms of which, however, lend themselves readily to the 
free representation of Cretan art, which may in part explain 
their prominence. The peculiarity of Cretan art lies in its 
realism. At some places, as Aptera, Polyrrhenium and Cydonia, 
we find engravers' signatures. The weight is at first Aeginetic 
of reduced form; and in the resumption of the coinage after 
Alexander's time it is Attic. 

Of the island in general there are Roman silver and bronze 
coins of the earlier emperors, some of which are of fine work 
for the period. The most interesting types are Dictynna and 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



885 



Zeus Cretagenes. The autonomous coins are very varied. The 
obverse of the didrachms of Aptera bears a head of Artemis 
and the reverse a warrior (Ptolioikos) before a sacred tree. 
Of Chersonesus, the port of Lyctus, there are didrachms of coarse 
style, with a head of Artemis Britomartis, who had a temple at 
the place. The head is copied from Stymphalus, as also is one 
of the reverse types, Heracles wielding his club. The money of 
Cnossus is of great interest. The oldest coins may be as early 
as 480 B.C. They bear the figure of the Minotaur as a bull- 
headed man, kneeling on one knee, and a maeander-pattern, hi 
one case enclosing a star (the sun), in another a head (Theseus?). 
Of the period 431-3 5 there are didrachms with the head of 
Persephone, and the labyrinthine pattern enclosing the sun or 
the moon or a bull's head for the Minotaur, and at length be- 
coming a regular maze. To this time belongs the wonderful 
coin in the Berlin Museum with Minos seated, his name in the 
field, and the head of Persephone within the maeander-pattern. 
In the later 4th century a head of Hera (copied without spirit 
from the corns of Argos) occupies the obverse of didrachms and 
drachms, and the reverse has a maze through which the way may 
be clearly traced. This series closes with Alexander's empire, 
and the native coinage disappears until the league of Cephisodorus 
revives it with the Athenian tetradrachm of Attic weight, bearing 
the name of the Cnossians. It is of inferior style, and is followed 
by base coins with heads of Minos and Apollo, and the Labyrinth, 
either square as before or in a new circular form, which is 
interesting as showing it was a mere matter of tradition. 

There are interesting coins of Cydonia, some of them of beauti- 
ful style and work. One bears an engraver's name, Neuantos. 
The head is that of a Maenad, and the reverse has a figure of 
the traditional founder Cydon, stringing his bow, who on other 
didrachms is seen suckled by a bitch. The style is good, but 
the execution poor. Gortys, or Gortyna, is represented by 
most remarkable coins, which generally allude to the myth of 
Europa. Didrachms of archaic style have on the obverse 
Europa carried by the bull and on the reverse the lion's scalp. 
These pieces are followed by a remarkably fine class of spread 
didrachms; the best are of about 400 B.C. They have on the 
obverse Europa seated in a pensive attitude on the trunk of a 
tree, doubtless the sacred plane at Gortyna, mentioned by Pliny, 
which was said never to shed its leaves, and on the reverse a 
bull suddenly turning his head as if stung by a fly (PI. II. fig. 6). 
Nothing in Greek art exceeds the skill and beauty of these designs. 
The truth with which the tree is sketched, and the graceful 
position of the forlorn Europa are as much to be admired as the 
fidelity with which the bull is drawn, even when foreshortened, 
sharply turning his head, with his tongue out and his tail raised. 
These designs, beautiful in themselves, are strikingly deficient in 
fitness, and afford equally strong illustrations of the excellencies 
and of the one great fault of the art of Cretan coins. Many 
pieces of the same class are of rude execution. Of Itanus there 
are remarkable coins, the earlier, some of which are of good 
style, with the subject of a Tritonian sea-god (Glaucus ?) and 
two sea-monsters. Lyctus (Lyttus) is represented by strangely 
rude pieces, with the types of a flying eagle and a boar's head. 
The coins of Phaestus form a most interesting series. Among 
the didrachms are some of admirable work, with on the obverse 
Heracles slaying the Hydra with his club and on the reverse a 
bull. Others have on the obverse Heracles seated on the ground, 
resting. Another noticeable obverse type is the beardless Zeus 
seated in a tree, with his Cretan name, Velchanos. On his knee 
is a cock crowing, showing that he was a god of the dawn. We 
also find Tales, the man of brass, said to have been made by 
Hephaestus or Daedalus, portrayed as a winged youth naked, 
bearing in each hand a stone, and in a combatant attitude. 
Apollonius Rhodius (Argonaut, iv. 1638 sqq.) relates that Tabs 
prevented the Argonauts from landing in Crete by hurling stones 
at them, until he was destroyed by the artifice of Medea. The 
important town of Polyrrhenium is represented by carefully- 
executed coins with a head of Zeus and a bull's head. A later 
piece has a whiskered head of Apollo, probably Philip V. in that 
character. Priansus shows the remarkable type of Persephone 



seated beside a date-palm, placing her right hand on the head of 
a serpent in reference to the myth of the birth of Zagreus. As 
usual, the figure is foreshortened. The reverse has a standing 
figure of Poseidon. Rhaucus has Poseidon beside his horse. 
The rare didrachms of Sybritia, or Sybrita, may fitly close the 
series; one, among the most exquisite of Greek coins, has heads 
of Dionysus and Hermes in high relief (see PI. II. fig. 7); 
another has on the obverse a charming subject, Dionysus seated 
on a running panther, and on the reverse Hermes drawing on 
his right buskin, a delightful figure. Another beautiful type is 
a seated Dionysus. 

The coinage of Euboea is all on the native standard, of which the 
Attic was a variety. It includes some of the very earliest Greek 
money. Carystus begins in the time of the Persian War .^ 
with the type of the cow and calf, as in Corcyra, and its 
special badge is the cock. In the period 197-146 it issued gold 
drachms. Chalcis, the mother of western colonies, has already in the 
6th century, or even earlier, a long series with the wheel-type and an 
incuse diagonally divided, and later, a nymph's head and an eagle 
devouring a serpent. Eretria probabry begins as early as Chalcis, 
but the obverse type is the Gorgon's head. This is succeeded by the 
same type and a panther's or bull's head, and fine late archaic coins 
bear the cow and the cuttle-fish. Eretria was probably the mint of 
coins with the head of a nymph and a cow or cow's head struck in the 
name of Euboeans in the fine period. Of Histiaea the usual type is 
the head of a Maenad and a female figure seated on the stern of a 
galley. 

Among the other islands classed after Euboea, Amorgos must not 
be passed by, as a bronze coin of Aegiale, one of its towns, presents 
the curious type of a cupping-glass. To Andros has been _ . 
attributed a group of early coins bearing an amphora. 
The silver money of Carthaea, Coressia and lulls in Ceos , 
is extremely old, beginning in each case in the 6th century. po 
The weight is Aeginetic, and there are didrachms and smaller coins. 
The usual types of Carthaea are an amphora and then a bunch of 
grapes; that of Coressia is a cuttle-fish and dolphin. The coinage of 
Delos is insignificant. Melos coined from the early 5th century to 
imperial times: its chief type is a canting one, the ny^oi' (pome- 
granate). Naxos is represented by early Aeginetic didrachms and 
coins of the firle period, the latter being chiefly bronze pieces of 
remarkably delicate and good work. The types are Dionysiac. A 
7th-century coin with the head of a satyr (one of the earliest repre- 
sentations of the human head on a com) is probably Naxian. Of 
Paros there are early Aeginetic didrachms with the type of a kneeling 
goat and beneath a dolphin. Of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. there 
are Attic didrachms with a head, possibly of Artemis, at first of a 
charming style, and a goat on the reverse. There are very archaic 
Aeginetic didrachms of Siphnos, which was famous for its gold and 
silver mines. A late tetradrachm of Syros is interesting as repre- 
senting the Cabin. 

The coinage of Asia begins with that of Asia Minor. It falls 
into certain great classes first, the ancient gold and electrum, 
Lydian and Greek, in time succeeded by electrum 
or gold and silver, all struck in the west and mainly Minor 
on the coast. Then the Persian dominion appears 
in the silver money of the satraps, circulating with the gold 
and silver of Persia, and the Greek money is limited to a few 
cities of the coast, none save the electrum of the great mint of 
Cyzicus uninterrupted by the barbarian. With the decay of 
the barbarian empire the renewed life of the Greek cities is 
witnessed by a beautiful coinage along the coast from the 
Propontis to Cilicia. On Alexander's conquest autonomy 
is granted to the much-enduring Hellenic communities, and is 
again interrupted, but only partially, by the rule of his successors, 
for there was no time at which Asia Minor was wholly parcelled 
out among the kings, Greek or native. The Romans, after the 
battle of Magnesia (190 B.C.), repeated Alexander's policy so 
far as the cities of the western coast were concerned, and there 
is a fresh outburst of coinage, which, in remembrance, follows 
the well-known types of Alexander. When the province of 
Asia was constituted and the neighbouring states fell one by 
one under Roman rule, the autonomy of the great cities was 
generally reduced to- a shadow. Still the abundant issues of 
imperial coinage, if devoid of high merit, are the best in style 
of late Greek coins, and for mythology the richest in illustration. 

The oldest money is the electrum of Lydia, which spread 
in very early times along the western coast. This coinage, 
dating from the 7th century B.C., has an equal claim 
with the Aeginetic silver to be the oldest of all money. 



886 



NUMISMATICS 



(GREEK COINS 



Probably the two currencies arose at the same period, and by 
interchange became the recognized currency of the primeval 

marts; otherwise we can scarcely explain the absence 
to/na'e ^ Asiatic silver, though it is easy to explain that of 

European electrum or gold. The electrum of the coins 
is gold the precious metal washed down by the Pactolus with a 
native alloy of a varying part of silver. Its durability recommended 
it to the Lydians, and it had (by convention) the advantage of 
exchanging decimally with gold, then in the ratio 13-3 to silver. 
But this commercial advantage allowed the issue of electrum 
coins on silver standards, while it was natural to coin them on 
those of gold; hence a variety of weight-systems perplexing 
to the metrologist. The classification of the earliest coins is 
exceedingly obscure; it is hardly possible to say which were 
struck in Lydia itself, which in the Greek coast cities, such as 
Miletus; but the majority probably belong to Greek mints. 
The most primitive in appearance are those in which the obverse 
is merely marked with lines, corresponding to the original rough 
surface of the die, while the reverse has three depressions, an 
oblong one flanked by two squares (PL II. fig. 8) ; there are also 
various coins of small denomination with a plain convex obverse, 
and a single rough depression on the reverse, known from the 
excavations at Ephesus. Both the Babylonian and the Phoenician 
standards were in use in early times. This double currency, 
as Head suggests, was probably intended, so far as the Lydians 
were concerned, for circulation in the interior and in the coast 
towns to the west, the Babylonic weight being that of the land 
trade, the Phoenician that of the commerce by sea. Croesus 
(PI. II. fig. 9) abandoned electrum, and issued pure gold (on the 
Babylonic and gold-shekel standards) , and pure silver(Babylonic) , 
the silver stater exchanging as the tenth of the Euboic gold 
stater. These results are explained by the metrological data 
given earlier in this article. Of the Greek marts of the western 
coast we have a series of early electrum staters, for the most 
part on the Phoenician weight. An interesting homogeneous 
group was issued by the various cities which took part in the 
Ionian revolt (500-494 B.C.). The Euboic weight naturally found 
its way into the currencies, but vta? as yet limited to Samos. 
Phocaea, Teos and Cyzicus, with other towns, followed from a 
very early period the Phocaic standard, which for practical 
purposes may be called the double of the Euboic. They alone 
before Croesus issued gold money, which was superseded at 
Phocaea and Cyzicus by electrum. This is the main outline of 
the native coinage of Asia Minor before the Persian conquest. 
Its later history will appear under the several great towns, the 
money of Persia (which circulated largely in Asia Minor) being 
treated in a subsequent place. 

The first countries of Asia Minor are Bosporus and Colchis, 
the coins of the cities of which are few and unimportant. The 

autonomous coinages of the cities of Pontus are more 
Bosporus, numero us. but the only place meriting a special 

Colchis, . ' . , . , i c ?, -.- r 

Pontus notice is Amisus, which almost alone of the cities of 
Pontus seems to have issued autonomous silver money. 
The common subjects of the bronze money of this place relate 
to the myth of Perseus and Medusa, a favourite one in this 
country. 

The regal coins are of the old kingdoms of Pontus and of the 
Cimmerian Bosporus, of the two united as the state of Bosporus 
and Pontus under Mithradates VI. (the Great), and as recon- 
stituted by the Romans when Polemon I. and II. still held the 
kingdom of Mithradates, which was afterwards divided into the 
province of Pontus and the kingdom of Bosporus. The early 
coinage of the kingdom of Bosporus is of little interest. Of that 
of Pontus there are tetradrachms, two of which, of Mithradates 
IV. and Pharnaces I., are remarkable for the unflinching realism 
with which their barbarian type of features is preserved. Mith- 
radates VI., king of Bosporus and Pontus, is represented by gold 
staters, and tetradrachms. The portrait on the best of these 
(see PI. II. fig. 10) is fine despite its theatrical quality, character- 
istic of the later schools of Asia Minor. The kings of Bosporus 
struck a long series of coins for the first three and a half centuries 
after the Christian era. Their gold money (the only non-imperial 



Papilla- 
goola. 



gold allowed under the empire) is gradually depreciated and 
becomes electrum, and ultimately billon and bronze. They 
bear the heads of the king and the emperor, and are dated by 
the Pontic era (297 B.C.). 

In Paphlagonia we must specially notice the coins of the 
cities Amastris and Sinope. The silver pieces of the former 
place bear a youthful head in a laureate Phrygian 
cap, probably representing Mithras, Amastris, the 
foundress, being seated on the reverse. The silver 
pieces of Sinope are plentiful. In the 4th century they bear the 
names of Persian governors. The types are the head of the 
nymph Sinope and, as at Istrus, an eagle preying on a dolphin. 
Bithynia is represented by a more important series. 
The provincial diet issued Roman silver medallions yn '"' 
of the weight of cistophori (to be presently described), with 
Latin inscriptions, and bronze pieces with Greek inscriptions. 
The ordinary silver coins of Chalcedon strikingly resemble on 
both sides those of Byzantium, and a monetary convention 
evidently at times existed between these sister-cities. Of Cius, 
also called Prusias ad Mare, there are gold staters and smaller 
imperial silver pieces. Of Heraclea there are silver coins of 
good style; the most interesting type is a female head wearing 
a turreted head-dress, one of the earliest representations of a 
city-goddess (early 4th century). The tyrants of Heraclea, 
Clearchus, Satyrus, Timotheus and Dionysius are represented 
by coins. Of the imperial class there is a large series of Nicaea, 
and many coins of Nicomedia. The series of the Bithynian kings 
consists of Attic tetradrachms and bronze pieces, issued by 
Ziaelas, Prusias I. and II., and Nicomedes I.-IV. 

The fine Greek coinage of Asia may be considered to begin 
with Mysia. Cyzicus is in numismatics a most important city. 
Its coinage begins in the 6th century; and the famous 
electrum Cyzicene staters were struck here for nearly ^ Sl 

a century and a half (c. 500-^350 B.C.). During that whole period 
they were not only the leading gold coinage in Asia Minor but 
the chief currency in that metal for the cities on both shores of 
the Aegean; the value at which they were rated was doubtless 
a matter of convention, and varied from time to time. The 
actual weight is of the Phocaic standard, just over 248 grains. 
The divisions were the hecta or sixth, and the twelfth. The 
extraordinary variety of " types " at Cyzicus is due to the 
fact that these types are really symbols differentiating the issues, 
the true badge of the city, the tunny-fish, being relegated to a 
subordinate position (PI. II. fig. n). The reverse invariably has 
the quadripartite incuse square in four planes of the so-called 
mill-sail pattern. The coins are very thick and the edges are 
rude. The art is frequently of great beauty, though sometimes 
careless. The silver coinage of Cyzicus comprises beautiful 
tetradrachms of the Rhodian standard, with a head of Perse- 
phone SflTEIPA, veiled and wreathed with ears of corn. Both 
late autonomous and imperial coins in bronze are well executed 
and full of interest, the two classes running parallel under the 
earlier emperors. 

Lampsacus is represented by a long series of coins. Its 
distinctive type is the forepart of a Pegasus, which occurs on 
its coins from the 6th century onwards. In the first half of the 
4th century it issued splendid gold staters with various types 
(really, as at Cyzicus, symbols distinguishing the issues) on 
the obverse and the half-Pegasus on the reverse. The most 
remarkable type is a bearded head (probably of a Cabirus) with 
streaming hair in a conical cap, bound with a wreath, singularly 
pictorial in treatment as well as in expression (PI. II. fig. 12). In 
contrast to this is a most carefully executed head of a Maenad 
with goat's ear; and other types of great interest are the Earth- 
goddess rising from the earth, and Victory nailing a helmet to 
a trophy, or sacrificing a ram. 

The money of the great city of Pergamum is chiefly of a late 
time. Apart from some rare pieces of gold, the silver coinage 
is chiefly supplied by the money of the kings of Pergamum and 
by cistophori. The bronze pieces of the city are numerous, 
both autonomous and imperial, the two classes overlapping, 
and there are medallions of the emperors. The local worship of 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



887 



Aesculapius is especially promient under the Roman rule. The 
chief coins of the kings are Attic tetradrachms, with on the 
obverse a laureate head of Philetaerus, the founder of the state, 
and on the reverse a seated Athene, the common type of Lysi- 
machus, from whom Philetaerus revolted. Variations from 
these types are rare.the most important being a coin with the 
name of Eumenes (II.), representing his portrait and the Dioscuri. 
Otherwise the inscription is always 4>IAETAIPOY. The cisto- 
phorus probably originated at Ephesus towards the end of the 
3rd century, but was soon adopted for the Pergamene dominions, 
and down to imperial times was the only important silver 
currency in Asia Minor. It acquired its name from its obverse 
type, the cista mystica, a basket from which a serpent issues, 
the whole enclosed in an ivy-wreath. The reverse type repre- 
sents two serpents, and between them usually a bow-case (PI. 
II. fig. 13). The half and the quarter of the cistophorus have on 
one side a bunch of grapes on a leaf or leaves of the vine, and 
the club with the lion's skin of Heracles within an ivy-wreath. 
They were tetradrachms equal in weight to about three Attic- 
drachms or three denarii. These coins became abundant when 
the kingdom of Pergamum was transformed into the province 
of Asia, and are struck at its chief cities, as Pergamum, Adra- 
myttium, the Lydian Stratoniceia, Thyatira, Sardis, Smyrna, 
Ephesus, Tralles, Nysa, Laodicea and Apamea. They have at 
first the names of Greek magistrates, afterwards coupled with 
those of Roman proconsuls or propraetors. The silver medallions 
of Asia, the successors of the cistophori, range from Mark Antony 
to Hadrian and Sabina. They bear no names of cities, but some 
may be attributed by their references to local forms of worship. 
The obverse bears an imperial head, the reverse a type either 
Greek or Roman. The art is the best of this age, more delicate 
in design and execution than that of any other pieces, the Roman 
medallions excepted. One of the most remarkable imperial bronze 
coins of Pergamum represents the Great Altar (PI. II. fig. 16). 

The coinage of the Troad is interesting from its traditional 
allusions to the Trojan War. Of Abydos there is a fine gold 
Troas stater, with the unusual subject of Victory sacrificing 
a ram, and the eagle, which is the most constant type 
of the silver money. One of the few imperial coins commemo- 
rates the legend of Hero and Leander. The late tetradrachms 
of Alexandria Troas bear the head of Apollo Smintheus, and 
on the reverse his figure armed with a bow. There is a long 
series of the town as a colonia, of extremely poor work. Ilium 
Novum strikes late Attic tetradiachms with a head of Athene, 
and on the reverse the same goddess carrying spear and distaff, 
with the inscription A0HNA2 IAIAAOZ. On the autonomous 
and imperial bronze we notice incidents of the tale of Troy, 
as Hector in his car, or slaying Patroclus, or fighting; and again 
the flight of Aeneas. The island of Tenedos is represented by 
very early coins, and others of the fine and late periods. The 
usual obverse type of all the silver pieces is a Janus-like com- 
bination of two heads, presumably some primitive god and his 
consort; this double type is balanced on the reverse by the 
double-axe,- which played an important part in the primitive 
cults of Asia Minor and the Aegaean. 

In Aeolis the most noteworthy coins are the late tetradrachms 
of Cyme and Myrina, both of the time of decline, yet with a 
certain strength which relieves them from the general weakness 
of the work of that age. Cyme has the head of the Amazon 
Cyme, and a horse within a laurel-wreath; Myrina, a head of 
the Grynean Apollo and his figure with lustral branch and patera. 

Lesbos is remarkable for having coined in base as well as pure 
silver, its early billon coins being peculiar to the island. This 
base coinage, which was probably common to Mytilene and 
Methymna, ceases about 450 B.C., when the Mytilenaean silver 
begins. Methymna has very interesting archaic silver coins, 
with the boar and the head of Athene. But the most important 
coinage of Lesbos is the beautiful electrum coinage (a unique 
stater, PI. II. fig. 14, and innumerable sixths) which was issued from 
about 480 to 350. Phocaea in Ionia issued similar coins, dis- 
tinguished by a seal (the badge of the city), and a convention 
regulating the weight and quality of the two coinages, and 



arranging for the two mints to work in alternate years, is still 
extant. The types vary accordingly, as at Cyzicus and Lamp- 
sacus. There is a long and important series of Mytilene of 
the imperial time, including very interesting commemorative 
coins, some of persons of remote history, as Pittacus and Sappho, 
others of benefactors of the city, as Theophanes the friend of 
Pompey, from whom he obtained for this his native place the 
privileges of a free city. The usual style for these persons is 
hero or heroine, but Theophanes is called a god, and Archedamis, 
probably his wife, a goddess. 

The money of Ionia is abundant and beautiful. For the first 
century and a half (c. 700-545) the chief coinage is of electrum. 
To the 7th century belongs the remarkable coin in- . . 
scribed *AENOS EMI 2HMA (" I am the badge of the 
Bright One " or " of Phanes "), with a stag, which was perhaps 
issued at Ephesus. From 545 to the Ionic revolt (494) there 
is considerable diminution in the coinage; silver attains more 
importance. Thenceforward, the course of the coinage is fairly 
uniform until the period 301-190, when there is a general cessa- 
tion of autonomous issues. After the battle of Magnesia there 
is a great revival, tetradrachms of Alexandrine and also of local 
types being issued in vast numbers. After the constitution of 
the Roman province of Asia (133), the cistophori supply the 
silver coinage. The imperial bronze coinage is numerous, with 
many interesting local types. Of the coins of the various cities 
the following demand mention. At Clazomenae in the 4th 
century there are splendid coins, having for types the head of 
Apollo, three-quarter face, and a swan. The chief pieces, the 
gold drachm and a half or octobol, and the silver stater or 
tetradrachm present two types of the head of Apollo, very 
grand on the gold and the silver, with the signature of Theodotus, 
the only known Asiatic engraver, and richly beautiful on the 
other silver piece. These coins are marked by the intense 
expression of the school of western Asia Minor. Colophon has 
fine severe coins of the sth century with the head of Apollo and 
the lyre. 

The money of Ephesus is historically interesting, but very 
disappointing in its art, which is limited by the small range of 
subjects and their lack of beauty. The leading type Ephetus. 
is the bee; later the stag and the head of Artemis 
appear. Thus the subjects relate to the worship of the famous 
shrine. The oldest coins are electrum and silver, both on the 
Phoenician standard. The type is a bee and the reverse is 
incuse. The silver coinage continues with the same types, 
unbroken by the Persian dominion, until in 394 B.C. a remarkable 
new coin appears. When Conon and Pharnabazus defeated 
the Lacedaemonian fleet and liberated the Greek cities of Asia 
from Spartan tryanny a federal coinage was issued by Rhodes, 
Cnidus, Samos, Ephesus, lasus and Byzantium with their 
proper types on the reverse, but on the obverse the infant 
Heracles strangling two serpents; these are Rhodian tridrachms. 
About this time the Rhodian standard was introduced, and a 
series of tetradrachms began with the bee, having for reverse 
the forepart of a stag looking back, and behind him a date- 
palm. The head of Artemis as a Greek goddess begins to appear 
in the 3rd century. Other series of coins follow with types 
associated with Artemis, Rhodian and Attic standards alternat- 
ing; there are also Alexandrine tetradrachms and of course 
cistophori. The connexion of the city with Lysimachus, who 
called it Arsinoe, after his wife, is commemorated by coins 
inscribed APSI. The Ephesian form of Artemis, as the cult us 
figure of a nature-goddess, first appears as a symbol on the 
cistophori, and then on gold coins struck during the revolt of 
87-84, when Ephesus took the side of Mithradates. The imperial 
money provides many representations of the temples of the city, 
including that of the famous shrine of Artemis, which shows 
the bands of sculpture on the columns, as well as many other 
remarkable subjects, particularly the Zeus of rain seated on 
Mount Pelion, a shower falling from his left hand, while below 
are seen the temple of Artemis and the river-god Cayster; on 
another coin the strange Asiatic figure of the goddess, frequent 
in this series, stands between the personified rivers Ca^ster and 



888 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



Cenchrius. The money of the Ionian Magnesia begins with the 
issue of Themistocles, when he was dynast under Persian pro- 
tection. The ordinary silver coins (350-190 B.C.) representing 
a cavalryman and the river-god Maeander as a bull are common. 
After 190 B.C. we have spread tetradrachms of the decline of 
art, more delicately executed than those of Cyme and Myrina, 
with a bust of Artemis and a figure of Apollo standing on a 
maeander and leaning against a lofty tripod, the whole in a 
Miktas. laurel-wreath. The great city of Miletus is disappoint- 
ing in its money. The period of its highest prosperity 
is too early for an abundant coinage, yet in the oldest electrum 
issues we see the lion and the sun of Apollo Didymeus. In the 
early 4th century the Carian dynasts issued coins from Ephesus. 
To about 350 B.C. belong the beautiful coins bearing the head 
of Apollo facing and the lion looking back at a sun, with the 
inscription ET AIAYMflN IEPH (scil. SpaxM^), showing that 
this was the " sacred " money of the famous temple at Didyma. 
The types of the head of Apollo in profile and the lion with the 
sun continue through a series of various standards with very 
rare Attic gold staters of the early 2nd century. Phocaea is 
represented by two very interesting currencies; an electrum 
series of hectae, characterized by a seal, the badge of the town, 
beneath the type, struck in convention with Mytilene (see 
above); and also a widespread early silver coinage, apparently 
common to the western colonies of the city. The autonomous 
money is wholly anterior to the Persian conquest. Smyrna 
Smyrna. i ssue d in the 4th century a very rare coin with the 
head of Apollo and a lyre, of Colophonian style. 
Among the earliest coins of New Smyrna are some showing 
that Lysimachus named it Eurydicea after his daughter. After 
190 B.C. it strikes Attic tetradrachms, with the turreted head of 
Cybele or the city or the Amazon Smyrna (PI. II. fig. 15), and an 
oak- wreath. sometimes enclosing a lion. A rare silver coin and 
common bronze coins present on the reverse the seated figure 
of Homer. A gold coin issued by the Prytaneis of the Smyr- 
naeans probably belongs to the time of the Mithradatic revolt 
against Rome (87-84). The imperial coins have numerous 
types, among others the two Nemeses appearing to Alexander 
in a vision. 

Of Teos there are early Aeginetic didrachms, bearing on the one 
side a seated griffin and on the other a quadripartite incuse square. 
_ These ceased at the moment when the population left 

the town, destroyed by the Persians, and fled to Abdera, 
where we recognize their type on the coinage of the time. There 
are much later coins of less importance. 

Chios and Samos, islands of Ionia, are represented by interesting 
currencies. Chios struck electrum and abundant silver. The type 
Chios. was a seat ed sphinx with curled wing, and before it stands 
an amphora, above which is a bunch of grapes; the reverse 
has a quadripartite incuse. The coins begin before the Persian 
conquest (490 B.C.). 

The coinage of Samos is artistically disappointing, but as a whole 
has many claims to interest. The earliest money included electrum. 
Samos. The silver begins before 494 B.C. The types are the welU 
known lion's scalp and bull's head. The Athenian con- 
quest (439 B.C.) is marked by the introduction of the olive-spray as a 
constant symbol on the reverse and the occasional occurrence of Attic 
weight. The Samians, having joined the anti-Laconian alliance 
after Conon's victory in 394 B.C., struck the coin with Heracles 
strangling the serpents already noticed under Ephesus; the Rhpdian 
weight is here introduced. The long series of imperial money is not 
without interesting types. The most remarkable is the figure of the 
Samian Hera, which clearly associates her with the group of divinities 
to which the Ephesian Artemis belongs. Very noticeable also are the 
representations of Pythagoras, seated or standing, touching a globe 
with a wand. 

The money of Caria does not present any one great series. 
Autonomous silver coins are not numerous except at Cnidus, 
Cfria. an d rar ely of good style. Antiochia and Alabanda 
have tetradrachms in the 2nd century. The imperial 
coins of Antiochia and of Aphrodisias are worthy of notice. 
Cnidus is represented at first by archaic coins of Aeginetic 
weight, some as early as the first half of the 7th century, with a 
very rude head of Aphrodite. The head of the famous statue of 
Aphrodite by Praxiteles is not reproduced, but the whole 
statue figures on imperial coins. Among the imperial types of 
Halicarnassus the head of Herodotus is noteworthy. There is 



late silver money of lasus with the head of Apollo, and a youth 
swimming beside a dolphin around which his arm is thrown. 
Idyma has silver pieces of fine style on which the head of Apollo 
is absolutely facing; the reverse type is a fig-leaf . On imperial 
coins of Mylasa the figure of the Zeus of Labranda holding double- 
axe and spear is represented. Of Termera we have the rare 
coin of its tyrant Tymnes, dating about the middle of the 5th 
century and struck on the Persic system. 

The Carian satraps prove their wealth by their series of silver 
coins, which bear the names of Hecatomnus, Mausolus, Hidrieus 
and Pixodarus. The weight is Rhodian; the types are the three- 
quarter face of Apollo, and Zeus Labrandeus standing, holding 
the labrys or two-headed axe. Pixodarus also strikes gold of 
Attic weight. His silver is the best in the series, and clearly 
shows the Ionian style in its quality of expression. 

Among the islands of Caria, Calymna begins in the 6th century 
or earlier with curious archaic Persian didrachms bearing a 
helmeted male head and on the reverse a lyre. The 
series of Cos begins with small archaic pieces, the 
type a crab and the reverse incuse. Next come fine 
coins of transitional style and Attic weight, with the types of a 
discobolus before a tripod, and a crab. The break so common 
in the coinage of this coast then interrupts the issue, and a new 
coinage occurs before the time of Alexander. The weight "is 
Rhodian, the types the head of Heracles and the crab. After 
Alexander there is another currency which ceases about 200 B.C. 
It is resumed later with the new types of the head of Asclepius 
and his serpent. This continues in Roman times. The bronze 
of that age comprises a coin with the head of Hippocrates and 
on the reverse the staff of Asclepius. Xenophon's head likewise 
occurs, and the portrait of Nicias tyrant in Cos (c. 50 B.C.) on 
his bronze. Imperial money ends the series. 

The island of Rhodes, great in commerce and art, has a rich 
series of coins. The want of variety in the types at the city of 
Rhodes almost limited to the head of Helios and the Rhodes 
rose is disappointing, but happily the principal 
subject could not fail to illustrate the movements of art, one of 
which had here its centre. The city of Rhodes was founded 
c. 408 B.C. on the abandonment by their inhabitants of the three 
chief towns of the island, Camirus, lalysus and Lindus. The 
money of Camirus seems to begin in the 6th century B.C. The 
type is the fig-leaf, the weight Aeginetic, later degraded. The 
coins of lalysus, of the sth century, follow the Phoenician 
standard. Their types are the forepart of a winged boar and an 
eagle's head. The money of Lindus, apparently before 480 B.C., 
is of Phoenician weight, with the type of a lion's head. The 
people of the new city of Rhodes adopted another standard, the 
Attic, and very shortly abandoned it, except for gold money, 
using instead that peculiar weight which has been called Rhodian; 
this they retained until the last years of their independent 
coinage, when they resumed the Attic. The types are the three- 
quarter face of Helios and the rose. There is a grandeur and 
noble outlook in the earlier heads of Helios which well befits 
his character, but the pictorial style is evident in the form of 
the hair and the expression, which, with all its reserve, has a 
dramatic quality (see PL II. fig. 17). Towards the end of the 
4th century the radiate head is introduced; the Alexandrine 
tetradrachms, which were issued after the battle of Magnesia, 
find a place in the Rhodian mintage. During the age after 
Alexander there is an abundant bronze coinage, with some 
pieces of unusual size. The series closes with a few imperial 
coins ranging from Nerva to Marcus Aurelius. 

The early coinage of Lycia introduces us at once into a region 
of Asiatic mythology, art and language, raising many questions 
as yet without an answer. The standard of the oldest Lycia. 
coins (beginning about 520 B.C.) is low Persic, and it 
falls perhaps under Athenian influence, until it is often indis- 
tinguishable from the Attic. The Lycian character belongs to 
the primitive alphabets of Asia Minor, which combine with 
archaic Greek forms others which are unknown to the Greek 
alphabet, and it expresses a native language as yet but imper- 
fectly understood. The art is stiff and delights in animal forms, 



GREEK COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



sometimes of monstrous types, which recall the designs of 
Phoenicia and Assyria. The most remarkable symbol is the 
triskeles or tetraskeles symbol, an object resembling a ring, to 
which three or four hooks are attached. It is supposed to be a 
solar symbol like the swastika. The oldest money has a boar or 
his fore-part and an incuse. This is succeeded by a series with 
an animal reverse, and then by one in which the hooked ring is 
the usual reverse type. The fourth series bears Lycian in- 
scriptions, which give the names of dynasts and places. A fifth 
series is characterized by the type of a lion's scalp. This coinage 
reaches as late as Alexander's time. It is followed by silver and 
bronze money of the Lycian League before Augustus and under 
his reign, but ceasing in that of Claudius the usual types of the 
chief silver piece, a hemidrachm, being the head of Apollo and 
the lyre. The districts of Cragus and Masicytus have coinages, 
as well as the individual cities. Besides this general currency 
there are some special ones of towns not in the League. The 
imperial money rarely goes beyond the reign of Augustus, and 
is resumed during that of Gordian III. There is a remarkable 
coin of Myra of this emperor, showing the goddess of the city, 
of a type like the Ephesian Artemis, in a tree; two woodcutters, 
each armed with a double axe, hew at the trunk, from which 
two serpents rise as if to protect it and aid the goddess. Phaselis 
is an exceptional town, for it has early Greek coins, the leading 
type being a galley. 

The coinage of Pamphylia offers some examples of good art 
distinctly marked by the Asiatic formality. Aspendus shows a 
remarkable series of Persic didrachms, extending from 
^amp y- a k ou t JQQ B c ^ o Alexander's time. The oldest coins 
have the types of a warrior and the triskelion or three 
legs, more familiarly associated with Sicily; it is probably a 
solar symbol. These coins are followed by a long series with the 
types of two wrestlers engaged and a slinger. The main legend is 
almost always in the Panphylian character and language. There 
are also very curious imperial types. The money of Perga begins 
in the 2nd century with Greek types of the Artemis of Perga. 
Her figure in a remarkable Asiatic form occurs in the long impe- 
rial series. Bronze coins earlier in date than the silver money 
with the Greek types have the Pamphylian title of the goddess, 
FANASSAS IIPEHAZ, "of the Lady of Perga." Side has 
at first Persic didrachms of about 480 B.C., their types the pome- 
granate and dolphin and head of Athene; then there are money 
with an undeciphered Aramaizing inscription of the 4th century 
and figures of Athene and Apollo, and late Attic tetradrachms, 
their types being the head of Athene and Victory. These were 
carried on by Amyntas, king of Galatia, when he made his mint 
in Side (36 B.C.). The pomegranate (ai&rf) is throughout the 
badge of the city. 

The money of Pisidia is chiefly imperial. There is a long 
series of this class of the colonia Antiochia. The autonomous 
coins of Selge have the wrestlers and the slinger of 
Aspendus in inferior and even barbarous copies. Of 
Isauria and Lycaonia a few cities, including Derbc 
and the colonies of Iconium and Lystra, strike coins, chiefly of 
imperial time. 

Cilicia, for the most part a coastland, is numismatically of 
high interest. To Aphrodisias is assigned an interesting series 
of archaic coins with a winged figure and a pyramidal 
fetish-stone; in the 4th century Aphrodite is repre- 
sented in human form seated between sphinxes; the Parthenos 
of Pheidias is also represented. Celenderis has a coinage 
beginning in the sth century, with a horseman seated sideways 
on the obverse, and on the reverse a goat kneeling on one knee. 
Mallus has a most interesting series of silver coins, some with 
curious Asiatic types. Of Nagidus there are Persic didrachms 
of good style, one interesting type being Aphrodite seated, 
before whom Eros flies crowning her, with, on the other side, a 
standing Dionysus. Soli has silver coins of the same weight, 
the types being an archer or the head of Athene, one variety 
imitated from remote Velia, and a bunch of grapes. The coinage 
of Tarsus begins in the sth century with Persic staters repre- 
senting a Cilician king on horseback, and a hoplite kneeling. 



Pisldla, 
Ac. 



In the 4th century it was the mint of a large series of satrapal 
coins, issued by Pharnabazus, Mazaeus and other governors 
(Issus, Mallus and Soli also sharing the cost of minting). The 
chief type is the Baal of Tarsus. The autonomous bronze of the 
Seleucid age shows the remarkable subject of the pyre of Sandan, 
the local form of Heracles; and there is a long and curious 
imperial series. The coinage of Anazarbus (imperial, showing 
rivalry with Tarsus), Seleucia on the Calycadnus, Mopsus, and 
the priest-kings of Olba are also full of interest. 

The coinage of the great island of Cyprus is, as we might expect 
from its monuments, almost exclusively non-Hellenic in character. 
The weight-system, except of gold, which is Attic, is _ 
Persic, save only in the later coins of some mints, struck Cyprus. 
on the reduced Rhodian standard, and a solitary Attic tetradrachm 
of Paphos. The art is usually very stiff down to about 400 B.C., with 
types of Egypto-Phoenician or Phoenician or of Greek origin. The 
inscriptions are in the Cyprian syllabic character and the earliest 
coins resemble the early Etruscan in being one-sided. The prevalent 
types are animals or their heads, the chief subjects being the bull, 
eagle, sheep, lion, the lion seizing the stag, the deer and the mythical 
sphinx. The divinities we can recognize are Aphrodite, Heracles, 
Athene, Hermes and Zeus Ammon. But the most curious mytho- 
logical types are a goddess carried by a bull or by a ram, in both cases 
probably Astarte, the Phoenician Aphrodite. The most remarkable 
symbol is the well-known Egyptian sign of life. The coins appear to 
have been struck by kings until before the age of Alexander, when 
civic money appears. The mints to which coins are ascribed with 
certainty are Salamis, Paphos, Marium, Idalium and Citium. The 
coins of the Salaminian line are in silver and gold. The earlier, 
beginning with Evelthon about 560 B.C., have Cyprian, the later 
Greek inscriptions, the types generally being native, though after a 
time under Hellenic influence. They are of Evagoras I., Nicocles, 
Evagoras II., Pnytagoras and Nicocreon, and the coinage is closed 
by Menclaus, brother of Ptolemy I. The Phoenician kings of Citium, 
from about 500 to 312, strike silver and in one case gold, their general 
types being Heracles and the lion seizing the stag. Bronze begins 
soon after 400 B.C., and of the same age there are autonomous pieces 
in silver and bronze. There is Greek imperial money from Augustus 
to Caracalla (chiefly issued by the Koiv&v). The most remarkable 
type is the temple at Paphos, represented as a structure of two storeys 
with wings. Within the central portion is the sacred stone, in front a 
semicircular court. 

The earliest coinage of Lydia is no doubt that of the kings, already 
described. The next currency must have been of Persian darics 
(gold) and drachms (silver), followed by that of Alexander, 
the Seleucids, and the Attalids of Pergamum, and then by 
the cistophori of the province of Asia. There is an abundant bronze 
coinage of the cities, autonomous from the formation of the province, 
and of imperial time, but mostly of the imperial class. The largest 
currencies are of Philadelphia, Sardis, Thyatira and Tralles. The art 
is not remarkable, though good for the period, and the types are 
mostly Greek. 

The coinage of Phrygia has the same general characteristics as 
that of Lydia, but the workmanship is poorer. Among noteworthy 
types must be noticed Men or Lunus, the Phrygian moon- phrrria 
god. There are curious types of Apamea, surnamed 
Kibotos or the Ark, and more anciently Celaenae. One of Severus 
represents the legend of the invention of the double pipe, a type 
already described. Of the same and later emperors are coins bearing 
the famous type of the ark of Noah and the name NftE. The town 
of Cibyra is remarkable for a silver coinage of the 1st century B.C., 
of which the large pieces have the weight of cistophori. 

Galatia has little to offer of interest. Trajan issued bronze 
imperial coins for the province, and there is imperial money of Ancyra, 
Pessinus and Tavium. The. only remarkable regal issue o ./.<i. 
is that of Amyntas, Strabo's contemporary, who struck 
tetradrachms at Side in Pamphylia. 

With the coinage of Cappadocia we bid farewell to Greek art and 
enter on the domain of Oriental conventionalism, succeeded by 
inferior Roman design coarsely executed. There is one 
large imperial series, that of Caesarea, intended for general 
circulation in the province. The issues range from 
Tiberius to Gordian III., and are in silver and bronze. The most 
common type is the sacred Mount Argaeus, on which a statue is 
sometimes seen a remarkable type curiously varied. There are 




continuing with other kings, called usually Ariarathes or Ariobar- 
zanes, who struck Attic drachms and occasionally tetradrachms. 
The rare tetradrachms of prophernes, a successful usurper (i8- 
157 B.C.), bear a fine portrait. The coins of Archelaus, the last king 
set up by Antony (36 B.C.-A.D. 17), have a good head on the obverse. 
Of Armenia there are a few silver and bronze coins of late sovereigns. 
The great series of Syrian money begins with the coinage 
of the Seleucid kings of Syria, only rivalled for length and 



890 



NUMISMATICS 



[GREEK COINS 



s . 



abundance by that of the Ptolemies, which it excels in its 
series of portraits, though it is far inferior in its gold money 
and wants the large and well-executed bronze pieces 
which make the Egyptian currency complete. The gold 
of the Seleucids is scarce, and their main coinage is a splendid 
series of tetradrachms bearing the portraits of the successive 
sovereigns. The reverse types are varied for the class of regal 
money. The execution of the portraits is good, and forms the 
best continuous history of portraiture for the third and second 
centuries before our era. The reverses are far less careful. 
The weight is Attic, but the cities of Phoenicia were ultimately 
allowed to strike on their own standard. Many of the coins of 
the earlier kings were issued in their Bactrian or Indian dominions. 
Seleucus I. (312-280 B.C.) began by striking gold staters and 
tetradrachms with the types of Alexander the Great. The same 
king, like his contemporaries, then took his own types: for 
gold staters, his head with a bull's horn, and on the reverse a 
horse's head with bull's horns; for tetradrachms, his own head 
in a helmet of hide with bull's horn and lion's skin, and Victory 
crowning a trophy, or the head of Zeus, and Athene fighting 
in a car drawn by four or two elephants with bull's horns. 
Antiochus I. (293-261), like his father, first struck tetradrachms 
with Alexandrine types, and then with his own head, Apollo 
on the omphalos occupying the reverse. The portrait of Antiochus 
has a characteristic realism. Antiochus III. (222-187) is repre- 
sented by a fine and interesting series with a vigorous portrait. 
He alone of the Seleucids seems to have struck the great octa- 
drachm in gold in rivalry of the Ptolemies. Coins dated by 
the Seleucid era (312 B.C.) first appear in his reign. The portrait 
of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164) is extremely character- 
istic, marked by the mad obstinacy which is the key to the 
tyrant's history. The most remarkable coin is a tetradrachm 
with the head of Antiochus in the character of Zeus. In his 
time mints became numerous in the bronze coinage, and there is a 
remarkable series in that metal with Ptolemaic types, marking his 
short-lived usurpation in Egypt. From the time of Demetrius I. 
(162-150) the silver tetradrachms bear both mints and dates. 
In one type the heads of Demetrius and Queen Laodice occur 
side by side. With Alexander I. Balas (152-144), Tyre and 
Sidon begin to strike royal tetradrachms on their own Phoenician 
weight. Tarsus also first strikes coins for him with the type of 
the pyre of Sandan. The money of young Antiochus VI. pre- 
sents the most carefully executed portrait in the whole series, 
which, despite its weakness, has a certain charm of sweetness 
that marks it as a new type in art. The same artist's hand seems 
apparent in the fine portrait of the cruel usurper Tryphon, and 
also in the picturesque spiked Macedonian helmet with a goat's 
horn and cheek-piece which occupies the reverse. Antiochus VII. 
(138-129) continues the series with, amongst other coins, 
the solitary bronze piece of Jerusalem, bearing the lily and the 
Seleucid anchor. Alexander II. Zebina (i 28-1 23) is represented by 
a unique gold coin (PI. II. fig. 18), as well as by silver and bronze. 
The empire closes with the money of the Armenian Tigranes 
(83-69), bearing his portrait with the lofty native tiara, and for 
reverse Antioch seated, the Orontes swimming at her feet (a 
copy of the famous group by Euty chides). 

There is a copper coinage of the Syrian koinon under Trajan; 

also of the cities of Commagene, Samosata and Zeugma, 

"""' and less important mints. The money of the kings of 

Commagene is in bronze (c. 140 B.C. to A.D. 72). 
Cyrrhestica has bronze coins of a few cities, nearly all imperial, 
Cyrrhes- * ne chief mints being Cyrrhus and Hieropolis. Hieropolis 
tlca ' m t ' le . t ' me <?* Alexander the Great issued some remark- 

able silver coins in the name of Abd-Hadad and Alexander 
himself, with figures of the Syrian goddess Atergatis, who also 
appears on its imperial coins. 

Of Chalcidene there are bronze coins of Chalcis and of the tetrarchs, 
Chalcl- an< ^ Palmyrene showt only the small bronze pieces of 
dene, &c, P a l m >' ra i the money of Zenobia and the family of 

Qdenathus being found in the series of Alexandria. 

In Seleucis and Pieria, the four cities of Antioch, Apamea, Lao- 

dicea ad Mare and Seleucia Pieria issued a joint coinage inscribed 

... AAEA*flN AHMnST about the middle of the 2nd 

century B.C. But the bulk of the money of this territory 

is of the great city of Antioch on the Orontes. The coinage is both 



autonomous bronze before-and of Roman times, and imperial silver, 
base metal and bronze. Other mints (as Tyre and Sidon) in this same 
province issued silver of the same class as Antioch, with different 
symbols. A large series of coins was issued bearing on the reverse the 
letters S.C. (Senates consulto), showing that the coinage was under 
the control of the Roman senate. Both Latin and Greek inscriptions 
are used until the reign of Trajan. The city is first called a colony on 
the coins of Elagabalus. The earliest coins are dated by various eras 
(Seleucid, Caesarian, Actian); later the emperor's consulships are 
used to date the silver. The leading types are the figure of Antioch 
seated, the river Orontes swimming at her feet, from the famous 
statue by Eutychides, and the eagle on a thunderbolt, a palm in 
front. Under Hadrian the eagle is represented carrying an ox's leg, 
a reference to the story of the foundation of the city when an eagle 
carried off part of the sacrifice and deposited it on the site which was 
consequently chosen. There are jew other types. The series 
(which, strictly speaking, was not the local coinage of Antioch, but 
an imperial coinage for the province) is very full and includes money 
of the Syrian emperor Sulpicius Uranius Antoninus (who also struck 
bronze at Emesa and gold of the Roman imperial class). It ends with 
Valerian, though it begins anew in the Roman provincial money of the 
reform of Diocletian, to be noticed later. 

Of the other cities of this district, Emisa presents the type of the 
sacred stone of Elagabal. The imperial money of Gabala shows the 
veiled cultus-statue of a goddess flanked by sphinxes. 
Laodicea has an important series. It begins with bronze 
money of the later Seleucids. The autonomous tetra- 
drachms of the 1st century B.C. have a turreted and veiled female 
bust of the city, a favourite Syrian and Phoenician type. From 
47 B.C. its title is Julia Laodicea; from Caracalla downwards it is a 
colonia; the inscriptions become Latin; then, very strangely, 
Greek on the obverse of the coins and Latin on the reverse. Seleucia 
has a similar regal autonomous and imperial currency, but does not 
become a colonia. A shrine containing the sacred stone of Zeus 
Casius, and the thunderbolt of Zeus Keraunius resting on a throne, 
are among the types. 

In Coele-Syria, Damascus issues coins from the 3rd century B.C. 
(beginning with Alexandrine tetradrachms) onwards; the city 
becomes a colonia under Philip I. The imperial money of _ . 
Heliopolis (Baalbek), a colonia, shows a great temple (of sJ/|J ,j c . 
the Zeus of Heliopolis) in perspective, another temple 
containing an ear of corn as the central object of worship, and 
a view of the Acropolis with the great temple upon it, and steps 
leading up the rock. 

The coinage of Phoenicia is a large and highly interesting series. 
The autonomous money is here important, and indicates the 
ancient wealth of the great marts of the coast. The 
earliest coins were struck about the middle of the 
5th century and usually bear Phoenician inscriptions. The 
coinage falls into three main periods; the first pre- Alexandrine; 
the second, that of Alexandrine, Ptolemaic and Seleucid rule; 
the third, that of the empire. In the first period Aradus strikes 
silver, usually on the Babylonian standard, staters with a head 
of Melkarth and a galley, and smaller denominations. All 
the other cities use the Phoenician standard. The regal silver 
coins of Byblus have a galley as obverse type; on the reverse, 
a vulture standing on a ram, or a lion devouring a bull. Here 
and at Sidon and Tyre portions of the types are represented 
incuse. Sidon has a large and important series of silver octa- 
drachms and smaller denominations; on the obverse is a galley 
(at first with sails set, then without sails, first lying before a 
fortress, afterwards alone). On the reverse is the king of Persia 
in a chariot, or slaying a lion. These coins were issued by the 
kings such as Strato I. and II. and Tennes, and by the satrap 
Mazaeus. The early silver of Tyre has as reverse type an owl 
with a crook and flail over its shoulder; on the obverse a dolphin, 
or Melkarth riding on a sea-horse; a common symbol is the 
purple-shell (PL II. fift. 20). In the second period, besides Alexan- 
drine silver and regal coins of the Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 
there are certain large and important issues of autonomous or 
semi-autonomous silver tetradrachms and smaller denominations, 
as at Aradus (head of the City, and Victory; also drachms 
with types copied from Ephesus: obv., bee, rev., stag and date- 
palm), Marathus (head of the City, and nude figure at Marathus 
seated on a pile of shields), Sidon (head of the City, and eagle), 
Tripolis (busts of the Dioscuri, and figure of the City holding 
cornucopiae) and Tyre (head of the Tyrian Heracles, Melkarth, 
and eagle). Tyre also issued a gold decadrachm with the head 
of the City, and a double cornucopiae. On these and other 
coins Sidon and Tyre claim the rights of asylum. Berytus first 



AFRICAN COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



891 



Palestine. 



coins in this period, sometimes under the name of Laodicea in 
Canaan. Ace-Ptolemais (Acre) was an important mint under 
the Ptolemies; for a time, under the Seleucidae, it was called 
Antiochia in Ptolemais. Besides the Seleucid era autonomous 
eras are in use at some of the cities, as at Aradus (259 B.C.), 
Sidon (in B.C.) and Tyre (126 B.C.). Under the empire there 
are some very large coinages of bronze, besides a certain amount 
of silver resembling that of Antioch. The quasi-autonomous 
silver of Tyre was also issued as late as A.D. 57. Berytus (a 
colonia) has types relating to the cults of Astarte and Poseidon; 
Astarte is also prominent at Sidon (a colonia from Elagabalus 
onwards; a common type represents the wheeled shrine of 
the goddess) and Tripolis. At Byblus a temple is represented 
with a conical fetish. Tyre has many interesting types: Dido 
building Carthage; the Ambrosial Rocks; Cadmus fighting 
the serpent or founding Thebes, &c. Ptolemais issued coins 
as a colony from Claudius onwards. 

In Trachonitis, the only city of importance is Caesarea Panias, 
with a famous grotto of Pan, perhaps represented on an imperial 
coin. Several cities in Decapolis issued imperial coins, 
among them Gadara and Gerasa. In Galilee the coins 
struck at Tiberias by its founder, Herod Antipas, may be 
mentioned. Samaria has money of Caesarea, both autonomous 
and imperial, the last for the most part colonial, and also imperial 
of Neapolis, among the types of which occurs the interesting 
subject of Mount Gerizim surmounted by the Samaritan temple. 
The coinage of Judaea is an interesting series. The money of 
Jerusalem is of high interest, and more extensive than appears 
at first sight. Here was struck the coin of Antiochus VII., 
with the native lily as a type, the series of the Maccabaean 
princes, that of the Roman procurators, and the bronze coins 
countermarked by the tenth legion, quartered by Titus in the 
ruins of the city. One of these bears the remarkable symbol 
of a pig. After the reduction of Judaea in the reign of Hadrian, 
Jerusalem was rebuilt as a colonia with the name Aelia Capitolina. 
The earliest coin commemorates the foundation. The coinage 
lasts as late as Valerian. Ascalon strikes autonomous silver and 
bronze, including remarkable tetradrachms with the portraits 
of Ptolemy Auletes, of his elder son Ptolemy XIV., and of his 
daughter Cleopatra (see PI. II. fig. 21). There is also money of 
Gaza of some importance; the earliest coins are Attic drachms, 
&c., of barbarous style, inspired by Greek, especially Athenian 
models; on its imperial coins the god Marna, and Minos and 
lo are named. 

The independent Jewish coinage begins with the famous 
shekels. They have been assigned to various periods, but the 
preponderance of evidence would class them to Simon 
Maccabaeus, to whom the right of coining was granted 
by Antiochus VII. The series is of shekels and half- 
shekels, of the weight of Phoenician tetradrachms and di- 
drachms. The obverse of the shekel bears the inscription " the 
shekel of Israel," and for type a sacred vessel of the temple, 
above which (after year i) is the letter indicating the year of 
issue and the initial of the word year. The reverse reads " Jeru- 
salem the Holy," and the type is a flowering branch (PI. II. fig. 19). 
The half-shekel differs in having the inscription " half-shekel " 
on the obverse. The types are markedly peculiar; the obverse 
inscription is equally so, for the regular formula of the neigh- 
bouring cities would give nothing but the name of the city; 
but the reverse inscription is like that of Tyre and Sidon, for 
instance, " of Tyre sacred and inviolable." This agreement is 
confirmatory of the assignment to Simon Maccabaeus. This 
coinage bears the dates of years i, 2, 3, 4 (rare), and 5 (very 
rare). There has been much discussion as to the date. It is 
best reckoned from the decree of Antiochus VII. granting the 
right of coinage to Simon (130-138 B.C.). The coins of the fifth 
year were then struck by John Hyrcanus. The certain coins 
of the successors of Simon are small bronze pieces of John 
Hyrcanus (135-104), of Judas Aristobulus (104-103), of Alexander 
Jannaeus (103-76), who strikes bilingual Hebrew and Greek 
and also Hebrew coins, showing his native name to have been 
Jonathan, and of Antigonus (40-37), who has the Hebrew name 



Jewish 
coinage. 



Mattathiah. The types represent only inanimate objects. The 
Maccabaean coinage is followed by that of the Herodian family, 
equally of bronze, the two most important issues being those of 
Herod the Great and Agrippa II. The silver coinage under the 
early empire was chiefly supplied by the issues of Antioch and 
Roman denarii; the ''penny " with Caesar's image and super- 
scription was such a denarius. The money of the procurators 
of Judaea, in part parallel with the Herodian, is of small bronze 
coins, struck between A.D. 6-7 and A.D. 58-59, the latest period 
of their administration being as yet unrepresented. These are 
followed by two classes, the money of the first revolt (A.D. 
66-70) and that of the second (suppressed A.D. 155). Both risings 
caused the issue of native coinage, some of which may be assigned 
with certainty to each. Of the first revolt are bronze pieces of 
years 2, 3 and 4. Of the second revolt are restruck Antiochene 
tetradrachms and Roman denarii, usually with the name of 
Simon, which appears to have been that of the leader surnamed 
Bar Cochebas. The obverse type of the tetradrachms or shekels 
is the portico of the temple; on the reverse are a bundle of 
branches and a citron, symbols of the feast of tabernacles. 
Besides this native currency there are coins struck in Palestine 
by Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. 

Of Roman Arabia there are bronze imperial coins of Bostra and 
less important mints; the kings of Nabataea also issued silver and 
bronze coins from Aretas III. (c. 87-62 B.C.) to Rabbel 11. 
(A.D. 75-101). From S. Arabia comes a remarkable silver'*'**'*' 
coinage issued by the Himyarites, beginning in the 4th Me 
century B.C., and imitated originally from Attic tetra- po ' a/n **' 
drachms (both of the old and new style). In Mesopotamia Babylonia. 
the colonia of Carrhae deserves notice, and the city of Edessa, 
which issues imperial money as a colonia, and has a series of coins 
of its kings, striking with Roman emperors in silver and bronze. 
Curiously, this and the colonial issue are long contemporary. The 
colonial coinages of Nisibis and of Resaena, which became a colonia, 
close the group. Babylon was probably a mint of Alexander the 
Great and of many of the Seleucid kings, certainly of the usurpers 
Molon (222-220) and Timarchus (162 B.C.). 

AJrica. 

The coins of Africa are far less numerous then those of the 
other two continents, as Greek, Phoenician and Roman civiliza- 
tion never penetrated beyond Egypt and the northern 
coast to the west. The series of Egypt is first in 
geographical order. As yet no coins have been here assigned of 
a date anterior to Alexander. The old Egyptians kept their 
gold, electrum and silver in rings, and weighed them to ascertain 
the value. During the Persian rule the Persian money must 
have been current, and the satrap Aryandes is said to have issued 
a coinage of silver under Darius I. With Alexander a regular 
Greek coinage must have begun, and some of his coins are of 
Egyptian mints. A rare bronze coin was struck at Naucratis, 
probably during his lifetime. With Ptolemy I. the great Ptole- 
maic currency begins, which lasted for three centuries. The 
characteristics of this coinage are its splendid series of gold 
pieces and the size of the bronze money. The execution of the 
earlier heads is good; afterwards they become coarse and 
careless. At first the fine pieces were issued by the Phoenician, 
Cyprian and other foreign mints, the Egyptian work being 
usually inferior. While the Seleucids were still striking good 
coins, the Ptolemies allowed their money to fall into barbarism 
in Egypt and even in Cyprus. The obverse type is a royal head, 
that of Ptolemy I. being the ordinary silver type (see PI. II. fig. 
22), while that of Arsinoe II. was long but not uninterruptedly 
continued on the gold. The head of Zeus Ammon is most usual 
en the bronze coinage. A type once adopted was usually 
retained. Thus Ptolemy I., Arsinoe II., Ptolemy IV., Cleopatra 
I., have a kind of commemoration in the coinage on the analogy 
of the priesthoods established in honour of each royal pair. 
The almost universal type of reverse cf all metals is the Ptole- 
maic badge, the eagle on the thunderbolt, which, in spite of 
variety, is always heraldic. For art and iconography this series 
is far inferior to that of the Seleucids. The weight after the 
earlier part of the reign of Ptolemy I. (who experimented with 
the Attic and Rhodian standards) is Phoenician for gold and 
silver; the metrology of the bronze is obscure. The chief 



Egypt. 



892 



NUMISMATICS 



[ROMAN COINS 



coins are octadrachms in gold and tetradrachms in silver, besides 
the abundant bronze money. Ptolemy I. appears to have 
issued his money while regent for Philip Arrhidaeus (323-318); 
it only differs in the royal name from that of Alexander. He then 
struck money for Alexander IV. (317-311) on the Attic standard 
with the head of Alexander the Great, with the horn of Ammon 
in the elephant's skin and Alexander's reverse. He soon adopted 
a new reverse, that of Athene Promachos. This money he con- 
tinued to strike after the young king's death until he himself 
(305) took the royal title, when he issued his own money, his 
portrait on the one side and the eagle and thunderbolt with his 
name as king on the other. This type in silver, with the in- 
scription " Ptolemy the king," is thenceforward the regular 
currency. He also issued gold staters (reverse, Alexander the 
Great in an elephant-car). Ptolemy II. " (Philadelphus, 285- 
247), the richest of the family, continued his father's coinage. 
Philadelphus also began (after the death and deification of 
Arsinoe II., about 271 B.C.), the issue of the gold octadrachms 
with the busts of Ptolemy I. and Berenice I., Ptolemy II. and 
Arsinoe II., and certainly struck beautiful octadrachms in gold 
and decadrachms in silver of Arsinoe II., the gold being long 
afterwards continued. Philadelphus also began the great bronze 
issues of the system. Ptolemy III. (Euergetes I. c. 247-222) 
struck gold octadrachms with his own portrait, wearing a crown 
of rays. His queen Berenice II., striking in her own right as 
heiress of the Cyrenaica and also as consort, issued a showy 
currency with her portrait, both octadrachms and decadrachms 
like those of Arsinoe, and a coinage for the Cyrenaica of peculiar 
divisions. Under Ptolemy IV. (Philopator, 222-205) the gold 
octadrachms are continued with his portrait and that of Arsinoe 
III. Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes, 205-181) still strikes octadrachms 
with his portrait and with that of Arsinoe, and begins the con- 
tinuous series of the tetradrachms of the three great cities of 
Cyprus. The coinage henceforward steadily degenerates in 
style and eventually also in metal. In the latest series, the 
money of the famous Cleopatra VII., it is interesting to note 
the Egyptian variety of her head, also occurring on Greek 
imperial money and on that of Ascalon. 

Under the Roman rule the imperial money of Alexandria, the 
coinage of the imperial province of Egypt, is the most remarkable 
in its class for its extent and the interest and variety of its 
types. It begins under Augustus and ends with the usurper or 
patriot Achilleus, called on his money Domitius Domitianus, 
overthrown by Diocletian (A.D. 297), thus lasting longer than 
Greek imperial money elsewhere. In the earlier period there are 
base silver coins continuing the base tetradrachms struck by 
Auletes, and bronze money of several sizes. Most of the coins 
are dated by the regnal years of the emperors, the letter L 
being used for " year." The types are very various, and may 
be broadly divided into Greek, Graeco-Roman and Graeco- 
Egyptian. The Graeco-Roman types have the closest analogy 
to those of Rome herself; the Graeco-Egyptian are of high 
interest as a special class illustrative of the latest phase of 
Egyptian mythology. These native types, at first uncommon, 
from the time of Domitian are of great frequency. The money 
of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius is abundant and in- 
teresting. A coin of Antoninus, dated in his sixth year, records 
the beginning of a new Sothiac cycle of 1460 years, which 
happened in the emperor's second year (A.D. 139). The reverse 
type is a crested crane, the Egyptian bennu or phoenix, with a 
kind of radiate nimbus round its head, and the inscription 
AKIN. Under Claudius II. (Gothicus) and thenceforward there 
is but a single kind of coin of bronze washed with silver. In 
this series we note the money of Zenobia, and of her son 
Vabalathus. 

Coins bearing the names and local types of the nomes of Egypt 
were struck by a few emperors at the Alexandrian mint. Their 
metal is bronze, and they are of different sizes. 

Passing by the unimportant coinage of the Libyans, we reach 
the interesting series of the Cyrenaica, the only truly Greek 
currency of Africa. It begins under the line of Battus about the 
middle of the 7th century, and reaches to the Roman rule as 



far as the reign of Augustus. The coins were issued at Cyrene, 
Barca, Euesperides and smaller towns. The weight of the gold 
always, and of the silver until some date not long after 450 B.C., 
is Euboic; afterwards it is Phoenician. The ruling types are the 
silphium plant and its fruit, and the head of Zeus Ammon, first 
bearded (PI. II. fig. 23) then beardless. The art is vigorous, and 
in the transitional and fine period has the best Greek qualities. 
It is clearly an outlying branch of the school of central Greece. 
The oldest coins are uninscribed, so that it cannot always be 
said at which mint they were struck. The money with the name 
of Cyrene comprises a fine series of gold Attic staters and silver 
tetradrachms. It was an important mint of the Ptolemies. 
Barca has a smaller coinage then Cyrene. It comprises a wonder- 
ful tetradrachm (Phoenician), with the head of Ammon bearded, 
boldly represented, absolutely full face, and three silphiums 
joined, between their heads an owl, a chameleon and a jerboa. 
The money of Euesperides is less important. 

Syrtica and Byzacena offer little of interest. Their coins are 
late bronze, first with Punic inscriptions, then in imperial times 
with Latin and Punic or Latin. Latin and Greek are used in the 
same coins at Leptis Minor in Byzacena. 

In Zeugitana the great currency of Carthage is the last repre- 
sentative of Greek money, for, despite its Orientalism, its origin is 
Hellenic, and of this origin it is at first not unworthy. Its 
range in time is from about 410 B.C., when the Cartha- ^ artlla t e - 
ginians invaded Sicily, to the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. The 
earliest coins are Attic tetradrachms of the class usually called Siculo- 
Punic. These, and certain gold coins with similar types, were issued 
in Sicily down to about 310 B.C. The types owe much to the coinage 
of Sicilian cities, especially Syracuse; but they show also distinct 
Punic motives, such as a lion before a palm-tree, or a head of a Punic 
queen. The Punic inscriptions enable some to be attributed to mints 
such as Motya, Solus, Eryx; others name " Carthage," " the 
Camp," " the Paymasters," many, inscribed Ziz, were issued from 
Panormus. The coinage from about 340 to 242 B.C., perhaps all 
issued at Carthage itself, is scanty; the types, head of Persephone 
and a horse, or horse and palm-tree, now come in, and prevail to the 
end of the independent coinage. The acquisition of the Spanish 
mines about 241 caused the issue of a large coinage, but the gold and 
silver soon degenerate into electrum and potin. The metrology of the 
various series (excepting the Siculo-Punic) is obscure, but the 
standard seems to be Phoenician. The late silver 12-drachm pieces 
and some of the bronzes are among the heaviest struck coins of the 
ancients. The art of the earlier coins is sometimes purely Greek of 
Sicilian style. There is even in the best class a curious tendency to 
exaggeration, which gradually develops itself and finally becomes 
very barbarous. Roman Carthage has a bronze coinage which is in- 
significant. There are a few other towns which issued money with 
Roman legends, such as Utica. The denarii of Clodius Macer, who 
revolted in A.D. 68, are curiously illustrative of his policy, which was 
to restore the Roman republic. 

The cities of Numidia and Mauretania have a late bronze coinage; 
but an interesting series of silver and bronze coins is attributed 
with more or less certainty to the Numidian kings from 
Massinissa (202-148), to Juba I. (60-46 B.C.), and to the OJ"" 
Mauretanian kings from Syphax (213-202 B.C.), to Juba ta ' n " a ' 
II. (who also struck coins with his consort Cleopatra, 
daughter of Mark Antony and the famous Egyptian queen) and 
Ptolemy their son, the last of the great family of the kings of Egypt 
(A.D. 23-40). 

II. ROMAN COINS 

The Roman coinage is of two great classes, the republican 
and the imperial; the first lasted from the origin of money 
at Rome to the reform of Augustus in 16 B.C., and the second 
from this date to the fall of the Western empire in A.D. 476. 
The evidence of the coins themselves as to the origin of the 
republican coinage is at variance with that of the ancient writers; 
but the general principles of criticism must be maintained here 
as in other matters of early Roman story. 

The tradition which ascribed the introduction of coins bearing 
types to Servius Tullius must be unhesitatingly rejected. The 
style and types of the earliest Roman coins point clearly to a 
date not earlier than the middle of the 4th century. The native 
copper which the Italians used from primitive times as a sort 
of medium of exchange, in amorphous blocks (aes rude) was 
probably not a state-currency, being produced by private enter- 
prise. It was not until Rome unified Latium and Campania 
under her rule that central Italy acquired a true coinage. This 
must have been about 338 B.C. The history of the republican 



ROMAN COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



893 



coinage from 338 to 16 B.C. falls into two great periods the 
second being marked by the introduction of the denarius system 
in 269. From 338 to 269 three minor periods may be distin- 
guished, indicating in a striking way the growth of the Roman 
organization of central Italy. In the period 338-312 Rome 
consolidated her dominion in Latium and Campania as against 
her rivals the Samnites. In the second period (312 to c. 290) 
she finally subdued the Samnites. The system of her coinage 
is from the beginning based on a double mint, one in Rome 
and one in Capua (perhaps also she struck in some other cities 
in south Italy). The weight-units with which she starts are, 
for bronze, the Osco-Latin pound of 273 grammes, for silver 
the didrachm of 7-58 grammes (the latter being g^ of the former 
and more or less coincident with the Phocaic-Campanian 
didrachm current in Campania). The relation between silver 
and bronze was as i : 120 or i : 125. The bronze unit was the 
a* of i pound weight, which was divided into 12 unciae. The 
reverse type of all bronze denominations was a prow, which 
alluded to the establishment of Roman sea-power (in 348 she 
concluded her treaty with Carthage, in 338 she subjugated 
Antium, her chief rival on the Latin coast, and set up the beaks 
of the Antiate ships in her forum). The denominations are 
marked by I (the as), S (semis =5 as) and for the smaller de- 
nominations a number of pellets indicating the value in unciae. 
On the obverses appear the heads of deities: Janus on the as 
(see Plate), Jupiter on the semis, Minerva on the triens (4 unciae), 
Hercules on the quadrans (3 unciae), Mercury on the sextans 
(2 unciae) and Bellona on the uncia. These heavy coins were all 
cast at Rome. The Roman mint at Capua, on the other hand, 
produced a series of silver coins (chiefly didrachms) and small 
struck bronze change with the inscription ROMANO (see PI. II. 
fig. 24). In the second period (312 to c. 290) the mint at Rome 
continues to issue cast bronze of the same weights and types. 
But at Capua the mint becomes much more active, being opened 
for cast bronze as well as struck silver. The Osco-Latin silver 
standard is superseded by the Roman scruple-standard (i 
scruple of 1-137 grammes = jio of the pound of 273 grammes). 
Silver being to bronze as i : 1 20, 2 scruples of silver were equiva- 
lent to i bronze as of 273 grammes. The first issue of silver 
in this period consisted of didrachms (six-scruple pieces) with 
a head of Roma in a Phrygian helmet (alluding to her Trojan 
foundation), the inscription is ROMANO. Parallel with this 
is a Capuan issue of libral cast bronze (aes grate) for the use 
of the Latin territory; the 3-asses (tressis), 2-asses (dupondius) 
and as all have the head of Roma as on the didrachm, and the 
reverse type of all denominations is a wheel. (This wheel 
probably alludes to the completion of the internal routes of 
communication in Roman territory, especially of the via Appia, 
which was finished in 3 1 2) . Finally, to this first issue is attributed 
one of the quadrilateral ingots generally known as aes signatum ; 
its types are the Roman eagle on a thunderbolt, and a Pegasus 
with the inscription ROMANOM. These ingots, according 
to a plausible but not quite convincing conjecture, were probably 
not used as money, but only in sacral and legal ceremonies 
such as dedication to the gods, vendilio per aes et libram, &c. 
in which the use of aes rude was traditional. But from this 
time onward each issue of silver and aes grave from the Capuan 
mint was, it is supposed, accompanied by a new ingot of this 
kind. Three further issues of silver from the Capuan mint 
took place in this period, each accompanied by its corresponding 
aes grave series and ingot. These heavy bronze pieces are all 
uninscribed; on the silver and small struck bronze ROMA 
replaces ROMANO. The evidence of hoards shows that in this 
period there must have been some sort of convention between 
Rome and the autonomous mints of her allies, permitting the 
circulation, throughout the bronze-using district under Roman 
control, of all the coins issued from Rome and Capua, on the one 
hand, and, on the other, all the aes grave issued by the autono- 
mous mints. In the third sub-period (c. 290-269) the silver 
coinage of the Capuan mint becomes thoroughly Romanized; 
its inscription is, of course, ROMA; its types are the typically 
Roman ones of the youthful head of Janus and Jupiter in his 



quadriga (these are the nummi quadrigali). There is also a 
series of struck bronze inscribed ROMA issued from the same 
mint. The important feature of this period is that bronze is no 
longer regarded as the most important element in the currency, 
but is subordinated to silver; the result is that we have what 
is called the semi-libral reduction, the weight of the as issued 
from the Roman mint being half the pound. But opinions vary 
as to whether the pound of which the as represented the half 
in this period was the old one of 273 grammes or the new Roman 
pound of 327-45 grammes. As the latter was certainly used for 
a special series of aes grave issued from the Roman mint for 
the Latins (see below), we may assume that it was also used 
for the regular Roman coinage. Now since the i Ib as (163-72 
grammes) was equated to i scruple of silver (1137 grammes), 
we get a forced relation of silver to copper of i : 144. The as 
being regarded merely as representing so much silver (i scruple), 
so long as the state guaranteed the cover, there was no reason 
why the as, being merely token money, should not fall in weight; 
and that it does, sinking by the end of this or beginning of the 
next period to the weight of fc of the Oscan or J (sextans) of the 
new Roman pound. We may note the occurrence in this series 
of the decmsis or lo-as piece. Of the two series of aes grave 
issued in this period for the benefit of the Latin district, both 
are heavier than in the preceding period; the new Roman 
pound of 327-45 grammes is used for a series issued from the 
mint of Rome; a still higher weight (perhaps of 341 grammes) 
for a series issued from Capua. The relation between silver and 
copper involved in this standard is not quite clear. In this 
period also we have ingots corresponding according to the theory 
above mentioned, to the various series of aes grave; one, with 
a pair of chickens feeding and a pair of rostra, refers to the 
augury taken by the Roman imperator before battle. Two 
other ingots commemorate historical events; one, with a 
Samnite bull on each side, the subjugation of Rome's great 
rival; the other, with an elephant and a pig, the alleged rout of 
Pyrrhus's elephants by the grunting of swine at Asculum in 278. 
After the introduction in 269 B.C. of the silver denarius (piece of 
10 asses, marked X, PI. II. fig. 25) with its half (the quinarius, 
V) and its quarter (the sestertius, IIS), no changes of obviously 
great economic importance take place in the coinage until near 
the close of the republican period. Although it is not true, as 
is sometimes stated, that the coinage of silver at all local mints 
in south Italy, except the Bruttian, came to a close with the 
introduction of the denarius, yet the new Roman coin entirely 
dominated the currency from the first. Many mints, however, 
continued to issue bronze coinage down to 89 B.C., and a Roman 
coinage in various metals is also attributed to certain local 
mints, such as Croton and Hatria; not to mention the Roman 
issues which still continued to be made from Capua, though in 
a less degree than before. At Rome itself the mint was now 
localized in the temple of Juno Moneta, who probably received 
her surname from, rather than gave it to, money. The denarius, 
being equivalent to 10 asses, and weighing 4-55 grammes, would 
at the rate of i : 120 (which was now restored) be equivalent 
to 546 grammes of bronze. The as of the time must therefore 
have been the one weighing 54-6 grammes, that is i of the Oscan 
pound cf 273 grammes, or | (sextans) of the Attic-Roman pound 
of 327-45 grammes. In other words, the legally recognized 
as of this period was the as of the sextantal reduction. The 
bronze coins of this reduction are, like the silver, struck, not 
cast; the process of striking had already been introduced for 
the lower denominations of bronze in the previous period. About 
241 B.C. the weight of the denarius, having sunk under the stress 
of the first Punic war, was fixed at 3-90 grammes. Possibly 
the reduction of the as to the weight of an uncia, which Pliny 
attributes to the time of the Hannibalian crisis, may really 
have taken place at the same time. In 228 B.C. (some critics 
prefer to say nearly forty years earlier) a new silver extra-Roman 
coin, the vicloriatus, was introduced. It replaced the old Cam- 
panian drachm and, wherever it may have been minted, was 
meant for circulation outside Rome. The quinarius and sester- 
tius at the same time disappeared from the regular coinage, but 



8 94 



NUMISMATICS 



[ROMAN COINS 



the sesterce remained the unit of account. Marks of value occur 
on all the coins from 269 B.C. for some time Onward, except on 
the smallest bronze and the victoriatus. After the reduction of 
the bronze had been carried far, it became possible to issue 
large denominations of a circular form; thus circular bronze 
decusses (equal each to i denarius) are known of various periods, 
weighing from over noo to 650 grammes. 

Gold was not regularly coined by the Romans until the close 
of the republic; but certain exceptional issues must be noticed. 
The earliest (some time during the first Punic War) consisted of 
pieces of 60 (PI. II. fig. 26), 40 and 20 sestertii; they were issued 
both from Rome and from some external mint or mints. To 
the crisis of the second Punic War may be assigned certain 
electrum coins of ij scruple weight (types: janiform female 
head, and Jupiter in quadriga). It is to this time that Pliny 
attributes the fixing of the as at the weight of an uncia, and 
the valuation of the denarius at 16 instead of 10 asses (although 
in estimating the pay of soldiers the denarius continued to be 
given for 10 asses). Finally there is some probability in the 
attribution to the year 209 of the well-known gold coins of 6 
and 3 scruples which have on the obverse a head of the young 
Janus, and on the reverse two soldiers taking an oath of alliance 
over the carcass of a pig in allusion to the loyalty to Rome of 
her Latin colonies (Livy xxvii. 9, 10). 

Without following the fortunes of the various denominations, 
we may note that in 89 B.C. the lex Papiria suppressed all local 
mints throughout Italy, ordered the reissue of the silver sester- 
tius, and introduced the semuncial (j ounce) standard for bronze. 
This was just after the close of the Social War, which had been 
signalized by the issue, on the part of the revolted allies, of an 
interesting series of coins (denarii and most treasonable of all 
a gold piece) chiefly from Italia, as they called Corfinium. 
These coins bear in Oscan letters the names of the Italian military 
leaders, such as C. Papius Mutilus. In 81 B.C. the regular 
bronze coinage came to an end, and the denarius remained for a 
long time the only coin issued by the Roman mint. Roman 
generals sometimes, however, issued exceptional coins in their 
own names, such as " bronze sesterces." 

We have already dealt with the earliest gold money of the 
republic. Another exceptional issue was the gold coin bearing 
the name of T. Quinctius Flamininus, the liberator of Hellas 
(struck between 198 and 190 B.C.); but it was minted in Greece 
and conformed to Greek standards. The earliest Roman aurei 
proper (those of Sulla) were also struck outside Rome. They 
weigh j"ff or jV f a Roman pound. The aurei of Pompeius were 
sV. those of Julius Caesar -fjg, of the pound. After Caesar's time 
the weight of the aureus fell to ^j tb, under Augustus. 

Of the administrative side of the Roman system of coinage little 
is known but what the coins reveal. The earliest indication of 
monetary magistrates is found in symbols, which occur on the coins 
before the close of the first Punic War. Then the names begin to 
appear, at first abbreviated, then at length. Probably the right of 
coinage was in the beginning vested in the consuls, but it would 
seem that about the time of the second Punic War it was transferred 
to a special board of magistrates, the tresviri aere argento auroflando 
feriundo. Whether they were appointed every year, or only when 
need arose, we do not know; but it is improbable that there was an 
annual board until the beginning of the 1st century, if then; and 
even when annually appointed, they cannot all have exercised their 
right. On the other hand, there were in some years, as 92 B.C., no 
less than five moneyers; in c. 86 B.C. there were four, two being 
aediles exercising a specially conferred right. Exceptional issues of 
this kind were often authorized by the senate, and bear inscriptions 
indicating the fact, such as P.E.S.C. (Publice ex Senatus consulto). 
An issue for the purpose of the Apollinarian games, defrayed out of a 
special treasury, bears the inscription S.C.D(e) T(hesauro). Julius 
Caesar added a fourth moneyer to the board. The first issue of gold 
by such a board took place in 43 B.C. ; all previous issues of gold had 
been made, so far as we know, in virtue of military imperium (in 
44 B.C. by the praetors). Augustus, after the troublous period 41-27 
was over, returned to the triumviral system; after his reform of 
15 B.C. the bronze coinage which he introduced in that year is signed 
by the triumvirs, although the gold and silver bears no such names. 
Shortly afterwards, however, he organized the system which will be 
dealt with under the empire. 

The types of the Roman republican coins are of great interest, 
although their art never rises above mediocrity. The chief types 



of the period before 269 have already been mentioned. The 
earliest denarii, quinarii and sestertii bear a head of the goddess 
Roma, helmeted, and the Dioscuri charging on horseback, as 
they appeared at Lake Regillus. The victoriatus has a head of 
Jupiter and a figure of Victory crowning a trophy. The types 
of the bronze coins are practically the same as in the earlier 
period. About 190 B.C. the goddess Diana in hsr chariot begins 
to appear on the reverses of some of the denarii. Later, other 
types gradually encroach on the reverses; first, Victory in a 
chariot; still later such types as the Juno of Lanuvium in a 
chariot drawn by goats. This and other types which now begin 
to relieve the monotony of the series usually have a personal 
allusion to the moneyer, or to his family history. Thus, on a 
denarius of Sex. Pompeius Fostlus is seen the shepherd Faustulus 
discovering Romulus and Remus suckled by the she-wolf. 
Imaginary or more or less authentic portraits of ancestors, such 
as Numa, L. Junius Brutus or M. Claudius Marcellus, belong 
to the same category. An elephant's head on a Macedonian 
shield, on a coin of M. Caecilius Metellus (c. 94 B.C.), alludes to 
victories won by Caecilii at Panormus (in 251, over Punic 
elephants) and in Macedonia (in 148). The cult of Venus by 
the Julian family is illustrated by a denarius of L. Julius Caesar 
(c. 90 B.C.) with a head of Mars and a figure of Venus in a car 
drawn by two Cupids. The surrender of Jugurtha by Bocchus 
to Sulla is represented on a denarius of Sulla's son Faustus (62 
B.C., PI. II. fig. 27). The type is probably a copy of the design 
which we know the dictator used for his signet-ring M. Aemilius 
Lepidus (TVTOR REGis) crowning Ptolemy Epiphanes, or 
Paullus Aemilius erecting a trophy, while King Perseus and his 
two children stand before him, are other historical types. A 
contemporary event is commemorated on a special issue in- 
scribed AD FRV(mentum) EMV(ndum) EX S(enatus) C(on- 
sulto), coined by L. Calpurnius Piso and Q. Servilius Caepio in 
loo B.C. Caepio, quaestor in that year, defeated the proposal 
of Saturninus to sell corn publicly at a nominal price; but the 
senate voted a special issue of money to meet the strain of the 
market. On the obverse is a head of Saturn, from whose treasury 
the funds for the issue were drawn; on the reverse are Caepio 
and Piso on their official seat, and two ears of corn. Perhaps 
the most graphic allusion to a contemporary event to be found 
on any coin is furnished by the cap of liberty with two daggers 
and the inscription EID(ibus) MAR(tiis) on coins of Brutus. 
Representations of a less obviously historical character, as 
personifications of countries or places (Hispania, Alexandria) 
or qualities (Honos and Virtus) or mythological figures (Scylla), 
are all, it would seem, inspired by some personal interest. Many 
types will only be explained when more light is thrown on the 
obscure corners of Roman mythology and ritual; but they 
will all probably be found to have some personal reference to 
the moneyer. Roman types of the later republic, therefore, 
though they may be classified externally as " religious," " histori- 
cal," " canting," &c., are all inspired by some personal motive. 
The inevitable outcome of this character was that, when once 
contemporary portraiture was regarded as legitimate on the 
coins, it speedily became its most important feature. The 
portrait of Flamininus on his gold coin struck in Greece long 
remained without a Roman analogy. In 44 B.C., by order of the 
senate, the head of Julius Caesar was placed on the silver coins 
(PI. III. fig. i; the gold coin bearing his portrait is of doubtful 
authenticity). After Caesar's death portraits occur on coins 
issued by men of all shades of political opinion, showing that 
portraiture on the coins was not then regarded as the mon- 
archical .prerogative, which it became from A.D. 6 onwards, 
when it was limited to members of the imperial family. 

The history of the imperial coinage is full of metrological 
difficulties. These arise from the conditions fixed by Augustus 
(16-15 B.C.), by which the emperor alone coined gold Augustus. 
and silver, the senate alone bronze. Consequently 
the senate was wholly at the mercy of the emperor. Augustus 
struck the aureus at 42 to the pound, equal to 25 denarii at 84 
to the pound (PI. III. fig. 3). He introduced a new coinage in two 
metals, the sestertius of 4 asses and dupondius of 2, both in fine 



ROMAN COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



895 



yellow brass (orichalcum), and the as semis and quadrans in 
common red copper. This distinction of metals, however, was 
sometimes ignored, as in the time of Nero.when we have sestertius 
(PI. III. fig. 2), dupondius and as, all in brass, and of three different 
sizes. The as is usually nearly equal in size and weight to the 
dupondius, but is distinguished by its metal and inferior fabric. 
All this brass and copper coinage bears the letters S.C., senatus 
consulto. Emperors not acknowledged by the senate are without 
such money; thus we have no specimens of Otho or Pescennius 
Niger. 

Nero reduced the denarius to j'jth of the pound, and alloyed its 
silver with from 5 to 10 % of base metal. Henceforward the quality 
Changes ^ tne denarius gradually sank, until under Sept. Severus 
under later tne proportion of alloy was from 50 to 60%. Caracalla 
emperors. a ' so ' ssueo ' ^A plated with silver and, among his aurei, 
copper plated with gold. He also introduced a new coin, 
called after him the argenteus Antoninianus. It was struck at 
j'&th to j^th of the pound, and seems to have been originally 
a double denarius struck on a lower standard. The character- 
istic of this coin is that the head of the emperor is radiate as Sol 
(PI. 1 1 1. fig. 4) , that of the empress on a crescent as Luna. Towards the 
end of Caracalla's reign the weight of the aureus had fallen to Jj Ib. 
Under Elagabalus the taxes were paid in gold alone; this was 
ruinous, for the treasury paid in debased silver at nominal value, 
which had to be used to purchase gold by the taxpayer at real value. 
Under Gordian III. the silver contained 67 % of alloy; and eventu- 
ally under Gallienus the " argenteus " frequently contained no silver 
whatever. Aurelian (A.D. 270-275) attempted a reform of the coinage 
by which the previous coin was reduced from its nominal to its 
intrinsic value. The coins were now of bronze with a wash of silver, 
and we now find them marked with their value as two denarii. 
These coins replace at once the base silver and the bronze, which now 
disappear. The moneying right of the senate had become illusory 
by the depreciation of silver, which had ceased to have any real 
value. Aurelian entirely suppressed this right ; Tacitus and Florian 
restored it for a few years, after which the S.C. disappears from the 
coinage. The reform of Aurelian caused a serious outbreak at Rome, 
but was maintained by him and by Tacitus. Aurelian also suppressed 
all local mints but Alexandria. It was the work of Diocletian to 
restore the issue of relatively pure money in the three metals. He 
made no less than four unsuccessful attempts to regulate the weight 
of gold. Not later than 290 he restored a pure silver coinage with a 
piece of 5^ Ib. His reformed bronze coins are the fottis, marked 
XX, XX-I., K, KA, &c. (all meaning " 2 denarii =the unit ") and the 
half-denarius of centenionalis. 

Constantine, probably in A.D. 312 (though some critics attribute 
the reform to Constantius Chlorus) desiring to rectify the gold 
coinage, which had long been quite irregular in weight, reduced the 
chief gold piece to fa of the pound, and issued the solidus (PI. 1 1 1 . fig. 5) , 
a piece destined to play a great part in commercial history. It was 
never lowered in weight, though many centuries later it was debased, 
long after it had become the parent of the gold coinages of Westerns 
and Easterns alike throughout the civilized world. The letters OB, 
which are commonly found in the exergue of gold coins from the 4th 
century onwards mean Obryzum (refined gold), and the letters PS, 
found on silver coins Pustulatum (refined silver). Under Constantius 
II. (A.D. 360) and Julian the silver coin of A Ib was suppressed, and 
the siliqua of tith of the pound (which had already been issued in 
small quantities before) took its place. From about 360 there was 
a system of 4 bronze coins (follis, denarius, centenionalis and i 
centenionalis). The last soon disappeared, and under Honorius (395) 
only the centenionalis remained. Honorius and his successors issued 
the silver decargyrus ( = 10 denarii). The bronze coinage of this time 
was small and mean. It will be seen that a fuller system of bronze 
was originated by Anastasius, the Byzantine emperor. 

Under Augustus the Roman monetary system became the 
official standard of the empire, and no local mint could exist 
without the imperial licence. Thus the Greek imperial money 
is strictly Roman money coined in the provinces, with the legends 
and types of the towns. Many cities were allowed to strike 
bronze, several silver. The kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus 
enjoyed the exceptional privilege of striking gold, which, however, 
became rapidly debased. The silver becomes limited about 
Nero's time, but lasts under the Antonines, and is also found 
under Caracalla and Macrinus. It is chiefly supplied by the 
mints of Caesarea in Cappadocia, Antioch and subsidiary mints 
in Syria, and Alexandria in Egypt. None of these were strictly 
city-mints, but served the purposes of the provincial govern- 
ment. The bronze increased in mints and quantity in the 2nd 
century, but, through the debasement of the Roman silver, one 
city after another ceased to strike about the middle of the 3rd. 
The provincial mint of Alexandria, however, continued to strike 



until the end of the century. From the coins of the ordinary 
Greek and other cities under the empire must be distinguished 
the issues of the Roman colonies. In the west these practically 
ceased in Nero's time; in the east they lasted as long as the 
other Greek coinage. Purely Roman gold and silver was coined 
in certain of the provinces, in Spain and Gaul, and at the cities 
of Antioch and Ephesus. When the base silver had driven the 
Greek imperial bronze out of circulation, Gallienus established 
local mints which struck pure Roman types. Diocletian in- 
creased the number of these mints, which lasted until the fall 
of the empire of the West, and in the East longer. These 
mints were (with others added later), Londinium (or Augusta), 
Camulodunum, Treviri, Lugdunum, Arelate (or Constantina), 
Ambianum, Tarraco, Carthago, Roma, Ostia, Ravenna, Aquileia, 
Mediolanum, Siscia, Serdica, Sirmium, Thessalonica, Constan- 
tinopolis, Heraclea, Nicomedia, Cyzicus, Antiochia (ultimately 
Theupolis) and Alexandria. A few were speedily abandoned. 

As regards the internal organization of the mints under the empire, 
we know that, although the names of the triumviri monetales do not 
occur on the coins after 15 B.C., they continued to exist (with the title 
Illviri acre argento auro flando fertundo, although their competence 
was restricted to the first metal) until probably the time of Aurelian, 
who withdrew the right of coinage from the senate. Officials of the 
imperial treasury superintended the gold and silver coinage; Trajan 
placed a procurator monetae Augusti of equestrian rank at the head of 
the whole system, subject to the emperor's rationalis (the chief 
official of the treasury). The system of procurators was extended 
and regularized by Diocletian. In the Roman colonies (which were 
only allowed to issue bronze) the formula D.D. or EX D.D. (ex 
decurionum decreto) often occurs, corresponding to the S.C. of the 
Roman mint. At many colonies, especially in the west, the monetary 
duumviri sign the coins. At Rome the imperial mint itself was 
situated behind the Colosseum, near the Caelian hill, the senate re- 
taining its mint on the Capitol probably until the time of Trajan. 
The three monetae (of the three metals) appear together on 
medallions for the first time under Hadrian, and probably indicate 
the organization of the mints lor the three metals in one place. 
From the middle of the 3rd century mint-marks begin to occur on 
the coins, indicating the various mints, the officinae in each mint, &c. 
Sometimes these marks form " secret combinations"; thus the 
letters I, O and BI found on three different coins of Diocletian 
(struck at three different officinae), and the letters HP, KOY and AI 
on three corresponding coins of Maximian, combine into Greek words 
representing the genitives of the Latin titles lovius and Herculius 
assumed by these two emperors. 

The obverse type of the imperial coins is the portrait of an 
imperial personage, emperor, empress or Caesar. The type 
only varies in the treatment of the head or bust if 
male, laureate, radiate or bare; if female, sometimes 
veiled, but usually bare. The reverse types of the 
pagan period are mythological of divinities, allegorical 
of personifications, historical of the acts of the emperors. Thus 
the coins of Hadrian, besides bearing the figures of the chief 
divinities of Rome, commemorate by allegorical representations 
of countries or cities the emperor's progresses, and by actual 
representations his architectural works. Types often occur 
purely personal to the emperor, such as the sphinx which 
Augustus used as his signet, or the Capricorn, his natal sign. 
The most remarkable feature of imperial types is the increase of 
personifications, such as Abundantia, Concordia, Liberalitas, 
Pudicitia for the most part drearily conventional. The 
inscriptions are either simply descriptive, such as the emperor's 
names and titles in the nominative on the obverse, or partly 
on the obverse and partly on the reverse, and the name of the 
subject on the reverse; or else they are dedicatory, the imperial 
names and titles being given on the obverse in the dative and the 
name of the type on the reverse. Sometimes the reverse bears 
a directly dedicatory inscription to the emperor. The inscriptions 
on the earlier imperial coins from Tiberius to Severus Alexander 
are generally chronological, usually giving the current or last 
consulship of the emperor and his tribunitian year. It must be 
noted that Christian symbols first made their appearance on 
coins in an unsystematic, almost accidental way. The earliest 
instance is at the mint of Tarraco in A.D. 314, when a cross occurs 
as a symbol on the reverse. In A.D. 320 the Christian monogram 
is found as a detail in the field at several mints. But the types 
still remain pagan; these symbols are not introduced by order, 



8 9 6 



NUMISMATICS 



[MEDIEVAL AND 



although the officials who introduced them doubtless knew they 
could do so with impunity. As times goes on the Christian 
emblems become more popular; on a coin of Constantius II. 
we find Victory crowning the emperor, who holds the standard 
of the cross; the inscription is HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS. 
Another type of the same reign is the Christian monogram 
flanked by alpha and omega. Under Julian there is a temporary 
recrudescence of pagan types; with the revival of Christianity 
monotony of type sets in. 

The art of Roman imperial coins, although far inferior to that of 
Greek, is well worthy of study in its best ages, for its intrinsic merit, 
for its illustration of contemporary sculpture, and on account of the 
influence it exercised on medieval and modern art. On the whole the 
finest work is produced under Augustus, when the portraits still 
betray a certain refinement of imagination in the artists. Some of it 
reflects the beauty of Roman monumental sculpture in relief of the 
time, whether that sculpture be regarded as the work of Greeks or of 
purely Roman artists. The most vigorous portraiture is perhaps 
found under the Flavians. Under the Antonines, although still 
striking and powerful, the portraits lost in subtlety and from the 
time of Commodus there is a rapid decline. The age of Diocletian 
and Constantine shows a well-meant but hopeless attempt at revival 
of art. In spite of its defects, the fact that many of the greatest 
medallists of the Renaissance drew their inspiration from the art of 
imperial coins shows that it had many good qualities, of which the 
chief was an honest directness of effort. The realism in which this 
resulted is perhaps best seen in the portraits of Nero, the growth of 
whose bad passions may be seen in the increasing brutality of his 
features and expression. The medallion series is full of charming 
subjects, though when they have been treated by Greek artists of 
earlier ages the contrast is trying; the most satisfactory are the 
representations of older statues; the purely new compositions are 
either poor inventions, or have a theatrical air that removes them 
from the province of good art. 

III. MEDIEVAL AND LATER COINS OF EUROPE 
The period of the medieval and later coins of Europe must 
be considered to begin about the time of the fall of the Western 
empire, so that its length to the present day is about 1400 years. 
It is impossible to separate the medieval and later coins, either 
in the entire class, because the time of change varies, or in each 
group, since there are usually pieces indicative of transition 
which display characteristics of both periods. The clearest 
division of the subject is to place the Byzantine coinage first, 
then to notice the characteristics of its descendants, and lastly 
to sketch the monetary history of each country. The coinage of 
the present day, however, having certain definite characteristics, 
may be dealt with separately. 

The Byzantine money is usually held to begin in the reign of 
Anastasius (A.D. 491-518, PI. III. fig. 6). The coinage is always 
in the three metals, but the silver money is rare, and 
was P r bably struck in small quantities. At first both 
empire. the gold and the silver are fine, but towards the close 
of the empire they are much alloyed. The gold coin 
is the solidus of Constantine, with its half and its third, the so- 
called semissis and tremissis. The Byzantine solidus (besant) 
had an enormous vogue throughout the middle ages, being the 
chief gold coin until the introduction of the Italian gold in the 
I3th century. The chief silver coin was the miliarision, and 
a smaller coin, the siliqua or keration. Under Heraclius (610- 
641) the hexagram or double miliarision was first coined. The 
silver money of the restored Greek empire is obscure. In 498 
Anastasius introduced a new copper coinage, bearing on the 
reverse, at his time, the following indexes of value as the main 
type: M, K, I and E, 40 nummi, 20, 10 and 5. These coins bear 
beneath the indexes the abbreviated name of the place of issue. 
Justinian I. added the regnal year in A.D. 538, his twelfth year. 
The money of this class presents extraordinary variations of 
weight, which indicate the condition of the imperial finances. 
The Alexandrian coins of this class begin under Anastasius and 
end with the capture of the city by the Arabs. They have two 
denominations, IB and S, and T or 12, 6 and 3 denarii, and there 
is an isolated variety of Justinian with A f (33) . The Alexandrian 
bronze never lost its weight, while that of the empire generally 
fell, and thus some of the pieces of Heraclius, while associated 
with his sons Heraclius Constantinus and Heraclonas, have the 
double index IB and M. Under Basil I. the bronze money 



appears to have been reformed, but the absence of indexes of 
value makes the whole later history of the coinage in this metal 
very difficult. There was one curious change in the aspect 
of the money. Early in the nth century the solidus begins 
to assume a cup-shaped form, and this subsequently became 
the shape of the whole coinage except the smaller bronze pieces. 
These novel coins are called nummi scyphati. The types, except 
when they refer simply to the sovereign, are of a religious and 
consequently of a Christian character. This feeling increases to 
the last. Thus, on the obverse of the earlier coins the emperors 
are represented alone, but from about the loth century they are 
generally portrayed as aided or supported by some sacred person- 
age or saint. On the reverses of the oldest coins we have such 
types as a Victory holding a cross (other personifications all but 
disappear), but on those of later ones a representation of Our 
Saviour or of the Virgin Mary. Christ first appears on a coin 
of about A.D. 450, where He is represented marrying Pulcheria 
to Marcian. He does not appear again until the end of the 7th 
century, when His bust is introduced by Justinian II. It was 
perhaps this type, so offensive to Mahommedan feeling, that 
caused the Caliph Abdalmalik to initiate the Mussulman coinage. 
From the gth century Christ appears in various forms on the 
coins; about 900 we find the Virgin; a few years later saints 
begin to appear. A remarkable type was introduced by Michael 
VIII., Palaeologus, who recovered Constantinople from the 
Latins in 1261, and issued coins with the Virgin standing in the 
midst of the walls of the city. The principal inscriptions for 
a long period almost invariably relate to the sovereign, and 
express his name and titles. The secondary inscriptions of the 
earlier coins indicate the town at which the piece was struck, 
and, in the case of the larger bronze pieces, the year of the 
emperor's reign is also given. From about the loth century 
there are generally two principal inscriptions, the one relating 
to the emperor and the other to the sacred figure of the reverse, 
in the form of a prayer. The secondary inscriptions at the 
same time are descriptive, and are merely abbreviations of the 
names or titles of the sacred personages near the representations 
of whom they are placed. From the time of Alexius I. (Comnenus) 
the principal inscriptions are almost disused, and descriptive ones 
alone given. These are nearly always abbreviations, like the 
secondary ones of the earlier period. The language of the in- 
scriptions was at first Latin with a partial use of Greek ; about 
the time of Heraclius Greek began to take its place on a rude 
class of coins, probably local; by the pth century Greek inscrip- 
tions occur in the regular coinage; and at the time of Alexius I. 
Latin wholly disappears. The Greek inscriptions are remarkable 
for their orthography, which indicates the changes of the language. 
In the nth century we notice a few metrical inscriptions, the 
forerunners of verse-mottoes on later coins. Of the art of these 
coins little need be said. It has its importance in illustrating 
contemporary ecclesiastical art, but is generally inferior to it 
both in design and in execution. It is noticeable that from the 
beginning of the Byzantine period the facing representation of 
the bust begins to be popular, and that from the time of Justinian 
(6th century) onwards the profile practically disappears from 
the coinage. The last Byzantine gold coin (a piece of John V., 
1341-1391) shows a figure of John the Baptist imitated from 
the Florentine coinage. 

Besides the regular series of the Byzantine empire, in which 
we include the money assigned to the Latin emperors of Con- 
stantinople, there are several cognate groups connected 
with it, either because of their similarity,or because the groups" 
sovereigns were of the imperial houses. There are the 
coinages of the barbarians to be next noticed, and the money 
of the emperors of Nicaea, of Thessalonica and of Trebizond. 
The last group consists of small silver pieces, which were prized 
:or their purity; they were called Comnenian white-money 
(affirpa. "KofivTivara.) , the princes of Trebizond having sprung from 
the illustrious family of the Comneni. 

The coinage of the other states of the West falls into well- 
defined periods, which have been distinguished as (i) transitional 
period, from Roman to true medieval coinage, from the fall 



NUMISMATICS 



PLATE III. 




XIX. 896. 



ROMAN AND MEDIEVAL COINS. 



PLATE IV. 



NUMISMATICS 




ORIENTAL COINS. 



LATER EUROPEAN] 



NUMISMATICS 



897 



of Rome (476) to the accession of Charlemagne (768); (2) true 
medieval age, during which the Carolingian money was the 
Periods currency of western Europe, from Charlemagne to the 
of other fall of the Swabian house (1268); (3) early Renaissance, 
European from the striking of the florin in Florence (1252) to 
coinage. tne c i ass ; ca ] Renaissance (1450); (4) the classical 
Renaissance, from 1450 to 1600; (5) the modern period. 

1. The various coinages of the transitional period will best be 
considered together (see below). 

2. The inconvenience of gold money when it represents a very 
large value in the necessaries of life must have caused its abandon- 
M dl val ment an( -l t ' le substitution of silver by the Carlovingians. 

The denier (denarius) or penny of about 24 grains was 
at first practically the sole coin. The solidus in gold was 
struck but very rarely', perhaps as a kind of proof of the right of 
coining. The Byzantine solidus or bezant was used and probably the 
equivalent Arab gold. The Arab silver piece, the dirhem, was almost 
exactly the double of the denier, and seems to have been widely 
current in the north. The new coinage spread from France, where it 
was first royal and then royal and feudal, to Germany, Italy, where 
the Byzantine types did not wholly disappear, England, Scandinavia, 
Castile and Aragon. In Germany and France feudal money was soon 
issued, and in Italy towns and ecclesiastical foundations largely 
acquired from the empire the right of coinage, which was elsewhere 
rare. The consequence of the extended right of coinage was a de- 
preciation in weight, and in the middle of the I2th century the one- 
sided pennies called bracteates appeared in Germany, which were so 
thin that they could only be stamped on one side. The types of this 
whole second coinage are new, except when the bust of the emperor 
is engraved. The most usual are the cross; and the church as a 
temple also appears, ultimately taking the form of a Gothic building. 
There are also sacred figures, and more rarely heads.in the later age. 

3. The true herald of the Renaissance was the emperor Frederick 
II. In restoring the gold coinage, however, he followed in the steps of 

the Norman dukes of Apulia. With a large Arab popula- 
tion, these princes had found it convenient to continue 
the Oriental gold money of the country, part of the great 
currency at that time of all the western Moslems, and 
Roger II. (1130-1154) also struck Latin coins of his own as DyX 
APVLIAE, the first ducats. Frederick II. (1215-1250), continuing 
the Arab coinage, also struck his own Roman gold money, solidi and 
half solidi, with his bust as emperor of the Romans, Caesar Augustus, 
and on the reverse the imperial eagle (PI. III. fig. 7). In workmanship 
these were the finest coins produced in the middle ages. But the 
calamities which overwhelmed the Swabian house and threw back 
the Renaissance deprived this effort of any weight, and it was left to 
the great republics to carry out the idea of a worthy coinage ^a 
necessity of their large commercial schemes. The famous gold florin 
was first issued in 1252 (PI. III.fig.8). The obverse type is the standing 
figure of St John the Baptist, the reverse bears the lily of Florence. 
The weight was about 54 grains, but the breadth of the coin and the 
beauty of the work gave it dignity. The commercial greatness of 
Florence and the purity of the florin caused the issue of similar coins 
in almost all parts of Europe. Venice was not long in striking 
(in 1284) a gold coin of the same weight as the florin, but with the 
types of a standing figure of Christ.and the doge receiving the gonfalon 
at the hands of St Mark (see PI. III. fig. 9). It was first called the 
ducat, the name it always bears in its inscription; later it is known 
as the zecchino or sequin. Though not so largely imitated as the 
florin, the extreme purity of the sequin was unquestioned to a time 
within the memory of living persons. Genoa likewise had a great gold 
currency, and the other Italian states struck in this metal. It is 
significant of the power of the Italian republics that the later Mame- 
luke sultans of Egypt found it convenient or necessary for their 
position between Europe and India to adopt the weight of the florin 
and sequin for their gold money. Many varieties of gold money 
appear in course of time in France, England and to a less extent in 
other countries. The need for a heavier silver coinage caused the 
issue of the large denier (grossus denarius, gros or groat). This coin 
appears early in the Idth century. The types from the 140 century 
onwards are very various and distinctly worthy of the art of the 
time, which as yet is purely decorative and conventional, so that 
portraits are not possible. The religious intention also is gradually 
giving way to the desire to produce a beautiful result, and the 
symbol of the cross is varied to suit the decorative needs of the coin. 
Heraldic subjects also appear, and in the shield, which is frequently 
a reverse type, we see the origin of the usual modern reverse of the 
most important coins. 

4. 5. With the classical Renaissance we find ourselves in the 
presence of modern ideas. The elaborate systems of coinage of the 

various states of Europe are soon to begin, and the 
M classical prevalence o f a general currency to become for the time 
, mposs ible. Silver money now gains new importance with 
the issue of the thaler or dol f ar in Germany, in 1518. 

This great coin speedily became the chief European 
piece in its metal, but as it was coined of various weights and 
varying purity it failed to acquire the general character of the denier. 

XIX. 2Q 



.eaals- 
,aace,aad 

"*' 



The style of this age is at first excellent. The medals gave the tone 
to the coinage. Art had wholly thrown off the rules of the age before 
and attained the faculty of portraiture and the power oT simply 
representing objects of nature and art. Great masters now executed 
medals and even coins, but speedily this work became a mere matter 
of commerce, and by the beginning of the modern period it was fast 
falling into the poverty and barbarism in which it has ever since 
remained. The details of the numismatics of these two periods 
belong to the notices of the money of the several countries. 

A word must be added on money of account. While the denier 
was the chief and practically the sole coin, the solidus passed from 
use as a foreign piece into a money of account. The 
solidus, like the German schilling (shilling), contained 
usually 12 deniers. As there were 20 shillings to the ' 
pound of silver, we obtain the reckoning by s. d., librae, solidi and 
denarii. The pound as a weight contained 12 oz., and its two-thirds 
was the German mark of 8 pz. 

It would be interesting, did space permit, to notice fully the art of 
this entire class, to examine its growth, and to trace its decline; 
but, as with that of Greek and Roman coins, we must 
mainly limit ourselves to the best period. This is a space 
of about a hundred and fifty years, the age of the classical Renais- 
sance, from the middle of the I5th century to the close of the l6th. 
The finest works are limited to the first half-century of this period, 
from a little before 1450 to about 1500, in Italy, and for as long a 
time, beginning and ending somewhat later, in Germany. The artists 
were then greater than afterwards, and medal-making had not 
degenerated into a trade; but with the larger production of the 
period following the work was more mechanical, and so fell into the 
hands of inferior men. The medals of this first period may not un- 
worthily be placed by the side of its sculpture and its painting. Not 
only have some of its medallists taken honourable places in a list 
where there was no room for ignoble names, but to design medals 
was not thought an unworthy occupation for the most famous artists. 
There are, as we should expect, two principal schools, the Italian and 
the German. The former attained a higher excellence, as possessing 
not merely a nobler style but one especially adapted to coins or 
medals. The object which the artists strove to attain was to present 
a portrait or to commemorate an action in the best manner possible, 
without losing sight of the fitness of the designs to the form and use 
of the piece on which they were to be placed. For the successful 
attainment of this purpose the style of the later pre-Raphaelites was 
eminently suited. Its general love of truth, symmetrical grouping, 
simple drapery and severely faithful portraiture were qualities 
especially fitted to produce a fine portrait and a good medal. It 
is to be noted that their idea of portraiture did not depend on such 
a feeling for beauty as influenced the Greeks. Rather did it set before 
it the moral or intellectual attainments and capabilities, what the 
Italians called the virtu, of the subject. The German art, as seen in 
the medals, is mostly the work of carvers in wood or honestone, or 
goldsmiths. It excels in vigorous, realistic portraiture, and in 
decorative treatment of heraldic subjects, but is lacking in breadth of 
style and in the imagination shown by the best Italian medallists. 
Both these schools, but especially the Italian, afford the best 
foundation for a truly excellent modern medallic art. The finest 
coins and medals of Italy and Germany have an object similar to 
that which it is sought to fulfil in the English, and their nearness in 
time makes many details entirely appropriate. Thus, without 
blindly imitating them, modern artists may derive from them the 
greatest aid. 

There are some delicately beautiful Italian medals of the i6th 
century, too closely imitated from the Roman style. A_ vigorous 
realistic school, the only great one of modern times, arose in France 
before the close of the i6th century and lasted into the next. It 
was rendered illustrious by Dupr6 and the inferior but still power- 
ful Warm. From this age until the time of Napoleon there is 
nothing worthy of note. The style of his medallists is the weak 
classical manner then in vogue, but yet is superior to what went before 
and what has followed. 

It is not intended here to enter in any detail into the various 
divisions of the subject already treated in its main outlines, 
questions that would require consideration are of too complicated 
and technical a nature to be illustrated within reasonable limits; 
the principal matters of inquiry may, however, be indicated. 

We begin with a survey of the transitional coinages in the 
various countries of the West. They cover the period from the 
5th to the 8th centuries, and are of immense historical 
significance. The types throughout are monotonous: 
the bust of a Roman emperor or local ruler, a cross of 
some kind, a Victory, &c. The style is quite barbarous. 
The classification of the earliest servile imitations of Roman and 
Byzantine money rests solely upon provenance and is uncertain. 
The following general series are distinguished: (A) The Vandals 
(in Africa, 428-534) issued gold (?), silver and bronze from 
Hunneric (477-484) to Gelamir (530-534) ; the gold is anonymous. 
(B) The Suevians (Spain, 400-585) had little but imitations of 



NUMISMATICS 



[MEDIEVAL AND 



Byzantine gold; but Richiar (448-456) issued a denarius in his 
own name. (C) The Ostrogoths (Italy, 480-553) were preceded 
by the Herulian Odoacer (476-494), who coined silver and bronze; 
their kings (including Theodoric, 493-526, and Totila or Baduila, 
541-552) issued gold, silver and bronze in their own names, 
from Rome, Ravenna, Milan, &c. (D) The Lombards (Italy, 568- 
774) had no coins in their own names before Grimoald, duke of 
Beneventum (662-671); later there are gold solidi and thirds 
and silver from many mints. Gold was issued for the duchy of 
Beneventum in the 8th century. (E) The Burgundians (Gaul, to 
534) first issued recognizable coins under Gondebald (473-516). 
(F) The Visigoths ( South Gaul and Spain) had imitative gold 
thirds in the 5th and 6th centuries; the kings' names appear 
from Leovigild (573-586) to Roderic (710-711). Sixty-one mints 
were in operation. (G) The Meroving Franks first issued under 
Clovis I. (481-51 1) coins recognizably Prankish (solidi and thirds). 
Royal names first appear on silver and copper under Theuderic of 
Austrasia (511-534) and Childebert I. of Paris (511-558). The 
chief Prankish inscribed coinage is, however, of gold solidi 
and thirds, from Theodebert I. (534-548), who broke down the 
Roman imperial prerogative and issued gold with his own name 
in full, to the beginning of the 8th century. The last Merovings 
issued no coins in their own names, being mere puppets. And 
from the middle of the 6th century the coins with kings' names 
are far less numerous than those bearing the names only of 
mints and moneyers; some 800 places (not only in what is now 
France, but in Germany, the Low Countries and Switzerland) 
are thus named (PI. III. fig. 12). This coinage seems to have been 
intimately connected with the fiscal organization, though the 
generally accepted theory that the taxes collected in each place 
were there and then converted into money is by no means proved. 
Certain religious establishments also possessed the right of 
coining in their own name. The close of the Meroving dynasty 
saw a revival of silver in the saiga, which heralded the introduc- 
tion of the denier. (H) The Anglo-Saxons began with an 
imitative coinage similar to the Merovingian, viz. gold, solidi and 
thirds, and silver sceattas ( = treasure, Ger. Schatz) of about 20 
grains troy, and stycas ( = pieces, Ger. Stuck), first of silver, then 
of copper. The gold is rare and confined to the south; only two 
solidi are known, imitations of Honorius, with runic legends on 
the reverse. The types of the gold thirds, as of the coinage in 
other metals (which does not begin until the 7th century), are 
derived more or less directly from Roman. Some of the inscribed 
sceattas bear the name of London in Roman letters; others, in 
runes, the names of Epa and Peada (who is perhaps the son of 
Penda), king of Mercia (d. 655). Sceattas with runic inscriptions 
were also issued in East Anglia towards the end of the 8th 
century. But the sceatta was superseded by the penny introduced 
by Offa (757-796). Offa also struck a gold coin, bearing his name 
and an inscription copied directly from an almost contemporary 
Arab coin; but this is quite an exceptional issue, represented 
now by a unique specimen. The styca, which begins c. 670, was 
characteristic of the Northumbrian coinage, lasting, long after the 
introduction of the penny farther south, down to the Danish 
invasions of the second half of the 9th century. A series was 
issued by the archbishops of York. Wigmund (837-854) struck 
a gold solidus inscribed MVNVS DIVINVM, copied from the 
solidi of Louis le Debonnaire, and evidently meant for a religious 
purpose (PI. III. fig. 1 1). For the whole question of Anglo-Saxon 
coins see BRITAIN: Anglo-Saxon. (I) The Frisians had a small 
coinage of gold thirds (imitated from Byzantine), and one 
with the name of Audulfus also exists (end of the 6th century?). 
The chief mint was probably Doccum. 

We now proceed to the consideration of the coinages of the 
various countries from the 8th century to modern times. The 
Portugal monev f Portugal begins, after the expulsion of the 
Moors, with Alphonso I. (1112); it is exclusively regal, 
and not of great interest except as affording indications of the 
wealth and commercial activity of the state in the early part of 
the 1 8th century. The coinage of Spain, after the reconquest 
from the Moors, is almost without exception regal. The king- 
dom of Navarre had a coinage from the time of Sancho III. (1000- 



1035). The series of Castile and Leon begins with Alphonso VI. 
(1053) with deniers and obols. Aragon first has coins under 
Sancho Ramirez I. (1063). Gold (imitated from 
Moorish money) is introduced in the middle of the I2th 
century. A plentiful coinage was issued after the union of the 
crowns in 1479. The Spanish dollar of the 1 7th and i8th centuries 
was one of the most widely circulating currencies in the West (see 
PI. V. fig. 5). The medals of Spain are not important. 

In 755 Pippin abolished the gold coinage of his Merovingian 
predecessors and introduced the silver denier (see PI. III. fig. 10); 
the coinage became a royal prerogative once more, and /: rantr 
was confined to a few mints. The denier, which at first 
weighed c. 1-28 gramme (19! grains), was for centuries the 
most important of European silver coins. Under Charlemagne 
the weight was slightly raised; the Caroline monogram appears, 
and there are other modifications in the types. Charlemagne 
also issued money from various Italian, German and Spanish 
mints. He also introduced the obol, and struck gold (chiefly at 
Italian mints). Among his types must be noted the temple with 
the inscription XPISTIANA RELIGIO. Louis le Debonnaire 
(8r4-84o) was the last Carolingian to strike gold. In the pth 
century are perceptible the first traces of the movement which led 
to the extensive feudal coinage. The advent of the house of 
Capet made no great change in the system, but the feudal issues 
now become important. The most widespread denier was that 
of the abbey of St Martin at Tours (denier lournois) ; the royal 
coinage was known as the monnaie parisis. St Louis (1226-1270) 
effected a great reform late in his reign, making the sou (hitherto a 
money of account) into a real coin as the gros (see PI. III. fig. 14), 
and introducing a gold coinage. Henceforward the coinage increases 
in complexity; in the i4th century it has great artistic merit (see 
PI. III. fig. 17). The French medals are far more interesting than 
the modern coins. The earliest of artistic importance not by 
It alian artists show nevertheless strong Italian influence (medals 
of Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany, of Philibert of Savoy and 
Margaret of Austria). A series of large medallions of the Valois 
is attributed to Germain Pilon. The most characteristically 
French artists are Guillaume Dupre (working 1595-1643) ana 
Jean and Claude Warin (middle and second half of i7th century). 
The long historical series of Louis XIV. has no artistic value; 
but that of the Napoleonic period shows great technical ability 
on the part of artists like Andrieu, in spite of the false classicalism 
of their designs. 

The silver penny was introduced into England by Offa, king 
of Mercia (757-796), following the lead of Pippin in France (see 
PI. III. fig. 13) . It soon rose in weight to about 2 2 grains England. 
troy (1-42 gramme), at which it long remained. The 
types were usually, obverse the king's head, or some form of 
cross or religious symbol; reverse some form of cross, religious 
symbol or ornament. The inscriptions gave the names of the 
king and of the moneyer, later also the mint. An important gold 
coin of Offa was imitated from an Arab dinar of 774, with the 
addition of the words OFFA REX. The Mercian coinage ends 
about 874. The pennies of the kings of Kent extend from 765 to 
825; the archbishops of Canterbury went on striking to the 
beginning of the loth century. The East Anglian regal series 
extends to 890; the memorial coinage of St Edmund circulated 
largely in East Anglia in the 9th century. The penny appears in 
Northumbria with the Dane Halfdan (875-877) and continues to 
the middle of the next century. A coinage of " St Peter " 
pennies was issued from York c. 920-940. The coinage of 
Wessex begins with Ecgbert, probably c. 825, when he got posses- 
sion of the mint at Canterbury (see PI. III. fig. 15 with the name 
of London). The coinage marks the gradual growth of Wessex, 
until England is united under Edgar (957-975). There is hence- 
forward for a long time no change of great importance in the 
coinage, which continued to consist of pennies, with rare half- 
pennies (the pennies were usually cut into halves and quarters 
along the lines of the cross to make small change). During the 
reign of Stephen the monotony is relieved by a few issues by 
barons like Robert, earl of Gloucester. The number of mints is 
much reduced by the time of Henry III., and the moneyers cease 



LATER EUROPEAN] 



NUMISMATICS 



899 



to sign the coins in Edward I.'s reign. Henry III. made an 
abortive attempt to introduce a gold coinage, which was success- 
fully established by Edward III. in 1343, with the gold florin, and 
in 1344 with the gold noble (see PI. III. fig. 20). (The obverse type 
of the noble, the king in a ship, is generally thought to refer to the 
victory of Sluys in 1340.) He also introduced the silver groat Ud.) 
and half-groat. The English coinage, both gold and silver, was 
now of such high quality and reputation that it (especially the 
silver sterling) was largely exported and imitated, chiefly in the 
Low Countries. The gold coinage of Edward III. is perhaps 
the most successful, from an artistic point of view, in the English 
series. Subsequent developments of the coinage now become 
very complicated. Edward IV. distinguished his noble by 
a rose on the obverse and a sun on the reverse, and introduced 
a new gold coin, the angel. The Tudor period is distinguished 
by the splendour, variety and size of the coins; Henry VII. 
introduced the sovereign of 205. (240 grains) and the shilling, and 
on his coins the first serious attempt at portraiture is found (see 
PI. III. fig. 2 1) . Under Henry VIII. the quality of the silver money 
declines, being not effectually restored until the reign of Elizabeth, 
when an unsuccessful attempt was made to introduce a copper 
coinage. Private tokens came into use, but the official copper 
coinage does not begin until the next reign. The use of the mill, 
as distinct from the hammer, was begun in 1562, but it took just 
a century to oust the old-fashioned method. In 1613 John, 
Lord Harrington, obtained a patent for the issue of copper 
farthings, and private tradesmen's tokens were prohibited. 
The gold sovereign of James I., from its inscription (FACIAM 
EOS IN GENTEM VNAM) and the fact that it was meant to 
circulate on both sides of the Border, was known as the unite. 
The coinage of Charles I. presents great varieties owing to the 
civil war. The best workmanship is seen on the milled coins 
issued by Nicolas Briot. But the majority of the money was still 
hammered. The scarcity of gold in the royal treasury during 
the troubles induced the king to coin twenty- and ten-shilling 
pieces of silver, in addition to the crowns and smaller denomina- 
tions. Gold three-pound pieces, or triple-unites, however, were 
issued from the Oxford mint. One of the most remarkable 
of his pieces is a crown struck at Oxford by Rawlins. It bears 
on the obverse the king on horseback, with a representation of 
the town beneath the horse, and on the reverse the heads of the 
" Oxford Declaration." The so-called " Juxon medal," given by 
Charles to Bishop Juxon on the scaffold, is really a pat tern-piece by 
Rawlins (see PL V. fig. i). Of equal interest are the siege-pieces of 
many castles famous hi the annals of those days. They are mostly 
of silver, often mere pieces of plate with a stamp; but Colchester 
and Pontefract issued gold. The coinage of the Commonwealth 
is of a plainness proper to the principles of those who sanctioned 
it. The great Protector, however, caused money to be designed 
of his own bearing his head. It is not certain that this was ever 
sent forth, and it is therefore put in the class of patterns. 
Simon, the chief of English medallists, designed the coins, which 
are unequalled in the whole series for the vigour of the portrait 
(a worthy presentment of the head of Cromwell) and the beauty 
and fitness of every portion of the work. The finest coin pro- 
duced under Charles II., and technically the best executed piece 
in the whole English series, is the " Petition Crown " (see 
PI. V. fig. 2), a pattern by Simon, to which, however probably 
for political reasons the work of Jan Roettier was preferred. 
Maundy money was first struck in this reign, and the name 
guinea was now applied to the 205. piece. In 1672 a true copper 
coinage of halfpence and farthings was introduced. Hence- 
forward there is a decline in the coinage, although skill is perceived 
in the portrait of William III., whose grand features could scarcely 
have failed to stimulate an artist to more than a common effort. 
Queen Anne's money is also worthy of note, on account of the 
attempt, on Dean Swift's suggestion, to commemorate current 
history on the copper coinage, which led to the issue of the famous 
farthings (see PI. V. fig. 4) . These have been the cause of an extra- 
ordinary delusion, to the effect that a very small number (some 
say three) of these pieces were struck, and that their value is a 
thousand pounds each, instead of usually some shillings. Worth- 






less casts of genuine farthings, and counters made in imitation of 
the sixpence of the time, are constantly mistaken for such 
farthings. After this there is little to remark, except the baseness 
of the art of the coins under the first three Georges, until the 
talent of Pistrucci gave a worthier form to the currency. Be- 
tween 1760 and 1816 hardly any silver or copper money was 
issued. The gap was filled by the use of Spanish dollars counter- 
stamped, and silver tokens issued by the Banks of England 
and Ireland, as well as by vast quantities of tokens issued by 
private persons. In 1816 the new coinage of gold and silver was 
issued, since when there have been few changes in the British 
currency. 

The English medals are far more interesting for their bearing 
on events than as works of art. The best are almost all by 
foreigners, but the fine pieces of the Simons form notable 
exceptions. The medals of the Tudors are good in 
style, and show some excellent portraits, in particular 
those by Trezzo and Stephen H. (generally known as Stephen 
of Holland). There is one of Mary queen of Scots by Primavera, 
representing her in middle life, which is perhaps her most 
characteristic portrait. Elizabeth's are of historical importance, 
and some of them, as the Armada medals (see Pl.V. fig. 7), have a 
certain barbaric grandeur, being probably the work of English 
artists. The richer series of the Stuart period contains some 
medals of fine style. These include works by Warm, the Simons 
and the Roettiers, besides the excellent coin engravers Briot 
and Rawlins. The numerous badges worn by adherents of 
various parties during the civil war and Commonwealth have a 
personal and historical interest. The most curious pieces are 
those popular issues relating to current events, such as the so- 
called " Popish plot," and a certain interest attaches to medals 
of the exiled Stuarts. From this time there are no works deserv- 
ing notice except military and naval medals, the historical 
interest of which makes some amends for their poverty of design 
and execution. The English tokens form a curious class. They 
are of two periods: the earlier, which are almost always of copper, 
were issued chiefly at the middle of the I7th century and some- 
what later; the later, which are mainly of copper, but also 
sometimes of silver, were struck during the scarcity of the royal 
coinage in this metal at the end of the i8th century, and during 
the earlier years of the igth century. Both were chiefly coined by 
tradesmen and bear their names. The colonial money of England 
was until lately unimportant, but now (except in style) it is not 
unworthy of the wealth and activity of the dependencies. 
The " Anglo-Gallic " money struck by the English kings for 
their French dominions forms a peculiar class. It was begun 
by Henry II., who struck deniers and half-deniers for Aquitaine. 
Richard I. (whose name is not found on his English coinage) 
struck for most of the French domains, but no coins are attri- 
buted to John or Henry III. Edward I.'s coins are of billon; 
of Edward II. there are none. Gold was introduced before 1337, 
and there are fine series of gold, silver, and billon of Edward III. 
(see PI. III. fig. 19) and the Black Prince. Henry, earl of Lan- 
caster, struck silver at Bergerac (1345-1361). The succeeding 
kings down to Henry VI. (first reign) all issued Anglo-Gallic coins. 
There was a temporary revival under Henry VIII. at Tournay 
(1513-1519). The whole series,'with the exception of the Calais 
coinage, is French in character. 

The coinage of Scotland is allied to that of England, although 
generally ruder; but it seems to have been more influenced in the 
early period from England, and towards its close from Scotland 
France. The oldest pieces are silver pennies or sterlings, 
resembling the contemporary English money of the reign 
of David I. (1124-1153). David II. after 1357 introduced a gold 
coinage. In the isth and i6th centuries there is an important 
coinage, both in gold and silver, not the least interesting pieces being 
the fine bonnet-piece of James V., and the various issues of Queen 
Mary, many of which bear her portrait. The indifferent execution 
of the coins of Mary's reign is traceable to the disturbed state of the 
kingdom. The Scottish coinage came to an end in 1 709. 

Wales has never had a coinage of its own, properly speaking. A 
unique penny attributed with good reason to Howel the Wales. 
Good, a contemporary of Edmund (died c. 950), was 
perhaps struck at Chester. Various English kings struck coins at 
Welsh mints such as Rhuddlan, Pembroke. 



900 



NUMISMATICS 



[MEDIEVAL AND 



The money of Ireland is more scanty and of less importance than 
that of Scotland. The pieces most worthy of notice are the silver 

. . pennies of the early Danish kings, the earliest being that 
of Sihtric III. (989-1029), copied from contemporary 
English pennies. The Anglo-Irish coinage begins in 1 177, when John 
as lord of Ireland received the right of coinage. A copper coinage 
was introduced as early as the reign of Henry VI. The quality of the 
Irish coinage was exceedingly poor in the l6th century, especially 
under Elizabeth. Between 1642 and 1647 various kinds of money 
of necessity were issued, including the only gold Irish coin, the 
Inchiquin pistole. After his expulsion from England James II. 
issued enormous quantities of coins of necessity made of gunmetal 
or pewter. The latest Irish coins were the penny and halfpenny of 
1822. 

The Isle of Man had a regular copper coinage, beginning in 1709 

with pence and halfpence under the Derby family, continued by 

... James, duke of Athol (issue of 1758), and by the English 

sovereigns from 1786 to 1864. The badge of the island 

is the three-legged symbol, with the motto Quocunque 

jeceris stabit. 

Belgium occupies the next place in our arrangement. Its 
coinage, which, except for the few mints operating under the 

Merovingians and Carolingians, does not begin until 
a tne IItn centurv > comprises many pieces struck by 

"Holland, foreign rulers, and has littleof an independent character 

in either the regal or the seignorial class. The most 
important coinages are those of the house of Burgundy and 
Charles V. and his son, and of the bishops of Liege. In character 
the coinage of Belgium approximates to the French on the one 
side, the German on the other. About 1400 the Burgundian 
school produced a remarkable series of medals representing 
Roman emperors, of which two (those of Constantine and 
Heraclius) have come down to us; these form a link between 
the late Roman medallion and the Italian medal of the Re- 
naissance. The series of Holland is similar in character until 
the period of the revolt of the provinces. The Dutch dollars 
of the 1 6th to the i8th centuries had an immense circulation 
(see PI. V. fig. 3) . Among the early Dutch medallists must be men- 
tioned Stephen H., generally without reason known as Stephen 
of Holland (working 1558-1572), whose portraits show great 
charm. The Dutch historical medals are of great interest, more 
especially those which were struck by the Protestants in com- 
memoration of current events. There is also a remarkable 
series of bronze medallets or jettons, which form a continuous 
commentary on history during the i6th and early part of the 
1 7th centuries. Both are interesting as largely illustrating not 
only local events but also those of the chief European states. 
Such are the pieces recording the raising of the siege of Leiden, 
likened to the destruction of Sennacherib's army, the assassina- 
tion of William the Silent, and the discomfiture of the Armada, 
affording striking indications of the zeal, the piety and the con- 
fidence in the right which built up the great political structure of 
the Dutch republic. After this time the medals lose much of 
their interest. 

The money of Switzerland illustrates the varying fortunes of 
this central state, and the gradual growth of the stronghold of 

European freedom. First we have the gold money 
load"' f tne Prankish kings, among whose mints Basel, 

Lausanne, St Maurice-en-Valais and Sitten (Sion) 
already appear. The silver deniers, which Charlemagne made 
the coinage of the empire, are issued by fewer mints; the dukes 
of Swabia began to strike at Zurich in the loth century, and the 
empire granted during the loth and to the i3th century the right 
of coinage to various ecclesiastical foundations, bishoprics and 
abbeys. Bern was allowed a mint by the emperor Frederick II. 
in 1218, and other towns and seigneurs subsequently gained the 
same right. The demi-bracteate appears about the middle of the 
nth century, and about 1125 is superseded by the true bracteate, 
which lasts until about 1300. The i4th century witnessed the rise 
of the Swiss confederation, and by degrees the cantons struck 
their own money. These, together with the coins of some few 
sees and abbacies, form the bulk of Swiss money of the medieval 
and modern periods. The separate cantonal coinage, inter- 
rupted by the French occupation, was finally suppressed in 
1848, when a uniform currency was adopted by the whole 



republic. The monetary systems of the cantonal and ecclesias- 
tical mints were extremely complicated. This was partly due 
to the variety of coins, partly to the debasement practised by 
the ecclesiastical mints. Geneva had a peculiar system of her 
own. 

Italy, with Sicily, has peculiar features. Here the barbaric 
coinages were mixed with the Byzantine issues which marked 
the recovery of the Eastern empire, and left a lasting 
influence in the north at Venice, and in the south at 
Beneventum. Later the Arab conquest left its mark 
in the curious Oriental coinages of the Normans of 
Sicily and the emperor Frederick II., mixed after his fashion 
with Latin coinage. The earliest money is that of the barbarians, 
Ostrogoths and Lombards, and local Byzantine issues in Sicily. 
This is followed by the deniers of Charlemagne and his suc- 
cessors, supplanted by the gold currencies of the Normans and 
Frederick II. The age of the free cities is marked by the great 
coinages of Florence, Venice and Genoa, while the Angevin and 
Aragonese princes coined in the south, and the popes began to issue 
a regular currency of their own at Rome. The Italian princes of 
the next period coined in Savoy, and at Florence, Modena, Mantua 
and other cities, while Rome and the foreign rulers of the south 
continued their mintages, Venice and Genoa of the republics alone 
surviving. The Italian monetary systems have already been 
touched on in the introductory notice. For art the series is 
invaluable. First in Italy the revival influenced the coins, and in 
them every step of advance found its record. The Italian medals 
are without rivals in the works of modern times. 

Following the geographical order which is best suited to the 
Italian coinage, we first notice the money of Savoy, which is 
inferior in art to that of the rest of the country. It begins with 
Umberto II. (1080); in 1720 the dukes became kings of Sardinia, 
and their coinage merged eventually in 1861 in that of the king- 
dom of Italy. Genoa is the first of the great republics. She 
obtained the right of coinage from Conrad II. in 1139, and struck 
gold coins from the time of the general origin of civic coipage 
in that metal; these are ducats and their divisions, and after a 
time their multiples also. In the I7th century there are very 
large silver pieces. In the money of Mantua there are fine coins 
of Gianfrancesco III. (1484-1519) and Vincenzo II. (1627-1628), 
these last splendid examples of the late Renaissance, large pieces 
of gold and silver; the portrait is fine, and the hound on the re- 
verse a powerful design. The vicissitudes of the story of Milan 
find their record in no less than ten groups of money Lombard 
regal coins, Carolingian deniers, money of the republic (1260- 
1310), next of the Visconti family (1329-1447), succeeded by the 
republic (1447-1450) and by the Sforza line, next of Louis XII. 
and Francis I. of France, of the restored Sforza, of Charles V. by 
Spanish right and his successors of Spain, and lastly of Austria. 
There are extremely fine coins of the 1 5th century, showing great 
beauty in their portraits (see PI. III. fig. 22). The money of 
Florence is disappointing in its art. The Athens of the middle ages 
had the same reason as her prototype to preserve as faithfully as 
might be the types and aspect of her most famous coin, the gold 
florin (see PI. III. fig. 8), and thus those who expect to see in this 
series the story of Italian art will be much disappointed. The 
silver florin was first struck in 1 189. It is heavier than the denier, 
weighing about 27 grains, and bears the lily of Florence and the 
bust of St John the Baptist. These are thenceforward the leading 
types, the flower never changing, but the representation of the 
saint being varied. On the gold florin, first issued in 1252, the 
Baptist is represented standing, while in the contemporary 
silver florins he is seated. In the I4th century the arms of a 
moneyer appear in the field, two such officers have had the right 
of striking yearly, each for six months. The coins of the dachy 
from 1532, in spite of their new types, are not a fine series; the 
best are those of Alessandro, designed by Cellini. 

Venice as a mint even surpasses Florence in conservatism, and, 
the early style being distinctly Byzantine, this is the more 
striking in a great artistic city. We find Venice as an imperial 
mint issuing Carolingian deniers, but the doges begin to coin, 
placing their own names on their currency, in the I2th century. 



NUMISMATICS 



PLATE V. 






XIX. goo. 



MODERN COINS AND MEDALS. 



PLATE VI. 



NUMISMATICS 



CL : S 




ITALIAN MEDALS. 









LATER EUROPEAN] 



NUMISMATICS 



901 



Papal 
Coins. 



The most famous silver coin, the matapan, was first struck in the 
brilliant time of Enrico Dandolo (1192-1205). This coin is a 
grossus weighing about 33 grains, with on the obverse St Mark 
giving the standard or gonfalon to the doge, both figures standing, 
and on the reverse the seated figure of the Saviour. The famous 
Venetian zecchino or sequin(see Pl.III. fig. 9) , the rival of the florin 
of Florence, appears to have been first issued under Giovanni 
Dandolo (1284). On the obverse St Mark gives the gonfalon to 
the kneeling doge, and on the reverse is a standing figure of the 
Saviour within an oval nimbus. Niccolo Trono (1471-1473) 
introduces his portrait on most of his coins, but this custom is not 
continued. By the latest part of the isth century large silver 
coins appear. The archaic style changes in the beginning of the 
i6th century, but there is no later movement. The large silver 
pieces increase in size, and large gold is also struck ; the last doge, 
Ludovico Manin (1788-1797), issued the loo-sequin piece in gold, 
a monstrous coin, worth over 40. The doges of Venice from 
1521 to 1797 issued a peculiar silver token or medallet, the osella, 
five of which they annually presented to every member of the 
Great Council. They replaced the wild ducks (uccelle) which it 
had been customary to present at Christmas. Two dogaressas 
struck similar medallets. Their types are usually allegorical ; 
some are commemorative. 

The series of the coins of Rome is rather of historical than of 
artistic merit. The popes begin to strike money with Adrian I. 
(A.D. 772-795), whose deniers are in a Byzantino- 
Lombard style. The coins of his successors, with few 
exceptions, down to Leo IX. (1049) associate the 
names of pope and emperor. From Leo IX. to Urban V. (1362) 
there is no papal coinage at Rome. The Roman senate strikes 
from 1 1 88 onwards. We then see on the silver the style of the 
senate and Roman people, and ROMA CAPUT MUNDI. Some 
coins have the figures of St Paul and St Peter, ethers Rome 
seated and a lion. Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily (1263-1285), 
strikes as a senator, and Cola di Rienzo (1347-1348) as tribune. 
The gold ducat of about 1300 imitates the types of the Venetian 
sequin. St Peter here gives the gonfalon to a kneeling senator. 
The arms of the moneying senator next appear in the field. 
The papal coinage is resumed at Avignon; and Urban V., on his 
return to Rome, takes the sole right of the mint. From Martin 
V. (1417) to Pius IX. there is a continuous papal coinage. The 
later coins, though they have an interest from their bearing on 
the history of art, are disappointing in style. There is indeed a 
silver coin of Julius II. struck at Bologna and attributed to 
Francia, with a very fine portrait. We have beautiful gold coins 
of Giovanni Bentivoglio (see PI. III. fig. 23), lord of Bologna, who 
employed Francia at his mint, and we know that the artist 
remained at his post after Julius II. had taken the city. There 
are also pieces of Clement VII. by Cellini, vigorous in design 
but careless in execution. There were papal mints at Ancona, 
Bologna, Piacenza, Parma, Ferrara and other Italian towns; 
and coins were also struck at Avignon from 1342 to 1700. The 
papal portraits are highly characteristic and interesting. It is, 
however, in the fine series of papal medals that we find a worthier 
artistic record. 

The coinage of Sicily, afterwards that of the Two Sicilies, 
or Naples and Sicily, begins with the Normans. Theirs is a 
slcl[ curiously mixed series. It begins with Robert Guiscard 

as duke of Apulia (1075) an d Roger I. of Sicily (1072). 
The gold money is almost wholly Arabic, though Roger II. struck 
the Latia ducat, the earliest of its class; the silver is Arabic, 
except the great Latin scyphati of Roger II. with Roger III.; 
the copper is both Latin and Arabic. The gold series (A ugustales) 
of the emperor Frederick II. (i 198-1 250) shows the first sentiment 
of reviving classical art, its work being far in advance of the age. 
These are Latin coins; he also struck small Arabic pieces in 
gold. Under Conrad and Manfred there is an insignificant coinage, 
copper only, but with Charles I. of Anjou (1266-1285) the gold 
money in purely medieval style is very beautiful, quite equal to 
that of his brother, St Louis of France. After this time there is 
a great issue of glgliatl, silver coins with, for reverse, a cross 
fleurdelisee cantoned with fleurs-de-lis. These coins acquired 



a great reputation in the Levant, and were even struck by the 
emirs of Asia Minor. With Alphonso, the founder of the 
Aragonese line, we note the old style of the coins, which are in 
singular contrast to his fine medals. Good portraiture begins 
on the money of Ferdinand I., his successor. The later coinage 
is interesting only for its illustration of the varying fortunes of 
the Two Sicilies. The curious early gold coinage of the Lombard 
dukes of Beneventum, which follows the Byzantine type, has 
been mentioned under the transitional series; the dukes and 
princes of Beneventum and the princes of Salerno continued to 
issue coins (sometimes gold, usually deniers) down to the middle 
of the nth century. 

Italian medals (PI. VI.) are next in merit to the works of the 
Greek die-engravers. Certain small pieces of a medallic character 
were made in Italy, at Padua, as early as the end of the 
i4th century, and there existed also large cast and Medal*. 
chased pieces representing various Roman emperors 
(perhaps Burgundian work of the I4th century), which influenced 
the beginnings of the true medal. This began, and also reached 
its highest excellence, with Vittore Pisano (Pisanello), the 
Veronese painter, whose medals date from 1438 (or earlier) 
to 1449. The finest work of Italian medallists is seen in the 
cast medals of the isth and early i6th century; with the increase 
of classicism in the i6th the style declines rapidly. The earlier 
medals are independent works, marked by simple vigorous 
truthfulness. The designs are skilful and the portraits strongly 
characteristic; the expression of character and virtu takes 
precedence over ideal beauty, especially in the work of the 
Florentine school. As the art became popular the execution 
of medals passed into the hands of inferior artists, and by degrees 
striking became usual for the smaller pieces; at the same time, 
a slavish imitation of the classical style weakened or destroyed 
originality and stamped the works with the feebleness of copies. 
The great medallists of the first age are Pisano, Matteo de' Fasti, 
Enzola, Boldu, Sperandio, Guazzalotti, Bertoldo, Gambello, 
Niccolo Fiorentino, Lysippus, Candida, Caradosso. Some of 
the most beautiful medals, however, are by unknown artists 
(PL VI. fig. 2). In the i6th century must be mentioned 
Pomedello, Benvenuto Cellini, Leone Leoni, Giovanni Cavino 
" the Paduan," Pastorino of Siena, Giacomo da Trezzo, Pietro 
Paolo Galeotto, called Romano, and Antonio Abondio. Incom- 
parably the finest of all Italian medals are the works of Pisano, 
particularly the medals of Alphonso the Magnanimous, with the 
reverses of the boar-hunt and the eagle and lesser birds of prey, 
those of Sigismondo Malatesta, his brother surnamed Novello (see 
PI. VI. fig. i), Leonello d'Este, John VIII. (Palaeologus), Nicold 
Piccinino, Inigo d'Avalos (marquis of Pescara), Ludovico and 
Cecilia Gonzaga of the same family ,.the great humanists Vittorino 
da Feltre and Pier Candido Decembrio. Pisano is great in 
portraiture, great in composition and design, and marvellously 
skilful in depicting animals. He alone represents the moral 
qualities of his subject in their highest expression and even 
capability. That he has high ideal power is seen at once if we 
compare with his portrait Fasti's inferior though powerful 
head of Sigismondo Malatesta. Fasti's medal of Isotta, wife of 
Sigismondo, is also noteworthy, likewise the medal by the 
otherwise unknown Constantius of Mahomet II., the conqueror 
of Constantinople interesting works, but lacking Pisano's 
technical skill and inspiration. An artist of great power is 
Sperandio of Mantua; but his productions lack the finish 
necessary to good medallic work, his drawing and composition 
are careless, and his realism too often becomes brutal or vulgar. 
The work of Niccolo Fiorentino and of his pupils is astonishingly 
vigorous in portraiture, but they lack the power of designing 
reverses (see PI. VI. fig. 3). In the later age Cavino executed a 
remarkable series of imitations of Roman sestertii, which have 
been frequently mistaken for originals. In art these Italian works 
frequently surpass the originals in spite of a degree of weakness 
inseparable from copies. A comparison of the Italian with the 
Roman pieces is thus most instructive. The works of Pastorino 
of Siena (who had an extraordinary facility in graceful portraiture) 
are especially charming (see Pi. VI. fig. 4). Historically the Italian 



902 



NUMISMATICS 



[MEDIEVAL AND LATER EUROPEAN 



medals supply the defects of the coinages of Florence and Rome, 
and in a less degree of Venice. The papa! series is invaluable 
as a continuous chronicle, although artistically, after the earliest 
period, it is monotonous. 

The money of Germany is, like that of Italy, far too various 
for it to be possible here to do more than sketch some of its 
main features. In the Prankish period mints were in 
Germany. O p erat ; on at cities m the west, such as Mainz, Strass- 
burg, Spires, Treves, Worms, Cologne. Pippin issued denarii 
from Strassburg and Mainz; under his successors denarii and 
obols were also coined at other mints, as Bonn, Cologne, Spires, 
Treves. After the reign of Louis the Child (910-911) the 
Carolingian system was continued until the advent of the 
Swabians with Conrad III. (1138-1152). In the succeeding 
period, which ends with the introduction of the grossus and 
the gold coinage under Louis of Bavaria (1314-1347), the 
uniformity of the currency disappears. In the west (in Lothar- 
ingia, including the southern Low Countries, the Moselle and 
Rhine-lands, in Frisia, Bavaria, parts of Franconia and Swabia) 
the denier continues; but elsewhere we find the bracteate. 
The right of coinage is acquired in an increasing measure by the 
feudatories of the empire. These local coinages entirely domin- 
ated the system, so that even the imperial coinage is not uniform, 
but consists of denarii in the west and bracteates in the east. 
The earliest imperial bracteate is of Frederick I.; the large fine 
bracteates last but a short time, reaching their acme about the 
end of the I2th century (see PI. III. fig. 18). The fine pieces of 
the bishops of Halberstadt and the abbesses of Quedlinburg are 
characteristic of this class. With the introduction of the regular 
gold coinage (chiefly florins) and the grossus in the I4th century, 
Germany enters on the modern period. From the i6th century 
the thaler (so called from Joachimsthal in Bohemia, where the 
counts of Schlick first struck the coin in 1518) dominates the 
silver currency (see PI. V. fig. 6). The thalers and other large coins 
of the i6th and iyth centuries are often good and always vigorous 
in workmanship. By the convention of 1857 the thaler was 
recognized as the unit for Berlin and the north, the florin of 
loo kreuzers for Austria, the florin of 60 kr. for the south. The 
present system, based on the gold reichsmark of 100 pfennigs, 
was established all over the German empire in 1876. Of particular 
currencies in Germany we must be content with the bare mention 
of some of the more important. Among the great rulers we 
note the dukes of Bavaria, who coined from Henry I. (948-955), 
and issued fine thalers in the i6th century. The Counts Palatine 
of the Rhine coined from 1294, their mints being at Heidelberg, 
Frankfort, &c. The Saxon coinage begins with Duke Bernard 
(973) and includes a large series of bracteates and thalers, the 
latter being especially famous. The Brunswick coinage begins in 
the nth century; besides its bracteates we note the large mining- 
thalers of the i6th and i7th centuries (up to ten-thaler pieces). 
There are good bracteates and thalers of the margraves of 
Brandenburg; from 1701 they coin as kings of Prussia. In 
Austria there is a ducal coinage from the I2th century; the gold 
florin of Florentine character appears under Albert II. (1330- 
1358). The marriage-coin of Maximilian and Maria of Burgundy 
(a 16th-century reproduction of a medal made by the Italian 
Candida in 1479) is a striking piece, and in the i6th century 
there is a large series of fine thalers. The thalers of Maria Theresa 
had an enormous circulation among savage races, and those of 
the date 1780 were recoined for the purposes of the Abyssinian 
War of 1867. In Bohemia there is a ducal coinage from the 
early loth century to 1192; then came the regal bracteates. 
Wenceslas II. (1278-1305) struck the first German grossus at 
Prague (see PI. III. fig. 16). The gold florin appears under John 
of Luxemburg (1310-1347). In Hungary the regal coinage begins 
with St Stephen (1000). Charles I. of Anjou (1310-1342) intro- 
duced the florin and grossus. Of historical interest is the money 
of John Hunyady as regent (1441-1452). The abundance of gold 
about this time and later shows the metallic wealth of the land. 
The same is true of the rich gold coinage of the Transylvanian 
princes in the i6th and i7th centuries. Of ecclesiastical coinages 
the most important are at Minister, Cologne, Mainz, Treves, 



Augsburg, Magdeburg, Spires, Wiirzburg, Salzburg. The Cologne 
series of coins is almost continuous from the Prankish period; 
the archbishops first received the right from Otto I., Bruno 
(953-965) being the first to coin; from Pilgrim (1021-1036) 
the series, issued at various mints in the Rhineland, is very 
complete down to 1802. The series of Treves ranges from 
Theodoric I. (965-975) to Clement Wenceslas (1794). The 
archiepiscopal coinage of Mainz begins with Willigis (975) and 
lasts until 1802; its mints included Erfurt, Bingen and many 
other places. The Salzburg series (beginning 996) is remarkable 
for its fine thalers (especially of Mathias Lang, 1519-1540). 
The patriarchs of Aquileia, who may be mentioned here, acquired 
the right of coinage from Louis II. in the gth century, but the 
first who can be identified on the coins is Godfrey (1184); thence 
onwards there is an interesting series of denarii and smaller coins 
down to the early 15th century. Of cities with large coinages it 
is sufficient to mention Aix-la-Chapelle (from the time of Frederick 
I. to 1795), Frankfort -on-the-Main, Hamburg (with great gold 
pieces of the i6th and I7th centuries, up to 10 ducats) and 
Nuremberg. Lastly, we may mention the. coins of the grand- 
masters of the Teutonic Order, issued in Prussia from 1351 to 
1512. 

German medals perhaps rank next to Italian, although they 
lack the higher artistic qualities. They are the work of craftsmen 
jewellers, wood-carvers, workers in hone-stone and show great 
facility of minute workmanship and chasing and decorative 
design (the last is especially clear in the heraldic reverses); the 
faults of these qualities are to some extent redeemed by the 
native German vigour and directness of the portraiture. The 
original models from which the medals were cast were in many 
cases made in hone-stone or box-wood, which did not, like the 
favourite wax of the Italian artists, give much scope for subtlety. 
The chief centres of the art were Nuremberg and Augsburg. 
Many medals have been attributed to Albrecht.Durer; whether 
he did more than design them is uncertain. Among other 
medallists may be mentioned Hans Schwarz (working 1516- 
1527), Ludwig Krug, Friedrich Hagenauer (working 1525-1546, 
see PI. V. fig. 8), Peter Flotner (c. 1538, although it is doubtful 
whether this artist, whose plaquettes are famous,, made any 
of the portrait-medals ascribed to him), Mattes Gebel, Hans 
Reinhardt the Elder, &c. Some other good artists are known 
only by their initials, or quite unidentified. After the middle 
of the i6th century the art declines, although we still have 
skilful artists like Valentin Maler (1568-1593). In this later 
period striking gradually supersedes casting. 

The earliest Polish coins are of the loth century; the types are 
copied from English, German and Byzantine sources. In the I2th 
and I3th centuries there is a bracteate coinage. The Poland, 
grossus was introduced about 1300. In later times the 
town of Danzig, while belonging to the kingdom, issued remarkable 
gold pieces, thalers, &c., down to its restoration to Prussia (1793). 

The origin of the coinage of the Scandinavian states: Norway, 
Denmark and Sweden, is clearly English and due to the Danish 
conquest of England. The runic alphabet is employed, scaaain- 
though not by any means exclusively, on many of the av ^ a 
early coins of Denmark and Norway. The Norwegian 
series begins with Hakon Jarl (989-996), who copies the pennies of 
jEthelred II. In the second half of the I ith century begins a coinage 
of small, thin pennies, which develop into bracteates. Magnus IV. 
(1263-1280) restores the coinage, more or less imitating the English 
sterlings of the time. Norway and Denmark were united under 
Eric of Pomerania in 1396. The money of Denmark begins with 
pennies of Sweyn (985-1014) which are copied from the coinage 
of jEthelred II.; the coins of Canute the Great (1014-1035) and 
Hardicanute (1036-1042) are mainly English in character. With 
Magnus (1042-1047) other influences, especially Byzantine, appear, 
and the latter is very strong under Sweyn jEstrithson (1047-1076). 
Bracteates come in in the second half of the I2th century. The 
coinage is very difficult of classification until the time of Eric of 
Pomerania (1396). There are important episcopal coinages at 
Roskilde and Lund in the I2th and I3th centuries. Sweden has very 
few early coins, beginning with imitations by Olaf Skotkonung (995) 
of English pennies and showing the usual bracteate coinage. The 
money was restored by Albert of Mecklenburg (1363-1387). 
thaler is introduced by Sten Sture the younger (1512-1520). Tl 
money of Gustavus Adolphus is historically interesting. 
Charles XII. there is highly curious money of necessity. The claler 
is struck as a small copper coin, sometimes plated. The types include 



ORIENTAL] 



NUMISMATICS 



93 



Latin 
East. 



the Roman divinities. At the same time and later there was a large 
issue of enormous plates of copper, stamped with their full value in 
silver money as a countermark. 

The earliest Russian coinage begins with the princes of Kiev as 
early as the end of the loth century; it shows strong Byzantine 
. influence. The grand princes from the early 1 5th cen- 

tury struck curious little silver pieces. The coinage was 
modernized by Peter the Great, who introduced a regular gold 
coinage. The large silver and copper coins of his successors are very 
plentiful. Nicholas I. (1825-1855) introduced a platinum coinage 
of about two-fifths the value of gold. 

The Christian coinages of the northern Balkan States are of great 

interest. They are chiefly silver grossi, showing a mixture 'of 

. Byzantine and Venetian influences. The Bulgarians had 

a regular silver coinage from Asien I. (1186-1196) to 

John Sismana (1371-1395). The Servian coinage lasts 

from Vladislas I. (1234-1240) to the middle of the I5th century. 

There is also a coinage of the Bans of Bosnia (late 1 3th to 1 5th 

century). The modern coinage of the Balkan States is of interest 

only as a revival. The independent city of Ragusa is remarkable for 

the bold style of its early copper (l3th century, inspired by Roman 

models of the 4th century) and the richness and variety of its 

later issues. 

There is a most interesting class of coins struck during the 
middle ages within the limits of the present Turkish empire, 
the money of the crusaders and other Latin princes 
of the East. The multitude of states thus designated 
have been classed by Schlumberger, the authority on 
the subject, in the following order, the chief divisions of which 
are here given: First group, principalities of Syria and Palestine, 
counts of Edessa, princes of Antioch, kings of Jerusalem, counts of 
Tripoli, fiefs of Jerusalem, crusaders who struck imitations of 
Arab coins, kings of Cyprus, lords of Rhodes, grand-masters of the 
order of St John at Rhodes, to which may be added the later 
grand-masters at Malta; second group, Latin emperors of 
Constantinople, Prankish princes and lords of Greece and the 
Archipelago whose power was due to the crusade of 1204, such 
as the princes of Achaia, the dukes of Athens, Neapolitan kings 
who struck money for their Eastern possessions, Latin lords 
of the Archipelago, the Genoese at Chios, the Gattilusi at 
Mytilene, the Genoese colonies, the Venetian colonies, the 
Turkoman emirs of western Asia Minor who struck Latin coins. 
The most important currencies are the billon and copper of the 
princes of Antioch (Bohemund I., 1098, to Bohemund IV.', 
1201-1232) and the kings of Jerusalem (Baldwin II., 1118, to 
Conrad, 1243), the silver and copper of the counts of Tripoli 
(i2th and i3th centuries) and the gold imitations of Arab dinars, 
the currency in that metal of the crusaders of Palestine. These 
Bisantii Sarracenati, or Saracen bezants, are at first imitations 
of Fatimite dinars, known to have been struck by Venetian 
moneyers at Acre, and probably at Tyre and Tripoli also. After 
these coins had been current for nearly a century and a half they 
were forbidden on account of their Mahommedan aspect by 
Pope Innocent IV. The Venetians then issued gold and silver 
coins with the same aspect but with Christian inscriptions. 
The kings of Cyprus issued a really good coinage in the three 
metals and in billon from Guy de Lusignan (1192) to Catherina 
Cornaro; from 1489 to 1571 the Venetians issued coins for the 
island. The coinage of the order of St John begins on the con- 
quest of the island of Rhodes (1309) and the suppression of the 
Templars; the earliest coins known are of Foulques de Villaret 
(1305-1319), and the last of the Rhodian series are of Villiers 
de 1'Isle-Adam, the gallant defender of the island who was 
forced to capitulate to the Turks and sail for a new home in 1522. 
The coinage is of fine gold, silver, billon and copper. On the 
establishment of the order at Malta in 1530 it is resumed there till 
the capture of the island by the French at the close of the i8th 
century; it has little interest except as showing the wealth of 
the order. The other currencies of the crusaders, notwithstanding 
their great historical interest, are far less remarkable numis- 
matically; the influence of the denier tournois is, however, 
noticeable on the coinage of the princes of Achaia (1245-1364), 
and the dukes of Athens (1225-1308). 

Of the money of America little need be said here. Neither the 
coinages of the Spanish and Portuguese dependencies, and of the 
states which succeeded them, nor those of the English colonies 



and of the United States, present much that is worthy of note. 
In style they all resemble those of the parent countries, but, 
originating in the decline of art, they are inferior in style and work. 
They are most remarkable in the south for the abundance of 
gold and silver. The chief coin is the dollar. Some coins are of 
historical interest, and there are a few rarities, such as the colonial 
money of Lord Baltimore struck for Maryland, the pine-tree 
coins of Massachusetts, and the hog-money of Bermuda. 

IV. ORIENTAL COINS 

Oriental coins may be best classed as ancient Persian, Arab, 
modern Persian and Afghan, Indian and Chinese, and other issues 
of the far East. The first place is held by the money of the old 
Persian empire, the Parthians and the Sassanians. The conquests 
of the Arabs introduce a new currency, carried on by the Moslem 
inheritors of their empire. The modern Persian and Afghan money, 
though of Arab origin, is distinguished by the use of the Persian 
language with Arabic. The Indian currencies, though Greek, 
Sanskrit, Arab and Persian in their inscriptions, must be grouped 
together on account of their mutual dependence. They rise with 
the Bactrian kings, whose Greek types are gradually debased by 
the Indo-Scythians and Guptas; these are followed by a group 
of currencies with Sanskrit legends; next follow the money 
of Arab conquerors and the great series of the Pathans of Delhi 
and subsidiary dynasties, with Arabic inscriptions; the main 
series is continued in the currency of the Moguls, who largely 
use Persian, and the last series is closed by local currencies 
mainly with Sanskrit or Arabic legends. The Chinese coinages 
form the source and centre of the group of the far East, 
which, however, includes certain exceptional issues. The 
order throughout is historical, each empire or kingdom being 
followed by the smaller states into which it broke up, and then 
by the larger ones which were formed by the union of these 
fragments. 

The Persian coinage was probably originated by Darius I. about 
the time that he organized the empire in satrapies. The regular 
taxation thus introduced made a uniform coinage necessary. Avoid- 
ing the complex gold system of Croesus, which was intended to 
accommodate the Greek cities in commercial relation with Lydia, 
Darius chose two weights, the gold shekel of 8-4 grammes and the 
silver drachm of 5-58 grammes. One gold piece was equal to twenty 
silver. The gold coin was called the daric, the silver the siglos. 
The metal was very pure, especially that of the daric. Thus not 
only were the Lydian gold and silver coins of inferior weight thrown 
out of circulation, but the Persian gold, from its purity, became 
dominant, and was the chief gold currency of the ancient world so 
long as the empire lasted. The issuing of gold was a royal pre- 
rogative. Silver money was coined not only by the king but in the 
provinces by satraps, who used local types, and by tributary states. 
The following classes must be distinguished: (i) regal, (2) satrapal, 
(3) of tributary states. The art of Persian coins varies according 
to the locality, from the beautiful purely Greek work of the west coast 
of Asia Minor to the more formal style of Cilicia and the thoroughly 
hieratic stiffness of Phoenicia and Persia. 

The regal coinage is of darics (PI. IV. fig. 2) and subdivisions in gold 
and of sigli and subdivisions in silver. The obverse type is the king 
as an archer, the reverse an irregular oblong incuse. The darics show 
differences of style, and must extend through the whole period of the 
empire. The sigli no doubt run parallel with them. Both these 
denominations are uninscribed. 

The satrapal coinage is very important and interesting. It 
belongs mainly to Cilicia. The most remarkable series is that with 
a bearded head wearing a tiara, with various reverses, struck appar- 
ently at Colophon, Cyzicus and Lampsacus, and in one instance 
bearing the name of the satrap Pharnabazus, but usually the word 
" king " in Greek. The coin of Colophon shows a splendid portrait, 
one of the finest instances of Ionian work. It probably represents 
Pharnabazus (see PI. IV. fig. i). Of other satrapal issues those of 
Datames, of Tiribazus and Cilician issues, struck at Tarsus, are 
specially noteworthy. Their inscriptions are Aramaic. 

The coinages of the tributary states have been in part noticed in 
their geographical order. 

After the fall of the empire, the generals and satraps such as 
Mazaeus who governed Alexander's newly-acquired dominions issued 
coins from various mints, especially Babylon. The gold coins were 
double darics of the same types as their single predecessors. The 
silver coins were mainly modelled on the coins which Mazaeus had 
previously issued in Cilicia with the types of Baal-Taro and Lion. 
Some of them may have been issued as far East as Bactria and North 
West India. These are followed by the first native coinage, in- 
scribed below under India. 



94- 



NUMISMATICS 



[ORIENTAL 



The conquest of Alexander did not wholly destroy the independ- 
ence of Persia. Within less than a century the warlike Parthians, 
once subjects of Persia, revolted (249-248 B.C.) against 
Parthians. tne Sel euc M s and formed a kingdom which speedily 
became an empire, ultimately the one successful rival of Rome. 
Their money is Greek in standard and inscriptions, as well as 
in the origin of types. The coins are silver, following the Attic 
weight, the chief piece being the drachm, though the tetradrachm is 
not infrequent; there are also bronze coins, but none in gold are 
known. The drachm has the head of the king on the obverse, 
diademed or with a regal head-dress, and on the reverse the founder 
Arsaces seated, holding a strung bow, the later tetradrachms varying 
this uniformity. Every king is styled Arsaces, to which many of the 
later sovereigns add their proper names. The inscriptions are 
usually long, reaching a climax in such as BAXIAEflS BASIAEiiN 
MEFAAOY APSAKOY AIKAIOY EIII*ANOYS EOY EYIIA- 
TOPO2 *IAEAAHNO2 of Mithradates III. (57-54 B.C.; see PI. IV. 
fig. 4) , where we see the double influence of Persian and Seleucid styles 
and the desire to conciliate the Greek cities. Very noticeable are the 
coins which bear the portraits of Phraataces (3 B.C.-A.D. 4) and his 
mother, the Italian slave Musa, with the title queen (0EA.2 
OYPANIA2 MOYSHS BA2IAISSHS). The last of the Parthian 
coins are those attributed to Artavasdes (c. A.D. 227). 

The coinage of Persis, beginning in the second half of the 3rd 

century B.C., consists of silver tetradrachms and drachms; the 

earliest have fine portraits of the kings, but the style 

Persis. rapidly degenerates. The prevailing reverse type is the 

Persian fire-altar. 

The dynasts of Characene, on the lower Tigris, issued coins (silver, 

bronze and base metal) from the time of the founder, Hyspaosines 

(c. 124 B.C.), down to the 2nd century A.D. The obverses 

Cbaracene. of the tetra drachms have portraits of the kings; the 

usual reverse type is a seated Heracles. 

The Persian line of the Sassanians arose about A.D. 220, and 
wrested the empire from the Parthians in 226-227, under the leader- 
ship of Ardashir or Artaxerxes. This dynasty issued a 
national and thus Oriental coinage in gold and silver. 
The denominations follow the Roman system, and there 
are but two coins, equivalent to the aureus or solidus and the denarius. 
The obverse has the king's bust, usually wearing a very large and 
elaborate head-dress, varied with each sovereign, and the reverse the 
sacred fire-altar (see PI. IV. fig. 3) ordinarily flanked by the king and 
a priest. The attachment which Ardashir, the founder, bore to Zoro- 
astrianism established this national reverse type, which endured 
through the four hundred years of the sovereignty of his line to 
A.D. 652. The inscriptions are Pahlayi. 

The Arab coinage forms the most important Oriental group. It 
has a duration of twelve centuries and a half, and at its widest 
geographical extension was coined from Morocco to the 
lalipuites. Dor( i ers o f China. When the Arabs made their great con- 
quests money became a necessity. They first adopted in the 
East imitations of the current Persian silver pieces of the last 
Sassanians, but in Syria and Palestine of the Byzantine copper, in 
Africa of the gold of the same currency. Of these early coins the 
Sassanian imitations are very curious with Pahlavi inscriptions and 
shorter ones in Arabic (Curie). The regular coinage with purely 
Moslem inscriptions begins with the issue of a silver coin at Basrah, 
in 40 A.H. (A.D. 660), by the caliph 'AH; after subsequent efforts thus 
to replace the Sassanian currency, the orthodox mintage was finally 
established, in 76 A.H. (A.D. 695), by Abdalmalik. The names of the 
denominations and the weight of the gold are plainly indicative of 
Byzantine influence. There were three coins. The dinar of gold 
(PI. IV. fig. 6) took its name from the aureus or denarius aureus, of 
which the solidus must have been held to be the representative, for 
the weight of the Arab coin(about 4-3 grammes)is clearly derived from 
the Byzantine gold piece. The dirhem of silver (see PI. IV. fig. 7) is 
in name a revival of the Greek drachm ; it weighs at most about 3 
grammes. The copper piece is the fels, taking its name from the 
follis of the Greek empire. Commercially the gold easily exchanged, 
and the silver soon passed as the double of the Carolingian denier. 
For long these were the only coins issued, except, and this but rarely, 
half and quarter dinars. There are properly no types. There was 
indeed an attempt in the early Byzantino-Arab money to represent 
the caliph, and in the course of ages we shall observe some deviations 
fe'om the general practice of Islam, particularly in the coinage of the 
atabegs and in Mahommedan coinages not of the Arab group, the 
modern Persian and that of the Moguls of Delhi. The inscriptions 
are uniformly religious, save in some Tatar coinages and that of the 
Turks. In general the coins are for the first five centuries of their 
issue remarkably uniform in fabric and general appearance. They 
are always flat and generally thin. The whole of both sides of the 
coins is occupied by inscriptions in the formal Cufic character 
usually arranged horizontally in the area and in a single or double 
band around. Towards the fall of the caliphate a new type of coin 
begins, mainly <Bfcjng in the greater size of the pieces. There are 
new multiples of the dinar and ultimately of the dirhem, and the 
silver pieces frequently have their inscriptions within and around a 
square, a form also used for gold. The Cufic character becomes 
highly ornamental, and speedily gives way to the flexuous naskhi of 
modern writing. The inscriptions are religious, with the addition 



of the year by the era of the Flight (A.D. 62?), the month sometimes 
being added, and the mint occurs uniformly on silver and copper, but 
does not appear on the gold until after the fall of the Omayyad 
dynasty. Subsequently the official name of the caliph occurs. The 
religious part of the inscriptions is various, the most usual formulae 
being the profession of the Moslem faith: " There is no deity but 
God; Mahomet is the apostle of God," to which the Shi'ites or 
followers of 'AH in Persia and Africa add " 'AH is the friend of God." 
The Moorish coins give long formulae and religious citations and 
ejaculations, and they, like the money of the Pathans of Delhi of 
the Indian class, have occasionally admonitions urging or suggesting 
the purer use of wealth. As Arab and other dynasties arose from 
the dismemberment of the caliphate, the names of kings occur, but 
for centuries they continued to respect the authority of their re- 
ligious chief by coining in his name, even in the case of the shadowy 
Abbasids of Egypt, adding their own names even when at war with 
the caliph, as though they were mere provincial governors. After the 
fall of the caliphate some new denominations came in, chiefly of 
heavier weight than the dirhem and dinar, but the influence of the 
commercial states of Italy made the later Egyptian Mamelukes, the 
Turks and the later Moors adopt the gold sequin. In more modern 
times the dollar found its way into the Moslem coinage of the states 
bordering on the Mediterranean. It can be readily seen that Arab 
coins have no art in the same sense as those of the Greeks. The 
beautiful inscriptions and the arabesque devices of the pieces of the 
close of the middle ages have, however, a distinct artistic merit. 

The Omayyad coins o\ve their only historical value to the evidence 
which the silver affords of the extent of the empire at different 
times. The first separation of that empire dates from 
the overthrow of this dynasty (which had its capital at Omayyads. 
Damascus, A.D. 661-750) by the 'Abbasids (A.D. 750, capital Bagdad) 
speedily followed by the formation of the rival Omayyad 
caliphate of the West with its capital at Cordova. The ^basUs. 
Abbasid money has the same interest as that which it succeeded, but 
its information is fuller. Towards the fall of the line (which ended at 
Bagdad in 1258) it becomes very handsome in the great coins, which 
are multiples of the dinar (see PI. IV. fig. 10). The Spanish Omayyads 
(756-1031) struck silver almost exclusively. Their rise was followed 
by that of various lesser lines the Idrisites (788-985, silver) and 
Aghlabites (800-909, gold chiefly) in western Africa, the BenI Tulun 
(868-905, gold), and, after a short interval, the Ikhshidids (935-969, 
gold), both of Turkish origin, in Egypt. Meanwhile a new caliphate 
arose (909) in western Africa which subdued Egypt (969), the 
Fatimid of the line of 'AH, and for a while the allegiance of the 
Moslems was divided between three rival* lines, the Omayyads of 
Spain, the Fatimids of Africa, and the Abbasids of Bagdad. The 
Fatimids introduced a new type of dinar, with the inscriptions in 
concentric circles, and struck little but gold. In the interim the 
Persians, who had long exercised a growing influence at the court of 
Bagdad, revived their power in a succession of dynasties which ac- 
knowledged the supremacy of the caliphate of Bagdad, but were 
virtually independent. These were the Tahirids (820-872), Saffarids 
(867-903), Samanids (874-999), Ziyarids (928-1042), and Buwoyhids 
or Buyids (932-1055), who mostly struck silver, but the last gold also. 
As the Persians had supplanted the Arabs, so they were in turn 
forced to give place to the Turks. The Ghaznevids formed a powerful 
kingdom in Afghanistan (962-1186, gold and silver), and the 
Seljuks established an empire (gold), which divided into several 
kingdoms, occupying the best part of the East (1037-1 194). Of these 
dynasties the Seljuks of Rum or Asia Minor (1077-1300) first strike a 
modern type of Arab coinage (silver, PI. IV. fig. 9). 

The Seljuk dominions separated into many small states, the 
central ruled by atabegs or generals (I2th-I3th cent.), and the 
similar Turkoman Urtukis (i 101-1312). The atabeg money and that 
of the Turks of the house of Urtuk are mainly large copper pieces 
bearing on one side a figure borrowed from Greek, Roman, Byzantine 
and other sources. They form a most remarkable innovation (PI. IV. 
fig. 1 1 ) . In the same age the great but short-lived empire of Khwarizm ' 
(Khiva, 1150-1231) arose in the far East. The first caliphate to 
disappear was that of Spain, which broke up (c. 1031) into small 
dynasties, some claiming the prerogative of the caliphates. They 
chiefly struck base silver (billon) coins. The Christian kings gradu- 
ally overthrew most of these lines. In the meantime various Berber 
families had gained power in western Africa and the Almoravides and 
the Almohades crossed the straits and restored the Moslem power in 
Spain. They struck gold money of fine work, and that of the later 
Muwahhids is remarkable for its size and thinness. At the fall of the 
Muwahljids the only powerful kingdom remaining was the Arab 
house of Granada (Nasrids), which, supported by the Berbers of 
Africa, lingered on until the days of Ferdinand and Isabella (I49 2 )- 
The Fatimite dynasty was supplanted by the Kurdish line of the 
Ayyubites, the family of Saladin, who from 1169 to 1250 ruled 
Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, with a number of vassal states, some 
governed by princes of their own family, some by the older lines of the 
atabeg class which they allowed to survive. In Egypt the Ayyubite 
coinage is of gold, elsewhere of silver and copper. The caliphate of 
Bagdad, which latterly was almost limited to that town, though its 
abundant heavy gold coinage at this very time indicates great wealth, 
was overthrown by the new power of the Mongols (A.D. 1258), who 
established a group of empires and kingdoms, comprising the whole 



ORIENTAL] 



NUMISMATICS 



905 



Eastern world eastward of the Euphrates and thence extending 
northward and reaching into Europe. The most important ol these 
states for their money are that of the Mongols of Persia (1256-1349), 
founded by Hulagu, the conqueror of Bagdad, and that of the khans 
of the Golden Horde (1224-1502). Both struck silver, but there is 
also gold coinage of the Mongols of Persia, who more frequently use 
the Mongol character for their names and titles than is done under the 
kindred line. The power of the Mongols was held in check by the 
Mameluke kings of Egypt and Syria, slave-princes of two dynasties, 
the Baljri (1250-1390) and the Burji (1382-1517), who struck money 
in the three metals. The Mongol power waned, but was revived by 
Timur (Tamerlane), who during his rule (1369-1405) recovered all 



that had been lost. He and his successors (to 1500) struck silver, 
copper, and brass money (see PI. IV. fig. 13). The Ottoman Turks, 
whose power had been gradually growing from 1299 onwards, after a 
desperate struggle with Timur (defeat of Bayezld I. at Angora in 
14^02), gradually absorbed the whole Mahommedan world west of the 
Tigris, except only Morocco, where they had but a momentary 
dominion. Constantinople fell to them in 1453, Syria, Egypt and 
Arabia in 1517. Their money of gold, silver, base metal and bronze 
is devoid of historical interest. In Tunis and Morocco a group of 
Berber lines long maintained themse'ves, but at length only. one 
survived, that of the sharifs of Morocco, claiming Arab descent, now 
ruling as the sole independent Moslem dynasty of northern Africa. 
Its recent coinage is singularly barbarous. It may be remarked that 
Tunis and Egypt have long coined Turkish money in their own 
mints, the more western state latterly adding the name of its here- 
ditary prince to that of the sultan. 

The coins of the shahs of Persia have their origin with Isma'fl 
(1502). They are struck in the three metals, and are remarkable 
for the elegance of their inscriptions, sometimes in flowing 
Persia. Arabic, sometimes in the still more flexuous native char- 
acter (see PI. IV. fig. 12). The inscriptions are at first Arabic ; after a 
time the religious formulae are in this language and the royal legend in 
Persian, usually as a poetical distich. The Persian series is also re- 
markable for the autonomous issues of its cities in copper, the obverse 
bearing some type, usually an animal. The coins of the Afghan amirs 
form a class resembling in inscriptions those of the Persians, and 
equally using Persian distichs. They commence with Ahmad Shah 
Durrani (1747). 

The first native Indian coinage consists of primitive pieces (the 
earliest perhaps of the 4th century B.C.) of silver and copper 
with countermarks (known as " punch-marked " coins). 
India. Foreign coins (Persian and Athenian) circulated in the 
country from the 5th century; the silver coinage of Sophytes, a con- 
temporary of Alexander the Great, shows Athenian influence; and 
there are not a few coins of Indian provenance showing direct imita- 
tion or modification of Athenian types (as the substitution of an eagle 
for the owl). Alexander himself is represented by a coinage of 
square bronze pieces. Certain tetradrachms and diobols with the 
name of Alexander and types: head of Zeus and eagle, probably 
belong to the end of the 4th century. But the coinage which was to 
have most effect on that of India was the Bactrian (see also under 
BACTRIA). This is at first a pure Greek coinage, of fine style, begin- 
ning with Diodotus (gold, silver, bronze), who revolted from Antiochus 
II., c. 250 B.C. For about a century the art of these coins, at least 
as regards portraiture, ranks very high for realism and vigour. 
The Bactrian rulers seem first to have made incursions into the 
Kabul valley and north India about 200 B.C., the first Indian con- 
quests being perhaps made by Euthydemus and Demetrius. Of the 
latter there exists a bronze coin with the regular Greek types, but 
of the characteristic square Indian form, with a translation on the 
reverse into Kharosh^hi characters of the obverse Greek inscription. 
Some of the coins of succeeding kings are very remarkable, as the 
tetradrachms of Antimachus (see PI. IV. fig. 5), with a portrait re- 
minding us of good Italian medals, and the unique 2O-stater gold piece 
of Eucratides (the largest Greek gold coin known to us, although its 
genuineness has been questioned). The coinage from about 160 B.C. 
becomes more and more Indian, the Greek power being definitely 
transferred south of the Paropanisus in the second half of the 2nd 
century. The Attic standard which had been used for the silver 
gradually gave way to the Persian. The Greek princes went on 
reigning in India to about 20 B.C. ; their chronology^ is very obscure. 
During the last two centuries B.C. several other coinages existed in 
north India, (i) The Scythic Sacae or Sakas invaded Bactria and 
then India; the earliest Saka coinage of north India (that of Maues 
in the Punjab, c. 120 B.C.) shows Parthian influence; so do the 
slightly later coins of Vonones and others who reigned in Kandahar 
and Seistan. (2) Another large and varied group of coins consists 
of the issues of native states, some of which go back to before 200 B.C. 
Of these we may note the coins of Eran (Sagar district) showing the 
gradual development of the punch-marked coin into the coin with a 
type, made up of a collection of such punch-symbols struck from one 
die; and the coins of Taxila, the earliest of which are struck with a 
type on one side only. From these were imitated the copper coins 
of the Greeks, Pantaleon and Agathocles (c. 190 B.C.), which again 
inspired the later coins of Taxila with types on both sides. In the 
first century of our era the Indo-Parthian dynasty of Gondophares 
(Gundophorus of the Apocryphal Acts of St Thomas) reigned in 
Kandahar and Seistan and in India, and is represented by coins. 



About 25 B.C. the Kushanas (as the Yue-chi were called, after their 
most important tribe) conquered the remains of the Greek kingdom 
in the Kabul valley, and in the 1st century of our era they subdued 
the Punjab and the territory as far as the Jumna. The well-known 
gold coinage of the Kushanas (due probably to the influx of Roman 
gold into India) is begun by Hima Kadphises (c. A.D. 30-78; see 
PI. IV. fig. 14). The best-known kings are Kanishka, Huyishka and 
Vasudeva. The types are interesting, combining deities of the 
Greeks, Scythians, the Avesta and the Vedas and Buddha. The 
Greek inscriptions become meaningless after c. A.D. 180. The coinage 
in gold (of Roman weight) and copper, however, continues probably 
as late as A.D. 425 in the Kabul valley and the Punjab. Of other 
dynasties contemporary with the Kushanas, the most important are: 
(i.) The Andhras, a south I ndian power, with territory extending across 
the peninsula from the Kistna and Godavari deltas to Kolhapur. 
The coins are chiefly of lead, but copper and silver are also known, 
(ii.) the satraps of Surash^ra and Malwa, whose coinage (chiefly of 
silver) is copied trom the half-drachms of the Greek princes of the 
Punjab; it lasts until the end of the 4th century, (iii.) Early in 
the 4th century the important imperial Gupta coinage begins with 
Chandragupta, and continues unbroken to the death ofSkandagupta, 
c. A.D. 480. The empire at its greatest extent comprised the whole of 
north India, except the Punjab. The earliest gold coinage was de- 
rived from that of the Kushanas (see PI. IV. fig. 15); later there was 
silver derived from the coinage of the satraps; the copper is more 
original in style. After c. A.D. 480 the empire broke up into various 
dynasties which lasted until A.D. 606. The Great Kushanas had been 
succeeded in Gandhara (Kabul valley and Punjab) by the_Kidara 
Kushanas, and these, c. 465-470, were conquered by the Hunas (a 
branch of the Ephthalites or White Huns). The Huna coinage 
consists almost entirely of imitations of Sassanian, Kushana or 
Gupta coins. Their power probably broke up c. A.D. 5.44. Of other 
ancient and medieval non-Mahommedan coinages in India the 
following may be mentioned: (i) Various series of dynasties reign- 
ing in Kanauj and Delhi, from the 7th to the I2th century. (2) 
Kashmir coinage beginning probably as early as Kanishka and 
continuing with the same types (obverse, king standing, reverse, 
goddess seated) until the Mahommedan coinage in the 131(1 century. 
The coins are very rude; but the succession of the kings from c. A.D. 
850 is fairly certain. (3) Later Shahi coinage of Gandhara, especially 
the " bull and horseman " coins (c. A.D. 860-950). (4) Pandya, in the 
extreme south : this district used first the early punch-marked coins, 
then coins with a type on one side only, and later double-type coins; 
these are earlier than c. A.D. 300. There is a later gold coinage (type, 
fish) from the 7th to loth century. (5) Cola: an earlier coinage, 
before c. A.D. 1022, with the Cola emblem, a tiger; the later coinage 
(obverse, king standing, reverse, king seated) influenced the coinage 
over most of south India. (6) Ceylon: a coinage of the rajas imi- 
tated from the Cola coins, from A.D. 1153 to 1296. (7) Chalukya 
coinage, chiefly of gold, in west Deccan and in Pallava country 
between the Kistna and Godavari; the emblem is a boar. They 
range from the 7th to the nth century. (8) Vijayanagar: this 
power preserved the old character of the coinage south of the Kistna 
long after the Mahommedan conquest had transformed the coinage 
north of that boundary. The later coinage of South India is too 
obscure to be dealt with here. 

The Arabs in the first days of conquest had subdued Sind and 
founded an independent state on the banks of the Indus, which was 
ruled by them for nearly two centuries from 711 ; but it is hard to 
subdue India from this direction, and the strangers decayed and 
disappeared. The way into India was first really opened by the 
campaigns of Maljmud of Ghazni (1001-1024) w .ho annexed the 
Punjab and gave a raja to Gujarat. The Pathan kings came of the 
Ghuri stock which rose on the ruins of the empire of Ghazni (i 186). 
Mohammad ibn Sam (d. 1206) made Delhi his capital, and here he 
and his successors, Pathans or slave-kings, ruled in great splendour 
as the first exclusively Mahommedan Indian dynasty, latterly 
rivalled by a line of Pathans of Bengal. Of the Pathans of Delhi 
(1206-1554) we have an abundant coinage, the principal pieces 
being the gold mohur of about 168 grains and the silver rupee of 
about the same weight, besides many pieces of bronze, and at one 
period of base metal. The coins are large and thick, with the pro- 
fession of Islam or the style of the caliph on one side, on the other the 
nameand titles of the reigning king. Mohammad ibn Tujjhlak (1324- 
1351, PI. IV. fig. 8) struck coins with a great variety of inscriptions, 
some in the name of the shadowy ' Abbasid caliphs of Egypt, whose 
successors were for a time similarly honoured by later sovereigns. 
Towards the close of the rule of the Pathans several dynasties arose 
(about 1400) in central and southern India and struck similar 
money, the kings of Gujarat, of Malwa and the Bahmanids of the 
Deccan (1347-1526). The Pathan lines closed with Sher Shah, an 
Afghan, the last ruler of Bengal (d. 1539). Babar, the Turki, of the 
family of Timur, seeking a kingdom, adventured (1525) on the 
conquest of Hindustan; and after long wars with Sher Shah, carried 
on by Babar's son Humayun, the famous Shah Akbar, grandson of 
the invader, was at length peaceably settled on the throne of Delhi, 
and he and his successors, the so-called Moguls of Delhi, practically 
subdued the whole of India. They retained the existing standard, but 
used the Arabic and Persian languages like the shahs of Persia. Akbar 
(i556-l6o5)issuedasplendid coinage in gold and silver(Pl. IV. fig. 16), 



906 



NUMISMATICS 



[PRESENT DAY COINS 



far more elegant than that of the Pathans, but the money of his son, 
Jahangir (1605-1628) is still more remarkable. He issued the famous 
zodiacal mohurs and rupees, as well as those astonishing Bacchanalian 
mohurs on which he is represented holding the wine-cup (see PI. IV. 
fig. 17). Scarcely less strange is the money of the beautiful queen 
Nur-Jahan. Under Shah Jahan (1628-1659) there is a visible falling 
away in the merit of the coins, and an ordinary modern style is reached 
in the reign of Aurungzib (1659-1707). To the close of the rule of 
Shah 'Alam, the last Mogul who actually reigned (1759-1806), gold 
and silver money is abundant. Much of the money of the East India 
Company is closely imitated from this late Mogul coinage. Latterly, 
native states coin with Arabic and also with Sanskrit inscriptions. 
The most important are the kings of Oudh, the nizams of the Deccan, 
and the kings of Mysore, besides the maharajas of Indore and the 
kings of Nepal. The coinage of Tipu Sultan (Tippu ahib) is ex- 
tremely curious from his innovations in the calendar. Besides these 
there are a multitude of small states. Most of the Indian princes ac- 
knowledged the emperor of Delhi, but some struck independently. 
At last the English coinage of India has swept away nearly all these 
moneys, though some native states still issue their own. 

We must be content with the briefest summary of the strange 
coinages of China and the Further East. 

The money of China, more certainly than the square punch- 
marked coinage of India, may claim an origin independent of the 
China. Lydian and Greek issues. Although " money " is men- 
tioned in Chinese literary sources as having been in use 
from a very early period (3rd millennium B.C.) it is probable that 
before the 7th century B.C. it consisted either of uncoined metal or 
of other media, such as silk, tortoise-shell, cowries. The shell- 
currency indeed played a very important part in China even in later 
times. It was suppressed in 335 B.C., but the usurper Wang Mang, 
whose reign (A.D. 9-23) separates the two Han dynasties, made an 
abortive attempt to revive it. The earliest metal currency of which 
specimens are extant is, like nearly all subsequent Chinese money, of 
cast bronze. The gold and silver currency, which appeared sporadic- 
ally, can never have been of much importance; a kin, or cubic inch, 
of gold, representing currency of Han times, is preserved in the Paris 
collection. The bronze coins fall into two main classes. The earlier 
(as a rule) have the shape of implements, such as spades, knives, 
&c. ; the later are the well-known round " cash " with a square 
hole in the centre (see PI. IV. figs. 18, 19). They are carried strung 
together, and their value is minute. From the earliest knife-money 
should be distinguished that of Wang Mang; his coins are short and 
thick, and the plain ring at the end of the handle is replaced by a 
piece resembling in shape a cash with ring and square central hole. 
The older knife-currency practically came to an end with the founda- 
tion of the Ts'in dynasty in 221 B.C., though it doubtless lingered on 
in remote districts. With this dynasty appears the first organized 
state mintage. Nevertheless the economic history of Chinese coinage 
continues to be a melancholy record of doubtful financial expedients, 
debasement and forgery. The value of the coins was supposed to 
depend on their weight; but the weight inscribed on them was by 
no means always the true one. The bronze coinage from the reform 
of Wu-ti in 138 B.C. down to A.D. 622 is fairly uniform ; it is chiefly 
cash of 5 chu (see PI. IV. fig. 18). Iron money was issued at various 
periods. The disturbance of the coinage by the usurper Wang Mang 
has already been noted. The modern coinage may be said in a sense 
to date from the introduction of the K'ai yuan pattern of 7i chu 
under the T'ang dynasty in A.D. 622. On the reverse of this coin was 
a mark (supposed to have been made by the empress Wen-teh in 
touching with her nail the wax model submitted to her) which has been 
much copied on coins of other countries in the Far East (see PI. IV. 
fig. 19). From this time to the present there has been little change. 
Paper-money was introduced in the 9th century. The modern cash 
usually bears on the obverse the name of the reign and the words 
t'ung poo (" current money "), on the reverse the name of the mint. 
The coinage under the present (Manchu) dynasty has been regular, 
except during the Taiping rebellion, when some iron coins and copper 
tokens were issued, owing to the failure of the copper supply. Gold 
and silver have not been issued by the government until quite 
recent times (see below), with one or two unimportant exceptions, 
but circulate by weight. Imitations of Spanish and Mexican dollars, 
bearing numerous punch-marks placed on them by successive owners, 
are common. The most interesting Chinese coins are those of small 
rival dynasties and of rebels, the study of which is important for the 
elucidation of the obscurities of the history of the country. The 
Chinese medals are talismans, usually larger than coins, and bear both 
subjects and inscriptions. They are distributed by Taoist and 
Buddhist priests of temples. The money of Korea and Annam is 
similar to that of China, and Chinese coins were long the currency 
of Java, which more recently has issued the money of its Mahom- 
medan princes. 

The empire of Japan shows in its coinage that Chinese source 
modified by the influence of native independence which marks all its 
Japan. institutions. The use of a metallic currency probably 
began in the 5th century of our era. In character the 
coins show strong Chinese influence. Amongst the earliest are rude 
silver pieces, disks of somewhat irregular shape, with a central hole, 
attributed to the early 5th century ; and there are also copper coins 
of similar character dating from the end of the 7th century. A 



regular copper coinage, Chinese in pattern, began with the exploita- 
tion of the copper mines in A.D. 708. There was a silver coinage in 
A.D. 760, and a gradually deteriorating copper currency was issued at 
various dates down to A.D. 958. The twelve varieties issued in these 
two and a half centuries are known as the twelve antique sen (see 
PI. IV. fig. 20). No copper was issued by the government for six 
hundred yeai^ after this date; but coins of the old patterns in lead 
or tjn circulated down to 1302. The lack of copper was supplied by 
the importation and imitation of Chinese cash. These imitations were 
due to the great nobles, who made them on their own domains. At 
the end of the i6th century (Ten-sho period) a regular currency of 
gold, silver and copper, and also iron was instituted, which lasted, 
with modifications, down to recent times (iron coins with wave- 
pattern reverse being cast as late as 1860). There is a billon coinage 
of bean-shaped pieces issued at various dates from 1601-1859. 
Silver also was frequently issued on the same pattern as the copper 
coinage; but the greater part of it circulated in ingots or plates. 
The small oblong pieces known as ichi-bu and ni-bu belong to the 
igth century (not issued after 1868). Large plates of silver, like the 
gold coins to be mentioned immediately, were issued in the i6th 
century by some provinces. Round coins of gold of the Chinese shape 
were rarely cast (one in A.D. 760, another in A.D. 1599). But from 
the i6th century to modern times gold circulated chiefly in large 
oblong plates, with rounded angles, varying from over 6J to f in. in 
length. These are called o-ban (" large plate " of 10 ryo), ko-ban 
(" small plate " of I ryo; see PI. IV. fig. 21), &c. They bore various 
countermarks, including the mikado's crest, mint-assayer's test- 
marks, &c. ; some bear the attestations merely written in ink (a 
device of the imperial officials, who charged fees for the attestations, 
and were not sorry that they should be easily obliterated). Small 
gold oblong pieces were cast at various times from 1601-1856 (PI. IV. 
fig. 22). A European system of currency, with coins in gold ( 20 yen 
and under), silver (i yen and under), nickel (5 sen) and copper (2 sen 
and under), was adopted in 1870. Japan has also " picture sen " 
(E-sen) of a magical and religious character like the temple medals 
already noticed under China. 

Korea has had a copper coinage of Chinese style from the beginning 
of the twelfth century during its intervals of independence; but 
its coins do not become common until 1790. During 
the I9th century it issued an extensive copper coinage 
from various mints. 

_ The earliest coins of Annam were imitations of Chinese coins, but 
since the loth century its kings have issued a regular coinage 
bearing their regnal titles as in China. Since 1820 round A 
and oblong silver coins have been struck, the tael and its Annam. 
subdivisions. Peculiar to Annam are the fine series of medals in 
gold, silver and copper struck since 1841 by its kings for presentation 
purposes, bearing lucky inscriptions, quotations from the Chinese 
classics, &c. 

The peculiar forms of primitive currency characteristic of certain 
parts of Further India and the Malay Peninsula can only be barely 
mentioned here. Burma provides silver-money in the 
shape of snail-shells (a relic of a still more primitive shell- 
currency). The earlier Siamese ticals are derived from a p . . 
ring of silver wire doubled up and countermarked. . 
From Pahang come very curious tin " hat coins," shaped 
like a hollow square pyramid, truncated, with broad, square brim 
projecting from its base. The peoples of the Indian Ocean and 
Persian Gulf used in the 1 6th and iyth centuries pieces of silver wire 
called larins which in Ceylon took the shape of fish-hooks. 

V. COINS OF THE PRESENT DAY 

United Kingdom. The standard of gold and silver has re- 
mained unchanged for over two hundred years, and until 1887 
the denominations were practically the same as instituted at 
the great recoinage of 1816. The substitution of a bronze for 
a copper currency had already taken place in 1860. On the 
occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887 it was determined 
to mark the event by a new coinage of gold and silver, and to 
revise the royal portrait. Two new denominations of five and 
two pounds were added to the gold series, and the double florin 
to the silver. For the re- 
verse type of all the gold 
and of the five-shilling 
piece, Pistrucci's design of 
St George and the Dragon 
was used, and former types 
of Anne and George IV. 
were revived for the double FlG ,,_ Sovere . (?old)) England . 
florin, flonn, half-crown Queen Victoria (obverse by Brock), 
and sixpence; that of the 

last was, however, soon abandoned. This new coinage did 
not meet with general approval, especially as regards the 
portrait of the Queen, and in consequence a third portrait was 




PRESENT DAY COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



907 




and a ship, which had 
been added to the design 
in 1860, being eliminated. 



adopted for the gold and silver in 1893, new reverse types were 
prepared for the half-crown, florin and shilling, and the issue 
of the double florin was discontinued. The portrait of the queen 
was the work of the sculptor Thomas Brock, R.A., who was 
careful to avoid the defects which had been somewhat severely 
criticized in Sir J. Edgar Boehm's design of 1887. The new type 
for the half-crown, a spade-shaped shield within the garter, 
was also executed by Mr Brock; and those for the florin and 
shilling, three shields placed triangularly, were by Sir Edward 

Poynter. In 1895 a new 
issue of bronze money 
was ordered, when the 
queen's bust of 1893 was 
adopted, and a slight 
alteration made in the 
reverse type, the repre- 
sentation of a lighthouse 
FIG. 2. Sovereign (gold), England : 
King Edward VII. (obverse by de 
Saulles). 

The coinage of Edward VII. differed but slightly from that 
of Queen Victoria. The denominations were the same; but 
on the obverse the head of the king (by G. W. de Saulles, 
engraver to the Mint) was represented bare, the title " Britanni- 
arum " was changed to " Britanniarum Omnium Rex," the reverse 
of the florin showed Britannia standing on a ship, and that 
of the shilling the royal crest, the lion on a crown, as on the 
so-called " lion-shillings " of 1826. The designing of the new 
coinage of George V. was entrusted to Mr Bertram Mackennal. 

France. On the establishment of the Third Republic in France 
in 1870, the coinage was continued on the same lines as before, 
the types only being altered. The silver franc of 5 grammes 
(78 grains) as ordered in 1793 and confirmed by the Latin 
Monetary Union of 1865, which included Belgium, Italy and 

Switzerland, and subsequently 
in 1868 Greece, has remained 
the unit of value. The de- 
nominations ordered were, in 
gold, the 100, 50 and 20 
francs; in silver, the 5, 2 
and i franc, and 50 and 20 

FIG. 3. Twenty Francs (gold). centimes '' and m bronze ' 




France (Chaplain). 



the 10, 5, 2 and i centime. 
The types adopted were those 
which had been used previously thus for the gold that 
of a genius inscribing the tables of. the law, as designed 
by Augustin Dupr6 for the reverse of the constitutional 
coinage of Louis XVI.; for the silver and copper the head 
of the Republic as executed by Oudine for the money of 1848. 
Subsequently, in 1871, the type of the 5 francs was changed 
for that of Hercules leaning on Liberty and Strength, as made 
by Dupre for the First Republic. In 1889 the 10 francs in gold 
was added to the list, having the head of the Republic crowned 
with corn, the work of Merley for the Republic of 1848; but 
only a small number of these coins was struck in that year 
and in 1895. No further alteration was made till after 1895, 

when, in consequence 
of suggestions that 
the types should be 
modified so as to 
mark the Third Re- 
public, the artists 
Chaplain, Roty and 
Dupuis were com- 
missioned to execute 

FIG. 4. Two Francs (silver), France (Roty). new designs the 

first for the gold, 

the second for the silver, and the last for the bronze. The 
types approved were: for the gold 20 francs, the head of 
the Republic with a Phrygian cap, and the Gallic cock; 
for the silver 2 and i franc and 50 centimes, the sower 
sowing, with the rising sun in the background, and a laurel 




branch; and for the bronze, the bust of the Republic wearing 
a Phrygian cap, and on the reverse France seated amidst clouds, 
holding a branch and a flag, and accompanied by a genius. 
These coins were not issued simultaneously the 50 centimes 
appearing in 1897, and 2 and i franc and 10, 5, 2 and i centime 
in 1898, and the 20 francs in 1899. In 1903 a nickel piece of 
25 centimes was introduced, since 1904 with a polygonal edge 
to facilitate distinction from the silver. The quartering of the 
franc is a departure from the strictly decimal system, also adopted 
in Italy. These later coins are characteristic of modern French 
medalh'c art, which has a strong tendency to imitate that of 
Italy of the i6th century. 

Belgium. Of the other states which formed the Latin 
Monetary Union, Belgium had already in 1832 adopted the 
French decimal and bimetallic system, with the franc as the unit 
of value. Her accession to the Union, therefore, only entailed 
a slight modification of type and denominations, which latter 
were the same as in France, except that the only gold com was 
the 20 francs, the 25 centimes in silver was not issued, and the 
pieces of 10 and 5 centimes are now in nickel. The gold and 
silver coins have for types the head of the king and the royal 
shield, those in nickel the Belgic lion and mark of value, and those 
in bronze the royal monogram and the lion holding the tables 
of the constitution. Some of the silver coins have the inscriptions 
in Flemish. The nickel coinage introduced in 1902 is perforated 
in the centre to prevent confusion with silver. 

Switzerland. Like Belgium, Switzerland had before her 
adhesion to the Latin Monetary Union adopted the French 
system, with the franc of 100 centimes or rappen as the unit of 
value. The denominations in gold and silver were the same as 
issued for Belgium, but no gold was struck before 1883. The 
coins of baser metal were the 
20, 10 and 5 centimes in 
billon, which metal was in 
1879 changed for the nickel, and i 
in copper the 2 and i centime. ' 
Certain changes of type have 
from time to time occurred. 
The first issue of the -20 francs 
in 1883 shows the head of the FIG. s.-Twenty Centimes (nickel) , 
n LU j ^1 i 11. Switzerland. 

Republic and the shield of the 

Confederation; but this was changed in 1897 for the head of 
Helvetia above a range of mountains, and on the reverse a 
wreath with mark of value. On the silver coins from 1874 
Helvetia is represented standing instead of seated, and on the 
nickel money of 1879 the shield of the Republic is replaced by 
the head of Helvetia. The mark of value and a wreath form the 
general reverse type of all the silver, nickel and copper coins. 
Since 1888 a s-franc piece, similar in type to the 20 francs of 
1883, has been issued. 

Italy. When Italy joined the Latin Monetary Union in 1865, 
she adopted as the unit of her coinage the lira of 100 centesimi, 
equal to the franc. The coins were of gold, silver and bronze, 
and of the same de- 
nominations as those 
struck in Belgium 
and Switzerland. In 
1894 a nickel coinage 
of 20 centesimi was 
ordered. The general 
type for all the coin- 
age is the head of the 

king and the royal FlG 6 ._T WO Lire ^ilver), Italy, 
arms, but on the re- 
verse of the copper is the mark of value; and the nickel money 
has on the reverse a crown with a wreath. A new nickel piece 
of 25 centesimi indicates a departure from the strictly decimal 
system. The coinages of all the small Italian states, including 
the Papal, have now passed out of currency. 

Greece. A special stipulation was made, when Greece was 
enrolled in the Latin Monetary Union in 1868, that all her money 
should be struck at a French mint. The unit of the coinage 





908 



NUMISMATICS 



[PRESENT DAY COINS 



is the drachm of 100 lepta, which, like the lira, is equivalent 
to the franc. The denominations are in gold, the 100, 50, 20, 
10 and 5 drachms; in silver, the 5, 2 and i drachm, and 50 and 
20 lepta; and in bronze, the 10, 5, 2 and i lepton. In 1893 
nickel was substituted for bronze, and coins of the value of 20, 
10 and 5 lepta were issued in this metal. The types of the coins 
of Greece are similar to those of Italy. Crete has had since 1900 
a coinage of its own similar to the Greek (silver of 5, 2 drachmae, 
i and 5 drachma; bronze and nickel of 20, 10, 5, 2 lepta and 
i lepton). 

Germany. Since 1871 the coinage of the German empire 
has been entirely remodelled. By a convention in 1857 between 
the states of Germany, north and south, and Austria a general 
coinage of a silver standard was established on the basis of the 
new pound of 500 grammes as sanctioned by the Zollverein. The 
contracting countries were divided into three sections, North 
Germany, South Germany and Austria. From the pound of 
fine silver of 500 grammes the Northern States struck 30 thalers, 
Austria 45 florins and the Southern States 525 florins; their 
relation being i North German thaler = if Austrian florins = 
if South German florins. The free towns of Hamburg, Liibeck 
and Bremen did not join the convention. The first reform in 
the coinage of the German empire occurred in 1871, when a new 
gold money was introduced, which had for its unit the silver 
mark (a money of account) of 100 pfennigs weighing 5-555 
grammes. The new gold pieces were of the value of 10 and 20 
marks, called crowns and double crowns, and the fineness was 
fg pure to iV alloy. This new issue necessitated a readjustment 
of the current values of the various silver coinages in circulation. 
In 1873 a further step was made by the introduction of an 
entirely new silver coinage throughout the empire, which was 
also based on the silver mark, and of a new base metal coinage 
in nickel and bronze. The silver coins were the 5, 2 and i mark 
and 50 and 20 pfennigs; those in nickel the 10 and 5 pfennigs, 
and in bronze the 2 and i pfennig. The silver coins were, like 
the gold, ^ fine, so that 90 marks were struck to the pound of 
pure metal. The gold 5 marks was struck in 1877 and 1878, 
and the 20 pfennigs in silver was replaced by a coin of the same 
value in nickel in 1886. The reverse type for all the coins is 
the imperial eagle, but that of the obverse varies; the gold and 
silver showing the portrait of the reigning king or prince, but 

the mark, and all lesser 
denominations, the current 
value. An exception was 
made in the case of the 
coinage of the Free Towns 
struck at Hamburg, which 
has the arms of the city 
instead of a portrait. Each 
state retained its full rights 
of coinage, and the various 
mints throughout the empire with their special marks 
are: Berlin, A; Hanover, B; Frankfort, C; Munich, D; 
Dresden (removed since 1877 to Miildner-Hutte), E; Stutt- 
gart, F; Karlsruhe, G; Darmstadt, H; and Hamburg, J. In 
1876 a gold standard was proclaimed, and henceforth no person 
was legally bound to accept in payment more than 20 marks 
in silver and the value of i mark in nickel or bronze. The old 
thalers (worth 3 marks) still circulate. 

Austria-Hungary. After the convention of 1857 with Germany 
(see above), when Austria based her coinage on the silver standard 
of the florin, two series were issued (i.) Vereinsmiinzen (money 
of the union), in gold, the crown and half-crown; in silver, the 
double thaler ( = 3 florins) and thaler; (ii.) Landesmunzen 
(money of the state), in gold, the 4 and i ducat; in silver, the 
double florin and florin; in bitten, the 20, 10 and 5 kreuzers; 
and in copper, the 4, 3, i and i kreuzer. In 1868 Austria aban- 
doned the convention, but made no change in her money; 
and in the same year the coinage of Hungary was made uniform 
with that of the empire, both in standard and denominations. 
In 1870 the Vereinsmiinzen crown and half-crown were dis- 
continued, and their place was taken by 8- and 4-florin pieces 




FIG. 7. Twenty Marks (gold), 
Germany. 




FIG. 8. Florin (silver), Austria-Hungary. 



which were of the current value of 20 and 10 francs. In 1892 
the monetary system of Austria-Hungary was entirely reformed 
on a gold standard, the unit of account being the crown of 100 
hellers. This is a decimal coinage, and the denominations are, 
in gold, the 20 crowns (of 164 from the kilogramme of fine gold), 
10 crowns and ducat ( = 9 silver crowns 60 hellers); in silver, 
the crown (=iod.) and half-crown; in nickel, the 20 and 10 
hellers; and in bronze, the 2 and i heller. The gold ducat was 
a trade-money (Handelsmunze) of the current value of 10 francs, 
and it displaced the 8- and 4-florin pieces of 1870. The types of 
the Austrian 
and Hungarian 
coins somewhat 
vary. The Aus- 
trian gold coins 
show the head 
of the emperor 
and the two- 
headed eagle, 
but those of 
Hungary a full- 
length figure of the emperor and the national shield surmounted 
by the crown of St Stephen held by angels. The silver coins of 
both series have the head of the emperor and the mark of value 
under the imperial or royal crown. The nickel and bronze 
money of Austria displays the imperial eagle on the obverse, 
whilst that of Hungary has the crown of St Stephen. The 
legends are respectively in Latin and Magyar. 

Spain. The unit of the Spanish coinage from 1864 to 1868 
was the silver escudo of 200 grains divisible into 10 reals. On 
the dethronement of Isabella in 1868 the provisional government 
adopted the principles of the Latin Monetary Union and made 
the peseta the unit of account, this coin being equivalent to the 
franc. The coins struck during 1869-1870 were, in gold, the 
100 pesetas; in silver, the 5, 2 and i peseta, and the 50 and 20 
centimes; and in bronze, the 10, 5, 2 and i centime. The 
obverse type of each metal varied; on the gold Spain is standing; 
on the silver she is reclining; and on the bronze she is seated. 
During his short reign (1870-1873) Amadeus I. struck only 
gold coins of too and 25 pesetas and silver of 5 pesetas, and 
there was practically no money issued during the republic which 
followed his abdication. Don Carlos during the insurrection 
of 1874-1875 struck 5 pesetas in silver and 10 and 5 centimes 
in bronze bearing his portrait and title " Carolus VII." After 
the restoration of Alphonso XII. the coinage consisted of 25 
and 10 pesetas in gold; 
5, 2 and i peseta and 50 
centimos in silver; and 
10 and 5 centimos in 
bronze. This coinage was 
continued under Alphonso 
XIII., but in 1887 the 20 
pesetas in gold was sub- 
stituted for the 25 pesetas, 
and in 1897 large coins 
were struck of 100 pesetas. The types show the head of the 
king on the obverse and the shield with or without the pillars of 
Hercules on the reverse. 

Portugal. A gold standard was adopted by Portugal in 
1854, the unit of value being the milreis of 1000 reis. The coins 
are, in gold, the crown or 10 milreis and the half, fifth and tenth 
crown or milreis; in silver, the 10, 5 and 2 testoon; in nickel, 
the 100 and 50 reis; and in bronze, the 20, 10 and 5 reis. The 
general type of the gold and silver is the head or bust of the 
king and the royal shield; but the bronze varies in having 
on the obverse a shield and on the reverse the mark of value. 

Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Previous to 1872 in Denmark 
the unit of value was the silver rigsbankdaler of 96 skillings; 
in Sweden, the rigsdaler of 100 ore; and in Norway, the species- 
thaler of 120 skillings; but in that year a monetary convention 
was concluded between these countries establishing a decimal 
coinage, which had for its unit the krone of 100 ore, and of which 




FIG. 9. Peseta (silver), Spain. 






PRESENT DAY COINS] 



NUMISMATICS 



909 




FIG. 10. Seven and one-half 
Roubles (gold), Russia. 



the standard was gold. The denominations are, in gold, the 
20, 10 and 5 kroner; in silver, the 2 and i krone, and 50, 25 and 
10 ore; and in bronze, the 5, 2 and i or. The gold and silver 
money of Sweden and Norway to the 50 ore bears the head 
of the king and the royal shield; the silver of smaller denomina- 
tions and the bronze, the monogram of the king and the mark 
of value. Since the separation of the two kingdoms in 1906, 
Norway has a coinage of its own in the name of Haakon VII. 
In Denmark the gold and silver have the head of the king, and, 
for reverse type, a figure of Denmark, a shield, or the mark 
of value. The bronze coins are similar to those of Norway and 
Sweden. 

Russia. The Russian coinage previous to 1885 was based 
on the silver rouble of 278 grains of pure metal; but during 
the greater part of the reign of Alexander II. (1855-1881) the 
currency consisted almost entirely of paper money. In -1885 
Alexander III. determined to place the coinage on a proper 
footing, and introduced the rouble of 100 copeks as the unit 
of account, with a relative value of gold and silver of i to 155. 
The coins issued were, in gold, the imperial of 10 roubles, and the 
half -imperial; in silver, the rouble, and the 50, 25, 20, 15, 10 
and 5 copeks; and in copper, the 5, 3, 2, i, 5 and j copek. 
In 1897 the relative value of gold and silver was advanced to 

i to 23!, thus raising the 
current value of the imperial 
to 15 roubles; but no change 
l was made in the weights 
(of the coins, and the silver 
rouble remained the unit of 
account. In the same year a 
piece of 5 roubles, called the 
one-third imperial, was added 
to the gold coins. The 
general types of the gold and silver show the head of the 
emperor and the imperial eagle; and of the copper, the 
imperial eagle and mark of value. 

Georgia, Poland and Finland. The separate issues of Georgia 
and Poland were suppressed in 1833 and 1847 respectively; 
but Finland in 1878 established a decimal coinage of gold, silver 
and bronze on the principles of the Latin Monetary Union, 
having the markhaa ( = i franc) as its unit of value. 

Turkey. There has been practically no change in the money 
of the Ottoman empire since the reforms of Abdul-Medjid in 
1844, when the piastre, or 4o-para piece, of the current value 
of 2jd., was made the unit of the coinage; 100 piastres go to 
the gold medjidieh or pound. The denominations are, in gold, 
the 500, 250, 100, 50 and 25 piastres; in silver, the 20, 10, 5, 2, i 
and piastre; and in copper, the 40, 20, 10, 5 and i para. The 
type in all metals is, on the obverse, the Sultan's tughra, or 
cipher, and on the reverse, a wreath, and the name of the mint, 
date, &c. 

Balkan States. Since the dismemberment of the Ottoman 
empire the kingdoms of Rumania and Servia, and the principality 
of Bulgaria, have each adopted the decimal system of the Latin 
Monetary Union. In Rumania the unit of account is the leu 
of 100 bani; in Servia, the dinar or 100 paras; and in Bulgaria, 
the lev of 100 stotinki each of these units being the equivalent 
of the franc. In all these states gold, silver, bronze and nickel 
is current money. 

United States. In America the most important event con- 
nected with the coinage was a change of standard. (See MONEY). 
Previous to 1873 the standard was silver, having for its unit the 
dollar of 412$ grams of -ft fine; but in that year a gold standard 
was adopted, the gold dollar of 25-8 grains and -j^fine being the 
sole unit of value. This change of standard was accompanied 
by a slight modification of the denominations, which became, in 
gold, the double-eagle, eagle, half and quarter eagle, three dollars 
and dollar; in silver, the half and quarter dollar, 20 cents and 
dime; in nickel, the 5 and 3 cents; and in bronze, the cent. 
In addition to these a silver piece called the " trade dollar " of 
420 grains was struck, not for circulation in the States, but for 
export to China. The following changes have since occurred: 



In 1878 the silver dollar of 41 24 grains was resumed, and the 
20 cents discontinued; in 1887 the issue of the " trade dollar " 
was suspended; and in 1890 the same fate befell the three 
dollars and dollar in gold, and the three cents in nickel. The 
types are gold, head of Liberty and eagle; silver, head of 
Liberty, or Liberty seated, and eagle, except the dime, which 
has the mark of value; nickel, shield (5 cents) and head of 
Liberty; bronze, head of an 'Indian, and (1910) bust of Lincoln; 
with reverse types for either metal, the mark of value. 

Canada, &c. The currency for the Dominion of Canada, 
which includes Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British 
Columbia, is of silver and bronze, based on the system of the 
United States. The denominations are 50, 25, 20, 10 and 5 cents 
in silver, and the cent in bronze; and they also have a uniform 
type of the sovereign's head and mark of value. The same 
system prevails in Newfoundland, which also issues the double 
dollar in gold: this is the only gold coin issued in a British 
colony whose standard is not the same as that of the 
mother country. There is a separate coinage for Jamaica, 
but of nickel only, and consisting of the penny, halfpenny and 
farthing. 

Mexico, &c. We need not give any detailed account of the coins 
of Mexico, and of the various states of Central and South America, in 
nearly all of which there have been radical changes since 1870. Most 
of them have adopted the decimal system, with a gold, silver or 
bi-metallic standard; the unit of value in the gold standard being 
generally the peso of 3-225 grammes, and in the silver also the peso, 
but of silver of 20, 25 or 27 grammes. 

India. As to the coins of the East and Far East, we will limit our 
remarks to the more important countries. In British India the rupee 
of silver of 150 grains is still the unit of value. In 1893 the mints 
were closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver for the public. In 
1899 they were opened to the free coinage of gold, the sovereign 
being declared legal tender. At present 1=15 rupees of is. 4d. ; 
i rupee = 16 annas; I anna = 4 pice; i pice = 3 pie = i farthing. 

Persia. In Persia since 1879 a decimal system in conformity with 
the principles of the Latin Monetary Union has been adopted, having 
for its unit the kran weighing 78 gre., thus being equivalent to the 
franc, but since reduced to 71 grs. or even less. The denominations 
are: in gold, the 10, 5, 2, i, j and J toman (the toman = 10 krans); 
in silver, the 5, 2 and I kran (=20 shahis), and the 10 and 5 shahis; 
and in copper, the 4, 2 and i shahi ( =2 pals), and the pal. 

Japan. Since 1870 Japan has formed its coinage on the European 
decimal system in place of the ancient national coins, the obangs 
and itsibus, the unit being the yen of 100 sen. The standard was bi- 
metallic, and the relation of gold and silver stood at 1-16-17. ' n 
1898 a gold standard was adopted, the issue of the silver yen was 
suspended, and the weight of the gold money was reduced by one- 
half. The coins issued since that date are, in gold, the 20, 10 and 5 
yen; in silver, the 50, 20 and 10 sen; in nickel, the 5 sen; and in 
bronze, the sen and half-sen. There is one general type for all the 
silver, nickel and bronze coins, being the dragon on the obverse and 
a wreath of flowers with mark of value on the reverse. The gold 
varies in having flags and flowers on the reverse. On the silver and 
bronze coins the legends are in English as well as in Japanese. 

China. In 1890 China followed the example of Japan, but only 
to a limited extent, and instituted a silver coinage having as its unit 
a dollar of the same value as the United States silver dollar and the 
Japanese yen. It is calculated in fractions of the tael, a money of 
account of the value of 2s. njd. The coins are the dollar, and the 
50, 25, 10 and 5 cents, with the Chinese dragon and inscriptions, 
mint and mark of value in English on the obverse, and on the reverse 
the mark of value in Chinese and Manchu. They were first struck at 
Canton and Wei-Chang, but later other mints have been established. 
These are not, strictly speaking, imperial money, the sole official 
coinage and monetary unit being the copper cash. A decree of the 
aoth of November 1905 proposed to establish an official dollar on 
the basis of the Kupmg tael. An edict of May 1910 provides for a 
standard currency dollar of 72 candareens, with a subsidiary decimal 
coinage in silver, nickel and copper, for circulation throughout the 
empire. 

Korea has had since 1905 a new coinage on the Japanese system, 
but with the Korean date. 

Hong Kong. The only other Asiatic coinage we shall note is that 
of Hong Kong, where in 1866 was established a coinage, which was 
also based on the United States standard, having the silver dollar 
as its unit. The denominations are the dollar and 50, 20 and 5 cents 
in silver, and the cent and mill in bronze; and, with the exception of 
the mill, they all have for type the sovereign's head and the mark 
of value. In connexion with this coinage there was issued in 1895 
a " trade dollar " for special currency in the Straits Settlements 
and Hong Kong in lieu of the Mexican dollar, the scarcity of which 
was a considerable hindrance of trade. This coin, which was struck 
at the Bombay mint, shows on the obverse Britannia holding a 



gio 



NUMISMATICS 



[PRESENT DAY COINS 



trident and shield, and on the reverse within an ornamental design 
the denomination in Chinese and Malay. Since 1903, however a new 





FIG. ii. " Trade Dollar " (silver), Hong Kong. 

special dollar with the king's head has been issued for the Straits 
Settlements. 

Egypt. Glancing cursorily at the coinage of Africa, we may note 
that since 1885 Egypt has adopted a gold standard with the gold 
pound of loo piastres as the unit of account. The piastre is no longer 
divisible into 40 paras, but into 10 ochr-el-guerche or tenths. The 
types are similar to the Turkish money, and though bearing the 
legend " struck at Cairo " the coins are really made at Birmingham. 
For some years gold has not been issued. 

Abyssinia. In Abyssinia since 1893 there has been a silver coinage, 
but the Austrian Maria Theresa dollar is still current. The new 
coins are, in silver, the talari ( = dollar, worth about 2s.), J, j and j 
talari, and in copper, the guerche, and J and J guerche. They show 
on one side the nead of the king, and on the other a lion holding a 
banner. 

Zanzibar. Zanzibar has also issued a dollar of the fixed value of 
2 rupees and 2 annas, and a copper coin called a pessa ( = i36th 
of a dollar). 

Sudan. The African coinages which have attracted exceptional 
attention are those of the Sudan and the South African Republic. 
The former dates from 1885, when the Mahdi struck the pound of 
100 piastres in gold and the 20 piastres in silver, of the same type as 
the Egyptian coins, but on the silver piece were placed the words 
" By order of the Mahdi," but no mint name. His successor, 
Abdullah, struck pieces of 20, 10, 5, 2 and I piastre in silver and 10 
paras in copper, but no gold. They bear the name of the mint, 
Omdurman, and the word makbul, i.e. accepted. At first the silver 
coins were of 6 parts silver and 2 copper, but in a few years they 
were so debased that they degenerated into mere pieces of copper 
washed with silver. The last issue is dated 1897 (A.H. 1315). 

Congo Free State (Belgian Congo). The coinage issued since 1887 
consists of silver of 5, 2, i fr. and 50 centimes, and copper (with 
central hole) from 10 centimes to I centime. 

Transvaal. The first attempt at a separate coinage in the Trans- 
vaal was in 1874, when President Burgers issued sovereigns or 
pounds showing his portrait on the obverse and the shield of the 
Republic on the reverse. They were struck by Messrs Heaton of 
Birmingham, but as each piece of the current value of 2os. cost 26s. 
to strike, only 680 worth was issued, and but few of these passed 
into circulation, being preserved as curiosities. No further attempt 
was made till 1891, when President Kruger induced the Raad to 
order a coinage in gold, silver and bronze after the English standard. 
The first issue occurred in 1892, and consisted of the pound and half- 
pound in gold; the crown, half-crown, florin, shilling, sixpence and 
threepence in silver; and the penny in bronze. They are all of the 
same type as the pound of 1874, but with the portrait of President 
Kruger on the obverse. The first issue of the pound, half-pound and 
crown was minted at Berlin, and a curious mistake was made in the 
arms of the state, the wagon being represented with two shafts 
instead of with one. This blunder was soon noticed, and a recoinage 
took place in the same year at Pretoria. Since the annexation 
British coins have been legal tender, but a new copper coinage was 
approved in 1904. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.' I. Periodicals: Numismatic Chronicle (London) ; 
Revue numismatique (Paris) ; Zeitschrift fur Numismatik (Berlin) ; 
Numismatische Zeitschrift (Vienna); Rivista italiana di numis- 
mattca (Milan) ; Revue beige de numismatique (Brussels). 

II. General Works: F. Lenormant, Monnaies et medailles (1883); 
W. Ridgeway, Origin of Metallic Currency (1802) ; S. Lane-Poole and 
others, Coins and Medals (3rd ed., 1894) ; E. Babelon, Origines de la 
"J a ' (1897); A. von Sallet, Miinzen und Medaillen (1898); 
G. Macdonald, Coin-Types (1905); L. Forrer, Biographical Diction- 
ary of Medallists, &c. (1904- ). 

III. Greek and Roman: A. General: J. H. von Eckhel, Doctrina 
numorum veterum (1792-1798); J. C. Rasche, Lexicon univ. rei 
num. veterum (1785-1804); T. E. Mionnet. Descr. de medailles gr. et 

1 In this bibliography no mention is made as a rule of articles in 
periodicals, or of monographs on the coinage of special cities or small 
districts. 



rom. (1807-1837); W. M. Leake, Numismata Hellenita (1854-1850); 
Poole, B. V. Head. P. Gardner, W. Wroth and G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. 
Catal. of Greek Coins (Italy, Sicily, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, 
&c., begun in 1873); F. Lenormant, La Monnaie dans I'antiquite 
(1878, 1879); P. Gardner, Types of Greek Coins (1882); F. Imhoof- 
Blumer, Monnaies grecques (1883); F. Imhoof-Blumer and P. 
Gardner, Numismatic Commentary on Pausanias (1885, 1886); 
B. V. Head, Historia numorum (1887; new ed. in preparation); 
F. Imhoof-Blumer, Griechische Miinzen (1890); Head, Guide to the 
Coins of the Ancients Uth ed., 1895); Hill Handbook of Greek and 
Roman Coins (1899); G. Macdonald, Catalogue of the Hunterian 
Collection (3 vols., 1899-1905); E. Babelon, Traite des monnaies 
grecques et rom. (1901- ) ; Th. Reinach, L'Histoire par les monnaies 
(1902); Corolla numismatica, Numism. Essays in honour of B. V. 
Head (1906); G. F. Hill, Historical Greek Coins (1906); K. Regling, 
Sammlung Warren (1906); Periodicals: Journal international 
d' archeologie numismatique (Athens) ; Nomisma (Berlin). 

B. Metrology: J. Brandis, Miinz-, Mass- und Gewichtswesen 
(1866); F. Hultsch, Griech. u. rom. Metrologie* (1882); Gewichte 
des Altertums (1898); C. F. Lehmann, articles in Verhandl. der Berl. 
Ges. fur Anthropologie (1889, 1891); Das alt-babylonische Mass- 
und Gewichtssystem (1893). 

C. Special Districts: (See also the respective volumes of the 
British Museum Catalogue.) (a) Spain. A. Heiss, Monn. ant. de 
VEspagne (1870); Zobel de Zangr6niz, Estudio historico de la man. 
ant. esp. (1878-1880); E. Hiibner, Monum. linguae Ibericae (1893). 
(b) Gaul. E. Muret and M. A. Chabouillet, Catal. des monn. gaul. 
(1889); H. de la Tour, Atlas des monn. gaul. (1892); I. A. Blanchet, 
Traite des monn. gaul. (1905). (c) Britain. J. Evans, Ancient 
British Coins (1864, 1890). (d) Italy. F. CarelK, Num. Ital. veteris 
(1850); L. Sambon, Presqu'tle italique (1870); R. Garrucci, Man. 
dell Italia ant. (1885); A. J. Evans, The " Horsemen " of Tarenlum 
(1889); Berlin Museum Catalogue, iii. I (1894); A. Sambon, Monn. 
ant. de I'ltalie (1904- ). (e) Sicily. B. V. Head, Coinage of 
Syracuse (1874); A. J. Evans, articles in Num. Chr. (1890-1894); 
A. Holm, " Gesch. des sicil. Miinzwesens " (in vol. iii. of his Gesch. 
Siciliens, 1898) ; G. F. Hill, Coins of Ancient Sicily (1903). (/) 
Northern Greece. L. Muller, Alexandre le Grand (1855) ; Lysimachus 
(1858); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Miinzen Akarnaniens (1878); P. 
Burachkov, Greek Colonies in S. Russia (Russian, 1884); Berlin 
Museum Catalogue, i., ii. (1888, 1889); Berlin Academy, Die antiken 
Miinzen Nordgriechenlands (1898- ). (g) Central Greece, 
Peloponnesus and Islands. E. Beul6, Monn. d'Athenes (1858); 
J. N. Svoronos, Crete ancienne (1890). (h) Asia Minor. M. Pinder, 
Ober die Cistophoren (1856); Th. Reinach, Trois royaumes d'Asie 
Mineure (1888); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Griechische Miinzen (1890); 
E. Babelon, Les Perses achemenides, &c. (1893); F- Imhoof-Blumer, 
Lydische Stadtmiinzen (1897); E. Babelon, Inventaire de la coll. 
Waddington (1898); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Kleinasiatische Miinzen 
(1901, 1902); W. H. Waddington, Th. Reinach and E. Babelon, 
Recueil general des monn. gr. d'Asie Mineure (1904- ). (i) Syria, 
Phoenicia, and the Greek East (see also Oriental). F. de Saulcy, 
Num. de la terre sainte (1874); F. W. Madden, Coins of the Jews 
(1881); E. Babelon, Rois de Syrie, &c. (1890); Perses achemenides 
(1893); Th. Reinach, Jewish Coins (trans. M. Hill, 1903). (j) Egypt 
and Africa. L. Muller, Monn. de I'ancienne Afrique (1860-1874); 
G. Dattari, Numi Augg. Alexandrini (1901): J. N. Svoronos, 
No/i. TOV Kpirous TUIV nroAe/iatav (1904). (K) Roman. Th. Mommsen, 
Hist, de la monn. rom., trans. Due de Blacas and J. de Witte (1865- 
1875); H. A. Grueber, "Roman Medallions," Brit. Mus. Catal. 
(1874); W. Frohner, Medallions de I'empire rom. (1878); H. Cohen, 
Monn. frappees sous I'empire rom? (1880-1892); E. Babelon, Monn. 
de la republique rom. (1885, 1886); H. A. Grueber, " Roman Re- 
publican Coins," Brit. Mus. Catal. ; E. J. Haeberlin, Systematik des 
altesten romischen Miinzwesens (1905); G. F. Hill, Historical Roman 
Coins (1909) ; H. Willers, Geschichte der romischen Kupferpragung vont 
Bundesgenossenkrieg bis auf Kaiser Claudius (1900); H. A. Grueber, 
Catalogue of the Roman Republican Coinages in the British Museum 
(1910). (/) Byzantine. J. Sabatier, Monnaies byzantines (1862); 
Warwick Wroth, Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the 
British Museum, 2 vols. (1908). 

IV. Medieval and Modern: A. General: J. Neumann, Beschrei- 
bung der bekanntesten Kupfermiinzen (1858-1872); J. A. Blanchet, 
Numism. du moyen age et moderne (1890); A. Engel et R. Serrure, 
Numism. du moyen age (1891-1905); Numism. moderne (1897- 
1899); A. Luschin von Ebengreuth, Allgemeine Miinzkunde u. 
Geldgesch. (1904). 

B. Transitional Period: J. Friedlander, Miinzen der Ostgothen 
(1844); A. Heiss, Monn. des rois wisigoths d'Espagne (1872); C. F. 
Keary, Coinages of Western Europe (1879); Brit. Mus. Catal. of 
English Coins, i. (1887); M. Prou, Les Monn. merovingiennes (1892); 
A. de Belfort, Descr. gtnerale des monn. merovingiennes (1892-1895). 

C. Countries: (a) Portugal. A. C. Teixeira de Aragao, Descr. 
das moedas de Portugal (1874-1880). (b) Spain. A. Heiss, Man. 
hispano-cristianas (1865-1869). (c) France. F. Poey d'Avant, 
Monn. feodales de France (1858-1862); supplement by E. Caron, 
1882-1884); H. Hoffmann, Monn. royales de France (1878); Gariel, 
Monn. roy. de France sous la race carolingienne (1883-1884); M. 
Prou, Les Monn. carolingiennes (1896); Medailles franchises," 
" Medailles de la revol. franc." " Med. de 1'emp. Napoleon," Tresor 



NUMMULITE NUNEATON 



de numismatique (1834-1840); N. Rondot, Les Medailleurs et les 
rraveurs de monnaies, &c., en France (1904); F. Mazerolle, Les 
Medailleurs franfais (1902-1904) ; Periodical, Revue numismattque. 
(d) Great Britain and Ireland. R. Ruding, Annals of the Coinage 
(1840); B. E. Hildebrand, Anglosachsiska Mynt (1881); E. Hawkins, 
Silver Coins of England (3rd ed. by Kenyon, 1887); R- LI. Kenyon, 
Gold Coins of England (1884) ; C. F. Keary and H. A. Grueber, Brit. 
Mus. Catal. of English Coins, i. ii. (1887, 1893); H. A. Grueber, 
Handbook of Coins of Great Britain and Ireland (1899) ; E. Hawkins, 
A. W. Franks and H. A. Grueber, Medattic Illustrations of the History 
of Great Britain and Ireland (1885; plates to ditto, from 1904, in 
progress) ; R. W. Cochran-Patrick, Records of the Coinage of Scotland 
(1875); E. Burns, Coinage of Scotland (1887); Richardson, Catal. 
<rf the Scottish Coins in the Nat. Mus., Edinburgh (1901); R. W. 
Cochran-Patrick, Catalogue of the Medals of Scotland (1884); Aquilla 
Smith, various papers on Irish coinage; D. T. Batty, Copper Coinage 
of Great Britain, Ireland, &c. (1868-1898); W. Boyne, trade Tokens 
issued in the ijth Century (ed. G. C. Williamson, 1889); periodicals, 
Numismatic Chronicle', British Numismatic Journal, (e) Low 
Countries. P. O. van der Chijs, Munten der Hertogdommen Braband 
en Limburg (1851) and other works (1852-1862); R. Serrure, Diet, 
geogr. de I hist. mon. beige (1880) ; A. de Witte, Histoire monitaire 
du Brabant (1894-1899) ; G. van Loon, Hist, metallique . . . des Pays- 
Bas (Fr. ed. 1732-1737), supplement to ditto (1861-1871) ; Periodical, 
Rev. beige de numismatique. (/) Switzerland. R. S. Poole, Catal. of 
Swiss Coins in South Kensington Mus. (1878); Wunderly v. Muralt, 
Munz- u. Medaillen-Sammlung (1895-1899); L. Coraggioni, 
Miinzgesch. der Schweiz (1896); periodical, Revue suisse de numis- 
matique. (g) Italy. F* and E. Gnecchi, Bibliografa numismatica 
delle Zecche italiane (1889) ; V. Promis, Tavole sinottiche delle monete 
battute in Italia (1869) ; Mon. dei Reali di Savoia (1841) ; A. Cinagli, 
Mon. dei Papi (1848); F. and E. Gnecchi, Monete di Milano (1884); 
N. Papadopoli, Mon. di Venezia (1893); C. Desimoni, Mon. della 
Zecca di Geneva (1891); J. Friedlander, Italienische Schaumunzen 
(1880-1882); A. Heiss, Medailleurs de la Renaissance (1881-1892); 
A. Armand, Medailleurs italiens (1883-1887); C. yon Fabriczy, 
Italian Medals (trans. Hamilton, 1904); periodical, Rivista italiana 
4i numismatica (Milan), (h) Germany. H. P. Cappe, Miinzen der 
deutschen Kaiser u. Konige (1848-1850) ; G. Schlumberger, Bracteates 
d'Allemagne (1873); H. Dannenberg, Deutsche Miinzen der sdchs. u. 
frank. Kaiserzeit (18761905); A. Engel et E. Lehr, Num. d' Alsace 
(1887); M. Donebauer, Sammlung bohmischer Miinzen u. Medaillen 
(1888-1890); E. Bahrfeldt, Miinzwesen der Mark Brandenburg 
(1889-1895); Sammlung in der Marienburg (1901-1906); F. von 
Schrotter, Das preussische Mtinzwesen im iSten Jahrh. (1902-1904) ; 
Tresor de numismatique, " M6dailles allemandes " (1841) ; A. Erman, 
Deutsche Medailleure (1884); K. Domanig, Portrdtmedaillen des 
Erzhauses Osterreich ( 1 896) ; Kon. Museen zu Berlin, Schaumiinzen 
des Houses Hohenzollern (1901); K. Domanig, Die deutsche Medaille 
(i9O7);G. Habich, " Studienzur deutschen Renaissance-Mcdaille "in 
Berlin Jahrbuch (1906- ). Periodicals, Zeitschrift fur Numis- 
tnatik (Berlin), Numismatische Zeitschrift (Vienna). () Poland. 
E. Hutten-Czapski, Monn. et mid. polonaises (1871-1880). (j) 
Russia and Scandinavia. Baron de Chaudoir, Monn. russes (1836- 
1837) ; Ct. J. Tolstoi, Coins of Kief (1882), Coins of Great Novgorod 
(1884), Coins ofPskoff (1886; in Russian) ; Mansfeld-Bullner, Danske 
Mynter (1887); P. Hauberg, Danmarks Myntwasen pg Mynter, 1241- 
1 377 (1885, 1886); Myntforhold og Udmyntinger i Danmark indtil 
1146 (1900). (k) Latin East, &c. G. Schlumberger, Num. de 
1' orient latin (1878); E. H. Furse, L'Ordre souverain de St Jean de 
Jerusalem (1885). (/) America. D. K. Watson, Hist, of American 
Coinage (1899); A. Weyl, Fonrobertsche Sammlung (1878); A. Rosa, 
Monetario americano (1892); J. Meili, O Meio circulante no 
Brazil (1897-1905). (in) Money of Necessity. P. Mailliet, Monn. 
vbsidionales et de necessite (1870-1873); A. Brause-Mansfeld, Feld-, 
Not- und Belagerungsmiinzen (1897-1903). 

V. Oriental. A. Pre-Mahommedan: (a) Persia and the Greek 
East. A. de Longperier, Medailles des rois perses de la dyn. sassanide 
(1840) ; B. V. Head, Coinage of Lydia and Persia (1877) ; P. Gardner, 
Parthian Coinage (1877) ; E. Babelon, Les Perses achemenides (1893) ; 
W. Wroth, " Parthia, Brit. Mus. Catal. (1903). (ft) India, &c. 
J. Prinsep, Essays on Indian Antiquities (ed. Thomas, 1858); A. 
Cunningham, Alexander's Successors in the East (1873); T. W. Rhys 
Davids, Ancient Coins, &c., of Ceylon (1877); P. Gardner, " Greek 
and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India," Brit. Mus. Catal. (1886); 
W. Elliott, Coins of Southern India. (1886) ; A. Cunningham, Coins of 
Ancient India (1891); Coins of the Indo- Scythians (1892); Coins of 
Medieval India (1894); E. J. Rapson, " Indian Coins' (in Biihler's 
Grundriss, 1898); Vincent A. Smith, Catal. of Coins in the Indian 
Museum, Calcutta, vol. i. (1906). 

B. Mahommedan: W. Marsden, Numismata. orientalia (1823); 
C. M. Fraehn, Recensio num. Muhammedanorum (1826); F. Soret, 
Numismatique musulmane (1864); W. Tiesenhausen, Coins of the 
Oriental Khalifs (1873, Russian); R. S. Poole and S. Lane-Poole, 
Catal. of Oriental Coins in the British Museum (1875-1891); R. S. 
Poole, Catalogue of Persian Coins in the British Museum (1887); 
S. Lane-Poole, Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum 
(1884-1892); F. Codera y Zaidin, Numismatica arabigo-espanola 
(1879); H. Lavoix, Catal. des monn. musulmanes de la bibliotheque 
nationale, i.-iii. (1887-1891); C. J. Rodgers, Catal. of the Coins of the 



Indian Museum (1893-1896); Catal. of the Coins of the Lahore 
Museum (1893-1895); Kon. Museen zu Berlin, H. Nutzel, Kataloe 
der orientalischen Miinzen, i.-ii. (1898-1902); O. Codrington, Manual 
of Musulman Numismatics; H. Nelson-Wright, Catal. of the Coins 
in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, vols. ii.-iii., Sultans of Delhi and 
Moghul Emperors (1907-1908). 

C. The Far East: W. Vissering, Chinese Currency (1877); Terrien 
de la Couperie, Catal. of the Chinese Coins in the Brit. Mus., 7th 
century B.C.-A.D. 621 (1892); J. H. S. Lockhart, Currency of the 
Farther East (1895-1898); N. G. Munro, Coins of Japan (1904); 
D. Lacroix, Numismatique annamite (1900); A. Scnroeder, Annam, 
Etudes numismatiques (1905); C. T. Gardner, Coinage of Corea 
(Journ. North China Branch of R. Asiatic Soc., vol. xxvii.). 

(R. S. P.; H. A. G.;G. F. H.*) 

NUMMDLITE, NUMMULITES, A. d'Orbigny's name for a 
genus of Perforate Foraminifera (q.v.), distinguished by the 
flattened, lenticular discoid shell of many turns, finely perforated ; 
chambers subdivided by incomplete septa into squarish chamber- 
lets. This genus is especially abundant in Eocene Limestones, 
which attain great thickness around the Mediterranean basin; 
the Pyramids of Egypt are built of it. 

NUN (O. Eng. nunnc, from Lat. nonnus, nonna, familiar terms 
for an old man or woman), a member of a community of women, 
living under vows a life of religious observance (see MONASTJCTSM) . 
In ecclesiastical Latin nonnus was used by the younger members 
of a religious community for their elders, and so, in the regula 
of St Benedict, cap. 62, Juniores aulem Priores suos nonnos 
vacant quod inlelligitur paterna reverentia (Du Cange, Glossarium, 
s.v. nonnus). While nonna has remained as the generic name 
of a female religious, nonnus has been replaced by monachus 
and its various derivatives (see MONK) . 

NUNATAK, a name applied in Greenland (and thence extended 
in use elsewhere) to a hill or mountain peak appearing above 
the surface of a glacier. Greenland is for the most part covered 
by an ice-cap of a certain thickness which moves slowly down- 
wards to the sea. It will rise upwards and pass over a barrier 
if there is no outlet, but it will flow between and around mountain 
peaks leaving them standing as hills (nunataks) above the 
general surface of the ice-cap. These prominences are sometimes 
covered with arctic vegetation, and arctic flowers bloom freely 
upon them in the summer. 

NUNCIO, or NUNTIUS APOSTOLICUS, a representative of the 
pope sent on diplomatic mission. The nuncios are of lower 
rank than the legati a lalere, but have practically superseded 
them as ambassadors of the papacy. Nuncios were permanently 
established at various courts and ecclesiastical centres during 
the 1 6th century. According to the decision of the congress of 
Vienna the diplomatic rank of a papal nuncio corresponds to 
that of an ambassador. The powers of a nuncio are limited 
by his instructions. If a cardinal, as rarely is the case, he uses 
the title pro-nuntius. The pro-nuntius at Vienna has practically 
the position of a legatus a latere. 

NUNCOMAR or NANDA KUMAR (d. 1775), Indian official, best 
known for his connexion with Warren Hastings (q.v.), was 
governor of Hugli in 1 7 56, and in 1 764 he was appointed collector 
of Burdwan in place of Hastings, which resulted in a long-stand- 
ing enmity. In 1775, when Hastings was governor-general, 
Nuncomar brought accusations of peculation against him, 
which were entertained by Francis and the other members of 
council inimical to Hastings. While the matter was still pending 
Nuncomar was indicted for forgery, condemned and executed. 
Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, were 
both impeached, and were accused by Burke and afterwards 
by Macaulay of committing a judicial murder; but Sir James 
Stephen, who examined the trial in detail, states that the indict- 
ment for forgery arose in the ordinary course, was not brought 
forward by Hastings, and that Impey conducted the trial with 
fairness and impartiality. 

See Sir James Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar (2 vols., 1885); 
and, for another treatment of the case, H. Beveridge, The Trial of 
Nando. Kumar (Calcutta, 1886). 

NUNEATON, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Nuneaton parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England, 
on the river Anker, a tributary of the Tame, and on the Coventry 
canal. It is an important junction of the London and North 



912 



NUNEZ NUPE 



Western railway, by which it is 97 m. N.W. from London, and 
it is served by the Leicester-Birmingham branch of the Midland 
railway. Pop. (1901) 24,996, rapidly increasing. The situation 
is low and almost encircled by rising ground. The church of 
St Nicholas is a large and handsome structure in various styles of 
architecture, and consists of nave, chancel and aisles, with a 
square embattled tower having pinnacles at the angles. It 
contains several interesting monuments. A free grammar school 
was founded in the reign of Edward VI., and an English free 
school for the instruction of forty boys and thirty girls by Richard 
Smith in 1712. The ribbon industry, is of less importance than 
formerly, but there are ironworks, cotton, hat, elastic and 
worsted factories, and tanneries; the making of drain-pipes, 
tiles and blue and red bricks is a considerable industry. In the 
neighbourhood there are also coal and ironstone mines. The 
prefix of the name of the town is derived from a priory of nuns 
founded here in 1150. In the reign of Henry III. a weekly 
market was granted to the prioress. Nuneaton was incorporated 
in 1907, and the corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen 
and twelve councillors. Area 10,597 acres. 

NUNEZ, PEDRO (PETRUS NONIUS) (1492-1577), Portuguese 
mathematician and geographer, was born at Alcacer do Sal, 
and died at Coimbra, where he was professor of mathematics. 
He published several works, including a copiously-annotated 
translation of portions of Ptolemy (1537), and a treatise in two 
books, De arte atque ratione navigandi (1546). His clear state- 
ment of the scientific equipment of the early Portuguese explorers 
has become famous. A complete edition of all his writings 
appeared at Basel in 1592. 

See F. de B. Garcao-Stockler, Ensaio historico sobre a origem e 
progressos das mathematicas em Portugal (Paris, 1819) ; R. H. Major, 
Prince Henry the Navigator (London, 1868, p. 55). 

NUNEZ CABEZA DE VACA, ALVARO (c. 1490 - c. 1564), 
Spanish explorer, was the lieutenant of Pamfilo de Narvaez 
in the expedition which sailed from Spain in 1527; when 
Narvaez was lost in the Gulf of Mexico, Cabeza de Vaca succeeded 
in reaching the mainland somewhere to the west of the mouths 
of the Mississippi, and, striking inland with three companions, 
succeeded, after long wandering and incredible hardship, in 
reaching the city of Mexico in 1536. Returning to Spain in 1537, 
he was appointed " adelantado " or administrator of the province 
of Rio de la Plata in 1 540. Sailing from Cadiz in the end of that 
year, after touching at Cananea (Brazil), he landed at the island 
of St Catharine in the end of March 1541. Leaving his ships 
to proceed to Buenos Aires, he set out in November with about 
150 men to find his way overland to Ascension (Asuncion) for 
the relief of his countrymen there. The little band reached 
their destination in the following year. After various successes 
in war and diplomacy in his dealings with the Indians, Nunez 
was sent home under arrest in 1544, and in 1551 was banished 
to Africa by the council of the Indies for eight years. He was 
recalled in about a year and appointed to a judgesbip in Seville, 
where he died not later than 1564. 

The Naufragios (" Shipwrecks ") of Cabeza de Vaca, which relate 
to the Florida expedition arid his journey to the city of Mexico, 
appeared at Zamora in 1542; the work has frequently been 
reprinted, and an annotated English translation was published by 
T. Buckingham Smith in 1851. His Comentarios (1555) chronicle 
the events of the South American expedition. See Fanny Bandelier, 
Journey of A. Nunez Cabeza de Vaca (ed. A. F. Bandelier, New York, 
1905). 

NUNEZ DE ARCE, CASPAR (1834-1003), Spanish poet, 
dramatist and statesman, was born at Valladolid, where he was 
educated for the priesthood. He had no vocation for the 
ecclesiastical state, plunged into literature, and produced a play 
entitled Amor y Orgullo which was acted at Toledo in 1849. 
To the displeasure of his father, an official in the post office, 
the youth refused to enter the seminary, and escaped to Madrid, 
where he obtained employment on the staff of El Observador, 
a Liberal newspaper. He afterwards founded El Bachiller 
Honduras, a journal in which he advocated a policy of Liberal 
concentration, and he attracted sufficient notice to justify his 
appointment as governor of Logrofio, and his nomination as 
deputy for Valladolid in 1865. He was imprisoned at C4ceres 



for his violent attacks on the reactionary ministry of Narvaez, 
acted as secretary to the revolutionary Junta of Catalonia when 
Isabella was dethroned, and wrote the " Manifesto to the Nation " 
published by the provisional government on the 26th of October 
1868. During the next few years he practically withdrew from 
political life till the restoration, when he attached himself to 
Sagasta's party. He served under Sagasta as minister for the 
colonies, the interior, the exchequer and education; but ill- 
health compelled him to resign on the 27th of July 1890, and 
henceforth he refused to take office again. He was elected to 
the Spanish Academy on the 8th of January 1874 and was 
appointed a life-senator in 1886. He died at Madrid on the 
i 2th of February 1903. 

Nunez de Arce first came into notice as a dramatist, and he 
remained faithful to the stage for nearly a quarter of a century. 
In addition to three plays written in collaboration with Antonio 
Hurtado, he produced IQuien es el autor? (1859), La Cuenla del 
Zapatero (1859), IComo se empena un maridol (1860), Deudas 
de la honra (1863), Ni tanto ni tan poco (1865), Quiendebe, paga 
(1867) and El haz de kna (1872). But Nunez de Arce's talent 
was more lyrical than dramatic, and his celebrity dates from the 
appearance of Gritos del combate (1875), a collection of poems 
exhorting Spaniards to lay aside domestic quarrels and to save 
their country from anarchy, more dangerous than a foreign foe. 
He maintained his position (in popular esteem) as the only possible 
rival of Campoamor by a series of philosophic,elegiac and symbolic 
poems: Raimundo Lulio, Ultima lamenlacidn de Lord Byron 
(1879), Un Idilio y una Elegla (1879), La Selva oscura (1879) 
and La Visi6n de Fray Martin (1880). The old brilliance sets 
off the naturalistic observation of La Pesca (1884) and La- 
Maruja ( 1 886) . The list of his works is completed by Poemas cortos 
(1895) and iSursum cordal (1900); Hernan el lobo, published 
in El Liberal (January 23, 1881) and Luzbel remain unfinished. 
His strength lies in the graciousness of his vision, his sincerity 
and command of his instrument; his weakness derives from his 
divided sympathies, his moods of obvious sentiment and his 
rhetorical facility. But at his best, as in the Gritos del combate, 
he is a master of virile music and patriotic doctrine. (J. F.-K.) 

NUORO, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, Italy, in the 
province of Sassari, 385 m. E. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) 
6739. It is situated 1905 ft. above sea-level in the east central 
portion of the island, amid fine scenery. Nuoro was the capital 
of a province from 1848 to 1860. It is connected by road with 
Fonni, Bitti and Orosei. An inscription discovered in situ 
about 13 m. W. of Nuoro in 1889, near Orotelli, has the letters 
FIN NVRR (Jin(es)Nurr. . . ), which are explained as referring 
to the boundaries of the territory of Nuoro in Roman times, 
showing (what was not known before) that the name and the 
place are of Roman origin (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli scavi, 
1889, 202). (T. As.) 

NUPE, formerly an independent state of W. Africa, now a 
province in the British protectorate of Nigeria. Under Fula rule, 
Nupe occupied both banks of the Niger for a distance of some 
1 50 m. above the Benue confluence. Only the part of Nupe north 
of the Niger now constitutes the province; area 6400 sq. m.; 
estimated pop. about 150,000. It is in many portions highly 
cultivated, and owing to its admirable water supply is likely to 
prove particularly valuable as a field for the extensive cultivation 
of cotton. Bida (q.v.), the capital, is connected by railway (built 
1907-1908) with Baro, a port on the Niger 70 m. above Lokoja. 

Nupe had an ancient and very interesting constitution of 
which the leading features were adopted by the Fula when their 
rule was established about the year 1859. Bida was founded 
in that year. Nupe was conquered by the troops of the Niger 
Company in 1897, and the legal status of slavery was then 
nominally abolished. The company was, however, unable to 
occupy the country, and on the withdrawal of its troops the 
deposed emir returned. In 1901 it became necessary to subdue 
Nupe a second time. British troops marched to Bida. The 
emir fled without fighting and was deposed. Another emir 
was appointed in his place, took the oath of allegiance to the 
British crown, and worked cordially with the British resident 



NUREMBERG 



9*3 



who was stationed at Bida. The province is divided into three 
administrative districts Bida, Lapai and Agaie. These are again 
divided into nine native districts, five to the west and four to 
the east of the Kaduna river. Provincial courts of justice have 
been established. 

See NIGERIA, BIDA. For an interesting account of the ancient 
constitution of Nupe see " The Fulani Emirates of Northern Nigeria," 
by Major J. A. Burdon in the Ceo Journ., vol. xxiv (London, 1904). 

NUREMBERG (Ger.Niirnberg), a city of Germany, the second 
town in Bavaria in size, and the first in commercial importance. 
It lies in the district of Middle Franconia in a sandy but well- 
cultivated plain, 124 m. by rail N.W. from Munich. The city 
is divided by the small river Pegnitz, a tributary of the Main, 
into two parts, called respectively the Lorenzer Seite and the 
Sebalder Seite, after the two principal churches. There are 
four islands in the Pegnitz, which is crossed here by fourteen 
bridges. Formerly among the richest and most influential of 
the free imperial towns, Nuremberg is one of the few cities of 
Europe that have retained their medieval aspect largely un- 
impaired. Considerable sections of the ancient walls and moat 
still remain, though the demolition of portions to meet the 
exigencies of modern traffic and expansion has somewhat 
destroyed its quaint medieval character. Of the 365 bastions 
which formerly strengthened the walls, however, nearly 100 
are still in situ, and a few of the interesting old gateways have 
also been preserved. Most of the streets are narrow and crooked, 
and the majority of the houses have their gables turned towards 
the street. The general type of architecture is Gothic, but the 
rich details, which are lavished with especial freedom in the 
interior courts, are usually borrowed from the Renaissance. 
Most of the private dwellings date from the i6th century, and 
there are practically none of earlier date than the isth century. 
A praiseworthy desire to maintain the picturesqueness of the 
town has led most of the builders of new houses to imitate the 
lofty peaked gables, oriel windows and red-tiled roofs of the 
older dwellings. Altogether Nuremberg presents a faithful 
picture of a prosperous town of three hundred years ago. 

The old burg, or castle (Kaiserschloss), is picturesquely 
placed on a rock on the north side of the town. This dates 
most probably from the early part of the nth century, but it 
received its present form mainly during the reign of the emperor 
Frederick I. about 150 years later. It was restored in careful 
harmony with its original appearance in 1854-1856, and part 
of the interior is fitted up as a royal residence, the families of 
the German emperor and of the king of Bavaria having apart- 
ments therein. In the Heidenturm are two late Romanesque 
chapels, one above the other. Other parts of the castle are the 
pentagonal tower, the oldest building in the town, wherein are 
preserved the famous " iron virgin of Nuremberg," and other 
instruments of torture; the granary (Kornhaus), also called 
the Kaiserstallung; and the Vestnertor or Vestnerturm. The 
castle of Nuremberg was a favourite residence of the German 
sovereigns in the later middle ages, and 'the imperial regalia 
were kept here from 1424 to 1796. Near it are the remains of 
the burg of the Hohenzollerns, the principal existing part of 
which is the chapel of St Walpurgis, which was destroyed with 
the rest of the building in 1420, but was restored in 1892. Not 
far from these ruins stands the Luginsland, a stronghold with 
four corner turrets, said to have been built by the burghers in 
1367 as a watch-tower against the burg of the Hohenzollerns. 

Nuremberg contains several interesting churches, the finest 
of which are those of St Lorenz, of St Sebald and of Our Lady. 
All three are Gothic edifices and are notable for their elaborately 
carved doorways, in which free play has been given to the 
exuberant fancy of the Gothic style, and all three enshrine 
valuable treasures of art. The Church of St Lawrence, the 
largest of the three, was built in the I3th and I4th centuries 
and has recently been restored. In it is the masterpiece of the 
sculptor, Adam Krafft, consisting of a ciborium, or receptacle 
for the host, in the form of a florid Gothic spire 65 ft. high; 
the carving of this work is exquisitely minute and delicate. The 
west front contains a magnificent rose-window, and some of 



the stained glass dates from the isth and i6th centuries. In 
front of the altar hangs a curious piece of wood-carving by Veit 
Stoss, representing the Salutation. The shrine of St Sebald, 
in the church of St Sebald, consisting of a bronze sarcophagus 
and canopy, in the richest Gothic style, adorned with numerous 
statues and reliefs, is looked upon' as one of the greatest achieve- 
ments of German art. It was executed by Peter Vischer, the 
celebrated artist in bronze, who was occupied on the work 
for thirteen years (1506-1519), and has here shown himself 
no unworthy rival of Lorenzo Ghiberti. The church of Our 
Lady possesses some fine old stained-glass windows and some 
paintings by Michael Wohlgemuth. The Tuchersche altar, with 
its winged picture, is one of the finest works of the Nuremberg 
school about the middle of the isth century. This church was 
restored in 1878-1881. Other noteworthy churches are those 
of St Jacob, founded about 1200 and restored in 1824; and of 
St Aegidius. 

The town hall (Rathaus), an edifice in the Italian style, 
erected in 1616-1619, contains frescoes by Diirer, and a curious 
stucco relief of a tournament held at Nuremberg in 1446. The 
building incorporated an older one of the i4th century, of which 
the great hall, with its timber roof, is part. The most interesting 
secular buildings are the houses of the old patrician families. 
Among the most characteristic of these are the old residence of 
the counts of Nassau, and the houses of the Tucher, Funk and 
Peller families. A special interest attaches to the dwellings of 
Albert Diirer, Hans Sachs, the cobbler-poet, and Johann Palm, 
the patriotic bookseller who was shot by order of Napoleon 
in 1806. There are statues of Diirer, Sachs, Melanchthon, the 
reputed founder of the grammar-school, the navigator Martin 
Behaim, and Peter Henlein, the inventor of the watch; and 
the streets are further embellished with several fountains, the 
most noteworthy of which are the Schone Brunnen, 1385-1396, 
in the form of a large Gothic pyramid, adorned with statues 
of the seven electors, the " nine worthies," and Moses and the 
prophets; and the Gansemannchen or goose-mannikin, a clever 
little bronze figure by Pankratz Labenwolf. On the way to the 
cemetery of St John, which contains the graves of Diirer, Sachs, 
Behaim and other Nuremberg worthies, are Krafft's stations, 
seven pillars bearing stone reliefs of the Passion, and ranked 
among the finest works of the sculptor. 

The Germanic national museum, established in an old Car- 
thusian monastery, has developed into one of the largest and 
most important institutions of its kind in Germany. It includes 
a picture-gallery, principally of German works of the isth and 
i6th centuries, including masterpieces by Holbein, Diirer, 
Wohlgemuth and others. The municipal library contains about 
2000 manuscripts and 80,000 printed books, some of which are 
of great rarity. 

The population of Nuremberg was, in 1905, including a 
'garrison of about 3000 men, 294,344, of whom 145,354 were males 
and 148,990 females. Of these again 196,907 were Protestants 
(Evangelical), 86,939 Roman Catholics and 6819 Jews. At the 
height of its prosperity in the middle ages the population has 
been estimated at as high a figure as 1 50,000, but there seems good 
reason to believe that it did not exceed 40,000 to 50,000 souls. 
In 1818 it had sunk to 27,000, but since then has steadily 
increased. On the ist of January 1899, thirteen outlying 
communes were incorporated, extending the area of the town 
from 2805 to 13,700 acres. 

Nuremberg occupies a high place among the industrial and 
commercial centres of Europe. The principal manufactures 
are toys and fancy articles in metal, carved wood and ivory, 
which are collectively known as Nuremberg wares. Nuremberg 
is the chief market in Europe for hops. It is an important 
junction for railways to all parts of Germany, and is on the 
main line from Cologne and Frankfort-on-Main to Munich, 
Vienna and Eger. In addition to its railways, trade is facilitated 
by the Ludwig canal, connecting the Danube and the Main. 

History. The first authentic mention of Nuremberg, which 
seems to have been called into existence by the foundation of the 
castle, occurs in a document of 1050; and about the same period 



914 



NURSE NURSING 



it received from the emperor Henry III. permission to establish 
a mint and a market. It is said to have been destroyed by the 
emperor Henry V. in 1 105, but if this was the case the town must 
have been very speedily rebuilt, as in 1127 we find the emperor 
Lothair taking it from the duke of Swabia and assigning it to 
Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria. An imperial officer, styled 
the burggrave of Nuremberg, who, however, seems to have been 
merely the military governor of the castle, and to have exercised 
no sway over the citizens, became prominent in the i2th century. 
This office came into the hands of the counts of Hohenzollern at 
the beginning of the I3th century, and burggrave of Nuremberg 
is still one of the titles of their descendant, the German emperor. 
The government of the town was vested in the patrician families, 
who, contrary to the usual course of events in the free towns, 
succeeded in permanently excluding the civic gilds from all 
share of municipal power, although in 1347 there was a sharp 
rising against this oligarchy. The town was specially favoured 
by the German monarchs, who frequently resided and held diets 
here, and in 1219 Frederick II. conferred upon it the rights of a 
free imperial town. By the terms of this charter the town 
appears to have been immediately subject to the king, who was 
represented by his magistrate (or Schultheiss). In a short time, 
however, the latter appears to have been assisted by a council, 
consisting of 13 consoles (burgomasters) and 13 scabini (assessors), 
who collectively formed the governing and administrative body 
under the presidency of the bailiff. The last-named official 
soon confined himself to the judicial magisterial office, and a 
further increase in the numbers of the council having taken place 
by the appointment of 8 nominees of the king, a municipal council 
of 34, under the direction of the senior consul or burgomaster, 
dealt with matters exclusively civic. Later this council (the 
kleine Rat) was increased to 42 members, 8 of whom belonged 
to the artisan class. 

In 1356 Nuremberg witnessed the promulgation of the famous 
Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV. At the beginning of the 
1 5th century the burggraves of Nuremberg, who had in the 
meantime raised themselves to the rank of princes of the Empire, 
were invested with the margraviate of Brandenburg, and sold 
their castle to the town. They, however, reserved certain rights, 
and their insistence on these led to fierce and sanguinary feuds 
between the burghers and the margraves Albert Achilles and 
Frederick and Albert Alcibiades of Bayreuth. 

The quarrel with the margraves, however, did not interfere 
with the growth of the town's prosperity, which reached its acme 
in the i6th century. Like Augsburg, Nuremberg attained 
great wealth as an intermediary between Italy and the East 
on the one hand, and northern Europe on the other. Its manu- 
factures were so well known that it passed into a proverb 
" Nuremberg's hand goes through every land." Its citizens 
lived in such luxury that Aeneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II.) has 
left it on record that a simple burgher of Nuremberg was better 
lodged than the king of Scotland. The town had gradually 
extended its sway over a territory nearly 500 sq. m. in extent, 
and was able to furnish the emperor Maximilian with a contingent 
of 6000 troops. But perhaps the great glory of Nuremberg lies 
in its claim to be the principal fount of German art. Its important 
architectural features have already been described. The love 
of its citizens for sculpture is abundantly manifest in the statues 
and carvings on their houses. Adam Krafft, Veil Stoss and Peter 
Vischer form a trinity of sculptors of which any city might be 
proud. In painting Nuremberg is not less prominent, as the 
names of Wohlgemuth and Dtirer sufficiently indicate. In the 
decorative arts the Nuremberg handicraftsman attained great 
perfection in ministering to the luxurious tastes of the burghers, 
and a large proportion of the old German furniture, silver-plate, 
stoves and the like, which are now admired in industrial museums, 
was made in Nuremberg workshops. Wenzel Jamnitzer (1508- 
1585), the worker in silver, is perhaps eminent enough to be added 
to the above list of artists. Its place in literary history by 
no means an unimportant one it owes to Hans Sachs and the 
other meistersanger. A final proof of its vigorous vitality at 
this period may be found in the numerous inventions of it 



nhabitants, which include watches, at first called " Nuremberg 
:ggs," the air-gun, gun-locks, the terrestrial and celestial globes, 
the composition now called brass, and the art of wire-drawing. 

Nuremberg was the first of the imperial towns to throw in its 
ot with the Reformation, and it embraced Protestantism with 
its wonted vigour about 1525. Its name is associated with a 
Deace concluded between Charles V. and the Protestants in 1532. 
The first blow to its prosperity was the discovery of the sea-route 
to India in 1497; and the second was inflicted by the Thirty 
Years' War, during which Gustavus Adolphus was besieged here 
n an entrenched camp by Wallenstein. During the eight or ten 
weeks that the blockade lasted no fewer than 10,000 of the 
inhabitants are said to have died of want or disease. The down- 
fall of the town was accelerated by the illiberal policy of its 
patrician rulers; and the French Revolution reduced it to such 
a degree that in 1796 it offered itself and its territories to the 
ting of Prussia on condition that he would pay its debts. 
Prussia, however, refused the offer. In 1803 Nuremberg was 
allowed to maintain its nominal position as a free city, but in 
1806 it was annexed to Bavaria. 

See Lochner, Niirnberger Jahrbucher bis 1313 (Nuremberg, 1832- 
1835); Nurnbergs Vorzeit und Gegenwart (Nuremberg, 1845); and 
Geschichte der Reichsstadt Niirnberg zur Zeit Kaiser Karls- IV. (Berlin, 
1873) ; Priem, Geschichte der Sladt Niirnberg bis auf die neueste Zeit 
(Nuremberg, 1874) ; B. Schonlank, Altniirnbergische Studien (Leipzig, 
1894); L. Rosel, Alt-Niirnberg (Nuremberg, 1895); E. Mummenhoff, 
Altniirnberg bis zum Jahre 1350 (1890) ; R. Hagen, Bilder aus 
Nurnbergs Geschichte (Nuremberg, 1889) ; F. Roth, Die Einfiihrung 
der Reformation in Niirnberg (Wurzburg, 1885) ; J. M. Letter, Sagen, 
Legenden und Geschichten der Stadt Niirnberg (Nuremberg, 1898) ; the 
Quellenschriften zur Stoats- und Kulturgeschichte der Reichsstadt 
Niirnberg (Nuremberg, 1893, fol.); and the Mitteilungen of the 
Vereinfiir Geschichte der Stadt Niirnberg (Nuremberg, 1879, fol.). See 
also C. Headlam, The Story of Nuremberg (London, 1899). 

NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier " nourice," adapted 
through the French from Lat. nutrix, nulrire, to nourish), 
primarily a woman who suckles and takes care of an infant, 
and more generally one who has the general charge of children; 
also a person, male or female, who attends to the sick, and 
particularly one who has been trained professionally for that 
purpose (see NURSING). 

NURSING. The development of sick-nursing, which has 
brought into existence a large, highly-skilled, and organised 
profession, is one of the most notable features of 
modern social life. The evolution of the sick-nurse is 
mainly due to three very diverse influences religion, war and 
science to name them in chronological order. It was religion 
which first induced ladies, in the earlier centuries of Christianity, 
to take up the care of the sick as a charitable duty. The earliest 
forerunner of the great sisterhood of nurses of whom we have 
any record was Fabiola, a patrician Roman lady, who in A.D. 380 
founded a hospital in Rome with a convalescent home attached, 
and devoted herself and her fortune to the care of the sick poor. 
She had a rival in the empress Flaccilla, the pious consort of 
Theodosius I. (A.D. 379-395), who also personally visited the 
hospitals and attended on the sick. Organized nursing does 
not appear to have formed any part of medical treatment, 
except in so far as the deacons of the church attended on the 
poor, until the 4th century of the Christian era. After that date 
the employment of women for this purpose must have developed 
rapidly, for in the reign of Honorius (A.D. 395-423) six hundred 
women were engaged in the hospitals of Alexandria. These 
institutions were managed by the clergy, and throughout the 
dark and middle ages the hospital and nursing systems were 
connected with religious bodies. Nurses were provided by the 
male and female monastic orders, an arrangement which still 
continues in most Roman Catholic countries, though it is gradu- 
ally being abandoned through the increasing demands of medical 
science, which have led the hospitals to establish training schools 
of their own. The names of the oldest foundations which still 
survive, such as the H&tel Dieu in Paris, St Thomas's and 
St Bartholomew's in London, the order of St Augustine, and 
(in the form of a modern revival) that of St John of Jerusalem, 
sufficiently indicate the original religious connexion. The 



History. 



NURSING 



9*5 



order of St Vincent de Paul, founded in 1633 for the express 
purpose, is still the largest nursing organization in the world. 
Even in Protestant England, where purely secular training 
schools have reached their highest development, the generic 
title of Sister, alike prized by its holders and honoured by the 
public, remains the popular and professional synonym for head 
nurse, and perpetuates the old association. Nursing, as a 
popular or fashionable occupation, is not a modern invention. 
.Sir Henry Burdett quotes an order, dated 3oth May 1578, 
directing the master and the prior of the H6tel Dieu "not to 
receive henceforth any novices without speaking of it to the 
company, because there are an excessive number of nuns and 
novices, who cause great expense to the said Hotel Dieu." 
In Protestant countries a secular nursing system came in with 
the Reformation. The staff appointed for St Bartholomew's, 
on its re-establishment by Henry VIII. in 1544, consisted of a 
matron and twelve nurses, who were engaged in domestic 
occupations when off duty. Thus nursing became a menial 
office and an inferior means of livelihood, adopted by women 
of the lower orders without any training or special skill; and 
so it continued dpwn to the middle of the igth century, when 
a new movement began which was destined to revolutionize the 
status of the nurse. 

Its distinctive feature was the systematic training of nurses for 
their vocation. Previously a certain amount of regular instruc- 
tion had no doubt been given here and there by individual 
physicians and surgeons; lectures to nurses were delivered in the 
New York Hospital as early as 1790. But these were isolated 
efforts. Such skill as nurses possessed was picked up in the wards. 
No qualifications were required, nor indeed would they have 
been forthcoming, so low had the calling sunk in public estima- 
tion. The credit of inaugurating the new order of things belongs 
to Germany, and here again the religious influence came into play. 
The beginning of the modern system dates from the foundation 
of the institute for training deaconesses at Kaiserswerth by 
Pastor Fliedner in 1836. It is true that state training schools 
for male nurses had previously existed in Prussia, the oldest 
having been founded at Magdeburg in 1799; but the employment 
of men in hospital wards is a feature of the German system which 
has not been copied by other advanced countries, and seems 
to be in process of abandonment in Germany. It is a heritage 
from the middle ages, when the Knights Hospitallers undertook 
for men the duties discharged in female institutions by the nuns. 
The male schools, therefore, stand somewhat apart, though they 
mark a stage in the evolution of nursing as the earliest regular 
training establishments. * The Kaiserswerth Institute, on the 
contrary, had a far-reaching and lasting influence, and may 
fairly claim to be the mother of the modern system. England, 
in particular, owes much to it, for there Florence Nightingale 
acquired the practical knowledge which enabled her afterwards 
to turn her remarkable gift of organization to such brilliant 
account. The example of Kaiserswerth was soon followed, and 
not in Germany only. In 1838 the Society of Friends founded 
a nursing organization in Philadelphia, and in 1840 Mrs Fry, a 
member of the same community, started the Institution of 
Nursing Sisters in London. In 1857 the nurses attached to it 
numbered ninety. They received their practical training at 
Guy's and St Thomas's Hospitals. On the continent institutes 
for nursing deaconesses were founded at Strassburg, Utrecht, 
Berlin, Breslau, Konigsberg and Carlsruhe between 1842 and 
1851. In London a Church of England training institution 
(St John's House) was opened in 1848. There were three classes 
(i) sisters, (2) probationers, (3) nurses. The nursing at King's 
College Hospital was for many years undertaken by this society, 
whose members were trained at the hospital. 

The training system, thus inaugurated on a semi-religious 
basis, received a new impetus from the Crimean War, which 
was further emphasized by uhe Civil War in America and the 
subsequent great conflicts on the continent. The despatch of 
Florence Nightingale with a staff of trained nurses, to super- 
intend the administration of the military hospitals was the 
direct result of the publicity given to the details of the Crimean 



War by The Times, and it formed a new departure which riveted 
the eyes of the civilized world. The work undertaken and 
accomplished by this lady was far more important than the mere 
nursing of sick and wounded soldiers. She had grasped the 
principles of hygiene, which were then beginning to be under- 
stood, and she applied them to the reform of the hospital 
administration. In civil life it had a marked effect in stimulating 
the training movement and raising the status of the nurse; 
but substantial results were only obtained by degrees. It was 
not until(i$5o that the modern hospital school system was 
definitely inaugurated by the opening of the Nightingale Fund 
School at St Thomas's Hospital, founded with the money sub- 
scribed by the British public in recognition of Miss Nightingale's 
national services, and worked on principles laid down by her. 
In the meantime several nursing societies, in addition to those 
previously mentioned, had been founded in England, and else- 
where. Among them the Baden Ladies' Society, founded in 
1859 by the Grand Duchess Luise, deserves mention. In the 
same year the first district nurse began work in Liverpool; 
and in 1865 the reform of the much-neglected workhouse nursing 
was inaugurated by Miss Agnes Jones and twelve nurses from 
St Thomas's, who took up the work in Liverpool. At this time 
England took a decided lead, which she has never lost. Other 
countries gradually followed. In Germany the Albert Nursing 
Society was founded by Queen Carola of Saxony, and the Alice 
Society by the Grand Duchess Alice of Hesse, both in 1867. 
In France, where the nursing was comparatively well performed 
by the religious orders, no change was made until 1877, when 
a training school was opened in Paris by the municipality, 
and two others by the Assistance Publique, in connexion with 
the Salpetriere and Bicetre Hospitals. In the United States 
schools were opened in New York, New Haven and Boston in 
1873 The British colonies, Austria, and other European 
countries followed some years later. 

It remained for the third influence to complete the work begun 
and to develop systematic nursing to its present dimensions. 
Since 1880 the increasing demands of medical knowledge have 
well-nigh revolutionized the craft in the home, the hospital 
and the workhouse. A large part of the change may be summed 
up in the words " scientific cleanliness." The outcome has been 
to raise the dignity of the calling, to induce persons of a 
superior class to adopt it in increasing numbers, to enlarge 
the demand for their services, and to multiply the means of 
educating them. 

Nursing does not appear to be regulated by law in any 
country, though attempts in this direction had been made in 
England. 1 Its organization is voluntary, and even in Training 
state or municipal institutions is dependent on the and 
direction of the administration. In Great Britain organlza- 
nearly all the general and special hospitals and many a "' 
of the poor-law infirmaries offer systematic professional training 
to nurses. The provisions differ considerably in detail, but in 
the larger schools the system is uniform in all important respects. 
Candidates must be between 23 (sometimes 21 or 22) and 35 
years of age, and must produce satisfactory evidence of character, 
education, health and physique; after a personal interview 
and one, two or three months' trial they are admitted for three 
years' training. During this period they receive regular instruc- 
tion in theoretical and practical knowledge, and have to pass 
periodical examinations. At the end of it they are granted 
certificates and mayserve as staffnurses. Theypay no premium, 
and generally receive a salary of 8 to 12 in the first year, 
rising annually to 30 or 35 as staff nurse, and subsequently 
to 40 or 50 as sister or head nurse. They live in a home 
attached to the institution, under a matron, and in the most 
modern establishments each nurse has a separate bedroom, 
with common dining and recreation rooms. Private nursing 
staffs are attached to several of the hospitals; they are recruited 
from the staff nurses and probationers on completion of their 
course, and supply nurses to private patients. In the special 

1 In 1902 an act was passed to establish a Central Midwives Board 
and regulated the training and employment of midwives. 



916 



NURSING 



hospitals the training is shorter, being for one or two years. 
There seems to be a constant tendency to increase the require- 
ments. At St Bartholomew's, St George's, the London Hospital, 
St Thomas's and others, probationers must enter for four years, 
and at St Bartholomew's they have to pass an entrance examina- 
tion in elementary anatomy, physiology and other subjects. 
At all the more important schools the number of applications 
is many times greater than the vacancies. 

In Great Britain trained and certificated nurses generally 
belong to a society or association. The most noteworthy of 
the associations is Queen Victoria's Jubilee Institute for Nurses. 
It was founded in 1887 with the object of providing skilled 
nursing for the sick poor in their own homes. A great many of 
the provincial nursing associations are affiliated to it. The 
number of nurses supported by each branch varies. The qualifica- 
tions for a Queen's nurse are as follows: (i) training at an 
approved general hospital or infirmary for two years; (2) 
approved training in district nursing for not less than six months, 
including the nursing *of mothers and infants after child-birth; 
(3) nurses in country districts must in addition have had at least 
three months' approved training in midwifery. Candidates 
possessing the first qualification are received on trial for one 
month, after which they complete their six months' training 
for the second qualification, at the same time entering into an 
agreement to serve as district nurse for one or two years at the 
end of the six months. The salary during training is i 2, ios., and 
afterwards 30 to 35 a year, with board, lodging, laundry and 
uniform. With regard to the earnings of nurses in general, the 
salaries paid in hospitals have already been mentioned; for 
private work the scales in force at different institutions vary 
considerably, according to the other advantages and benefits 
provided. At some the nurses receive all their own earnings, 
minus a percentage deducted for the maintenance of the institute; 
at others they are paid a fixed salary, as a rule from 25 to 30 
a year, plus a varying percentage on their earnings or a periodical 
bonus according to length of service. This is perhaps the 
commonest system, but some of the best nursing homes give a 
somewhat higher fixed salary without any percentage. In all 
these cases the nurses receive in addition board and lodging, 
laundry and uniform, or an equivalent allowance. For special 
cases infectious, massage, mental and maternity nurses on 
a fixed salary usually receive extra pay. The fees commonly 
charged by high-class institutions for the services of a trained 
and certificated nurse are for ordinary cases 2, as. a week, 
for special cases 2, 125. 6d. or 3, 35. a week; but many provincial 
associations supply nurses for i, is. a week and upwards. 
The discrepancy between the fees paid by patients and the 
salaries received by nurses, especially in London, has occasionally 
excited unfavourable comment, but it is to be remembered that 
the nurses are maintained when out of work or ill, and have other 
advantages; many institutions either provide pensions or assist 
the members of their staff to join the Royal National Pension 
Fund. 

To complete this account of the organization in Great Britain a 
few details with regard to special nursing are added. 

Fever. Regular training on the same plan as in general hospitals 
is provided in London at the fever hospitals of the Metropolitan 
Asylums Board (12 in number, with from 360 to 760 beds each), 
and at a considerable number of provincial institutions. 

Insanity. The Medico-Psychological Association of Great Britain 
and Ireland holds examinations and grants certificates in mental 
nursing; candidates must undergo three years' regular training, with 
instruction by lectures, &c., which may be obtained in a large 
number of public asylums by arrangement with the Association; 
one county asylum (Northampton) gives its own certificates after a 
three years' course. 

District Nursing. In addition to the Queen's nurses, of whom 
details have been given above, many local associations train their 
own nurses for this work. Cottage and village nursing are varieties 
of the same department; the former is organized on the benefit 
system, and aims at supplying domestic help and sick-nursing 
combined in rural districts for an annual subscription of from 2s. 
to ios., according to the class in life of the family, and a weekly 
fee of the same amount during attendance. 

Monthly Nursing and Midwifery. Systematic instruction in these 
subjects is given at some fifty lying-in institutions in different parts 



of the kingdom. The usual course for nursing is not less than three 
months, and for midwifery not less than six months; a premium 
is required of 12 or 13 guineas for three months, and 25 guineas 
for six months. 

Male Nursing. Two or three associations in London supply male 
nurses (fees 2 to 4 guineas a week), but there appears to be only one 
institution, apart from the military and naval services, at which they 
are systematically trained namely, the National Hospital for the 
Paralysed and Epileptic. 

Massage is taught regularly at the hospital just named, and at a 
few other special hospitals. Competent operators are supplied by 
the Incorporated Society of Trained Masseuses and, to some extent, 
by other nursing associations; but this branch of the profession is 
still imperfectly organized (see MASSAGE). 

Children. A large number of children's hospitals throughout 
the country give regular training in the nursing of children; they 
take probationers at a somewhat earlier age than the general 
schools; the course is usually shorter (one or two years), and the 
salaries slightly lower. 

The State offers employment to nurses in the naval and military 
hospitals. Queen Alexandra's Imperial Nursing Service was organized 
in 1902. Candidates for it must be between 25 and 35 years, single 
or widows and of good social status. They must have had three 
years' training in a general hospital. Foreign Service must be taken 
as required. Nurses are eligible for a pension after ip years' service, 
the amount increasing up to the age of 55 when retirement is com- 
pulsory. The Royal Naval Nursing Service is organized on much the 
same basis. Other organizations are The Army Nursing Reserve and 
Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Reserve, and there is 
also a nursing reserve attached to the territorial forces. 

In the more important British colonies Australasia, Canada 
and South Africa there are now a considerable number of 
hospital schools and other institutions formed and conducted 
on the English model. Salaries and fees are very much the same 
in Australia; in Canada and South Africa they are higher. 

In the United States a similar system prevails in New York, 
Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New 
Haven and many other large towns. The period of training is 
either two or three years. At the Johns Hopkins School at 
Baltimore twelve scholarships of $100 and $120 each are 
awarded annually; graduate nurses are paid $360 (72) a 
year. Salaries are altogether much higher in the United States. 
At the Boston City Hospital graduate nurses receive $420 (84) 
a year, and at the Indianapolis City Hospital those on private 
duty are paid $72 a month, which is equivalent to 172 a year, 
with board, lodging, laundry and uniform. This may be taken 
to indicate the possible earnings of trained nurses working 
independently, as they usually do in America. The fees charged 
for trained nurses run from $12 to $25 a week, and even more for 
special cases. Male nurses are trained at the Bellevue Hospital, 
New York, the Grace Hospital, Detroit, and elsewhere. In the 
American schools more attention is paid to the preparation of 
nurses for private work than in the British (Burdett), and a 
directory or registry of them is kept in most large towns. 

In Germany, their original home, both training schools and 
societies have multiplied and developed. The period of training 
appears to be considerably shorter than in Great Britain and 
America. Members of the Albert Society of Saxony, however, 
spend two years in the wards at Dresden, and a third at Leipzig, 
attending lectures and demonstrations. They are sent out to 
nurse rich and poor alike, and their pay is very small. Most 
of the German institutes have pension funds. 

In France a great deal of the nursing was formerly in the 
hands of religious orders, but there too the hospital school 
system, inaugurated in 1877, has grown. The schools managed 
by the Assistance Publique in Paris give a very thorough course 
of instruction. 

In Russia nursing is mainly in the hands of the Red Cross 
Society, whose members are, however, trained in the hospital 
schools. 

In Italy, Spain, Portugal and Belgium scientific nursing is 
in a backward state. The old religious system still prevails 
to a large extent, and, though some of the orders do their work 
with great devotion, the standard of knowledge and skill is not 
up to modern requirements. At San Remo and Rome institu- 
tions have been established 'or providing English trained nurses 
to private cases. 



NUSHKI NUT 



917 



Austria is also in a very backward state, in spite of the fame 
of the Vienna cliniques. The Red Cross Society provides a 
certain amount of trained nursing, and next to it the best- 
organized work is done by religious orders; but the nursing 
in the hospitals appears to be still in a neglected state. The 
Brothers of Mercy have charge of some of the men's 
hospitals, and also carry on a remarkable system of district 
nursing. 

In Holland and the Scandinavian countries the organization 
is more modern and fairly adequate. 

For full details on the large subject of the duties and qualifica- 
tions of nurses the reader is referred to the numerous text-books 
and other technical authorities. Only a few general 
Duties and observations can be made here. Many candidates 
Q t"oas'. C approach the calling with a very imperfect apprecia- 
tion of its exacting character. The work is not easy 
or to be taken up lightly. It demands physical strength, sound 
health, scrupulous cleanliness, good temper, self-control, intelli- 
gence and a strong sense of duty. It embraces many duties 
some of them menial and disagreeable besides the purely 
medical and surgical functions. This is especially the case 
with district nursing, which is the highest and most exact- 
ing branch of the profession, because it imposes the greatest 
responsibility with the fewest resources and demands the most 
varied qualifications, while affording none of the attractions 
incidental to hospital work or private nursing among the rich. 
It is comparatively easy to fulfil routine duties, when every 
means is at hand and the standing conditions are the most 
favourable possible; when ventilation, warmth, light and 
cleanliness are all provided of the best, and when assistance 
can be summoned in a moment. To be thrown on your own 
resources and make the best of adverse conditions is an entirely 
different matter; it requires a thorough knowledge not of 
routine, but of principles. It is impossible, therefore, for nurses 
to be over-educated in the fullest sense of the word; but it is 
possible for them to be inappropriately educated, and perhaps 
that is sometimes the case now. Probably nursing has been 
elaborated to the inevitable point of specialization, and a some- 
what different preparation is needed for different branches of 
the art. 

Allusion has been made above to the subject of male nursing. 
It hardly finds a place in the British civil system, and was con- 
demned for hospitals in Germany, where it is at its best, by so 
eminent an authority as Professor Virchow. In the South 
African War of 1890-1902 it was even suggested that female 
nurses should replace orderlies at the front. The only valid 
reason for preferring women to attend men rather than members 
of their own sex is the difficulty of obtaining a supply of equally 
well qualified and satisfactory male nurses. But this difficulty 
need not be permanent, and the assumption is much to be 
deprecated. It is, indeed, most desirable that men should be 
nursed by men. The advantages are many and real. For one 
thing women do not possess the physical strength which is 
often required. They cannot lift a heavy man, and ought not 
to be asked to do it. Then it is excessively irksome to a sensitive 
man to be attended by women for various necessary offices. In 
order to avoid it he will endeavour to do without assistance, and 
seriously prejudice his chances of recovery. 

AUTHORITIES. Sir Henry C. Burdett, Hospitals and Asylums of 
the World; The Nursing Profession (annual); Hampton, Nursing; 
Percy G. Lewis, Nursing, its Theory and Practice; Eva C. E. Luckes, 
Hospital Sisters and their Duties; Morten, How to become a Nurse; 
Florence Nightingale, Notes on Nursing; Nightingale Boyd, 
" Nursing," in Quain's Dictionary of Medicine. 

NUSHKI, a town and district of Baluchistan. The town 
lies 70 m. south-west of Quetta, and is situated in a plain at the 
base of the Quetta plateau, 2900 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901) 
644. From this point the flat Baluchistan desert stretches away 
northwards and westwards to the Helmund river. The adminis- 
tration of the Nushki district was taken over from the khan of 
Kalat by the Indian government in 1896, and was leased from 
him on a perpetual quit rent in 1899. In 1901 a railway of 
91 m. was sanctioned from Quetta to Nushki, which was com- 



pleted in 1905. This railway makes Nushki the starting-point 
of the caravan route to Seistan. From the strategic point of 
view a force operating from Nushki would flank any advance 
from the north on Kandahar, and would also guard the south- 
west approach to the fortress of Quetta. 

NUSKU, the name of the light and fire-god in Babylonia and 
Assyria, who is hardly to be distinguished, from a certain time 
on, from a god Girru formerly read Gibil. Nusku-Girru is 
the symbol of the heavenly as well as of the terrestrial fire. As 
the former he is the son of Anu, the god of heaven, but he is 
likewise associated with Bel of Nippur as the god of the earth 
and regarded as his first-born son. A centre of his cult in 
Assyria was in Harran, where, because of the predominating 
character of the moon-cult, he is viewed as the son of the moon- 
god Sin (q.v.). Nusku-Girru is by the side of Ea, the god of water, 
the great purifier. It is he, therefore, who is called upon to 
cleanse the sick and suffering from disease, which, superinduced 
by the demons, was looked upon as a species of impurity affecting 
the body. 

The fire-god is also viewed as the patron of the arts and the 
god of civilization in general, because of the natural association 
of all human progress with the discovery and use of fire. As 
among other nations, the fire-god was in the third instance looked 
upon as the protector of the family. He becomes the mediator 
between humanity and the gods, since it is through the fire on 
the altar that the offering is brought into the presence of 
the gods. 

While temples and sanctuaries to Nusku-Girru are found in 
Babylonia and Assyria, he is worshipped more in symbolical 
form than the other gods. For the very reason that his presence 
is common and universal he is not localized to the same extent 
as his fellow-deities, and, while always enumerated in a list of 
the great gods, his place in the systematized pantheon is more 
or less vague. The conceptions connected with Nusku are of 
distinctly popular origin, as is shown by his prominence in 
incantations, which represent the popular element in the cult, 
and it is significant that in the astro-theological system of the 
Babylonian priests Nusku-Girru is not assigned to any particular 
place in the heavens. (M. JA.) 

NUSRETABAD, the capital of Persian Seistan, so called after 
Nusret el Mulk, a former deputy governor of Seistan; when 
built, c. 1870, it was first called Nasirabad in honour of Nasr-ud- 
din Shah; other names, used locally, are Shahr (town) i Seistan, 
Shahr i Nassiriyeh, or simply Shahr, the town. It is the residence 
of British and Russian consuls, and has post and telegraph 
offices. 

NUT (O. Eng. hnulu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with 
Gael, cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux), a term applied 
to that class of fruit which consists generally of a single kernel 
enclosed in a hard shell. Botanically speaking, nuts are one- 
celled fruits with hardened pericarps, sometimes more or less 
enveloped in a cupule or cup, formed by the aggregation of the 
bracts as in the hazel and the acorn. In commerce, however, the 
term has a wider application and embraces many fruits having 
hard woody indehiscent shells or coverings without reference to 
their enclosed seeds or kernels, besides leguminous pods, and 
even tuberous roots. A great number of nuts enter into commerce 
for various purposes, principally as articles of food or sources 
of oil, and for several ornamental and useful purposes. For the 
most part the edible nuts are very rich in oil, with only a small 
percentage of the other carbohydrates, starch, sugar, &c., and 
they also contain a large proportion of nitrogenous constituents. 
Thus possessing rich nutrient principles in a highly concentrated 
form, nuts are by themselves rather difficult of digestion, and 
the liability of many of them to become rancid is also a source 
of danger and a hindrance to their free. use. Oleaginous nuts 
used for food are likewise employed more or less as sources of 
oil, but on the other hand there are many oil-nuts of commercial 
importance not embraced in the list of edible nuts. 

On the following page is set out an alphabetical enumeration 
of the more important nuts, and of products passing under that 
name, used either as articles of food or as sources of oil. 



918 



NUT 



Name. 


Source. 


Locality. 


Remarks. 


Almond 
Almond (bitter) . . 
Ar nut or earth nut . 
Bambarra ground nut 
Ben nut 


Amygdalus communis, 
var. ditlcis 
Amygdalus communis, 
var. amara 
Tubers of Bunium flexuo- 
sum and other species 
Voandzeia subterranea . 

Moringa pterygosperma 


S. Europe . ... 

W. Europe (Britain) . 

Tropics, especially 
Africa 
India 


Food, oil. 
Oil. 
Food. 
Food. 
Oil. 


Bitter nut .... 

Brazil nut .... 
Bread nut .... 
Butter or Souari nut . 
Cahoun nut 
Candle nut. 
Cashew nut 

Chestnut .... 
Cob, filbert, or hazel . 
Cob nut of Jamaica . 


(a winged seed) 
Carya amara (swamp 
hickory) 
Bertholletia excelsa 
Brosimum Alicastrum 
Caryocar nuciferum . 
Attalea Cohune . 
Aleurites triloba . 
Anacardium occidentale . 

Castanea vesca 
Corylus Avellana . 
Omphalea diandra 

Cocos nucifero. 


N. America 

S. America .... 
W. Indies .... 
Guiana 
Honduras .... 
S. Sea Islands . 
W. Indies and Tropical 
America 
S. Europe .... 
Europe (Britain), &c. 
W. Indies and Tropical 
America 
Tropics 


See HICKORY. 

Food, oil. 
Food. 
Food. 
Oil. 
Oil. 
Food, oil. 

Food. 
See HAZEL. 
Food. 

Food, oil. 


Cola nut .... 
Dika nut .... 
Ginkgo nut 
Ground nut or pea nut 


Cola acuminata . 
Irvingia Barteri . 
Ginkgo biloba (seed) . 
Arachis hypogaea 


W.Africa .... 
W.Africa .... 
Japan, China . . . 
Tropics 


Food. 
Food, oil. 
Food, oil. 
See GROUND NUT. 


Hickory nut 
Hog nut .... 
Jesuit's nut 
Mocker nut 
Moreton Bay chestnut 
Nutmeg .... 
Nutmeg (wild) . 


Carya alba .... 
Carya porcina. 
Trapa nalano .... 
Carya tomentosa . 
Castanospermum australe 
Myristica moschata . 
Myristica fdtua, Af . tom- 


N. America 
N. America 
S. Europe .... 
N. America 
Australia .... 
E. Indies .... 


See HICKORY. 
Eaten by animals. 
Food. 
See HICKORY. 
Food. 
Spice. See NUTMEG. 
Spice. See NUTMEG. 


Olive nut .... 
Palm nut .... 
Pecan nut .... 
Pekea nut . 


entosa, &c. 
Eleocarpus Ganitrus, &c. 
Elaeis guineensis . 
Carya olivaeformis 
Caryocar butyrosum . 


E. Indies .... 
W. Africa .... 

N. America 


Food. 
Oil. See PALM. 
Food, oil. See HICKORY. 
Food. 


Physic nut .... 
Pine nut .... 
Pistachio nut . 
Quandang nut . 
Ravensara nut. 
Rush nut .... 


Curcas purgans . 
Pinus Pinea, &c. 
Pistachia vera 
Fusanus acuminatus . 
Agathophyttum aromaticum 
Cyperus esculentus (tubers) 


Tropical America . 
Italy 
S. Europe, &c. . 
Australia .... 
Madagascar 


Oil. 
Food. 
Food. 
Food. 
Spice. 
Food. 


Sapucaya nut . 
Tahiti chestnut 
Walnut 
Water chestnut 


Lecythis Ollaria . 
Inocarpus edulis . 
Juglans regia .... 
Various species of Trapa 


Brazil 
S. Sea Islands . . . 
Asia, Europe . 
S. Europe, India, &c. . 


Food. 
Food. 
Food, oil. 
Food. 



There remain to be enumerated a number of nuts of commercial 
value for turnery and ornamental purposes, for medicinal use, 
and for several miscellaneous applications in the arts. These 
include: 



importance are or will be 
separately noticed, and here 
further allusion is only made 
to a few which form current 
articles of commerce, not 
otherwise treated of. 

The bread nut of Jamaica 
is the fruit of a lofty tree, 
Brosimum Alicastrum. It is 
about an inch in diameter, 
and encloses a single seed, 
which, roasted or boiled, is 
a pleasant and nutritious 
article of food. 

The souari or surahwa 
nut, called also the " Butter 
nut of Demerara," and by 
fruiterers the " Suwarrow 
nut," is the fruit of Caryocar 
nuciferum, a native of the 
forests of Guiana, growing 
80 ft. in height. This is 
perhaps the finest of all the 
fruits called nuts. The 
kernel is large, soft, and 
even sweeter than the 
almond, which it somewhat 
resembles in taste. The few 
that are imported come from 
Demerara, and are about the 
size of an egg, somewhat 
kidney-shaped, of a rich 
reddish-brown colour, and 
covered with large rounded 
tubercles. 

The pekea nut, similar in 
appearance and properties, 
is the produce of Caryocar 
butyrosum, growing in the 
same regions of tropical 
America. 

The Jamaica cob nut is 
the produce of a euphor- 
biaceous tree, Omphalea 
diandra, the seeds of which resemble in taste the ordinary cob 
or hazel nut. The seed, however, contains a deleterious em- 
bryo, which must not be eaten. 
Cola, kola or goora nuts are 



Name. 


Source. 


Locality. 


Remarks. 


Betel nut .... 
Bladder nut 
Boomah nut 


Areca Catechu 
Staphylea pinnata 
Pycnocoma macrophylla . 


E. Indies .... 
S. Europe 


Necklaces. 
Tanning. 


Bonduc nut 
Clearing nut 
Coquilla nut 


Guilandina Bonduc . 
Strychnos potatorum . 
Attalea funifera 


India 
India 


Medicine, beads. 
Clearing water. 
Turnery. 


Corozo nut or vegetable 
ivory 
Cumara nut (Tonka 
bean) 
Grugru nut. 
Horse chestnut 
Marking nut . 
Nut galls .... 


Phytelephas macrocarpa . 
Dipterix odorata . 

Acrocomia selerocarpa 
Aesculus Hippocastanum 
Semecarpus Anacardium 
Quercus infectorio, 


Tropical S. America . 
Tropical S. America . 

S. America .... 
S. Europe .... 
E. Indies .... 


See PALM. 
Perfume. 

Beads. 
Starch. 
Marking ink and varnish. 
Dyeing and ink making. 


Poison nut .... 

Sassafras nut . 
Snake nut .... 
Soap nut .... 


Strychnos Nux-Vomica . 

Nectandra Puchury . 
Ophiocaryon paradoxum . 
Sapindus Saponaria . 


E. Indies .... 

S. America .... 
S. America .... 
W. Indies .... 


See GALLS. 
Medicine. See Nux 

VOMICA. 

Aromatic. 
Curiosity. 
Washing; ornamental 



The application of the term nut to many of these products is 
purely arbitrary, and it is obvious that numerous other bodies 
not known commercially as nuts might with equal propriety 
be included in the list. Most of the nuts of real commercial 



the seeds of Cola acuminata 
(Sterculiaceae), a tree, native 
of tropical Africa, now intro- 
duced into the West Indies 
and South America. The 
nuts form an important 
article of commerce through- 
out Central Africa, being 
used over a wide area as a 
kind of stimulant condiment. 
The nuts, of which there are 
numerous varieties, are 
found to contain a notable 
proportion of theine, as much 
as 2-13 %, besides theobro- 
mine and other important 
food-constituents, to which 
circumstances, doubtless, 
their valuable properties are 
due. 

Coquilla nuts, the hard 
inner portion (" stone ") of the palm, Attalea funifera, the piassaba 
of Brazil, are highly valued for turnery purposes. They have an 
elongated oval form, 3 to 4 in. in length, and being intensely hard 
they take a fine polish, displaying a richly streaked brown colour. 



NUTATION NUTMEG 



919 



The marking nut, Semecarpus Anacardium, is a fruit closely 
allied in its source and properties to the cashew nut (?..) The 
marking nut is a native of the East Indies, where the extremely 
acrid juice of the shell of the fruit in its unripe state is mixed 
with quicklime and used as a marking-ink. The juice also 
possesses medicinal virtues as an external application, and when 
dry it is the basis of a valuable caulking material and black 
varnish. The seeds are edible, and the source of a useful oil. 

Physic nuts are the produce of the euphorbiaceous tree, 
Curcas purgans, whence a valuable oil, having similar purgative 
properties to castor oil, is obtained. The plant is a native 
of South America, but is now found throughout all tropical 
countries. 

Pine nuts are the seeds of several species of Pinus, eaten in 
the countries of their growth, and also serving to some extent 
as sources of oil. Of these the most important are the stone 
pine, Pinus Pinea, of Italy and the Mediterranean coasts, and 
the Russian stone pine, Pinus Cembra. The Pinus Sabiniana 
of California and P. Gerardiana of the Himalayas similarly 
yield edible seeds. These seeds possess a pleasant, slightly 
resinous flavour. 

Ravensara nuts, the fruit of Agathophyllum aromaticum 
(Lauraceae), a native of Madagascar, is used as a spice under the 
name of the Madagascar clove nutmeg. 

The Sapucaya nut, a native of Brazil, is seen occasionally 
in fruit-shops. It is produced by a large tree, Lecylhis Ollaria, 
or " cannon-ball tree." Its specific name is taken from the large 
urn-shaped capsules, called " monkey-pots " by the inhabitants, 
which contain the nuts. The sapucaya nut has a sweet flavour, 
resembling the almond, and if better known would be highly 
appreciated. It is, however, scarce, as the monkeys and other 
wild animals are said to be particularly fond of it. This nut, 
which is of a rich amber-brown, is not unlike the Brazil nut, 
but it has a smooth shell furrowed with deep longitudinal 
wrinkles. 

Soap nuts are the fruits of various species of Sapindus, especially 
5. Saponaria, natives of tropical regions. They are so called 
because their rind or outer covering contains a principle, saponine, 
which lathers in water, and so is useful in washing. The pods of 
Acacia concinna, a -native of India, possess the same properties, 
and are also known as soap nuts. 

NUTATION (from Lat. nutare, to nod), a revolution of the 
celestial pole around its mean position, due to inequalities in 
the action of the sun and moon, on an earth of ellipsoidal form. 
When either of these attracting bodies is in the plane of the 
equator, it produces no change in the direction of the celestial 
pole. The greater their distance from this plane, the greater 
the change, for reasons shown in the article ASTRONOMY (Celestial 
Mechanics). The result is a motion which can be divided into 
two components. One of these is the progressive and nearly 
uniform motion of a fictitious mean pole, called precession (q.v.), 
and the other a revolution of the true around the mean pole, de- 
pending on the varying declinations of the sun and moon, and 
called nutation. Owing to the revolution of the moon's node 
and the inclination of its orbit, this body moves through a wider 
range of declination in some positions of the node than in others. 
The period of the revolution of the node is 18-6 years. At one 
time of this period the limits of its declination are more than 
28 north and south, while, at the opposite point, they are little 
more than 18. The result of these periodic changes is that the 
nutation takes place nearly in an ellipse, differing little from a 
circle, at a distance of about 9", in a period of about 18-6 years. 
The motion is not exactly an ellipse, having a great number of 
minute inequalities arising from the ellipticity of the orbits 
of the sun and moon and their varying declinations. The amount 
and formulae of nutation from year to year are given in the 
Nautical Almanac. 

NUTCRACKER, the name given by G. Edwards in 1758 
(Gleanings, No. 240) to a bird which had hitherto borne no 
English appellation, though described in 1544 by Turner, who, 
meeting with it in the Rhaetic Alps, where it was called " Nous- 
brecher " (hodie " Nussbrecher "), translated that term into 



Latin as Nucifraga. In 1555 C. Gesner figured it and conferred 
upon it another designation, Caryocatactes. It is the Corvus 
caryocatactes of Linnaeus and the Nucifraga Caryocatactes of 
modem ornithology. F. Willughby and J. Ray obtained it 
on the road from Vienna to Venice as they crossed what must have 
been the Sommerring Pass, 26th September 1663. The first 
known to have occurred in Britain was, according to T. Pennant, 
shot at Mostyn in Flintshire, sth October 1733, and about 
fifteen more examples have since been procured, and others seen, 
in the island. Contrary to what was for many years believed, 
the nest of the Nutcracker seems to be invariably built on the 
bough of a tree, some 20 ft. from the ground, and is a compara- 
tively large structure of sticks, lined with grass. The eggs are 
of a very pale bluish-green, sometimes nearly spotless, but 
usually more or less freckled with pale olive or ash-colour. The 
chief food of the Nutcracker appears to be the seeds of various 
conifers, which it extracts as it holds the cones in its foot, and 
it has been questioned whether the bird has the faculty of crack- 
ing nuts properly so called with its bill, though that can be 
used with much force and, at least in confinement, with no 
little ingenuity. The old supposition that the Nutcrackers had 
any affinity to the Woodpeckers (Picidae) or were intermediate 
in position between them and the Crows (Corvidae) is now known 
to be wholly erroneous, for they undoubtedly belong to the latter 
family (see also CROW). (A. N.) 

NUTHATCH, in older English NUTHACK, from its habit of 
hacking or chipping nuts, which it cleverly fixes, as though in a 
vice, in a chink or crevice of the bark of a tree, and then hammers 
them with the point of its bill till the shell is broken. This bird 
was long thought to be the Sitla europaea of Linnaeus; but that is 
now admitted to be the northern form, with the lower parts white, 
and its buff-breasted representative in central, southern and 
western Europe, including England, is known as Sitta caesia. 
It is not found in Ireland, and in Scotland its appearance is 
merely accidental. Without being very plentiful anywhere, it is 
generally distributed in suitable localities throughout its range 
those localities being such as afford it a sufficient supply of food, 
consisting during the greater part of the year of insects, which it 
diligently seeks on the boles and larger limbs of old trees; but 
in autumn and winter it feeds on nuts, beech-mast, the stones of 
yew-berries and hard seeds. Being of a bold disposition, and 
the trees favouring its mode of life often growing near houses, it 
will become on slight encouragement familiar with men; and its 
neat attire of ash-grey and warm buff, together with its sprightly 
gestures, render it an attractive visitor. It generally makes its 
nest in a hollow branch, plastering up the opening with clay, 
leaving only a circular hole just large enough to afford entrance 
and exit; and the interior contains a bed of dry leaves or the 
filmy flakes of the inner bark of a fir or cedar, on which the eggs 
are laid. In the Levant occurs another species, S. syriaca, with 
somewhat different habits, as it haunts rocks rather than trees; 
and four or five representatives of the European arboreal species 
have their respective ranges from Asia Minor to the Himalayas 
and Northern China. North America possesses nearly as many; 
but, curiously enough, the geographical difference of coloration 
is just the reverse of what it is in Europe the species with a deep 
rufous breast, 5. canadensis, being that which has the most 
northern range, while the white-bellied S. carolinensis, with its 
western form, S. aculeata, inhabits more southern latitudes. 
The Ethiopian Region has as representative of the group the 
Hypositta corallirostris of Madagascar. Callisitta and Dendro- 
phila are nearly allied genera, inhabiting the Indian Region, and 
remarkable for their beautiful blue plumage. Sittella, with four 
or five species, is found in Australia and New Guinea, whilst 
Daphnoesitta occurs in New Guinea. The nuthatches are placed 
in the Passerine family Sittidae, intermediate between the 
Paridae and the Cerlhiidae. (A. N.) 

NUTMEG (from " nut," and O. Fr. mugue, musk, Lat. muscus), 
the commercial name of a spice representing the kernel of the 
seed of Myristica fragrans (fig. i), a dioecious evergreen tree, 
about 50 to 60 ft. high, found wild in the Banda Islands and a 
few of the neighbouring islands, extending to New Guinea. 



g2o 



NUTRITION 



Nutmeg and mace are almost exclusively obtained from the 
Banda Islands, although the cultivation has been attempted with 
varying success in Singapore, Penang, Bengal, Reunion, Brazil, 
French Guiana and the West Indies. The trees yield fruit in eight 




From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer. 
FIG. I. Myristica fragrans.' (Official.) 

1. Twig with male flowers (j nat. size). 

2. Ripe pendulous fruit opening. 

3. Fruit after removal of one-half of the pericarp, showing the dark 

brown seed surrounded by the ruptured arillus. 

4. Kernel freed from the seed-coat. 

years after sowing the seed, reach their prime in twenty-five years, 
and bear for sixty years or longer. Almost the whole surface of 
the Banda Islands is planted with nutmeg trees, which thrive 
under the shade of the lofty Canarium commune. In Bencoolen 
the tree bears all the year round, but the chief harvest takes 
place in the later months of the year, and a smaller one in April, 
May and June. The ripe fruit is about 2 in. in diameter, of a 
rounded pear-shape, and when mature 
splits into two, exposing a crimson arillus 
surrounding a single seed (figs, i, 2). When 
the fruit is collected the pericarp is first 
removed; then the arillus is carefully 
stripped off and dried, in which state it 
forms the mace of commerce. The seed 
consists of a thin, hard testa or shell, 
enclosing a wrinkled kernel, which, when 
dried, is the nutmeg. The kernel consists 
mainly of the abundant endosperm, which 
is firm, whitish in colour and marbled 

der Botanik^ ty permission with numerous reddish-brown vein-like 
stav Fischer. partitions, into which the inner seed- 

/rag^'onJ7see^"cu < t coat P enetrates > forming what is known 

through longitudinally, botanically as ruminated endosperm. 

(Official.) To prepare the nutmegs for use, the 

f Anl - seed enclosing the kernel is dried at a 

* '"tegument, gende heat ^ & fry^^'we over a 

smouldering fire for about two months, 
endo- the seeds being turned every second or 
third day. When thoroughly dried the 
shells are broken with a wooden mallet 




interrupted at r by 
the raphe. 
m. Ruminated 



sperm. 
n, Embryo (nat. size). 

or flat board and the nutmegs picked out and sorted, the 
smaller and inferior ones being reserved for the expression of 
the fixed oil which they contain, and which forms the so-called 
oil of mace. 

The dried nutmegs are then rubbed over with dry sifted lime. 




FIG. 3. Myris- 
tica fragrans. 
Male flower X : 



The process of liming, which originated at the time when the 
Dutch held a monopoly of the trade, was with the view of pre- 
venting the germination of the seeds, which were formerly 
immersed for three months in milk of lime for this purpose, 
and a preference is still manifested in some 
countries for nutmegs so prepared. It has, 
however, been shown that this treatment 
is by no means necessary, since exposure 
to the sun for a week destroys the vitality 
of the kernel, Penang nutmegs are never 
limed. The entire fruit preserved in syrup 
is used as a sweetmeat in the Dutch East 
Indies. 

" Oil of mace," or nutmeg butter, is a solid ,. ,, lttlc lluwel ^ 
fatty substance of a reddish- brown colour, 2. Female flower X 2 
obtained by grinding the refuse nutmegs to a 

fine powder, enclosing it in bags and steaming it over large cauldrons 
for five or six hours, and then compressing it while still warm between 
powerful wedges, the brownish fluid which flows out being after- 
wards allowed to solidify. Nutmegs yield about one-fourth of their 
weight of this substance. It is partly dissolved by cold alcohol, the 
remainder being soluble in ether. The latter portion, about 10% of 
the weight of the nutmegs, consists chiefly of myristin, which is a 
compound of myristic acid, CnH u O-i, with glycerin. The fat which is 
soluble in alcohol appears to consist, according to Schmidt and 
Roemer (Arch. Pharm. [3], xxi. 34-48), of free myristic and stearic 
acids; the brown colouring matter has not been satisfactorily in- 
vestigated. Nutmeg butter yields on distillation with water a 
volatile oil to the extent of about 6 %, consisting almost entirely of a 
hydrocarbon called myristkene, CioHie, boiling at 165 C. It is 
accompanied by a small quantity of an oxygenated oil, myristicol, 
isomeric with carvol, but differing from it in not forming a crystalline 
compound with hydrosulphuric acid. Mace contains a similar 
volatile oil, macene, boiling at 160 C., which is said by Cloez to differ 
from that of nutmegs in yielding a solid compound when treated with 
hydrochloric acid gas. 

The name nutmeg is also applied to other fruits or seeds in 
different countries. The Jamaica or calabash nutmeg is derived 
from Monodora Myristica, the Brazilian from Cryplocarya 
nwschata, the Peruvian from Laurelia sempenirens, the Mada- 
gascar or clove nutmeg from Agathophyttum aromaticum, and 
the Californian or stinking nutmeg from Torreya Myristica. 
The cotyledons of Nectandra Pttchury were at one time offered 
in England as nutmegs. 

NUTRITION. The physiology of nutrition involves the study 
of the way in which the tissues of the body, and more especially 
the great master tissues, muscle and nerve, obtain the material 
for growth and repair and the energy for mechanical work and 
heat production, and of the mode in which they get rid of the 
waste products of their activity. The study is therefore very 
largely a study of the history of the food of the body, since it is 
in the food that the necessary matter and energy are supplied. 
Under DIETETICS the composition and special importance of 
various foods and the laws which regulate the supply of food 
under different conditions of the body are separately dealt with. 
Here the mode of digestion, the utilization 'and the elimination 
of the end products of the three great constituents, proteins, 
carbohydrates and fats, are alone considered. They are treated 
under the following heads: I. The Chemistry 'of Digestion; 
II. The Mode of Formation of the Digestive Secretions; III. The 
Mechanism by which the Food is passed along the Alimentary 
Canal; IV. The Absorption of Food; V. Metabolism; VI. 
Excretion. 

I. CHEMISTRY OF DIGESTION 

The essential step which prepares the ordinary food for 
utilization in the body, for the change into living matter, is 
digestion, a process which the food undergoes under the influence 
of the ferments or enzymes present in the gastro-intestinal tract. 
By this process it is broken down into simpler substances, which 
can be utilized by the body tissues for conversion into proto- 
plasm and as the supply of energy. That part which is unsuited 
for use in the body is either passed as faeces or absorbed and 
excreted in the urine. 

i. Enzyme Action generally. The substances which bring 
about this change are known as ferments, enzymes or zymins. 
Formerly it was believed that there were two distinct classes 



NUTRITION 



921 



of enzymes, those which were living or associated with living 
cells, and those which were non-living. In 1897, however, E. 
Bucrmer and M. Hahn showed that from living cells (yeast) 
a ferment could be obtained which acted quite as well 
extracellularly as when it was bound up within the cell. 
Subsequent work has shown that other organisms act by the 
enzymes they contain, so that it is now recognized that there is 
no essential difference between the living or organized ferment 
and the non-living or unorganized ferment. All ferments prob- 
ably act as catalysators or catalysts. Catalysis js the process 
by which reactions are either initiated or accelerated by the mere 
presence of certain substances which remain unchanged during 
the process; to these substances the name of catalysators has 
been given. As an example of such catalytic action the accelera- 
tion of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (HjOz) into 
water (H 2 O) and oxygen (O) by the action of a colloidal solution 
of platinum may be given. C. Oppenheimer defines an enzyme 
as a substance produced by living cells, which acts by catalysis. 
E. Fischer has shown that the action of ferments is specific, that 
is, the ferment only exerts its action on definite substances or 
substrates of definite structural arrangement. He has compared 
the relation of ferment to substrate to that of a key to its lock. 
Ferments which bring about the breakdown of proteins are with- 
out influence on fats and carbohydrates; those which decompose 
fats leave proteins and carbohydrates untouched, and so on. 

The chemical composition of enzymes is unknown. It has been 
assumed that they are protein in nature, but this is mainly because it 
has been found that when they are extracted from tissues they are 
apparently in combination with proteins. In all probability the 
protein is there as an impurity owing to incomplete separation. 

As regards the general properties of enzymes, most of them can be 
precipitated from their solutions by means of alcohol. They can 
also be carried down by fine precipitates of certain inorganic salts or 
by protein precipitation, e.g. when a precipitate of casein is produced 
by acidifying a casein solution with acetic acid. Most of the ferments 
are soluble in water or saline solutions, and in glycerin and water. 
The ferments are found to have an optimum temperature of action. 
This temperature in most cases ranges from 37 to 40 C. All true 
ferments are thermolabile, being destroyed at about 70 C. Ferments 
are hindered in their action to some extent by the general proto- 
plasmic poisons, such as salicylic acid, chloroform, &c. The action 
of many of them is retarded when the products of their action are 
allowed to accumulate. Just as when a chemical reaction is set up 
its rate tends to decrease and finally comes to a standstill before the 
reaction is completed an equilibrium being established so the 
reactions set up by enzymes also tend to come to an equilibrium 
before the complete conversion of the original substance. In the 
case of certain enzymes at least this equilibrium may be reached from 
either side; thus the enzyme maltase may either bring about the 
breakdown of the sugar maltose to dextrose or cause a synthesis of 
dextrose to maltose. 

A number of the body ferments have now been shown to exist in 
the tissues in an inactive form. This condition is known as the pro- 
ferment or zymogen state, and before any action can be exerted it 
must be activated, usually by some specific substance, as in the case 
of the activation of trypsmogen by means of enterokinase. The fol- 
lowing table gives a list of the principal ferments concerned in the di- 
gestion and metabolism of food-stuffs: 



Material acted on. 


Enzyme. 


Where found. 




(Pepsin 


Gastric juice 




Trypsin 


Pancreatic juice 


I. Protein . . 


Erepsin 


Small intestine 




Various autolytic 


Tissues generally 




enzymes 




II. Fats . . . 


Lipase 


Pancreatic juice and 




1 


certain tissues 




Ptyalin 


Saliva 




(salivary diastase) 






Pancreatic diastase 


Pancreatic juice 




Maltase 


Pancreatic juice 


III. Carbohydrates 




Small intestine 




Invertase 


Small intestine 




Lactase 


Small intestine 




Various tissue 


Liver, muscle, &c. 




diastases 





Certain oxydases, catalases and de-amidizing enzymes are found 
in the tissues generally and play an important part in the various 
metabolic processes. 

2. Digestion in the Mouth. The first of the digestive secre- 
tions which food comes into contact with is the saliva. This 



is the mixed secretion from the various glands, salivary and 
other, the ducts of which open in the mouth. The saliva, which 
is for the most part produced by the three large salivary glands, 
the parotid, the sub-maxillary and the sub-lingual, is a colour- 
less or a slightly turbid viscous fluid with a faintly alkaline 
reaction and of low specific gravity. It contains a very small 
proportion of solids, which vary somewhat in amount and 
character in the secretions of the different glands. Mucin and 
traces of other proteins are present. Small amounts of potassium 
sulphocyanide may nearly always be detected. The functions 
of the saliva are twofold. First, it has a mechanical action 
moistening the mouth and the food and thus aiding mastication 
and swallowing by securing the formation of a proper bolus 
of food ; it also assists by binding the particles together, an 
action of special importance when the food is dry. Second, 
in man and in some of the lower animals the enzyme ptyalin 
exerts an action in digestion on part of the carbohydrates of 
the diet. The starches or polysaccharides are broken down, 
first of all to the simple dextrins and then to the still more 
simple disaccharide, maltose. The further breakdown of the 
maltose is carried out in the intestine by the action of a ferment 
maltase which does not exist at all or only in the merest traces 
in the buccal secretion. The action of ptyalin on starches is 
thus very similar to that of acids, except that it stops at the 
formation of maltose. Ptyalin acts best at a temperature of 
about 40 C. and in a neutral or faintly alkaline medium, its 
action being inhibited by the presence of even very dilute 
solutions of the mineral acids. If the acid, be in sufficient 
amount the enzyme is destroyed. For this reason the action 
ceases in the stomach whenever the bolus is completely per- 
meated by the gastric juice. As it takes time for the gastric 
juice thoroughly to permeate the food mass, which remains 
for a considerable period in the fundus of the stomach unmixed 
with the secretion, salivary digestion goes on for about half 
an hour after food is taken. 

3. Gastric Digestion. The passage of food from the mouth 
to the stomach will be dealt with later. The stomach has two 
digestive functions: (i) It acts as a store chamber permitting 
a full meal to be taken; (2) It acts as a digestive organ of 
importance in preparing the food for further attack in the 
intestinal canal. But the stomach cannot be regarded as an 
essential organ, since it has been removed in dogs and in man 
without apparent interference with nutrition and health. 

Gastric digestion is brought about by the action of the gastric 
juice, a clear watery, colourless and strongly acid fluid with a 
specific gravity of about 1003. The amount of solids present 
is extremely small, about 0-3 %. They consist of protein, 
nucleic acid, lecithin and inorganic salts, in addition to the 
more important constituents, the enzymes and hydrochloric 
acid. 

The amount of hydrochloric acid present in the juice varies 
with the period of digestion. In man the maximum acid con- 
centration is about 0-2 %. The acid exists in the stomach in 
two forms as free hydrochloric acid and as combined hydro- 
chloric acid. The amount of each depends on various factors: 
(i) the secretion itself; (2) the nature of the food; and (3) the 
rapidity with which the stomach empties itself, &c. For instance, 
after a protein-free meal the hydrochloric acid is for the most 
part free, whereas, when protein is present, it combines with it 
and, unless secreted in very large amount, most of the acid is 
in a fixed condition. 

The hydrochloric acid is formed by the activities of certain 
gland cells in the middle region of the stomach, and the fact 
that it does not exist as such in the blood proves that it is formed 
within these cells. Further, it has been found that the gastric 
mucous membranes of starving dogs contain 0-74 % of sodium 
and potassium chloride, much more than is present in any other 
organ or in the blood plasma. That the chlorine comes from 
the sodium chloride in the food has been shown by the fact 
that, when the tissues are deprived of this salt, and sodium 
bromide is given, hydrobromic acid may appear in the gastric 
secretion. 



922 



NUTRITION 



The hydrochloric acid is essential for the action of the gastric 
enzyme, pepsin, in splitting up the protein of the food. In 
addition to this, the acid has a slight action in splitting poly- 
saccharides and disaccharides. Lastly, it acts as a bactericidal 
agent, preventing bacterial decomposition from taking place, and 
it may thus prevent certain noxious bacteria, taken in in the 
food, from gaining access to the intestinal tract, where there 
is a chance of their flourishing in the rich alkaline medium. It 
is owing to the presence of hydrochloric acid that gastric juice 
can be kept for prolonged periods without undergoing putre- 
faction. 

The quantity of juice secreted varies with the nature of the food 
consumed. Thus in one experiment, after the use of a test meal 
consisting of 25 grammes bread and 250 c.c. tea, there was a flow of 
106 c.c., whereas in another case with an ordinary meal there was an 
output of practically 600 c.c. gastric juice. 

Pawlow has shown that not only does the amount of juice secreted 
vary with the nature of the food ingested but that the digestive 
activity of the secretion also varies in the same way. He gives the 
following table: 

Quantities and Properties of Gastric Juice with Different Diets : 
200 gms. Flesh, 200 gms. Bread, 600 c.c. Milk. 





Quantities of Juice in c.c. 


Digestive Power in mm. 


Hour. 


Flesh. 


Bread. 


Milk. 


Flesh. 


Bread. 


Milk. 


1st 


II-2 


10-6 


4-0 


4.94 


6-10 


4-21 


2nd 


"3 


5-4 


8-6 


3-03 


7-97 


2-35 


3rd 


7-6 


4-0 


9-2 


3-oi 


7-5i 


2-35 


4th 


5'i 


3'4 


7'7 


2-87 


6-19 


2-65 


5th 


2-8 - 


3-3 


4-0 


3-20 


5-29 


4-63 


6th 


2-2 


2-2 


o-5 


3-58 


5-72 


6-12 


7 th 


1-2 


2-6 




2-25 


5-48 




8th 


0-6 


2-6 




3-87 


5-50 




9th 




0-9 






5-75 




loth 




0-4 











Thus each separate food gives rise to a definite hourly secretion of 
the juice and to a characteristic alteration in its properties. The 
meat diet brings about a very rapid flow, the maximum output 
taking place within the first two hours; with bread the maximum 
output is even earlier. With milk somewhat later. When the juice 
is examined as regards its digestive activity, it is found that with 
meat the most active juice is secreted within the first hour, with 
bread in the second and third hours, and with milk in the sixth hour. 
According to the nature of the food, the stomach seems to be 
stimulated to form a secretion which will best serve its purpose and 
give the minimum of waste. It thus works economically. 

The principal ferment found in the gastric juice is pepsin, a ferment 
which acts only in the presence of a mineral acid. The action pro- 
ceeds best at a temperature of about 37 C. in an acid medium of 
0-2 % to 0-3 %. Pepsin is elaborated in the so-called chief cells of 
the gastric glands as an inert precursor propepsin. It is only when 
it comes into contact with the acid of the juice that it is activated and 
rendered capable of attacking the protein of the food. 

As already mentioned, the main function of the gastric juice is to 
deal with the protein moiety of the food and to prepare it for further 
digestion in the intestine. 

The first result of the action of this secretion on protein matter is 
to render it soluble a metaprotein or acid albumin (syntonin), 
being formed. This body may be regarded mainly as the product of 
the action of the hydrochloric acid independently of the pepsin. 

The following steps of decomposition are the result of the action 
of pepsin. From the metaprotein primary and secondary proteoses, 
the so-called proto-, hetero- and deutero-albumoses are formed, and 
from these peptones are finally produced. The result of this process 
of digestion or hydrolysis induced by the pepsin is that complex 
protein substances of high molecular weight are converted into 
simpler bodies of comparatively low molecular weight. Formerly it 
was believed that the action of the pepsin on protein could not carry 
the decomposition further than the peptones, but recently it has been 
shown that still further splitting can be brought about, and that the 
simple amino acids of which the protein molecule is built up can be 
produced. This latter process, however, takes a very long time even 
under favourable circumstances, and it probably never occurs under 
normal conditions. The contents of the stomach products of 
protein digestion are passed on into the duodenum, chiefly as 
proteoses and peptones. 

In addition to the principal ferment of the gastric juice some 
workers hold that another enzyme is present. This is the ferment 
rennet, rennin, or chymosin, the sole action of which, so far as is known 
at present, is to bring about the curdling of milk, the curd formed being 
dealt with in the ordinary way by the pepsin. Clotting of milk under 
the action of rennin occurs at a suitable temperature with great 
rapidity. This process is said to take place in two stages: (i) the 



rennin converts the caseinogen of the milk into paracasein, and (2) 
this paracasein unites with the lime salts present in the milk and forms 
the curd or precipitate. That lime salts are absolutely essential for 
this process of clotting has been shown by the fact that, if they are 
removed by precipitation as by oxalates, no clotting will take place 
even after the addition of a large amount of active rennin. Immedi- 
ate clotting takes place, however, when the necessary lime salts are 
restored. Many observers now hold that this rennet action is not the 
property of a specific ferment but simply another phase of the action 
of pepsin. For this view, which has been put forward by well- 
known workers, there is much to be said and certainly the power of 
curdling milk is not confined to the stomach, but has been found in 
various tissue extracts, and, indeed, wherever proteolytic enzymes 
are found. 

The speed with which the stomach is emptied depends to a great 
extent on the nature of the food. Plain water leaves the stomach 
almost at once, salt and sugar solutions at a somewhat slower rate. 
Milk under the action of rennin curdles. The whey rapidly leaves the 
stomach, whereas the casein and fat are retained for further treat- 
ment. On a mixed diet, emptying of the stomach in man proceeds 
very slowly, requiring about four hours. Cannon, by feeding with 
food impregnated with bismuth and using X-rays, showed that 
carbohydrates leave most rapidly, then mixtures of carbohydrates and 
proteins, then proteins, then fats, and finally mixtures of fats and 
proteins. The diet which remains longest in the stomach is a 
mixture of fats and proteins rich food, as it is popularly called. 
Here two factors enter to prevent rapid emptying: (l) the presence 
of much fat, and (2) the acid secretion engendered by the abundant 
protein. 

There is no doubt that fats present in fine emulsion can be de- 
composed in the stomach. The action proceeds in a medium which 
is slightly acid or neutral, being entirely prevented by the presence 
of strong acids and alkalis. Many workers believe this gastrolipase 
to be of pancreatic or intestinal origin, and suppose that it gains 
entrance to the stomach by a reflux flow through the pylorus. 
Evidence is accumulating to show that this view is correct. 

By means of pepsin and gastrolipase proteins and fats are dealt 
with. No specific enzyme for carbohydrates has been found in the 
stomach in man. Certainly a small amount of polysaccharide 
decomposition takes place, but this is dependent (l) on the ptyalin 
which comes from the mouth, and (2) on a certain amount of hydro- 
lysis due to the action of the free hydrochloric acid. 

4. Digestion in the Intestine. The passage of food from the 
stomach to the intestine will be considered later. The food 
so far digested in the stomach is known as chyme, and it is passed 
on to undergo intestinal digestion under the influence of (i) 
the enzymes of the pancreas, and (2) of other enzymes present 
in the different secretions of the intestine. Digestion in the 
intestine may accordingly be described under these two heads. 

(a) Pancreatic Digestion. The pancreatic juice is the secretion 
from the pancreas and is discharged into the duodenum. The 
secretion obtained from a fistula of the pancreatic duct varies 
in character according to whether the opening into the duct 
has been made recently or some time before the examination. 
It is a clear, usually thin fluid with a specific gravity of about 
1008, and with an alkaline reaction. It contains a certain 
amount of protein and ash. The most important inorganic 
constituent is sodium carbonate, which gives the alkaline re- 
action (alkalinity is, as NaOH = o-47%). This alkaline salt, 
along with that contained in the intestinal juice, plays an im- 
portant part in neutralizing the acid chyme. 

In the pancreatic secretion there are at least three important 
enzymes, each with a definite action: (a) trypsin, the proteolytic 
enzyme which brings about the further breakdown of the food 
proteins; (6) a diastase which deals with the carbohydrates, and 
(c) a lipase which acts on the fats. 

(a) Trypsin. This ferment, in the form in which it is secreted 
trypsinogen is inert. Before it can exert its hydrolytic action it must 
be activated. This activation is brought about by another enzyme 
which is found in the intestinal tract enterokinase. The con- 
version is brought about as soon as the trypsinogen comes into con- 
tact with the enterokinase, the merest trace of which suffices to 
activate a large amount of trypsinogen. 

Trypsin acts on the protein just as pepsin does, by bringing about 
hydrolytic changes. It differs from the latter in acting best in an 
alkaline or neutral medium. Its effect is much more energetic than 
that of pepsin, so that the protein molecule is more completely 
decomposed. Whilst it generally finishes the decomposition which 
the pepsin has begun, it can break down the original protein quite as 
easily if not more easily than does pepsin, and it carries the splitting 
as far as the comparatively simple crystalline bodies, the amino 
acids, or groups of these, the polypeptides, bodies intermediate 
between the complex peptones and the simple amino acids of which 
the protein is built up. 



NUTRITION 



923 



The character and properties of the products formed in such 
digestion depend on the nature of the protein acted upon. As will 
be seen from the following table these proteins vary fairly widely in 
the proportion of amino acids which they contain. 

100 Grammes Protein yielded 



\ 


Caseinogen. 


Gelatine. 


Globine 
from Oxy- 
haemoglobine. 


Elastine. 


Glycocoll 




16-5 




25-75 


Alanine . 


0-9 


0-8 


4-19 


6-58 


Leucine . 


10-5 


2-1 


29-04 


21-38 


aProline . 


3'i 


5'2 


2-34 


1-74 


Phenyalanine 


3'2 


0-4 


4-24 


3-89 


Glutamic acid 


10-7 


0-88 


1-73 


0-76 


Aspartic acid 


1-2 


0-56 


4-43 




Cystine . 


0-065 




0-31 




Serine 


0-23 




0-56 




Oxyproline . 


0-25 


3-o 


1-04 




Tyrosine 


4-5 




1-33 


0-34 


Lysine 


5'8o 


2-75 


4-28 




Histidine 


2-59 


0-40 


10-96 




Arginine . 


4.84 


7-62 


5-42 


o-3 


Tryptophane 


i-5 




Present 





Whether any of the polypeptides found in digestion are further 
broken down in the course of normal pancreatic digestion is a moot 
point, but E. Fischer and E. Abderhalden have shown that many of 
the synthetic polypeptides prepared by them can be broken into 
their constituents by the action of trypsin. The previous peptic 
digestion seems to play some part in the extent to which tryptic 
digestion is carried out, as one of these observers has demonstrated 
that protein digested first with pepsin and then with trypsin gives a 
smaller yield of polypeptide and a larger yield of monamino acids 
than when digestion has been carried out with trypsin alone. 

b. Diastase. This ferment is found in the pancreatic juice appa- 
rently secreted in an active form, although some observers hold 
that it also is secreted in a zymogen form. It is practically identical 
in its action with the ptyalin of the saliva, converting starch into 
maltose. It deals with all the starchy food which has escaped con- 
version into the simple sugars by the ptyalin. 

c. Lipase. Most of this ferment, if not all, is apparently secreted 
in the form of a zymogen. There is evidence that the bile is the 
activating agent here, just as the enterokinase acts in the case of 
trypsin. Lipase can act in any medium acid, neutral, and alkaline, 
and both on emulsified and non-emulsified fats. It converts the fats 
by a process of hydrolysis into fatty acids and glycerin. Kastle and 
Loevenhart found that not only can this enzyme break up fats into 
their components, but that it also has the power to act in the reverse 
direction, and in this way bring about the union of fatty acids and 
glycerin so as to form fats, a process which occurs in the intestinal 
epithelial cells 'after absorption. 

In addition to these three enzymes the pancreatic juice may con- 
tain traces of others, for example, a rennet-like ferment which 
curdles milk. This again, as in the case of the stomach rennet, 
is held by some to be only another phase of proteplytic action. 
Maltase is also said to be present in small amount, as is also lactase 
under certain conditions. In pancreatic, as in gastric digestion, the 
nature of the food is said to play a part in controlling the amount 
and the composition of the secretion with respect to its ferments. 
The action, if it does exist, is not very well defined. 

b. Intestinal Digestion. By this is meant the other digestive 
processes which go on in the intestine under the action of the 
secretion of Lieberkuhn's follicles the succus entericus. This 
is a yellowish, often opalescent, strongly alkaline fluid. The 
alkalinity is due to the presence of sodium carbonate. It con- 
tains a small amount of protein, shed epithelial cells, &c. The 
secretion of some 170 c.c. in 24 hours has been observed in a 
short loop of human intestine by H. S. Hamburger and E. 
Hekma, but it is almost impossible to get a measure of the actual 
amount of secretion from the whole gut. Most of the ferments 
are present in very small amount in the intestinal juice. They seem 
to be actually within the epithelial lining of the intestine, for 
extracts made from the intestinal mucous membrane are richer 
in ferments than the secretion. 

Apparently the intestinal secretion contains no trace of a ferment 
acting on native protein, but a ferment erepsin is present in fair 
amount in the intestinal mucous membrane and in small amount in 
the secretion, which acts in an alkaline medium on proteoses, 
peptones, and on casein, converting them into crystalline products 
of the nature of amino acids. 

Another ferment, arginase, has been isolated from the intestinal 
mucous membrane by A. Kossel and H. D. Dakin, which splits the 
diamino acid arginin into urea and ornithin. A lipase has also been 



detected which is very similar to pancreatic lipase; it, however, 
attacks only emulsified fats. 

Several carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes have been described 
jn the small intestine. Invertin, the ferment which splits cane-sugar, 
is present in small amount in the secretion, more abundantly in the 
extract of mucous membrane. In all probability it deals with the 
saccharose after or in process of absorption. Maltase is also present 
in large amount, and here again in greater amount in the extract 
than in the secretion. The presence of lactase has been much dis- 
cussed, and it seems probable that suckling animals do possess this 
enzyme. Some workers have stated that an intestinal diastase is to 
be found, but, if so, it is present in very small amount. 

In the large intestine a small amount of erepsin has been dis- 
covered at the upper end. Any digestion which does take place is 
probably either bacterial in origin, or due to ferments which have 
originated in the lower end of the small intestine, and which have 
been carried down. 

5. Bile. This fluid, in all probability, has little direct action 
in ordinary digestion, although it contains substances which 
act indirectly. The bile salts act as solvents for fats and fatty 
acids, and as activators of pancreatic lipase. The salts also 
serve to keep cholestrin in solution. Bile is to be looked upon 
rather as the excretion, the result of the hepatic metabolism, 
than as a digestive juice. Various workers have shown that 
when the bile is prevented from entering the intestine owing 
to a fistula having been made, the animal or patient may con- 
tinue to enjoy good health, thus proving that this fluid is not 
essential to any of the digestive processes which normally take 
place. 

Bile as secreted has an orange-brown colour, but the colour varies 
according to the pigment present. It is more or less viscous (not 
so viscous as bile taken from the gall bladder) and has a specific 
gravity of about 1010. It has a slightly alkaline reaction, a bitter 
taste and a characteristic smell. The daily output is, for a normal 
individual, over 500 c.c. On analysis it is found to have over 2 % of 
solids, of which more than half are organic. It contains in addition 
to a nucleo-albumin, derived mainly from the bile passages and gall 
bladder, bile acids, bile pigments, cholesterin, lecithin, fats, &c. The 
most abundant solids are the salts of the bile acids, of which in man 
the most important is sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate 
being present in very small amount. The bile acids are formed in 
the liver cells, and when the duct is ligatured they tend to accumu- 
late in the blood. 

The pigments amount to only about 0-2%. In human bile the 
chief pigment is bilirubin, whilst in herbivora biliverdin is more 
abundant. They are derived from the haemoglobin of the blood, 
but the pigments are iron-free. They may be regarded as purely 
excretory products arising from the breakdown of the haemoglobin 
of effete blood corpuscles. 

Cholesterin is a monatomic alcohol, and is probably a waste pro- 
duct. It occurs in the bile only in small amount, and there is some 
evidence that it is not secreted by the liver cells but is added to the 
bile from the bile passages. Fats and lecithin are both derived from 
the liver cells. Of the inorganic constituents phosphate of calcium 
is the most abundant. 

The secretion of bile is practically continuous, but it seems to enter 
the duodenum intermittently. The taking of food increases the flow 
of bile, the amount of the increase depending to a certain extent on 
the nature of the food. A protein meal has been found to have the 
greatest effect and a carbohydrate one the least. The entry of the 
acid chyme into the duodenum is the stimulus which brings about the 
ejection of the bile. Pressure on the liver also seems to cause a flow 
(see section II.). 

In connexion with bile secretion attention may be drawn here to a 
peculiar enterohepatic circulation which is stated to exist. The bile 
salts are partly absorbed from the intestine, to be carried again by 
the portal blood to the liver and to be again eliminated. By this 
circulation the entrance of various alkaloidal and ptomaine poisons 
into the general circulation may be prevented. 

Faeces. The bulk of the waste matter arising from the foods along 
with the secretions from the alimentary canal form the faeces. On 
an absorbable diet the faeces are almost purely intestinal in origin. 
As a channel of excretion of nitrogenous metabolic waste products 
they are not very important, although the work of C. Voit indicates 
that they do play a certain part. The nature of the excreted nitrogen- 
ous substances has not been fully examined. Of the inorganic con- 
stituents iron is probably for the most part excreted into the large 
intestine. It is, however, very difficult to come to any definite con- 
clusion as to what is unabsorbed material and what excreted. 

II. THE MODE or FORMATION OF THE DIGESTIVE 

SECRETIONS 

i. Salivary Glands. The secretion from the various glands 
is generally evoked by nervous impulses, through the secretory 



924 



NUTRITION 



nerves. K. Ludwig found that the stimulation of the chorda 
tympani produced a copious flow of watery saliva from the 
submaxillary gland, and a general dilatation of the blood-vessels 
supplying the gland. The same is the case in the sublingual 
gland. In addition to the chorda tympani fibres also pass to 
the gland through the cervical sympathetic, and when these 
are stimulated the saliva excreted is viscous and turbid, and 
contains much solid matter, while the blood-vessels are con- 
tracted. The conclusion formerly drawn was that the flow of 
saliva was dependent on the increased blood supply. But it 
has been definitely proved that true secretory fibres exist. If 
atropine be administered before stimulation of the chorda 
tympani, the dilatation of the vessels takes place, but no flow 
of saliva. Further, if the circulation be cut off from the gland 
the stimulation of the chorda tympani may cause a temporary 
flow of saliva. 

The parotid gland is supplied by the auriculo-temporal nerve which 
receives its secreting fibres from the glossopharyngeal. Stimulation 
of these fibres brings about an abundant watery secretion poor in 
solids. Stimulation of the sympathetic fibres system is not followed 
by any salivary flow, yet it has an effect on the gland, for, if after the 
sympathetic has been stimulated a secretion be evoked by stimula- 
tion of the glossopharyngeal nerve, the saliva secreted is very rich in 
organic solids. 

2. Gastric Glands. The control of the gastric secretion seems 
to be under two entirely different mechanisms. Pawlow has 
clearly shown that the stomach is supplied with secretory nerves 
which reach that organ through the vagus. The stimuli which 
bring these nerves into action are the sight, the odour or the taste 
of food. That the course of the stimulus is through the vagus 
is shown by the fact that an abundant flow of juice may be caused 
so hong as the vagi are intact, but this flow does not take place 
when these nerves are cut. Between the stimulaticn and the 
secretion there is a lengthy latent time amounting to several 
minutes. The other stimulus of the secretion is apparently a 
chemical one. Pawlow states that mechanical stimulation of 
the mucous membrane fails to bring about a flow of juice, but 
Beaumont in his classical observation on the stomach of St 
Martin found that the insertion of a tube did cause a flow. There 
may be certain substances either present in the food or developed 
in the course of digestion, which directly stimulate the secretion 
originally started by a nervous reflex. E. Starling has drawn 
attention to this chemical mode of stimulating different organs. 
To the substances known and unknown which evoke the action, 
he gives the name of hormones, and such " hormone " action 
he does not limit merely to the secretory organs but extends 
to all cases where one organ is stimulated by chemical products 
formed in the same or another organ. Attention has already 
been drawn to the influence of different food-stuffs on the amount 
and nature of the gastric secretion. 

3. Pancreatic Secretion. The stimuli which evoke this secre- 
tion are again two in number. Many have failed to demonstrate 
that the secretion of the pancreas is under nervous control, but 
Pawlow and his school have shown that stimulation of the vagus 
evokes a secretion of pancreatic juice. This flow, as in the case 
of the stomach, has a latent period of several minutes. Most 
modern workers hold that the most effective stimulus to the 
pancreatic flow is the chemical one a hormone discovered by 
W. Bayliss and E. Starling, who found that extracts of the 
duodenal mucous membrane made with dilute hydrochloric 
acid when injected into the blood caused a flow of pancreatic 
juice. The active substance present in this extract is known as 
" secretin," and is supposed to be formed under natural conditions 
by the action of the acid chyme on a prosecretin. This secretin 
is not of the ordinary zymin nature, as it is not destroyed by 
boiling and is soluble in alcohol. The secretin when formed 
must be absorbed into the blood and then carried round the 
circulation to the pancreas before it can act. 

4. Intestinal Juice. The mode of action of the stimuli which 
evoke this secretion has not yet been fully investigated. As 
has been stated, it is quite possible that very little ferment is 
secreted, and that ferment action mainly takes place within 
the cells after the various substances have been absorbed. 



How far the flow is controlled by nervous action, and how far 
by hormone action, is not known. 

III. MOTOR MECHANISM OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL 

Mastication. This is a purely voluntary act, and consists of 
a great variety of movements produced by the various muscles in 
connexion with the lower jaw. By the act of chewing the food 
is thoroughly broken up and intimately mixed with the saliva. 

Deglutition. The food after thorough mastication is collected 
on the surface of the tongue, principally by the action (voluntary) 
of the buccinator muscles, and by the contraction of the tongue 
muscles it is passed backwards. As soon as the food by the 
action of the tongue enters the pillars of the fauces the action 
becomes involuntary and reflex. The soft palate is raised to 
prevent the food entering the nasal cavity, and the larynx 
is shut off by closure of the glottis, and approximation of the 
arytenoid cartilages to one another and to the back of the 
epiglottis. The food is now passed on into the oesophagus 
proper by the constrictors of the pharynx. In the oesophagus 
the downward movement varies with the nature of the food 
swallowed. If it be fluid it reaches the lower end of the oeso- 
phagus in about three seconds and lies at the lower end of the 
gullet for two or* three seconds before entering the stomach. 
When the consistency is firmer the progress downwards is much 
slower. Either by the force exerted by the wave of contraction 
passing down the gullet or by some inhibition of the sphincter, 
the cardiac orifice opens and permits the food to enter the 
stomach. 

Stomach Movements. For our knowledge of these we are 
indebted principally to the work of Cannon, who studied them 
by feeding an animal with food containing bismuth and then 
following the movements of the shadow of the food on a screen by 
means of the X-rays. Soon after food is taken it is found that 
a contraction begins somewhere about the middle of the stomach 
and slowly passes towards the pylorus. This is followed by 
others, in man at regular intervals of about twenty seconds, so 
that the pyloric part of the organ is soon in active peristalsis. 
The fundus of the stomach is not actively concerned in these 
movements; it simply acts as a reservoir. At certain periods, 
but not with each peristaltic wave, the pyloric sphincter relaxes 
and allows a portion of the fluid acid chyme to escape into the 
duodenum. It only opens when stimulated by fluid material; 
if solid food be forced against it it remains tightly closed. 
Griitzner, by experiments with feeding with different coloured 
foods, has shown that the food at the fundus may remain un- 
disturbed for quite prolonged periods. In this connexion it 
must be remembered, of course, that the food is not lying loose 
in a sack larger than the contents. The cavity of the stomach 
is only the size of the amount of food present; in other words, 
the food exactly fills the cavity. The motor nerve fibres to the 
stomach run in the vagi, which also contain fibres inhibitory to 
the cardiac sphincter. The splanchnic nerves mainly contain 
inhibitory fibres. The automatic movements are probably in 
connexion with the intrinsic plexus of Auerbach, since they con- 
tinue after section of the extrinsic nerves. 

Intestinal Movements. The intestines owe their peculiar 
movements to the arrangement of their muscular coats, which 
are disposed in two layers, an inner circular, and an outer longi- 
tudinal. The movements are of two kinds, the so-called swaying 
myogenic contraction and the peristaltic waves. The former 
are rapid and have very little to do with the downward movement 
of the contents. Probably their action is to mix the contents, 
since Cannon has shown that these contents, in the lower animals 
at least, get divided into segments. From time to time the 
separated segments are caught in the course of a peristaltic 
wave and carried downward a short distance. Then again in 
their new situation the rhythmic contractions break up the 
contents anew. 

The peristaltic movements are much more powerful. Under 
normal conditions they begin at the pylorus and passing down- 
wards carry the intestinal contents onwards. The normal 
movement progresses slowly, although under abnormal conditions 



NUTRITION 



925 



peristaltic waves may become extremely violent and rapid, and 
may indeed run over the whole length of the intestine within a 
minute. The muscular coat in front of the contracting zone is 
relaxed, as is that behind the wave. The waves are probably 
due mainly to the circular fibres, the longitudinal pulling the 
gut up over the contents as they are forced onwards. The 
downward movement seems to be due to some definite arrange- 
ment within the intestinal wall, since it has been shown that, 
when a segment of bowel has been cut out and then the continuity 
of the canal made good by fixing the section so that the lower 
end of the excised portion is fixed to the upper divided end of the 
real gut, upward peristalsis takes place in this segment. An 
anti-peristalsis has been described in which the movements 
are all towards the stomach. Under certain conditions the 
introduction of foreign substances, as hairs, &c., may evoke such 
anti-peristaltic waves. 

The rhythmical movements are held by some to be purely 
myogenic in origin, as they still continue after section of all the 
nerves and when the intrinsic ganglia in the intestinal wall have 
been thrown out of action by the application of nicotine. But 
recent work by R. Magnus would tend to show that they are 
controlled by Auerbach's plexus. Peristaltic waves, on the 
other hand, according to W. Bayliss and E. Starling, although 
they continue and indeed may become more energetic after 
section of the extrinsic nerves, are prevented by the application 
of nicotine and cocaine; in other words, it is presumed that 
peristalsis is a complicated reflex action through the intrinsic 
ganglia. The intestines are therefore not dependent for their 
movement on their connexion with the central nervous system, 
although of course their activity is more or less regulated by 
such a connexion. 

As regards the movements of the large intestine, they resemble 
those of the small, although they are much less frequent. The 
forward movement is slow, thus permitting of the solidification 
of the contents by the removal of the water. In the first part 
of the large intestine anti-peristaltic movements are frequent, 
the regular peristaltic downward movements only becoming 
prominent when the descending colon is reached to carry contents 
to the rectum. The anti-peristalsis serves a useful purpose in 
giving time for the absorption of the fluid in the formation of 
faeces. The rate at which the contents travel along the intestine 
varies greatly.' Under average conditions the food residue 
reaches the ileo-caecal valve between the small and large intes- 
tine at about four to four and a half hours after a meal, while 
it takes nine hours to reach the splenic flexure of the colon. 

Defaecation. Food residues, cellular debris and substances derived 
from the various secretions of the gastro-iutestinal tract are forced 
downwards by peristalsis, and eventually reach the rectum and 
accumulate there as the faeces. The pressure of the solid and semi- 
solid mass gives rise to a definite sensation and a desire to empty the 
rectum. The faeces are retained within the canal partly by the 
horizontal direction of the rectum before it opens into the anal canal, 
and partly by the action of two sphincter muscles. At the act of 
defaecation the strong internal sphincter is first of all relaxed, but 
unless the rectal stimulus is very strong, the external can be kept 
contracted, as it is to a certain extent, under the control of the will. 
The act of defaecation normally is partly voluntary and partly 
involuntary. The voluntary part consists in the contraction of the 
abdominal muscles, the closure of the glottis, and the relaxation of 
the external sphincter and of the levator ani muscle, thus allowing 
the horizontal part of the rectum to become more vertical; the 
involuntary in the energetic contractions of the muscular walls of the 
colon and rectum which sweep the contents of the whole colon 
downwards. There is a centre in the lumbar enlargement of the 
spinal cord which presides over the sphincter muscles and probably 
over the whole involuntary mechanism of defaecation. 

Vomiting. Sometimes the gastric contents are ejected through 
the cardiac opening of the stomach instead of through the pylorus. 
The act is a reflex one, probably originally protective in nature, 
irritation of the gastric mucous membrane being the most frequent 
cause. The act is generally preceded by a feeling of nausea and a 
copious salivation, succeeded by a series of powerful expiratory 
efforts with the glottis closed. The diaphragm is held firmly con- 
tracted, thena convulsive contraction of the abdominal muscles with 
a simultaneous opening of the cardiac orifice of the stomach brings 
about the sudden ejection of the contents. The wall of the stomach 
may also contract and press upon the contents. During the act the 
glottis is firmly closed, and at the same time, if the act be not too 



violent, the gastric contents are prevented from entering the nasal 
cavity by the contraction of the soft palate. 

IV. ABSORPTION 

Mouth. No absorption of food-stuffs takes place here. 

Stomach. Absorption from the stomach occurs only to a small 
extent. Water passes rapidly through the stomach and is 
practically unabsorbed. Salts are apparently absorbed in a 
limited amount from their watery solution, the extent of absorp- 
tion depending to some extent on the concentration of the 
solution. Sugar is also absorbed to a small extent from its 
solutions, the greater the concentration the greater being the 
amount of sugar taken up. Alcohol is readily absorbed from the 
stomach. A small amount of the products of protein digestion 
may be absorbed. There is no evidence that fats are absorbed 
under any conditions in the stomach. 

Intestine. The greatest absorption of the foods takes place in 
the intestine, especially in the small intestine. It has been shown 
that over 85% of the protein has disappeared before the lower 
end of the small intestine is reached. How does the absorption 
take place? There are two channels for the removal of the 
material from the intestine: (i) the blood capillaries spread 
in the villi, and (2) the lacteals also present in the villi. The 
foods may reach the blood direct or through the various lymph 
channels into the thoracic duct and finally into the blood. 
The lacteals of the villi are channels for the absorption of the 
fatty parts of the food. The products of the digestion of the 
proteins and carbohydrates reach the body directly through 
the capillaries via the portal system. 

Can absorption be explained by the ordinary laws of diffusion 
and osmosis, or are there certain selective activities of the living 
epithelial lining? The work of R. Heidenhain, E. Weymouth 
Reid, and others shows clearly that whatever part the physical 
laws play in this exchange, there are other activities also at work. 
For instance, an animal's own serum can be readily absorbed 
from its intestine, as can also salt and other solutions of higher 
concentration than that of the blood. Such absorption cannot 
be explained by ordinary physical laws. In all such cases of 
absorption the epithelial lining of the gut must be intact and 
uninjured. O. Cohnheim and others have shown that when the 
epithelial lining is damaged or destroyed, the intestinal wall 
behaves like any other animal membrane, and the physical laws 
governing osmotic pressure come into play. Whether the nervous 
system plays any part in this absorption is not yet determined. 

The form in which the various products resulting from digestion 
are absorbed must next be considered. 

Carbohydrates. These reach the body, as already mentioned, by 
way of the blood, and in the form of monosaccharides or simple 
sugars. F. Rohmann found that the absorption of the disaccharides 
is dependent on the invert ferment action, and not upon their osmotic 
characters. E. Weinland too has shown that if lactose be put into 
a lactase-free intestine, no absorption takes place, the lactose gradu- 
ally disappearing under bacterial action, whereas when the ferment 
lactase is present glucose and galactose the products of its splitting 
are absorbed as readily as cane-sugar and maltose. E. Voit has 
also demonstrated the fact that the body deals with its carbohydrate 
supply in the form of mono-saccharides. He injected solutions of 
various sugars, mono- and di-saccharides, and found that the simple 
sugars were retained, whereas the double sugars were excreted in the 
urine. The only di-saccharide which can be dealt with in the body 
is maltose, as there is a maltase present in the blood which splits it. 
Carbohydrates which are not absorbed from the intestine are dis- 
posed of by bacterial action, giving rise to various fatty acids, carbon 
dioxide, &c. 

Fats. -Fats are absorbed from the intestine in the form of fatty 
acids and glycerin; i.e. in the form in which they exist after the 
action of the lipase. That a resynthesis takes place in the epithelium 
is shown by the fact that fatty acids are of equal value with fat as a 
source of energy, and that as fat absorption goes on fat droplets are 
seen to grow in the protoplasm away from the free margin of the cells. 
As already mentioned, the fat is removed by the lacteals from the 
cells to the thoracic duct, and then to the general circulation. A 
small amount of the fat may pass into the body via the blood, but 
this is practically all retained by the liver. The amount of fat 
absorbed depends a good deal on the nature of the fat, especially 
with reference to its melting-point, fats of low melting-point being 
most readily taken up. 

Protein. The older workers held that the protein was absorbed in 



926 



NUTRITION 



the form of proteose and peptone. In support of this it was stated 
that both proteoses and peptones could be detected in the blood 
stream. The result of the most recent work tends to show that the 
material is absorbed in the form of the amino acids either simple or in 
complex groups, the polypeptides, and that if proteoses or peptones 
be absorbed they are attacked by the intra-cellular enzyme erepsin, 
which breaks them down into the simpler products as soon as they 
are within the intestinal mucous membrane. Certain proteins appear 
to be absorbed unchanged ; for instance, blood serum disappears from 
the intestine without apparently any change through zymin attack. 
This fact is made use of in practical medicine, as, when administra- 
tion of food by the mouth is impossible, patients are frequently kept 
alive by the giving of nutrient enemata. That the food thus given is 
absorbed is shown by the increase of nitrogen excretion in the urine. 
In the large intestine very little absorption of nutrient matter takes 
place under normal conditions, mainly of course because most of the 
absorbable material is removed whilst the food is in the small 
intestine. That protein matter can be absorbed is shown by the 
above statement regarding nutrient enemata. The principal sub- 
stance absorbed here is water; and thus the excreta become firm and 
formed. 

V. METABOLISM 

In all living matter there is a constant cycle of chemical 
changes going on, a constant breaking down (catabolism), and a 
correspondingly constant building up (anabolism). Unless the 
former is covered by the latter wasting and finally death must 
supervene. These two changes together make up the metabolism, 
and the study of this involves a study of the fate of the food 
absorbed both when it is used immediately and after it has been 
stored in the tissues of the body. Protein matter is undoubtedly 
the main constituent of protoplasm, but in what form it exists 
there is absolutely unknown. One thing is. certain, that for the 
maintenance of life a constant supply of protein matter is 
necessary. In fact it might be said that this is the essential 
food and keeps the body alive, fats and carbohydrates being 
merely subsidiary. In the mammalian organism with which we 
are specially concerned a supply of these latter substances is also 
necessary to yield the energy required. The amounts of these 
various food stuffs which should be present in a suitable diet are 
dealt with under DIETETICS (q.v.). Here we are only concerned 
with the part played by the different materials in the various 
chemical changes which are the basis of vital activity. 

Not many years ago physiologists were very much in the 
position of unskilled labourers who saw loads of heterogeneous 
material being " dumped " for building purposes, but who did 
not know for what particular purpose each individual substance 
was used. Thanks, however, to the brilliant work of E. Fischer 
we are no longer in this position. Gradually our knowledge is 
being broadened by actual facts obtained by direct experiment, 
or by inference from previous experiments. But it is still far from 
complete. It is only possible to outline what is at present known 
about the part played by the different food constituents in 
metabolism. 

Proteins. Since these alone contain the nitrogen necessary for 
the building up and repair of the tissues they are essential and will 
be dealt with first. In considering the digestion of proteins it was 
shown that in all probability all protein food was reduced in the 
intestine to comparatively simple crystalline bodies. O. Loewi has 
shown that an animal can be maintained in health without loss of 
weight by feeding it on a diet consisting of amino acids obtained by 
prolonged pancreatic digestion in place of proteins. In addition to 
these acids abundant carbohydrates and fats were given. It has 
since been shown that the presence of carbohydrate a certain amount 
of is absolutely essential before utilization of the amino acids can take 
place. Further, it has been demonstrated that only a mere fraction 
of the total amino acids resulting from pancreatic digestion is 
sufficient as the source of nitrogen supply for the animal organism. 
Not only so, but, in spite of the attempt to insist on the polypeptides 
as being the valuable nuclei for the rebuilding up of protein in the 
body, it has been shown that mixtures of amino acids from which the 
polypeptides have been removed can serve as the nitrogen supply. 

What then does the body gain by breaking down food material to 
such simple bodies, if it is immediately to be resynthesized ? This 
complete breakdown appears to be to facilitate rebuilding. The 
protein in the protoplasm of each animal is characteristic and to build 
up these different proteins the material must be separated into its 
nuclei. An experiment carried out by E. Abderhalden shows this 
very clearly. A protein gliadin absolutely different in constitution 
from the proteins of blood plasma was fed to an animal from which 
much of its blood had been removed, so that an active reformation 



had to take place. The question to be solved was whether by feeding 
with a protein so absolutely different in constitution the nature of the 
freshly forming serum protein could be radically changed. But the 
newly-formed serum was found to be exactly the same in constitution 
as the old. The tissues had selected simply those nuclei of the 
gliadin which were required and had rejected the others. 

In addition to this breakdown of protein in the intestine, another 
factor of importance comes into play. After absorption from the 
lumen of the gut the amino acids are not wholly conveyed as such by 
the portal blood to the liver. That the portal blood contains a 
greater amount of ammonia than the systemic blood has long been 
known, and Jacoby and Lang have shown that many tissues, and 
among them the intestinal tissues, are able to split off from the 
amino acids their amino group NHj. Thus it would seem probable 
that any excess of the amino acids formed does not reach the liver 
as such but denitrified as members of the fatty acid series. The 
ammonia split off is also conveyed to the liver and is excreted for the 
most part as urea, within the first few hours after a protein meal. 
Thus, in all probability very early after absorption and before the 
products of digestion enter into combination or any synthesis occurs, 
all excess of the absorbed nitrogen is disposed of. The rest of the 
products circulate in the blood, yielding to the cells the materials of 
which they are in need. On the other hand some investigators still 
hold that resynthesis into a neutral protein like serum albumin takes 
place in the intestinal wall immediately after absorption of the digest 
products. That the leucocytes play an important part in carrying 
the products of protein digestion to the tissues is indicated by the 
enormous increase in their number which occurs during the digestion 
and absorption of protein foods. How they act, whether simply as 
carriers of the products of protein digestion combined or uncombined, 
and how they give the material to the tissues is unknown. 

Carbohydrates are generally assumed simply to serve the purpose 
of yielding energy in their combustion to COa and H 2 O, and to act as 
protein sparers, i.e. they save the ingestion of large amounts of 
costly protein material as a source of energy. There may, however, 
be other activities in which the ingested sugars play a part, for 
instance, in the utilization of the nitrogen of proteins. It has already 
been indicated that the nitrogen in the products of pancreatic diges- 
tion can be used only when a sufficient amount of carbohydrates is 
given at the same time. Only carbohydrates seem to be able to do 
this, for it has been found that when isodynamic amounts of fat are 
given the utilization does not take place. 

When taken into the body in excess of the immediate require- 
ments the sugar is not utilized all at once, but any excess is stored in 
the form of glycogen both in the liver and the muscles. This glycogen 
is an insoluble polysaccharide, and is only utilized according to the 
requirements of the body, especially during muscular exertion. 
Carbohydrates, when taken in in excess^ are also stored in the tissues 
in the form of fat. This was demonstrated by the feeding experi- 
ments of Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamstead. They took two young 
pigs of a litter, killed arid analysed one, then fed the other for a 
definite time upon food of known composition, determining the 
amount of protein absorbed by analysing the urine and the faeces. 
They then killed the pig and by analysis ascertained the amount 
of fat put on. They found that this was far in excess of the amount 
of the protein of the food which had been absorbed and was also in 
excess of what could have been formed from the small amount of fat 
in the food. The fat must therefore have been formed from the 
carbohydrates of the food. The consumption of larger amounts of 
sugar than can be used or stored as glycogen results in its passing 
straight through the body and being excreted in the urine. This 
condition is known as alimentary glycosuria. The power of using 
and storing sugar varies greatly in different individuals and in the 
same individual at different times. 

Fats. The fats simply serve as stores of energy. After ingestion, 
if in small amount, they are, like carbohydrates, oxidized to the same 
final products COj, and HjO. If in larger amount they are stored as 
fat, to serve as a reserve in case of need, in the body tissues. Like 
the carbohydrates they serve as the sources of part of the energy 
dissipated as heat, but they are not so efficient as sparers of protein 
material, evidently in part at least because they are less easily 
digested and absorbed. 

Factors which influence Normal Metabolism. 

I. Fasting. During fasting the body draws upon its own reserve 
of stored material for the requirements in the production of energy, 
and the rate of breakdown varies with the energy requirements. 
An individual who is kept warm in bed therefore stands fasting 
longer than one who is compelled to take exercise in a cold place. 
The breakdown of tissue during the early days of a fast is much 
greater than later, for as the fast progresses the body becomes more 
economical in its utilization of tissue. During a fast the tissues do 
not all waste at an equal rate; those which are not essential are 
utilized at a much greater rate than those which are essential to the 
maintenance of the organism. For instance, it has been shown that 
during a fast the skeletal muscles may lose over 40 % of their weight, 
whereas an essential organ like the heart loses only some 3 %. 

The essential tissues obtain their nourishment from the less 
essential probably by ferment action, a process which has been 



NUTRITION 



927 



termed autolysis. The autolytic products of the stored material in 
the tissues are practically identical with those which arise during the 
ordinary gastro-intestinal digestion. 

2. Muscular Work. The muscular tissue plays the most important 
part in general metabolism. Not only is muscle the most abundant 
tissue present, but it is constantly active and is the great energy- 
liberating machine of the body. Formerly it was believed on the 
authority of Liebig that muscular work was done at the expense 
of the protein material, but it has been conclusively shown that 
the real source of energy in moderate work is the non-protein 
material, carbohydrates and fats; of these the former plays the 
greater part in a man on ordinary diet. If, however, the supply of 
non-nitrogenous material be insufficient, then the energy has to be 
supplied by the protein and the output of nitrogen is thus increased. 
Variations in the amount of creatinin and uric acid (both products 
of muscle metabolism) excreted have been described. In hard work 
it is sometimes found that there may be no immediate rise in the 
nitrogen output on the day of the work, but that an increase is 
manifest on the second or third day after. While the excretion of 
nitrogen shows no increase proportionate to the work done, the output 
of carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of the carbohydrates 
and of the fats is increased proportionately to the work done. 

3. Internal Secretions. -Lvidence is accumulating to show that 
the activities of the various tissues of the body are presided over and 
controlled not merely by the action of the nervous system but 
also by chemical substances, the result of the activity of certain 
organs. To these chemical substances, as already stated, the name of 
hormones has been given. 

The hormone which has been most thoroughly investigated is 
adrenalin, a perfectly definite chemical compound consisting of a 
secondary alcohol linked to a benzene ring. It is a product of the 
central or medullary part of the suprarenal bodies. The medullary 
part of these organs is developed from the sympathetic part of the 
nervous system, and adrenalin acts as a stimulant to the termina- 
tions of the sympathetic nerves which spring from the thoraco- 
abdominal region. These nerves control the small arteries, and the 
main action of adrenalin is to cause a powerful contraction of these 
vessels, and as a result a great rise in the arterial blood pressure. 
For this purpose it is now largely used in medicine. The constant 
supply of adrenalin in small quantities seems to play an important 
part in keeping up the tone of the blood vessels, and when, as a 
result of disease of the suprarenals, the supply is cut off a serious 
train of symptoms supervenes. 

Allied to adrenalin is a hormone derived from the pituitary body. 
This also causes a constriction of the small arteries except those of 
the kidney, which it dilates. An increased flow of urine is produced. 

In the thyroid gland a substance, iodothyrin, is constantly being 
produced, and this appears to exercise a stimulating action on the 
rate of chemical exchange in the various tissues. Under its ad- 
ministration the waste of both proteins and fats is increased. When 
the thyroid is removed or destroyed by disease a condition of de- 
creased chemical change and mental sluggishness results, accom- 
panied often by nervous tremors. 

A difficulty in explaining these symptoms is caused by the fact 
that in the thyroid are imbedded four small parathyroids, and it is 
possible that these produce a special hormone. It 
has been suggested that this exercises a particular 
influence upon the nervous system, but further 
evidence is wanting. 

The well-known effects of removal of the 
ovaries or testes on the development and character 
of an animal is due to the absence of the special 
hormone or hormones of these structures. These 
hormones appear to be produced, in the case of 
the testes at least, not in the true genital cells, 
but in the intermediate cells, since it has been 
found that ligature of the duct, which leads to 
destruction of the genital cells, does not abolish the development 
of the sexual characters of the animal. 

There is growing evidence that from the ovaries different hormones 
may be produced in varying amounts which play an important part 
in regulating the phenomena of sexual life. 

The thymus gland is a structure lying in the front of the neck, which 
is best developed at the time of birth, grows very slowly after birth, 
and atrophies when the age of puberty is reached. In castrated male 
animals it continues to grow and persists throughout life. There is 
some evidence that it may exercise some effect upon the growth of the 
testes, probably by hormone action. 

Pancreas. Within recent years it has been shown that the internal 
secretion of this organ plays a very important part in the metabolism 
of sugar. When the organ is completely extirpated the animal 
becomes diabetic, i.e. sugar appears in the urine and the animal 
emaciates. How the internal secretion effects the combustion of 
the sugar is not yet known. Some workers hold that the action of 
the pancreatic internal secretion is to control the sugar formation in 
the various sugar-forming organs, of which the liver is the chief, 
others that it dominates the utilization of sugar as a source of 
energy by the muscles. 

These are some of the best-known examples of the way in which 
the products of the activity of one organ modify the functions of 



other organs. In all probability many more examples of hormone 
action will be discovered, and it will be found that it plays probably 
even a more important part than the nervous system in the co- 
ordination of function in the animal. 

Other factors, besides these already dealt with, play a part in 
modifying the various metabolic processes, as age, temperature, 
climate, &c. Very little, however, is definitely known about these 
various factors. 

Water and inorganic salts are quite as essential for the well-being 
of the body as the energy-yielding proteins, carbohydrates and fats. 
They, however, probably undergo little or no change in the body; 
they are excreted pretty much in the same form in which they are 
ingested. Although they are not subjected to any very great change 
yet they are of immense importance. No animal tissue can carry on 
its work in the absence of the various salts. Many experiments have 
been carried out in which animals have been fed on food as free from 
salts as possible, and, although the food was much in excess of the 
energy requirements, yet all these animals died, whereas other 
animals to which similar food with salts was given throve well. The 
most important acids are hydrochloric and phosphoric, and the 
most important bases sodium of potassium. Calcium and magnesium 
are also of importance, especially where bone formation is taking 
place. Another element of really vital importance is iron, which is 
required for the formation of haemoglobin. 

VI. EXCRETION 

While we know comparatively little of the intermediate stages 
in the breakdown of the food constituents, and more particularly 
of the protein moiety, our knowledge of the final products of the 
metabolic changes excreted is fairly full. The urine is the main 
channel of excretion for the nitrogenous waste products. COj, 
arising for the most part from the metabolism of carbohydrates 
and fats, is excreted mainly through the lungs. Water is excreted 
by the lungs, the kidneys and the skin. 

So far no entirely satisfactory explanation has been given of how a 
fluid like urine, having an acid reaction and containing about one 
hundred times as much urea and generally more than twice as much 
sodium chloride as the blood, is formed in the kidneys. The urine 
is a yellowish fluid which varies greatly in its depth of colour, from 
pale amber to a deep brown. It has a specific gravity of about 1020, 
varying with the percentage of solids in solution, and it usually has 
an acid reaction. It is a fluid of complex character, containing, as 
already mentioned, practically all the waste nitrogen of the body. 
Among the principal organic substances present are urea, ammonia, 
purins (uric acid and the so-called purin bases, xanthin, &c.), 
creatinin, conjugated sulphates, various aromatic bodies and many 
other substances in small amount, together with the water and 
inorganic salts. 

The following table from Folin gives a good idea of the average 
composition of the urine as regards the nitrogen-containing con- 
stituents, and its variation according to the nature of the diet when 
this is free of creatin creatinin and the precursors of the purins: 





Nitrogen-rich Diet. 


Nitrogen-poor Diet. 


Total nitrogen .... 
Urea nitrogen 
Ammonia nitrogen 
Creatinin nitrogen 
Uric acid nitrogen 
Undetermined nitrogen 


14-8-18-2 grms. per day 
86-3-89-4 % of total 
3-3-5-1% .. 
3-2- 4-5% 
o-5- 1-0% 
2-7- 5-3% 


4-8- 8-0 grms. per day 
62-0-80-4 % f total 
4-2-1 1-7 % 
5-5-1 i-l % 
1-2- 2-4 % 
4-8-14-6 % 



Urea, which forms the chief nitrogenous constituent, amounting 
on an ordinary diet to about 30 grms. per diem, is for the most part 
formed in the liver, from ammonia obtained either directly from the 
blood after absorption from the intestine, or resulting from the 
denitrification of the amino acids. It may also arise in part from the 
diamino acids and from uric acid. 

Ammonia is present in the form of ammonium salts, and forms 
about 4 % of the total urinary nitrogen. It may exceed this amount 
under certain conditions, for the most part pathological. The 
ammonia is utilized by the body to neutralize acids which arise 
during the various metabolic processes. 

Purins (uric acid, xanthin, hypoxanthin, &c.) are all members of a 
series which have as their common nucleus a body which E. Fischer 
called purin. The most important member of this series is uric acid. 
It forms about 2 % of the total urinary nitrogen. Recent work has 
shown that it has two quite definite sources of origin: (l) from 
ingested food containing the precursors, and (2) from the tissue 
metabolism. The first is known as the exogenous source, and the 
second as the endogenous. This acid is chemically known as tri- 
oxy-purin, and may be regarded as the union of two urea molecules 
with a three-carbon chain fatty acid. All the uric acid formed in the 
body is not excreted as such, part being, as already mentioned, con- 
verted into urea. The amount which is converted into urea varies 



928 



NUTTALL NY ASA 



with the species of animal. In man, Burian and Schur state that one 
half of the total amount is so converted. Some workers, like Wiener, 
hold that uric acid may be synthesized in the body, but while this is 
undoubtedly so in the case of the bird, in the mammal it has not been 
definitely established. The other chief purin bodies present in urine 
are xanthin and hypoxanthin, purins less oxidized than uric acid ; 
the first is a dioxypurin, and the second is a monoxypurin. The 
main source of total purin supply would seem to be muscle meta- 
bolism. The mother substances from which all are derived in the 
body are the nucleins. These complex bodies are apparently first 
broken down by enzyme action to aminopurins. These in their turn 
have their amino groups split off, and then, according to the degree 
of oxidation, the different purin bodies are formed. 

Creatinin. The physiological significance of this substance 
is as yet unknown. The daily excretion varies little with the 
character of the diet, provided, of course, that the diet be creatin 
creatinin free. It appears to be proportional to the muscular de- 
velopment and muscular activity of the individual. Hence it would 
seem to be derived from the creatin of muscle, a substance which is 
very readily changed into creatinin outside the body. In the body 
the conversion of creatin into creatinin seems to be strictly limited, 
and hence when creatin is taken in flesh in the food it tends to appear 
as such in the urine. It would seem that it is either in great 
part decomposed in the body into what we do not at present know 
or that, as suggested by Fohn, it may be used as a specialized food. 
Whatever its source, after urea and ammonia it is one of the most 
important nitrogenous substances excreted, the daily excretion 
being about 1-5 grms. 

The sulphur excreted in the urine comes chiefly from the sulphur 
of the protein molecule. It is excreted in various forms, (i) As 
the ordinary preformed sulphates, that is, sulphur in the form of 
sulphuric acid combined with the ordinary bases. (2) As ethereal 
sulphates, that is, in combination with various aromatic substances 
like phenol, indol, &c. (3) In the form of so-called neutral sulphur in 
such substances as cystin, which are intermediate products in the 
complete oxidation of sulphur. 

Phosphorus appears linked to the alkalis and alkaline earths as 
phosphoric acid. A very small part of the phosphoric acid may be 
eliminated in organic combination such as the glycero-phosphates, &c. 

Sodium (mostly as sodium chloride), potassium, calcium and 
magnesium are the common bases present in the urine. 

The lungs are the important channel of excretion for the waste 
product of carbon metabolism COz (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM) ; and 
also a very important channel for the excretion of water. As regards 
the skin, the sweat carries off a large amount of the water, but it is 
difficult to determine the total amount. It has been estimated that 
about 500 c.c. is excreted per diem under normal conditions. 
Sweat contains salts, chiefly sodium chloride, and organic waste 
products. Of the organic solids excreted from this source urea forms 
the most important under normal conditions. Under pathological 
conditions, especially when there is interference with free renal 
action, the amount of nitrogenous waste excreted may become quite 
important. There is also a small amount of COj excreted by this 
channel. (D. N. P.; E. P. C.) 

NUTTALL, THOMAS (1786-1859), English botanist and orni- 
thologist, who lived and worked in America from 1808 until 1842, 
was born at Settle in Yorkshire on the sth of January 1786, 
and spent some years as a journeyman printer in England. Soon 
after going to the United States he was induced by Professor 
B. S. Barton (1766-1815) to apply himself to the study of the 
plants of that country. In 1825-1834 he was curator of 
the botanic gardens of Harvard university. In 1834 he crossed 
the continent to the Pacific Ocean, and visited the Hawaiian 
Islands. Some property having been left him in England on 
condition of his residing on it during part of each year, he left 
America in 1842, and did not again revisit it except for a short 
time in 1852. He died at St Helens, Lancashire, on the loth of 
September 1859. 

Almost the whole of his scientific work was done in the United 
States, and his published works appeared there. The more im- 
portant of these are, The Genera of North American Piants, and 
a Catalogue of the Species to the year 1817 (2 vols., 1818); Journal 
of Travels into the Arkansas Territory during the year 1819 (1821); 
The North American Sylva: Trees not described by F. A. Michaux (3 
vols., 1842-1849); Manual of the Ornithology of the United States 
and of Canada (1832 and 1834); and numerous papers in American 
scientific periodicals. 

NUWARA ELIYA, a town and sanatorium of Ceylon. Pop. 
(KJOI) 5 02 6, with loco additional visitors during the season. 
It is situated 6240 ft. above sea-level, with the highest mountain 
in the island, Pedrotallagalla, towering over the plain for 2056 ft. 
more. Nuwara Eliya is reached from Colombo by railway, 
eight hours to Namuoya, and thence, by a light 2j-ft. -gauge line, 



running up to the heart of the sanatorium. The average shade 
temperature for the year is 58 F. ; the rainfall, 95 in. Considerable 
sums have been spent by the government in improving the place. 

NUX VOMICA, a poisonous drug, consisting of the seed of 
Slrychnos Nux-Vomica, a tree belonging to the natural order 
Loganiaceae, indigenous to most parts of India, and found also 
in Burma, Siam, Cochin China and northern Australia. The 
tree is of moderate size, with a short, thick, often crooked, stem, 
and ovate entire leaves, marked with three to five veins radiating 
from the base of the leaf. The flowers are small, greenish-white 
and tubular, and are arranged in terminal corymbs. The fruit 
is of the size of a small orange, and has a thin hard shell, enclosing 
a bitter, gelatinous white pulp, in which from i to 5 seeds are 
vertically embedded. The seed is disk-shaped, rather less than 
i in. in diameter, and about i in. in thickness, slightly depressed 
towards the centre, and in some varieties furnished with an acute 
keel-like ridge at the margin. The external surface of the seed 
is of a greyish-green colour and satiny appearance, due to a 
coating of appressed silky hairs. The interior of the seed consists 
chiefly of horny albumen, which is easily divided along its outer 
edge into halves by a fissure, in which lies the embryo. The 
latter is about -fa in. long, and has a pair of heart-shaped 
membranous cotyledons. 

The chief constituents of the seeds are the alkaloids strychnine 
(q.v.) and brucine, the former averaging about 0-4%, and the 
latter about half this amount. The seeds also contain an acid, 
strychnic or igasuric acid; a glucoside, loganin; sugar and fat. 
The dose of the seeds is i to 4 grains. The British Pharmacopoeia 
contains three preparations of nux vomica. The liquid extract 
is standardized to contain 1-5% of strychnine; the extract 
is standardized to contain 5%; and the tincture, which is 
the most widely used, is standardized to contain 0-25%. 

The pharmacology of nux vomica is practically that of strychnine. 
The tincture is chiefly used in cases of atonic dyspepsia, and is 
superior to all other bitter tonics, in that, it is antiseptic and has a 
more powerful action upon the movements of the gastric wall. The 
extract is of great value in the treatment of simple constipation. 

NYACK, a village of Rockland county, New York, U.S.A., 
in the town of Orangetown, on the western bank of the Hudson 
river, about 25 m. north of New York City. Pop. (1890) 4111; 
(1900) 4275, of whom 583 were foreign-born; (1905) 4441 ; (1910) 
4619. Nyack is served by the Northern Railroad of New Jersey 
(a branch of the Erie), and is connected by ferry with Tarry town, 
nearly opposite, on the eastern bank of the Hudson. The New 
York, Ontario & Western and the West Shore railways pass 
through West Nyack, a small village about 2 m. west. For 
about 2 m. above and 3 m. below Nyack the river expands into 
Tappan Zee or Bay, which is about 3 m. wide immediately 
opposite the village. The first grant of land within the present 
limits of Nyack was made by Governor Philip Carteret, of New 
Jersey, to one Claus Jansen, in 1671, but the permanent settle- 
ment apparently dates from about 1 700. The adjacent villages 
of Upper Nyack, pop. (1905) 648, (1910) 591, and South 
Nyack, pop. (1910) 2068, form with Nyack practically one com- 
munity. Nyack was named from a tribe of Algonquian Indians. 

See David Cole, History of Rockland county, (New York, 1884). 

NYANZA (from the ancient Bantu root word anza, a river or 
lake), the Bantu name for any sheet or stream of water of con- 
siderable size; especially applied to the great lakes of east 
Central Africa. The word is variously spelt, and the form 
" Nyasa " has become the proper name of a particular lake. 
Nyanza is the spelling used in designating the great lakes which 
are the main reservoirs of the river Nile. 

NYASA, the third in size of the great lakes of Central Africa, 
occupying the southern end of the great rift-valley system which 
traverses the eastern half of the equatorial region from north to 
south. Extending from 9 29' to 14 25' S., or through nearly 
5 of latitude, the lake measures along its major axis, which is 
slightly inclined to the west of north, exactly 350 m., while the 
greatest breadth, which occurs near the middle of its length, . 
between 11 30' and 12 20' S., is 45 m. In the northern and 
southern thirds of the length the breadth varies generally from 
20 to 30 m., and the total area may be estimated at 11,000 sq. m. 






NYBORG NYE 



929 



The lake lies at an altitude of about 1650 ft. above the sea. 
The sides cf the valley in which Nyasa lies, which are somewhat 
irregular towards its southern end, take a decided character cf 
fault scarps in the northern third, and are continued as such 
beyond the northern extremity. Apart from the recent alluvium 
on the immediate shores, the lake lies almost entirely in granite 
and gneiss formations, broken, however, by a band of horizontally- 
bedded sandstones, which cuts the axis of the lake in about 
10 30' S., the flat-topped, terraced form of the latter contrasting 
strangely with the jagged or rounded outlines of the former. 
Near the margin, overlying the sandstones, there are beds of 
limestone with remains of recent molluscs, pointing, like the 
raised beaches which occur elsewhere, to an upward movement 
of the coasts. Lacustrine deposits up to 700 ft. above the present 
lake-level have been discovered. Geologically, the lake is believed 
to be of no great age, a view supported by topographical evidence. 
The depth of the lake seems to va,ry in accordance with the 
steepness of the shores, increasing from south to north. The 
greater part of the northern half showsdepthsof over 200 fathoms, 
while a maximum of 430 fathoms was obtained by Mr. J. E. S. 
Moore in 1899, off the high western coast in about 11 40' S. 
A more complete series of soundings, however, since made by 
Lieut. Rhoades, and published in the Geographical Journal in 
1902, gives a maximum of 386 fathoms off the same coast in 
11 10' S. The lake receives its water-supply chiefly from the 
streams which descend from the mountains to the north, all 
the rest becoming very small in the dry season. Like other 
lakes of Central Africa it is subject to fluctuations of level, 
apparently caused by alternations of dry and wet series of years. 

At the north-western end is a plain of great fertility, traversed 
by the Kivira, Songwe and other streams, rising either among the 
volcanic masses to the north or on the western plateau. Just 
north of ia S. on the delta ot the Rukuru, is the British station of 
Karonga, the northern port of call for the lake steamers, though 
with but an open roadstead. Southwards the plain narrows, and in 
about ioj S. the sandstone scarp of Mount Waller rises sheer above 
the indentation of Florence Bay, the high western plateaus continuing 
to fall steeply to the water in wooded cliffs for more than 80 m. 
In this stretch occur the land-locked bays of Ruarwe (11 5' S.) 
and Nkata (11 36' S.), and the mouth of the Rukuru (io43' S)., 
which drains the plateau from south to north. At Cape Chirombo 
(l i 40' S.) the coast bends to the west, and soon the plateau escarp- 
ments recede, and are separated from the lake along its southern half 
by an undulating plain of varying width. In 1 1 56' S. is the British 
station of Bandawe, and in 12 55' that of Kota Kota, on a lake-like 
inlet, forming a sheltered harbour. A little north of the latter the 
Bua river, coming from a remote source on the upper plateau, enters 
by a projecting delta. At Domira Bay, in 13 35', the coast turns 
suddenly east, contracting the lake to a comparatively narrow neck, 
with the British stations of Fort Rifu on the west, and Fort Maguire, 
near the headland of Makanjira Point, on the east. Beyond this 
the lake runs southwards into two bays separated by a granitoid 
peninsula, off which lie several small rocky islands. On this peninsula 
was placed the mission station of Livingstonia, the first to be 
established on the shores of Nyasa. From the extremity of the eastern 
bay the Shir6 makes its exit to the Zambezi. On the eastern side the 
plateau escarpments keep generally close to the lake, leaving few 
plains of any extent along its shores. The crest of the eastern water- 
shed runs generally parallel to the shore, which it approaches in 
places within 20 m. From the north point to IO 30' S. the coast is 
formed by the unbroken wall of the Livingstone or Kinga range, 
rising where highest (9 41' S.) fully 6000 ft. above the water. On 
this coast, on a projecting spit of land, is the German station of 
Old Langenburg, some 10 m. from the northern extremity. In 
10 30' the plateau is broken by the valley of the Ruhuhu, the only 
important stream which enters the lake from the east. The forma- 
tion is here sandstone, corresponding to that of Mount Waller on the 
opposite shore. Just north of the Ruhuhu is the German station of 
Wiedhafen, on an excellent harbour, formerly Amelia Bay. South 
of the Ruhuhu the wall of mountains recedes somewhat, and the 
remainder of the eastern shore shows a variation between rocky 
cliffs, marshy plains of restricted area and groups of low hills. In 
1 1 * 16' is the deep inlet of Mbampa Bay, offering a sheltered anchor- 
age. South of it the coast forms a wide semicircular bay, generally 
rock-bound, and ending south in Malo Point (12 10' S.), off which are 
the largest islands the lake possesses, Likoma and Chisamulu, the 
former measuring about 4 m. by 3. In the southern half the coast is 
highest in about 13 10' S., where the Mapangi hills rise to 3000 ft. 

Nyasa, reached in 1859 both by David Livingstone (from 
the south) and by the German traveller Albrecht Roscher (from 
the east), was explored by the former to about 11, and to its 
xix. 30 



northern end by E. D. Young in 1876. From this date onwards 
it has been the scene of much civilizing work on the part of 
British [(principally Scottish) missionaries, traders and govern- 
ment officials, and, in more recent years, of Germans also. Its 
shores have been divided between Great Britain, Portugal 
and Germany, Great Britain holding (within the British Nyasa- 
land Protectorate) all the west coast south of the Songwe, and 
the southern extremity of the east coast (south of 135 S.); 
Portugal the rest of the east coast south of iij S.; and Germany 
the remainder. British steamers, including two or three gun- 
boats, have been launched on Nyasa, which forms an important 
link in the water-route from the Zambezi mouth to the heart 
of the continent. Germany also has a gunboat on the lake. The 
first detailed survey of its shores was executed by Dr James 
Stewart (1876-1877), but this has been superseded by later 
work, especially that of Lieuts. Rhoades and Phillips. 



See Proc. R.G.S. (1883), p. 689; Geogr. Journal, vol. xii. p. 580; 

I. E. S. Moore, ib. vol. x. p. 289, and " The Geology of Nyasaland," 
y A. R. Andrew and T. E. G. Bailey, with note on fossil plants, fish 



remains, &c., by E. A. N. Arber and others and bibliography in 
vol. 66 of Quart. Jnl. Geog. Society (May 1910). (E. HE.) 

NYBORG, a seaport of Denmark on the east side of the island 
of Fiinen, in the ami (county) of Svendborg, and the point from 
which the ferry crosses the Great Belt to Korsor in Zealand 
(15 m.). Pop. (1901) 7790. The fortress, built by Christian IV. 
and Frederick III., was dismantled in 1869, and the ruins of 
the castle are used as a prison. In the izth century the town 
was founded and a castle erected on Knudshoved (Canute's 
Head) by Knud, nephew of Waldemar the Great; and from the 
I3th to the 1 5th century Nyborg was one of the most important 
places in Denmark. In 1658 it surrendered to the Swedes; 
but by the defeat of the latter under the walls of the fortress 
on the 24th of November 1659, the country was freed from 
their dominion. In 1808 the Marquis La Romana, who with 
a body of Spanish troops garrisoned the fortress for France, 
revolted from his allegiance, and held out till he and a portion 
of his men escaped with the English fleet. 

NYCKELHARPA (Swed. nyckel=key, harpa=harp; Ger. 
Schliisselfiedel), a kind of bowed hurdy-gurdy, much used in 
Scandinavia during the late middle ages, and still in use in some 
parts of Sweden. It consists of a body some 2 ft. long, shaped 
like an elongated viol, with sloping shoulders and highly arched 
sound-board glued over a less arched back, and ribs cut out of a 
single block of wood. There is no fingerboard, but along the 
neck, arranged like frets, are a number of keys or wooden 
tangents, which when pressed inwards bring a little knob or stud 
into contact with the first string of thin catgut, thus stopping 
it and raising the pitch as in the hurdy-gurdy. At three points 
these keys also act upon the third string. There are in the 
comparatively modern instruments usually four melody strings 
of catgut and three drones of fine spun wire. The bridge is 
quite flat, so that when the bow is passed over the strings, they 
all sound at once. The tailpiece is very long, extending over 
half the length of the body, and the two oval sound-holes, far 
removed from the strings, are at the tail end of the instrument. 

NYE, EDGAR WILSON (1850-1896), American humorist, 
was born at Shirley, Maine, on the 25th of August 1850. His 
parents removed to a farm on the St Croix river in northern 
Wisconsin in 1852, and young Nye was educated in Wisconsin 
at the academy at River Falls, where he studied law. In 1876 
he was admitted to the bar at Laramie, Wyoming, where he 
served as justice of the peace, superintendent of schools, member 
of the city council and postmaster. Here he began to contribute 
humorous articles under the pseudonym of " Bill Nye " to news- 
papers, especially the Cheyenne Sun and the Denver Tribune. In 
1881 he founded at Laramie the Boomerang, and his reputation 
as a humorist was soon widespread. Later he became a success- 
ful lecturer, and in 1885, with James Whitcomb Riley, the 
poet, made an extended tour through the country, each reading 
from his own writings. Nye removed to New York City in 1886, 
and passed the later years of his life at Arden, a village in Bun- 
combe county, North Carolina (about 10 m. south of Asheville), 



930 



NYEZHIN NYMPHS 



where he died on the 22nd of February 1896. His principal 
books are Bill Nye and Boomerang (1881); Forty Liars and 
Other Lies (1882); Nye and Riley's Railway Guide (1886), with 
James Whitcomb Riley; and two comic histories, Bill Nye' 's 
History of the United States (1894) and Bill Nye's History of 
England from the Druids to the Reign of Henry VIII, (1896). 

NYEZHIN or NEZHIN, a town of Russia, in the government 
of Chernigov, 62 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Chernigov and 
79 m. N.E. of Kiev, on the railway between Kursk and Kiev. The 
old town is built on the left bank of the (canalized) river Oster, and 
its suburbs, Novoye-Myesto and Mage;ki, on the right. It has an 
old cathedral, a technical school and a former high school (lyceum 
of Bezborodko, at which N. V. Gogol, the novelist, was a student), 
now transformed into a philological institute. The inhabitants 
(33,000), are mostly Little-Russians and Jews; there are also some 
Greeks, descendants of those who immigrated in the i ;th century 
at the invitation of the Cossack chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki. 

Unyezh, which is supposed to have been the former name of 
Nyezhin, is mentioned as early as 1147. At that time it belonged 
to the principality of Chernigov; afterwards it fell under the 
rule of Poland. It was ceded to Russia about 1500, but again 
became a Polish possession after the treaty of Deulina (1619) 
between Poland and Russia. In 1649, after the revolt of Little 
Russia and its liberation from the Polish rule, Nyezhin was 
the chief town of one of the most important Cossack regiments. 
It was annexed to Russia in 1664. 

NYIREGYHAZA, the capital of the county of Szabolcs, in 
Hungary, 169 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 
31,875. It is a busy railway junction, and its inhabitants are 
engaged in agriculture, wine-growing and the manufacture 
of soda, matches and saltpetre. About 20 m. to the N.W. lies 
the famous wine-producing district of Tokaj (Tokay). 

NYKJOBING, a seaport of Denmark, in the ami (county) 
of Maribo, on the west shore of the island of Falster, 94 m. S.S.W. 
of Copenhagen by rail. Pop. (1901) 7345. Its church contains 
a genealogical tree of the Mecklenburg ducal family, with por- 
traits, dating from 1627 or earlier. Here is the house occupied 
by Peter the Great of Russia in 1716, restored in 1898. A 
railway runs south to Gjedser (14 m.), from which the sea-passage 
(29 m.) to Warnemiinde links the fastest route between Copen- 
hagen and Berlin. 

Other towns of the name of NYKJOBING in Denmark are (i) on 
Limfjord in Thisted amt (pop. 4492) ; and (2) in Zealand, Holbaek 
amt (pop. 2000). 

NYKOPING, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district 
(Ian) of Sodermanland, 98 m. S.W. of Stockholm by a branch 
from the Stockholm-Malmo railway. Pop. (1900) 7375. It 
lies at the head of the Byfjord, an inlet of the Baltic. The ruins 
of its once famous castle, the town hall (1662), and the district 
governor's residence, are notable buildings. The port, together 
with that of Oxelosund (10 m. S.E.) at the mouth of the bay, 
which is seldom closed in winter, exports iron and zinc ere, 
timber, wood-pulp and oats. 

Nykoping (i.e. New-Market, Latinized as Nicopia) begins to 
appear as a town early in the i3th century. Its castle was the 
seat of the kings of Sodermanland, and after those of Stockholm 
and Kalmar was the strongest in Sweden. The death of Walde- 
mar in 1293, the starving to death of Dukes Waldemar and 
Eric in 1318, the marriage and the deaths both of Charles IX. 
and his consort Christina of Holstein, the birth of their daughter 
Princess Catherine and in 1622 the birth of her son Charles X. 
are the main incidents of which it was the scene. Burned down 
in 1665 and again damaged by fire in 1719, it still remained 
the seat of the provincial authorities till 1760. The town was 
burned by Albert of Mecklenburg's party in 1389, by an accidental 
conflagration in 1665, and by the Russians in 1719. 

NYLSTROOM, a town of the Transvaal, South Africa, capital 
of the Waterberg district, and 81 m. N. of Pretoria by rail; 
altitude 4250 ft. Pop. (1904) 599. It was founded about 1860 
and owes its name to the belief of the early Boer trekkers that 
the river which they had discovered was the head stream of the 
Nile. The Waterberg gold-fields are 20 m. N.N.E. of the town. 



NYMPHAEUM (Gr. vv^aiov, vvfi<tialov),iR Greek and Roman 
antiquities, a monument consecrated to the nymphs (q.v.), 
especially those of springs. These monuments were originally 
natural grottoes, which tradition assigned as habitations to the 
local nymphs. They were sometimes so arranged as to furnish 
a supply of water. Subsequently, artificial took the place of 
natural grottoes. The nymphaea of the Roman period were 
borrowed from the constructions of the Hellenistic east. The 
majority of them were rotundas, and were adorned with statues 
and paintings. They served the threefold purpose of sanctuaries, 
reservoirs and assembly-rooms. A special feature was their 
use for the celebration of marriages. Such nymphaea existed 
at Corinth, Antioch and Constantinople; the remains of some 
twenty have been found at Rome and of many in Africa. The 
so-called exedra of Herodes Atticus (which answers in all respects 
to a nymphaeum in the Roman style), the nymphaeum in the 
palace of Domitian and those in the villa of Hadrian at Tibur 
(five in number) may be specially mentioned. The term 
nymphaeum was also applied to the fountains of water in the 
atrium of the Christian basilica, which according to Eusebius 
(x. 4) were symbols of purification. 

NYMPHENBURG, formerly a village, but since 1899 an in- 
corporated suburb of Munich, in the kingdom of Bavaria. It 
has a palace, built about the middle of the i7th century, on the 
model of that at Versailles, and long a favourite residence of 
the Bavarian elector, Maximilian Joseph. The famous china 
manufactory of Nymphenburg, founded in 1754 at Neudeck 
by a potter named Niedermeyer, was shortly afterwards removed 
hither and, after being long under royal patronage, is now a 
private undertaking. The elector Charles Albert of Bavaria 
was reputed to have made a treaty with Louis XV. of France 
in May 1 74 1 at the beginning of the War of the Austrian Succession 
for the division of Austria, and this was called the treaty of 
Nymphenburg. It has, however, been conclusively proved a 
forgery. But a treaty was concluded here on the 28th of May 
1741, between Bavaria and Spain, and another between Bavaria 
and the Rhenish Palatinate in 1 766. 

NYMPHS, in Greek mythology, the generic name of a large 
number of female divinities of inferior rank, personifications of 
the creative and fostering activities of nature. The word is 
possibly connected with the root of vt<t>(K, nubes (" cloud "), 
and originally meant " veiled," referring to the custom of a bride 
being led veiled from her home to that of the husband: hence, 
a married woman, and, in general, one of marriageable age. 
Others refer the word (and also Lat. nubere and the Ger. Knospe) 
to a root expressing the idea of " swelling " (according to 
Hesychius, one of the meanings of vii^fa is " rose-bud "). The 
home of the nymphs is on mountains and in groves, by springs 
and rivers, in valleys and cool grottoes. They are frequently 
associated with the superior divinities, the huntress Artemis, the 
prophetic Apollo, the reveller and god of trees Dionysus, and 
with rustic gods such as Pan and Hermes (as the god of 
shepherds). 

The nymphs were distinguished according to the different 
spheres of nature with which they were connected. Sea nymphs 
were Oceanids or Nereids, daughters of Oceanus or Nereus. 
Naiades (from Gr. vattv, flow, cf. vap.a, " stream ") presided 
over springs, rivers and lakes. Oreades (opos, mountain) 
were nymphs of mountains and grottoes, one of the most 
famous of whom was Echo. Napaeae (vianj, dell) and Alsetdes 
(aXcros, grove) were nymphs of glens and groves. Dryad.es 
(q.v.) or Hamadryades were nymphs of forests and trees. 

The Greek nymphs, after the introduction of their cult into 
Latium, gradually absorbed into their ranks the indigenous 
Italian divinities of springs and streams (Juturna, Egeria, 
Carmentis, Fons), while the Lymphae (originally Lumpae), 
Italian water-goddesses, owing to the accidental similarity of 
name, were identified with the Greek Nymphae. Among the 
Romans their sphere of influence was restricted, and they appear 
almost exclusively as divinities of the watery element. 

F. G. Ballentine, " Some Phases of the Cult of the Nymphs " in 
Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, xv. (1904). 



O OAK 



OThe sixteenth letter of the Phoenician and early 
Greek alphabets, the fifteenth in English and the 
fourteenth in Latin. Between N and O the Phoenician 
and the Ionic Greek alphabet have a sibilant 
in Greek & = x. The Western Greek alphabet had a different 
symbol, X, for the sound of x and placed it at the end, 
as did its descendant the Latin alphabet. The original form 
of o was a more or less roughly formed circle. The Aramaic i- 
and Hebrew V, which seem so different, arise from a circle left 
open at the top, (J, a form which can be traced in Aramaic 
from the 5th or 6th century B.C. In the Greek alphabets the 
circle appears sometimes with a dot in the centre, but in many 
cases it is doubtful whether this mark is, intentional, or is only 
the result of fixing a sharp point there while describing the 
circle. Sometimes O is lozenge-shaped and rarely (in Arcadia 
and Elis) rectangular CD. In many varieties of the Greek 
alphabet this symbol was used, as it always was in Latin, for 
the long as well as the short o-sound and also for the long vowel 
(in the Ionic alphabet written ov) which arose from contraction 
of two vowels or the loss of a consonant (8rj\ovTe=5ri\QtTe, 
OIKOUS = OIKOVS). As early as the 8th century Ionic Greek 
had invented a separate symbol for the long o-sound, viz. Ji. 
This when borrowed by other dialects showed at first some 
variety of usage, though practically none in form. As this was 
placed at the end of the ordinary (not the numeral) Greek 
alphabet, " alpha and omega " has become a proverbial phrase 
for first and last. The Greeks themselves, however, did not 
call Q omega (great o) nor did they call O omicron (little o), 
though these names are given even in modern Greek grammars. 
The former was called simply o and the latter u (ov, pronounced 
as oo in moon). The Hebrew and probably the Phoenician name 
for O was Ain (Ayin), and in the Semitic alphabet, which does 
not indicate vowels, the symbol stood for a " voiced glottal 
stop " and also for a " voiced velar spirant " (Zimmern). The 
most important feature of this vowel is the rounding of the lips 
in its production, which, according to its degree, modifies the 
nature of the vowel considerably, as can be observed in the 
pronunciation of the increasingly rounded series saw, no, who. 
In Attic Greek O and fl were not really a pair, for o + o became 
not co but ov, o being a close and w an open sound. In Latin the 
converse was more nearly true. Though short o changed in 
the Latin of the last age of the Roman republic to u in un- 
accented syllables always (except after u whether vowel or con- 
sonant), and sometimes also in accented syllables, this was 
not equally true of vulgar Latin, as is shown by the Romance 
languages. In English also the short and the long o are of 
different qualities, the short in words like not, got being in 
Sweet's phonetic terminology a low-back-wide-round, the long 
in words like no a mid-back-wide-round. The long vowel 
becomes more rounded as it is being pronounced, so that it 
ends in a M-sound, though this is not so noticeable in weak 
syllables like the final syllable of follow. The so-called modified 
8 is a rounded e-sound found in several varieties. The sound 
heard in words like the German Goiter is, according to Sweet, a 
low-front-wide-round, while Jespersen regards it as not low 
but middle. A mid-front-narrow-round vowel is found short 
in French words like pen, long in jefine and in endings like 
that of honteuse. The Norse sound written <t> is of the same 
nature. (P. Gi.) 

OAK (0. Eng., ac), a word found, variously modified, in all 
Germanic languages, and applied to plants of the genus Quercus, 
natural order Fagaceae (Cupuliferae of de Candolle), including 
some of the most important timber trees of the north temperate 
zone. All the species are arborescent or shrubby, varying in 
size from the most stately of forest trees to the dwarfish bush. 
Monoecious, and bearing their male flowers in catkins, they are 
readily distinguished from the rest of the catkin-bearing trees 



by their peculiar fruit, an acorn or nut, enclosed at the base in a 
woody cup, formed by the consolidation of numerous involucral 
bracts developed beneath the fertile flower, simultaneously with 
a cup-like expansion of the thalamus, to which the bracteal 
scales are more or less adherent. The ovary, three-celled at 
first, but becoming one-celled and one-seeded by abortion, is 
surmounted by an inconspicuous perianth with six small teeth. 
The male flowers are in small clusters on the usually slender and 
pendent stalk, forming an interrupted catkin; the stamens 
vary in number, usually six to twelve. The alternate leaves are 
more or less deeply sinuated or cut in many species, but in 
some of the deciduous and many of the evergreen kinds 
are nearly or quite entire on the margin. 

The oaks are widely distributed over the temperate parts of 
Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. In the western 
hemisphere they range along the Mexican highlands and the 
Andes far into the tropics, while in the Old World the genus, 
well represented in the Himalayas and the hills of China, exists 
likewise in the peninsula of Malacca, in the Indian Archipelago 
and Malaya to the Philippine Islands and Borneo. On the 




From Kotschy, Die Eichat Europas, Vienna, 1862, Plate XXXII. 
FIG. i. Flowers of Oak (Quetcus). 

a, Diagram of male flower. d, Male flowers of Q. sessiliflora, 

b, Diagram of female flower. much enlarged. 

c, Female flowers of Q. e. Female flowers of Q. sessili- 

pedunculata, slightly en- flora, after fertilization, en- 

larged, larged. 

mountains of Europe and North America they grow only at 
moderate elevations, and none approach the arctic circle. The 
multitude of species and the many intermediate forms render 
their exact limitation difficult, but those presenting sufficiently 
marked characters to justify specific rank probably approach 
300 in number. 

The well-known Q. Robur, one of the most valued of the 
genus, and the most celebrated in history and myth, may be 
taken as a type of the oaks with sinuated leaves. Though known 
in England, where it is the only indigenous species, as the 
British oak, it is a native of most of the milder parts of Europe, 
extending from the shores of the Atlantic to the Ural; its 
most northern limit is attained in Norway, where it is found 
wild up to lat. 63, and near the Lindesnaes forms woods of some 
extent, the trees occasionally acquiring a considerable size. In 
western Russia it flourishes in lat. 60, but on the slope of the 
Ural the s6th parallel is about its utmost range. Its northern 
limit nearly coincides with that of successful wheat cultivation. 
Southwards it extends to Sardinia, Sicily and the Morea. In 
Asia it is found on the Caucasus, but does not pass the Ural ridge 
into Siberia. In Britain and in most of its Continental habitats 
two varieties exist, regarded by many as distinct species: one, 
Q. pedunculata, has the acorns, generally two or more together, 
on long stalks, and the leaves nearly sessile; while in the other, 
Q. sessiliflora, the fruit is without or with a very short peduncle, 
and the leaves are furnished with well-developed petioles. But, 



932 



OAK 



though the extreme forms of these varieties are very dissimilar, 
innumerable modifications are found between them; hence it 
is more convenient to regard them as at most sub-species of Q. 
Robur. The British oak is one of the largest trees of the genus, 
though old specimens are often more remarkable for the great 
size of the trunk and main boughs than for very lofty growth. 
The spreading branches have a tendency to assume a tortuous 
form, owing to the central shoots becoming abortive, and the 
growth thus being continued laterally, causing a zigzag develop- 
ment, more exaggerated in old trees and those standing in 




From Kotschy, op. lit. Plate XXVII. 

FIG. 2. Q. pedunculate; half natural size. 

exposed situations; to this peculiarity the picturesque aspect of 
ancient oaks is largely due. When standing in dense woods the 
trees are rather straight and formal in early growth, especially 
the sessile-fruited kinds, and the gnarled character traditionally 
assigned to the oak applies chiefly to its advanced age. The 
broad deeply-sinuated leaves with blunt rounded lobes are of a 
peculiar yellowish 'colour when the buds unfold in May, but 
assume a more decided green towards midsummer, and eventually 
become rather dark in tint; they do not change to their brown 
autumnal hue until late in October, and on brushwood and 
saplings the withered foliage is often retained until the spring. 
The catkins appear soon after the young leaves, usually in 
England towards the end of May; the acorns, oblong in form, 
are in shallow cups with short, scarcely projecting scales; 
the fruit is shed the first autumn, often before the foliage 
changes. 

Vast oak forests still covered the greater part of England 
and central Europe in the earlier historic period; and, though 
they have been gradually cleared in the progress of cultivation, 
oak is yet the prevailing tree in most of the woods of France, 
Germany and southern Russia, while in England the coppices 
and the few fragments of natural forest yet left are mainly 
composed of this species. The pedunculated variety is most 
abundant in the southern and midland counties, the sessile- 
fruited kinds in the northern parts and in Wales, especially 
in upland districts; the straighter growth and abundant acorns 
of this sub-species have led to its extensive introduction into 
plantations. The name of " durmast " oak, originally given 
to a dark-fruited variety of Q. sessiliflora in the New Forest, 
has been adopted by foresters as a general term for this kind of 
oak; it seems to be the most prevalent form in Germany and 
in the south of Europe. Many of the ancient oaks that remain 
in England may date from Saxon times, and some perhaps 
from an earlier period; the growth of trees after the trunk has 
become hollow is extremely slow, and the age of such venerable 
giants only matter of vague surmise. The celebrated Newland 
oak in Gloucestershire, known for centuries as " the great 
oak," was by the latest measurement 47^ ft. in girth at 5 ft. 
from the ground. The Cowthorpe oak, standing (a ruin) near 
Wetherby in Yorkshire, at the same height measures 38! ft., 
and seems to have been of no smaller dimensions when described 



by Evelyn two centuries ago; like most of the giant oaks of 
Britain, it is of the pedunculate variety. 

The wood of the British oak, when grown in perfection, is 
the most valuable produced in temperate climates. The heart- 
wood varies in colour from dark brown to pale yellowish- 
brown; hard, close-grained, and little liable to split accidentally, 
it is, for a hard wood, easy to work. Under water it excels 
most woods in durability, and none stand better alternate 
exposure to drought and moisture, while under cover it is nearly 
indestructible as long as dry-rot is prevented by free admission 
of air. Its weight varies from 48 to about 55 ft the cubic foot, 
but in very hard slowly-grown trunks sometimes approaches 
60 Ib. The sap-wood is lighter and much more perishable, but 
is of value for many purposes of rural economy. The relative 
qualities of the two varieties have been the frequent subject 
of debate, the balance of practical testimony seeming to establish 
the superiority of Q. pedunculata as far as durability in water 
is concerned; but when grown under favourable circumstances 
the sessile oak is certainly equally lasting if kept dry. The 
wood of the durmast oak is commonly heavier and of a darker 
colour, hence the other is sometimes called by woodmen the 
white oak, and in France is known as the " chene blanc." The 
oak of Britain is still in demand for the construction of merchant 
shipping, though teak has become in some measure its substitute, 
and foreign oak of various quality and origin largely takes 
its place. Its great abundance of curved trunks and boughs 
rendered the oak peculiarly valuable to the shipwright when 
the process of bending timber artificially was less understood; 
the curved pieces are still useful for knees. The younger oaks 
are employed by the carpenter, wheelwright, wagon-builder 
and for innumerable purposes by the country artisan. The 
most durable of fences are those formed of small oaks, split 
lengthwise by the wedge into thin boards. The finely-grained 
heart-wood is sought by the cabinetmaker for the manufacture 




From Kotschy, op. cit. Plate XXXII. 

FIG. 3. Q. sessiliflora; half natural size. 

of furniture, and high prices are often given for the gnarled 
and knotted portions of slowly-grown trees, to be sawn into 
veneers. Oak was formerly largely used by wood-carvers, and 
is still in some demand for those artists, being harder and 
more durable than lime and other woods that yield more readily 
to the sculptor's tool. Oak was thus applied at a very early 
date; the shrine of Edward the Confessor, still existing in the 
abbey at Westminster, sound after the lapse of 800 years, is of 
dark-coloured oak-wood. The wood, of unknown age, found 
submerged in peat-bogs, and of a black hue, is largely used 
in decorative art under the name of " bog-oak." 

The oak grows most luxuriantly on deep strong clays, cal- 
careous marl or stiff loam, but will flourish in nearly any deep 
well-drained soil, excepting peat or loose sand; in marshy or 
moist places the tree may grow well for a time, but the timber 
is rarely sound; on hard rocky ground and exposed hillsides 
the growth is extremely slow and the trees small, but the wood 



OAK 



933 



is generally very hard and durable. The oak will not bear 
exposure to the full force of the sea gale, though in ravines 
and on sheltered slopes oak woods sometimes extend nearly 
to the shore. The cultivation of this tree in Europe forms one 
of the most important branches of the forester's art. It is 
frequently raised at once by sowing the acorns on the ground 
where the trees are required, the fruit being gathered in the 
autumn as soon as shed, and perfectly ripe seeds selected; 
but the risk of destruction by mice and other vermin is so great 
that transplanting from a nursery-bed is in most cases to be 
preferred. 

The acorns should be sown in November on well-prepared ground, 
and covered to a depth of i J or 2 in. ; the seeds germinate in the 
spring, and the seedlings are usually transplanted when one or two 
years old to nursery-beds, where they are allowed to grow from 
two to four years, till required for the plantation. Some authorities 
recommend the tap-roots to be cut in the second year, with the view 
of increasing the ball of fibre; but, if the trees are removed from 
the seed-bed sufficiently early, the root is best left to its natural 
development. The oak requires shelter in the early stages of growth ; 
in England the Scotch pine is thought best for this purpose, though 
Norway spruce answers as well on suitable ground, and larch and other 
trees are sometimes substituted. The conifers are allowed to grow 
to a height of from 3 to 5 ft. before the young oaks are planted, 
and are gradually thinned out as the latter increase in size. The 
distance between the oaks depends upon the growth intended before 
thinning the young wood; usually they are placed from 8 to 12 ft. 
apart, and the superabundant trees cut out as they begin to interfere 
with each other. The lower branches often require removal, to 
ensure the formation of a tall straight trunk, and this operation 
should be performed before the superfluous shoots get too large, 
or the timber will be injured; but, as with all trees, unnecessary 
pruning should be avoided, as every branch removed lessens the 
vigour of growth. Where artificial copsewood is the object, hazel, 
hornbeam and other bushes may be planted between the oaks; but, 
when large timber is required, the trees are best without undergrowth. 

The growth of the oak is slow, though it varies greatly in 
different trees; Loudon states that an oak, raised from the 
acorn in a garden at Sheffield Place, Sussex, became in seventy 
years 12 ft. in circumference; but the increase of the trunk 
is usually very much slower, and when grown for large timber 
oak can rarely be profitably felled till the first century of its 
growth is completed. The tree will continue to form wood 
for 150 or 200 years before showing any symptoms of decay. 
As firewood oak holds a high position, though in Germany it 
is considered inferior to beech for that purpose. It makes 
excellent charcoal, especially for metallurgic processes; the 
Sussex iron, formerly regarded as the best produced in Britain, 
was smelted with oak charcoal from the great woods of the 
adjacent Weald, until they became so thinned that the precious 
fuel was no longer obtainable. 

An important product of oak woods is the bark that from a remote 
period has been the chief tanning material of Europe. The most 
valuable kind is that obtained from young trees of twenty to thirty 
years' growth, but the trunks and boughs of timber trees also furnish 
a large supply; it is separated from the tree most easily when the 
sap is rising in the spring. It is then carefully dried by the free 
action of the air, and when dry built into long narrow stacks until 
needed for use. The value of oak bark depends upon the amount 
of tannin contained in it, which varies much, depending not only 
on the growth of the tree but on the care bestowed on the preparation 
of the bark itself, as it soon ferments and spoils by exposure to wet, 
while too much sun-heat is injurious. That obtained from the sessile- 
fruited oak is richer in tannic acid than that yielded by Q. pedun- 
culate, and the bark of trees growing in the open is more valuable 
than the produce of the dense forest or coppice. The bark of young 
oak branches has been employed in medicine from the days of 
Dioscorides, but is not used in modern practice. The astringent 
principle is a peculiar kind of tannic acid, called by chemists querci- 
tannic, which, yielding more stable compounds with gelatine than 
other forms, gives oak bark its high value to the tanner. According 
to Neubauer, the bark of young oaks contains from 7 to IO% of 
this principle; in old trees the proportion is much less. 

The acorns of the oak possess a considerable economic importance 
as food for swine. In the Saxon period the " mast " seems to have 
been regarded as the most valuable produce of an oak wood ; nor 
was its use always confined to the support of the herds, for in time 
of dearth acorns were boiled and eaten by the poor as a substitute 
for bread both in England and France, as the sweeter produce 
of p. Esculus is still employed in southern Europe. Large nerds of 
swine in all the great oak woods of Germany depend for their autumn 
maintenance on acorns; and in the remaining royal forests of 



England the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages yet claim their 
ancient right of " pannage," turning their hogs into the woods in 
October and November. Some trees of the sessile-fruited oak bear 
sweet acorns in Britain, and several varieties were valued by the 
ancient Italians for their edible fruit. A peculiar kind of sugar called 
quercite exists in all acorns. A bitter principle to which the name of 
quercin has been applied by Gerber, its discoverer, has also been 
detected in the acorn of the common oak; the nutritive portion 
seems chiefly a form of starch. A spirit has been distilled from 
acorns in process of germination, when the saccharine principle is 
most abundant. 

The British oak grows well in the northern and middle states 
of America; and, from the superiority of the wood to that of 
Q. alba and its more abundant production of acorns, it will 
probably be much planted as the natural forests are destroyed. 
The young trees require protection from storms and late frosts 
even more than in England; the red pine of the north-eastern 
states, Pinus resinosa, answers well as a nurse, but the pitch 
pine and other species may be employed. In the southern 
parts of Australia and in New Zealand the tree seems to flourish 
as well as in its native home. 

The oak in Europe is liable to injury from a great variety 
of insect enemies: the young wood is attacked by the larvae of 
the small stag-beetle and several other Coleoptera, and those of 
the wood-leopard moth, goat moth and other Lepidoptera feed 
upon it occasionally; the foliage is devoured by innumerable 
larvae; indeed, it has been stated that half the plant-eating 
insects of England prey more or less upon the oak, and in some 
seasons it is difficult to find a leaf perfectly free from their 
depredations. The young shoots are chosen by many species of 
Cynipidae and their allies as a receptacle for their eggs, giving 
rise to a variety of gall-like excrescences, from which few oak 
trees are quite free. 

Of the European timber trees of the genus, the next in importance 
to the British oak is Q. Cerris, the Turkey oak of the nurserymen. 
This is a fine species, having when young straighter branches than 
Q. Robur, but in old age the boughs generally curve downwards, 
and the tree acquires a wide spreading head; the bark is dark 
brown, becoming grey and furrowed in large trees; the foliage 
varies much, but in the prevailing kinds the leaves are very deeply 
sinuated, with pointed, often irregular lobes, the footstalks short, 
and furnished at the base with long linear stipules that do not fall 
with the leaf, but remain attached to the bud till the following 
spring, giving a marked feature to the young shoots. The large 
sessile acorns are longer than those of Q. Robur, and are dark-brown 
when ripe; the hemispherical cups are covered with long, narrow, 
almost bristly scales, giving them a mossy aspect; the fruit ripens 
the first autumn. The foliage in some of the numerous varieties is 
ajmost evergreen, and in Britain is retained long after the autumnal 
withering. 

This oak abounds all over the Turkish peninsula, and forms a large 
portion of the vast forests that clothe the slopes of the Taurus ranges 
and the south shores of the Black Sea; it is likewise common in 
Italy and Sardinia, and occurs in the south of France and also in 
Hungary. It was introduced into England by Philip Miller about 
!735i a d is now common in parks and plantations, where it seems 
to flourish in nearly all soils. The Turkey oak in southern England 
grows twice as fast as Q. Robur; in the mild climate of Devonshire 
and Cornwall it has reached a height of 100 ft. and a diameter of 
4 ft. in eighty years, which is about the limit of its profitable growth 
for timber. The wood is hard, heavy and of fine grain, quite equal 
to the best British oak for indoor use, but of very variable durability 
where exposed to weather. The ships of Greece and Turkey are 
largely built of it, but it has not always proved satisfactory in 
English dockyards. The heart-wood is dark in colour, takes a fine 
polish, and from the prominence of the medullary rays is valuable 
to the furniture maker; it weighs from 40 to 50 Ib the cubic foot. 
The comparatively rapid growth of the tree is its great recommenda- 
tion to the planter; it is best raised from acorns sown on the spot, 
as they are very bitter and little liable to the attacks of vermin; 
the tree sends down a long tap-root, which should be curtailed by 
cutting or early transplanting, if the young trees are to be removed. 
It seems peculiarly adapted for the mild moist climate of Ireland. 

In North America, where the species of oak are very numerous, 
the most important member of the group is Q. alba, the white 
oak, abounding all over the eastern districts to the continent 
from Lake Winnipeg and the St Lawrence countries of the 
shores of the Mexican Gulf. In aspect it more nearly resembles 
Q. Robur than any other species, forming a thick trunk with 
spreading base and, when growing in glades or other open places, 
huge spreading boughs, less twisted and gnarled than those ot 



934 



OAK 



the English oak, and covered with a whitish bark that gives 
a marked character to the tree. The leaves are large, often 
irregular in form, usually with a few deep lobes dilated at the 
end; they are of a bright light green on the upper surface, but 
whitish beneath; they turn to a violet tint in autumn. The 

egg-shaped acorns 
are placed singly 
or two together on 
short stalks; they 
are in most years 
sparingly pro- 
duced, but are 
occasionally borne 
in some abund- 
ance. On rich 
loams and the 
alluvial soils of 
river-vail eys, 
when well drained, 
the tree attains a 
large size, often 
rivalling the giant 
oaks of Europe; 
trunks of 3 or 4 ft. 
in diameter are 
frequently found, 
and sometimes 

From Michaux, Bistoire da chines de FAminpu. these dimensions 

FIG. 4. Q.alba; one- third natural size. are greatly ex- 

ceeded. The wood 

is variable in quality and, though hard in texture, is less durable 
than the best oak of British growth; the heart-wood is of a 
light reddish brown varying to an olive tint; a Canadian 
specimen weighs 52^ Ib the cubic foot. 

O. obtusiloba, the post oak of the backwoodsman, a smaller tree 
with rough leaves and notched upper lobes, produces an abundance 
of acorns and good timber, said to be more durable than that of 
the white oak. 

The pin oak, sometimes called the " burr-oak," Q. macrocarpa, 
is remarkable for its large acorns, the cups bordered on the edge 
by a fringe of long narrow scales; the leaves are very large, some- 
times from 10 in. to I ft. in length, with very deep lobes at the lower 
part, but dilated widely at the apex, and there notched. The tree is 
described by Prof. C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America) as one of the 





From Michaui, op. til. Plate XXXV. 

FIG. 5. Q. rubra; one-fourth natural size. 

most valuable timber trees of North America, its wood being superior 
in strength even to that of Q. alba, with which it is commercially 
confounded. 

The over-cup oak, Q. lyrata, is a large tree, chiefly found on 
swampy land in the southern states ; the lyrate leaves are dilated at 
the end ; the globose acorns are nearly covered by the tuberculated 
cups. 

In the woods of Oregon, from the Columbia river southwards, 
an oak is found bearing some resemblance to the British oak in 
toliage and in its thick trunk and widely-spreading boughs, but 
the bark is white as in Q. alba; it is Q. Garryana, the western oak 
of T. Nuttall. This tree acquires large dimensions, the trunk being 
often from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter; the wood is strong, hard and close- 



grained; the acorns are produced in great quantity, and are used by 
the Indians as food. 

The red oak, Q. rubra, has thin large leaves on long petioles, the 
lobes very long and acute, the points almost bristly ; they are pink 
when they first expand in spring, but become of a bright glossy 
green when full-grown; in autumn they change to the deep purple- 
red which gives the tree its name. Com- 
mon throughout the northern and middle 
states and Canada, the red oak attains a 
large size only on good soils; the wood 
is of little value, being coarse and porous, 
but it is largely used for cask- staves; the 
bark is a valuable tanning material. 

A species nearly allied is the scarlet 
oak, Q. coccinea, often confounded with 
the red oak, but with larger leaves, with 
long lobes ending in several acute points; 
they change to a brilliant scarlet with the 
first October frosts, giving one of the most 
striking of the various glowing tints that 
render the American forests so beautiful 
in autumn. The trunk, though often of 
considerable size, yields but an indifferent 
wood, employed for similar purposes to 
that of Q. rubra; the bark is one of the 
best tanning materials of the country. 
Both these oaks grow well in British 
plantations, where their bright autumn 
foliage, though seldom so decided in tint 
as in their native woods, gives them a 
certain picturesque value. 

Nearly akin to these are several other 
forms of little but botanical interest; not 
far removed is the black or dyer's oak, From 7 ot5chy % # . ^ P i atcX L. 
Q. tmctona, a large and handsome 

species, with a trunk sometimes 4 ft. in FIG. 6. Q. castaneaefolia, 
diameter, not uncommon in most forests one-third natural size, 
east of the Mississippi, especially in 

somewhat upland districts. The leaves are frequently irregular in 
outline, the lobes rather short and blunt, widening towards the 
end, but with setaceous points; the acorns are nearly globular. 
The wood is coarsely grained, as in all the red-oak group, but 
harder and more durable than that of Q. rubra, and is often 
employed for building and for flour-barrels and cask-staves. The 
bark, very dark externally, is an excellent tanning substance; the 
inner layers form the quercitron of commerce, used by dyers for 
communicating to fabrics various tints of yellow, and, with iron 
salts, yielding a series of brown and drab hues; the colouring 
property depends on a crystalline principle called guercitrin, of 
which it should contain about 8 %. The cut-leaved oaks are repre- 
sented in eastern Asia by several species, of which Q. mongolica is 





From Kotschy, op. cit. Plate XXXVIII. 

FIG. T. Q. Ilex; half natural size. 

widely spread over Dahuria, north China and the adjacent countries; 
one of the Chinese silkworms is said to feed on the leaves. 

The chestnut oaks of America represent a section distinguished 
by the merely serrated leaves, with parallel veins running to the end 
of the serratures.-Hj. Prinus, a beautiful tree of large growth, and its 
subspecies castanea and montana, yield good timber. Q. Chinquapin 
or prinoides, a dwarf species, often only I ft. in height, forms dense 
miniature thickets on the barren uplands of Kansas and Missouri, 
and affords abundant sweet acorns; the tree is called by the hunters 
of the plains the " shin-oak." Q. castaneaefolia, represented in fig. 6, 



OAKHAM OAMARU 



935 



is a native of the woods of the Transcaucasian region of western 
Asia. 

Evergreen oaks with entire leaves are represented in North America 
hy^. virginiana, also known as Q. virens, the live oak of the southern 
states ; more or less abundant on the Atlantic coasts of the Carolinas 
and Florida, its true home is the country around the Mexican Gulf, 
where it rarely grows more than 50 or 60 m. inland. The oval leaves 
are dark-green above, and whitish with stellate hairs beneath, the 
margin entire and slightly recurved. The live oak is one of the most 
valuable timber trees of the genus, the wood being extremely 
durable, both exposed to air and under water; heavy and close- 
grained, it is perhaps the best of the American oaks for shipbuilding, 
and is invaluable for water-wheels and mill-work. The tree in 
England is scarcely hardy, though it will grow freely in some 
sheltered places. 

The evergreen oak of southern Europe is Q. Ilex, usually a smaller 
tree, frequently of rather shrub-like appearance, with abundant 
glossy dark-green leaves, generally ovate in shape and more or less 
prickly at the margin, but sometimes with the edges entire; the 
under surface is hoary ; the acorns are oblong on short stalks. The 
ilex, also known as the " holm oak " from its resemblance to the holly, 
abounds in all the Mediterranean countries, showing a partiality for 
the sea air. The stem sometimes grows 8p or 90 ft. in height, and 
old specimens are occasionally of large diameter; but it does not 
often reach a great size. In its native lands it attains a vast age; 
Pliny attributes to several trees then growing in Rome a greater 
antiquity than the city itself. The wood is very heavy and hard, 
weighing 70 ft the cubic foot; the colour is dark brown; it is used 
in Spain and Italy for furniture, and in the former country for fire- 
wood and charcoal. In Britain the evergreen oak is quite hardy in 
ordinary winters, and is useful to the ornamental planter from its 
capacity for resisting the sea gales; but it generally remains of small 
size. Q. Ballota, a closely allied species abundant in Morocco, 
bears large edible acorns, which form an article of trade with Spain ; 
an oil, resembling that of the olive, is obtained from them by ex- 
I pression. Q. Ilex, var. Gramuntia, also furnishes a fruit which, 
after acquiring sweetness by keeping, is eaten by the Spaniards. 

In America several oaks exist with narrow lanceolate leaves, 
from which characteristic they are known as " willow oaks." Q. 

Phettos, a rather large 
tree found on swampy 
land in the southern 
states, is the most im- 
portant of this group; 
itstimber isof indifferent 
quality. 

The cork oak, Q. 
Suber, the bark of which 
. yields cork (?..), is a 
g native of the west 
Mediterranean area. In 
Spain the wood is of 
some value, being hard 
and close-grained, and 
the inner bark is used 
for tanning. From its 
rugged silvery bark and 
dark-green foliage, it is 
a handsome tree, quite 
hardy in Cornwall and 
Devonshire, where it has 
grown to a large size. 




From Kotschy, ap. cit. Plate VII. 
FIG. 8. Q.Vallonea; half natural size. 



The valonia of commerce, one of the richest of tanning materials, 
is the acorn of Q. Aegilops, a fine species indigenous to Greece and 
the coasts of the Levant, and sometimes called the " Oak of Bashan." 
The very large acorns are remarkable for their thick cups with long 
reflexed scales; the leaves are large, oblong, with deep serratures 
terminating in a bristle-like point. The cups are the most valuable 
portion of the valonia, abounding in tannic acid; immature acorns 
are sometimes exported under the name of " camatina." The allied 
Q. Vallonea of Asia Minor likewise yields valonia. 

Some oaks are of indirect importance from products formed by 
their insect enemies. Of these the Aleppo gall (see GALLS) is yielded 
by Q. infectoria, a native of Asia Minor and western Asia. Q. 
cocctfera, a small bush growing in Spain and many countries around 
the Mediterranean, furnishes the kermes dye (KERMES). Q. persica, 
or according to some Q. mannifera, attacked by a kind of Coccus, 
yields a sweet exudation which the Kurds collect and use as manna, 
or as a substitute for honey or sugar in various confections (see 
MANNA). 

OAKHAM, a market town, and the county town of Rutland, 
England, 94 m. N. by W. of London by the Midland railway. 
Pop. (1901) 3294. The church of All Saints ranges in style 
from Early English to Perpendicular, belonging in appearance 
mainly to the latter style. Of Oakham Castle, founded in the 
reign of Henry II., the principal remnant is the notable Norman 
hall, used as the county hall. The manor came in the time of 



Henry II. into the hands of Walcheline de Ferrers, and subse- 
quently passed .through many owners, to the duchy of Bucking- 
ham, whence it descended to the earls of Winchelsea. A peculiar 
custom attaching to the manor is to claim a horseshoe from every 
peer who, for the first time, passes through the town. Flore's 
House in the main street is an interesting building dating from 
the I3th century. Oakham school was endowed as a grammar 
school by Robert Johnson, archdeacon of Leicester, in 1584; 
it now has classical and modern sides. Not far from the town 
are the kennels of the Cottesaiore hunt. 

OAKLAND, a city and the county-seat of Alameda county, 
California, U.S.A., situated opposite and about 6 m. distant 
from San Francisco, on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay. 
Pop. (1890) 48,682; (1900) 66,960, of whom 17,256 were foreign- 
born, 3197 being Irish, 2742 German, 2026 English, 1544 English- 
Canadians, 1020 Portuguese and 994 Swedish; (1910 census) 
150,174. It is the terminus of the Ogden branch of the Southern 
(formerly Central) Pacific, of the Coast Line of the Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe, and of the Western Pacific railways. 
Passengers and freight from the East to San Francisco are 
transferred by ferry from Oakland. A branch of the bay (called 
Oakland Harbour) divides Oakland from Alameda, and the rail- 
way piers of Oakland run directly out into the bay for more than 
2 m. toward San Francisco, thus shortening the ferry connexions. 
Lake Merritt, in the heart of the city, a favourite pleasure resort, 
is the centre of the city's park system. Oakland is the seat of 
California College (co-educational, Baptist, opened in 1870), 
and of St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1863) for men; 
and in the suburban village of Mills College, west of the city, 
is Mills College (non-sectarian, 1871) for women, an institu- 
tion of high rank. Electric power for the city is derived 
from Colgate, on the Yuba river, 219 m. distant. Oakland 
has important manufacturing interests, the total value of 
its factory products in 1905 being $9,072,539, 69% more than 
in 1900. 

The site of the present city (as well as that of Alameda and 
Berkeley) lay originally within the limits of a great private 
Mexican grant which was confirmed by the United States 
authorities. A settlement was begun at first by " squatters " 
in defiance of the private claim in 1850; in May 1852 this 
was incorporated as a town (the name being derived from a 
wood of oaks in the midst of which the first settlement was made), 
and in March 1854 it was chartered as a city. In 1869 it was 
selected as the western terminus of the Central Pacific, a choice 
which greatly promoted Oakland's commercial importance. 
The water front was recklessly given away in 1852, and the 
resulting disputes and litigation lasted for more than thirty 
years; in 1908 the water front reverted to the city. The 
population increased more than sixfold from 1860 to 1870, and 
doubled in 1900-1910. It became the county-seat in 1874. In 
December 1910 a commission form of government was adopted. 

OAKUM (O. Eng. dcumbe or acumbe, tow, literally " off -comb- 
ings "), a preparation of tarred fibre used in shipbuilding, for 
caulking or packing joints of timbers in wood vessels and the 
deck planking of iron and steel ships. Oakum is made by pre- 
ference from old tarry ropes and cordage of vessels, and its 
picking and preparation has been a common penal occupation 
in prisons and workhouses. White oakum is made from untarred 
materials. 

OAMARU, a municipal borough on the east coast of South 
Island, New Zealand, in the county of Waitaki and provincial 
district of Otago; on the main railway between Christchurch 
(152 m. N.E.) and Dunedin (78 m. S.S.W.). Pop. (1906) 5071. 
It is the outlet of the largest agricultural district in New Zealand. 
A breakwater and mole, constructed of blocks of concrete, 
enclose a commodious basin, forming one of the safest harbours 
in the colony. The export of frozen meat is important. The 
town is built of white Oamaru limestone. Brown coal is ob- 
tained at the entrance of Shag valley, 40 m. S. The district is 
famed for its stock, and the fine quality of its grain; also for 
the character of the English grasses laid down there, which 
flourish in a rich black loam on a limestone formation. 



CANNES OAR 



OANNES, in Babylonian mythology, the name given by 
Berossus to a mythical being who taught mankind wisdom. 
He is identical with the god Ea (q.i>.), although there may not 
be any direct connexion between the two names. Berossus 
describes Cannes as having the body of a fish but underneath 
the figure of a man. He is described as dwelling in the Persian 
Gulf, and rising out of the waters in the daytime and furnishing 
mankind instruction in writing, the arts and the various sciences. 
The culture-myth on which the account of Berossus rests has 
not yet been found in Babylonian literature, but there are 
numerous indications in hymns and incantations that confirm 
the indentification with Ea, and also prove the substantial 
correctness of the conceptions regarding Oannes-Ea as given by 
Berossus. (M. JA.) 

OAR (A.S. dr; M. Eng. ore; Lat. remus; Gr. eper/jfe : Sans. 
arilra; Fr. rame; Ital. Span., Port, rama), the instrument used for 
propelling a boat in rowing (?..). The word " oar " is probably 
derived from an old root ar, meaning to drive, to force away 
(cf. ar-ar-e, aratrum, plough). Such an appellation would easily 
be suggested by the visible difference in the action of the power 
employed by means of the oar against a thowl, or rowlock, 
from that of the more primitive paddle, where the power is 
gained by the action of one hand against the other. In the 
development of rowing from paddling the task of shaping the 
instrument of propulsion must have followed gradually the 
necessities indicated by use. In rowing, as well as in paddling, 
the leverage is of the second order, in which the weight lies 
between the power and the fulcrum. The point at which the 
power pressed the arm of the lever against the weight in rowing 
would soon attract attention by the frequent breakage of the 
paddle so employed. Experience would demand a thicker loom, 
and would soon teach the desirability of increasing the leverage 
where possible, and upon this would arise naturally the practical 
questions of the length of the oar, of the breadth of the blade, 
and of the right proportion of the parts of the oar, inboard and 
outboard, to each other. Then would also occur the problem 
of how to keep this proportion, which 
in practice would be liable to dis- 
arrangement by the slipping outward 
of the oar during the recovery from 
each stroke. Hence would arise the 
use of the thong (rpoiros, TpoTrtartip), 
familiar to ancient Greek and modern 
Levantine, and, in northern and 
western waters, the invention of the 
" button," with which in various 
shapes the rowing world is now pro- 
vided. Other devices, such as a hole 
bored in a piece of wood attached to 
the oar, or even a metal ring, will, in 
different localities, be found answering 
the same purpose. 

In the early stages of the transition 
from paddling to rowing, the oar 
would naturally be used at an acute 
angle vertically to the boat's side. 
In paddling the upper hand is used 
to push from you, the lower hand to 
pull towards you. But in rowing 
both hands are used to pull towards 
you. As long as the oar was used at 
an acute angle vertically to the boat's 
side, the position of the upper hand 
on the oar would have to be reversed, 



as oars. Paddle-shaped also are the oars of the Phoenician 
ships shown on the Assyrian sculptures at Koyunjik (Layard), 
the date of which is about 700 B.C. The same form is seen on 
some of the early vases, but in some that are attributed to two 
centuries later the form is modified, and the oar blade proper 
begins to take shape. 

The types exhibited in the representations of the Roman 
galleys are generally heavy and clumsy enough in appearance. 
Still they are veritable oars, not paddles. The material of 
which the ancient oars were usually made was pine, which 
then, as now, was most suitable for the purpose, being tough 
and comparatively light and easily shaped as regards loom 
and blade. 

The oars of the Attic trireme were, if we may judge by those 
of which only we have the measurement recorded, not much 
longer for the upper bank than those of a modern racing eight, 
while those of the middle and lower banks could not have been 
much longer than those used now in the whalers and dinghies 
of the Royal Navy. As the oarsmen on either side probably sat 
in the same vertical plane, the inboard portion of the oars 
amidships was longer than the inboard of those fore and aft, 
having to conform to the curvature of the vessel's sides (cf. 
Aristotle, Mechanica, v.). No doubt in vessels of larger size 
the upper tiers of oars would be longer, and, if we are to 
believe Callixenus, as cited by Athenaeus, in the great ship 
of Ptolemy the oars of the upper tier were over 50 ft. in length 
with handles leaded so as to equalize the weight inboard and 
outboard. 

It is difficult to trace any detail of difference between the 
oars of the Roman period and those of the Byzantine and 
medieval galleys. In the medieval galley by the invention of the 
" apostis," a framework on which the thowls were fixed, sufficient 
room was given for the play of longer oars, and, as the necessity 
of combining speed with greater carrying power in the galley 
became pressing, the arrangement alia scaloccio came into vogue, 
employing four or five or even seven men to each of the long 

Table showing Oars used in Royal Navy. 



Description of 
Vessel. 


Oars. 


Blades. 


Material. 


No. 
allowed. 


Length. 


Thickness. 


Length. 


Breadth. 


i. Launches, 42' . 


17-16 


til 


5' 8' 


5i" 




18 






ll 


5' 4' 


5t" 






2. Pinnaces, 36' 


17-16 










16 


32' 


16-15 


15 2| if 


5''o" 


5i* 




14 


30' 


16-15 










12 


3. Cutters, 34' 


I5-H 


142 -If 


4 ; 8' 


si* 


^ 


14 


32' 


I5-H 








E 


14 


30' 


I5-H 








u 


12 


28' 












10 


26' 


I5-H 








1 


IO 


gig, 20' 


15-14 








Q 


4 


4. Galleys 32' 


17-16 










6 


5. Gigs, 30' 


17-16 








^ 



6 


28' 


17-16 










6 


6. Whalers, 27' 


1514 










5 






13 2 -if 


4' 4' 


5 V , 






7. Skiff dinghies, 1 6' . 


10-8 


10 if-if 


3' 4' 






'4* 






9 if i i 


3 


4f" 






8. Dinghies, 13!' . 


io-8 


8 if-ii 


2' 10* 


4*' 




4 



* Allowed spoon-blade oars. 

Notes. (i) Since 1893 some curved or spoon-bladed oars have been made at Devonport. 
(2) There is no record of buttons being used, but on fir oars, which were covered with canvas 
on the loom, it was sometimes customary to work a Turk's head at the end of the canvas for 
ornament. (3) As regards sweeps, they used to be made of ash and were 30 ft. long. They 
were used last in training brigs, but there is no record of them for the last twenty years. 



as it would more easily grasp the oar with the wrist turned 
inward towards the body. In many of the earlier representations 
of rowing this position of the upper hand seems to be indicated. 
This distinction should not be lost sight of, as the position of 
the hands on the oar affects not only the character of the stroke, 
but also the requirements as to the length of the oar and the 
breadth of the blade. The form of the oars given in the repre- 
sentations of early Egyptian ships is suggestive of paddles used 



sweeps by which the galleys and galleasses were propelled. 
For these large oars we hear of ash and beech being used as 
well as pine. 

In the Mediterranean the galley propelled by oars long re- 
mained the principal type of war vessel. In the Atlantic, and 
in the northern seas, it was otherwise. 

The employment of artillery on board ship gradually deter- 
mined a change in the method of propulsion. The use of sails 



OASIS OAT 



937 



became necessary, and remained dominant until the introduction 
of steam (see SHIP). But as late as the time of the Spanish 
Armada, and even later, large sea-going vessels were provided 
with long sweeps which came into use when sailing was not 
available. In our own time, in the lighters on tidal rivers, may 
be seen long oars, plied by one or two or more men, which recall 
the type of oars once in general use in large galleys three centuries 
ago. 

The oars used by the Northmen were, to judge by the remains 
discovered along with old Viking ships l at Gokstad and else- 
where, very similar to those in use at the present time in the 
fishing boats around our coasts. Those of the large craft were, 
to judge by the length of one found whole, somewhat over 18 ft. 
in length with a 5-in. blade and a diameter of 3 in. halfway 
down the loom. Some smaller oars, evidently used for boats, 
measured n ft. with a 4-in. blade. The oars were of pine, and 
the looms of some of them showed a groove cut for a clamp at 
the place where the oar rested on the sill of the rowlock. Com- 
paring these oars with the measurements given below of oars 
now in use in the Royal Navy, it is apparent that there is no 
great difference in type between them. 

Passing on to oars used on rivers and fresh water generally, 
we find the type differs considerably from that of the oars used 
in sea-going craft. The chief difference consists in the shape of 
the blade, which, instead of continuing the straight line of the 
loom in its expansion to its proper breadth, is fashioned in a 
curve calculated to offer a rigid resistance to the water during 
the stroke. 2 The loom below the button is not rounded but is 
more of an oval to the front with a flat back. From the oval 
front a spine runs down into the blade, in some cases to nearly 
half its length. During the last few years the so-called " girder " 
oars, with much thicker looms but double grooved along their 
length, have been used for racing purposes. This invention 
gives additional strength and stiffness, without increasing the 
weight of the oar, which varies a little but is usually about 8 Ib. 
The blades vary much in breadth, as indeed do the oars in total 
length, and in proportion of inboard to outboard. The neces- 
sities of the sliding seat in racing boats have given rise to much 
difference of opinion among rowing men as to the right proportion. 
In the middle of the igth century the use of square looms 
inboard, and of a button to turn inside and against the thowl, 
was common, and most oars had a small slab of hard wood let in 
below the button, so as to save the oar from wear and tear at 
the rowlock. But since round looms came into vogue the round 
leather ear has taken the place of the old square button, and the 
loom is covered with leather for some inches above and below 
this so as to protect it from abrasion. 

Of late the introduction of swivel rowlocks for racing boats 
has caused a further modification in the form of buttons. Swivel 
rowlocks have come into general use for sculling boats, pair oars 
and coxswainless fours. But as yet they do not appear to have 
captured the racing eight, except in a few instances. Neither 
crews nor coaches in English waters seem inclined to part with 
the time-honoured rhythmic music of the oar in the rowlock, 
which from the days of antiquity even until now has, to practised 
ears, told its own tale as to the crew being together or not in the 
stroke. 

In the case of racing eights, when the round loom oars 
superseded the square loom, the early patterns were com- 
monly (e.g. in 1857) 12' 6" over all, 3' 8* inboard, with a 
long blade 4!" to 5* in breadth. These were succeeded by 
a pattern 12' 6" over all, 3' 6* inboard, with a much shorter 
blade 6* broad. 

Since sliding seats came in the average oar has been 12' 4* 
over all, 3' 8" inboard, with 5^" to 6J" blades. The modern 
racing oar may be said to date from 1869, the year of the Oxford 
and Harvard race at Putney. Until very lately no material 
alteration had taken place in this pattern, except in the matter 
of width oi blade. Some authorities, however, are, as has been 

1 See Viking Ship, Nicolaysen (Christiania, 1882). 
'Since 1890 the curved blade seems to have been adopted in 
some cases in the oars made at Devonport for the Royal Navy. 



said above, far from satisfied with the present average oar, and 
are using shorter patterns, n' 10* or 12' o* over all, 3' 7" inboard, 
and 7" blades. 

Single grooved oars were first made in America. But with 
the single groove a side weakness is often developed in the loom, 
and hence the double girder, invented by G. Ayling, has generally 
superseded the single groove, though many oarsmen prefer the 
box loom by the same inventor. 

It is clear, however, that no finality has been reached in the 
making of oars. Tubular oars, first introduced at Henley by 
the Belgian crew in 1906, are now being tried, with circular or 
quadrangular bores, strengthened by the insertion of an 
aluminium shell. 

For much of the information above given respecting the recent 
developments in oar-making for racing purposes and river work, 
the writer is indebted to Messrs Ayling & Sons of Putney, whose 
patented inventions and improvements are well known to rowing 
men. (E. WA.) 

OASIS (Gr. 6a<ns, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile 
spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian 
word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian 
Arabic wd is derived), a fertile spot surrounded by desert. For 
example, where the high plateau of the Libyan desert descends 
into a longitudinal valley between Syrtis and the Nile delta there 
are a few spots where the water comes to the surface or is found 
in shallow wells. It may come to the surface in springs, upon 
the artesian principle, or it may collect and remain in mountain 
hollows. These areas are of small extent and are closely culti- 
vated, and support thick forests of date-palms. All kinds of 
tropical vegetables, grains and small 'fruits grow under cultiva- 
tion, and land is so precious in these limited areas of great 
richness and fertility that very narrow pathways divide each 
owner's plot from his neighbour's. Wherever oases are found 
they present similar features, and are naturally the halting-places 
and points of departure of desert caravans. 

OAST (O. Eng. dst, cf. Dutch eest, " kiln "; the Teutonic root is 
aidh- " to burn"; the pre-Teutonic idh- is seen in Lat. aestus, 
" heat," aestas, " summer," Gr. aWos, "burning heat"), a kiln, 
particularly one used for drying hops; the word usually appears 
in the term " oast-house," a building containing several of such 
kilns (see HOP). " Oast " is also sometimes used of a kiln for 
drying tobacco. 

OASTLER, RICHARD (1789-1861), English reformer, was 
born at Leeds ^n the zoth of December 1789, and in 1820 suc- 
ceeded his fathei as steward of the Thornhills' extensive Fixby 
estates at Huddersfield, Yorkshire. In 1830 John Wood, a 
Bradford manufacturer, called Oastler's attention to the evils 
of child employment in the factories of the district. Oastler 
at once started a campaign against the existing labour conditions 
by a vigorous letter, under the title " Yorkshire Slavery," to 
the Leeds Mercury, Public opinion was eventually aroused, 
and, after many years of agitation, in which Oastler played a' 
leading part, the Ten Hours Bill and other Factory Acts were 
passed, Oastler's energetic advocacy of the factory-workers' 
cause procuring him the title of " The Factory King." In 1838, 
however, owing to his opposition to the new poor law and his 
resistance of the commissioners, he had been dismissed from 
his stewardship at Fixby; and, in 1840, being unable to 
repay 2000 which he owed his late employer, Thomas 
Tnornhill, he was sent to the Fleet prison, where he re- 
mained for over three years. From prison he published the 
Fleet Papers, a weekly paper devoted to the discussion of 
factory and poor-law questions. In 1844 his friends raised a 
fund to pay his debt, and on his release he made a triumphant 
entry into Huddersfield. Oastler died at Harrogate on the 22nd 
of August 1861. A statue to his memory was erected at Bradford 
in 1869. 

OAT (O. Eng. ate; the word is not found in cognate languages; 
it may be allied with Fr. eitel, knot, nodule, cf. Gr. oTSos 
swelling), a cereal (Avena saliva) belonging to the tribe Avenece 
of the order Gramineae or grasses. The genus Avena contains 
about fifty species mostly dispersed through the temperate 
regions of the Old World. The spikelets form a loose panicle, 



938 



GATES 



familiar in the cultivated oat (fig. i), the flowering glume having 
its dorsal rib prolonged into an awn (fig. 2), which is in some 
species twisted and bent near the base. 

The origin of the cultivated oat is generally believed to be 
A.falua,oi" wild oat," or some similar species, of which several 

exist in southern Europe and 
western Asia. Professor J. 
Buckman succeeded in raising 
" the potato-oat type " and 
" the white Tatarian oat " 
from grain of this species. 
A. strigosa, Schreb, "the 
bristle-pointed oat," is the 
origin of the Scotch oat, 
according to Buckman. The 
white and black varieties of 
this species were cultivated 
in England and Scotland from 
remote times, and are still 
grown as a crop in Orkney and 
Shetland. A. strigosa is prob- 
ably only a variety of the cul- 
tivated oat. The " naked oat," 
A. mtda, was found by Bunge 
in waste ground about Peking; 
it was identified by the 
botanist Lindley with the pil- 
corn of the old agriculture, 
and we see from Rogers 1 that 
it was in cultivation in England 
in the I3th century. Both 
this and the " common otes," 
A. vesca, are described by Gerard. 2 Parkinson tells us that in his 
time (early in the I7th century) the naked oat was sown in sundry 
places, but " nothing so frequent " as the common sort. The 
chief differences between A. fatua and A. saliva, are, that 
in the former the chaff-scales which adhere to the grain are 
thick and hairy, and in the latter they are not so coarse and 
are hairless. The wild oat, moreover, has a long stiff awn, 
usually twisted near the base. In the cultivated oat it may 
be wanting, and if present it is not so stiff and is seldom 
bent. The grain is very small and worthless in the one, but 
larger and full in the other. There are now many varieties of 
the cultivated oat included under two principal races common 




FIG. i. Panicle of Oat, Avena 
saliva. (After Le Maout.) 





FIG. 2. Spikelet of Oat, A. FIG. 3. Spikelet of Wild Oat, 

saliva, with two fertile florets, A. Jalua, glumes hairy and long- 
and one terminal, rudimentary. pointed, awn twisted at base. 

(After Buckman.) 

oat or panicled oats with a spreading panicle, A. saliva proper, 
and Tatarian oats or banner oats which has sometimes been 
regarded as a distinct species, A. orienlalis, with contracted 
one-sided panicles. With regard to the antiquity of the oat, 
A. de Candolle 3 observes that it was not cultivated by the 
Hebrews, the Egyptians, the ancient Greeks and the Romans. 
Central Europe appears to be the locality where it was cultivated 
earliest, at least in Europe, for grains have been found among 

1 Rarer Kinds of Grain, ii. 173. 

1 Herball, p. 68 (1597). 

' Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 373. 



the remains of the Swiss lake-dwellings perhaps not earlier than 
the bronze age, while Pliny alludes to bread made of it by the 
ancient Germans. Pickering also records Galen's observations 
(De Alim. Fac. i. 14), that it was abundant in Asia Minor, 
especially Mysia, where it was made into bread as well as given 
to horses. 

Besides the use of the straw when cut up and mixed with other 
food for fodder, the oat grain constitutes an important food for 
both man and beast. The oat grain (excepting the naked oat), 
like that of barley, is closely invested by the husk. Oatmeal 
is made from the kiln-dried grain from which the husks have been 
removed ; and the form of the food is the well-known" porridge." 
In Ireland, where it is sometimes mixed with Indian-corn meal, 
it is called " stirabout." Groats or grits are the whole kernel 
from which the husk is removed. Their use is for gruel, which 
used to be consumed as an ordinary drink in the i7th century 
at the coffee-houses in London. The meal can be baked into 
" cake " or biscuit, as the Passover cake of the Jews; but it 
cannot be made into loaves in consequence of the great difficulty 
in rupturing the starch grains, unless the temperature be raised 
to a considerable height. With regard to the nutritive value 
of oatmeal, as compared with that of wheat flour, it contains 
a higher percentage of albuminoids than any other grain, viz. 
12-6 that of wheat being 10-8 and less of starch, 58-4 as 
against 66-3 in wheat. It has rather more sugar, viz. 5-4 wheat 
having 4-2 and a good deal more fat, viz. 5-6, as against 2-0 
in flour. Lastly, salts amount to 3-0% hi oat, but are only 1-7 
in wheat. Its nutritive value, therefore, is higher than that of 
ordinary seconds flour. 

DATES, TITUS (1640-1705), English conspirator, was the son 
of Samuel Oates (1610-1683), an Anabaptist preacher, chaplain 
to Pride, and afterwards rector of All Saints' Church, Hastings. 
He was admitted on the nth of June 1665 to Merchant Taylors' 
school, having, according to one authority, been previously 
at Oakham. There he remained a year, more or less, and 
" seems afterwards to have gone to Sedlescombe school in 
Sussex, from whence he passed to Caius College, Cambridge, 
on the 29th of June 1667, and was admitted a sizar of St John's, 
on the 2nd of February 1668-1669, aged 18." Upon very 
doubtful authority he is stated to have been also at Westminster 
school before going to the university. On leaving the university 
he apparently took Anglican orders, and officiated in several 
parishes, Hastings among them. Having brought malicious 
charges in which his evidence was rejected, he narrowly escaped 
prosecution for perjury. He next obtained a chaplaincy in the 
navy, from which he appears to have been speedily dismissed 
for bad conduct with the reputation of worse. He now, it 
is said, applied for help to Dr Israel Tonge, rector of St Michael's 
in Wood Street, an honest half-crazy man, who even then was 
exciting people's minds by giving out quarterly " treatises in 
print to alarm and awake his majesty's subjects." Oates 
offered his help, and it was arranged that he should pretend to 
be a Roman Catholic so as the better to unearth the Jesuit 
plots which possessed Tonge's brain. Accordingly he was 
received into the church by one Berry, himself an apostate, 
and entered the Jesuit College of Valladolid as Brother Ambrose. 
Hence he was soon expelled. In October 1677 he made a second 
application, and was admitted to St Omer on loth December. 
So scandalous, however, was his conduct that he was finally 
dismissed in 1678. Returning in June 1678 to Tonge, he set 
himself to forge a plot by piecing together things true and false, 
or true facts falsely interpreted, and by inventing treasonable 
letters and accounts of preparations for military action. The 
whole story was written by Oates in Greek characters, copied 
into English by Tonge, and finally told to one of Charles II. 's 
confidential servants named Kirkby. Kirkby having given the 
king his information, Oates was sent for (i3th August), and in 
a private interview gave details, in forty-three articles, of the 
plot and the persons who had engaged to assassinate Charles. 
The general improbability of the story was so manifest, and 
the discrepancies were so glaring, that neither then nor at any 
subsequent time did Charles express anything but amused 



OATH 



939 



incredulity. To bolster up the case a fresh packet of five forged 
letters was concocted (3ist August); but the forgery was trans- 
parent, and even Sir William Jones, the attorney-general, 
though a violent upholder of the plot, dared not produce them 
as evidence. 

Gates now (6th September) made an affidavit before Sir 
Edmond Berry Godfrey (q.v.) to an improved edition of his 
story, in eighty-one articles. Among the persons named was 
Coleman, secretary to the duchess of York, whom Godfrey 
knew, and to whom he sent word of the charges. Coleman 
in turn informed the duke, and he, since the immediate exposure 
of the plot was of the utmost consequence to him, induced 
Charles to compel Dates to appear (28th September) before the 
privy council. Here Gates delivered himself of a story the 
falsehood of which was so obvious that the king was able to 
expose him by a few simple questions. At this moment an 
accident most fortunate for Gates took place. Amongst the 
papers seized at his request were Coleman's, and in them 
were found copies of letters written by the latter to Pere la 
Chaise, suggesting that Louis should furnish him with money, 
which he would use in the French and Catholic interest among 
members of parliament. Among them, too, were these passages: 
" Success will give the greatest blow to the Protestant religion 
that it has received since its birth "; " we have here a mighty 
work upon our hands, no less than the conversion of three 
kingdoms, and by that perhaps the utter subduing of a pestilent 
heresy, which has so long domineered over great part of the 
northern world." The credit of Gates was thus, in the eyes of 
the people, re-established, and Coleman and others named were 
imprisoned. Charles was anxious for his brother's sake to bring 
the matter to a conclusion, but he dared not appear to stifle 
the plot; so, when starting for Newmarket, he left orders with 
Danby (see LEEDS, DUKE OF,) that he should finish the investiga- 
tion at once. But Danby purposely delayed; an impeachment 
was hanging over his head, and anything which took men's 
minds off that was welcome. 

On the 1 2th of October occurred the murder of Godfrey, and 
the excitement was at its highest pitch. On the 2ist of October 
parliament met, and, though Charles in his speech had barely 
alluded to the plot, all other business was put aside and Gates 
was called before the House. A new witness was wanted to 
support Oates's story, and in November a man named William 
Bedloe came forward. At first he remembered little; by degrees 
he remembered everything that was wanted. Not even so, 
however, did their witness agree together, so, as a bold stroke, 
Gates, with great circumstantiality, accused the queen before 
Charles of high treason. Charles both disbelieved and exposed 
him, whereupon Gates carried his tale before the House of 
Commons. The Commons voted for the queen's removal from 
court, but, the Lords refusing to concur, the matter dropped. 
It was not, however, until the i8th of July 1679 that the slaughter 
of Jesuits and other Roman Catholics upon Oates's testimony 
and that of his accomplices was to some extent checked. Sir 
George Wakeman, the queen's physician, was accused of pur- 
posing to poison the king, and the queen was named as being 
concerned in the plot. The refusals of Charles to credit or to 
countenance the attacks on his wife are the most creditable 
episodes in his life. Scroggs had intimation that he was to be 
lenient. Sir Philip Lloyd proved Gates to have perjured himself 
in open court, and Wakeman was acquitted. On the 26th of 
June 1680, upon Oates's testimony, the duke of York was pre- 
sented as a recusant at Westminster. But the panic had now 
worn itself out, and the importance of Gates rapidly declined; 
so much so that after the dissolution in 1682 he was no more 
heard of during Charles's reign, but enjoyed his pension of 600 
or 900, it is uncertain which, in quiet. Shortly before the 
death of Charles, James brought, and won, a civil action against 
Gates, with damages of 100,000; in default of payment Gates 
was taken to prison; while there he was indicted for perjury, 
and was tried in May 1685, soon after the accession of James II. 
He was convicted and received a severe sentence, with repeated 
floggings, the execution of which was expected to kill him, and 



which was rigorously carried out; but to the astonishment of 
all he survived. 

Gates was in prison for three and a half years. Upon the 
flight of James, and during the excitement against the Catholics, 
he partially gained his liberty, and brought an appeal against 
his sentence before the Lords, who, while admitting the sentence 
to be unjust, confirmed it by a majority of thirty-five to twenty- 
three. The Commons, however, passed a bill annulling the 
sentence; and a conference was held in which the Lords, while 
again acknowledging that legally they were wrong, adhered to 
their former determination. The matter was finally settled by 
Gates receiving a royal pardon, with a pension of 300 a year. 
The remainder of his life was spent in retirement, varied by a 
good deal of sordid intrigue. In 1691 he became acquainted 
with William Fuller, whom he induced to forge another plot, 
though not with the success he had himself attained. He 
married a wealthy widow in 1693, but his extravagance soon 
brought him into straits. In 1696 he dedicated to William III. 
a book called Eikon Basilike, an elaborate tissue of invection 
against " the late king James." In 1698 he obtained admission 
as a member of the Baptist Church, and used to preach at 
Wapping; but in 1701, as the result of a financial scandal, he 
was formally expelled from the sect. He died on the I2th of 
July 1705. 

AUTHORITIES. Oates's, Dangerfield's and Bedloe's Narratives; 
State Trials; Journals of Houses of Parliament; North's Examen; 
the various memoirs and diaries of the period; Fuller's Narrative; 
Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel; Burnet's History; Narcissus 
Luttrell's Relation. Lingard's History gives an exhaustive and trust- 
worthy account of the Popish terror and its victims; and the chief 
incidents in Oates's career are graphically described by Macaulay. 
On the question of the place of his education see Notes and Queries 
(22nd December 1883). See also T. Seccombe's essay in Twelve Bad 
Men (1894), where a bibliography is given. 

OATH (O. Eng. ddh), a term which may be defined as an asse- 
veration or promise made under non-human penalty or sanction. 
The word is found throughout the Teutonic languages (Goth. 
ailhs, Mod. Ger. Eid), but without ascertainable etymology. 
The verb to swear is also Old Teutonic (Goth, svaran, Mod. Ger. 
schworen) ; this word, too, is not clear in original meaning, but 
is in some way connected with the notion of answering indeed 
it still forms part of the word answer, O. Eng. and-swarian ; it has 
been suggested that the swearer answered by word or gesture 
to a solemn formula or act. Among other terms in this con- 
nexion, the La.t.jurare, whence English law has such derivatives 
as jury, seems grounded on the metaphorical idea of binding 
(Tootju, as mjungo) ; the similar idea of a bond or restraint may 
perhaps be traced in Gr. opxos. It may be worth notice that 
Lat. sacramentum (whence Mod. Fr. sermenl) does not really 
imply the sacredness of an oath, but had its origin in the money 
paid into court in a Roman lawsuit, the loser forfeiting his 
pledge, which went to pay for the public rites (sacra); thence 
the word passed to signify other solemn pledges, such as military 
and judicial oaths. 

Writers viewing the subject among civilized nations only 
have sometimes defined the oath as an appeal to a deity. It will 
be seen, however, by some following examples, that the harm or 
penalty consequent on perjury may be considered to result 
directly, without any spirit or deity being mentioned; indeed 
it is not unlikely that these mere direct curses invoked on himself 
by the swearer may be more primitive than the invocation of 
divinities to punish. Examples of the simplest kind of curse- 
oath may be seen among the Nagas of Assam, where two men 
will lay hold of a dog or a fowl by head and feet, which is then 
chopped in two with a single blow of the dao, this being em- 
blematic of the fate expected to befall the perjurer. Or a man 
will stand within a circle of rope, with the implication that if he 
breaks his vow he may rot as a rope does, or he will take hold of 
the barrel of a gun, a spear-head or a tiger's tooth, and solemnly 
declare, " If I do not faithfully perform this my promise, may I 
fall by this! " (Butler in Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1875, p. 316). 
Another stage in the history of oaths is that in which the swearer 
calls on some fierce beast to punish him if he lies, believing that 
it has the intelligence to know what he says and the power to 



940 



OATH 



interfere in his affairs. In Siberia, in lawsuits between Russians 
and the wild Ostiaks, it is described as customary to bring into 
court the head of a bear, the Ostiak making the gesture of eating, 
and calling on the bear to devour him in like manner if he does 
not tell the truth (G. A. Erman, Travels in Siberia, i. 492, 
London, 1848). Similar oaths are still sworn on the head or 
skin of a tiger by the Santals and other indigenous tribes of 
India. To modern views, a bear or a tiger seems at any rate a 
more rational being to appeal to than a river or the sun, but hi 
the earlier stage of nature-religion these and other great objects 
of nature are regarded as animate and personal. The prevalence 
of river-worship is seen in the extent to which in the old and 
modern world oaths by rivers are most sacred. In earlier ages 
men swore inviolably by Styx or Tiber, and to this day an 
oath on water of the Ganges is to the Hindu the most binding of 
pledges, for the goddess will take awful vengeanceon the children 
of the perjurer. The Tungus brandishes a knife before the sun, 
saying, " If I lie may the sun plunge sickness into my entrails 
like this knife." The natural transition from swearing by these 
great objects of nature to invoking gods conceived in human 
form is well shown in the treaty-oath between the Macedonians 
and the Carthaginians recorded by Polybius (vii. 9); here the 
sun and moon and earth, the rivers and meadows and waters, 
are invoked side by side with Zeus and Hera and Apollo, and 
the gods of the Carthaginians. The heaven-god, able to smite 
the perjurer with his lightning, was invoked by the Romans, 
when a hog was slain with the sacred flint representing the 
thunderbolt, with the invocation to Jove so to smite the Roman 
people if they broke the oath (Liv. i. 24; Polyb. iii. 25). Another 
form of this Aryan rite was preserved by the old Slavonic nation 
of Prussia, where a man would lay his right hand on his own 
neck and his left on the holy oak, saying, " May Perkun (the 
thunder-god) destroy me!" The oaths of the lower culture 
show a remarkable difference from those of later stages. In the 
apparently primitive forms the curse on the perjurer is to take 
effect in this world. But as nations became more observant, 
experience must have shown that bears and tigers were as apt 
to kill truth-tellers as perjurers, and that even the lightning- 
flash falls without moral discrimination. In the Clouds of 
Aristophanes, indeed, men have come openly to ridicule such 
beliefs, the Socrates of the play pointing out that notorious 
perjurers go unharmed, while Zeus hurls his bolts at his own 
temple, and the tall oaks, as if an oak-tree could perjure itself. 
The doctrine of miraculous earthly retribution on the perjurer 
lasted on in legend, as where Eusebius relates how three villains 
conspired to bring a false accusation against Narcissus, bishop 
of Jerusalem, which accusation they confirmed by solemn oath 
before the church, one wishing that if he swore falsely he might 
perish by fire, one that he might die of the pestilence, one that 
he might lose his eyes; a spark no man knew from whence 
burned to ashes the first perjurer's house and all within, the 
second was consumed by the plague from head to foot, whereupon 
the third confessed the crime with tears so copious that he lost 
his sight (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 9). As a general rule, however, 
the supernatural retribution on perjury has been transferred 
from the present world to the regions beyond the grave, as is 
evident from any collection of customary oaths. A single 
instance will show at once the combination of retributions in 
and after the present life, and the tendency to heap up remote 
penalties in the vain hope of securing present honesty. The 
Siamese Buddhist in his oath, not content to call down on himself 
various kinds of death if he breaks it, desires that he may after- 
wards be cast into hell to go through innumerable tortures, 
among them to carry water over the flames in a wicker basket 
to assuage the thirst of the infernal judge, then that he may 
migrate into the body of a slave for as many years as there are 
grains of sand in four seas, and after this that he may be born a 
beast through five hundred generations and an hermaphrodite 
five hundred more. 

The forms of oath belonging to all nations and ages, various 
as they are in detail, come under a few general heads. It may 
be first observed that gestures such as grasping hands, or putting 



one hand between the hands of another in token of homage, are 
sometimes treated as of the nature of oaths, but wrongly so, 
they being rather of the nature of ceremonies of compact. The 
Hebrew practice of putting the hand under another's thigh is 
usually reckoned among oath-rites, but it may have been 
merely a ceremony of covenant (Gen. xxiv. 2, xlvii. 29; see 
Joseph. Ant. i. 16). Even the covenant among many ancient 
and modern nations by the parties mixing their blood or drinking 
one another's is in itself only a solemn rite of union, not an oath 
proper, unless some such ceremony is introduced as dipping 
weapons into the blood, as in the form among the ancient 
Scythians (Herod, iv. 70) ; this, by bringing in the idea of death 
befalling the covenant-breaker, converts the proceeding into an 
oath of the strongest kind. The custom of swearing by weapons, 
though frequent in the world, is far from consistent in meaning. 
It may signify, in cases such as those just mentioned, that the 
swearer if forsworn is to die by such a weapon; or the warrior 
may appeal to his weapon as a powerful or divine object, as 
Parthenopaeus swears by his spear that he will level to the 
ground the walls of Thebes (Aeschyl. Sept. contra Theb. 530; 
see the custom of the Quadi in Ammian. Marcellin. xvii.); or 
the weapon may be a divine emblem, as when the Scythians 
swore by the wind and the sword as denoting life and death 
(Lucian, Toxaris, 38) . Oaths by weapons lasted into the Christian 
period; for instance, the Lombards swore lesser oaths by 
consecrated weapons and greater on the Gospels (see Du Cange, 
s.v. " Juramenta super arma "; Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterth. 
p. 896). Stretching forth the hand towards the object or deity 
sworn by is a natural gesture, well shown in the oath of Agamem- 
non, who with uplifted hands (Au x e 'P< bvaaxuv) takes Heaven 
to witness with Sun and Earth and the Erinyes who below the 
earth wreak vengeance on the perjurer (Homer //. xix. 254; 
see also Pindar, Olymp. vii. 120). The gesture of lifting the 
hand towards heaven was also an Israelite form of oath: 
Abraham says, " I have h'fted up my hand to Jehovah," while 
Jehovah Himself is represented as so swearing, " For I lift up 
My hand to heaven, and say, I live for ever " (Gen. xiv. 22; 
Deut. xxxii. 40; see Dan. xii. 7; Rev. x. 5). This gesture 
established itself in Christendom, and has continued to modern 
times. In England, for example, in the parliament at Shrews- 
bury in 1398, when the Lords took an oath on the cross of 
Canterbury never to suffer the transactions of that parliament 
to be changed, the members of the Commons held up their 
hands to signify their taking upon themselves the same oath 
(J. E. Tyler, Oaths, p. 99). In France a juror takes oath by 
raising his hand, saying, "Je jure!" The Scottish judicial oath 
is taken by the witness holding up his right hand uncovered, 
and repeating after the usher, " I swear by Almighty God, and 
as I shall answer to God at the great day of judgment, that I 
will," &c. 

In the ancient world sacrifice often formed part of the ceremony 
of the oath ; typical examples may be found in the Homeric poems, 
as in Agamemnon's oath already mentioned, or the compact between 
the Greeks and Trojans (//. iii. 276), where wine is poured out in 
libation, with prayer to Zeus and the immortal gods that the per- 
jurer's brains shall, like the wine, be poured on the ground; the rite 
thus passes into a symbolic curse-oath of the ordinary barbaric type. 
Connected with such sacrificial oaths is the practice of laying the 
hand on the victim or the altar, or touching the image of the god. 
A classic instance is in a comedy of Plautus (Rudens, v. 2, 45), where 
Gripus says, " Tange aram hanc Veneris," and Labrax answers 
"Tango" (Greek instance, Thucyd. v. 47; see Justin xxiv. 2). 
Thus Livy (xxi. i) introduces the phrase " touching the sacred 
objects " (tactis sacris) into the picturesque story of Hannibal's oath. 
Details of the old Scandinavian oath have been preserved in Iceland 
in the Landnamabok (Islendinga Sogur, Copenhagen, 1843); a 
bracelet (baugr) of two rings or more was to be kept on the altar 
in every head court, which the godi or priest should wear at all law- 
things held by him, and should redden in the blood of the bullock 
sacrificed, the witness pronouncing the remarkable formula: " Name 
I to witness that I take oath by the ring, law-oath, so help me Frey, 
and Niord, and almighty Thor " (hialpi mer sv& Freyr, ok Niordr, 
ok hinn almattki Ass), &c. This was doubtless the great oath on 
the holy ring or bracelet which the Danes swore to King Alfred to 
quit his kingdom ("on tham halgan beage," Anglo-Sax. Chron.; 

in eorum armilla sacra," Ethelwerd, Chron. iv.). An oath, though 
not necessarily expressed in words, is usually so. In the Homeric 



OATH 



941 



I 



instances the prayer which constitutes the oath has a somewhat con- I 
ventional form, and in the classical ages we find well-marked formulas. 
These are often references to deities, as " by Zeus! " " I call Zeus to 
witness" (yal fid Aia: IVTW Zdn); " by the immortal gods!" 
" I call to witness the ashes of my ancestors " (per deos immortales; 
testor majorum cineres). Sometimes a curse is invoked on himself 
by the swearer, that he may perish if he fail to keep his oath, as " the 
gods destroy me," "let me perish if," &c. (dii me perdant; dis- 
peream si). An important class of Roman oaths invokes the deity 
to favour or preserve the swearer in so far as he shall fulfil his promise 
" as the gods may preserve me," " as I wish the gods to be pro- 
pitious to me " (me ita di servent; ita deos mihi velim propitips). 
The best Roman collection is to be found in the old work of Brissonius, 
De Formulis et Solemnibus Popidi Romani Verbis (Paris, 1583). 
Biblical examples of these classes of oaths are " as the Lord liveth " 
'i Sam. xiv. 39, and elsewhere), " so do God to me, and more also " 
'2 Sam. iii. 35, and elsewhere). 

The history of oaths in the early Christian ages opens a con- 
troversy which can hardly be said even yet to have closed. Under 
Christ's injunction, " Swear not at all " (Matt. v. 34; also 
James v. 12), many Christians seem at first to have shrunk from 
taking oaths, and, though after a time the usual customs of 
judicial and even colloquial oaths came to prevail among them, 
the writings of the Fathers show efforts to resist the practice. 
Chrysostom perhaps goes furthest in inveighing against this 
" snare of Satan ": " Do as you choose; I lay it down as a law 
that there be no swearing at all. If any bid you swear, tell him, 
Christ has spoken, and I do not swear " (Homil. ix. in Act. 
Apostol.; see a collection of patristic passages in Sixt. Senens. 
Bibliothec. Sanct. vi. adnot. 26). The line mostly taken by 
influential teachers, however, was that swearing should indeed 
be avoided as much as possible from its leading to perjury, but 
that the passages forbidding it only applied to superfluous or 
trifling oaths, or those sworn by created objects, such as heaven 
or earth or one's own head. On the other hand, they argued that 
judicial and other serious swearing could not have been forbidden, 
seeing that Paul in his epistles repeatedly introduces oaths 
(2 Cor. i. 23; Phil. i. 8; Gal. i. 20). Thus Athanasius writes: 
" I stretch out my hand, and as I have learned of the apostle, 
I call God to witness on my soul " (Apol. ad Imp. Const. ; see 
Augustine, De Mend. 28; Epist. cl. iii. 9; cl. iv. 250; Enarr. 
in Psalm. Ixxxviii. (4); Serm. 307, 319). This argument is 
the more forcible from Paul's expressions being actually oaths 
in accepted forms, and it has also been fairly adduced that 
Christ, by answering to the adjuration of the high priest, took 
the judicial oath in solemn form (Matt. xxvi. 63). The passages 
here referred to will give an idea of the theological grounds on 
which in more modern times Anabaptists, Mennonites and 
Quakers have refused to take even judicial oaths, while, on the 
other hand, the laws of Christendom from early ages have been 
only directed against such swearing as was considered profane 
or otherwise improper, and against perjury. Thus from the 
3rd or 4th century we find oaths taking much the same place 
in Christian as in non-Christian society. In the 4th century the 
Christian military oath by God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, and the 
majesty of the emperor is recorded by Vegetius (Rei Milil. 
Insl. ii. 5). Constantine's laws required every witness in a cause 
to take oath; this is confirmed in Justinian's code, which even 
in some cases requires also the parties and advocates to be sworn 
(Cod. Theod. xi. 39; Justin. Cod. iv. 20, 59). Bishops and clergy 
were called upon to take oath in ordination, monastic vows, 
and other ecclesiastical matters (see details in Bingham, Anliq. of 
Ckr. Church, xvi. 7). By the middle ages oaths had increased 
and multiplied in Christendom far beyond the practice of any 
other age or religion. The Reformation made no change in 
principle, as is seen, for instance, in Art. xxxix. of the church of 
England: " As we confess that vain and rash swearing is 
forbidden Christian men by our Lord Jesus Christ, and James 
His apostle, so we judge, that Christian Religion doth not 
prohibit, but that a man may swear when the Magistrate re- 
quireth, in a cause of faith and charity, so it be done according 
to the Prophet's teaching, in justice, judgement and truth." 

The history of swearing in early Christendom would lead us 
to expect that the forms used would be adopted with more or 
less modification from Hebrew or Roman sources, as indeed 



proves to be the case. The oath introduced in the body of one 
of Constantine's laws" As the Most High Divinity may ever 
be propitious to me " (Ita mihi sumnia Divinitas semper propitia 
sit) follows an old Roman form. The Roman oath by the genius 
of the emperor being objected to by Christians as recognizing a 
demon, they swore by his safety (Tertull. Apol. 32). The 
gesture of holding up the hand in swearing has been already 
spoken of. The Christian oath on a copy of the Gospels seems 
derived from the late Jewish oath taken holding in the hand 
the scroll of the law (or the phylacteries), a ceremony itself 
possibly adapted from Roman custom (see treatise " Shebuoth " 
in Gemara). Among the various mentions of the oath on the 
Gospels in early Christian writers is that characteristic passage 
of Chrysostom in a sermon to the people of Antioch: " But do 
thou, if nothing else, at least reverence the very book thou 
boldest forth to be sworn by, open the Gospel thou takest in 
thy hands to administer the oath, and, hearing what Christ 
therein saith of oaths, tremble and desist " (Serm. ad pop. 
Antioch. Homil. xv.). The usual mode was to lay the band on 
the Gospel, as is often stated in the records, and was kept up to 
a modern date in the oath in the university of Oxford, " tactis 
sacrosanctis Evangeliis"; the practice of kissing the book, 
which became so well established in England, appears in the 
middle ages (J. E. Tyler, Oaths, pp. 119, 151). The book was 
often laid on the altar, or (after the manner of ancient Rome) 
the swearer laid his hand on the altar itself, or looked towards 
it; above all, it became customary to touch relics of saints on 
the altar, a ceremony of which the typical instance is^een in the 
representation of Harold's oath in the Bayeux tapestry. Other 
objects, as the cross, the bishop's crosier, &c., were sworn by 
(see Du Cange, s.v. " Jurare "). An oath ratified by contact or 
inspection of a sacred object was called a " corporal " or bodily 
oath, as distinguished from a merely spoken or written oath; 
this is well seen in an old English coronation oath, " so helpe 
me God, and these holy euangelists by me bodily touched vppon 
this hooly awter." The English word signifying the " sacred 
object " on which oath is taken is halidome (A.S. hdligddm; 
Ger. Heiligthum}; the halidome on which oaths are now sworn 
in England is a copy of the New Testament. Jews are sworn 
on the Old Testament; the sacred books of other religions are 
used in like manner, a Mohammedan swearing on the Koran, 
a Hindu on the Vedas. 

Among the oath-formulas used in Christendom, that taken 
by provincial governors under Justinian is typical of one class: 
" I swear by God Almighty, and His only begotten Son our Lord 
Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost, and the Most Holy Glorious 
Mother of God and ever Virgin Mary, and by the Four Gospels 
which I hold in my hand, and by the Holy Archangels Michael 
and Gabriel," &c. The famous oath of the kings Louis and 
Charles at Strassburg in 842 (A.D.) runs: " By God's love and 
the Christian people and our common salvation, as God shall give 
me knowledge and power," &c. Earlier than this, as in the oath 
of fealty in the capitularies of Charlemagne in 802, is found the 
familiar form " Sic me adjuvet Deus," closely corresponding to 
above-mentioned formulas of pre-Christian Rome. This became 
widely spread in Europe, appearing in Old French " Si m'ait 
Dex," German " So mir Gott helfe," English " So help me God." 
A remarkable point in its history is its occurrence in the " So 
help me Frey," &c., of the old Scandinavian ring-oath already 
described. Among the curiosities of the subject are quaint oaths 
of kings and other great personages: William Rufus swore " by 
that and that " (per hoc et per hoc), William the Conqueror 
" by the splendour of God," Richard I. " by God's legs," John 
" by God's teeth "; other phrases are given in Du Cange (I.e.), as 
" per omnes gentes," " per coronam," " par la sainte figure de 
Dieu," " par la mort Dieu," &c. 

Profane swearing, the trifling or colloquial use of sacred 
oaths, is not without historical interest, formulas used being apt 
to keep up traces of old manners and extinct religions. Thus the 
early Christians were reproved for continuing to say " meherclel " 
some of them not knowing that they were swearing by Hercules 
(Tertull. De idol. 20). Oaths by deities of pre-Christian Europe 



942 



OATH 



lasted into the modern world, as when a few generations ago 
Swedish peasants might be heard to swear, " Odin take me if 
it is not true!" (Hylten-Cavallius, Warend och Wirdarne, 
i. 228). The thunder-god holds his place still in vulgar German 
exclamations, such as"Donner!" (Grimm. Deutsche Mythologie, 
pp. 10, 166). The affected revival of classical deities in Italy in 
the middle ages still lingers in such forms as "per Bacco!" 
" cospetto di Bacco!" (by Bacchus! face of Bacchus!). In 
France the concluding oath of the last paragraph dwindled into 
" mordieu ! " or " morbleu 1 " much as in England the old oaths 
by God's body and wounds became converted into " oddsbodi- 
kins ! " and " zounds ! " (E. B. T.) 

Law. Politicians and moralists have placed much reliance 
on oaths as a practical security. It has been held, as Lycurgus 
the orator said to the Athenians, that " an oath is the bond that 
keeps the state together " (Lycurg. Leocr. 80; see Montesquieu, 
Spirit of Laws). Thus modern law-books quote from the leading 
case of Omichund v. Barker: " No country can subsist a twelve- 
month where an oath is thought not binding; for the want of 
it must necessarily dissolve society." On the other hand, 
wherever the belief in supernatural interference becomes weak- 
ened, and oaths are taken with solemn form but secret contempt 
or open ridicu'e, they become a serious moral scandal, as had 
already begun to happen in classical times. The yet more 
disastrous effect of the practice of swearing is the public infer- 
ence that, if a man has to swear in order to be believed, he need 
not speak the truth when not under oath. The early Christian 
fathers were alive to this depreciation of ordinary truthfulness 
by the practice of swearing, and opposed, though unavailingly, 
the system of oaths which more and more pervaded public 
business. How in the course of the middle ages oaths were 
multiplied is best seen by examining a collection of formulas 
such as the Book of Oaths (London, 1649), which range from 
the coronation oath to the oaths sworn by such as valuers of 
cloths and the city scavengers. 1 Oaths of allegiance and other 
official oaths are still taken throughout Europe, but experience 
shows that in times of revolution they are violated with little 
scruple, and in the case of the United Kingdom it is doubtful 
whether they have any more practical value than, if so much as, 
simple declarations. The question of legal oaths is more difficult. 
On the one hand, it is admitted that they do induce witnesses, 
especially the ignorant and superstitious, to give evidence more 
truthfully than they would do on even solemn declaration. On 
the other hand, all who practise in courts of justice declare 
that a large proportion of the evidence given under oath is 
knowingly false, and that such perjury is perceptibly detri- 
mental to public morals. 

The oaths now administered among civilized nations are 
chiefly intended for maintaining governments and securing the 
performance of public business. In England the coronation 
oath is to be administered by one of the archbishops or bishops 
in the presence of all the people, who, on their parts, reciprocally 
take the oath of allegiance to the crown. The archbishop or 
bishop shall say : " Will you solemnly promise and swear to 
govern the people of this United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland and the dominions thereto belonging according to the 
statutes in parliament agreed on, and the respective laws and cus- 
toms of the same?" The king shall say: " I solemnly promise 
so to do." Archbishop or bishop: " Will you to the utmost of 
your power cause law and justice, in mercy, to be executed in 
all your judgements?" King: " I will." Archbishop or bishop: 
" Will you, to the utmost of your power, maintain the laws of 
God, the true profession of the Gospel, and the Protestant re- 
formed religion established by law? And will you maintain 
and preserve inviolably the settlement of the Church of England 
and the doctrine, worship, discipline and government thereof, 
as by law established in England. And will you preserve unto 
the bishops and clergy of England, and to the churches therein 
all such rights and privileges as by law do or shall appertain to 
them, or any of them ? " King: " All this I promise to do." 

1 As to reform of the excessive multiplication of oaths, see Paley, 
Moral Philosophy, bk. iii. pt. L ch. 16; and J. E. Tyler, Oaths. 



After this the king, laying his hand upon the holy Gospels, shall 
say : " The things which I have here before promised I will 
perform and keep; so help me God," and then shall kiss the 
book. 

The chief officers of state take an " official " oath well and 
truly to serve his majesty. Special oaths are taken by privy 
councillors, archbishops and bishops, peers, baronets and knights, 
recruits and others. The old oath of allegiance, as administered 
(says Blackstone) upwards of 600 years, contained a promise 
" to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and 
faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to 
know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defend- 
ing him therefrom " (Blackstone, Commentaries, book i. chap, 
x.). In the reign of William III. it was replaced by a shorter 
form; and it now runs: " I . . . do swear that I will be 
faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty . . . , his heirs 
and successors, according to law." Statutes of Charles II. and 
George I. enacted that no member should vote or sit in either 
house of parliament without having taken the several oaths 
of allegiance, supremacy and abjuration. The oath of supremacy 
in the reign of William III. was: " I A B doe swear that I doe 
from my heart abhorr detest and abjure as impious and hereticall 
this damnable doctrine and position that princes excommuni- 
cated or deprived by the pope or any authority of the see of 
Rome may be deposed or murdered by their subjects or any 
other whatsoever. And I doe declare that no forreigne prince 
person prelate state or potentate hath or ought to have any 
jurisdiction power superiority preeminence or authoritie ecclesi- 
asticall or spirituall within this realme. Soe," &c. The oath 
of abjuration introduced in the time of William III. recognizes 
the king's rights, engages the juror to support him and disclose 
all traitorous conspiracies against him, promises to maintain 
the Hanoverian Protestant succession, and expressly renounces 
any claim of the descendants of the late Pretender. This oath 
was not only taken by persons in office, but might be tendered 
by two justices to any person suspected of disaffection. In 
modern times a single parliamentary oath was substituted for 
the three, and this was altered to enable Roman Catholics to 
take it, and Jews were enabled to sit in parliament by being 
allowed to omit the words " on the true faith of a Christian." 
In its present form the parliamentary oath consists of an oath 
of allegiance and a promise to maintain the succession to the 
crown as limited and settled in the reign of William III. 

The " judicial " oath taken by judges of the court of appeal 
or of the High Court of Justice, and by justices of the peace, 
is " to do right to all manner of people after the laws and usages 
of this realm, without fear or favour, affection or ill-will." 
Jurors are sworn, whence indeed their name (juratores); in 
felonies the oath administered is: " You shall well and truly 
try and true deliverance make between our sovereign lord the 
king and the prisoner at the bar whom you shall have in charge, 
and a true verdict give according to the evidence." In mis- 
demeanours the form is: " Well and truly try the issue joined 
between our sovereign lord the king and the defendant, and a 
true verdict," &c. The oath of the jurors in the Scottish criminal 
courts is: " You [the jury collectively) swear in the name of 
Almighty God and as you shall answer to God at the great day 
of judgment that you will truth say and no truth cental in so 
far as you are to pass upon this assize." The oldest trace of this 
form of oath in Scotland is in Reg. maj. i. cap. n, copied from 
Glanvill, which points to an origin in the Norman inquest or 
" recognition." In the ancient custom of compurgation, once 
prevalent in Europe, the accused's oath was supported by the 
oaths of a number of helpers or compurgators who swore to their 
belief in its validity. 

Witnesses in English law courts must give their evidence 
under the sanction of an oath, or of what is equivalent to an 
oath, and the ordinary form of oath adapted to Christians is: 
" The evidence you shall give . . . shall be the truth, the whole 
truth, and nothing but the truth. So help you God." Many 
alterations of the English law as to oaths have been made in 
relief of (i) those Christians who object on conscientious grounds. 



OAXACA 



943 



to the taking of an oath, and (2) of those persons who refuse 
to admit the binding force of an oath. Special provision was 
first made for Quakers, Moravians and Separatists; then 
followed general enactments relating to civil and criminal pro- 
ceedings respectively, till finally the law was embodied in the 
Oaths Act 1888, which enacted that " every person upon object- 
ing to being sworn, and stating, as the ground of such objection, 
either that he has no religious belief, or that the taking of an 
oath is contrary to his religious belief, shall be permitted to 
make his solemn affirmation instead of taking an oath in all 
places and for all purposes where an oath is or shall be required 
by law, which affirmation shall be of the same force and effect 
as if he had taken the oath; and if any person making such 
affirmation shall wilfully, falsely and corruptly affirm any 
matter or thing which, if deposed on oath, would have amounted 
to wilful and corrupt perjury, he shall be liable to prosecution, 
indictment, sentence and punishment in all respects as if he had 
committed wilful and corrupt perjury." The form of affirmation 
prescribed by the Oaths Act was as follows: "I, A. B., do 
solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm," &c. Under 
S. 5 of the same act a person might swear in the Scottish form, 
with uplifted hand (no book of any kind being used) and if he 
desired to do so " the oath shall be administered to him in such 
form and manner without question." With the desire of making 
universal this method of administering the oath the Oaths Act 
1909 was passed. It enacted that any oath might be adminis- 
tered and taken in the following form: " The person taking 
the oath shall hold the New Testament, or in the case of a Jew, 
the Old Testament, in his uplifted hand, and shall say or repeat 
after the officer administering the oath the words ' I swear by 
Almighty God that . . . ,' followed by the words of the oath 
prescribed by law." The officer also is directed by the act to 
administer it in this fashion, unless the person about to take 
it voluntarily objects or is physically incapable of taking it 
so. To a person who is neither a Christian nor a Jew the 
oath may be administered in any way in which it was previously 
lawful. 

The form of affirmation given above is that used for Quakers, 
Moravians and Separatists in the witness-box: " I, A. B., being 
one of the people called Quakers (one of the United Brethren 
called Moravians), do, &c." A Christian swears on the Gospels, 
holding a copy of the New Testament in his right hand (the 
hand being uncovered), and his head being also uncovered. A 
witness may elect to be sworn on any version of the Bible which 
he considers most binding on him, as a Roman Catholic on the 
Douai Testament or Bible. A Jew is sworn on the Pentateuch, 
holding a copy thereof in his right hand, the head being covered. 
A Mahommedan is sworn upon the Koran. He places his right 
hand flat upon the book and puts the other hand upon his fore- 
head, bringing his head down to the book and in contact with 
it. He then looks at the book for some moments. Buddhists 
are sworn on the Buddhist doctrines, Sikhs upon the Granth, 
Parsees upon the Zend Avesta, Hindus upon the Vedas, or by 
touching the Brahmin's foot, and, according to caste custom, 
Indian witnesses sometimes insist upon the oath being ad- 
ministered by a Brahmin; but in India witnesses now generally 
affirm. Kaffir witnesses swear by their own chief, and a Kaffir 
chief by the king of England. When a Chinese witness is to be 
sworn, a saucer is handed to him, which he takes in his hand 
and kneeling down breaks into fragments. The colonial legis- 
latures generally make provision for receiving unsworn evidence 
of barbarous and uncivilized people who have no religious belief. 
The great number of oaths formerly required was much reduced 
by the Promissory Oaths Act 1868, which prescribed the forms 
of oath of allegiance, the official oath and the judicial oath. The 
right to affirm in lieu of taking the parliamentary oath in the 
case of atheists was first raised in the case of Charles Bradlaugh 
(?-.). 

Profane swearing and cursing is punishable by the Profane Oaths 
Act 1745, any labourer, sailor or soldier being liable to forfeit 
Is., every other person under the degree of a gentleman 2s., and 
every gentleman or person of superior rank 55., to the poor of the 
parish. 



The administering or taking of unlawful oaths is criminal in English 
and Scots law. Statutes relating to the offence were passed in 1797, 
1799, 1810 and 1812, and it is evident from the preamble of the 
latter act (Unlawful Oaths Act 1812) that they were aimed at those 
societies in the United Kingdom at the time of the French Revolu- 
tion which required or permitted their members to take an unlawful 
oath. Supplementary statutes were passed in 1817 and 1837. 
Children of tender years, who, in the opinion of the court, have not 
sufficient intelligence to understand the nature of an oath, may give 
evidence without being sworn. 

In the United States an oath is required in practically every case 
in which it is required in the United Kingdom, and with the same 
latitude as to affirmation. The formula or details may vary in 
different states of the Union. The same may be said generally of 
every civilized country, with the reservation that an affirmation 
is not so usually accepted as in English-speaking countries. In 
Germany an oath is compulsory on a witness in criminal cases, 
except in the case of certain sects, whose tenets forbid the taking 
of an oath. 

AUTHORITIES. Coke's Institutes; Book of Oaths (1689) ; Stephen's 
Commentaries ; Stringer's Oaths and Affirmations; Tyler, Oaths; 
Origin, Nature, History (1835) ; Ford, On Oaths. 

OAXACA, or OAJACA (officially OAXACA DE JtrAREz), a 
southern state of Mexico, lying partly on the southern slope of 
the great Mexican plateau and covering the southern and larger 
part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, bounded N. by Puebla, 
N.E. and E. by Vera Cruz, S.E. by Chiapas, S. by the Pacific 
and W. by Guerrero. Pop. (1900) 948,633, a large majority 
of whom are Indians. The state has an area of 35,382 sq. m. 
broken by mountain ranges into numerous broad fertile valleys, 
chiefly lying in the tierra templada region. The isthmus districts, 
however, have lower elevations and are distinctly tropical. The 
coast line is 329 m. long; behind it is a narrow strip of lowlands 
lying within the tierras calientes. In places this strip nearly 
disappears, the sierras rising almost immediately from the sea- 
shore. The culminating points within the state are Zempoalte- 
petl (11,145 ft-) about 50 m. E. by N. of the city of Oaxaca in a 
knot of sierras, San Felipe del Agua (10,253 ft-) standing on the 
eastern margin of the beautiful Oaxaca Valley, and the Cerro 
del Leone, south-west of Tehuantepec, the highest summit in 
the Sierra Madre del Sur. Tributaries of the Mescala drain the 
western quarter of the state, among which is the Atoyac or 
headstream of the Mescala, which rises in Tlaxcala, and flows 
across the state of Puebla. The streams flowing northward to 
the Gulf coast are the Coatzacoalcos and Papaloapam with its 
tributary, the San Juan, all flowing across the state of Vera 
Cruz. The Papaloapam is navigable up to the town of Tuxtepec, 
in the state of Oaxaca. The largest of the Pacific coast streams 
is the Tehuantepec, which with its many tributaries has an 
aggregate length of 182 m. The Rio Verde has its source farther 
inland and drains the Oaxaca Valley, but its tributaries are 
small and less numerous. The only ports on the coast open to 
foreign trade are Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel the first, the 
Pacific terminus of the Tehuantepec railway, with a spacious 
artificial harbour, and the second a deep but narrow natural 
harbour, the projected coast terminus of the Mexican Southern 
railway. The greater part of the state has a sub-tropical climate, 
with high sun temperatures, moderate rainfall and mild, healthful 
conditions. The less healthful regions include the isthmus 
districts, the coastal zone on the Pacific and the low country on 
the border of Vera Cruz. Agriculture is the principal occupation 
of the people; the chief products are Indian corn, wheat, coffee, 
sugar, rubber, cotton, cacao, tobacco, indigo and a great 
variety of tropical fruits. Among the manufactured products 
are cotton, woollen and " pita " fibre fabrics, sugar, rum, mescal, 
beer, furniture, pottery, soap, candles, leather, matches, choco- 
late, flour and cigarettes. Two important railway lines traverse 
the state the Tehuantepec (trans-isthmus) line between the 
ports of Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos (Puerto Mexico), and 
the Mexican Southern line (narrow-gauge) from Puebla to Oaxaca, 
with branches to San Geronimo on the Tehuantepec line with, the 
Guatemalan frontier as its destination, and toward Puerto Angel 
on the coast. Two of the most progressive Indian races of 
Mexico, the Zapotecas and Mixtecas, descendants, it is believed, 
of the prehistoric races who built the remarkable cities where 
the ruins of Mitla and Monte Alban (see CENTRAL AMERICA: 



944 



OAXACA OBADIAH 



Antiquities) now stand, still form the greater part of the 
population. 

OAXACA, OAJACA (from Aztec Huaxyacac), or OAXACA DE 
JUAREZ (official title), capital of the Mexican state of Oaxaca, 
in the central part of the state 288 m. S.E. of the City of Mexico, 
and about 153 m. from Puerto Angel on the Pacific; in lat. 
17 3' N., long. 96 40' W. Pop. (1000) 35,049, largely Indians, 
most of whom are Mixtecas and Zapotecas. Oaxaca is con- 
nected with Puebla (211 m.) by the Mexican Southern railway. 
The city lies in a broad, picturesque valley 5085 ft. above sea- 
level, and has a mild temperate climate; annual rainfall about 
33 in.; mean annual temperature 68 F. It forms the see of a 
bishopric dating from 1535, and has a fine old cathedral (occupy- 
ing the north side of the plaza mayor), built in the Spanish 
Renaissance style and dating from 1553; rebuilt in 1702. 

According to tradition the Aztec military post and town of 
Huaxyacac was founded in 1486. The date of the first Spanish 
settlement is uncertain, but it was probably between 1522 and 
1528. The Oaxaca Valley, including several native towns, had 
been given to Cortes, together with the title marquez del Valle 
de Oaxaca. To injure him, the audiencia then administering 
the government, founded the villa of Antequera in close proximity 
to Huaxyacac and on lands belonging to Cortes in 1529, though 
a settlement had been made at the Indian town at an earlier 
date. Antequera was made a city in 1532 and the see of a 
bishopric in 1535, though it had but few Spanish inhabitants 
and no opportunity to expand. This anomalous state of affairs 
was eventually settled, Antequera was absorbed by Huaxyacac, 
and the Spanish corrupted the pronunciation to Oaxaca. The 
city suffered severely in the earthquakes of 1727 and 1787, the 
cathedral being greatly damaged in the former. It had a 
chequered career in the War of Independence, being captured 
by Morelos in 1812, reoccupied by the royalists in 1814, and 
recaptured by Antonio Leon in 1821. In 1823 it was again 
captured by Nicolas Bravo in the revolution against Iturbide. 
In 1865 it was besieged by the French under Bazaine and sur- 
rendered by General Diaz (4th Feb.) but was recaptured by him 
on the ist of November 1866, after his escape from Puebla. 
In the revolution promoted by Diaz in 1871-1872 the city was 
captured by the Juarist general Alatorre on the 4th of January 
1872, and in a second revolution of 1876 it was captured by the 
friends of Diaz on the 27th of January of that year. 

OB, or OBI, a river of West Siberia, known to the Ostiaks 
as the As, Yag, Kolta and Yema; to the Samoyedes as the 
Kolta or Kuay; and to the Tatars as the Omar or Umar. It 
is formed, 8 m. S.W. of Biysk in the government of Tomsk, 
by the confluence of the Biya and the Katun. Both these 
streams have their origin in the Altai (Sailughem) Mountains, 
the former issuing from Lake Teletskoye, the latter, 400 m. 
long, bursting out of a glacier on Mount Byelukha. The Ob 
zigzags W. and N. until it reaches 55 N.; thence it curves 
round to the N.W., and again N., wheeling finally eastwards 
into the Gulf of Ob, a deep (600 m.) bay of the Arctic Ocean. 
The river splits up into more than one arm, especially after 
receiving the large river Irtysh (from the left) in 69 E. Other 
noteworthy tributaries are: on the right, the Tom, the Chulym, 
the Ket, the Tym and the Vakh; and, on the left, the Vasyugan, 
the Irtysh (with the Ishim and the Tobol) and the Sosva. The 
navigable waters within its basin reach a total length of 9300 m. 
By means of the Tura, an affluent of the Tobol, it secures 
connexion with the Ekaterinburg-Perm railway at Tyumen, 
and thus is linked on to the rivers Kama and Volga in the heart 
of 'Russia. Its own length is 2260 m., and the area of its basin 
1,125,200 sq. m. A system of canals, utilizing the Ket river, 
560 m. long in all, connects the Ob with the Yenisei. The Ob 
is ice-bound at Barnaul from early in November to near the end 
of April, and at Obdursk, 100 m. above its mouth, from the end 
of October to the beginning of June. Its middle reaches have 
been navigated by steamboats since 1845. 

OBADIAH, the name prefixed to the fourth of the Old Testa- 
ment " minor prophets," meaning " servant " or " worshipper " 
of Yahweh; of a type common in Semitic proper names; cf. 



the Arabic 'Abdallah, Taimallat, 'Abd Manat, &c., the Hebrew 
Abdiel and Obed Edom, and many Phoenician forms. " The 
vision of Obadiah " bears no date, or other historical note, nor 
can we connect Obadiah the prophet with any other Obadiah 
of the Old Testament, 1 and our only clue to the date and com- 
position of the book lies in internal evidence. 

The prophecy is directed against Edom. Yahweh has sent 
a messenger forth among the nations to stir them up to battle 
against the proud inhabitants of Mount Seir, to bring them down 
from the rocky fastnesses which they deem impregnable. Edom 
shall be not only plundered but utterly undone and expelled 
from his borders, and this he shall suffer (through his own folly) 
at the hand of trusted allies (vers. 1-9). The cause of this judg- 
ment is his cruelty to his brother Jacob. In the day of Jerusalem's 
overthrow the Edomites rejoiced over the calamity, grasped 
at a share of the spoil, lay in wait to cut off the fugitives (vers. 
10-14). But now the day of Yahweh is near upon all nations, 
Esau and all the heathen shall drink full retribution for their 
banquet of carnage and plunder on Yahweh's holy mountain. 
A rescued Israel shall dwell in Mount Zion in restored holiness; 
the house of Jacob shall regain their old possessions; Edom 
shall be burned up before them as chaff before the flame; they 
shall spread over all Canaan, over the mountain of Esau and the 
south of Judah, as well as over Gilead and the Philistine and 
Phoenician coast. The victorious Israelites shall come up on 
Mount Zion to rule the mountain of Esau, and the kingdom 
shall be Yahweh's (vers. 15-21). 

The most obvious evidence of date lies in the cause assigned 
for the judgment on Edom (vers. 10-14). The calamity of 
Jerusalem can only be the sack of the city by Nebuchadrezzar 
(586 B.C.) ; the malevolence and cruelty of Edom on this occasion 
are characterized in similar terms by several writers of the exile 
or subsequent periods, but by none with the same circumstance 
and vividness of detail as here (Ezek. xxv. 8, 12 f., xxxy.; 
Lam. iv. 21; Psalm cxxxvii. 7). The prominence given to 
Edom, and the fact that Chaldea is not mentioned at all, make 
it probable that the passage was not written in Babylonia. 
On this evidence, taken alone, we should be justified in saying 
that the prophecy was written at some time after 586 B.C., 
at a period when misfortunes incurred by Edom were interpreted 
as a Divine judgment on its unforgotten treachery in that year 
of tragedy. 

The critical problem is, however, complicated by certain 
phenomena of literary relationship. 2 Obad. 1-6, 8 agree so closely 
and in part verbally with Jer. xlix. 14-16, 9, 10, 7 that the two 
passages cannot be independent; nor does it seem possible 
that Obadiah quotes from Jeremiah, for Obad. 1-8 is a well- 
connected whole, while the parallel verses in Jeiemiah appear 
in different order, interspersed with other matter, and in a much 
less lucid connexion. In Jeremiah the picture is vague, and 
Edom's unwisdom (ver. 7) stands without proof. In Obadiah 
the conception is quite definite. Edom is attacked by his own 
allies, and his folly appears in that he exposes himself to such 
treachery. Again, the probability that the passage in Jeremiah 
incorporates disjointed fragments of an older oracle is greatly 
increased by the fact that the prophecy against Moab in the 
preceding chapter uses, in the same way, Isa. xv., xvi., and the 
prophecy of Balaam. Scholars who assign the passage in 
Jeremiah to 604 B.C. (e.g. Driver, L.O.T. chap. vi. 4), explain 
this relationship by assuming with Ewald (Propheten, i. 489 f.), 
Graf (Jeremia, p. 558 f.), Robertson Smith and others, that 
Jeremiah and our book of Obadiah alike quote from an older 
oracle. Others, however, who do not regard Jer. xlix. as Jere- 
mianic, explain the relationship as one of dependence on Obadiah. 
This explanation, simpler in itself, is not discredited by the 
fact that in some details (cf. Obad. 2 and Jer. xlix. 15) the text 

1 An early Hebrew tradition recorded by Jerome (Comm. in Ob.) 
identified the prophet with the best-known Obadiah of the historical 
books, the protector of the prophets in the reign of Ahab (i Kings 
xviii.). 

J Between Joel and Obadiah there are points of material and 
verbal agreement so close as to imply that Joel used the earlier book 
(Joel iii. 19 Ob. 10, 14; Joel iii-3 Ob. n ; Joel ii. 32,iii. 7 Ob. 17), 



OBAN OBELISK 



945 



of the dependent passage may be preferable to that of the original. 
On this latter, and more probable, view (taken by Wellhausen, 
Nowack and Marti) there is no need to separate Obad. 1-7 
from 10-14. The immediate occasion of the prophecy l was 
doubtless the pressure of nomadic Arabs (" the men of thy 
covenant," " the men of thy peace," v. 7) upon Edom, which 
had resulted, by 312 B.C. at latest, in the occupation by Arabs 
of Petra, the chief city of the Edomites (Wellhausen, p. 214). 
But the desolation of Edom has already been accomplished in 
the time of Malachi i. 1-5, a passage belonging to the earlier 
half of the 5th century. We may, therefore, with Wellhausen, 
Nowack and Marti, assign Obadiah 1-14 to the same period. 

The remainder of the book, vers. (15) 16-21, must belong to 
a later date. That the book of Obadiah, short as it is, is a 
complex document might have been suspected from an apparent 
change of view between vers. 1-7 and vers. 15 f. In the former 
verses Esau is destroyed by his allies, and they occupy his territory, 
but in the latter he perishes with the other heathen in the day 
of universal retribution, he disappears before the victorious 
advance of Israel, and the southern Judaeans occupy his land. 2 
The ideas of this passage belong to the eschatological outlook 
of later centuries, but afford no data for chronology. The 
conceptions of the " rescued ones " (R.V. " those that escape," 
r.. 17), of the sanctity of Zion, of the kingship of Yahweh, are 
the common property of the post-exilic writers. The restoration 
of the old borders of Israel and the conquest of Edom and the 
Philistines are ideas as old as Amos ix., Isa. xi. 14; but such 
passages represent this conquest as a suzerainty of Israel over 
its neighbours, as in the days of David, while in Obadiah, as 
in other later books, the intensified antithesis religious as well 
as political between Judah and the surrounding heathen finds 
its expression in the idea of a consuming judgment on the latter 
the great " day of Yahweh." The chief interest of the book 
of Obadiah lies in its references to the historical relations between 
Israel and Edom. From the point of view of religion, we may 
notice the emphasis on the doctrine of strict retribution (vers. 
10 f., 15 b) which remains applicable to other peoples, even when 
its inadequacy as a complete theory of providence has been slowly 
and painfully discovered in the case of Israel itself. 

LITERATURE. 'We\\hausen,DiekleinenPropheten i (i&g&) ; Nowack, 
id. (1897, and ed., 1904); G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve, 
vol. ii. (1898); J. A. Selbie, art. " Obadiah," in Hastings's Diet, oj 
the Bible, iii. 577-580 (1900) ; Cheyne, id. in Ency. Biblica, iii. 
c. 3455-3462 (incorporating the article of W. Robertson Smith in the 
9th edition of the Ency. Brit.) (1902); Marti, Dodekapropheton 
(1903). For a sketch of the history of the Edomites, see Noldeke's 
article " Edom " in the Ency. Biblua. (W. R. S. ; H. W. R.*) 

OBAN, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Argyll- 
shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5374. It is situated 113 m. N.W. 
of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway via Stirling and Callander, 
and about the same distance by water via the Crinan Canal. 
The fine bay on which it lies is screened from the Atlantic gales 
by the island of Kerrera (43 m. long by 2 m. broad), which 
practically converts it into a land-locked harbour. Being also 
sheltered from the north and east by the hills at the foot of which 
it nestles, the town enjoys an exceptionally mild climate for its 
latitude. The public buildings include the Roman Catholic 
pro-cathedral, erected by the 3rd marquis of Bute, the county 

1 Wellhausen and Nowack regard w. 8, 9 as a later addition, 
intended to apply w. 1-7 to the future; so Marti, who groups with 
these verses 150, because of the common reference to the day of 
Yahweh." 

'The Judaeans are addressed in v. 16 ("as ye have drunk"), 
not the Edomites. Verse 20 anticipates that the exiles from northern 
Israel will occupy Phoenician territory, whilst those from Jerusalem 
" which are in Sepharad " will occupy the southern districts in the 
Messianic restoration. " Sepharad " has been connected with various 
places, e.g. Saparda in south-west Media (G. A. Smith), and Cparda 
of Darius in the Behistun inscription (Robertson Smith); whilst, 
according to Winckler (K.A.T.* p. 301), it is the name, from the 
Persian period onwards, for Asia Minor. Many of the Jews were 
doubtless sold as slaves by Nebuchadrezzar. Lydia was a great slave- 
market, and Asia Minor was a chief seat of the Diaspora at an early 
date (comp. Gutschmidt, Neue Beitrage, p. 77), so that " Sepharad 
in itself does not supply ground for Hitzig's argument that Obadiah 
was written in the Greek period, when we read of many Jews being 
transplanted to Asia Minor (Jos. Ant. xii. 3). 



buildings and two hospitals. It is the centre of tourist traffic 
for western Argyllshire and the islands. Oban was a small 
village at the date of Johnson's visit during his Hebridean tour; 
in 1786 it became a government fishing station; it was made 
a burgh of barony in 1811 and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. 
With Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Irvine (the Ayr burghs) 
it unites to send one member to parliament. 

At the north end of the bay stands the ruin of Dunolly Castle, 
the old stronghold of the Macdougalls cf Lome, whose modern 
mansion adjoins it. In the grounds is a huge conglomerate rock 
called the Dog Stone (Clach-a-choin) , from the legend that Fingal 
used to fasten his favourite dog Bran to it. About 3 m. N.E. 
are the ruins of Dunstaffnage Castle. It was here that the 
" Stone of Destiny," now contained in the base of the coronation 
chair at Westminster Abbey, was kept before its removal to 
Scone. At the south end of the island of Kerrera stand the ruins 
of Gylen Castle, an old fortalice of the Macdougalls. 

OBBLIGATO, or OBLIGATO, in the modern sense, a musical 
term (adopted from the Italian, and strictly meaning obligatory 
or binding) for an instrumental accompaniment to a musical 
composition which, while in one way independent, is included 
by the composer on purpose and in a prescribed form, instead of 
being left to the discretion (ad libitum) of a performer. 

OBELISK (Gr. 6/3Xi<7/cos, diminutive of 6/3X6s, a spit), a form 
of monumental pillar; and also the term for a bibliographical 
reference-mark in the form of a dagger. The typical Egyptian 
obelisk is an upright monolith of nearly square section, generally 
10 diameters in height, the sides slightly convex, tapering up- 
wards very gradually and evenly, and terminated by a pyramidion 
whose faces are inclined at an angle of 60. Obelisks were usually 
raised on pedestals of cubical form resting on one or two steps, 
and were set up in pairs in front of the entrance of temples. 
Small obelisks have been found in tombs of the age of the Old 
Kingdom. The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of 
Senwosri I. of the Xllth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 ft. high). 
A pair of Rameses II. (77 and 75 ft. high respectively) stood at 
Luxor until one of them was taken to Paris in 1831. Single 
ones of Tethmosis I. and Hatshepsut (109 ft. high) still stand 
at Karnak and remains of others exist there and elsewhere in 
Egypt. Colossal granite obelisks were erected by only a few 
kings, Senwosri I. in the Middle Kingdom and Tethmosis I., 
Hatshepsut, Tethmosis III. and Rameses II. of the Empire. 
Smaller obelisks were made in the Saite period. The Romans 
admired them, and the emperors carried off some from their 
original sites and caused others to be made in imitation (e.g. that 
for Antinous at Benevento): twelve are at Rome, one in Con- 
stantinople; two, originally set up by Tethmosis III. at Helio- 
polis, were taken by Augustus to adorn the Caesareum at Alex- 
andria: one of these, " Cleopatra's Needle," was removed in 
1877 to London, the other in 1879 to New York. Such obelisks 
were probably more than mere embellishments of the temples. 
The pyramidions were sheathed in bright metal, catching and 
reflecting the sun's rays as if they were thrones of the sunlight. 
They were dedicated to solar deities, and were especially numer- 
ous at Heliopolis, where there was probably a single one sacred 
to the sun of immemorial antiquity". The principal part of the 
sun-temple at Abusir built by Neuserre of the Vth Dynasty 
appears to have been in the shape of a stumpy obelisk on a vast 
scale, only the base now remains, but hieroglyphic pictures 
indicate this form. The hieroglyph of some other early sun- 



temples shows a disk on the pyramidion 



The material 



employed for the great obelisks was a pink granite from the 
quarries of Syene, and in these quarries there still remains, 
partially detached, an example 70 to 80 ft. long. The largest 
obelisk known is that in the piazza of St John Lateran at Rome; 
this had been set up by Tethmosis III. at Heliopolis in the i sth 
century B.C., was brought over from Egypt by Constantine the 
Great and erected in the Circus Maximus, being ultimately 
re-erected in 1552 by Pope Sixtus V. It was 105 ft. 9 in. high, 
including the pyramidion, and its sides measured 9 ft. 10 in. 
and 9 ft. 8 in. respectively. On the base of the magnificent 



946 



OBERAMMERGAU OBERLIN, J. F. 



obelisk of Hatshepsut at Karnak, 97 ft. 6 in. high, there is an 
inscription stating that it and its fellow were made within the 
short space of seven months. In consequence of the breaking 
away of the lower part of " Cleopatra's Needles " when removed 
to Alexandria and re-erected, the Roman engineers supported 
the angles on bronze crabs, one of which with three reproductions 
now supports the angles of the obelisk on the Thames Embank- 
ment. 

There was another form of obelisk, also tapering, but more 
squat than the usual type, with two of the sides narrow and ter- 
minating in a rounded top. One such of Senwosri I., covered with 
sculpture and inscriptions, lies at Ebglg in the Fayum. Stelae, 
inscribed with the names of the kings, occurred in pairs in the 
royal tombs of the 1st Dynasty at Abydos, and pairs of small 
obelisks are said to have been found in private tombs of the 
IVth Dynasty. The origin of the obelisk may be sought in sacred 
upright stones set up in honour of gods and dead, like the 
menhirs, and the Semitic Massebahs and bethels. 

In Abyssinia, at Axum and elsewhere, there is a marvellous 
series of obelisk-like monuments, probably sepulchral. They 
range from rude menhirs a few feet high to elaborately sculptured 
monoliths of 100 ft. The loftiest of those stili standing at Axum 
is about 60 ft. high, 8 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 18 in. thick, and 
is terminated by a rounded apex united by a necking to the 
shaft. The back of the obelisk is plain, but the front and sides 
are subdivided into storeys by a series of bands and plates, each 
storey having panels sunk into it which seem to represent 
windows with mullions and transom. These architectural 
decorations are derived from a style of building found by the 
recent German expedition extant in an ancient church; courses 
of stone here alternate in the walls (both inside and out) with 
beams of wood held by circular clamps. In front of the best- 
preserved obelisk is a raised altar with holes sunk in it apparently 
to receive the blood of the sacrifice to the ancestors. Most of 
these must date before the adoption of Christianity as the state 
religion in the 6th century. 

See G. Maspero, L'ArMologie tgyptienne (new ed., Paris, 1907), 

Li 05; H. H. Gorringe, Egyptian Obelisks (New York, 1882; 
ndon, 1885, &c.); F. W. von Bissing and L. Borchardt, Das 
Re-Heiligtum des Konigs Ne-woser-Re (Berlin, 1905) ; on the ancient 
method of raising obelisks, L. Borchardt, " Zur Baugeschichte des 
Amonstempel von Karnak," in Sethe's Untersuchungen zur Geschichte 
und Altertumskunde Aegyptens, \. 15. For the Abyssinian 
obelisks see especially E. Littmann and D. Krencker, Vorbericht der 
deutschen Aksum Expedition (Berlin, 1906). (F. LL. G.) 

OBERAMMERGAU, a village of Bavaria, Germany, district 
of Upper Bavaria, situated amongst the foot-hills of the Alps 
in the valley of the Ammer, 64 m. S.S.W. of Munich. Pop. 
about 1400. The village folk are mainly engaged in making 
toys, and carving crucifixes, rosaries and images of saints. 

The place is famous for their performance of a Passion 
Play every tenth year (e.g. in 1910), to which thousands of 
visitors flock. This dramatic representation of the sufferings 
of Christ is not a survival of a medieval mystery or miracle- 
play, but took its rise from a vow made by the inhabitants 
in 1633, with the hope of staying a plague then raging. 
The original text and arrangements were probably made by the 
monks of Ettal, a monastery a little higher up the valley; but 
they were carefully remodelled by the parish priest at the 
beginning of the present century, when the Oberammergau play 
obtained exemption from the general suppression of such per- 
formances by the Bavarian government. The music was com- 
posed by Rochus Dedler, schoolmaster of the parish in 1814. 
The performances take place on the Sundays of summer, in a 
large open-air theatre holding 6000 persons, and each lasts about 
nine hours, with a short intermission at noon. Each scene from 
the history of Christ is prefaced by a tableau of typical import 
from the Old Testament. About 700 actors are required, all 
belonging to the village. The proceeds of the performances are 
devoted to the good of the community, after defrayal of the costs 
and payment of a small remuneration to the actors. The villagers 
regard the Passion Play as a solemn act of religious worship, 
and the performances are characterized by the greatest reverence. 



The principal parts are usually hereditary in certain families, 
and are assigned with regard to moral character as well as dra- 
matic ability. It is considered a disgrace not to be allowed 
to take part in the play, and the part of Christ is looked upon as 
one of the greatest of earthly honours. 

Edward Devrient (in 1850) was among the first to direct general 
attention to Oberammergau; and numerous accounts have since 
appeared. An English version of the text of the Passion Play has 
been published by E. Childe (1880). 

OBERHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine 
province. It is situated 5 m. from the east bank of, the Rhine, 
20 m. N.E. of Dusseldorf, on the main line of railway to Hanover 
and Berlin, and at the centre of an important network of lines 
radiating hence into the extensive Westphalian coal and iron 
fields. Pop. (1905) 52,096. The town possesses large iron- 
works, coal-mines, rolling-mills, zinc smelting-works, railway 
workshops and manufactures of wire-rope, glass, chemicals, 
porcelain and soap. The first houses of Oberhausen were built 
in 1845, and it received its municipal character in 1874. 

OBERLAHNSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, at 
the confluence of the Lahn 4 m. above Coblenz, on the railway 
from Cologne to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 8472. It 
still retains parts of its ancient walls and towers, and possesses 
a castle, the Schloss Martinsburg, formerly the residence of the 
electors of Mainz, and the chapel, Marien Kapelle, in which the 
German king Wenceslaus was deposed by the electors in 1400. 
Near the town is the castle of Lahneck, built about 1 290, destroyed 
by the French in 1689, and restored in 1854. In the neigh- 
bourhood are lead and silver mines. 

See J. Wegeler, Lahneck und Oberlahnstein (Trier, 1881). 

OBERLANDER, ADAM ADOLF (1845- ), German cari- 
caturist, was born at Ratisbon, but after 1847 lived in Munich. 
He studied painting at the Munich Academy under Piloty. and 
soon discovered that the true expression of his genius was in the 
field of caricature and comic drawings. He joined the staff of 
the Fliegende Blatter, to which he became a constant contributor. 
Unlike Busch, whose aim was the utmost simplicity of line and 
whose drawings form a running commentary to the legend, 
Oberlander's work is essentially pictorial, and expressive in 
itself, without the extraneous aid of the written line. Among 
his best drawings are his parodies on the style of well-known 
painters, such as the " Variations on the Kissing Theme." His 
works have been collected in the Oberlander- Album, published by 
Braun and Schneider in Munich. 

OBERLIN, JEAN FREDERIC (1740-1826), German Protestant 
pastor and philanthropist, the son of a teacher, was born on the 
3ist of August 1740 at Strassburg, where he studied theology. 
In 1766 he became Protestant pastor of Waldbach, a remote 
and barren region in the Steinthal (Ban-de-la-Roche), a valley 
in the Vosges on the borders of Alsace and Lorraine. He set 
himself to better the material equally with the spiritual con- 
dition of the inhabitants. He began by constructing roads 
through the valley and erecting bridges, inciting the peasantry 
to the enterprise by his personal example. He introduced an 
improved system of agriculture. Substantial cottages were 
erected, and various industrial arts were introduced. He 
founded an itinerant library, originated infant schools, and 
established an ordinary school at each of the five villages in the 
parish. In the work of education he received great assistance 
from his housekeeper, Louisa Scheppler (1763-1837). He died on 
the ist of June 1826, and was interred with great manifestations 
of honour and affection at the village of Urbach. 

Among the many accounts of the kbours of Oberlin, mention may 
be made of Thomas Sims, Brief Memorials of Oberlin (London, 1 830) ; 
Memoirs of Oberlin, with a short notice of Louisa Scheppler (London, 
1838, 2nd ed. 1852); H. Ware, Biography of Oberlin (Boston, 
1845); L. Spach, Oberlin le pasteur (Strassburg, 1865, 2nd ed. 
1868); F. W. Bodemann, /. F. Oberlin (yd ed., 1879); K. F. Riff, 
Drei Bilder aus dem Leben von Papa Oberlin (Strassburg, 1880); 
Josephine Butler, Life of J. F. Oberlin (1882); G. H. von Schubert, 
Zuge ausdemLeben Oberlins (nth ed., 1890); Armin Stein, Johann 
Friedrich Oberlin, ein Lebensbtid (1899). See also the article in Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyklopddie. The collected writings of Oberlin were 
published by Burkhardt at Stuttgart in 1843 in 4 vols. 



OBERLIN, J. J. OBIT 



OBERLIN, J6REMIE JACQUES (1735-1806), Alsatian philo- 
logist and archaeologist, brother of Jean Frederic Oberlin, was 
born at Strassburg on the 8th of August 1735. While studying 
theology at the university he devoted special attention to 
Biblical archaeology. In 1755 he was chosen professor at the 
gymnasium of his native town, in 1763 librarian to the university, 
in 1 7 70 professor of rhetoric, and in 1 782 of logic and metaphysics. 
Oberlin published several manuals on archaeology and ancient 
geography, and made frequent excursions into different provinces 
of France to investigate antiquarian remains and study provincial 
dialects, the result appearing in Essai sur le patois Lorrain 
(1775); Dissertations sur les Minnesingers (1782-1789); and 
Observations concernant le patois et les mceurs des gens de la 
campagne (1791). He also published several editions of Latin 
authors. He died on the loth of October 1806. 

OBERLIN, a village of Lorain county, Ohio, U.S.A., 34 m. 
W.S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 4376; (1900) 4082 (641 ne- 
groes); (1910) 4365. It is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan 
Southern railway, and by the Cleveland & South-Western 
(electric) railway, which furnishes connexions directly with 
Cleveland and Elyria, and at the village of Wellington (about 
10 m. S.) connects with the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & 
St Louis, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. Oberlin is 
primarily an educational centre, the seat of Oberlin College, 
named in honour of Jean Frederic Oberlin, and open to both 
sexes; it embraces a college of arts and sciences, an academy, 
a Theological Seminary (Congregational), which has a Slavic 
department for the training of clergy for Slavic immigrants, and 
a conservatory of music. In 1909 it had twenty buildings, and 
a Memorial Arch of Indiana buff limestone, dedicated in 1903, 
in honour of Congregational missionaries, many of them Oberlin 
graduates, killed in China in 1900. Its libraries contained in 
1909 98,000 bound volumes and an equal number of pamphlets, 
and the college had a faculty numbering 113 and a student 
enrolment of 1944. The resources of the college in 1909 were 
about $3,500,000. Under the editorship of a professor emeritus 
is published the Bibliotheca Sacra, a quarterly founded in 1843, 
and for many years the organ of the Andover Theological 
Seminary. 

The village was founded" as Oberlin Colony in 1833 (in 1846 
it was incorporated as the village of Oberlin), by the Rev. John J. 
Shipherd (1802-1844), pastor of a church in Elyria, and the 
Rev. Philo Penfield Stewart (1798-1868), a missionary to the 
Choctaws of Mississippi, as a home for Oberlin Collegiate In- 
stitute, which was chartered in 1834; the name Oberlin College 
was adopted in 1850. To the Theological Seminary, opened in 
1835, there came in the same year forty students from Lane 
Theological Seminary in Cincinnati, after the discussion of slavery 
there had been forbidden by its board of trustees. A former 
member of the board, Asa Mahan (1800-1889), who had strongly 
disapproved of the action of the trustees, came to Oberlin, and 
became the first president of the college. Oberlin was the first 
American college to adopt coeducation of sexes, and was a 
pioneer in America (1835) in the coeducation of the white and 
black races. 1 The village became a station on the Underground 
Railway, and an important centre of anti-slavery sentiment. 
Manual labour was adopted at first as a means for students to 
defray their college expenses. As late as 1906 it was estimated 
that nearly two-thirds of the men were to a greater or less degree 
self-supporting, as were many of the young women. What is 
known as the " Oberlin Theology " (no longer identified with the 
college) centred in the teaching of Charles Grandison Finney 
(1792-1875), who became professor of theology in 1835 and was 
Mahan's successor in the presidency (1851-1866). He was a 
powerful preacher and teacher, who broke from Calvinism in 
denying imputation and teaching perfect freedom of the will, 
by which perfect holiness might be attained. Finney carried 

1 A runaway slave, Littlejohn, was taken at Oberlin in September 
1858 by a United States marshal, but was rescued at Wellington. 
Several of the rescuers, notably Professor Henry Everard Peck of 
Oberlin College, were arrested and were imprisoned in Cleveland 
for several months. This was a famous fugitive slave case. 



947 

on remarkable revival services in Western New York, in 
Philadelphia (1828), in New York City (1829-1830 and 1832, 
the New York Evangelist being founded to carry on his work), 
in Boston (1831, 1842-1843, 1856-1857), in London (1849-1850) 
and throughout England and Scotland (1858). 

James Harris Fairchild (1817-1902) was president from 1866 
to 1889; William Gay Ballantine (b. 1848), a distinguished 
Hebrew scholar, was president in 1891-1896, and John Henry 
Barrows (1847-1902) from 1899 to 1902, when he was succeeded 
by Henry Churchill King (b. 1858). 

The modern theological position of Oberlin college is reflected in 
the writings of President King and of Dean Edward I. Bosworth 
(b. 1861) of the Theological Seminary, especially in President King's 
Reconstruction in Theology (1901) ; Theology and the Social Conscious- 
ness (1902); The Seeming Unreality of the Spiritual Life (1908) and 
The Laws of Friendship Human and Divine (1909). 

See Finney's autobiographical Memoirs (New York, 1876); J. H. 
Fairchild, Oberlin, the College and the Colony (Oberlin, 1883); D. L. 
Leonard, The Story of Oberlin (Boston, 1898); and A. T. Swing, Life 
of J. H. Fairchild (New York, 1907). 

OBERON (Fr. Alberon, Auberon, Ger. Alberich, i.e. rich, 
Goth, reiks, " ruler " cf. Lat. rex and O.H. and M.H. Ger. 
pi. elbi, elbe, " elves," pi. alp), king of the elves. In the legendary 
history 2 of the Merovingian dynasty he figures as a magician, 
and is the brother of Merowech (Merovee). He wins for his 
eldest son Walbert the hand of a princess of Constantinople. 
In the Nibelungenlied he guarded the treasure of the Nibelungen, 
but was overcome by Sigfrid. In the German medieval poem 
of Orlnit, the hero is aided in his wooing by his father Alberich, 
the king of the dwarfs. As Oberon, king of the fairies, he fills 
a similar r61e in Huon of Bordeaux (<?..). The fairy element in 
the romance provided Shakespeare with the fairy scenes of the 
Midsummer Night's Dream, and Wieland with the subject of 
his epic Oberon (1780). Ben Jonson wrote a masque of Oberon, 
or the Fairy Prince (Works, 1616). Weber's opera, Oberon, 
to the words of J. R. Planche, was first produced at Covent 
Garden on the I2th of April 1826. In the Wagner dramas 
Alberich is the Nibelung who steals the magic gold from the 
Rhine maidens. He is there the father of Hagen, and has 
throughout the Ring a darker character than that assigned to 
him in the original legend. There have been attempts to find 
the original Oberon in the Celtic Gwyn Aron, but there is no 
doubt of his Germanic origin, although his history, as given 
by the poet of Huon of Bordeaux, contains elements derived 
from Celtic tradition the magic cup which remains full for 
the virtuous, and his parentage (he is the son of Morgan la fay 
and Julius Caesar). With Oberon in the character of guardian 
of the treasure should be compared Andvari, the dwarf of 
Scandinavian legend, who, in the shape of a pike, was seized by 
Loki and made to give up his treasure and the magic ring by 
which he could create more gold. This ring, the Andvaranautr, 
with the curse of Andvari upon it, caused the misfortunes of 
the Volsungs and the Burgundian Nibelungs, and is known in 
German romance as the Ring of the Nibelungen. 

See also C. Voretzsch, Epische Studien. Die Kompositionen des 
Huon von Bordeaux (Halle, 1900) ; J. Seemiiller, " Die Zwergensage 
von Ortnit," in Zeitschr. fur deut. Altert. vol. xvi. (1882). 

OBERSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principality of 
Birkenfeld, belonging to the grand duchy of Oldenburg, on the 
river Nahe, 33m. S.W. of Kreuznach, by the railway to Miinster- 
am-Stein. Pop. (1905) 9669. It is famous for the cutting and 
setting of agates and other precious stones, an industry which 
has been established here, and in the neighbouring township 
of Idar, since the i6th century. The Evangelical church, built 
in the I2th century and restored in 1482, is partly hewn out 
of the solid rock. On the hills above the town are the ruins of 
two castles. 

See Hisserich, Die Idar-Obersteiner Industrie (Oberstein, 1894). 

OBIT (through O. Fr., from Lat. obitus, death, obire, to go 
down, to die), a term for death, formerly used for the account 

s The last history of Hugo of Toul (i2th century) was the authority 
of Jacques de Guyse (i4th century) in his Annales^ historiae ill. 
princip. Hannonioe (Man. Germ, xxx.), where there is an account 
(bk. ix. ch. 6 ) of Alberich. 



OBITER DICTUM OBJECTIVE 



of a person's death (now " obituary "). An " obit " was also 
a service performed at a funeral or in commemoration of a dead 
person, particularly the founder or benefactor of a church, 
college or other institution, hence "obit-days," "obit Sunday," 
&c. A "post-obit" is a bond given as a security for the repay- 
ment of money lent upon the death of a person from whom the 
borrower has expectations (see BOND). 

OBITER DICTUM, that which is said by the way or in passing 
(Lat. ob, by, and Her, road); specifically, in law, an opinion 
expressed by a judge incidentally in the course of a case, on a 
point of law not necessarily connected with the issue or not 
forming part of the grounds of the decision; such obiter dicta 
have no binding authority. 

OBJECT and SUBJECT, in philosophy, the terms used to 
denote respectively the external world and consciousness. The 
term " object " (from Lat. ob, over against, and jacere,to throw) 
is used generally in philosophy for that in which an activity of 
the mind ends, or towards which it is directed. With these 
may be compared the ordinary uses of the term for " thing " 
simply, or for that after which one strives, or at which one aims. 
" Subject," literally that which is " thrown under " (sub), is 
originally the material or content of a discussion or thought, 
but in philosophy is used for the thought or the thinking person. 
The relation between the thinking subject and the object thought 
is analogous to the grammatical antithesis of the same terms: 
the " subject " of a verb is the person or thing from which the 
action proceeds, while the " object," direct or indirect, is the 
person or thing affected. The true relation between mind or 
thought (subject) and matter or extension (object) is the chief 
problem of philosophy, and may be investigated from various 
standpoints (see PSYCHOLOGY and METAPHYSICS). It should 
be observed that the philosophical use of " subject " is precisely 
the opposite of the common use. In ordinary language the 
" subject " of discussion, of a poem, of a work of art, is that 
which the speaker, author or artist treats. 

OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS, the lens of any optical system 
which first receives the light from the object viewed; in a 
compound system the rays subsequently traverse the eye-piece. 
The theoretical investigations upon which the construction of 
an optical system having specified properties is based, are treated 
in the article ABERRATION, and, from another standpoint, in 
the article DIFFRACTION. Here we deal with the methods by 
which the theoretical deductions are employed by the practical 
optician. It should be noted that the mathematical calcula- 
tions provide data which are really only approximations, and 
consequently it is often found that a system constructed on such 
data requires modification before it fulfils the practical require- 
ments. For example, take the case of a photographic objective. 
Calculations of the paths of two extreme rays in the meridional 
section of an oblique pencil of large aperture may prove that the 
rays intersect on a plane containing the axial focus, but similar 
calculations of many other rays would be necessary before the 
mean point of intersection could be settled with sufficient 
exactness. Suppose, however, that the optician has accurately 
realized the results of the mathematician, he can then determine 
the divergence of the practical from the theoretical properties 
by measuring the positions and conformation of the most distinct 
or mean foci, and, if sufficiently acquainted with the theory of 
the construction, he can modify one or more curvatures or thick- 
nesses and so attain to a closer agreement with the ideal. Theory 
and practice co-operate in the realization of an original system. 
The order is net always the same, but generally the mathe- 
matician, by notoriously laborious calculations, supplies data 
which are at first closely followed by the constructor and after- 
wards modified in accordance with experimental observations. 

In addition to the problem of constructing an original system, 
the optician has to deal with the reproduction of a realized system 
in different sizes. Two questions then arise: (i) To what 
degree of accuracy the radii of curvature can, or should, be re- 
peated, and (2) to what degree of uniformity the surfaces can, 
or should be figured. With regard to the first point there is 
no great difficulty in working the requisite iron or brass tools 



of any curvature to within an error of -^jth% of the radius; 
male and female templets being used for very deep curves, and 
the spherometer for tools of longer radii (by appropriate grinding 
together, the radii are alterable at will within narrow, but 
sufficient, limits). The accuracy attained in the grinding, 
however, is open to very perceptible modification by the sub- 
sequent polishing and figuring processes. This is particularly 
undesirable in the case of deep curves and large apertures. A 
variation in a radius of curvature may occasion a little spherical 
aberration at the axial focus, but if the amount be small it 
may be neutralized by imparting to the lens a parabolic form 
or its opposite. Such an artifice is frequently adopted in 
correcting large telescope objectives. 

With optical systems which transmit large pencils with con- 
siderable obliquity (such as wide angle photographic objectives) 
the curves are very deep, and a departure from the true radius 
which would be tolerated in a telescope cannot be permitted 
here. Such lenses are usually tested by means of a master curve 
worked in glass. The master curve is fitted to the experimental 
lens, and an inspection of the interference fringes shows the 
quality of the fit whether it be perfect, or too shallow or too 
deep. The workman then modifies his polisher or stroke in order 
to correct the divergence. Flat surfaces are tested similarly. 
This test by contact has been strongly advocated and has been 
regarded as sufficient to detect all irregularities of any moment. 
This claim, however, is not justified, for the test is not sensitive 
to errors sufficient in amount to render a telescope objective 
almost valueless; but such errors are easily discernible by 
other optical devices. In general, accuracy in the radii of 
curvature is of primary importance and trueness of figuring 
is of secondary importance in photographic objectives, while 
the reverse holds with telescopic objectives; in wide angle 
microscopic objectives these two conditions are of equal moment. 
Eye pieces do not require the same degree of accuracy either 
in the curvature or the figuring. 

A rough idea of the exactitude to which the figuring of the finest 
telescope objectives must be carried out is readily deduced. If two 
slips of paper, bearing printed letters -/j of an in. high be placed 
in almost exact alignment, one 31-2 in. from the eye and the other 
39 in., and viewed in moderate daylight with the eye haying a pupil- 
lary aperture of $ of an in., one set of the letters will be legible 
while the other is not. In this case the difference of convergence or 
refracting power exercised by the eye in transferring its focus from 
one slip to the other is T 1 8 or one quarter diopter. If an image on the 
retina is J diopter out of focus, then each point of the object is repre- 
sented by a circle of confusion 0-0004 ' n - or 2/ 45* ' n angular measure 
in diameter, the focal length of the eye being assumed to be 0-5 in. 
and the pupillary aperture J of an in. If the effective aperture 
of the pupil or the aperture of a pencil traversing the pupil be i/nth 
of this standard, the size of the disk of confusion will be the same 
(viz. 0-0004 in.) if the retinal image be n quarter diopters out of focus. 
In general, for a constant size of the circle of confusion or, in other 
words, the same amount of visual blurring, the apertures of the 
pencils traversing the pupil and the focussing errors (expressed in 
quarter diopters) vary inversely. 

If a portion of a figured surface of a telescope objective differs 
in curvature from the major portion of the lens so as to form a circle 
of confusion on the retina of a diameter not less than 2' 45*, it is 
clear that the lens is faulty, the image formed by the perfect portion 
being sharp and well denned, and that formed by the imperfect 
portion blurred to the extent above determined, and to a greater 
extent if we allow for the effect of diffraction in the formation of the 
image. For example, a protuberance I in. in diameter at the centre 
of an object glass of 12 in. aperture refracting to a separate focus 
would theoretically form a spurious disk of about 5 seconds diameter, 
which would subtend a diameter of 50 minutes at the retina under a 
power of 600. 

Regarding 2' 45" as the maximum diameter of a geometric circle of 
confusion permissible in a telescopic object glass, we proceed to 
determine the heights of the protuberance or depression which causes 
it. If / be the equivalent focal length of the eye-piece and F that of 
the objective (the back focal length in the case of the microscope), 
then the linear error at the focus of the eye-piece is -j J^f 1 , or, expressed 

as a variation of i/F, ThV/F) 1 . (=Ap). If a lens has one side 

plane and is worked to a mathematically sharp edge, its thickness / 
at the centre is (approximately) A'/8r, where A is the whole aperture 
and r the radius; and if g be the equivalent focal length and n the 
refractive index, we may write r=g(ji i) and obtain 

i) .... (0. 



OBJECTIVISM OBLIGATION 



It is clear that for lenses in which the focal length is large compared 
with the aperture, the thickness / is independent of the shape of the 
lens so long as the focal length and aperture remain constant. 
Consequently a protuberance may be regarded as a thin meniscus 
lens with mathematically sharp edges accurately fitted to a perfectly 
regular spherical surface. Substituting for i/g the T Jj (//F) 1 obtained 
above it follows that A i 



The effective aperture of the eye has been supposed to be t in. ; 
calling this P, it is then obvious that (since F/ is the magnifying 
power) P(F//) is the theoretical aperture of objective requisite to 
supply the i in. eye-pencil. Substituting P(F//) for A in equation 
(2) we obtain 

. . . (3). 



This relation gives the thickness of a meniscus protuberance fitted 
to an objective (assumed to have an unlimited aperture) which fills 
the i in. pupil and occasions the maximum blurring permissible. 
If n be 1-5, t is equal to 1/39,936 in. 

If the thickness * correspond to the aperture A, then for another 
aperture a to produce the same blurring we must have A' (l/F) = 
A(l/F)A/o, i.e. the focal length of the protuberance, and therefore 
the thickness / must vary as A. Consider a telescope of 12 in. 
aperture, focal length of objective (F) = 180 in., focal length of eye- 
piece (f) 0-3 in. and magnifying power (F//)=6oo. The aperture 
theoretically requisite to transmit the pupillary pencil of i in. 
aperture is i-6oo = 75 in. If the permissible protuberance cover the 
entire aperture of 75 in. its thickness would be 1/39,936 in. as above, 
but if restricted to a diameter of I in., then the maximum allowable 
thickness would be 1/75X1/39,936 in. = say 1/3,000,000 in. Since 
the latter protuberance is assumed to fill only fa of the aperture 
of the pupil of the eye, it produces an error in focussing equivalent 
to 75 quarter diopters or ^A. If we take the power of the eye- 
piece to be I/-3 in. and subtract from it 75/156, we obtaini /-35, 
so that AF is - -05 in. 

Either the knife-edge test, or the more usual method of testing 
figuring by examining the out-of-focus disks formed on the retina 
when the eye-piece is inside and outside its correct focus, would 
certainly show the effect of this protuberance as a bright central 
spot when inside focus, and a dark central patch when outside; 
a practised eye can detect one-half the above error, and a quarter 
when the power is 1200 instead of 600. It may be noticed that, 
under the same circumstances, the error permissible in a reflecting 
telescope is only one quarter of that admitted in the refractor. In 
the case of a microscope objective of 10 in. back-focal-length used 
with a I in. eye-piece, the aperture required to transmit the pupillary 
pencil of i in. aperture is li in. Regarding the supposititious 
protuberance or depression as -fa in. in diameter, its thick- 
ness or depth must not exceed 1/39,936X0-05/1 -25, or say 1/1,000,000 
in. Therefore the accuracy of figuring required in the best micro- 
scopes does not fall far short of that required in telescopes. 

The best optical workmanship, as applied to large reflecting sur- 
faces, aims at reducing local protuberances or depressions to within 
the limiting height or depth of one twelve-millionth part of their 
diameter (A) and the optical methods which detect these errors are 
exceedingly delicate. The finest spherometer detects errors down 
to about three-millionths of an inch, below which it is valueless. The 
same applies to the study of the interference fringes formed when a 
master curve is fitted. It will not show up such fine errors. The 
figuring of spherical surfaces 12 in. or more in diameter by abrasion 
with a polisher so that no part of the surface is elevated or depressed 
above the average level by more than the above defined amounts is 
Commonly practised, but much technical knowledge is necessary for 
success. It is a sine qua non that the material of the polisher should 
be as plastic and inelastic as is consistent with a moderate degree of 
hardness. The best material for large work is Stockholm pitch from 
which the greater part of the turpentine has been removed by 
evaporation, and the abrasive used is the finest rouge and water. 
For small work certain waxes, more or less mixed with rouge or putty 
powder, are used. Water is used as the lubricant. During delicate 
figuring temperature changes must be carefully avoided, otherwise 
buckling and consequent bad figuring of the lens or a variation in 
the hardness of the polisher may supervene. The motion of the 
polisher must therefore be leisurely. Moreover, any surface must be 
allowed to attain a uniform temperature before testing. When, 
as often happens, an elevation or depression on a large lens appar- 
ently refuses to be dislodged by straightforward polishing, recourse 
is had to local retouching. The faulty parts are localized by optical 
tests and then rubbed down by small polishers of an inch or more 
in diameter. In this way a central protuberance i in. in diameter 
and 1/2,000,000 of an in. high standing on the centre of a large 
objective may be removed by a polisher less than an inch in diameter 
worked at 200 half inch strokes per minute and at a pressure of 6 ozs. 
in about a minute. Great care is required, for if the process be carried 
too far, the whole surface must be re-figured. Local retouching 
serves to remove those conspicuous zones of aberration to which 
certain photographic lenses of large relative aperture are necessarily 
liable. An annular channel is polished out at a mean distance equal 
to -fa of the semi-aperture from the centre of the lens, and this is 



949 

carefully shaded off towards the centre and also towards the edge; 
this corrects the zone of rays which focus at a point short of the 
focus of the centre and edge rays. This correction is particularly 
necessary in the case of certain lenses designed for stellar photo- 
graphy. (H. D. T.) 

OBJECTIVISM, in philosophy, a term used, in contradistinc- 
tion to SUBJECTIVISM, for any theory of knowledge which to a 
greater or less extent attributes reality (as the source and 
necessary pre-requisite of knowledge) to the external world. 
The distinction is based upon the philosophical antithesis 
of the terms Object and Subject, and their respective 
adjectival forms " objective " and " subjective." In common use 
these terms are opposed as synonymous respectively with " real " 
and " imaginary," " practical " and " theoretical," " physical " 
and " psychic." A man " sees " an apparition; was there any 
physical manifestation, or was it merely a creation of his mind ? 
If the latter the phenomenon is described as purely subjective. 
Subjectivism in its extreme form denies that mind can know 
more than its own states. Objects, i.e. things-in-themselves, 
may or may not exist: the mind knows only its own sensa- 
tions, perceptions, ideal constructions and so forth. In a 
modified form " subjectivism " is that theory which attaches 
special importance to the part played by the mind in the 
accumulation of experience. See PSYCHOLOGY; RELATIVITY 
OF KNOWLEDGE. 

OBLATION, an offering (Late Lat. oblatio, from oferre, 
oblatum, to offer), a term, particularly in ecclesiastical usage, 
for a solemn offering or presentation to God. It is thus applied 
to certain parts of the Eucharistic service in the Roman Church. 
There are " two oblations," the " lesser oblation," generally 
known as the " offertory," in which the bread and wine yet 
unconsecrated are presented, and the " greater oblation," the 
" oblation " proper, forming the latter part of the prayer of 
consecration, when the " Body and Blood " are ceremonially 
presented. The word " oblate " is an ecclesiastical term for 
persons who have devoted themselves or have been devoted 
as children by their parents to a monastic h'fe. " Oblate " is 
more familiar in the Roman Church as the name of a religious 
congregation of secular priests, the Oblate Fathers of St Charles. 
They are placed under the absolute authority of the bishop of 
the diocese in which they are established and can be employed 
by him on any duties he may think fit. This congregation was 
founded in 1578 under the name of Oblates of the Blessed Virgin 
and St Ambrose by St Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan 
(see BORROMEO, CARLO). There is a similar congregation of 
secular priests, the Oblates of Mary the Immaculate, founded 
at Marseilles in 1815. 

OBLIGATION, in law, a term derived from the Roman law, 
in which obligatio signified a tie of law (vinculum juris) whereby 
one person is bound to perform or forbear some act for another. 
The obligatio of Roman law arose either from voluntary acts 
or from circumstances to which legal consequences were annexed. 
In the former case it was said to arise ex contractu, from contract, 
in the latter quasi ex conlractu, ex delicto, or quasi ex delicto 
that is to say, from tort, or from acts or omissions to which the 
law practically attached the same results as it did to contract 
or tort. Obligatio was used to denote either end of the legal 
chain that bound the parties, the right of the party who could 
compel fulfilment of the obligatio, the creditor, or the duty of 
the party who could be compelled to fulfilment, the debitor. 
In English law obligation has only the latter sense. Creditor 
and debtor have also lost their Roman law signification; they 
have been narrowed to mean the parties where the obligation 
is the payment of a sum of money. In English law obligation 
is used in at least four senses (i) any duty imposed by law; 
(2) the special duty created by a vinculum juris', (3) not the 
duty, but the evidence of the duty that is to say, an instrument 
under seal, otherwise called a bond; (4) the operative part of 
a bond. The third use of the word is chiefly confined to the 
older writers. Simplex and duplex obligatio were the old names 
for what are now more commonly called a single and a double 
or conditional bond. The party bound is still called the obligor, 
the party in whose favour the bond is made the obligee. The 



950 



OBNOXIOUS OBOE 



fourth, like the third, is a use scarcely found except in the older 
writers. The word " bond " is of course a mere translation 
of obligalio. Obligations may be either perfect or imperfect. 
A perfect obligation is one which is directly enforceable by 
legal proceedings; an imperfect or moral obligation (the 
naturalis obligalio of Roman law) is one in which the vinculum 
juris is in some respects incomplete, so that it cannot be directly 
enforced, though it is not entirely destitute of legal effect. A 
perfect obligation may become imperfect by lapse of time or 
other means, and, conversely, an imperfect obligation may under 
certain circumstances become perfect. Thus a debt may be 
barred by the Statute of Limitations and so cease to be enforce- 
able. The obligation, however, remains, though imperfect, 
for if there be a subsequent acknowledgment by the debtor, 
the debt revhes, and the imperfect obligation becomes again 
perfect. At one period there was some doubt among English 
lawyers whether a moral obligation could be regarded as sufficient 
consideration for a contract; it has now, however, been long 
decided that it cannot be so regarded. 

American law is in general agreement with English, except in 
the case of Louisiana, where the terms obligor and obligee are 
used in as wide a sense as the debitor and creditor of Roman law. 
By art. 3522 of the Louisiana civil code obligor or debtor means 
the person who has engaged to perform some obligation, obligee 
or creditor the person in favour of whom some obligation is con- 
tracted, whether such obligation be to pay money or to do or 
not to do something. The term obligation is important in 
America from its use in art. i. s. 10 of the constitution of the 
United States, " No state . . . shall pass any . . . law . . . impairing 
the obligation of contracts." This does not affect the power 
of Congress to pass such a law. Contracts between private 
individuals are of course within the provision. So are private 
conveyances, charters of private corporations and statutory 
and other grants by a state. On the other hand, marriage and 
divorce, and arrangements which are political in their nature, 
such as charters of municipal corporations, licences to carry on 
particular trades or regulations of police are not within the 
provision. In order to fall within it, the law must act upon the 
terms of the agreement, and not merely upon the mode of pro- 
cedure. If it act not upon the terms but upon the remedy, it 
impairs the obligation if it purport to be retrospective, but it 
is valid so far as it applies to subsequent contracts. 

OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and 
noxa, harm), a word originally meaning "exposed to harm or 
injury," but now " exciting aversion or dislike." The current 
use dates from the later ryth century. 

OBOE, or HAUTBOY (Fr. haulbois, Ger. Hoboe, Ital. oboe), 
the treble member of the class of wood-wind instruments, having 
a conical bore and a double reed mouthpiece. The oboe consists 
of a conical wooden tube, composed of three joints, upper, 
middle and bell, and of a short metal tube to which are bound 
by many turns of waxed silk the two thin pieces of cane that form 
the mouthpiece. These pieces of cane are so bevelled and 
thinned at the end which is taken into the mouth that the 
gentlest stream of compressed air suffices to set them vibrating. 
Practice has demonstrated that the reed stalk of which the 
double reed mouthpiece is made, should not be of narrower 
internal diameter than the pipe containing the column of air 
upon which it is destined to act. The player breathes gently 
into the aperture, which has the form of a very narrow ellipse, 
managing his breath as for singing. The vibrations of the double 
reed produce in the stream of compressed air issuing from the 
player's lips the rhythmical series of pulses necessary to generate 
sound waves in the stationary column of air within the main tube 
of the instrument. 

In the upper and middle joints are the rings and keys covering 
lateral holes bored through the tube, by means of which the 
column of air, and consequently the wave length, may be shortened 
at will; the bell joint contains one or two keys normally open, 
which when closed extend the lowest register by lengthening 
the air column. These holes and keys produce the fundamental 
scale of the oboe, which possesses notes sufficient for an octave 



with all chromatic intervals. The next octaves are obtained 
by means of cross fingering (Fr. doigte fourchu, Ger. Gabelgrif), 
and of the octave keys, which do not give out an independent 
note of their own, but determine a node in the column of air, 
whereby the latter divides and vibrates in two half sections 
producing the second harmonic overtone or octave. In order 
to obtain this result the player incieases the pressure of his 
breath and also the tension of his lips against the reed. 

OT | 

The compass of the oboe is from j to- ~ with all 

niir 

chromatic semitones. The G clef is used in notation and all 
notes are sounded as written. 

The quality of tone or timbre depends primarily on the con- 
figuration of the sound waves (see HORN), which is influenced 
by the special characteristics of the mouth- 
piece : the musical tone of an instrument 
may be said to be due more directly to the 
prevalence and relative strength of the 
many harmonics which go to make up a 
composite tone or clang. The quality of the 
oboe tone resembles that of the E string of 
the violin, but is more nasal, more penetrat- 
ing and shriller. The lower register is thin 
and somewhat sweeter, approximating to the 
upper register of the cor anglais. But the 
timbre does not vary appreciably in the 
different registers, and to this want of variety 
in tone colour is due the unpopularity of the 
oboe as a solo instrument, although it is 
invaluable as a melody-leading instrument in 
the orchestra, balanced by clarinets and flutes. 
The oboe lends itself admirably to pastoral 
music. The technical capabilities of the in- 
strument are very varied. It is possible to 
play on it diatonic and chromatic scale and 
arpeggio passages, legato and staccato; leaps; 
cantabile passages; sustained notes, cres- 
cendo and diminuendo, grace notes and shakes 
(with reservations). The keys having many 
sharps and flats are the most difficult for the 
oboist. 

The double reed is the most simple, as it is 
probably the oldest, of all reed contrivances. It 
is sufficient to flatten the end of a wheat straw 
to constitute an apparatus capable of setting in 
vibration by the breath the column of air con- 
tained in the rudimentary tube; the invention 
of this reed is certainly due to chance. An 
apparatus for sonorous disturbance thus found, 
it was easy to improve it : for the wheat stalk 
a reed stalk was substituted, and in the extremity 
of its pipe another reed stalk much shorter in 
length was inserted, pared and flattened at the 
end ; and then came the lateral holes, probably 
another discovery of the great inventor chance. 
For the reed tube a wooden one was substituted, 
still preserving the reed tongue, and it is in 
this form, after having played an important 
part amongst the sonorous contrivances of an- 
tiquity, that we find the ancestor of the oboe 
playing a part no less important in the l6th 
century, in which it formed the interesting 
families of the cromornes, the corthols and the 
cervelas. All these families have disappeared 
from the instrumental combinations of Europe, 
but they are still to be found in Eastern wind instruments, such 
as the Caucasian salamouri, the Chinese kwanlze, and the hitshiriki of 
Japan. 

It is impossible to say when it was that man first employed the 
phenomena of double reeds and conical pipes, but the knowledge of 
them must at least have been later than that of the cylindrical 
pipe, which we may regard as directly furnished by nature. That 
antiquity made use of them, however, has been proved by Gevaert 
in his admirable Histoire de la musique dans I'antiquitt; but this 
learned author states that the double-reed pipes held but an in- 
significant place in the instrumental music of ancient Greece and 
Rome, a statement which is open to challenge (see AULOS). 



Rudall, Carte & Co. 

FIG. i. The Oboe. 



OBOE 



95* 



The first appearance of the instrument we call oboe in a musical 
work occurs in Sebastian Virdung's Musica getutscht und aussgezogen 
(1511). It there bears the name of Schalmey, and is already 
associated with an instrument of similar construction called Bom- 
bardt. 

There exists, however, much earlier evidence, in the illuminated 
MSS. and in the romances of the middle ages, of the great popularity 
of the instrument in all parts of Europe. The origin of wind instru- 
ments with conical tubes must be sought in the East, in Asia. An 
early medieval Schalmey with three holes may be seen on the silver 
cup of the goddess Nana-Anat. 1 

There are two or three Schalmeys in the fine 13th-century Spanish 
MS. Cantigas de Santa Maria executed for Alphonso the Wise, pre- 
served in the Library of the Escorial * (J. b 2). 

The oboe was known during the early middle ages as Calamus, 
Chalumeau (France), Schalmei (Germany), Shawm (England). It is 
mentioned in the Roman de Brut (lath century) (line 10,822 seq.) 
" Lyres, tympres, et chalemiax." An interesting MS. at the British 
Museum, Sloane 3983, contains amcng other musical instruments 
on fol. 13 a large shawm with 6 finger-holes described at the side as 
Calamus aureus. 

A miniature in the Paris Manesse MS.* of the I4th century depicts 
Heinrich von Meissen, better known as Frauenlob, conducting, from 
a raised platform, a band of musicians, one of whom is holding a 
Schalmey with 6 or 7 holes. 

The chaunter of the bagpipe was a shawm, having the double reed 
concealed within an air-chamber, while the drones had single beating 
reeds concealed in the same manner. Mersenne calls both chalu- 
meaux.* The cornemuse or chalemie of shepherds and peasants was 
of this kind, but a special cornemuse, used in the 1 7th century in 
concert with the hautbois de Poitou, had double reeds throughout 
in chaunter and drone. The hautbois de Poitou was a primitive 
oboe with the reed placed in a bulb, forming an air-chamber, having 
a raised slit at the top through which the performer breathed in 
compressed air; as the reed could not be controlled by the lips, it 
was impossible to play with expression on the hautbois de Poitou or 
to obtain the harmonic octaves; the compass was therefore limited. 
The kind of bagpipe (q.v.) known as Musette, 6 inflated by bellows, 
also had double reeds throughout in spite of having a cylindrical 
chaunter. 

The manufacture of musical instruments could not remain un- 
affected by the great artistic movement known as the Renaissance; 
accordingly, we find them not only improved and purified in form 
in the i6th century, but also ranged in complete families from the 
soprano to the bass. Praetorius, in his Syntagma Musicum (1615- 
1620), gives us the full nomenclature of the family with which we 
are concerned, composed of the following individuals: (l) The little 
Schalmey, rarely employed, measured about 17 in. in length, and had 

six lateral holes. Its deepest note was fe~*^q . (2) The discant 

Schalmey (fig. 2), the primitive type of the modern oboe; its length 

- 

was about 26 in., and its deepest note ci=^f 



^ =p. (3) The 

alto Pommer (fig. 3), 30 J in. long, with its deepest note SEE 

7T~=1 ' 

1(4) The tenor Pommer (fig. 4), measuring about 4 ft. 4 in.; besides 
the six lateral holes of the preceding numbers there were four keys 
which produced the notes 



(5) The bass Pommer, 
having a length of nearly 6 ft. ; it had six lateral holes and four keys 



which produced 



(6) The great double quint 



Pommer, measuring about 9 ft. 8 in. in length; its four keys 



permitted the production of the notes 




These in- 



struments, and especially numbers (2), (3), (4) and (5), occupied an 
important place on the continent of Europe in the instrumental 
.combinations of the l6th-l8th centuries. Fig. 5, borrowed from a 

See Gaz. Archeol. (Paris, 1886), xi. pp. 70 et seq. PI. X.; also 
1885, pp. 288-296. 

1 A facsimile in colours of part of the Cantigas containing figures of 
.52 instrumentalists has been published by the Real Academia 
Espanola (Madrid, 1889), and can be seen at the British Museum. 
A reproduction in black and white is included in Juan F. Riano's 
Critical and Bibliographical Notes on Early Spanish Music (Quaritch, 
1887). 

* The miniature is reproduced in Naumann's History of Music, i. 
p. 249, fig. 151. 

4 Harmonie universttte, ii. pp. 282-289 and 305. 

6 See Mersenne op. cit. ii. pp. 287-292 and Hotteterre le Remain. 
Methode pour la musette, le hautbois, &c. (Paris, 1737), chap. xvi. 




picture* painted in 1616 by Van Alsloot, represents six musicians 
playing the following instruments indicated in the oixler of their 
position in the picture from left to right: a bass oboe, bent over and 
become the bassoon, an alto Pommer, a cornet 
(German " zinke "), a discant Schalmey, a second 
alto Pommer and a trombone. 7 

The 1 7th century brought no great changes in 
the construction of the four smaller instruments of the 
family. Michel de la Barre writing in 1740 states that in 
the archives of the Chambre des Comptes are 4 charges 
for hautbois and musettes de Poitou created by King 
John 8 (I4th century). Extensively used in France, they 
were there called ' haulx bois " or " hault- 
bois," to distinguish themfrom the two larger 
instruments which were designated by the 
words " gros bois." Haultbois became haut- 
bois in French, and oboe in English, German 
and Italian; and this word is now used to 
distinguish the smallest in- 
strument of the family. 

During the I7th century 
some of the most important 
names connected with instru- 
mental music in France are 
to be found amongst the 
Grands Hautbois of the Grande 
Ecurie du Roi, such as Hot- 
teterre (Jean, Louis and 
Nicholas), Philidor (Jacques 
and Andr6), Gilles Allain, 
Destouches, &c. * 

In Germany the Schalmey 
was represented in the town 
band, in the Court and the 
Church orchestras, and later 
in that of the Opera. In 1580 
it is recorded that the Or- 
chestra of the elector of 
Brandenburg 10 included Schal- 
meys and Bombarts. In Dres- 
den the orchestra possessed 
(1593) no ' ess than 16 Schal- 
meys, large and small. Hein- 
rich Schutz, who founded the 
first Opera in Germany, at 
Dresden, used two fiffari or 
early oboes in 1629 in one of 
his works. 11 

The little Schalmey and the 
tenor Pommer seem to have 
disappeared in the 1 7th cen- 
tury; it is the discant Schalmey and the alto Pommer which by 
improvement have become two important members of the modern 
orchestra. The oboe, as such, was employed for the first time in 1671 
in the orchestra of the Paris opera in Pomone by Cambert. The 

first two keys ffi | I j date from the end of the 1 7th century. 

It is not known who added the first keys to the oboe; there is, 
however, a drawing of a French Hoboy in an English MS. by the 
third Randle Holme, which formed part of hisAcademy of Armoury" 
known to have been written before 1688, in which the two keys are 
shown. The instrument must have been well known in England at 
the time, and Randle Holme's rough little drawing fixes the date of 
the transformation approximately as not later than 1680, probably 
earlier, since the oboe was used in Pomone in 1671. According to 
the flautist Quantz 13 the transformation of Schalmey into oboe took 
place when the keys for C sharp and D sharp were added, at about 
the same time as they were added to the flute. 

In 1727 Gerhard Hoffmann of Rastenberg " added the keys 

JEJ A Parisian maker, Delusse, furnished at the end of 

This picture, belonging to the National Museum of Madrid, 
represents a procession of all the religious orders in the city of Ant- 
werp on the festival of the Virgin of the Rosary. 

7 For further details see Mahillon's catalogue of the Musee du 
Conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles (Ghent, 1896, vol. ii. p. 25). 

8 See I. Ecorcheville, " Quelques documents sur la musique 
de la Grande Ecurie du Roi," Int. Mus. Ges. Sbd. ii. 4, p. 6. 

Ib., Table II. 

10 See Gropius, Beitrage z. Gesch. Berlins, 1840, Bd. ii. 

11 Complete edition, vol. v. No. 7. See Ernst Euting, Zur Ge- 
schichte der Blasinstrumente im 16 u. 17 Jahrh. (Berlin Inaugural 
Dissertation, 1899), published by A. Schulze, Rixdorf (Berlin), p. 47. 

u See British Museum, Harleian MS. 2034, fol. 2O7b. 
11 See Versuch einer Anleitung die Flote traversiere zu spielen, p. 24. 
" See Mattheson, Orchester, i. p. 268 and Eisel, Musikus airro- 
, p. 96. 



FIG. 2. 

The Discant 

Schalmey. 



FIG. 3. FIG. 4. 

The Alto The Tenor 
Pommer. Pommer. 



952 



OBOE 



the l8th century much-appreciated improvements in the boring 
of the instrument. The Methode of Sellner, published at Vienna 



-f . and ne - 



in 1825, shows nine keys 

the octave key, which, when opened, establishes a loop or ventral 
segment of vibration in the column of air, facilitating the pro- 
duction of sounds in the octave higher. Triebert of Pans owes his 
great reputation to the numerous improvements he introduced in 
the construction of the oboe. 

The alto Pommer was but slowly transformed: it was called in 
French " hautbois de chasse," in Italian " oboe di caccia." In the 
1 8th century we find it more elegant in form, but with all the defects 
of the primitive instrument. The idea of bending the instrument 
into a half circular form to facilitate the handling is usually attri- 
buted to 'an oboist of Bergamo, one Jean Ferlendis, who was estab- 
lished at Salzburg at about 1760. This is obviously incorrect, since 
Ferlendis would then have been five years old. 1 It has been sug- 
gested that the fact of the instrument's resembling a kind of hunting 




FIG. 5. 



horn used at that time in England probably gained for it the name 
of " corno inglese," which it still retains (" cor anglais " 'in French). 1 
The first employment of it in the orchestra is referred to Gluck, 
who had two " cors anglais " in his Alceste, as played at Vienna in 
1767. But it was not until 1808 that the cor anglais was first heard 
in the Paris opera; it was played by the oboist Vogt in Alexandre 
chez Apette by Catel. The improvements in manufacture of this 
instrument closely followed those introduced in the oboe. The i8th 
century produced an intermediate oboe between (2) and (3), which 
was called hautbois d'amour, and was frequently employed by J. S. 
Bach. It was a third lower than the ordinary oboe, and was char- 
acterized by the pear-shaped bell with narrow aperture common to 
all wind instruments known as d'ameur to which is due their veiled 
sweet quality. In the Spanish Cantigas, there are two Schalmeys 
with pear-shaped bells. This is in all probability the dougaine 
mentioned in the I3th and 14th-century romances. The oboe 
d'amore fell into disuse after the death of the great German composer. 
It has been resuscitated by the firm of C. Mahillon of Brussels, and 
reconstructed with the improvements of modern manufacture. 
A similar timbre was artificially produced in the oboe by means of 
mutes or sordini composed of hollow cones of wood, balls of paper,' 
pieces of sponge, 4 &c. 

After the i6th century we find the instruments which were 
designated by the name of " gros bois," the (5) and (6) of Praetorius, 
transformed into shorter instruments, the Fagott and Contrafagott, 
having a column of air of the same length and form a_s the Pommers, 
but the instrument itself consisted of two conical tubes communicat- 
ing at the lower part of the instrument; they were pierced in a single 
piece of wood. It is probably owing to the aspect of this double 
pipe that the satirical name of fagot was given, preserved in 
Italian as fagotto, and in German as Fagott. A canon of 
Ferrara named Afranio has been named as the author of the 
transformation, about 1539, of the bass Pommer, but Count 
Valdrighi, the curator of the Estense library, 5 and Wasielewski,' 
who has reproduced the drawing of Afranio's invention, deprive 



'See Henri Lavoix, Histoire de I' instrumentation (Paris), p. 
ill; also Gerber's Lexikon, "Giuseppe Ferlendis"; and Robert 
Eitner, Quellenlexikon der Tonkunstler, " Gioseffo Ferlendis," 
.born 1755. 

1 This question is more fully treated under COR ANGLAIS. 

' See Mattheson, Orchester, p. 266. 

4 See Quantz, op. cit. p. 203. 

8 Musurgiana, // Phagotus d' Afranio. 



1 Geschichte 
1878), p. 74. 



Instrumenlalmusik im 16"* Jahrhunderl (Berlin, 



him of the merit of the innovation. The fagottino was transformed 
in the same fashion. 

Sigismund Schnitzer of Nuremberg ' acquired a great reputation in 
the i6th century for making the " basson," a French word substi- 
tuted for the old fagot, and adopted in England as bassoon. His 



instrument had only two keys 



We cannot tell when 



the bassoon gained its present form, but it was probably at the 
end of the I7th century. It was used in the orchestra in 
Germany by H. Schutz in 1619 (cir.)f and in 1625, 5 fagotti were 
in use.' 

Cesti, in his grand opera't/ Porno d'oro, w which was performed with 
the utmost brilliancy at the nuptials of the emperor Leopold in 
Vienna, where printed editions of 1667 and 1668 are preserved, used 
fagotti combined with two cornets, three trombones and a regal to 
suggest the terrors of Hades. 

Michael Praetorius (1618) expressly mentions the fagotto as an 
orchestral instrument. 

In France it was used with the oboe in 1671 in Cambert's Pomona 
in the newly founded French Opera, for which Cambert & Perrin 
had received in 1669 a Royal Privilege expiring in 1672, and there- 
after granted to Lully. 



It had three keys then: 



The B flat key render- 



ing a lengthening of the instrument necessary, we may suppose 
it took its modern form at that epoch. The fourth key fc -5E 

is found in a bassoon stamped Stanesby Junior, London, 1747," 
and also in one without maker's name, obviously earlier, to judge by 
the very early pattern of the keys. 12 The bassoon appears with 
four keys in the Encycloptdie of Diderot and d'Alembert (Paris, 
1751-1765). The number of keys increased by the beginning of the 



present century to eight, viz.: 







b& 



two 



keys to facilitate the production of acute harmonics. It was im- 
proved by Almenrader in Germany, Sayari, and more recently 
Triebert and Goumas, Paris, and C. Mahillon, Brussels. (See also 
BASSOON.) 

The reform in the construction of the flute due to Theobald Boehm 
of Munich about 1840, a reform which principally consisted in the 
rational division of the tube by the position of the lateral holes, 
prompted Triebert to try to adapt the innovation to the oboes and 
bassoons; but he failed, because the application of the system 
denaturalized the timbre of the instruments, which it was necessary, 
before all things, to preserve, but further improvements made upon 
the same lines by Barret and later by Rudall Carte, have trans- 
formed the oboe into the most delicate and perfect of reed instru- 
ments. In 1856 a French bandmaster, M. Sarrus, thought out the 
construction of a family of brass instruments with conical tubes 
pierced at regular distances, which, by diminishing the length of the 
air column, has rendered a series of fundamental sounds easy 
more equal and free in timbre than that of the oboe family. Gautrot 
of Paris realized the inventor's idea, and, under the name of " sarruso- 
phones," has created a complete family, from the sopranino in 
E flat to the contrabass in B flat, of which his firm preserves the 
monopoly. 

In order to replace the old double-bassoon of wood, the firm of 
C. Mahillon, Brussels, produced in 1868, a reed contra bass of metal, 
since much used in orchestras and military bands. The first idea of this 
instrument goes back to 1839, and is attributed to Schollnast & Son 
of Pressburg. It is a conical brass tube of very large proportions, 
with lateral holes placed as theory demands, in geometrical relation, 
with a diameter almost equal to the section of the' tube at the 
point where the hole is cut. From this it results that for each sound 
one key only is required, and the seventeen keys give the player 
almost the facility of a keyboard. The compass written for this 

contrabass is comprised between ~E3E3 and (jg 3 but sounds 
an octave lower. See CONTRAFAGOTTO. (V. M. ; K. S.) 



7 See Doppelmayr, Historische Nachrichten von Nurnbergischen 
Matematikern und Kunstlern, Nurnberg, 1730. 

See complete edition, vol. iii. No. 4. 

Vol. xiii. No. i. 

10 A fine edition has been published with reproductions of the 
original sketches for the scenes and the full score by Adler in Denk- 
mdler der Tonkunst in Oesterreich, Bd. iii. p. xxv. 

11 See Captain C. R. Day's Catalogue of the Musical Instruments 
exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition (London, 1891), p. 75, 
No. 151. 

a Ib. p. 75, No. 150. 



OBOK OBSERVATORY 



953 



OBOK, a seaport on the north shore of the Gulf of Tajura, 
N.E. Africa, acquired by France in 1862. It gave its name to the 
colony of Obok, now merged in the French Somali coast pro- 
tectorate (see SOMALILAND: French). The port is separated 
from the open sea by coral reefs, but is only partially sheltered 
from the winds. This led to the practical abandonment of the 
town by the French, who in 1896 transferred to Jibuti, on the 
opposite shore of the Gulf of Tajura, the seat of government of 
the colony. Obok is connected with Aden and Jibuti by sub- 
marine cables. Population about 500. 

OBRA, a river of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, 
a left-bank tributary of the Warthe. It rises near Obra, N.W. 
from Koschmin, and forms in its course marshes, lakes and 
the so-called Great Obrabruch (fen). The latter, 50 m. long 
and about 5 m. broad, is a deep depression in the undulating 
country of south-west Posen. The river is here dammed in 
and canalized and affords excellent water transit for the agri- 
cultural produce of the district. 

O'BRIEN, WILLIAM SMITH (1803-1864), Irish revolutionary 
politician, son of Sir Edward O'Brien, a descendant of Brian 
Boroimhe (d. 1014), king of Ireland (see CLARE), was born 
in Co. Clare on the i;th of October 1803, and received his 
education at Harrow and at Cambridge. He took the additional 
name of Smith on inheriting his maternal grandfather's estates 
in Limerick. He entered parliament in 1828 as member for 
Ennis, and from 1835 to 1848 represented the county of Limerick. 
Although he spoke in 1828 in favour of Catholic emancipation, 
he for many years continued to differ on other points from the 
general policy of O'Connell. But he opposed the Irish Arms 
Act of 1843, and became an active member of the Repeal Associa- 
tion. Though he was destitute of oratorical gifts, his arraign- 
ment of the English government of Ireland secured him 
enthusiastic attachment as a popular leader. In July 1846 the 
" Young Ireland " party, with Smith O'Brien and Gavan 
Duffy at their head, left the Repeal Association, and in the 
beginning of 1847 established the Irish Confederation. In May 
1848 he was tried at Dublin for sedition, but the jury disagreed. 
In the following July he established a war directory, and 
attempted to make a rising among the peasantry of Ballingarry, 
but although he was at first joined by a large following the 
movement wanted cohesion, and the vacillating crowd dispersed 
as soon as news reached them of the approach of the dragoons. 
O'Brien was arrested at Thurles, tried and sentenced to death. 
The sentence was, however, commuted to transportation to 
Tasmania for life. In February 1854 he received his liberty on 
condition of never revisiting the United Kingdom; and in May 
1856 he obtained a full pardon, and returned to Ireland. In 
1856 he published Principles of Government, or Meditations in 
Exile. He died at Bangor, north Wales, on the i8th of June, 
1864. He had five sons and two daughters. His eldest brother, 
Lucius, became i3th Baron Inchiquin in 1855, as heir male to 
the 3rd marquis of Thomond, at whose death in 1855 the mar- 
quisate of Thomond and the earldom of Inchiquin became 
extinct. (See INCHIQUIN, IST EARL OF.) 

OBSCENITY (from the adjective " obscene," Lat. obscenus, 
evil-looking, filthy). By English law it is an indictable mis- 
demeanour to show an obscene exhibition or to publish any 
obscene matter, whether it be in writing or by pictures, effigy 
or otherwise. The precise meaning of " obscene " is, however, 
decidedly ambiguous. It has been defined as " something offen- 
sive to modesty or decency, or expressing or suggesting unchaste 
or lustful ideas or being impure, indecent or lewd." But the test 
of criminality as accepted in England and Canada is whether 
the exhibition or matter complained of tends to deprave and 
corrupt those whose minds are open to immoral influences 
and who are likely to visit the exhibition, or to see the matter 
published. If the exhibition or publication is calculated to have 
this effect, the motive of the publisher or exhibitor is immaterial. 
Even in the case of judicial proceedings, newspapers are not 
privileged to publish evidence which falls within the definition. 
In dealing with writings alleged to be obscene, the court and 
jury have to consider the effect of the whole work and not merely 



the particular extract challenged as improper; and in practice 
it is difficult to induce juries to convict the publishers of well- 
known and old-established works of real literary quality on the 
ground that they contain passages offensive to modern notions 
of propriety. In the case of exhibitions of sculpture and pictures 
some difficulty is found in drawing the line between representa- 
tions of the nude and works which fall within the definition 
above stated a difficulty raised in a somewhat acute form 
before the London County Council in 1907 by theatrical repre- 
sentations of " living statuary." 

Besides the remedy by indictment there are statutory pro- 
visions for punishing as vagabonds persons who expose to 
public view in public streets or adjacent premises obscene 
prints, pictures or other indecent exhibitions. These are 
supplemented by similar provisions, applicable to the metropolis 
and to county towns, and (by a statute of 1889) for suppressing 
certain kinds of indecent advertisements. By an act of 1857 
powers are given for searching premises on which obscene 
books, &c., are kept for sale, distribution, &c., and for ordering 
their destruction, and the post office authorities have power 
to seize postal packets containing such matter and to prosecute 
the sender. In 1906 the London publisher of a weekly comic 
paper was punished for inserting advertisements inviting readers 
to acquire by post from abroad matter of this kind. 

The use of obscene or indecent language in public places is 
punishable as a misdemeanour at common law, but it is usually 
dealt with summarily, under the Metropolitan Police Act 1839, 
or the Town Police Clauses Act 1847, or under local by-laws. 

British Possessions. In British India obscene publications, ex- 
hibitions, &c., are punished under articles 292, 293 and 294 of the 
Penal Code. Special exception is made for representations in temples 
or on cars used for conveyance of idols or kept or used for religious 
purposes. In those British possessions whose law is based on the 
common law the offences above dealt with are offences at common 
law or under colonial statutes embodying the common law, e.g. 

Queensland Code, 1899, ss. 172, 227, 228, 374 (3) ; Western Australian 
ode, 1901, ss. 203, 204, 352 (3); Canadian Criminal Code, s. 179. 
In New South Wales and Western Australia, by acts of 1901 and 
1902, provisions have been made for dealing summarily with in- 
decent and obscene publications based to some extent on the English 
legislation of 1889 against indecent advertisements. In the Colonial 
acts no penalty is incurred if the defence can prove that the in- 
criminated publication is a work of recognized literary merit, e.g. 
Aristophanes or Boccaccio's Decameron, or is a bona-fide medical 
work circulated in the manner permitted by the statutes. 

United States. Under the Federal Law (Revised Statutes, s. 
3893) penalties are imposed for transmitting obscene matter by the 
U.S. mails; see U.S. v. Wales (1892), 51 Fed. Rep. 41. (W. F. C.) 

OBSEQUENS, JULIUS, a Latin writer of uncertain date, 
generally placed about the middle of the 4th century A.D. He 
is the author of a small extant work De prodigiis, taken from 
an epitome of Livy, and giving an account of the prodigies and 
portents that occurred in Rome between 249-12 B.C. 

The editio princeps was published by Aldus (1508) ; later editions 
by F. Oudendorp (1720) and O. Jahn (1853, with the periochae of 
Livy). 

OBSEQUIES (Med. Lat. obsequiae, formed after class. Lat. 
exsequiae), a term for funeral rites and ceremonies, especially 
such as are carried out with great ceremony. The Lat. ob- 
sequium (from obsequi, to follow close after) produced the 
obsolete English " obsequy," in the sense of ready complaisant 
service, especially of an inferior to a superior, still found in the 
adjective " obsequious." 

OBSERVATORY. Up to a comparatively recent date an 
" observatory " was a place exclusively devoted to the taking 
of astronomical observations, although frequently a rough 
account of the weather was kept. When the progress of terres- 
trial magnetism and meteorology began to make regular observa- 
tions necessary, the duty of taking these was often thrown on 
astronomical observatories, although in some cases separate 
institutions were created for the purpose. In this article the 
astronomical observatories will be chiefly considered. 

Up to about 300 B.C. it can scarcely be said that an observatory 
existed anywhere, as the crude observations of the heavens then 
taken were only made by individuals and at intervals, employing 
the simplest possible apparatus. Thus, according to Strabo. 



954- 



OBSERVATORY 



Eudoxus had an observatory at Cnidus. But, when philo- 
sophical speculation had exhausted its resources, and an accumu- 
lation of facts was found to be necessary before the knowledge 
of the construction of the universe could advance farther, the 
first observatory was founded at Alexandria, and continued in 
activity for about four hundred years, or until the middle or 
end of the 2nd century of the Christian era. Hipparchus of 
Rhodes, the founder of modern astronomy, by repeating ob- 
servations made at Alexandria, discovered the precession of 
the equinoxes, and investigated with considerable success the 
motions of the sun, moon and planets. His work was continued 
by more or less distinguished astronomers, until Ptolemy (in 
the 2nd century A.D.) gave the astronomy of Alexandria its 
final development. When science again began to be cultivated 
after the dark ages which followed, we find several observatories 
founded by Arabian princes; first one at Damascus, next one 
at Bagdad built by the caliph Al-Mamun early in the gth 
century, then one on the Mokattam near Cairo, built for Ibn 
Yunis by the caliph Hakim (about 1000 A.D.), where the Haki- 
mite tables of the sun, moon and planets were constructed. The 
Mongol khans followed the example; thus arose the splendid 
observatory at Maragha in the north-west of Persia, founded 
about A.D. 1260 by Hulagu Khan, where Nasir Uddin constructed 
the Ilohkhanic tables; and in the isth century the observatory 
at Samarkand was founded by Ulugh Beg, and served not only 
in the construction of new planetary tables but also in the forma- 
tion of a new catalogue of stars. 

With the commencement of scientific studies in Europe in 
the i sth century the necessity of astronomical observations 
became at once felt, as they afforded the only hope of improving 
the theory of the motions of the celestial bodies. Although 
astronomy was taught in all universities, the taking of observa- 
tions was for two hundred years left to private individuals. The 
first observatory in Europe was erected at Nuremberg in 1472 
by a wealthy citizen, Bernhard Walther, who for some years 
enjoyed the co-operation of the celebrated astronomer Regio- 
montanus. At this observatory, where the work was continued 
till the founder's death in 1504, many new methods of observing 
were invented, so that the revival of practical astronomy may 
be dated from its foundation. The two celebrated observatories 
of the 1 6th century, Tycho Brahe's on the Danish island of 
Hven (in activity from 1576 to 1597) and that of Landgrave 
William IV. at Cassel (1561-1597), made a complete revolution 
in the art of observing. Tycho Brahe may claim the honour 
of having been the first to see the necessity of carrying on for 
a number of years an extensive and carefully-planned series 
of observations with various instruments, worked by himself 
and a staff of assistants. In this respect his observatory (Urani- 
burgum) resembles our modern larger institutions more closely 
than do many observatories of much more recent date. The 
mighty impulse which Tycho Brahe gave to practical astronomy 
at last installed this science at the universities, among which 
those of Leiden and Copenhagen were the first to found observa- 
tories. We still find a large private observatory in the middle 
of the 1 7th century, that of Johannes Hevelius at Danzig, but 
the foundation of the royal observatories at Paris and Greenwich 
and of numerous university observatories shows how rapidly 
the importance of observations had become recognized by 
governments and public bodies, and it is not until within the 
last hundred and thirty years that the development of various 
new branches of astronomy has enabled private observers to 
compete with public institutions. 

The instruments employed in observatories have of course 
changed considerably during the last two hundred years. When 
the first royal observatories were founded, the principal instru- 
ments were the mural quadrant for measuring meridian zenith 
distances of stars, and the sextant for measuring distances of 
stars inter se, with a view of determining their difference of 
right ascension by a simple calculation. These instruments 
were introduced by Tycho Brahe, but were subsequently much 
improved by the addition of telescopes and micrometers. When 
the law of gravitation was discovered it became necessary to 



test the correctness of the theoretical conclusions drawn from 
it as to the motions within the solar system, and this necessarily 
added to the importance of observations. By degrees, as theory 
progressed, it made greater demands for the accuracy of observa- 
tions, and accordingly the instruments had to be improved. 
The transit instrument superseded the sextant and offered the 
advantage of furnishing the difference of right ascension directly; 
the clocks and chronometers were greatly improved; and 
lastly astronomers began early in the igth century to treat 
their instruments, not as faultless apparatuses but as imperfect 
ones, whose errors of construction had to be detected, studied 
and taken into account before the results of observations could 
be used to test the theory. That century also witnessed the 
combination of the transit instrument and the mural quadrant 
or circle in one instrument the transit or meridian circle. 

While the necessity of following the sun, moon and planets 
as regularly as possible increased the daily work of observatories, 
other branches of astronomy were opened and demanded other 
observations. Hitherto observations of the " fixed stars " had 
been supposed to be of little importance beyond fixing points of 
comparison for observations of the movable bodies. But when 
many of the fixed stars were found to be endowed with " proper 
motion," it became necessary to include them among the objects 
of constant attention, and in their turn the hitherto totally 
neglected telescopic stars had to be observed with precision, 
when they were required as comparison stars for comets or 
minor planets. Thus the field of work for meridian instruments 
became very considerably enlarged. 

In addition to this, the increase of optical power of telescopes 
revealed hitherto unknown objects double stars and nebulae 
and brought the study of the physical constitution of the heavenly 
bodies within the range of observatory work. Researches 
connected with these matters were, however, for a number of 
years chiefly left to amateur observers, and it is only since about 
1830 that many public observatories have taken up this kind of 
work. The application of spectrum analysis, photometry, &c., 
in astronomy has still more increased the number and variety 
of observations to be made, while the use of photography in work 
of precision has completely revolutionized many branches of 
practical astronomy. It has now become necessary for most 
observatories to devote themselves to one or two special fields 
of work. 

It would be difficult to arrange the existing observatories 
into classes either according to the work pursued in them or 
their organization, as the work in many cases at different times 
has been directed to different objects, while the organization 
depends mostly on national and local circumstances. As already 
alluded to above, one of the principal characteristics of the larger 
observatories of the present day is the distribution of the work 
among a number of assistants under the general superintendence 
of a director. This applies principally to the great observatories, 
where the sun, moon, planets and a limited number of fixed stars 
are without interruption being observed, but even among these 
institutions hardly two are conducted on the same principles. 
Thus in Greenwich the instruments and observations are all 
treated according to strict rules laid down by the astronomer- 
royal, while in Washington or Pulkowa each astronomer has to 
a certain extent his choice as to the treatment of the instrument 
and arrangement of the observations. The same is the case 
with the smaller institutions, in most of which these arrangements 
vary very much with change of personnel. 

The way in which the results of observations are published 
depends principally on the size of the institutions. The larger 
observatories issue their " annals " or " observations " as separate 
periodically-published volumes, while the smaller ones chiefly 
depend on scientific journals to lay their results before the public, 
naturally less fully as to details. 

Subjoined is a catalogue of public and private observatories 
still in activity in 1910 or in existence within the past hundred 
years. (4= i of long.) 

(Abbreviations: ap., aperture; equat., equatorial; obs., observa- 
tory or observations; o.g., object-glass; phot., photographic; refl. ; 



OBSERVATORY 



955 



reflector; refr., refractor; s.g., silvered glass; vis., visual; univ., 
university. Where the names of two makers are given, the first is 
responsible for the optical, the second for the mechanical part of the 
instrument.) 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 

A. Public Observatories. 

Greenwich, royal obs.,lat. +5i28'38-4*- Founded in 1675 for the 
promotion of astronomy and navigation. The obs. have therefore 
from the first been principally intended to determine the positions of 
standard stars, the sun and planets, and above all to follow the 
motion of the moon with as little interruption as possible, both on and 
cutside the meridian. Since 1873 spectroscopic obs. and a daily phot, 
record of sun-spots have been taken. The eighth satellite of Jupiter 
was discovered photographically in 1908. The obs. is under the 
direction of the astronomer-royal; and from the time of its first 
astronomer, Flamsteed, the institution has always maintained its 
place in the foremost rank of obs. Thus the obs. of Bradley (ob. 
1762) form the foundation of modern stellar astronomy; but it was 
especially during the directorship of Airy (1835-1881) that the obs. 
rose to its present high state of efficiency. There are now two chief 
assistants, six assistants, and a staff of computers employed. The 
principal instruments now in use are: a meridian circle by Simms 
(and Ransomes and May as engineers), erected in 1850, having a circle 
of 6-ft. diameter and a telescope of 8-in. ap., Lassell's 2-ft. refl., 
erected 1884; iS-in. phot. refr. with lo-in. vis. o.g. by Grubb; 
28-in. refr. by Grubb; 26-in. phot. refr. by Grubb, with the old 
12-8-in. refr. as guiding telescope; g-in. phot. refr. by Grubb, and 
3O-in. s.g. refl. by Common, the last four being on one stand; 8-in. 
altazimuth by Simms, erected 1896. The 26-in. and the 9-in. were 
presented by Sir H. Thompson. The standard " motor clock " is 
the centre of a system of electrically-controlled clocks scattered over 
the United Kingdom. The magnetic and meteorological department 
was founded in 1838; it contains a complete set of instruments 
giving continuous phot, records. The Observations are published with 
all details from 1750, beginning with 1836 in annual bulky quarto 
volumes; special results e.g., Star Catalogues, Reductions of Lunar 
and Planetary Observations are published in separate volumes. 

South Kensington, Solar physics obs., lat. +51 29' 48-0", long, 
o h. o m. 41-5 s. W. Founded 1879, under Sir 14. Lockyer; 3-ft. refl. 
and 3o-in. refl. by Common; lo-in. refr. by Cooke, and several side- 
rostats with attachments for spectroscopic and phot. work. 

Oxford, Radcliffe obs., lat. +51 45' 35-4', long, o h. 5 m. 2-6 s. W. 
Founded in 1771 by the Radcliffe trustees. Obs. were regularly 
made, but none were published until 1839, when systematic obs. 
were begun with an 8-ft. transit instrument by Bird (1773) and a 
6-ft. mural circle by Jones (1836). Heliometer (7$ in.) by Repsold 
(1849); meridian circle by Troughton and Simms, mounted in 1861, 
formerly belonging to Mr Carrington; lo-in. refr. by Cooke (1887), 
Grubb refr. with 24-in. phot, and i8-in. vis. o.g. (1902); self-record- 
ing meteorological instruments. Besides the annual 8vo vols. of 
Observations (from 1840), four catalogues of stars have been 
published. 

Oxford, univ. obs., lat. +51 45' 34'. 2 ', long, o h. 5 m. 0-4 s. W. 
Finished in 1875; is under the Savilian professor of astronomv; 
I2j-in. refr. by Grubb, and a 13-in. refl. made and presented by De 
La Rue. The former has been used for photometric obs. ; the latter 
for taking lunar photographs, by means of which the late Professor 
Pritchard investigated the lihration of the moon; 13-in. phot. refr. 
by Grubb attached to the I2j-in., used for phot, zone work. 

Cambridge, lat. +52 12' 51-6', long, o h. o m. 22-8 s. E. Founded 
by the univ. senate in 1820. Chiefly devoted to meridian work up 
to 1870 with a 5-in. transit by Dollond and a mural circle by Jones; 
a new meridian circle by Simms, of 8-in. ap. and 3-ft. circles, was then 
erected. The " Northumberland equatorial " was mounted in the 
" English " fashion in 1838; the o.g. by Cauchoix is of nj-in. ap. 
R. S. Newall's 25-in. refr. by Cooke, erected 1891, used for spectro- 
graphic work; siderostatic refr. with i2-in. o.g. by Cooke, 1898. 
In 1908 the instruments of Sir W. Huggins' obs. were presented by 
the Royal Society. 

Durham, univ. obs., lat. +54 46' 6-2*, long, o h. 6 m. 19-8 s. W. 
Founded in 1841; small meridian circle by Simms, refr. by Fraun- 
hofer of 6J-in. ap., Almucantar of 6-in. ap. by Cooke (1900). 

Liverpool (Bidston, Birkenhead), lat. +53 24' 4-8", long, o h. 
12 m. 17-3 s. W. Founded in 1838 by the municipal council; trans- 
ferred in 1856 to the Docks and Harbour Board; moved to Birken- 
head in 1867. Specially intended for testing the rates of chrono- 
meters under different temperatures. Transit instrument by 
Troughton and Simms, and an 8-in. refr. by Merz. 

Kew (Richmond), lat. +51 28' 6', long, o h. I m. 15-1 s. W. The 
central meteorological obs. of the United Kingdom, with self- 
registering meteorological and magnetical instruments. Established 
in 1842 under the auspices of the British Association, afterwards 
transferred to the Royal Society. Since 1900 a department of the 
National Laboratory. A photoheliograph was employed at De La 
Rue's expense to take daily sun-pictures from 1863 to 1872. 

Edinburgh, royal obs., Blackford Hill, lat. +55 57' 28-0', 
Ion?, o h. 12 m. 44-2 s. W. Founded in 1811 by subscription; the 
building on Calton Hill erected in 1818. In 1834 the founders 
handed ever the administration to the government, and in 1846 the 



ownership was similarly transferred. Since 1834 the obs. has been 
under the direction of the astronomer-royal for Scotland, who is 
also professor of practical astronomy in the univ. Professor T. 
Henderson (1833-1845) began extensive meridian obs. of fixed stars 
with a mural circle of 6-ft. diameter ana an 8-ft. transit. A 2-ft. 
s.g. refl. by Grubb was erected in 1872. New obs. erected on 
Blackford Hill 1893-1895 for the instruments presented by Lord 
Crawford; 15-in. refr. by Grubb, transit circle by Simms of 8-in. ap., 
12-in. s.g. refl. by Browning, two 6-in. refrs. and a very fine library; 
also the 2-ft. refl. The old obs. on Calton Hill now belongs to the 
city and is used for instruction; a 2i-in. refr. by Wragge has been 
erected. 

Glasgow, univ. obs., lat. +55 52' 42-8', long, c h. 17 m. 10-6 s. W. 
Organized in 1840 by subscription, aided by subsidies from the univ. 
and the state. Meridian circle by Ertel of 6-in. ap. ; 9-in. refr. by 
Ccoke, 2O-in. s.g. refl. by Grubb with spectrograph. Two catalogues 
of stars were published by the late director, R. Grant. 

Dublin, situated about 4 m. N.W. of Dublin at Dunsink, lat. 
+53 23' 13-1', long, o h. 25 m. 21-1 s. W. Belongs to the univ.; 
erected in 1785; is under the direction of the " Andrews professor 
of astronomy and royal astrcnomer of Ireland." In 1808 a re- 
versible meridian circle by Ramsden and Berge of 8-ft. diameter was 
put up, with which Brinkley observed assiduously till 1827. In 
1868 was erected a refr. of n}-in. ap. by Cauchoix (e.g. formerly 
belonging to and given by Sir J. South), which has been used for 
researches on stellar parallax. A meridian circle by Pistor and 
Martins of 6-4-in. ap. was mounted in 1873, and a ijj-in. s.g. refl. 
for phot, work in 1889. Astronomical Observations and Researches 
made at Dunsink in 410 parts. 

Armagh, lat. +54 21' 12-7', long, o h. 26 m. 35-4 s. W. Founded 
and endowed by Archbishop R. Robinson in 1790. Possessed very 
few instruments until the obs. was enlarged by Archbishop Lord 

John George Beresford in 1827, when a mural circle and a transit by 
ones were provided, with which meridian obs. were made till 1883, 
published in two star catalogues; lo-in. refr. by Grubb (1885) used 
for micrometer work. 

B. Principal Private Observatories in ipo8. 

Mr W. Coleman's obs., Buckland, Dover, lat. +51 8' 12', long, 
o h. 5 m. 1 1 s. E. Cooke 8-in. refr. used for obs. of double stars. 

Mr J. Franklin-Adams's obs., Mervel Hill, Hambledon, Surrey, 
lat. +51 8' 1 1 -6', long, o h. 2 m. 30-2 s. W. Erected 1903; twin 
equatorial by Cooke with 12-in. and 6-in. lenses, another with 8-in. 
and 6-in. lenses, used for phot, survey of the heavens with special 
reference to the Milky Way. The former instrument was used at the 
Cape in 1903-1904. 

Rev. T. E. Espin's obs., Tow Law, Darlington, lat. +54 43' 30', 
long, o h. 7 m. 14 s. W. I7l-in. refl. by Calver, used since 1888 for 
spectroscopy and obs. of double stars. 

Mr W. H. Maw's obs., Kensington, lat. +51 30' 2-8', long, 
o h. o m. 49-4 s. W., 6-in. refr. by Cooke (1886). Also at Outwood, 
Surrey, lat. +51 n' 38', long, o h. o m. 23-7 s. W., 8-in. refr. by 
Cooke (1896), both used on double stars. 

Sir Wilfrid Peek's obs., Rousdon, Lyme Regis, lat. +50 42' 38', 
long, o h. 1 1 m. 59-0 s. W. Erected by the late Sir Cuthbert Peek 
in 1885; 6-4-in. refr. by Merz used for obs. variable stars. 

Earl of Rosse's obs., Birr Castle, King's .county, Ireland, lat. 
+53 5' 47'. 'ong- o h. 31 m. 40-9 s. W. In 1839 the earl made and 
mounted a refl. of 3-ft. ap. (remounted as equat. in 1876), and in 1845 
he completed the celebrated refl. of 6-ft. ap. and 54-ft. focal length. 
These instruments, particularly the latter, were used from 1848 to 
1878 for obs. of nebulae, and revealed many new features in these 
bodies; results published in the Phil. Trans, and collected system- 
atically in the Trans. Roy. Dubl. Soc. (1879-1880). Experiments 
were made by the present earl tc determine the amount of heat radi- 
ated from the moon. 

Rugby School (Temple Obs.), lat. +52 22' ^', long, o h. 5 m. 2 s W. 
Founded in 1872; 8J-in. refr. by Clark, used for obs. of double stars 
and of stellar spectra. 

Stonyhurst College obs., Lancashire, lat. +53 50' 40', long, o h. 
9 m. 52-7 s. W. An 8-in. refr. by Troughton and Simms, mounted 
in 1867, used for spectroscopic and micrometric obs.; 15-in. Perry 
memorial refr. by Grubb mounted in 1893, used chiefly for solar 
work. 

C. Private Observatories now discontinued. 

Mr J. G. Barclay's obs., Leyton, Essex, lat. +51 34' 34', long, 
o h. o m. p-o s. W. In activity from 1862 till 1886, ic-in. refr. by 
Cooke ; chiefly devoted to double stars. 

Mr G. Bishop's obs., South Villa, Regent's Park, London, lat. 
+51 31' 29-9*, long, o h. p m. 37-1 s. W. In activity from 1836 to 
1861, then removed to Twickenham, and discontinued in 1874; had 
a j-in. refr. by Dollond, with which Mr J. R. Hind discovered ten 
minor planets and several comets, and constructed maps of stars 
near the ecliptic. 

Mr R. C. Carrington's obs., Redhill, lat. +51 14' 25-3*, long, 
o h. o m. 41-3 s. W. Established in 1854; had a 4j-in. refr. and transit 
circle of 5-in. ap. (now at Radcliffe Obs.) . With the latter a catalogue 
of the positions of 3735 stars within 9 of the pole, with the former 
regular obs. of sun-spots, were made from 1853 to 1 86 1. 



956 



OBSERVATORY 



Mr A. A. Common's obs., Baling, London, W. (1876-1903). 
l8-in. s.g. refl. erected in 1876, s.g. refl. of 36-in. ap. (mirror by 
Calver, mounting by the owner), erected in 1879; chiefly used for 
celestial photography, replaced by a refl. of vft. ap. in 1889. 

Colonel Cooper's obs., Markree Castle, Co. Sligo, Ireland, lat. 
+54 10' 31-8 , long, o h. 33 m. 48-4 s. W. Founded by the late E. J. 
Cooper, who in 1834 erected a refr. of 13-3-in. ap. (o.g. by Cauchoix). 
This instrument was from 1848 to 1856 used for determining the 
approximate places of 60,000 stars near the ecliptic. The obs. 
was restored in 1874, and the refr. was used for double-star obs. 
till 1883. 

Earl of Crawford's obs., Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, lat. +57 o' 36', 
long, o h. 9 m. 40 s. W. Founded in 1872; i5-in. refr. by Grubb, 
12-111. s.g. refl. by Browning, two 6-in. and several smaller refrs. 
meridian circle by Simms similar to the one at Cambridge, numerous 
spectroscopes and minor instruments, also a large library and a 
collection of physical instruments. Chiefly devoted to spectroscopic 
and cometary obs. Whole equipment presented to Edinburgh obs. 
in 1888. 

Mr E. Crossley's obs., Bermerside, Halifax, Yorkshire. Equatorial 
refr. by Cooke of 9-3 in. ap., erected in 1871, chiefly used for obs. of 
double stars till 1002. 

Rev W. R. Dawes's obs., first at Ormskirk (1830-1839), lat. 
+53 43' JS'i long, o h. it m. 36 s. W. ; afterwards at Cranbrook, 
Kent (1844-1850), lat. +51 6' 31', long, o h. 2 m. 10-8 s. E.; 
then at Wateringbury, near Maidstone, Tat. +51 15' 12*, long, 
o h. i m. 39-8 s. E., till 1857; and finally at Hqpefield, Haddenham, 
fat. +51 45' 54*i long, o h. 3 m. 43-4 s. W., till Mr Dawes's death 
in 1868. Possessed at first only small instruments, then succes- 
sively a 6-in. refr. by Merz, a 7i-in. and an 8J-in. refr. by Clark, and 
an 8-in. refr. by Cooke, with all of which a great many measures of 
double stars were made. 

Mr W. De La Rue's obs., Cranford, Middlesex, lat. +51 28' 57-8", 
long, o h. i m. 37-5 s. W. Established in 1857; with 13-in. refl., de- 
voted to solar and lunar photography. The Kew photoheliograph 
was employed here from 1858 to 1863 to take daily photographs of 
the sun. The refl. was presented to the Oxford univ. obs. in 1874. 

Mr S. Groombridge' s obs., Blackheath, lat. +51 28' 2-7', long, 
o h. o m. 0-6 s. E. In 1806 Mr Groombridge obtained a new transit 
circle of 4-ft. diameter by Troughton, with which he up to 1816 
observed stars within 50 of the pole forming a catalogue of 4243 
stars. 

Sir William and Sir John Herschel's obs. at Slough near Windsor, 
lat. +5i3o' 2O*,long.oh.2 m.24s. W. William Herschel settled at 
Datchet in 1782, and at Slough in 1786,. and erected several 2O-ft. 
refl. (of i8-in. ap.), and in 1789 his 4O-ft. refl. of 4-ft. ap. The latter 
was comparatively little used (two satellites of Saturn were dis- 
covered with it), while the former served to discover about 2500 
nebulae and clusters, 800 double stars, and two satellites of Uranus, 
as also to make the innumerable other obs. which have made the 
name of Herschel so celebrated. Sir J. Herschel used a 2O-ft. refl. 
at Slough from 1825 to 1833, and from 1834 to 1838 at the Cape of 
Good Hope, to examine the nebulae and double stars of the whole 
of the visible heavens, discovering 2100 new nebulae and 5500 new 
double stars. 

Sir William Huggins's obs., Upper Tulse Hill, London, lat. 
+-51 26' 47', long, o h. o m. 27-7 s. W. Founded in 1856; furnished 
with an 8-in. refr. (by Clark and Cooke). In 1870 was erected an 
equat. mounting with a 15-in. refr. and a Cassegrain refl. of i8-in. ap., 
both made by Grubb for the Royal Society. With these Sir W. 
Huggins has made his well-known spectroscopic observations and 
photographs of stellar spectra. The instruments were transferred to 
the Cambridge obs. in 1008. 

Rev T. J. Hussey's obs., Hayes, Kent, lat. +51 22' 38*, long. 
o h. o m. 3-6 s. E. In activity from about 1825 for about twelve 
years; 6J-in. refr. by Fraunhofer, used for making one of the star 
maps published by the Berlin Academy. 

Mr G. Knott's obs., Cuckfield, Sussex (from 1860 to 1873 at 
Woodcroft, lat. +51 o' 41 ', long, o h. o m. 34 s. W., afterwards at 
Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield) ; 7'3-in. refr. by Clark, used for observing 
double stars and variable stars till 1894. 

Mr W. Lassell's obs., from 1840 to 1861 at Starfield near Liver- 
pool, lat. +53 25' 28", long, o h. 1 1 m. 38-7 s. W. ; contained refl. of 
9- and 24-in. ap. ; employed for obs. of the satellites of Saturn, Uranus 
and Neptune, and of nebulae. The 2-ft. refl. was used at Malta in 
1852-1853, and a 4-ft. refl. was mounted in 1861, also at Malta, and 
used till 186-1 for obs. of satellites and nebulae. The eighth satellite 
of Saturn, the two inner satellites of Uranus and the satellite of 
Neptune were discovered at Starfield by Mr Lassell. 

Dr J. Lee's obs., Hartwell, Bucks, lat. +51 48' 36', long, 
o h. 3 m. 24-3 s. W. In 1836 Dr Lee came into possession of Captain 
Smyth's 6-in. refr., and mounted it at Hartwell House where it 
continued to be occasionally employed for double-star obs. and 
other work up to about 1864. 

Mr F. McClean's obs., Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells. Phot. 
12-in. refr. and o.g. prism by Grubb used for photos, of star spectra, 
1895-1904. 

Mr R. S. Newatt's obs., Gateshead, Newcastle-on-Tyne. A 25-in. 
refr. by Cooke was mounted in 1870 but never used; presented to 
Cambridge obs. in 1891. 



Dr Isaac Roberts's obs., Crowborough, Sussex, lat. +51 3' ^*, 
long, o h. o m. 37 s. E. 2O-in. s.g. refl. by Grubb (with 7-in. refr.) used 
for phot, of nebulae and clusters 1890-1904. 

Captain W. H. Smyth's obs., Bedford, lat. +52 8' 27-6", long, 
o h. I m. 52-0 s. W. In 1830 Captain (afterwards Admiral) Smyth 
erected a 6-in. refr. by Tulley, and observed the double stars and 
nebulae contained in his " Bedford Catalogue " (1844). 

Sir James South's obs., from 1816 to 1824 at Blackman Street, 
Southwark, long, o h. o m. 21-8 s. W. Here South took transit obs. 
of the sun, and he and J. Herschel measured double stars, in 1821- 
1823. In 1826 South erected an obs. at Campden Hill, Kensington, 
lat. +51 30' 12*, long, o h. o m. 46-8 s. W., and procured a 12-in. o.g. 
from Cauchoix. As Troughton, however, failed to make a satis- 
factory mounting, the glass was never used till after it had been 
presented to Dublin obs. in 1862. 

Colonel Tomline's obs. at Orwell Park, Ipswich, lat. +52 o' 33*, 
long, o h. 4 m. 55-8 s. E. lo-in. refr. by Merz, used for obs. of comets 
from 1874 to 1889. 

Mr W. E. Wilson's (d. 1908), obs., Daramona, Streete, Co. West- 
meath, Ireland, lat. +53 41' 12", long, o h. 29 m. 59 s. W. 2-ft. refl. 
by Grubb, and other instruments for phot, and solar work. 

Lord Wrottesley's obs., from 1829 to 1841 at Blackheath, lat. 
+51 28' 2*, long, o h. o m. 2-7 s. E., where a catalogue of the right 
ascensions of 1318 stars was formed from obs. with a transit instru- 
ment by Jones. In 1842 a new obs. was built at Wrottesley Hall, 
lat. +52 37' 2-3', long, o h. 8 m. 53-6 s. W., where the transit and a 
7f in. -refr. by Dollond were mounted. Obs. were here made of 
double stars. 

FRANCE 

Paris, national obs., lat. +48 50' 11-2", long, o h. 9 m. 20-9 s. E. 
Founded in 1667, when the construction of a large and monumental 
building was commenced by the architect Claude Perrault. J. D. 
Cassini s obs. made the institution for some time the most celebrated 
obs. existing, but later the activity declined, although several 
eminent men, as Bouvard and Arago, have held the post of director. 
Since 1854, when Leverrier assumed the directorship, the obs. have 
been conducted with regularity, and, together with a number of most 
important theoretical works, published in the Annals (Observations 
and Memoirs). The principal instruments now in use are: a 
meridian circle by Secretan and Eichens, with an o.g. of 9>5-in. ap., 
another by Eichens (given by M. Bischoffsheim) of 7-5-in. ap., a 
i-in. refr. by Lerebours and Briinner, a 12-in. refr. by Secretan and 
Eichens, a refr. of 9'5-in. ap., an equat. coude* by Henry and 
Gautier of loj-in. ap. (1883), another by the same of 25J-in. ap., vis. 
and phot. (1891), phot. refr. of 13 in. by the same. A s.g. refl. of 
4-ft. ap. was mounted in 1875, but has never been used. 

In addition to this national obs. there were during the latter half 
of the 1 8th century several minor obs. in Paris, which only lasted 
for some years. Among these were the obs. at College Mazarin, lat. 
+48 51' 29*, where Lacaille observed from 1746 to 1750, and from 
1754 to 1762, and the obs. at the Ecole Militaire, lat. +48 51' 5', 
built in 1768 and furnished with an 8-ft. mural quadrant by Bird, 
with which J. L. d'Agelet observed telescopic stars (1782-1785), 
and which was afterwards (1789-1801), under Lalande's direction, 
employed for observing more than 50,000 stars, published in the 
Histoire Celeste (1801). 

Meudon, close to Paris, lat. +48 48' 18', long, o h. 8 m. 55-6 s. E. 
Founded in 1875; devoted to physical astronomy, and especiajly 
to celestial photography, under the direction of J. Janssen; 32-in. 
vis. and 24j-in. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, refl. by the same 
of 39-in. ap. There is a branch obs. on Mont Blanc, where a polar 
siderostat with 12-in. o.g. and 2O-in. mirror is occasionally used for 
solar and spectroscopic work (15,780 ft. above sea-level). 

Montsouris, situated in the Montsouris Park, south of Paris, lat. 
+48 49' 18", long, o h. 9 m. 20-7 s. E. Founded in 1875 for the 
training of naval officers. 

Juvissy (Seine-et-Oise), private obs. of N. C. Flammarion, lat. 
+48 41' 37*, long, o h. 9 m. 29-0 s. E. 9i-in. refr. used for obs. 
of planets. 

Chevreuse (Seine-et-Oise), private obs. of M. Farman (1903), lat. 
+48 42' 33*, long, o h. 8 m. 4-5 s. E. ; 8-in. refr. by Mailhat used 
on double stars. 

Besanfon, chronometric and meteorol. obs., lat. +47 14' 59'*' 
long, o h. 23 m. 57-1 s. E. Opened 1884; 8-in. refr., 12-in. equat. 
coudee, 7$-in. transit circle, all by Gautier. 

Lyons, old obs. in lat. 45 45' 46', long, o h. 19 m. 18 s. E., at the 
Jesuit college. A new obs. was erected in 1877 at St G6nis-Laval, 'at 
some distance from the city, lat. +45 41 '41-0*, long. oh. 19 m. 8-55. 
E. Transit circle by Eichens (6-in. o.g.), 12-in. equat. coudee by 
Gautier, 12-in. siderostat. 

Bordeaux, univ. obs. at Floirac, 4 km. N.W. of the city, lat. 
+44 50' 7-3', long, o h. 2 m. 5-5 s. W. Founded 1882 ; 7-in. transit 
circle by Eichens, i^-in. refr. by Merz and Gautier, 13-in. phot. refr. 
by Henry and Gautier. 

Marseilles, lat. 43 18' 17-5*, long, o h. 21 m. 34-6 s. E. Originally 
belonging to the Jesuits, taken over by the ministry of the navy in 
1749. It was here that J. L. Pons made his numerous discoveries 
of comets. New buildings erected in 1869; 9i-in. Merz. refr., 
refl. of 32-in. ap. s.g. by Foucault, 7i-in. transit circle. 



OBSERVATORY 



957 



Toulouse, lat. 43 36' 45-0", long, o h. 5 m. 49-9 s. E. Erected in 
1841 (Darquier had observed at the Lyceum towards the end of the 
l8th century); reorganized 1873; 9-in. refr. and 13-in. phot. refr. 
by Gautier, 13-in. and 32-in. ren. 

Nice, lat. + 43 43' 16-9", long, o h. 29 m. 12-2 s. E., founded and 
endowed by R. L. Bischoffsheim for the Bureau de Longitude (1880), 
situated at Mont Gros, north-east of Nice ; a refr. of 3O-in. ap. by 
Henry and Gautier, a meridian circle by Brunner of 8-in. ap., 15-in. 
refr. and isf-in. equal, coudee by Henry and Gautier. 

Abbadia (Basses Pyrenees), lat. +43 22' 52-2", long. oh. ym.o-is. 
W. Founded by A. d'Abbadie, 1858, belongs now to the Paris Acad. 
of Science. 6-in. transit circle. 

GERMANY 

Altona, lat. + 53 32' 45-3", long, o h. 39 m. 46-1 s. E. Founded in 
1823 by the Danish government to assist in the geodetic operations 
in Holstein. A meridian circle by Reichenbach (of 4-in. ap.) was 
procured, to which in 1858 was added a 4i-in. equal, by Repsold. 
The obs. is best known by the fact lhat ihe Astronomische Nach- 
richten, ihe principal astronomical journal, was published here from 
1821 (by H. C. Schumacher up to 1850, by C. F. W. Peters from 1854). 
The obs. was moved to Kiel in 1874. 

Bamberg, lat. + 49 53' 6-0", long, o h. 43 m. 33-6 s. E. Founded 
and endowed by the lale Dr K. Remeis, compleled 1889; 7$-in. 
heliometer by Merz and Repsold, ioj-in. refr. by Schroder. 

Berlin, royal obs., lat. + 52 30' 16-7", long, o h. 53 m. 34-9 s. E. 
Was erected in 1 705 as part of the building of the Academy of Sciences 
(lat. + 52 31' 12-5", long, o h. 3 m. 35 s. E.), a very unsuitable 
locality. A new obs. was built in the southern part of the city, 
finished in 1835. Refr. by Utzschneider and Fraunhofer of 9-in. ap. 
(used chiefly for obs. of minor planets), a meridian circle by Pistor 
and Martins of 4-in. ap., another by the same makers of 7-in. ap. 

Berlin, obs. of Urania Society for diffusing natural knowledge, 
lat. + 52 31' 30-7", long, o h. 53 m. 27-4 s. E. Opened 1889; i2-m. 
refr. by Schott. In the Treptow Chaussee is a popular obs. with a 
27-in. refr. by Schott and Steinheil. 

Bonn, univ. obs., lat. + 50 43' 45-0", long, o h. 28 m. 23-2 s. E. 
Finished in 1845; meridian circle by Pistor of 4i-in. ap., heliometer 
by Merz of 6-in. ap. The former was used by F. W. A. Argelander 
for observing the stars contained in his three great catalogues. 
The obs. is chiefly known by the zone obs., made from 1852 to 1859, 
with a small comet-seeker, on which Argelander's great atlas of 
324,198 stars between the north pole and -2 decl. is founded, 
continued with a 6-in. refr. from -2 to -31 decl. by Schonfeld. 
A meridian circle of 6-in. ap. by Repsold was mounted in 
1882. 

Bothkamp, F. G. yon Billow's obs., lat. + 54 12' 9-6", long, o h. 
40 m. 31-2 s. E. Situated a few miles from Kiel, founded in 1870. 
With a refr. of ll-in. ap. by Schroder, Dr K. H. Vogel obtained 
valuable results in 1871-1874; since then it has only been used 
occasionally. 

Bremen. In the third storey of his house in Sandstrasse, H. W. M. 
Olbers (d.l84o) had his obs., lat. + 53 4' 38", long, o h. 35 m. 10 s. E. ; 
though the principal instrument was only a 3f-in. refr. by Dollond, 
many comets and the planets Pallas and Vesta were discovered and 
observed here. 

Breslau, univ. obs., lat. + 51 6' 55-8", long. I h. 8 m. 8-7 s. E. 
Founded 1790. In a small and unsuitable locality; 8-in. refr. by 
Clark and Repsold erected 1898. 

Dresden, Baron von Engelhardt's obs., lat. + 51 2' 16-8", long. 
o h. 54 m. 54-8 s. E. A 12-in. refr. by Grubb (mounted 1880), used 
for obs. of comets and double stars, presented to Kasan obs. in 1897. 

Dusseldorf (Bilk, originally a suburb, now part of the city), lat. 
+ 51 12' 25-0", long, o h. 27 m. 5-5 s. E. Founded and endowed by 
Professor J. F. Benzenberg (d. 1846); best known by the discovery 
of twenty-one minor planets by K. T. R. Luther; 4J-in. refr. by 
Merz, 7i-in. refr. by Merz and Bamberg. 

Gotha. In 1791 an obs. was founded by Duke Ernest II. at 
Seeberg, lat. + 50 56' 5-2", long, o h. 42 m. 55-8 s. E., on a hill a 
few miles from Gotha, the chief instrument being a large transit 
instrument by Ramsden. Through the labours, principally theo- 
retical, of F. X. Zach, B. A. von Lindenau, J. F. Encke and P. A. 
Hansen, the institution ranked with the first obs. A new obs. was 
built at Gotha in 1857, lat. + 50 56' 37-5", long, o h. 42 m. 50-4 s. E., 
which received the instruments from Seeberg, including a small 
transit circle by Ertel (made in 1824), also a new equat. by Repsold 
of 4l-in. ap. 

Gottingen, univ. obs., lat. + 51 31' 48-2", long, o h. 39 m. 46-2 s. E. 
An obs. had existed here from 1751, where Tobias Mayer worked. 
In 1811 a new building was constructed. Besides his mathematical 
works, K. F. Gauss found time to engage in important geodetic and 
magnetic obs.; meridian circle by Repsold (4J-in. ap.), another by 
Reichenbach (4J-in.), 6-in. heliometer by Repsold (1888). 

Hamburg, lat. + 53 33' 7-0", long, o h. 39 m. 53-6 s. E. Built in 
the year 1825. With a meridian circle of 4-in. ap. by Repsold, 
K. L. C. Riimker observed the places of 12,000 stars. A refr. of 
lo-in. ap. by Merz and Repsold was mounted in 1868. A new obs. 
is now being built 20 km. south-east of the city, lat. + 53 28' 46", 
long, o h. 40 m. 58-5 s. E., with a 23i-in. refr by Steinheil and 
Repsold, 7J-in. transit circle by Repsold, and a 39-in. refl. 



Heidelberg, grand ducal obs., lat. + 49 23' 54-9", long, o h. 34 m. 
53-1 s. E. On the Konigstuhl hill, 500 ft. above the Neckar; opened 
1898. Consists of an astrometric and an astrophysical department. 
The former has a 13-in. refr. by Steinheil and Repsold, an 8-in. refr. 
by Merz and a 6J-in. transit circle by Repsold. The astrophysical 
department is chiefly devoted to phot, work with a triple equat. 
with two l6-in. lenses and lo-in. guiding telescope, as well as with 
a 28-in. s.g. refl. by Zeiss. 

Jena, univ. obs., lat. + 50 55' 34-9'', long. oh. 46m. 20-3 s. 7-in. refr. 
mounted 1891. 

Kiel, univ. obs., lat. + 54 20' 27-6", long, o h. 40 m. 35-6 s. E. 
Contains the instruments removed from Altona in 1874, also an 8-in 
refr. by Steinheil and a 9-in. transit circle by Repsold. 

Konigsberg, univ. obs., lat. +54 42' 50-4", long. I h.2i m.59-os.E. 
Built 1813; F. W. Bessel was the director till his death in 1846, and 
nearly all his celebrated investigations were carried out here, e.g. 
obs. of fundamental stars, zone obs. of stars, researches on refraction, 
heliometric obs., by which the annual parallax of the star 61 Cygni 
was first determined, &c. The instruments are a 4-in. transit circle 
by Repsold (1841), a 6-in. heliometer by Utzschneider (1829), and a 
13-in. refr. by Reinfelder and Repsold (1898). 

Landstuhl (Palatinate), private obs. of J. P. H. Fauth, lat. 
+ 49 24' 42'9", long, o h. 30 m. 16-3 s. E. ; 7J-in. refr. 

Leipzig, univ. obs. Erected 1787-1790 on the " Pleissenburg "; 
jat. + 51 20' 20-5", long, o h. 49 m. 30-2 s. E. ; possessed only small 
instruments, the largest being a 4i-in. refr. by Fraunhofer (1830). 
In 1861 a new obs. was erected, lat. +51 20' 5-9", long, o h. 49 m 
33-9 s. E., with a refr. of 8i-in. ap. by Steinheil, replaced in 1891 by a 
12-in. refr. by Reinfelder and Repsold, a meridian circle by Pistor 
and Martins of 6-3-in. ap. and a 6-in. heliometer by Repsold. 

Lilienthal, near Bremen, lat. + 53 8' 25", long, o h. 36 m. I s. E. 
J. H. Schroter's private obs.; from 1779 to 1813. Contained a 
number of refl. by Herschel and Schrader, the largest being of 27-ft. 
focal length and 2o-in. ap. (movable round the eye-piece), used for 
physical obs., chiefly of planets. Destroyed during the war in 1813; 
the instruments (which had been bought by the government in 
1 800) were, for the greater part, sent to the Gottingen obs. 

Mannheim, lat. +49 29' 10-9", long, o h. 33 m. 50-5 s. E. Built in 
1772; very few obs. were published until the obs. was restored in 
1860, when a 6-in. refr. by Steinheil was procured. In 1879 the obs. 
was moved to Karlsruhe and later to Heidelberg. 

Munich, at Bogenhausen, royal obs., lat. + 48 8' 45-5", long, 
o h. 46 m. 26- 1 s. E. Founded in 1 809 ; a transit circle by Reichenbacn 
was mounted in 1824, an 1 1 -in. equat. refr. by Fraunhofer in 
1835. The former was used from 184^0 for zone obs. (about 
80,000) of telescopic stars. 6-in. transit circle by Repsold mounted 
1891. 

Potsdam, lat. + 52 22' 56-0", long, o h. 52 m. 15-9 s. E. "Astro- 
physical obs.," founded in 1874, devoted to spectroscopic and photo- 
graphic obs. A refr. by Schroder of I ij-in. ap., another by Grubb of 
8-in. ap., a refr. by Steinheil and Merz with o-in. vis. and 13-in. phot, 
o.g. and a refr. by Steinheil and Repsold with 3l-in. phot, and Hjl-in. 
vis. o.g., spectroscopes, photometers, &c. Results are published in 
4to vols. 

Strassburg, univ. obs., lat. + 48 35' 0-3", long, o h. 31 m. 4.5 s. E. 
Finished in 1881 ; an i8-in. refr. by Irterz; altazimuth of si-m. ap., 
meridian circle of 6J-in. ap., and a 6J in. orbit sweeper, all by Repsold. 

Wilhelmshaven (Prussia), naval obs., lat. + 53 31' 52-2", long. 

h. 32 m. 35- 1 s. E. ; situated on the Jahde to the north of Oldenburg. 
Founded in 1874; meridian circle by Repsold of 4$-in. ap., and 
meteorological, magnetical, and tide-registering instruments. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

Vienna, imperial and royal obs. On the univ. building an obs. 
was founded in 1756, lat. + 48 12' 35-5", long, i h. 5 m. 31-75. E. 
Owing to the unsuitable locality and the want of instruments, very 
few obs. of value were taken until the obs. was rebuilt in 1826, when 
some better instruments were procured, especially a meridian circle 
of 4-in. ap., and a 6-in. refr. by Fraunhofer (mounted in 1832), used 
for obs. of planets and comets. From 1874 to 1879 a large and mag- 
nificent building (with four domes) was erected at Wahring, north- 
west of the city, lat. -f- 48 13' 55-4", long. I h. 5 m. 21-5 s. E. In 
addition to the old instruments, two refrs. were erected, one by Clark 
of iij-in. ap., another by Grubb of 27-in. ap. (mounted 1882); later 
a 15-in. equat. coudee by Gautier and a 13-10. phot. refr. by Repsold 
have been mounted. 

Vienna (Josephstadt), private obs. of T. von Oppolzer (d. 1886), 
lat. + 48 12' 53-8", long, i h. 5 m. 25-3 s. E. Established in 1865; 
5-in. refr. by Merz, 4-in. meridian circle. 

Ftew na(Ottakring), private obs.ofM.vonKuffner.lat. +48! 2'46-7*, 
long, i h. 5 m. n-o s. E. Completed 1886; ioi-in. vis. and 6-3-in. 
phot. refr. by Steinheil and Repsold, 8-in. heliometer and 4}-in. 
transit circle by Repsold. 

Prague, univ. obs., lat. -f 50 5' 15-8", long, o h. 57 m. 40-3 s. E. 
Founded in 1751 at the Collegium Clementinum, on a high tower. 
6-in. refr. by Steinheil and a 4-in. meridian circle. 

Senftenberg (in the east of Bohemia), lat. + 50 5' 55", long. 

1 h. 5 m. 51 s. E. Baron von Senftenberg's obs. ; established in 1844. 
Obs. of comets and planets made with small instruments till the 
owner's death (1858). 



95 8 



OBSERVATORY 



Olmutz, lat. +49 35' 40', long. I h. 9 m. o s. E. E. von Unkrechts- 
berg's obs. ; 5-in. refr. by Merz. J. F. Julius Schmidt observed 
planets and comets from 1852 to 1858. 

Kremsmiinster (Upper Austria), lat. +48 3' 23-1', long. oh. 
56 m. 31-6 s. E. Founded in 1748 at the gymnasium of the Bene- 
dictines. 3-in. meridian circle (mounted in 1827); 5l-in. refr. 
(mounted in 1856), used for comets and minor planets. Transit 
circle by Repsold (1907) 

Polo, (sea-coast, Austria), naval obs., lat. +44 51 48-7. long. 

h. 55 m. 23-1 s. E. Founded in 1871 ; meridian circle of 6-in. ap. 
by Simms, 6-in. refr. by Steinheil, magnetic and meteorological 
instruments. Twenty-eight minor planets were discovered here from 
1874 to 1880 by J. Palisa. 

Cracow, univ. obs., lat. +50 3' 50-0", long. I h. 19 m. 51-1 s. E. 
Possesses only small instruments. 

Lussinpiccolo (island of Lussin, Adriatic), private obs. of Madame 
Manora.lat. +44 32' II -o', long, o h. 57 m. 52-45. E. Erected 1894; 
7-in. refr. by Reinfelder, used for obs. of planets. 

Kis Kartal (north-east of Budapest), private obs. of Baron 
Podmaniczky, lat. +47 41' 54-8', long. I h. 18 m. 11-7 s. E. 7j-in. 
refr. by Merz and Cooke. 

O'Gyalla (near Komorn, Hungary), lat. +47 52' 27-3*. long. 

1 h. 12 m. 45-6 s. E. Nicolas de Konkoly's obs., since 1899 a royal 
obs. Established in 1871, rebuilt and enlarged in 1876, devoted to 
astrophysics. A lo-in. s.g. refl. by Browning was in use up to 1881, 
when it was disposed of and a lo-in. refr. (o.g. by Merz) mounted in 
its place; also a 6-in. refr. by Merz, and a 6-3 in. phot. refr. 

Kalocza (south of Budapest), lat. +46 31 '41", long. I h. 15 m. 545. 
E. Obs. of the Jesuit college, founded in 1878 by Cardinal Haynald; 
7-in. refr. by Merz, used for solar obs. 

Hereny (Vas, Hungary), lat. +47 15' 47'4*. long. I h. 6 m. 24-7 s. 
E. E. and A. von Gothard's obs. Founded in 1881; lo-in. refl. 
by Browning. 

SWITZERLAND 

Zurich, lat. +47 22' 40-0*. long, o h. 34 m. 12-3 s. E. An obs. 
existed since 1759; handed over to the Polytechnic School in 1855; 
new building erected in 1863. A 6-in. refr. by Merz and Kern with 
two phot, telescopes, two transit instruments, &c. Sun-spots are 
regularly observed, but the institution is chiefly devoted to educa- 
tional purposes. 

Neuchatel, lat. +46 59' 51-0", long, o h. 27 m. 49-9 s. E. Erected 
in 1858; meridian circle of 4j-in. ap. by Ertel, 6j-in. refr. by 
Merz. 

Geneva, lat. +46 1 1' 59'3*, long, o h. 24 m. 36-6 s. E. Founded in 
1773; a new building erected in 1830. The obs. has been the centre 
of the important geodetic operations carried on in Switzerland since 
1861. An ll-in. refr. (o.g. by Merz) was presented by the director 
E. Plantamour in 1880; 4-in. transit circle. 

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

Madrid, royal obs., lat. +40 24' 29-7", long, o h. 14 m. 45-1 s. W. 
lO^-in. refr. by Merz, 8|-in. refr. by Grubb, 6-in. transit circle by 
Repsold. 

Barcelona, obs. of Acad. of Science, lat. +41 25' 18", long, 
o h. 8 m. 28 s. E. Opened 1904; 15-in. refr., phot, and vis. by 
Mailhat, 7f-in. transit circle by the same. 

Cadiz, naval obs., at San Fernando, lat. +36 27' 42-0*, long. 
o h. 24 m. 49-3 s. W. Founded in 1797 ; I l-in. refr. by Briinner, 13-in. 
phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, 8-in. transit circle by Simms. 

Lisbon, royal obs., lat. +38 42' 31-3*, long, o h. 36 m. 44-7 s. W. 
Founded 1861 ; I5j-in. refr. by Mi 
Repsold. 



lerz end Repsold, transit circle by 



Coimbra, univ. obs., lat. +40 12' 25-5*, long, o h. 33 m. 43-1 s. 
W. Founded 1792; 6|-in. transit circle by Repsold, i6-in. refl. by 



Secretan. 



ITALY 



Turin, univ. obs., lat. +45 4' 7-9', long, o h. 30 m. 47-2 s. E. 
Founded in 1790 by the Academy of Science; rebuilt in 1820 on a 
tower of the Palazzo Madama, 4i-in. transit circle by Reichenbach, 
i2-in. refr. by Merz; handed over to the univ. in 1865. A new obs. 
is being erected 6 km. from the city. 

Milan, originally obs. of Brera College, now royal obs. of Brera, 
lat. +45 V? 59-2*, long, o h. 36 m. 45-9 s. E. Founded in 1763. 
The publication of an annual ephemeris from 1775 to 1875 and 
important theoretical works absorbed most of the time of the 
directors B. Oriani and F. Carlini, and the instruments were rather 
insufficient. In 1875 an 8-in. refr. by Merz was mounted, with which 
G. V. Schiaparelli has made valuable obs. of Mars; i8-in. refr. by 
Merz. 

Padua, univ. obs., lat. +45 24' i-o', long, o h. 47 m. 29-2 s. E. 
Founded in 1767. In 1837 a meridian circle by Starke of 4-in. ap. 
was mounted, with which stars from Bessel's zones were reobserved ; 
the results were published in five catalogues; 4^-in. refr. by Merz 
.and Starke (1858); Dembowski's 7-in. refr. mounted in 1881. 

Gallarate, near Lago Maggiore, from 1860 to 1879, Baron E. 
Dembowski's obs. From 1852 to 1859 Baron Dembowski had 
observed double stars at Naples with a 5-in. dialyte by Plossl and a 
small transit circle by Starke. From 1860 he used a 7-in. refr. by 
Merz. 



Bologna, univ. obs., lat. +44 29' 47-0*, long, o h. 45 m. 24-5 s. E. 
Founded in 1724 on a tower of the univ. building. Obs. have only 
been made occasionally. A 3i-in. meridian circle was mounted in 
1846. 

Florence. In 1774 a museum of science and natural history was 
established, part of which was used as an obs., but very few obs. 
were made; a new obs., built 1872 at Arcetri, lat. +43 45' 14-4*, 
long o h. 45 m. 1-3 s. E. ll-in. and 9i-in. refrs. by Amici. 

Teramo (Abruzzo), private obs. of V. Cerulli, lat. +42 39' 27', 
long o h. 54 m. 56 s. E. isJ-in. refr. by Cooke. 

Rome, obs. of the Roman College, lat. +41 53' 53-6*, long, 
o h. 49 m. 55-4 s. E. Established in 1787, taken over by the govern- 
ment 1879. In 1853 a new obs. was erected on the unfinished piles 
of the church of St Ignatius, and furnished with a 9-in. refr. by Merz, 
a meridian circle by Ertel of 3i-in. ap. (in use from 1842). With 
these instruments, to which were later added powerful spectroscopes, 
A. Secchi made a great many obs., chiefly relating to spectrum 
analysis and physical astronomy; 15-in. refr. by Steinheil. 

Rome, obs. of the Capitol, lat. +41 53' 33-6*, long, o h. 49 m. 56-33. 
E. Established in 1848; belongs to the univ.; small transit circle 
and a 4i-in. refr. by Merz. The latter was used by L. Respighi for 
obs. of solar prominences. 

Rome (Vatican), papal obs., lat. +41 54' 4-8*, long, o h. 49 m. 49-33. 
E. Founded 1890; loj-in. refr. by Merz, 13-in. phot, and 8-in. 
vis. refr. and 5i-in. photoheliograph by Henry. 

Naples, royal obs., situated at Capo di Monte, lat. +40 51' 46-3', 
long, o h. 57 m. 1-7 s. E. Erected in 1812-1819; a 4-' n - meridian 
circle by Reichenbach, a 6J-in. refr. by Reichenbach and Fraunhofer, 
6-in. Merz. refr. 

Palermo, royal obs., lat. +38 6' 44-5', long, o h. 53 m. 25-9 s. E. 
Erected in 1790 on a tower of the royal palace. The principal instru- 
ments were a reversible vertical circle by Ramsden ot 5-ft. diameter 
with a 3-in. telescope, and a transit instrument of 3-in. ap. With 
these G. Piazzi observed the stars contained in his celebrated 
Catalogue of 7641 Stars (1814); this work led him to the discovery 
of the first minor planet, Ceres, on the 1st of January 1801. The 
activity was revived in 1857, when a meridian circle by Pistor and 
Martins of 5-in. ap. was mounted ; a 9j-in. refr. by Merz has been 
used for spectroscopic work. 

Catania, lat. +37 30' 13-3', long. I h. o m. 20-6 s. E. Founded 
1885; 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, and a 13-in. refr. by 
Merz. The latter is used in summer on a duplicate mounting on 
Mount Etna, where in 1879-1880 an obs. was built at the " Casa 
degl' Inglesi," 9650 ft. above the sea, for solar obs. 

GREECE 

Athens, lat. +37 58' 20*, long. I h. 34 m. 55-7 s. E. Erected in 
1846; founded by Baron Sina. With a refr. of 6J-in. ap. Julius 
Schmidt (d. 1884) made obs. of the physical appearance of the moon, 
planets and comets. Reorganized 1895; I5i-in. refr. by Gautier, 
6J-in. transit circle. 

RUSSIA 

St Petersburg, obs. of the Academy of Sciences, lat. +59 56' 29-7', 
long. 2 h. I m. 13-5 s. E. Founded in 1725, restored in 1803; meridian 
circle by Ertel. Abolished in 1884. A univ. obs. was founded in 
1880, lat. +59 56' 32-0*, long. 2 h. I m. 11-4 s. E.; 9i-in. refr. by 
Reinfelder and Repsold, used on double stars, during the summer at 
Domkino, lat. +58 35-6', long. I h. 59 m. 25 s. E. 

Fulkovo (Pulkowa), Nicholas Central Obs., lat. +59 46' 18-7', 
long. 2 h. i m. 18-6 s. E. Finished in 1839. Was under the direction 
of F. G. W. Struve till 1861, then of his son O. Struve till 1889. 
The staff consists now of the director, five astronomers, six assistants 
and computers. The principal instruments are: a transit instru- 
ment by Ertel of 6-in. ap., a vertical circle by Ertel of 6-in. ap. 
(the circle of 3i-ft. diameter has been redivided by Repsold), these 
two instruments are for determining standard places of stars; a 
meridian circle by Repsold (6-in. ap., 4-ft. circles), used since 1841 
to observe all stars north of -15 decl. down to the 6th mag., and 
all others observed by Bradley ; a prime vertical transit by Repsold 
with 6J-in. ap., used for determining the constant of aberration; a 
7i-in. heliometer by Merz; a refr. by Merz of 14-9-in. ap. (remounted 
by Repsold in 1880), which was used by O. Struve to observe 
double stars; 3O-in. refr. by Clark and Repsold, erected 1884, 
chiefly used for spectrographic work; 13-in. phot. refr. See also 
Odessa. 

Abo (Finland), univ. obs., lat. +60 26' 56-8', long. I h. 29 m. 8-3 s. 

E. Founded in 1819. With the meridian circle by Reichenbach 
of 4-in. ap. F. W. A. Argelander observed the 560 stars con- 
tained in the Abo catalogue. In consequence of a great fire in 
1827 the univ. and obs. were moved to Helsingfors. 

Helsingfors (Finland), univ. obs., lat. +60 9 42-6", long. I h. 39 m. 
49-1 s. E. Erected in 1832-1835; furnished with a 7-in. refr. and 
the instruments from Abo, including a transit instrument by Fraun- 
hofer of 5i-in. ap. ; 13-in. phot. refr. erected 1890. 

Dorpat (Yuriev), univ. obs., lat. +58 22' 46-8', long. I h. 46 m. 
53-2 s. E. Founded in 1808; 1814-1839 under the direction of 

F. G. W. Struve. With a meridian circle by Reichenbach obs. were 
made from 1822 to 1843, chiefly of double stars, while the 9$-in. 
refr. by Fraunhofer was used from 1824 to 1837 for measuring 
double stars. 



OBSERVATORY 



959 



Warsaw, univ. obs., lat. +52.I3' 5-7*- long. I h. 24 m. 7-3 s. E. 
Erected in 1820-1824; meridian circle by Reichenbach; 6-in. refr. 
by Merz. 

Moscow, univ. obs., lat. +55 45' 19-8', long. 2 h. 30 m. 17-0 s. E. 
An obs. was built in 1825-1832; the present building was erected 
about 1850; io-7-in. refr by Merz; a meridian circle by Repsold of 
5'3-in. ap. ; I5j-in. vis.; and phot. refr. by Henry and Repsold. 

Kazan, univ. obs., lat. +55 47' 24-2', long. 3 h. 16 m. 28-9 s. E. 
Founded in 1814, restored in 1842; 6$-in. refr. by Merz; meridian 
circle by Repsold. New obs. built 1899, lat. +55 50' 20-0*, long. 
3 h. 15 m. 16-5 s. E., for Engelhardt's instruments (see Dresden). 

Kharkov, univ. obs., lat. +5O o' 9-6*, long. 2 h. 24 m. 55-8 s. E.; 
6J-in. transit circle by Repsold. 

Kiev, univ. obs., lat. +50 27' 1 1 -8', long. 2 h. 2 m. 0-6 s E. Erected 
in the years 1840-1845; 9-in. refr. by Merz and Repsold; and a 
meridian circle. 

Odessa, univ. obs., lat. +46 28' 36-7', long. 2 h. 3 m. 2-0 s. E.; 
6J vis. and 6-in. phot. refr. 

Odessa, branch of Pulkowa obs., lat. +46 28' 37-9', long. 2 h. 3 m. 
2-2 s. E. Established 1898 for obs. of more southerly standard stars, 
with a 4-in. transit by Freiberg and a 4-in. vertical circle by Repsold. 

Nikolayev, naval obs., lat. +46 58' 21-8*. long. 2 h. 7 m. 53-8 s. E. 
Erected in 1824; meridian circle by Ertel of 4-in. ap. ; 9^-in. refr. by 
Repsold. 

SWEDEN, NORWAY AND DENMARK 

Stockholm, lat. +59 20' 33-0*, long. I h. 12 m. 14-0 s. E., is under 
the Academy of Sciences. Founded in 1750. Meridian circle by 
Ertel of 4$-in. ap. ; 7i-in. vis. and 6i-in. phot. refr. by Repsold. 

Upsala, univ. obs., lat. +59 51' 29-4', long. I h. 10 m. 30-1 s. E. 
Founded in 1730, but very little was done until the obs. acquired 
a 9-in. refr. by Steinheil, which was used by Schultz for micrometric 
obs. of nebulae. 13-in. phot, and 14-in. vis refr. by Steinheil. 

Lund, univ. obs., lat. +55 41' 52-0*, long, o h. 52 m. 45-0 s. E. 
Built in 1866; 9i-in. refr., o.g. by Merz; meridian circle by Repsold 
of 6|-in ap. 

Christianta, univ. obs., lat. +59 54' 44-0*, long, o h. 42 m. 53-6 s.E. 
Erected in 1831 ; meridian circle by Ertel of 4-in. ap. ; 7-in. refr. by 
Merz. 

Copenhagen, univ. obs. Founded in 1641 on the top of a high 
tower, lat. +55 40' 53-0', long, o h. 50 m. 19-8 s. E. The locality 
was so very unsuitable that O. Romer (the inventor of the transit 
instrument and modern equat., d. 1710) established his own obs. at 
Vridlosemagle, at some distance from the city. A new obs. was 
erected in 1861, Iat.+554i' 12-9', long. oh. 50 m.i8-7s.E., furnished 
with a refr. by Merz of ll-in. ap., with which H. L. d'Arrest made 
obs. of nebulae, and a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 
4J-in. ap. Later the refr. was replaced by a 14-in. vis. and 8-in. 
phot. refr. by Steinheil. 

Copenhagen, Urania obs. (private), lat. +55 41' 19-2', long, 
o h. 50 m. 9-1 s. E. Established 1898; gj-in. refr. by Cooke. 

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 

Leiden, univ. obs., lat. +52 9' 20-0*, long. oh. 17 m. 56-2 s. E. 
Founded already in 1632, but the instruments were always very small, 
and hardly any obs. weje taken until F. Kaiser became director in 
1837. In 18581860 a new obs. was erected and furnished with a 
7-in. refr. by Merz, and a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 
6-3-in. ap. Later a io|-in. refr. by Clarke and Repsold has been 
erected. 

Groningen, astron. laboratory of the univ., lat. +53 13' 19-1", 
long, o h. 26 m. 15-2 s. E. Established 1896; instruments for 
measuring celestial photographs. 

Utrecht, univ. obs., lat. +52 5' 9-5", long, o h. 20 m. 31-0 s. E. 
Erected in 1855; lo-in. refr. by Steinheil. 

Brussels, royal obs., lat. +50 51' 10-7,* long, o h. 17 m. 28-6 s. E. 
Erected in 18291834. Had a transit instrument by Gambey and a 
mural circle by Troughton, but the institution was, while under the 
direction of L. A. J. Quetelet, chiefly devoted to physics and meteoro- 
logy. In 1877 a 6-in. refr. by Merz was mounted, and a meridian 
circle by Repsold and a 15-in. refr. by Cooke provided. A new obs. 
was erected in 1891 at Uccle, lat. +50 47' 55-5', long, o h. 17 m. 
26-9 s. E., with the instruments from Brussels, a 9-in. phot. refr. by 
Grubb, and a 13-in. phot. refr. by Gautier. 

Ltige, univ. obs., lat. +50 37' 6", long, o h. 22 m. 15-4 s. E. ; lo-in. 
refr. and 7-in. transit circle by Cooke. 

UNITED STATES 

Albany (New York), Dudley obs. Erected in 1851-1856 by 
subscription, lat. +42 39' 49'5*, long. 4 h. 54 m. 59-2 s.W. Refr.by 
Fitz of 13-in. ap., meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 8-in. ap. 
New obs. erected 1893, lat. +42 39' 12-7', long. 4 h. 55 m. 6-8 s. W. ; 
12-in. refr. by Brashear. 

Allegheny (Pa.), lat. +40 27' 41-6", long. 5 h. 20 m. 2-9 s. W. 
Founded in 1859, transferred to the Western Univ. of Penn. (now 
Univ. of Pittsburgh) in 1867; 13-in. refr. by Fitz (improved by 
Clark), mounted in 1867; instruments for researches on solar energy. 

Amherst (Mass.), lat. +42 21' 56-5*, long, d h. 50 m. 5-9 s. W. 
Founded in 1857 as an annex to Amherst College; 7J-in. refr. by 
Clark. New building 1903; i8-in. refr. by Clark; 6$-in. transit circle 
by Pistor and Martins. 



Ann Arbor (Michigan), lat. +42 16' 48-8', long 5 h. 34 m. 55-2 s. 
W. Detroit obs. of the Univ. of Michigan; erected in 1854; meridian 
circle by Pistor and Martins of 6J in. ap. ; I2j-in. refr. by Fitz. 

Berkeley (Cal.), Students' obs. of Univ. of California, lat. 
+37 5 2 ' 23-6', lone. 8 h. 9 m. 2-7 s. W. ; 8-in. refr. 

Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard College obs., lat. +42 22' 47-6*, 
long. 4 h. 44 in. 31-0 s. W. Erecteef in 1839. Refr. of Ij-in. ap. 
by Merz, with which W. C. Bond discovered a satellite of Saturn 
(Hyperion) in 1848, employed by E. C. Pickering for extensive 
photometric obs. of fixed stars and satellites; a meridian circle by 
Troughton and Simms of 8J-in. ap., mounted in 1870; 12-in. hori- 
zontal telescope for photometric obs. of faint stars, ll-in. and 8-in. 
Draper refrs. for phot, work; 15-in. Draper refl. ; 24-in. phot, 
doublet (Bruce telescope) with which the ninth and tenth satellites 
of Saturn have been discovered by W. H. Pickering. Branch obs. at 
Arequipa, Peru. 

Charlottesville (Va.), obs. of Univ. of Virginia, lat. +38 2' 1-2,* 
long. 5 h. 14 m. 5-2 s. W. Founded 1882; 26-in. refr. by Clark. 

Chicago (Illinois), Dearborn obs., lat. +41 51' i-o , long. 5 h. 
50 m. 26-8 s. W. Attached to North-western Univ., founded in 1862 ; 
i8j-in. refr. by Clark; 6-in. meridian circle by Repsold. Obs. removed 
toEyanston (111.) in 1889, lat. +42 3' 33-4*, long. sh. 50 m. 42-3 s.W. 

Cincinnati (Ohio). In 1842 an obs. was founded by subscription, 
lat. +39 6' 26-5*, long. 5 h. 37 m. 58-9 s. W., and furnished with a 
refr. of uj-in. ap. by Merz. In 1873 the obs. was removed to a 
distance from the city, to Mount Lookout, lat. + 39 8' 19-5*, long. 
5 h. 37 m. 41-3 s. W. ; 5-in. transit circle by Fauth. 

Clinton (New York), Litchfield obs. of Hamilton College, lat. 
+43 3' 16-5', long. 5 h. i m. 37-4 s. W. Erected by subscription 
1852-1855; refr. of 134 in. by Spencer, employed by C. H. F. Peters 
for construction of celestial charts, in the course of which work he 
discovered forty-one minor planets. 

Columbia (Mo.), Laws obs. of Univ. of Missouri, Iat.+38 6' 51-7*. 
long. 6 h. 9 m. 18-3 s. W. Founded 1853; 7i-in. refr. by Merz. 

Columbus (Ohio), State Univ. obs., lat. +4Oo' i", long. sh. 32 m. 

10 s. W. ; 12-in. refr. by Brashear and Warner & Swasey. 

Denver (Col.), Univ.of Denver obs., lat. +39 40' 36',long.6 h. 59m. 
47-6 s. W. ; 5400 ft. above sea-level. Founded 1891 ; 2O-in. refr. by 
Clark; 6-in. refr. by Grubb; 4-in. transit circle by Saegmiiller. 

Flagstaff (Arizona), private obs. of Percival Lowell, lat. 
+35 12 30-5*. long. 7 h. 26 m. 44-6 s. W. 7300 ft. above sea-level. 
Erected 1 894 ; 24-in. refr. by Clark ; 6-in. vis. by Clark ; and 5-in. phot, 
refr. by Brashear, all used chiefly on planets. 

Georgetown (District of Columbia), Georgetown Univ. obs., lat. +38 
54' 26-7', long. 5 h. 8 m. ,18-3 s. W. Erected in 1844; 12-in. refr. by 
Clacey and Saegmiiller; 9-in. phot, transit instr.(i89o)by Saegmuller; 
6-in. phot, zenith telescope by Brashear. 

Glasgow (Missouri), Morrison obs., lat. +39 16' 16-8", long. 6 h. 

11 m. 18-1 s. W. Founded in 1876; attached to Pritchett College; 
!2}-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle by Simms of 6-in. ap. 

Hanover (New Hampshire), Shattuck obs. of Dartmouth College, 
lat. +43 42' 15-3', long. 4 h. 49 m. 7-9 s. W. Founded in 1853; 
9i-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle by Simms of 4-in. ap. 

Hastings (New York), Professor Henry Draper's obs., lat. 
+40 59 25", long-4 h. 55m. 29-73. W. Built ini86o; 28-in.refl.by 
the owner, n-in. refr. (with photo, lens) by Clark, both used up to 
the owner's death (1882) for celestial and spectrum photography. 

Haverford (Pa.), Haverford College obs., lat. +40 o' 40-1*. long. 
5 h. i m. 12-7 s. W.; lo-in. refr. by Clark. 

Madison (Wisconsin), Washburn obs., lat. +43 4' 36-8', long. 
5 h. 57 m. 38-1 s.W. Erected at the expense of Governor Washburn 
in 1878 ; belongs to the Univ. of Wisconsin ; meridian circle by Repsold 
of 4-8-in. ap. ; isJ-in. refr. by Clark. 

Mount Hamilton (Cal.), Lick obs. of the Univ. of California, lat. 
+37 20' 25-6*, long. 8 h. 6 m. 34-9 s. W., about 4250 ft. above sea- 
level. Erected in pursuance of the will of James Lick (1796-1876), 
opened in 1888; 36-in. refr. by Clark with 33-in. phot, lens, 12-in. 
refr. by Clark, 6^-in. transit circle by Repsold, 3-ft. s.g. refl. by 
Common, several phot, telescopes, a second 3-ft. s.g. refl. by Brashear 
with spectrograph. The 5th satellite of Jupiter was discovered by 
E. E. Barnard in 1892 with the 36 in., and the 6th and 7th by 
C. D. Perrine on photos with the refl. in 1904-1905. 

Mount Wilson (Cal.). Solar obs. of the Carnegie Institution, lat. 
+34 12' 59-5*, long. ?h. 52 m. 14-3 s. W. Erected 1904; 6o-in. 
refl. ; " Snow telescope " with 3O-in. coelostat and 24-in. concave 
mirror with large spectroheliograph. A loo-in. refl. has been 
ordered. 

New Haven (Connecticut), Winchester obs. of Yale College, lat. 
+4il9' 22-3',Iong.4 h.si m.4O-6 s. W. An obs. had existed since 
1830, possessing a g-in. refr. by Clark and a meridian circle by Ertel. 
In 1881 the obs. was rebuilt, and furnished with a 6-in. heliometer 
by Repsold, and an 8-in. refr. by Grubb. 

New York, L. M. Rutherfurd's obs., lat. +40 43' 48-5", long. 
4 h. 55 m. 56-6 s.W. ; 13-in. refr. by Rutherfurd and Fitz, used for 
celestial photography. Presented to Columbia College in 1884. 
New obs. (Wilde), lat. +40 45' 23-1', long. 4 h. 55 m. 53-6 s. 

Northfield (Minnesota), Goodsell obs. of Carleton College, lat. 
+44 27' 41-6*, long. 6 h. 12 m. 35-8 s. W. Erected in 1878, enlarged 
1887; 8}-in. refr. by Clark with phot. o.g. ; l6-in. refr. by Brashear; 
4-in. transit circle by Repsold. 



960 



OBSERVATORY 



Philadelphia, Flower obs. of Univ. of Pennsylvania, lat. 
+39 5 8 ' 2-I *' l n g- 5 n - J m - 6 ' 6 . s - W. Founded 1895; l8-in. refr., 
4-in. transit circle and 4-in. zenith telescope, all by Brashear and 
Warner & Swasey. 

Poughkeepsie (N.Y.), Vassar College obs., lat. +41 41' 18", long. 
4h. 55m. 33-73. W. Founded 1865; 12-in. refr. by Fitz and Clark; 
small transit circle. 

Princeton (New Jersey). Attached to Princeton Univ. are two 
obs. the " Observatory of Instruction," lat. +40 20' 57-8*, long. 
4h. 58 m. 37-63. W., erected in 1877, and furnished with a 9J-in. refr. 
by Clark; and the Halsted obs., lat. +40 20' 55-8*, long. 4 h. 
58 m. 39-45. W., in which a 23-in. refr. by Clark was mounted in 1883. 

Rochester (New York), Warner obs., lat. +43 9' 16-8', long. 
5h. 10 m. 2 1 -8s. W. Erected by H. H. Warner in 1879-1880; i6-in. 
refr. by Clark. Discontinued 1895. 

Washington (D.C.), U.S. naval obs., lat. +38 53' 38-8", long. 
5h. 8m. 12-is. W. Organized in 1842; obs. begun in 1845 with a 
mural circle by Troughton & Simms of 4 in., a transit instrument by 
Ertel of 5-3-in. ap., and a g-6-in. refr. by Merz. A meridian circle by 
Pistor & Martins of 8-5-in. ap., mounted in 1865, and used for 
observing standard stars and planets; a 26-in. refr. by Clark, 
mounted in 1873 with this instrument A. Hall discovered the 
satellites of Mars in 1877. A new obs. on Georgetown Heights was 
opened in 1893, lat. +38 55' 14-0', long. 5h. 8m. 15-83. W.; in 
addition to the old instruments there is a 4O-ft. photoheliograph of 
5-in. ap., 6-in. transit circle built of steel by Warner & Swasey, 
5-in. steel altazimuth by same, 12-in. refr. by Clark. 

Washington (D.C.), astrophysical obs. of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution, lat. +38 53' 17-3 .long. sh. 8m. 6-2s. W. Founded 1890 
for the study of solar radiation ; 2O-in. siderostat, spectrobolometer, 
&c. 




+42 
refr. 
lo-in. phot. refr. 

WMiamstown (Mass.), lat. +42 42' 49', long. 4h. 52m. 33-55. W. 
Founded in 1836; 7j-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle of 4J-in. 
ap. by Repsold, mounted in 1882 in the Field Memorial obs., lat. 
+42 40' 30", long. 4h. 52m. 505. W. 
CANADA 

Ottawa, Dominion obs., lat. +45 23', long. 511.3 m.W. Founded 
1902; is-in. refr. by Brashear; 8-in. transit circle by Simms; i6-in. 
coelostat. 

MEXICO 

Tacubaya. National obs. erected 1882, lat. +19 24' 17-5*, 
long. 6h. 36m. 46-73. W., 7600 ft. above sea-level; 15-in. refr. by 
Grubb, 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry & Gautier, 8-in. transit circle by 
Simms. 

SOUTH AMERICA 

Santiago (Chile), national obs., lat. 33 26' 42-0", long. 4 h. 
42 m. 46-2 s. W. In 1849 the U.S. government sent an astrono- 
mical expedition to Chile. When the expedition returned in 1852, 
the government of Chile bought the instruments a 6-in. meridian 
circle by Pistor and Martins, a 6J-in. refr. by Fitz, &c. New building 
erected 1860; 9J-in. refr. by Merz and Repsold, 13-in. phot. refr. by 
Gautier. 

Arequipa (Peru). Branch of Harvard College obs., lat. 16 24', 
long. 4 h. 45 m. 30 s. W., 8060 ft. above sea-level; 24-in. Bruce refr. 
by Clark; and 13-in. Boyden telescope for phot, charts and spectra 
of faint stars; 4-in. transit photometer extends the Harvard photo- 
metry to the south pole. 

Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), national obs., lat. 22 54' 23-7', long. 

2 h. 52 m. 41-4 s. W. Founded in 1845; no work done until 1871. 
The principal instruments are a meridian circle by Gautier of yj-in. 
ap., an altazimuth, a 9J-in. refr. by Henry, &c. 

Cordoba (Argentina), national obs., lat. 31 25' I5'4*, long. 
4 h. 16 m. 45-1 s. W. Erected in 1871 under the direction of B. A. 
Gould till 1883. With a meridian circle by Repsold of 5-in. ap. 
105,000 zone obs. of stars between 23 and 80 decl. have been 
made; nj-in. phot. refr. by Clarke; 5-in. phot. refr. by Henry & 
Gautier. 

La Plata (Argentina), univ. obs., lat. 34 54' 30-3*, long. 

3 h. 51 m. 37-0 s. W. Founded 1883; l8-in. equal, coudee, 13-in. 
phot. refr. and transit circle, all by Henry & Gautier. 

AFRICA 

Cape of Good Hope, royal obs., lat. 33 56' 3-5", long. I h. 13 m. 
54-8 s. E. Founded in 1820; erected in 1825-1829, about 3J m. 
from Cape Town. Obs. were begun in 1829 with a transit instru- 
ment by Dollond of 5-in. ap. and a mural circle by Jones. Thomas 
Maclear undertook to verify and extend the arc of meridian measured 
by N. L. de Lacaille in 1751-1753, which work occupied the obs. 
, staff for a number of years. In 1849 a y-in. refr. by Merz was 
mounted, and in 1855 a new meridian circle, a facsimile of the one 
at Greenwich, superseded the older instruments. Maclear was suc- 
ceeded by E. I. Stone (1870 to 1879), who devoted himself and the 
staff to obs. of stars, embodied in a catalogue of 12,441 stars for the 
epoch 1880. Under Sir David Gill (1879-1906) a 7-in. heliometer by 
Repsold has been used since 1887 for researches on solar parallax 



and annual parallax of stars, while a complete review of the heavens 
has been made south of 23 decl. with a 6-in. phot. Dallmeyer 
lens. A 24-in. phot, and l8-in. vis. refr. by Grubb, with 24-in. o.g. 
prism, and a 6-m. transit circle by Simms have also been mounted. 

Besides the obs. of Lacaille in Cape Town (lat. 33 55' 16-1*, 
long. I h. 13 m. 41 s. E.), another temporary obs. at Feldhausen, 
lat. -33 58' 56-6', long. I h. 13 m. 51 s. E., 6 m. from Cape Town, 
deserves to be mentioned. It was here that Sir John Herschel 
observed nebulae and double stars from 1834 to 1838 with a refl. of 
i8J-in. ap. 

Durban (Natal). Government obs., lat. 29 50' 46-6*, long. 
2 h. 4 m. 1-2 s. E. Erected in 1882; 8-in. refr. by Grubb. 

Mauritius. Royal Alfred obs., lat. 20 5' 39', long. 3 h. 50 m. 
12-5 s. E. Chiefly meteorological, but solar photos regularly taken. 

Helwdn (near Cairo, Egypt), khedivial obs., lat. +29 51' 34*, 
long. 2 h. 5 m. 22 s. E. Erected in 1904; 3O-in. refl. used for photos 
of southern nebulae. 

Algiers (Algeria), national obs., lat. +36" 47' 50*, long, o h. 12 m. 
8-4 s. E. Founded 1881; 12-5-in. equat. coudee and 13-in. phot, 
refr. by Gautier; transit circle. 

St Helena, lat. 15 55' 26-0", long, o h. 22 m. 54-6 s. W. With a 
transit instrument and mural circle. M. Johnson observed the places 
of 606 southern stars from 1829 to 1833. 

INDIA 

Madras, government obs., lat. +13" 4' 8-0*, long. 5 h. 20 m. 
59-6 s. E. In 1831 a transit instrument and a mural circle, both of 
3i-in. ap., by Dollond, were mounted, and with these T. G. Taylor 
observed 11,000 stars. A meridian circle by Simms was mounted 
in 1858, and in 1865 an 8-in. refr., also by Simms, was put up; with 
the former 5303 stars were observed in 1862-1887. New obs. built 
in 1899 at Kodaikanal (Palni Hills), lat. + 10 13' 50', long. 5 h. 9 m. 
52 s. E., 7700 ft. above sea-level; 12-in. siderostat and phot. vis. 
o.g. by Cooke, spectroheliograph, &c. To be devoted chiefly to solar 
physics. 

Poona. Obs. of College of Science. Founded 1888. 12-in. 
siderostat by Cpoke with 9-in. lens by Grubb; l6J-in. s.g. refl. by 
Grubb, with 6-in. refr. by Cooke; spectroscopes, &c., chiefly for 
solar work. 

Dehra Dun. Obs. of Indian Survey, lat. +30 18' 51-8', long. 
5 h. 12 m. 13-5 s. E. Regular solar phot. work. 

Trivandrum, lat. + 8 30' 32*, long. 5 h. 7 m. 59 s. E. Founded by 
the raja of Travancore in 1836. No astronomical work done, but 
valuable magnetical and meteorological obs. were made by J. A. 
Broun from 1852 to 1863. 

JAPAN 

Tokyo, univ. obs., lat. +35 39' 17-5', long. 9 h. 18 m. 58-0 s. E. ; 
5i-in. transit circle by Repsold ; 6J-in. refr. 

CHINA 

Zo-Se (near Shanghai), Jesuit obs., lat. +31 5' 47-1*, long. 
8 h. 4 m. 44-7 s. E. Erected 1899-1901 ; i6-in. vis., and phot. refr. 
for solar and stellar phot, and spectroscopic work. 

Hong Kong, lat. +22 18' 13-2', long. 7 h. 36m. 41-95. E. In 1883 
the colonial government established an ob, furnished with a 6-in. 
refr., a small transit instrument and full equipment of magnetical 
and meteorological instruments. 

TURKESTAN 

Tashkent, lat. +41 19' 31-4", long. 4 h. 37 m. 10-8 s. E. Founded 
in 1874; 6-in. refr. and meridian circle by Repsold; 13-in. phot. refr. 
by Henry & Repsold. 

AUSTRALIA 

Paramatta (New South Wales), lat. 33 48' 50', long. 10 h. 4 m. 
6-3 s. E. Erected by Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane in 1821; 
handed over to the New South Wales government in 1826; furnished 
with a transit instrument and a mural circle by Troughton. From 
about 1835 no obs. seem to have been made; the obs. was abolished 
in 1855. 

Sydney (New South Wales), lat. -33 51' 41-1', long. 10 h. 4 m. 
49-5 s. E. Founded in 1855; furnished with the instruments from 
Paramatta. In 1861 a 7i-in. refr. by Merz, and in 1874 an iij-in. 
refr. by Schroder, were mounted; in 1879 a meridian circle by Simms 
of 6-in. ap. was acquired, and later a 13-in. phot. refr. by Grubb. 

Windsor (New South Wales), lat. -33 36' 28-9', long. 10 h. 3 m. 
21-7 s. E. Private obs. of Mr J. Tebbutt, who has devoted himself 
since 1861 to discoveries and obs. of comets, using a 4J-in. refr. by 
Cooke and an 8-in. refr. by Grubb. 

Melbourne (Victoria). Founded in 1853 at Williamstpwn, lat. 37 
52' 7-2', long. 9 h. 39m. 38-83. E. In 1861 a meridian circle by Simms 
of 5-in. ap. was mounted, but in 1863 the obs. was removed to Mel- 
bourne, lat. 37 49' 53-2', long. 9 h. 39 m. 54-0 s. E. " The great 
Melbourne telescope," a Cassegram refl., equatorially mounted, of 
4-ft. ap., made by T. Grubb, was erected in 1869, but very little used ; 
there is also an 8-in. refr. by Cooke and a 13-in. phot. refr. by Grubb. 

Adelaide (South Australia), lat. 34 55 33-8', long. 9 h. 14 m. 
21-3 s. E. In operation since 1861; has been gradually improved, 
and contains now an 8-in. refr. by Cooke and a 6-in. transit circle by 
Simms. 



OBSIDIAN 



961 



Perth (West Australia), lat. -31 57' 7'4". long. 7 h. 43 m. 21-7 s. E. 
Founded 1897; i.yin. phot, and lo-in. vis. refr. by Grubb; 6-m. 
transit circle by Simms. 

AUTHORITIES. In addition to their Annals or Observations, the 
leading national obs. (Greenwich, Paris, Washington, &c.) publish 
annual reports stating the nature of the work and changes in personnel 
and instruments. Short reports from nearly all British obs. are 
annually published in the February number of the Monthly Notices 
R. Astr. Soc., and from most German and some other continental 
obs. in the Vierteljahrsschrift d. astr. Gesellschaft. Since 1889 much 
information about American obs. is given in the Publications of the 
Astr. Soc. of the Pacific. Stroobant's Les Obseniatoires astronomiqu.es 
et Its astronomes (Brussels, 1907) gives a convenient summary of the 
personnel and equipment of all existing obs. (J. L. E. D.) 

OBSIDIAN, a glassy volcanic rock of acid composition. A 
similar rock was named obsianus- by medieval writers, from its 
resemblance to a rock discovered in Ethiopia by one Obsius. 
The early printed editions of Pliny erroneously named the 
discoverer Obsidius, and the rock obsidianus. Rhyolitic lavas 
frequently are more or less vitreous, and when the glassy matter 
greatly predominates and the crystals are few and inconspicuous 
the rock becomes an obsidian; the chemical composition is 
essentially the same as that of granite; the difference in the 
physical condition of the two rocks is due to the fact that one 
consolidated at the surface, rapidly and under low pressures, 
while the other cooled slowly at great depths and under such 
pressures that the escape of the steam and other gases it contained 
was greatly impeded. Few obsidians are entirely vitreous; 
usually they have small crystals of felspar, quartz, biotite or 
iron oxides, and when these are numerous the rock is called a 
porphyritic obsidian (or hyalo-liparite). These crystals have, 
as a rule, very good crystalline form, but the quartz and felspar 
are often filled with enclosures of glass. 

All obsidians have a low specific gravity (about 2-4) both 
because they are acid rocks and because they are non-crystalline. 
Their lustre is vitreous except when they contain many minute 
crystals; they are then velvety or even resinous in appearance. 
Thin splinters and the sharp edges cf fragments are transparent. 
Black, grey, yellow and brown are the prevalent colours of these 
rocks. In hand specimens they often show a well-marked banding 
which is sometimes flat and parallel, but may be sinuous and 
occasionally is very irregular, resembling the pattern of dama- 
scened steel. In such cases the molten rock cannot have been 
homogeneous, and as it flowed along the ground the different 
portions of it were drawn out into long parallel streaks. As the 
rock was highly viscous and the surface over which it moved was 
often irregular the motion was disturbed and fluctuating; 
hence the sinuous and contorted appearance frequently assumed 
by the banding. Whsn crystals are present they generally have 
their long axes parallel to the fluxion. 

Even when conspicuous and well formed crystals are not 
visible in the rock there is nearly always an abundance of minute 
imperfect crystallizations (microlites, &c.). They are often so 
small that high magnifications may be necessary to ascertain 
their presence. Some are globular and others are rod-shaped; 
they may be grouped in clusters, stars, rosettes, rows, chains 
or swarms of indefinite shape. In banded obsidians these 
microlites may be numerous in some parts but few or absent in 
others. The larger ones polarize light, have angular outlines 
like those of crystals, and may even show twinning and definite 
optical properties by which they can be identified as belonging 
to felspar, augite or some other rock-forming mineral. The 
variety of their shapes is endless. Some are black, very thin and 
curved like threads or hairs (trichites); often a group of these 
is seated on a small crystal of augite or magnetite and spreads 
outwards on all sides. Others have hollow or funnel-shaped 
ends and are constricted at the middle like a dice cup. In some 
rocks small rod-like microlites are grouped together in a regular 
way to form growths which resemble fir branches, fern leaves 
brushes or networks, in the same manner as minute needles ol 
ice produce star-like snow crystals or the frost growths on 
window pane. 

These crystallites (q.v.) show that the glassy rock has a tendency 

to crystallize which is inhibited only by the very viscous state 

xix. 31 



f the glass and the rapidity with which it was cooled. Another 
type of incipient crystallization which is excessively common in 
obsidian is spherulites (q.v.), or small rounded bodies which have 
a radiating fibrous structure. They are of globular shape, less 
requently irregular or branching, and may be elongated and 
cylindrical (axiolites). In some obsidians from Teneriffe and 
,ipari the whole rock consists of them, so closely packed together 
.hat they assume polygonal shapes like the cells of a honeycomb. 
!n polarized light they show a weak grey colour with a black 
cross, the arms of which are parallel to the cobwebs in the eye- 
piece of the microscope and remain stationary when the section 
s rotated. Often bands of spherulites alternate with bands of 
jure glass, a fact which seems to indicate that the growth of 
;hese bodies took place before the rock ceased to flow. 

As cooling progresses the glassy rock contracts and strain 
jhenomena appear in consequence. Porphyritic crystals often 
contract less than the surrounding glass, which accordingly 
jecomes strained, and in polarized light may show a weak double 
refraction in a limited area surrounding the crystal. Minute 
cracks are sometimes produced by the contraction; they are often 
more or less straight, but in other cases a very perfect system of 
rounded fissures arises. These surround little spherules of glass 
which are detached when the rock is struck with a hammer. 
There may be concentric series of cracks one within another. 
The minute globular bodies have occasionally a sub-pearly lustre, 
and glassy rocks which possess this structure have been called 
perlites (q.v.). If we take a thin layer of natural Canada balsam 
and heat it strongly for a little time most of the volatile oils are 
driven out of it. When it cools it becomes hard, but if before it 
is quite cold we plunge it into cold water a very perfect perlitic 
structure will arise in it. Occasionally the rounded cracks 
extend from the matrix into some of the crystals especially those 
of quartz which have naturally a conchoidal fracture. If the 
matrix, however, is originally crystalline it does not seem 
probable that perlitic structure can develop in it. Hence it may 
be regarded as diagnostic of rocks which were vitreous when they 
consolidated. 

In mineralogical collections rounded nodules of brown glass, 
varying from the size of a pea to that of an orange, may often 
be seen labelled marekanile. They have long been known to 
geologists and are found at Okhotsk, Siberia, in association 
with a large mass of perlitic obsidian. These globular bodies 
are, in fact, merely the more coherent portions of a perlite; 
the rest of the rock falls down in a fine powder setting free the 
glassy spheres. They are subject to considerable internal strain, 
as is shown by the fact that when struck with a hammer or 
sliced with a lapidary's saw they often burst into fragments. 
Their behaviour in this respect closely resembles the balls of 
rapidly cooled, unannealed glass which are called Prince Rupert's 
drops. In their natural condition the marekanite spheres are 
doubly refracting, but when they have been heated and very 
slowly cooled they lose this property and no longer exhibit any 
tendency to sudden disintegration. 

Although rocks wholly or in large part vitreous are known from 
very ancient geological systems, such as the Devonian, they are 
certainly most frequent in recent volcanic countries. Yet among 
the older rocks there are many which, though finely crystalline, 
have the chemical composition of modern obsidians and possess 
structures, such as the perlitic and spherulitic, which are very 
characteristic of vitreous rocks. By many lines of evidence we are 
led to believe that obsidians in course of time suffer devitrification, 
in other words they pass from the vitreous into a crystalline state, 
but as the changes take place in a solid mass they require a very 
long time for their achievement, and the crystals produced are only 
of extremely small size. A dull stony-looking rock results, the 
vitreous lustre having entirely disappeared, and in microscopic 
section this exhibits a cryptocrystalline structure, being made up of 
exceedingly minute grains principally of quartz and felspar. Often 
this felsitic devitrified glass is so fine-grained that its constituents 
cannot be directly determined even with the aid of the microscope, 
but chemical analysis leaves little doubt as to the real nature cf the 
minerals which have been formed. Many vitreous rocks show 
alteration of this type in certain parts where either the glass has 
been of unstable nature or where agencies of change such as percolat- 
ing water have had easiest access (as along joints, perlitic cracks 
and the margins of dikes and sills). Obsidians from Lipari often 

5 



962 



OBSTETRICS 



have felsitic bands alternating with others which are purely glassy. 
In Arran there are pitchstone dikes, some of which are very com- 
pletely vitreous, while others are changed to spherulitic felsites more 
or less silicified. The pitchstone of the Scuir of Eigg is at its margins 
characterized by a dull semi-opaque matrix which seems to be the 
result of secondary devitrification. In the same way artificial glass 
can be devitrified if it be kept at a temperature slightly below the 
fusing point for some days. Window glass exposed to alkaline 
vapours often shows a thin iridescent surface film which is supposed 
to be due to crystallization ; the same change is found in pieces of 
Roman glass which have been dug out of the ruins of Pompeii. 

Obsidians occur in many parts of the world alone with rhyolites 
and pumice. In Europe the best-known localities for them are the 
Lipari Islands, Pantellaria, Iceland and Hungary. Very fine obsi- 
dians are also obtained in Mexico, at the Yellowstone Park, in New 
Zealand, Ascension and in the Caucasus. Included in this group 
are some rocks which are more properly to be regarded as vitreous 
forms of trachyte than as glassy rhyolites (Iceland), but except by 
chemical analyses they cannot be separated. It is certain, however, 
that most obsidians are very acid or rhyolitic. The dark, semi- 
opaque glassy forms of the basic igneous rocks are known as tachy- 
lytes. The typical obsidians exhibit the chemical peculiarities of 
the acid igneous rocks (viz. high percentage of silica, low iron, lime 
and magnesia, and a considerable amount of ootash and soda). 

The chemical composition of typical obsidians is shown by the 
following analyses: 





Si0 2 . 


A 2 O 3 . 


FeO. 


Fe 2 O 3 . 


CaO. 


MgO. 


K 2 O. 


Na 2 O. 


H 2 O. 


I. Yellowstone Park . 
II. Iceland 
III. Mexico 


74-70 
75-28 
73-63 


13-72 

10-22 

14-25 


0-62 
i -80 


I-OI 

4-24 


0-78 
1-81 
tr. 


0-14 
0-25 
1-42 


4-02 
2-44 
4-39 


3-9 

5-53 
4-61 


0-62 
0-23 



Obsidian, when broken, shows a conchoidal fracture, like 
that of glass, and yields sharp-edged fragments, which have been 
used in many localities as arrow-points, spear-heads, knives 
and razors. For such purposes, as also for use as mirrors, masks 
and labrets, it was extensively employed, under the name of 
itzlli, by the ancient Mexicans, who quarried it at the Cerro de 
las Navajas, or " Hill of Knives," near Timapan. The natives 
of the Admiralty Islands have used it for the heads of spears. 
By the ancient Greeks and Romans obsidian was worked as a 
gem-stone; and in consequence of its having been often imitated 
in glass there arose among collectors of gems in the i8th century 
the practice of calling all antique pastes " obsidians." At the 
present time obsidian is sometimes cut and polished as an 
ornamental stone, but its softness (H = s to 5-5) detracts 
from its value. Certain varieties, notably some from Russia, 
possess a beautiful metallic sheen, referable to the presence 
of either microscopic fissures or enclosures. The substance 
known as moldavite, often regarded as an obsidian, and the 
so-called obsidian bombs, or obsidianites, are described under 
MOLDAVITE. (J. S. F.) 

OBSTETRICS, the science and art of midwifery (Lat. obstetrix, 
a midwife, from obstare, to stand before). Along with Medicine 
and Surgery, Obstetrics goes to form what has been called the 
Tripos of the medical profession, because every person desiring 
to be registered under the Medical Acts must pass a qualifying 
examination alike in medicine, surgery and midwifery. The term 
Gynaecology (q.v.), which has come to be applied to the study 
of the diseases of the female generative system, in its primary 
sense includes all that pertains to women both in health and 
disease. Obstetrics, or midwifery, is more specially that part 
of the science of gynaecology which deals with the care of a 
pregnant woman and the ushering of her child into the world. 

Tokology the doctrine of parturition is the most distinctive 
sphere of interest for obstetricians, and here their activities 
bring them into a closer approximation to the work of surgeons. 
As a science it demands a study of the phenomena of labour, 
which in their ordered succession are seen to present three distinct 
stages: one of preparation, during which the uterus dilates 
sufficiently to allow of the escape of the infant; a second, of 
progress, during which the infant is expelled; and a third, of 
the extrusion of the after-birth or placenta. In each of the 
stages analysis of the phenomena reveals the presence of three 
elements which are known as the factors of labour, viz. the powers 
or forces which are engaged in the emptying of the uterus; 
the passages or canals through which the ovum is driven; and 



the passenger or body that is being extruded. The mechanism 
of labour depends on the balance of these factors as they become 
adjusted to each other in the varying phenomena of the several 
stages. The diversities that are met with in different labours 
even of the same woman have led to their being classified into 
different groups. A natural labour is commonly defined as one 
where the child presents by the head and the labour is terminated 
within twenty-four hours. From this it is obvious that no case 
of labour can be defined at its onset. The relation of the factors 
may warrant a favourable expectation; but until the labour 
is completed, and completed within a reasonably safe period, 
it cannot be classed as natural. The element of time has this 
importance, that it is found that, apart from all accidents and 
interferences, the mortality both to mother and child becomes 
greater the longer the duration of the labour. Hence lingering 
or tedious labours, in which the child still presents with the head, 
but is not expelled within twenty-four hours after the onset 
of labour-pains, are properly grouped in a separate class, although 
they are terminated without operative interference. In the 
class of preternatural labours, where the head comes last instead 
of first, there are two subdivisions, according as the child presents 
by the breech and feet, or lies transversely 
as a cross-birth, and has usually to be 
delivered artificially. Operative or instru- 
mental labours vary according as the pro- 
cedures adopted are safe in principle to 
mother and child, such as turning and 
the application of the midwifery forceps; or as they involve 
damage to the infant in the various forms of embryotomy; or are 
more dangerous to the mother, as in the Caesarean section and 
symphysiotomy. A final class of labours includes the cases 
where some complication or anomaly arises and becomes a 
source of danger, independently of disturbances of the mechanism 
or of any operative interference. These complex labours are 
due to complications that may be maternal, such as haemorrhage 
and convulsions; or foetal, such as twins or prolapse of the 
umbilical cord. To cope with these anomalies an obstetrician 
requires all the resource of a physician and all the dexterity of a 
surgeon. 

The interest of obstetricians in their patients does not end 
with the birth of the children, even after natural labours. The 
puerpera is still a subject of care. The uterus, that during its 
nine months' evolution had been increasing enormously in all 
its elements, has in six weeks to undergo an involution that will 
restore it to its pregravid condition. The allied organs share in 
their measure in the change, all the systems of the body feel the 
influence, and especially the mammary glands take on their 
function of providing milk for the nutriment of the new-born 
infant. A patient with some latent flaw in her constitution 
may pass the test of pregnancy and labour with success, only to 
succumb during the puerperium. Of patients who become 
insane in connexion with child-bearing, a half manifest their 
mental disorder first during the days or weeks immediately 
succeeding their confinement, and numbers more whilst they are 
suckling their infants. A woman may have had an easy labour, 
and may have been thankful at the time for help from a hand 
that she did not know to be unclean; three days later germs 
left by that hand may have so multiplied within her that she 
is in mortal danger from septicaemia. The management of the 
puerperal patient requires not only the warding off of deleterious 
influences, but the watching of the normal processes, because 
slight deviations in these, undetected and uncorrected now, 
may become later a source of lifelong invalidism. It remains 
further to be noted that to obstetricians belong the earliest stages 
of pediatrics in their care of the new-born child. In some old 
works practitioners of this branch of the profession are described 
as oju^aXorojuoi, because their first business was to cut the 
umbilical cord. The causes of the high death-rate among 
infants, whether due to ante-natal, intra-natal or neo-natal 
conditions, come under their observation. They have charge of 
the whole wide field of the hygiene, pathology and therapeutics 
of infancy. 



OBSTETRICS 



9 6 3 



Historical Sketch. The origin of midwifery is lost in the mists 
of human origins. The learned Jean Astruc, who gave a lead to 
higher critics in their analysis of the Pentateuch by pointing out 
the presence of Elohistic and Jehovistic elements, exercised his 
imagination in fancying how the earliest pair comported them- 
selves at the birth of their first child, and especially how the 
husband would have to learn what to do with the placenta 
and umbilical cord. His speculations are not in the least illumi- 
native. The Mosaic writings let us see women of some experience 
and authority by the side of a Rachel dying in labour,oraTamar 
giving birth to twins, and superintending the easy labours of 
Hebrew slaves in Egypt. The Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C.), which 
Moses may have studied when he grew learned in all the wisdom 
of the Egyptians, is the oldest known medical production. It 
contains prescriptions for causing abortion, for promoting labour, 
for curing displacements of the uterus, &c. But there is no 
indication as to how labours are to be managed, and with regard 
to the child there are only auguries given as to whether it will 
live or die, according, e.g. as its first cry after it is born sounds 
like ni or bd. 

The story of the rise and progress of midwifery is intimately 
bound up with the history of medicine in general. The obstet- 
rician, looking for the dawn of his science, turns like his fellow- 
workers in other medical disciplines to the Hippocratic writings 
(400 B.C.). Now the father of medicine was not an obstetrician. 
As with Egyptians and Hebrews, the skilled attendants on 
women in labour among the Greeks were also women. But since 
nothing that concerned the ailments of humanity was foreign to 
Hippocrates, there are indications in the writings that are 
accounted genuine of his interest in the disorders of females in 
their menstrual troubles, in their sterility, in their gestation 
symptoms, and in their puerperal diseases; his oath forswears the 
use of abortifacients, and he recommends the use of sternutatories 
to hasten the expulsion of the after-birth. In the Hippocratic 
writings that are supposed to be products of his followers, some 
of these subjects are more fully dealt with; but whilst the 
physician is sometimes called in to give advice in difficult 
labours, so that he can describe different kinds of presentation 
and can speak of the possibility of changing an unfavourable into 
a favourable lie of the infant, it is usually only with cases where 
the child is already dead that he has to deal, and then he tells 
how he has to mutilate and extract it. So these writings furnish 
us with the earliest account of the accoucheur's armamentarium, 
and let us see him possessed of a fMxoipiov a knife or perforator 
for opening the head; a iriTTpov a comminutor for breaking 
up the bones; and a t\Kvari)p an extractor for hooking out 
the infant. The classical writers of Greece give the same impres- 
sion as to the primitive stage of obstetrics. Women, like the 
mother of Socrates, have the charge of parturient women. 
Where divine aid is sought, goddesses are invoked to facilitate 
the labour. Gods or men are only called in where graver inter- 
ference is required, as when Apollo rescued the infant Aesculapius 
by a Caesarean section performed on the dying Semele. Some 
midwives are known to history, and extracts from the writings 
of one Aspasia are embedded in the works of later authors. In 
the great medical school of Alexandria, when the science of 
human anatomy began to take shape, Herophilus rendered a 
service to obstetrics in giving a truer idea of the anatomy of the 
female than had previously prevailed; other physicians give 
evidence of their interest in midwifery and the diseases of women, 
and some experience was gradually being acquired and trans- 
mitted through the profession until we find from Celsus (in the 
reign of Augustus) that when surgeons were called in to help 
the attendant woman they could sometimes bring about the 
delivery, without destroying the infant, by the operation of 
turning. In the 2nd century Soranus wrote a work on midwifery 
for the guidance of midwives, in which for the first time the 
uterus is differentiated from the vagina and instruction is given 
for the use of a speculum. A contemporary, Moschion, wrote 
a guide for midwives which, with that of Soranus, may be said 
to touch the high-water mark of archaic midwifery. It is written 
in the form of question and answer, was much prized at the time 
xix. 31* 



I of the Renaissance, and was used as the basis of the first obstetric 
work that issued from a printing-press. Philumenos wrote a 
treatise of some value at the same epoch, but it is only known 
from the free use made of it by subsequent writers, such as 
Aetius in the beginning of the 6th century. Like Oribasius, who 
preserved in his compilation the work of Soranus, Aetius draws 
largely on preceding writers. His treatises on female diseases 
constitute an advance on previous knowledge, but there is no 
progress in midwifery, though he still makes mention of turning. 
This operation has disappeared from the pages of Paulus 
Aegineta, an 8th-century author, the last to treat at length of 
obstetrics and gynaecology ere the night of the dark ages settled 
down on the Roman world, and it is not heard of again till a 
millennium had passed. During the centuries when the progress 
of medicine was dependent on the work of the Arabian physicians, 
the science of obstetrics stood still. We are curious to know 
what Rhazes and Avicenna in the gth and loth centuries have 
to say on this subject. But they know little but what they 
have learned from the Greek writers, and they show a great 
tendency to relapse to the rudest procedures and to have recourse 
to operative interferences destructive to the child. Interest 
attaches to the work of Albucasis in the izth century, in that 
he is the first to illustrate his pages with figures of the knives, 
crushers and extractors that were employed in their gruesome 
practices, and that he gives the first history of a case of extra- 
uterine pregnancy. 

We come down to the i6th century before we begin to see any 
indication of the development of obstetrics towards a place 
among the sciences. Medicine and surgery profited earlier by 
the intellectual awakenings of the Renaissance and the Re- 
formation. In anatomical theatres and hospital wards associated 
with universities great anatomists and clinicians began to 
discard the dogmas of Galen, and to teach their pupils to study 
the body and its diseases with unprejudiced minds. But the 
practice of midwifery was still among all people in the hands 
of women, and when in 1513 Eucharius Roesslin of Frankfort 
published a work on midwifery, it bore the title Der schviangeren 
Fraiven und hebammen Rosengarten. Translated into English 
by Thomas Raynald with the altered title, The Birth oj Mankynd, 
it is mainly compiled from Moschion, and the Soranus and 
Philumenos fragments of Oribasius and Aetius, and is intended 
as a guide to pregnant women and their attendant nurses. 
It was illustrated with fanciful figures of the foetus in utero 
that were reproduced in other works of later date as in the 
Rosengarten of Walter Reiff of Strassburg in 1546 and the 
Hebammenbttch of Jacob Rueff of Zurich in 1554, the latter of 
which appears in English dress as The Expert Midwife. The 
greatest impulse to the progress of midwifery was given in the 
middle of the i6th century by the famous French surgeon 
Ambroise Pare, who revived the operation of podalic version, 
and showed how by means of it surgeons could often rescue the 
infant even in cases of head presentation, instead of breaking it 
up and extracting it piecemeal. He was ably seconded by his 
pupil Guillemeau, who translated his work into Latin, and at a 
later period himself wrote a treatise on midwifery, an English 
translation of which was published in 1612 with the title Child- 
Birth; or, The Happy Deliverie of Women. The close of the 
1 6th century is rendered further memorable in the annals of 
midwifery by the publication of a series of works specially 
devoted to it. Three sets of compilations, containing extracts 
from the various writers on obstetrics and gynaecology from the 
time of Hippocrates onwards, were published under the designa- 
tion of Gynaecia or Gynaeciorum the first edited by Caspar 
Wolff of Zurich in 1566, the second by Caspar Bauhin of Basel 
in 1586, and the third by Israel Spach of Strassburg in 1597. 
Spach includes in his collection not only Fare's obstetrical 
chapters, but the Latin translation of the important Trailte 
nouveaux de I'hysterotomotokie, published by the French surgeon 
Francis Rousset in 1581, which is the first distinct treatise on 
an obstetric operation, and advocates the performance of Cae- 
sarean section on living women with difficult labours. From 
this time onwards evidence accumulates of the growing interest 



9 6 4 



OBSTETRICS 



of members of the medical profession, and more especially of 
surgeons, in the practice of midwifery, and after the middle of 
the 1 7th century they began to publish the records of their 
experiences in special treatises. The most important of these 
writers were French as Mauriceau, Viardel, Paul Portal, Peu 
and Dionis. The work of Mauriceau, which first appeared in 
1668, is specially interesting from its having been translated 
into English in 1672 by Hugh Chamberlen, who in his preface 
made the then incredible statement that his father, his brothers, 
and himself had long attained to and practised a way to deliver 
women in difficult labours without hooks, where other artists 
used them, and without prejudice to mother or child. Many 
years had still to elapse before the secret of the Chamberlens 
leaked out. In the course of this century some women who 
had large experience in midwifery appeared as authors. Thus 
in England Jane Sharp in 1671 wrote The Midwives' Book, or 
the whole art of Midwifery discovered; in Germany, Justine 
Siegemund, in 1690, Die Chur-Brandenburgische Hoff-Wehe- 
muller; and earlier and better than either 1 , in France, Louise 
Bourgeois in 1626 published Observations sur la sterilite et maladies 
des femines. Perhaps they were beginning to feel that there was 
some need to assert their power, for it was during this century 
that parturient ladies began to call in men to attend them in 
natural labours. According to Astruc, Madame de la Valliere 
wished her confinement to be kept secret, and Louis XIV., 
in June 1663, sent for Jules Clement, the court surgeon, to 
superintend the delivery. This was accomplished successfully. 
The king gave him the title of accoucheur. Clement afterwards 
attended the dauphiness and other court ladies, and went thrice 
to Madrid to assist at the confinement of the queen of Philip IV. 
Up till this epoch physicians and surgeons had only been sum- 
moned to the lying-in room by midwives 'who found themselves 
at the end of their resources, to give help in difficult cases where 
the child was usually dead and the mother often moribund. 
Now that it began to be a fashion for women in their ordinary 
confinements to be under the surveillance of a physician, it 
became possible for men with their scientific training to study 
the normal phenomena of natural labour, and through the 
medium of the printing-press to communicate the results of their 
observation and experience to their professional brethren. 
Hence the books of the men already referred to, and of others 
that appeared later, such as the Traite complet des accouchemens 
of De la Motte, 1721, which is a storehouse of acute observations 
and wise discussion of obstetric measures. In other countries 
than France physicians and surgeons began to take up midwifery 
as a speciality and not as a subsidiary part of their practice, of 
which they were somewhat ashamed (le Bon, one of the writers 
whose work is found in Bauhin's Gynaecia, says: " Haec ars viros 
dedecet "), and it was in Holland that a work was produced that 
has earned for its author the designation of the Father of Modern 
Midwifery. Heinrich van Deventer, who practised as an ob- 
stetrician at the Hague along with his wife (a Vroedvrow, as 
he was a Vroedmeester), published in 1696 a preliminary treatise 
called Dageraat (Aurora) der Vroedvrowen, and in 1701 he followed 
it up by a more complete second volume, of which the Latin 
edition that came out simultaneously with the Dutch has a title 
beginning Operationes Chirurglcae Novum Lumen Exhibenles 
Obstetricantibus. It has the supreme value of being the first 
work to give a scientific description of the pelvis, and to take 
some steps towards the development of the mechanism of labour. 
The " obstetricantes " for whom Deventer wrote are both men 
and women. In the early part of the i8th century women had 
still the main and often the sole charge of their parturient sisters; 
but the practice of having a doctor to superintend or to supersede 
the midwives kept spreading among the classes who could, 
afford to pay the doctor's fee; and by the time Deventer's 
treatise was doing its educational work in an English translation, 
as The Art of Midwifery Improved, in 1716, the doctors were 
getting into their hands the " harmless forceps " with which a 
living child could be extracted without detriment to the mother, 
in conditions where formerly her child's life was sacrificed and 
her own endangered. This life-saving instrument was invented 



in London, but by a man not of English birth. The Huguenot, 
William Chamberlen, fled from Paris to escape the St Bartholo- 
mew massacres, carrying with him to Southampton his wife, 
his two sons, and a daughter. William Chamberlen seems to 
have been a surgeon, and his descendants through four genera- 
tions had large and lucrative practices in London. The eldest 
son Peter, who was old enough when he came to England to 
be able to attest the birth and baptism of a younger brother, is, 
on good grounds, credited with being the inventor of the forceps, 
which for a century was kept a secret among brothers, sons and 
grandsons. Hugh, indeed, a great-grandson of William, and the 
translator of Mauriceau, had offered to sell the family secret for 
10,000 crowns; but his failure to effect delivery in a test case 
that Mauriceau put to him led the profession to believe that 
he was a boastful quack. Palfyn of Ghent, when in Paris in 
1723, putting a work on anatomy through the press, laid before 
the Academy of Science a pair of forceps, which was figured in 
Heister's surgery in 1724. He has thus the honour of first laying 
before the profession a midwifery forceps. But his implement 
was ill-constructed, and never came into general use. Meanwhile 
the knowledge that the Chamberlens were really possessed of a 
serviceable instrument must have stimulated other practitioners. 
Perhaps a colleague with a keen eye may have got sight of it 
on some occasion, or an intelligent midwife had been able to 
describe the " tongs " which she had seen one of the family 
apply. In 1734 Dr Edward Hody published a record of Cases 
in Midwifery that had been written by Mr William Giffard, 
" surgeon and man-midwife." The dates range from January 
1724 to 1731. Amongst the cases are several where he effected 
the delivery by means of the forceps " extractor," he calls 
it of which a figure is given; and when Edmund Chapman, 
who practised first at Halstead and afterwards in London, 
published his Treatise on the Improvement of Midwifery in 
1733, he speaks of the use of the forceps as " now well known 
to all the principal men of the profession both in town and 
country." 

In the course of the i8th century the development of mid- 
wifery in the hands of medical men made greater strides than 
in all the preceding ages. The progress was accelerated by the 
establishment of chairs of midwifery in the universities of 
various countries, Edinburgh taking the lead in the appointment 
of a professor in 1726, and Strassburg coming closely after in 
1728. In Strassburg the chair had the advantage of being at 
once associated with a clinical service. Lecturing was carried 
out, moreover, by men who were devoting themselves as 
specialists in midwifery and the diseases of women and infants, 
and were succeeding in developing lying-in institutions for the 
benefit of poor women in labour that became schools of instruc- 
tion both for midwifery nurses and for medical students. Two 
new operations came during this epoch to enhance the powers 
of the obstetrician, viz. symphysiotomy, first introduced by 
Sigault in Paris; and the induction of premature labour, first 
carried out by Macauley in London in circumstances described 
by Denman in the preface to his Midwifery. William Hunter 
in London, Sir Fielding Ould in Dublin, Roderer in Gottingen, 
Camper in Amsterdam, Baudelocque in Paris, Saxtorph in 
Copenhagen, and many other authors contributed to progress 
by their atlases and their books. But there are three whose 
names stand out pre-eminently because of the influence they 
exerted on the whole obstetric world Levret, Smellie and Boer. 
Kilian, in his vidimus of the history of midwifery, calls Levret 
" one of the greatest masters in the department that ever lived." 
Of Smellie he says: "Inferior to Levret in nothing, 'he excels 
him in much." Boer he characterizes as " the most meritorious 
and important of German obstetricians." Levret improved 
the construction of the forceps, and widened the sphere of their 
applicability; Smellie worked in the same direction, and 
furnished, moreover, descriptions and illustrations of natural 
and morbid labours that are of classical value; and Boer first 
clearly placed pregnancy (which Mauriceau, e.g. had spoken of 
as " a nine months' disease ") and parturition ; >j 'he category 
of physiological processes that might be hindered rather than 



OCALA OCCAM 



965 



helped by the pragmatical interferences of meddlesome mid- 
wives. 

Throughout the igth century midwifery continued to advance, 
gynaecology grew into a special department with an extensive 
literature, the mechanism of labour developed under the clinical 
observations of men like Nagele and the study of such frozen 
sections of cadavera as were made by Braune, the indications 
for interference became more clear and the methods of inter- 
ference more simple and safe, and a whole realm of antenatal 
pathology and teratology was added to the domain of science, 
while practitioners learned the art of saving premature and 
delicate infants by the use of the incubator and proper alimenta- 
tion. Every advance in all the cognate sciences was appreciated 
and applied for the advancement of obstetrics. But there are 
two achievements which will make the ipth century for ever 
memorable in the annals of midwifery the abolition of the 
pains of labour and the arrest laid on mortality from the so- 
called puerperal fever. In February 1847 Sir J. Y. Simpson, 
choosing a case where he had to deliver by turning, put the 
patient asleep with ether. Seeing that the uterine contractions 
continued, though the attendant pain was abolished, he pro- 
ceeded to administer ether in cases of natural labour, and in 
November of the same year demonstrated the virtues of chloro- 
form, and so furnished the most serviceable anaesthetic, not only 
to the obstetrician in the lying-in room, but to the surgeon on 
the battlefield, and to the general practitioner in his everyday 
work. Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss, assistant in the maternity 
hospital of Vienna, was struck and saddened with the appalling 
mortality that attended the delivery of the women under his 
care, as many as one (in some months three) out of every ten 
of the puerperae being carried out dead. He observed that the 
mortality was much higher in the wards allotted to the tuition 
of students than in those set apart for the training of nurses. 
In the spring of 1847 he saw at the post-mortem examination 
of a young colleague who had died of a poisoned wound, that 
the appearances were the same as he had too often had occasion 
to see at the post-mortem examinations of his puerperae. He 
ordered that every student who assisted a woman in her labour 
must first wash his hands in a disinfectant solution of chloride 
of lime, and in 1848 already the mortality was less in the students' 
than it was in the nurses' wards. Thus the first light was shed 
on the nature of the mischief of which multitudes of puerperal 
patients perished, and the first intelligent step was taken to 
lessen the mortality. When, some twenty years later, Lister 
had applied the bacteriological principles of Pasteur with 
beneficent results to surgery, obstetricians gladly followed his 
lead, and the ipth century beheld added to the comfort of 
anaesthetic midwifery the confidence of midwifery antiseptic 
and even aseptic. 

The most exhaustive treatise on the earlier history of midwifery 
is von Siebold, Versuch einer Geschickte der Geburtshulfe (Berlin, 
1839). (A. R. S.) 

OCALA (a Seminole word for green or fertile land), a city 
and the county-seat of Marion county, Florida, U.S.A., in the 
N. central part of the state, about too m. S.W. of Jacksonville. 
Pop. (1000) 3380, (1905) 4493, of whom 2467 were negroes, (1910) 
4370. It is served by the Seabord Air Line and the Atlantic 
Coast Line railways. About 6 m. E. is Silver Spring, the largest 
and best known of the springs of Florida. Its basin is circular, 
about 600 ft. in diameter; it is about 65 ft. in depth, and its 
waters are remarkable for their transparency and refractive 
powers. According to the estimate of Dr D. G. Brinton, the 
spring discharges more than 390.000,000 gallons of water daily, 
its outflow forming what is known as Silver Spring Run, 9 m. 
long, emptying into the Oklawaha river and navigable by small 
river steamers. For the drainage and sewerage of the city a 
subterranean river whose source and mouth are unknown is 
utilized. The city is the seat of the Emerson Memorial and 
Industrial Home (Methodist Episcopal) for negro girls. Ocala 
was settled in 1845, but its development dates from 1880, wheh 
it was first chartered as a city. In December 1890 it was the 
meeting-place of the National Convention of the Farmers' 



Alliance, which promulgated a statement of political principles 
generally known as the " Ocala Platform." (See FARMERS' 
MOVEMENT.) 

OCAS A, a town of central Spain, in the province of Toledo; 
on the extreme north of the tableland known as the Mesa de 
Ocafia, with a station on the railway from Aranjuez to Cuenca. 
Pop. (1900) 6616. The town is surrounded by ruined walls, 
and in it are the remains of an old castle. In one of its parish 
churches is the chapel of Nueslra Sefiora de los Remedios, in 
which Ferdinand and Isabella were married in 1469. Ocafia 
is the Vicus Cuminarius of the Romans, and was the dowry 
that El Motamid of Seville gave his daughter Zaida on her 
marriage with Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109). Near 
Ocafia, on the igth of November 1809, the Spanish under their 
Irish general Lacy were routed by the French under Joseph 
Bonaparte and Marshal Soult. 

OCARINA, a wind instrument invented in Italy, which must 
be classed with musical toys or freaks, although concerted 
music has been written for it. The ocarina consists of an earthen- 
ware vessel in the shape of an egg with a pointed base and a tube 
like a spout in the side, which contains the mouthpiece. There 
are usually 10 holes in the front surface of the instrument, nine 
for fingers and thumb and a vent hole; the newer models have 
8 holes and two keys. By half covering the holes the semi- 
tones are obtained. 

O'CAROLAN (or CAROLAN), TURLOGH (1670-1738), Irish 
bard, son of John O'Carolan, a farmer, was born at Newtown, 
near Nobber, in the county of Meath. The family is said to 
have belonged to the sept of MacBradaigh, and the bard's 
great-grandfather was a chieftain. The O'Carolans forfeited 
their estates during the civil wars, and Turlogh's father settled 
at Alderford, Co. Roscommon, on the invitation of the family 
of M'Dermott Roe. In his eighteenth year he became blind 
from smallpox. He received special instruction in music, and 
used to wander with his harp round the houses of the surrounding 
gentry, mainly in Connaught. The famous song Receipt for 
Drinking may be responsible for the allegation that he was 
addicted to intemperate drinking, but Charles O'Conor (1710- 
1791), the antiquary, who had personal knowledge of him, 
gives him a good character in private life. The number of 
Carolan's musical pieces, to nearly all of which he composed 
verses, is said to exceed two hundred. He died on the 25th 
March 1738, and was buried at Kilronan. 

His poetical Remains in the original Irish, with English metrical 
translations by Thomas Furlong, were printed in Hardiman's Irish 
Minstrelsy (1831). Many of his songs were preserved among the Irish 
MSS. in the British Museum. 

OCCAM, WILLIAM OF (d. c. 1349), English schoolman, 
known as Doctor inmncibilis and Venerabilis inceptor, was born 
in the village of Ockham, Surrey, towards the end of the i3th 
century. Unattested tradition says that the Franciscans 
persuaded him while yet a boy to enter their order, sent him 
to Merton College, Oxford (see G. C. Brodrick, Memorials of 
Menon College, p. 194), and to Paris, where he was first the pupil, 
afterwards the successful rival, of Duns Scotus. He probably 
left France about 1314, and there are obscure traces of his 
presence in Germany, in Italy, and in England during the 
following seven years. It has generally been held that in 1322 
he appeared as the provincial of England at the celebrated 
assembly of the Franciscan order at Perugia, and that there he 
headed the revolt of the Franciscans against P. ->e John XXII, ; 
but, according to Little (English Historical Rev^'v, vi. 747), 
the provincial minister on this occasion was William of Not- 
tingham. Probably, however, Occam was present at the 
assembly. His share in this revolt resulted in his imprison- 
ment, on the charge of heresy, for seventeen weeks in the 
dungeons of the papal palace at Avignon. He and his companions 
Michael of Cesena, general of the order, and Bonagratia 
managed to escape, and found their way to Munich, where they 
aided Louis IV. or V. (q.v.) of Bavaria in his long contest with 
the papal curia. It was for Occam's share in this controversy 
that he was best known in his lifetime. Michael of Cesena 



9 66 



OCCASIONALISM OCCLEVE 



died in 1342, and Occam, who had received from him the official 
seal of the order, was recognized as general by his party. The 
date of his death and the place of his burial are both uncertain. 
He probably died at Munich in 1349. 

William of Occam was the most prominent intellectual leader 
in an age which witnessed the disintegration of the old scholastic 
realism, the rise of the theological scepticism of the later middle 
ages, the great contest between pope and emperor which laid 
the foundations of modern theories of government, and the 
quarrel between the Roman curia and the Franciscans which 
showed the long-concealed antagonism between the theories 
of Hildebrand and Francis of Assisi; and he shared in all these 
movements. 

The common account of his philosophical position, that he 
reintroduced nominalism, which had been in decadence since 
the days of Roscellinus and Abelard, by teaching that universals 
were only flatus vocis, is scarcely correct. The expression is 
nowhere found in his writings. He revived nominalism by 
collecting and uniting isolated opinions upon the meaning of 
universals into a compact system, and popularized his views 
by associating them with the logical principles which were in 
his day commonly taught in the universities. He linked the 
doctrines of nominalism on to the principles of the logic of 
Psellus, which had been introduced into the West in the Summulae 
of Peter of Spain, and made them intelligible to common under- 
standings. The fundamental principles of his system (see 
SCHOLASTICISM) are that " Essentia non sunt multiplicanda 
praeter necessitatem " (" Occam's Razor "), that nouns, like 
algebraical symbols, are merely denotative terms whose mean- 
ing is conventionally agreed upon (suppositio), and that the 
destructive effect of these principles in theological matters does 
not in any way destroy faith (see the Centilogium Theologicum, 
Lyons, 1495, and Traclatus de Sacramento Altaris). 

In the Opus nonaginta dierum (1330) (written in reply to John 
XXI I. 's libellus against Michael of Cesena), and in its successors, the 
Tractatus de dogmatibus Johannis XXII. papae (13331334), the 
Compendium errorum Johannis XXII. papae (1335-1338) and in the 
Defensorium contra errores Johannis XXII. papae (1335-1339), 
Occam only incidentally expounds his views as a publicist; the 
books are mainly, some of them entirely, theological, but they served 
the purpose of the emperor and of his party, because they cut at 
the root of the spiritual as well as of the temporal supremacy of the 
pope. In his writing Super potestate summi pontificis octo quaestio- 
num decisiones (13391342) Occam attacks the temporal supremacy 
of the pope, insists on the independence of kingly authority, which 
he maintains is as much an ordinance of God as is spiritual rule, 
and discusses what is meant by the state. His views on the inde- 
pendence of civil rule were even more decidedly expressed in the 
Tractatus de jurisdiction imperatoris in causis matnmonialibus, in 
which, in spite of the medieval idea that matrimony is a sacrament, 
he demands that it belongs to the civil power to decide cases of affinity 
and to state the prohibited degrees. By 1343 there was in circula- 
tion his great work the Dialogus (see Goldast ii. 398-957), in which 
he attempted to present his views in a complete summary. It 
consists of three parts. The first is the De fautoribus herelicorum, 
and deals with the pope as arbiter in the matter of heresy. The 
second part is the refutation of the doctrines of John XXII. (see 
above treatises). The third was to be in nine sections, of which the 
first and second sections alone remain to us. It is probable that the 
Opus nonaginta dierum and the Compendium errorum were intended 
to form part of the work. His last work, De Electione Caroli IV., 
restates his opinions upon temporal authority and adds little that is 
new. 

In all his writings against Pope John XXII. (q.v.), Occam inveighs 
against the pope's opinions and decisions on the value of the life of 
poverty. The Compendium errorum selects four papal constitutions 
which involved a declaration against evangelical poverty, and insists 
that they are full of heresy. Occam was a sincere Franciscan, and 
believed with his master that salvation was won through rigid 
imitation of Jesus in His poverty and obedience, and up to his days 
t had always been possible for Franciscans to follow the rules of 
their founder within his order. John XXII., however, condemned 
the doctrine and excommunicated its supporters, some of whom 
were so convinced of the necessity of evangelical poverty for a truly 
Christian life that they denounced the pope when he refused them 
leave to practise it as Antichrist. After Occam's days the opinions 
of Francis prevailed in many quarters, but the genuine Franciscans 
had no place within the church. They were Fraticelli, Beghards, 
Lollards or other confraternities unrecognized by the church and in 
steady opposition to her government. 

Beside the theological and political works above quoted, Occam 



wrote Summa Logices (Paris, 1488, Oxford, 1675) commentaries 
on Porphyry's Isagoge, on the Categoriae, De Interpretation and 
Elenchi of Aristotle. These latter were printed in 1496 at Bologna, 
and entitled Expositio Aurea super totam artem veterem ; Quaestiones 
in quattuor libros sententiarum (Lyons, 1495). 

There is no good monograph on Occam. For an account of his 
logic, see Prantl, Geschichte der Logik (1855-1870) ; for his philosophy, 
see Stockl, Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters (1864-1866), vol. 
ii. , for his publicist writings, see Riezler, Die lilerarischen Wider- 
sacher der Pdpste zur Zeit Ludwig des Baiers (1874). Sea also 
T. M Lindsay's article on " Occam and his connexion with the 
Reformation," in the Brit. Quart. Review (July, 1872). Among 
ancient documents consult Denifle and Chatelain's Chartularium 
Universitatis Parisiensis, vol. ii. pt. i. (Paris, 1887); Wadding's 
Annales Minorum (ed. Fonseca, vols. 7 and 8, Rome, 1733). For 
a list of Occam's works, see Little's Grey Friars, pp. 225-234. 

(T. M. L.) 

OCCASIONALISM (Lat. occasio, an event), in philosophy, 
a term applied to that theory of the relation between matter 
and mind which postulates the intervention of God to bring about 
in the one a change which corresponds to a similar change in 
the other. The theory thus denies any direct interaction between 
matter and mind. It was expounded by Geulincx and Male- 
branche to avoid the difficulty of Descartes's dualism of thought 
and extension, and to explain causation. Thus mind and 
matter are to Geulincx only the " occasional " causes of each 
other's changes, while Maleb ranch e, facing further the epistemo- 
logical problem, maintains that mind cannot even know matter, 
which is merely the " occasion " of knowledge. 

OCCLEVE (or HOCCLEVE), THOMAS (1368-1450?), English 
poet, was born probably in 1368/9, for, writing in 1421/2 he 
says he was fifty-three years old (Dialog, i. 246). He ranks, 
like his more voluminous and better known contemporary 
Lydgate, among those poets who have a historical rather than 
intrinsic importance in English literature. Their work rarely 
if ever rises above mediocrity; in neither is there even any 
clear evidence of a poetic temperament. Yet they represented 
for the 1 5th century the literature of their time, and kept alive, 
however faintly, the torch handed on to them by their " maister " 
Chaucer, to whom Occleve pays an affectionate tribute in 
three passages in the De Regimine Principum. What is known 
of Occleve's life has to be gathered mainly from his works. At 
eighteen or nineteen he obtained a clerkship in the Privy 
Seal Office, which he retained on and off, in spite of much 
grumbling, for about thirty-five years. He had hoped for a 
benefice, but none came; and in 1399 he received instead a 
small annuity, which was not always paid as regularly as he 
would have wished. " The Letter to Cupid," his first poem 
to which we can affix a date, was translated from L'Epistre 
au Dieu <T Amours of Christine de Pisan in 1402, evidently as 
a sort of antidote to the moral of Troilus and Cressida, to some 
MSS. of which we find it attached. " La Male Regie," one of his 
most readable poems, written about 1406, gives some interesting 
glimpses of his " misruly " youth. But about 1410 he settled 
down to married life, and the composition of moral and religious 
poems. His longest work, The Regement of Princes or De Regimine 
Principum, written for Prince Hal shortly before his accession, 
is a tedious homily on the virtues and vices, imitated from 
Aegidius de Colonna's work of the same name, from the sup- 
posititious epistle of Aristotle, known as the Secreta secretorum, 
and the work of Jacques de Cessoles (fl. 1300) englished later 
by Caxton as The Game and Playe of Chesse. It is relieved by 
a proem, about a third of the whole, containing some further 
reminiscences of London tavern and club life, in the form of 
dialogue between the poet and a beggar. On the accession of 
Henry V. Occleve turned his muse to the service of orthodoxy 
and the Church, .and one of his poems is a remonstrance addressed 
to Oldcastle, calling upon him to " rise up, a manly knight, out 
of the slough of heresy." Then a long illness was followed for 
a time, as he tells us, by insanity. His " Dialog with a Friend," 
written after his recovery, gives a naive and pathetic picture 
of the poor poet, now fifty-three, with sight and mind impaired, 
but with hopes still left of writinga tale heowes his good patron, 
Humphrey of Gloucester, and of translating a small Latin 
treatise, Scite Mori, before he dies. His hopes were fulfilled in 



OCCULT ATION OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



967 



his moralized tales of " Jereslaus' Wife " and of " Jonathas," 
both from the Gesta Romanorum, which, with his " Learn to die," 
belong to his old age. After finally retiring from his privy 
seal clerkship, he was granted in 1424 sustenance for life in the 
priory of Southwick, Hants, on which, with his former annuity, 
he appears to have lived till about the middle of the century. 
A " Balade to my gracious Lord of Yorke " probably dates 
from 1448 or later. 

The main interest for us in Occleve's poems is that they are 
characteristic of his time. His hymns to the Virgin, balades to 
patrons, complaints to the king and the king's treasurer, versified 
homilies and moral tales, with warnings to heretics like Old- 
castle, are illustrative of the blight that had fallen upon poetry 
on the death of Chaucer. The nearest approach to the realistic 
touch of his master is to be found in Occleve's " Male Regie." 
But these pictures of 15th-century London are without even the 
occasional flash of humour that lightens up Lydgate's London 
Lackpenny. Yet Occleve has at least the negative virtue of 
knowing the limits of his powers. He says simply what he 
means, and does not affect what he does not feel. A Londoner, 
to whom the country was evidently a bore, he has not afflicted 
us with artificial May mornings; and it is doubtful whether a 
single reference to nature can be found among his poems. He 
has yet another distinction among his contemporaries: he wrote 
no allegory. Whether we ascribe it to his lack of " engine," or 
to the influence of Chaucer when in his later years he had dis- 
covered the limitations of this poetic form, we cannot but be 
grateful to the poet who has spared us. As a metrist Occleve is 
also modest of his powers. He confesses that 

Fader Chaucer fayn wolde han me taught, 
But I was dul and learned lite or naught ; 

and it is true that the scansion of his verses seems occasionally 
to require, in French fashion, an accent on an unstressed syllable. 
Yet his seven-line (or rime royale) and eight-line stanzas, to which 
he limited himself, are perhaps more frequently reminiscent of 
Chaucer's rhythm than are those of Lydgate. 

A poem, " Ad beatam Virginem," generally known as the " Mother 
of God," and once attributed to Chaucer, is copied among Occleve's 
works in MS. Phillipps 8151 (Cheltenham) , and may thus be regarded 
as his work. Occleve found an admirer in the 1 7th century in William 
Browne, who included his " Jonathas " in the Shepheards Pipe 
(1614). Browne added a eulogy of the old poet, whose works he 
intended to publish in their entirety (Works, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 
1869, ii. 196-198). In 1796 George Mason printed six Poems by 
Thomas Hoccleve never before printed . . .; De Regimine Prin- 
cipum " was printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1860, and by the 
Early English Text Society in 1897. See Dr F. J. Furnivall's intro- 
duction to Hoccleve's Works; I. The Minor Poems, in the Phillipps 
MS. 8151, and the Durham MS. III. Q (Early English Text Society, 
1892). (W. S. M.) 

OCCULTATION (from Lat. occidtare, the frequentative of 
occulere, to hide), in astronomy, the hiding of one celestial body 
by another passing in front of it; commonly the passage of the 
moon or of a planet between the observer and a star or another 
planet. 

OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY. "Ocean" is the name 
applied to the great connected sheet of water which covers the 
greater part of the surface of the Earth. It is convenient to 
divide the subject-matter of physical geography into the atmo- 
sphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, and in this sense the ocean 
is less than the hydrosphere in so far as the latter term includes 
also the water lying on or flowing over the surface of the land. 
The conception of an encompassing ocean bounding the habitable 
world is found in the creation myths of the most ancient civiliza- 
tions. The Babylonians looked on the world as a vast round 
mountain rising from the midst of a universal sheet of water. 
In the Hebrew scriptures the waters were gathered together in 
one place at the word of God, and the dry land appeared. The 
Ionian geographers looked on the circular disk of the habitable 
world as surrounded by a mighty stream named Oceanus, the 
name of the primeval god, father of gods and men, and thus the 
bond of union between heaven and earth. The Greek word 
a'waTOs is related to the Sanskrit afdyanas, " the encompassing." 
Philologists do not know of any related word in Semitic languages. 



Pictet, however, recognizes allied forms in Celtic languages, e.g. 
the Irish aigean and Cymric eigiawn. 

Since the Pythagorean school of philosophy upheld the 
spherical as against the disk-shaped world, some of the ancient 
geographers, including Eratosthenes and Strabo, looked upon 
the hydrosphere as forming two belts at right angles to each 
other, one belt of ocean following the equator, the other sur- 
rounding the earth from pole to pole as in the terra quadrifida 
of Macrobius; while others, including Aristotle and Ptolemy, 
looked upon the inhabited land, or oikumene, as occupying the 
greater part of the earth's surface, so that the Indian Ocean 
was an enclosed sea and India (i.e. eastern Asia) was only 
separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean. The latter view 
prevailed and was as a rule held by the Arab geographers of the 
middle ages, so that until the discovery of America and of the 
Pacific Ocean the belief was general that the land surface was 
greater than the water surface, or that at least the two were 
equal, as Mercator and Varenius held. Thus it was that a great 
South Land appeared on the maps, the belief in the prodigious 
extension of which certainly received a severe shock by Abel 
Tasman's voyage of circumnavigation, but was only overthrown 
after Cook's great voyages had proved that any southern land 
which existed could not extend appreciably beyond the polar 
circle. Only in our own day has the existence of the southern 
continent been demonstrated within the modest limits of 
Antarctica. 

Oceanography is the science which deals with the ocean, and 
since the ocean forms a large part of the earth's surface oceano- 
graphy is a large department of geography. The science is 
termed talassografia by the Italians, and attempts have been 
made without success to introduce the name " thalassography." 
Of recent years the use of " hydrography " as the equivalent of 
physical oceanography has acquired a certain currency, but as 
the word is also used with more than one other meaning (see 
SURVEYING) it ought not to be used for oceanography. 

Like geography, oceanography may be viewed in two different 
ways, and is conveniently divided into general oceanography, 
which deals with phenomena common to the whole ocean, and 
special oceanography, which has to do with the individual 
characteristics of the various divisions of the ocean. This article 
is restricted to general oceanography in its physical aspects, 
the closely-related meteorological, biological and economic 
aspects being dealt with elsewhere. 

Methods of Research. When research in oceanography began, 
the conditions of the sea were of necessity observed only from 
the coast and from islands, the information derived from mariners 
as to the condition of parts of the sea far from land being for the 
most part mere anecdotes bearing on the marvellous or the 
frightful. In recent times, especially since the rapid increase 
in the study of the exact sciences during the igth century, 
observations at sea with accurate instruments have become 
common, and the ships' logs of to-day are provided with headings 
for entering daily observations of the phenomena of the sea- 
surface. The contents of the sailors' scientific logs were brought 
together by the American enthusiast in the study of the sea, 
Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806-1873), whose methods and 
plans were discussed and adopted at international congresses held 
in Brussels in 1853 and in London in 1873. By 1904 more than 
6800 of these meteorological logs with 7,000,000 observations 
had been accumulated by the Meteorological Office in London; 
20,000 with 10,600,000 observations by the German Marine 
Observatory at Hamburg; 4700 with 3,300,000 observations 
by the Central Institute of the Netherlands at de Bill near 
Utrecht. The Hydrographic Office of the United States had 
collected 3800 meteorological logs with 3,200,000 entries before 
1888; but since that time the logs have contained only one 
observation daily (at Greenwich noon) and of these 2,380,000 
entries had been received by 1904. In the archives of the French 
Marine in Paris there were 3300 complete Jogs with 830,000 
entries and 11,000 abstract logs from men-of-war. The contents 
of these logs, it is true, refer more to maritime meteorology than 
to oceanography properly so-called, as their main purpose is to 



9 68 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



promote a rational system of navigation especially for sailing 
ships, and they are supplied by the voluntary co-operation of 
the sailors themselves. 

While the sailors' logs supply the greater part of the scientific 
evidence available for the study of the surface phenomena of the 
ocean, they have been supplemented by the records of numerous 
scientific expeditions and latterly by publications embodying 
systematic observations on a permanent basis. Valuable 
observations were made in oceanography during the expeditions 
of Captain James Cook and the polar explorers, especially those 
of Sir John Ross in the north and Sir James Ross in the south, 
but the voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger " in 1872-1876 formed an 
epoch marking the end of the older order of things and the begin- 
ning of modern oceanography as a science of precision. The 
telegraph cable companies were quick to apply and to extend 
the oceanographical methods useful in cable-laying, and to 
their practical acuteness many of the most important improve- 
ments in apparatus are due. A second epoch comparable to 
that of the " Challenger " and resulting like it in a leap forward 
in the precision of the methods previously employed was marked 
by the institution in 1901 of the International Council for the 
Study of the Sea. This council was nominated by the govern- 
ments of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Russia, Germany, 
Great Britain, Holland and Belgium, with headquarters in 
Copenhagen and a central laboratory at Christiania, and its aim 
was to furnish data for the improvement of the fisheries of the 
North Sea and surrounding waters. In the course of investigating 
this special problem great improvements were made in the 
methods of observing in the deep sea, and also in the representa- 
tion and discussion of the data obtained, and a powerful stimulus 
was given to the study of oceanography in all the countries of 
Europe. The efforts of individual scientific workers cannot as 
a rule produce such results in oceanography as in other sciences, 
but exceptions are found in the very special services rendered by 
the prince of Monaco, who founded the Oceanographical Institute 
in Paris and the Oceanographical Museum in Monaco; and by 
Professor Alexander Agassiz in the investigation of the Pacific. 

Extent of the Ocean. The hydrosphere covers nearly three- 
quarters of the earth's surface as a single and continuous expanse 
of water surrounding four great insular land-masses known as 
the continents of the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa), America, 
Australia and Antarctica. As we are still ignorant of the pro- 
portions of land and water in the polar regions, it is only possible 
to give approximate figures for the extent of the ocean, for the 
position of the coast-lines is not known exactly enough to exclude 
possible errors of perhaps several hundred thousand square miles 
in estimates of the total area. Speaking generally, we may say 
with confidence that water predominates in the unexplored north 
polar area, and that it is very unlikely that new land of any great 
extent exists there. On the other hand, recent Antarctic ex- 
ploration makes it practically certain that a great continent 
surrounds the south pole with a total area considerably more 
than Sir John Murray's estimate in 1894, when he assigned to 
it an area of 9,000,000 sq. km. (3,500,000 sq. statute miles). 
It is probable that the Antarctic continent measures about 
13,000,000 sq. km. (5,000,000 sq. statute miles); and thus if we 
accept Bessel's figure of 509,950,000 sq. km. (196,900,000 sq. m.) 
for the whole surface of the sphere, there is a total land area of 
148,820,000 sq. km. (57,460,000 sq. m.), and a total water area 
of 361,130,000 sq. km. (739,435,000 sq. m.), 29% of land and 
71 % of water, or a ratio of i : 2-43. 

Divisions of the Ocean. The arrangement of the water surface 
on the globe is far from uniform, the ocean forming 61 % of the 
total area of the northern and 81% of that of the southern 
hemisphere. Of the whole ocean only 43% (154-9 million sq. 
km.) lies in the northern hemisphere and 57% (206-2 million 
sq. km.) in the southern. If the globe is divided into hemispheres 
by the meridians of 20 W. and 160 E., as is usual in atlases, 
the eastern hemisphere, to which the Old World belongs, has 
62% of its surface made up of water, while the western hemi- 
sphere, including America, has 81%. A great circle can be 
drawn upon a terrestrial globe in such a way as to divide it into 



two hemispheres, one of which contains the greatest amount of 
land and the other the greatest amount of sea of any possible 
hemispheres. The centre of the so-called land-hemisphere lies 
near the mouth of the Loire (47! N. and 25 W.), while the centre 
of the so-called water-hemisphere lies to the S.E. of New Zealand 
and eastward of Antipodes Island. Even in the land hemisphere 
the water area (134-5 million sq. km.) is in excess of the land area 
(121 million sq. km.), while in the water-hemisphere the amount 
of land is quite insignificant, being only 24-5 million sq. km. 
compared with 230-5 million sq. km. of water. 

The outline of the water surface depends on the outline of the 
basins in which it is contained. The four great continental 
masses therefore give the ocean a distinctly tripartite form, 
the three great divisions being known as the Atlantic, the Indian 
and the Pacific Oceans, all three running together into one 
around Antarctica. Thus the connecting belt of water is narrow 
as compared with the extent of the oceans from north to south 
Drake Strait south of South America is barely 400 m. wide, 
from Cape Agulhas to Enderby Land, 2200 m., and from 
Tasmania to Wilkes Land, 1 550 m., while the meridianal extension 
of the Indian Ocean is 6200 m., of the Pacific, 9300 m., and of the 
Atlantic, 12,500 m., measuring across the North Pole to Bering 
Strait. These proportions are not readily grasped from a map 
of the world on Mercator's projection, and must be studied on a 
globe. A simple, practical boundary between the three oceans 
can be obtained by prolonging the meridian of the southern 
extremity of each of the three southern continents to the Ant- 
arctic circle. A committee of the Royal Geographical Society 
the deliberations of which were interrupted by the departure on 
his last voyage of Sir John Franklin, one of the members sug- 
gested these meridians as boundaries; the north and south 
boundaries of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans being the polar 
circles, leaving an Arctic and an Antarctic Ocean to complete the 
hydrosphere. We now know, however, that the Antarctic circle 
runs so close to the coast of Antarctica that the Antarctic Ocean 
may be left out of account. It has been found more convenient 
to take as northern boundaries the narrowest part of the straits 
near the Arctic circle, Bering Strait on the Pacific side, and on 
the Atlantic side the narrowest part of Davis Strait, and of 
Denmark Strait, then the shortest line from Iceland to the 
Faeroes, thence to the most northerly island of the Shetlands 
and thence to Cape Statland in Norway. It has also been found 
convenient to take the boundary between the Atlantic and 
Pacific, as the shortest line across Drake Strait, from Cape Horn 
through Snow Island to Cape Gunnar, instead of the meridian 
of Cape Horn. Possibly ridges of the sea-bed running southward 
from the southern continents may yet be discovered which would 
form more natural boundaries than the meridians. The com- 
mittee of the Royal Geographical Society settled the existing 
nomenclature of the three great oceans. Some authors include 
the Arctic Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, and some prefer to consider 
the southern part of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans as 
a Great Southern Ocean. Sir John Herschel took as the northern 
boundary of the southern ocean the greatest circle which could 
touch the southernmost extremities of the three southern con- 
tinents. Such a circle, however, runs so near the coast of 
Antarctica as to make the southern ocean very small. Others, 
like Malte Brun (1803) and Supan (1903), take the loxodromes 
between the three capes and call the ocean to the south the 
Antarctic Ocean. G. v. Boguslawski suggested the parallel of 
55 S. and Ratzel that of 40 S. as limits; but in none of these 
schemes has the coast of Antarctica been adequately considered, 
and they have all been too much influenced by the Mercator 
map. Each of the three oceans, Atlantic, Indian and Pacific, 
possesses an Antarctic facies in the southern part and a tropical 
fades between the tropics, and the Atlantic and Pacific an Arctic 
facies in their northern parts. 

Where the ocean touches the continents the margin is in places 
deeply indented by peninsulas and islands marking off portions 
of the water surface which from all antiquity have been known 
as " seas." These seas are entirely dependent on the ocean for 
their regime, being filled with ocean water, though subject to 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



969 



influence by the land, and the tides and currents of the ocean 
affect them to a greater or less extent. They owe their origin 
to depressions ot the earth's crust of no very wide extent and not 
running very far into the continental mass, and geologically they 
are of recent age and still subject to change. In these respects 
they contrast with the great oceans which owe their origin 
to the most extensive and the profoundest depressions of the 
crust, date back at least to Mesozoic times, and have perhaps 
remained permanently in their present position from still remoter 
ages. 

Seas may be classified according to their form either as " en- 
closed " or as " partially enclosed " (or " fringing "). Enclosed 
seas extend deeply into the land and originate either by the 
breaking through of the ocean or by the overflowing of a subsiding 
area. They are connected with the ocean by narrow straits, 
the salinity of the water contained in them differs in a marked 
degree from that of the ocean, and the tidal waves are of small 
amplitude. Four great intercontinental enclosed seas are 
included between adjacent continents the Arctic Sea, the Central 
American or West Indian Sea, the Australo- Asiatic or Malay Sea 
and the Mediterranean Sea. There are also four smaller con- 
tinental enclosed seas each with a single channel of communica- 
tion with the ocean, viz. the Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay with very 
low salinity, the Red Sea and Persian Gulf with very high 
salinity. 

The fringing or partially enclosed seas adjoin the great land 
masses and are only separated from the oceans by islands or 
peninsulas. Hence their tidal conditions are quite oceanic, 
though their salinity is usually rather lower than that of ocean 
water. The four fringing seas of eastern Asia, those of Bering, 
Okhotsk, Japan and East China, are arranged parallel to the 
main lines of dislocation in the neighbouring land-masses, and 
so are the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of California. On the 
contrary, the North Sea, the British fringing seas (English 
Channel, Irish Sea and Minch), and the Gulf of St Lawrence 
cross the main lines of dislocation. 

In addition to these seas notice must be taken of the sub- 
ordinate marginal features, such as gulfs and straits. Gulfs 
may be classified according to their origin as due to fractures 
of the crust or overflowing of depressed lands. The former are 
either the extensions of oceanic depressions, e.g. the Arabian 
Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Arica, or such caldron-depressions 
as the Gulfs of Genoa and Taranto, or rift-depressions like the 
Gulfs of Aden and Akaba. Compound gulfs are formed sea- 
wards by fracture and landwards by the overflowing of depressed 
land, e.g. the Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Alaska and Gulf of the Lion. 
Gulfs formed by the overflowing of depressed lands lie upon the 
continental shelf, e.g. the Gulf of Maine, Bay of Fundy, Bay of 
Odessa, Gulf of Martaban. 

Straits have been formed (i) by fracture across isthmuses, 
and such may be by longitudinal fracture as in the Strait of 
Bab-el-Mandeb, or transverse fracture as in the Strait of 
Gibraltar or Cook Strait; (2) by erosion, e.g. the Strait of Dover, 
the Dardanelles and Bosporus; (3) by overflowing through 
the subsidence of the land, as in the straits of Bering, Torres 
and Formosa. 

Surface of the Ocean. If the whole globe were covered with 
a uniformly deep ocean, arid if there were no difference of density 
between one part and another, the surface would form a perfect 
ellipsoid of revolution, that is to say, all the meridians would 
be exactly equal ellipses and all parallels perfect circles. At 
any point a sounding line would hang in the line of the radius 
of curvature of the water surface. But as things are the water- 
surface is broken by land, and the mean density of the substance 
of the land is 2-6 times as great as that of sea-water, so that 
the gravitational attraction of the land must necessarily cause 
a heaping up of the sea around the coasts, forming what has 
been called the continental wave, and leaving the sea-level 
lower in mid-ocean. Hence the geoid or figure of the sea-surface 
is not part of an ellipsoid of rotation but is irregular. The 
differences of level between different parts of the geoid have 
been greatly overestimated in the past; F. G. Helmert has 



shown that they cannot exceed 650 ft. and are probably much 
less. Recent pendulum observations have shown that it is 
incorrect to assume a uniform density of 2-6 in the elevated 
part of the earth's crust, that on the contrary there are great 
local differences in density, the most important being a con- 
firmation of Airy's discovery that there is a marked deficiency 
of mass under high mountains and a marked excess under the 
bed of the ocean. The intensity of gravity at the surface of 
the sea far from land has been measured en several occasions. 
During Nansen's expedition on the " Fram " in 1894-1895, Scott 
Hansen made observations with a Sterneck's half-seconds 
pendulum on the ice where the sea was more than 1600 fathoms 
deep and found only an insignificant deviation from the number 
of swings corresponding to a normal ellipsoid. In 1901 O, 
Hecker took the opportunity of a voyage from Hamburg to La 
Plata, and in 1904 and 1905 of voyages in the Indian and Pacific 
Oceans to determine the local attraction over the ocean by 
comparing the atmospheric pressure measured by means of a 
mercurial barometer and a boiling-point thermometer, and 
obtained results similar to Scott Hansen's. The inequalities 
of the geoid in no case exceed 300 ft. Distortion of the ocean 
surface may also arise from meteorological causes, and be 
periodic or unperiodic in its occurrence, but it does not amount 
to more than a few feet at the utmost. Solar radiation warms 
the tropical more than the polar waters, but, assuming equal 
salinity, this cause would not account for a difference of level 
of more than 20 ft. between tropical and polar seas. The annual 
range of temperature between summer and winter of a surface 
layer of water about 25 fathoms thick in the Baltic is as much 
as 20 F., but this only corresponds to a difference of level of 
1 1 in. due to expansion or contraction. 

Atmospheric precipitation poured into the sea by the great 
rivers must necessarily create a permanent rise of the sea-level 
at their mouths, and from this cause the level round the coasts 
of rainy lands must be greater than in mid-ocean. H. Mohn 
has shown how the inequalities of what he terms the density- 
surface can be found from the salinity and temperature; and 
he calculates that the level of the Skagerrak should be about 
2 ft. higher than that of the open Norwegian Sea between Jan 
Mayen and the Lofoten Islands. The level of the Gulf of Finland 
at Kronstadt and of the Gulf of Bothnia at Haparanda should 
similarly be 15 in. higher than that of the Skagerrak. Recent 
levellings along the Swedish and Danish coasts have confirmed 
the higher level of the Baltic ; and the level of the Mediterranean 
has also been determined by exact measurements to be from 
15 to 24 in. lower than that of the Atlantic on account of evapora- 
tion. Apart from the effects of varying precipitation and 
evaporation the atmosphere affects sea-level also by its varying 
pressure, the difference in level of the sea-surface from this 
cause between two given points being thirteen times as great 
as the difference between the corresponding readings of the 
mercurial barometer. In the north tropical belt of high pressure 
south of the Azores the atmospheric pressure in January is 
0-87 in. higher than in the Irminger Sea; hence the sea-level 
near the Azores is almost i ft. lower than in the northern sea. 
In the monsoon region, where the barometer rises 0-38 in. 
between July and January, the level of the sea falls in consequence 
by 5 in. Wind also gives rise to differences of level by driving 
the water before it, and the prevailing westerly wind of the 
southern Baltic is the chief cause of the sea-level at Kiel being 
5! in. lower than at Arkona on Riigen. Periodic variations 
of level due to meteorological causes account for the Baltic 
being fuller in the time of the summer rains than in winter, 
when the rivers and lakes are frozen and most of the precipitation 
on the land is in the form of snow. The range on the Arkona 
gauge is from 3-5 in. below mean level in April to 2-75 in. above 
the mean level in August. A similar range occurs on the Dutch 
coast in the North Sea, where the maximum level is reached in 
October, the month of highest rainfall, and there is a range of 
8 in. to the minimum level at the time of least rainfall in early 
spring. In the monsoon regions the half-yearly change from 
on-shore to off-shore winds produces noticeable differences in 



970 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



level; thus fifteen years' observations at Aden show a maximum 
in May at the end of the north-east monsoon, and a rapid falling 
off after the beginning of the south-west monsoon to a minimum 
in August, the total range being 9% in. The influence of wind 
on water-level is most remarkable in heavy storms on the flat 
coasts of the North Sea and Baltic, when the rise may amount 
to very many feet. In the region of tropical hurricanes the 
converging wind system of a circular storm causes a heaping 
up of water capable of devastating the low coral islands of the 
Pacific. On the ist of November 1876 a cyclone acting in this 
way submerged a great area of the level plain of the Ganges 
delta to a depth of 46 ft.; here the influence of the difference 
of pressure within and without the cyclone acted in the same 
direction as the wind. The old speculations as to a great differ- 
ence of level between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and 
on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama, which hindered the 
projects for canals connecting those waters, have been proved 
by modern levelling of high precision to be totally erroneous. 

Deep-sea Soundings. The hand-lead attached to a line 
divided into fathoms was a well-known aid to navigation even 
in high antiquity, and its use is mentioned in Herodotus (ii. 5) 
and in the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii. 29). Greater depths 
than those usually sounded by a hand-line may possibly not have 
been beyond the reach of the earlier navigators, for Strabo 
says " of measured seas the Sardonian is the deepest with full 
one thousand fathoms " (i. 3, p. 53 Cas.). Yet we find that the 
great discoverers of the modern period were only familiar with 
the hand-lead, and the lines in use did not exceed 200 fathoms 
in length. Ingenious devices had indeed been tried in the i7th 
century and earlier, by which a lead thrown into the sea without 
a line detached a float on striking the bottom, and it was proposed 
to calculate the depth by the time required for the float to re- 
appear. The earliest deep-sea sounding on record is that of 
Captain Phipps on the 4th of September 1773 in the Norwegian 
Sea, in 65 N. 3 E., on his return from his expedition to Spits- 
bergen. He spliced together all the sounding-lines on board, 
and with a weight of 1 50 Ib attached he found bottom in 683 
fathoms and secured a sample of fine soft blue mud. He detected 
the moment of the lead touching the bottom by the sudden 
slackening in the rate at which the line ran out. Polar explorers 
frequently repeated those experiments in deep-sea soundings, 
both William Scoresby and Sir John Ross obtaining notable 
results, though not reaching depths of more than 1200 fathoms. 
The honour of first sounding really oceanic depths belongs to 
Sir James Clark Ross, who made some excellent measurements 
in very deep water, though in a few instances he overestimated 
the depth by failing to detect the moment at which the lead 
touched bottom. The pursuit of these isolated investigations 
received a great impetus from the enthusiasm of the great Ameri- 
can oceanographer Captain Matthew Fontaine Maury, U.S.N., 
who directed the whole impetuous strength of his character to 
the task of compelling the silent depths of the ocean to tell their 
tale. Instead of the expensive mile-long stout hemp lines used 
by Ross, Maury introduced a ball of strong twine attached to a 
cannon shot, which ran it out rapidly; when the bottom was 
reached the twine was cut and the depth deduced from the length 
of string left in the ball on board. The time of touching bottom 
was judged by timing each loo-fathom mark and noting the 
sudden increase in the time interval when the shot reached the 
bottom. Maury, however, recognized that in great depths 
the surest guarantee of bottom having been reached was to bring 
up a sample of the deposit. To do this with a heavy lead 
attached required a very strong hemp line, and the twine used 
in the American method was useless for this purpose. In 1854 
J. M. Brooke, a midshipman of theU.S.N., invented the principle 
already foreshadowed by Nicolaus Cusanus in the isth century 
and by Robert Hooke in the i7th, of using a heavy weight so 
hung on the sounding-tube that it was automatically released 
on striking the bottom and left behind, while the light brass tube 
containing a sample of the deposit was easily hauled up. This 
principle has been adopted universally for deep soundings, and 
is now applied in many forms. In 1855 Maury published 



the first chart of the depths of the Atlantic between 52 N. and 
10 S. At this period an exact knowledge of the depths of the ocean 
assumed an unlooked-for practical importance from the daring 
project for laying a telegraph cable between Ireland and 
Newfoundland. Deep soundings were made in the Atlantic 
for this purpose by vessels both of the British and of the American 
navies, while in the Mediterranean and in the Indian Ocean 
many soundings were made in connexion with submarine 
cables to the East. Another stimulus came from the biologists, 
who began to realize the importance of a more detailed investiga- 
tion of the life conditions of organisms at great depths in the 
sea. The lead in this direction was taken by British biologists, 
beginning with Edward Forbes in 1839, and in 1868 a party on 
board H.M.S. " Lightning " pursued researches in the waters 
to the north of Scotland. In 1869 and 1870 this work was 
extended to the Irish Sea and Bay of Biscay in H.M.S. " Por- 
cupine," and to the Mediterranean in H.M.S. " Shearwater." 
The last-named vessel secured 157 trustworthy deep soundings, 
with samples of the deposits, and also observations of temperature 
and salim'ty in different depths, as well as dredgings for the' 
collection of the organisms of the deep sea. 

These preliminary trips of scientific marine investigation were 
followed by the greatest purely scientific expedition ever under- 
taken, the voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger " round the world 
under the scientific direction of Sir Wyville Thomson and the 
naval command of Sir George Nares. This epoch-making 
expedition lasted from Christmas 1872 to the end of May 1876, 
and gave the first wide and general view of the physical and 
biological conditions of the ocean as a whole. Almost simul- 
taneously with the " Challenger," a German expedition in S.M.S. 
" Gazelle " conducted observations in the South Atlantic, Indian 
and South Pacific Oceans; and tht U.S.S " Tuscarora " made a 
cruise in the North Pacific, sounding out lines for a projected 
Pacific cable. The successor of Sir Wyville Thomson in the 
editorship of the " Challenger " Reports, Sir John Murray, has 
rightly said that since the days of Columbus and Magellan no 
such revelation regarding the surface of our planet had been 
made as in that eighth decade of the igth century. Since that 
time the British cable-ships have been busy in all the oceans 
making sections across the great expanses of water with ever- 
increasing accuracy, and in that work the government surveying 
ships have also been engaged, vast stretches of the Indian and 
Pacific Oceans having been opened up to knowledge by H.M.SS. 
"Egeria," " Waterwitch," "Dart," "Penguin," "Stork," 
and " Investigator." American scientific enterprise, mainly 
under the guidance of Professor Alexander Agassiz, has been 
active in the North Atlantic and especially in the Pacific Ocean, 
where very important investigations have been made. The 
eastern part of the North Atlantic has been the scene of many 
expeditions, often purely biological in their purpose, amongst 
which there may be mentioned the cruises of the " Travailleur " 
and " Talisman " under Professor Milne-Edwards in 1880-1883, 
and since 1887 those of the prince of Monaco in his yachts, as 
well as numerous Danish vessels in the sea between Iceland and 
Greenland, conspicuous amongst which were the expeditions 
in 1896-1898 on board the " Ingolf." The Norwegian Sea was 
studied by the Norwegian expedition on board the " Voringen " 
in 1876-1878, and the north polar basin by Nansen and Sverdrup 
in the " Fram " in 1893-1896, the Mediterranean by the Italians 
on the " Washington " and by the Austrians on the " Pola " 
in 1890-1893, the latter carrying the investigations to the Red 
Sea in 1895-1898, while the Russians investigated the Black 
Sea in 1890-1893. For high southern latitudes special value 
attaches to the soundings of the German deep-sea expedition 
on the " Valdivia " in 1898-1899, and to those of the " Belgica " 
in 1897-1898, the " Gauss " in 1902-1903, and the " Scotia " 
in 1903-1904. The soundings of the Dutch expedition on 
the " Siboga " during 1899-1900 in the eastern part of the 
Malay seas and those of the German surveying ship " Planet " 
in 1906 in the South Atlantic, Indian and North Pacific Oceans 
were notable, and Sir John Murray's expedition on the " Michael 
Sars " in the Atlantic in 1910 obtained important results. 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



971 



Modern surveying ships no longer make use of hempen lines 
with enormously heavy sinkers, such as were employed on the 
" Challenger," but they sound instead with steel piano wire 
not more than gV to ^5 of an inch in diameter and a detachable 
lead seldom weighing more than 70 Ib. The soundings are made 
by means of a special machine fitted with a brake so adjusted 
that the revolution of the drum is stopped automatically the 
instant the lead touches the bottom, and the depth can then be 
read directly from an indicator. The line is hauled in by a steam 
or electric winch, and the sounding-tube containing a sample 
of the bottom deposit is rapidly brought on board. The sounding 
machines most frequently employed are those of Admiral 
C. D. Sigsbee, U.S.N., of Lucas, which was perfected in the 
Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company's ships, 
and of the Prince of Monaco, constructed by Leblanc of Paris. 
All attempts to dispense with a lead and line and to measure 
the depth by determining the pressure at the bottom have 
hitherto failed when applied to depths greater than 200 fathoms; 
a new hydraulic manometer has been tried on board the German 
surveying ship " Planet." A. Siemens has pointed out that a 
profile of the sea-bed can be delineated by taking account of 
the varying strain on a submarine cable while it is being laid, 
and the average depth of a section can thus be ascertained with 
some accuracy. All deep-sea measurements are subject to 
uncertainty because the sounding machine merely measures 
the length of wire which runs out before the lead touches 
bottom, and this agrees with the depth only when the wire is 
perpendicular throughout its run. It is improbable, however, 
that the smooth and slender wire is much influenced by currents, 
and the best deep-sea soundings may be taken as accurate to 
within 5 fathoms. 

Relief of the Ocean Floor. Recent soundings have shown 
that the floor of the ocean on the whole lies some 2 or 3 m. 
beneath the surface, and O. Kriimmel has calculated the mean 
depth to be 2010 fathoms (12,060 ft.), while the mean elevation 
of the surface of the continents above sea-level is only 2300 ft. 
Viewed from the floor of the ocean the continental block would 
thus appear as a great plateau rising to a height of 14,360 ft. 
Nevertheless, the greatest depths of the ocean below sea-level 
and the greatest heights of the land above it are of the same order 
of magnitude, the summit of Mount Everest rising to 29,000 ft. 
above the sea-level, while the Nero Deep near Guam sinks to 
31,600 ft. (5268 fathoms) below sea-level. Of course the area 
at great heights is very much less than the area at corre- 
sponding depths. Above the height of 15,000 ft. there 
are 800,000 sq. km. (310,000 sq. m.), and below the 
depth of 15,000 ft. there are 120,000,000 sq. km. (46,300,000 
sq. m.); above the height of 20,000 ft. there are on the whole 
surface of the earth only 33,000 sq. km. (12,800 sq. m.), 
while below the depth of 20,000 ft. there are no less than 
5,400,000 sq. km. (2,100,000 sq. m.). According to Krummel's 
calculation the areas of the ocean beyond various depths are 
.as follows: 



Fathoms. 


sq. km. 


sq. st. m. 


More than 






100 


350,500,000 


135.300,000 


500 


319,500,000 


123,400,000 


IOOO 


304,000,000 


117,400,000 


1500 


276,500,000 


106,800,000 


2000 


215,000,000 


83,000,000 


2500 


120,000,000 


46,300,000 


3000 


22,500,000 


8,700,000 


3500 


3,000,000 


1,200,000 


4000 


I,2OO,OOO 


460,000 



On the whole the floor of the ocean is very smooth in its 
contours, and great stretches can almost be called level. Modern 
orometry has introduced the calculation of the mean angle of 
the slope of a given uneven surface provided that maps can 
be prepared showing equidistant contour lines. If the distance 
between the contour lines is h and the length of the individual 
contour lines /, the sum of their lengths 2 (/), and A the area 



of the surface under investigation, then the mean angle of 
slope is obtained from the equation 



Calculating from sheet A I of the Prince of Monaco's Atlas of 
Ocean Depths, 1 Kriimmel obtained a mean angle of slope of 
o 27' 44* or an average fall of i in 124 for the North Atlantic 
between o and 47 N.. the enclosed seas being left out of account. 
In the same way a mean angle of slope of approximately half a 
degree was found for the Adriatic and the Black Sea. Large 
angles of slope may, however, occur on the flanks of oceanic 
islands and the continental borders. On the submarine slopes 
leading up to isolated volcanic islands angles of 15 to 20 are 
not uncommon, at St Helena the slopes run up to 38! and 
even 40, at Tristan d'Acunha to 335. E. Hull found a mean 
angle of slope of 13 to 14 for the edge of the continental shelf 
off the west coast of Europe, and off Cape Torinana (43 4' N.) 
as much as 34. Where the French telegraph cable between 
Brest and New York passes from the continental shelf of the 
Bay of Biscay to the depths of the Atlantic the angle of slope is 
from 30 to 41. Such gradients are of a truly mountainous 
character, the angle of slope from the Eibsee to the Zugspitze 
is 30, and that from Alpiglen station to the summit of the 
Eiger is 42. Particularly steep slopes are found in the case of 
submarine domes, usually incomplete volcanic cones, and there 
have been cases in which after such a dome has been discovered 
by the soundings of a surveying ship it could not be found again 
as its whole area was so small and the deep floor of the ocean 
from which it rose so flat that an error of 2 or 3 m. in the position 
of the ship would prevent any irregularity of the bottom from 
appearing. While such steep mountain walls are found in the 
bed of the ocean it must be remembered that they are very 
exceptional, and except where there are great dislocations of 
the submarine crust or volcanic outbursts the forms of the ocean 
floor are incomparably gentler in their outlines than those of 
the continents. Being protected by the water from the rapid 
subaerial erosion which sharpens the features of the land, and 
subjected to the regular accumulation of deposits, the whole 
ocean floor has assumed some approach to uniformity. Still 
there are everywhere gentle inequalities on the smoothest ocean 
floor which give to its greater features a distinct relief. 

In spite of the increase of deep-sea soundings in the last few 
decades, they are still very irregularly distributed in the open 
ocean, and the attempt to draw isobaths (lines of equal depth) 
on a chart of the world is burdened with many difficulties which 
can only be evaded by the widest generalizations. Bearing this 
caution in mind the existing bathymetrical charts, amongst which 
that of the prince of Monaco stands first, give a very fair idea of 
the great features of the bed of the oceans. A definite termin- 
ology for the larger forms of sub-oceanic relief was put forward 
by the International Geographical Congress at Berlin in 1899 
and adopted by that at Washington in 1004. Equivalent 
terms, which are not necessarily identical or literal translations, 
were adopted for the English, French and German languages, 
the equivalence being closest and most systematic between the 
English and German terms. 

The larger forms designated by special generic terms include 
the following. The continental shelf is the gentle slope which 
extends from the edge of the land to a depth usually about 100, 
though in some cases as much as 300 fathoms, and is there 
demarcated by an abrupt increase in the steepness of the slope 
to ocean depths. In the deep sea two types of feature are 
recognized under the general names of depression and elevation. 
The depression is distinguished according to form and slope 
as (i) a basin when of a roughly round outline, (2) a trough 
when wide and elongated, or (3) a trench when narrow and 
elongated lying along the edge of a continent. The extension 
of a basin or trough stretching towards the continent is termed 
an embayment when relatively wide and a gully when narrow. 
The elevation includes (i) the gently swelling rise which separates 

1 Carte generate bathymttrique des oceans dressee par ordre de S.A.S. 
le Prince Albert de Monaco, 24 sheets (Paris, 1904). 



972 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



troughs and basins in the middle of the ocean, (2) the steeply 
sloping ridge which interposes a narrower barrier between two 
depressions, and (3) the plateau or wide elevation rising steeply 
on all sides from a depression. The deepest part of a depression 
is termed a deep, and the highest part of an elevation when not 
reaching the surface a height. In addition to these larger forms 
a few minor forms must be recognized. Amongst these are the 
dome, an isolated elevation rising steeply but not coming within 
too fathoms of the surface; the bank, an elevation coming 
nearer the surface than 100 fathoms, but not so near as 6 fathoms; 
and finally the shoal or reef, which comes within 6 fathoms of 
the surface, and so may constitute a danger to shipping. Similarly 
we may note the caldron or small steep depression of a round out- 
line, and the furrow or long narrow groove in the continental 
shelf. 

According to the resolutions of the International Geographical 
Congress the larger individual forms which have been described 
by generic terms shall have specific names of a purely geo- 
graphical character; but in the case of the minor forms the 
names of ships and persons are considered applicable. In 1899 
A. Supan published a chart of the oceans with a suggested 
nomenclature based on these principles; and the larger forms in 
the Prince of Monaco's great chart also are named in accordance 
with the rule. Although put forward by the highest inter- 
national authority recognized by geographers the system of 
nomenclature has not been adopted universally. In particular 
Sir John Murray considers that only deeps exceeding 3000 
fathoms in depth should be named, and in his charts he has 
named these deeps after persons whether the individuals thus 
honoured had themselves discovered or explored the deeps in 
question or not. Some of the " deeps " to which names have 
been given disappear or are divided into two or three smaller 
deeps when the contour lines representing hundreds of fathoms 
are translated into contour lines representing hundreds of 
metres. A similar change in the contour lines may result from 
the substitution of lines in fathoms for those originally drawn 
in metres, and hence it is extremely desirable that specific 
names should only be given to such features as are pronounced 
enough to appear on maps drawn with either unit. For the 
sake of uniformity it is to be hoped that the system of nomen- 
clature recommended by the International Geographical Congress 
will ultimately be adopted. 

The continental shelves are parts of the great continental 
blocks which have been covered by the sea in comparatively 
recent times, and their surface consequently presents many 
similarities to that of the land, modified of course by the de- 
structive and constructive work of the waters. Waves and tidal 
currents produce their full effects in that region, and in high 
latitudes the effect of transport of materials by ice is very 
important; while in the warm water of the tropics the reef- 
building animals and plants (corals and calcareous algae) carry 
on their work most effectively there. The continental shelves 
include not only the oceanic border of the continents but also 
great areas of the enclosed seas and particularly of the fringing 
seas, the origin of which through secular subsidence is often very 
clearly apparent, as for instance in the North Sea and the 
tract lying off the mouth of the English Channel. A closer 
investigation of the numerous long, narrow banks which lie off 
the Flemish coast and the Thames estuary shows that they are 
composed of fragments of rock abraded and transported by tidal 
currents and storms in the same way that the chalk and lime- 
stone worn off from the eastern continuation of the island of 
Heligoland during the last two centuries has been reduced to the 
coarse gravel of the off-lying Dime. Numerous old river valleys 
and furrows entrenched in the continental shelf bear witness 
to its land origin. Such valleys are very clearly indicated in 
the belts of the western Baltic by furrows a thousand yards wide 
and twenty to thirty fathoms deeper than the neighbouring 
sea-bed. Amongst the best known of the furrows of the con- 
.tinental shelf are the Cape Breton Deep, in the Bay of Biscay, 
the Hudson Furrow, southward of New York, the so-called Congo 
Canon, the Swatch of No Ground off the Ganges delta, the 



Bottomless Pit off the Niger delta, and numerous similar furrows 
on the west coast of North America and outside the fjords of 
Norway, Iceland and the west of Scotland, as well as in the 
Firth of Forth and Moray Firth. 

The seaward edge of the continental shelf often falls steeply 
to the greatest depths of the ocean, and not infrequently forms 
the slope cf a trench, a form of depression which has usually a 
steep slope towards a continent or an island-bearing rise on one 
side and a gentler slope towards the general level of the ocean 
on the other. All the greatest depths of ocean, i.e. all soundings 
exceeding 4000 fathoms, occur in trenches, and there are only a 
few small trenches known (on the west coast of Centra! America) 
in which the maximum depth is less than 3000 fathoms. Most 
trenches are narrow, but of considerable length, and their steeper 
side is believed to be due in every case to a great fracture of the 
earth's crust. Strong evidence of this is afforded by the associa- 
tion of some of the depressions, notably the Japan Trench and 
the Atacama Trench, with the origin of frequent submarine 
earthquakes. Troughs and rises are features of more frequent 
occurrence and are best described as they occur in the particular 
oceans. 

In the Atlantic the prevailing meridianal direction of the shore 
lines extends to the submarine features also. Captain Sherard 
Osborn in 1870 was the first to recognize that the North Atlantic 
Basin was divided by a central rise running generally from north 
to south into two parallel depressions. In 1876 the " Challenger " 
expedition found that a similar configuration exists in the 
South Atlantic also. As the result of all the deep-sea surveys 
now available we know that the central rise of the Atlantic 
starts from Iceland as the Reykjanes Ridge with less than 1000 
fathoms of water over it in most parts and runs south-westward 
until in 51 N. it widens into what was called by Maury the 
Telegraph Plateau. Continuing southwards the rise joins the 
Azores Plateau, which has in parts a very marked relief, and 
runs thence southward almost exactly in the middle of the 
ocean, becoming gradually lower as it goes. As far as 29 N. 
the depth over it is less than 1 500 fathoms, thence to 1 2 N. the 
depths are between 1500 and 2000 fathoms, and then it rises 
again to about 1 500 fathoms and runs eastward under the name 
of the Equatorial Ridge. Crossing the equator in 13 W. the 
rise resumes a southerly direction and from Ascension to Tristan 
d'Acunha, the depth is in many places less than 1500 fathoms. 
The soundings of Bruce's Antarctic expedition in the " Scotia " 
showed that the rise cannot be traced beyond 55 S. where the 
depths increase rapidly to over 2000 fathoms. The whole length 
of the rise which divides the Atlantic into an eastern and a 
western basin may be taken as 7500 nautical miles. Between 
3oand 40 S. two lateral ridges diverge from the great Atlantic 
rise, the Rio Grande ridge towards the north-west and the 
Walfisch ridge towards the north-east. The existence of the 
latter, which extends to the African continent, was announced 
by Sir Wyville Thomson in 1876 as a result of his discussion of 
the deep-sea temperature observations of the " Challenger " 
expedition, though the fact was not confirmed by soundings 
until many years later. 

The West Atlantic Trough lying on the western side of the 
Central Rise widens in the north into the North American Basin, 
and its greatest depths appears to be in the Porto Rico Trench, 
where in 1882 Capt. W. H. Brownson, U.S. N., obtained a sounding 
of 4561 fathoms in 19 36' N., 66 26' W. The Brazilian Basin 
has also a large area lying at a depth greater than 2500 fathoms 
and culminates in the Romanche Deep close to the Equatorial 
Ridge in o n' S., 18 15' W. with a depth of 4030 fathoms. 
The Eastern Atlantic Trough cannot boast of such great depths 
though the Peake Deep with 3284 fathoms sinks abruptly from 
the Azores Plateau in 43 9' N., 19 45' W., and several soundings 
exceeding 270x5 fathoms have been obtained in the Bay of 
Biscay east of the meridian of 5 E. The North African Basin 
has several deeps with more than 3300 fathoms to the north- 
west and the south-west of the Cape Verde Islands, but the South 
African Basin is less deep. In the South Atlantic there is no 
connexion between the Central Rise and the Antarctic Shelf, 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



973 



for the Indo-Atlantic Antarctic Basin stretches from near the 
South Sandwich Islands towards Kerguelen with depths ex- 
ceeding 2500 fathoms and reaching in places 3100. The Cape 
Trough runs northward from this basin. It was long believed 
on the strength of a sounding of " 4000 fathoms, no bottom " 
reported by Sir James Ross in 68 22' S., 12 49' W., that the 
Indo-Atlantic Basin was of enormous depth, but W. S. Bruce, 
in the " Scotia," showed in 1904 that the real depth at that point 
is only 2660 fathoms. 

In the Indian Ocean the Kerguelen Rise stretches broadly 
southward, east of the island which gives it a name, to the 
Antarctic Shelf with the greatest depths upon it usually less 
than 2000 fathoms, and it stretches northward beyond New 
Amsterdam to 30 S. This rise is separated from the Crozet 
Rise by a depression extending to 2675 fathoms, through which 
the Kerguelen Trough (which lies north of Kerguelen) is brought 
into free communication with the Indo-Atlantic Antarctic 
Basin. The greater part of the Indian Ocean is occupied by 
the great Indian Basin, which covers 35,000,000 sq. km. 
(13,500,000 sq. m.) and extends from the Chagos Islands eastward 
to Australia and south-eastward to Tasmania. The Australian 
Shelf rises steeply as a rule from depths of 2500 to 3000 fathoms. 
A broad depression with depths of from 3300 to 3500 fathoms 
lies to the east of the Cocos Islands and extends into the angle 
between the Malay Archipelago and Australia. On the north 
this depression sinks into the long and narrow Sunda Trench 
south of Java, and here in 10 15' S., 108 5' E., the German 
surveying-ship " Planet " obtained a sounding of 3828 fathoms 
in 1906. The Sunda Trench is distinguished by the wave-like 
configuration of its floor, and this wave-like character is con- 
tinued to the westward of Sumatra with islands rising from the 
higher portions. The western part of the Indian Ocean has been 
shown by the surveys cf H.M.S. " Sealark " and the German 
surveying-ship " Planet " to have a somewhat complicated 
configuration, the island groups and banks of atolls which 
occur there rising abruptly as a rule from depths of about 2000 
fathoms or more. Between the Seychelles and Sokotra (o- 
9 N.) there are great stretches of the ocean floor forming an 
almost level expanse at a depth of 2800 fathoms. The Arabian 
Gulf and Gulf of Aden are also very uniform with depths of 
about 1900 fathoms, while the floor of the Bay of Bengal rises 
very gradually northwards and is 1000 fathoms deep close up 
to the Ganges Shelf. 

The Pacific Ocean consists mainly of one enormous basin 
bounded on the west by New Zealand and the Tonga, Marshall 
and Marianne ridges, on the north by the festoons of islands 
marking off the North Pacific fringing seas, on the east by the 
coast of North America and the great Easter Island Rise and 
on the south by the Antarctic Shelf. The total area of this 
basin is about 80,000,000 sq. km. (30,000,000 sq. m.), its surface 
being almost twice that of Asia. Half of this basin lies deeper 
than 2750 fathoms, and the greater part of it belongs to the 
northern hemisphere. From the floor of this vast and profound 
depression numerous isolated volcanic cones rise with abrupt 
slopes, and even between the islands of the Hawaiian group 
there are depths of more than 2000 fathoms. The Society 
Islands and Tahiti crown a rise coming within 1500 fathoms of 
the surface, two similar rises form the foundation of the Paumotu 
group where Agassiz found soundings of 2187 fathoms between 
Marokau and Hao. This greatest of ocean basins contains 
also the largest and deepest trenches. The Tuscarora Deep of 
the Japan Trench (4655 fathoms in 44 55' N., 152 26' E.) was 
famed for many years as the deepest depression of the earth's 
crust. This great trench is continued along the Luchu Islands 
where the cable-steamer " Stephan " sounded in 4080 fathoms, 
and through the Benin Trench ^with a maximum of 3595 fathoms) 
to the famous Marianne Trench in which the U.S.S. " Nero " 
in 1899 found 5269 fathoms in 12 43' N., 145 49' E., the greatest 
depth yet measured. The northern part of the Marianne Trench 
leads to a wave-like configuration of the ocean floor, the depth 
to the east of Saipan being over 4300 fathoms, followed by 
a rise to 1089 fathoms and then a descent to 3167 fathoms. 



The trenches of Yap (4122 fathoms) and Palau (Pelew) (4450 
fathoms) are not immediately connected with that of Marianne. 
To the east of the Philippines a sounding of 3490 fathoms is 
found close to the Strait of St Bernardino and north-east of 
Talaut there is a trench with 4648 fathoms. To the north-east 
the Japan Trench adjoins the Aleutian Trench, where a depth 
of 4038 fathoms has been found south-west of Attu. Trenches 
of great size also occur south of the equator. The Tonga and 
Kermadec trenches, both deeper than 4000 fathoms, stretch 
from the Samoa Islands southwards toward New Zealand for a 
distance of 1600 nautical miles. The deepest sounding obtained 
in the Tonga Trench is 5022 fathoms in 23 39-4' S., 175 4' W., 
and in the Kermadec Trench, 5155 fathoms, 30 27-7' S., 
176 39' W. The steep western sides of these trenches often 
show an angle of slope of 7. 

The south-western part of the Pacific Ocean has a very rich 
and diversified submarine relief, abounding in small basins 
separated by ridges and rises. There are no depths, however, 
much exceeding 2500 fathoms amongst these depressions. The 
south-eastern part of the Pacific is mainly occupied by the 
Easter Island Rise with depths rarely so great as 2000 fathoms; 
but close to the continent of South America the Atacama Trench 
is a typical example of the deepest form of depression culminating 
with 4175 fathoms in 25 42' S., 71 31-5' W. The Pacific 
Antarctic Basin occupies the vast region south of 50 S. right 
up to the Antarctic Shelf, with depths ranging down to 2500- 
3000 fathoms, and communicating with the main Pacific Basin 
to the east of New Zealand. 

The greatest of the intercontinental seas, the Arctic, .comes 
nearest to oceanic conditions in the extent and depth of its 
depressions. The soundings of Nansen and Sverdrup on the 
" Fram " expedition indicate that northward from the Siberian 
Shelf the great North Polar Basin has an area of about 4,000,000 
sq. km. (1,500,000 sq. m.) with depths down to 2200 fathoms. 
A rise between Spitsbergen and Greenland separates the Nor- 
wegian Trough (greatest depth 2005 fathoms in 68 21' N., 
2 5' W.) which in turn is divided from the Atlantic by the 
Wyville Thomson Ridge which runs between the Faeroe and 
Shetland islands and is covered by only 314 fathoms of water at 
the deepest point. The ridge across Denmark Strait west of 
Iceland nowhere exceeds 300 fathoms in depth, so that the 
deeper water of the North Polar Basin is effectively separated 
from that of the Atlantic. A third small basin occupies Baffin 
Bay and contains a maximum depth of 1050 fathoms. Depths 
of from 100 to 300 fathoms are not uncommon amongst the 
channels of the Arctic Archipelago north of North America, 
and Bering Strait, through which the surface water of the Arctic 
Sea meets that of the Pacific, is only 28 fathoms deep. 

The Central American Sea communicates with the Atlantic 
through the channels between the Antilles, none of which is 
quite 1000 fathoms deep, and it sinks to a depth of 2843 fathoms 
in the Caribbean Basin, 3428 fathoms in the Cayman Trench 
and 2080 fathoms in the Gulf of Mexico. 

The Austral-Asiatic or Malay Sea is occupied by a great shelf 
in the region west of Borneo and north of Java, while in the east 
there are eight abruptly sunk basins of widely different size. 
The China Sea on the north has a maximum depth of 2715 
fathoms off the Philippines, the Sulu Basin reaches 2550 fathoms, 
and the Celebes Basin 2795 fathoms. Some of the channels 
between the islands are of very great depth, Macassar Strait 
exceeding 1000 fathoms, the Molucca Passage exceeding 2000 
fathoms, and the Halmahera Trough sinking as deep as 2575 
fathoms. The deepest of all is the Banda Basin, a large area of 
which lies below 2500 fathoms and reaches 3557 fathoms in the 
Kei Trench. A depth of 2789 fathoms also occurs north of 
Flores. The borders of the Malay Sea are everywhere shallower 
on the side of the Indian Ocean than on that of the Pacific, and 
consequently water from the Pacific preponderates in the 
depths. 

The Mediterranean Sea, the best-known member of the inter- 
continental class, is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a 
ridge running from Cape Spartel to Cape Trafalgar on which 



974 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



the greatest depth is only 175 fathoms. The depth increases so 
rapidly towards the east that soundings exceeding 500 fathoms 
occur off Gibraltar. The Balearic Basin, between Spain and the 
rise bearing Corsica and Sardinia, has a maximum depth of 
1742 fathoms, and the Tyrrhenian Basin between that rise, 
Italy and Sicily deepens to 2040 fathoms. The larger Eastern 
Mediterranean Basin stretches eastward from Sicily with large 
tracts more than 2000 fathoms below the surface, and the greatest 
depth ascertained during the detailed researches of the Austrian 
expedition on board the " Pola " was 2046 fathoms in 35 44-8' 
N., 21 46'8' E. The Adriatic Sea though very shallow in the 
north deepens southward to about 900 fathoms, and the Aegean 
Sea has a maximum depth of 1 230 fathoms north of Crete. The 
Black Sea, connected with the Mediterranean by long and narrow 
channels, is occupied in the north by an extensive shelf on which 

Mean Depths of Oceans and Seas. 



Name. 


Depth. 
Fathoms. 


Area. 


Volume. 


sq. km. 


sq. St. m. 


cb. km. 


cb. St. m. 


Atlantic Ocean .... 
Indian Ocean . . ... 
Pacific Ocean .... 


2110 

2148 
2240 


81,657,800 
73,441,960 
165-715.490 


3 I -529.390 
28,357,150 
63-983,370 


314,821,680 
288,527,610 
678,837,100 


75.533,900 
69,225,200 
162,870,600 


I. Oceans 


2186 


320,815,250 


123,871,910 


1,282,186,480 


307,629,700 


Arctic Sea 
Malay Sea 
Central American Sea 
Mediterranean Sea . 


640 
595 
"43 
782 


14-352,34 
8,125,060 
4-584-570 
2,967,570 


5-541-630 
3-I37-2IO 
1,770,170 
1,145,830 


16,794,140 
8,848,110 
9,579,490 
4,249,020 


4,029,400 
2,122,900 
2,298,400 
1,019,400 


Intracontinental Seas 


718 , 


30,029,540 


11,595,840 


39,470,760 


9,470,100 


Baltic Sea 
Hudson Bay .... 
Red Sea 
Persian Gulf .... 


3 
70 
267 
H 


406,720 
1,222,610 
458,480 
232,850 


157,040 
472,070 
177,030 
89,910 


22,360 
156,690 
223,810 
5,9io 


5,360 
37.590 
53-700 
1,420 


Smaller Enclosed Seas 


96 


2,320,660 


896,050 


408,770 


98,070 


II. Enclosed Seas 


674 


32,350,200 


12,490,890 


39,879,530 


9,568,170 


Bering Sea . . . . 
Okhotsk Sea 
Japan Sea . . . . 
East China Sea . . . 
Andaman Sea . 
Californian Gulf 
North Sea . . 
Irish Sea . . . 
Laurentian Sea . 
Bass Sea 


700 
694 
837 
97 
426 
540 
51 
34 
70 

39 


2,274,800 
1,507,610 
1,043,820 
1,242,480 
790,550 
166,790 
57i,9io 
213,380 
219,300 
83,170 


878,340 
582,110 
403,040 
479,740 
305,240 
64,400 
220,820 
82,390 
84,670 
32,110 


3,286,230 
1,895,100 
1,597,040 
219,820 
615,910 
164,590 
53-730 
13,320 
28,100 
6,020 


788,500 
454,700 
383,200 
52,700 
H7.770 
39,490 
12,890 
3,200 
6,740 
1,440 


III. Fringing Seas 


531 


8,113,810 


3,132,860 


7,879,860 


1,890,630 


Seas (Enclosed and Fringing) . 


645 


40,464,010 


15,623,750 


47,759,390 


1 1 ,458,800 


Hydrosphere . . . . 


2013 


361,279,160 


139,495,660 


1.329.945.870 


319,087,500 



lies the extremely shallow Gulf of Azov; but the greater part of 
the sea consists of a deep basin, the central part of which is an 
almost flat expanse at a uniform depth of 1220 fathoms. 

The smaller enclosed seas are for the most part very shallow. 
The Persian Gulf nowhere exceeds 50 fathoms, the southern 
part of Hudson Bay does not exceed 100 fathoms except at one 
spot, though in the less-known fjords of the northern part depths 
up to 200 fathoms have been reported. The Baltic Sea exceeds 
50 fathoms in few places except the broad central portion, though 
small caldron-like depressions here and there may sink below 
200 fathoms. The Red Sea on the other hand, though shut off 
from the Indian Ocean by shallows of the Strait of Bab-el- 
Mandeb with little more than 100 fathoms, sinks to a very 
considerable . depth in its central trough, which reaches 1209 
fathoms in 20 N. 

The fringing seas as a rule show little variety of submarine 
relief. The Bass Sea (Bass Strait), Irish Sea and North Sea lie 
on the continental shelf. In the North Sea the depth of 100 
fathoms is only exceeded to any extent in the Norwegian gully, 
which has a maximum depth of 383 fathoms in the Skagerrack. 



Most of the other seas of this class are formed on a common plan. 
Towards the continent there is a broad shelf, and just before the 
chain of islands separating them from the ocean runs a narrow 
and deep trough. In the Bering Sea the trough north of Buldir 
in the Aleutian Islands sinks to 2237 fathoms, and in the Sea of 
Okhotsk, north-west of the Kuriles, to 1859 fathoms. Similar 
conditions prevail in the East China Sea and the Andaman Sea. 
The Sea of Japan has a wide shelf only in the north, the central 
part forms a broad basin with depths of 1650 fathoms. The 
Laurentian Sea (Gulf of St Lawrence) has a narrow branching 
gully running between wide shelves, in which a depth of 312 
fathoms is found south of Anticosti. 

The area, general depth and total volume of the oceans and 
principal seas have been recalculated by Krummel, and the 
accompanying table presents these figures. 

Oceanic Deposits. It has 
long been known that the 
deposits which carpet the 
floor of the ocean differ in 
different places, and coast- 
ing sailors have been accus- 
tomed from time immemorial 
to use the lead not only to 
ascertain the depth of the 
water but also to obtain 
samples of the bottom, the 
appearance of which is often 
characteristic of the locality. 
In depths down to 100 
fathoms the old-fashioned 
hand-lead, hollow below and 
" armed " with tallow, suffices 
to bring up a sample large 
enough to be recognizable. 
Captain Phipps in 1773 
secured samples of soft blue 
clay in this manner from a 
depth of 683 fathoms, but 
as a rule when sounding in 
great depths the sample is 
washed off the tallow before 
it can be brought on board. 
Various devices have con- 
sequently been attached to 
leads intended to catch and 
hold the material when soft 
enough to be penetrated. 
One of the most effective 
early forms was the snapper 
or " deep-sea clamm " of 
Sir John Ross, a pair of 
powerful spring jaws held 
apart by an arrangement which when released on striking the 
bottom allowed the jaws to close, biting out and holding securely 
a substantial portion of the ground. A simpler form of collector, 
now almost universally used, is a plain brass tube which is driven 
into the bottom of the sea by the weight of the sounding lead, 
and in which the deposit may be retained by a valve or other 
contrivance, though in many cases friction alone suffices to hold 
the punched-out core. Larger quantities of deposit may be 
conveniently collected by means of the dredge, which can be 
worked in any depth and brings up large stones, concretionary 
nodules or fossils, of the existence of which a sounding-tube 
could give no indication. 

The voyage of the " Challenger " supplied for the first time 
the nucleus of a collection of deep-sea deposits sufficient to serve 
as the basis for comprehensive classification and mapping. 
The " Challenger " collections supplemented by those of other 
expeditions and of many telegraph and surveying-ships were 
studied in detail by Sir John Murray and Professor A. Renard, 
whose monograph, 1 published in 1891, laid the foundations and 
1 " Challenger " Reports, " Deep Sea Deposits." 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



975 



reared the greater part of the structure of our present knowledge 
on the subject. The classification adopted was a double one, 
taking account both of the origin and of the distribution in depth 
of the various deposits, thus: 



I. DEEP SEA DEPOSITS 
(beyond 100 fathoms) 



II. SHALLOW 
DEPOSITS 



WATER"! 

(in less > 



1. Red Clay. 

2. Radiolarian Ooze 

3. Diatom Ooze 

4. Globigerina Ooze 

5. Fteropod Ooze 

6. Blue Mud 

7. Red Mud 

8. Green Mud 

9. Volcanic Mud 
jo. Coral Mud 

Sands, gravels, muds, &c. 



Sands, gravels, muds, &c. 



A. PELAGIC DEPOSITS 
(formed in deep water 
remote from land) 



B. TERRIGENOUS DE- 
POSITS (formed in 
deep or shallow water 
close to land) 



than 100 fathoms) J 

III. LITTORAL DEPOSITS] 
(between high and >- 
low-water marks) J 

Kriimmel prefers to simplify this by grouping the deposits in 
a single category arranged according to their position into: 

(a) Littoral (including Murray and Renard's littoral and shallow 
water deposits [II. and III.]). 

(ft) Hemipelagic (including Nos. 6-10 of Deep Sea Deposits). 
(y) Eupelagic (including Nos. 1-5 of Deep Sea Deposits). 

As so denned the hemipelagic deposits are those which occur 
in general on the slope from the continental shelves to the ocean 
depths and also in the deep basins of enclosed and fringing seas. 
The eupelagic deposits are subdivided by Krummel into two 
main groups; (a) epilophic, 1 including the pteropod, globigerina 
and diatom oozes occurring on the rises and ridges and in the 
less deep troughs, (b) Abyssal, including the radiolarian ooze 
and red clay of the deepest abysses. 

The littoral deposits include those of the actual shore on the 
wash of the waves and of the surface of the continental shelf. 

Shore Deposits are the product of the waste of the land arranged 
and bedded by the action of currents or tidal streams. On the 
rocky coast of high latitudes blocks of stone detached by frost 
fall on the beach and becoming embedded in ice during winter 
are often drifted out to sea and so carry the shore deposits to 
some distance from the land. Similar effects are produced along 
the boulder-clay cliffs of the Baltic. Where the force of the waves 
on the beach produces its full effect the coarser material gets 
worn down to gravel, sand and silt, the finest particles remaining 
long suspended in the water to be finally deposited as mud in 
quiet bays. A particularly fine-grained mud is formed on the 
low coasts of the eastern border of the North Sea by a mixture of 
the finest sediment carried down by the slow-running rivers 
with the calcareous or siliceous remains of plankton. Pure 
calcareous sand and calcareous mud are formed by wave action 
on the shores of coral islands where the only material available 
is coral and the accompanying calcareous algae, Crustacea, 
molluscs and other organisms secreting carbonate of lime. 
Recent limestones are being produced in this way and also in 
some places by the precipitation of calcium carbonate by sodium 
or ammonium carbonate which has been carried into the sea 
or formed by organisms. The precipitated carbonate may 
agglomerate on mineral or organic grains which serve as nuclei, 
or it may form a sheet of hard deposit on the bottom as occurs 
in the Red Sea, off Florida, and round many coral islands in 
the Pacific. Only the sand and the finest-grained sediments 
of the shore zone are carried outwards over the continental 
shelf by the tides or by the reaction-currents along the bottom 
set up by on-shore winds. The very finest sediment is kept in 
a state of movement until it drops into the galleys or furrows 
of the shelf, where it can come to rest together with the finer 
fragments of the remains of littoral or bank vegetation. Thus 
are formed the " mud-holes " of the Hudson Furrow so welcome 
as guides telling their position to ship captains making New 
York harbour in a fog. Sand may be taken as the predominating 
deposit on the continental shelves, often with a large admixture 
of remains of calcareous organisms, for instance the deposits 
of maerl made up of nullipores off the coasts of Brittany and 
near Belle Isle. Amongst the most widely distributed of the 

the threshold. 



deposits actually formed on the continental shelf are phosphatic 
nodules; these are especially abundant on the east coast of the 
United States and on the Agulhas Bank, where the amount of 
calcium phosphate in the nodules is as much as 50%. Sir John 
Murray finds the source of the phosphoric acid to be the decom- 
position of large quantities of animal matter, and he illustrates 
this by the well-known circumstance of the death of vast shoals 
of fish when warm Gulf-Stream water displaces the cold current 
which usually extends to the American coast. Glacial detritus 
naturally plays a great part in the deposits on the polar 
continental shelves. 

Hemipelagic deposits are a mixture of deposits of terrigenous 
and pelagic origin. The most abundant of the terrigenous 
materials are the finest particles of clay and calcium carbonate 
as well as fragments derived from land vegetation, of which 
twigs, leaves, &c., may form a perceptible proportion as far as 
200 m. from land. Blue mud, according to Murray and Renard, 
is usually of a blue or slaty or grey-green colour when fresh, 
the upper surface having, however, a reddish tint. The blue 
colouring substance is ferrous sulphide, the upper reddish layer 
contains more ferric oxide, which the predominance of decom- 
posing organic matter in the substance of the mud reduces to 
ferrous oxide and subsequently by further action to sulphide. 
The proportion of calcium carbonate varies greatly according 
to the amount of foraminifera and other calcareous organisms 
which it contains. Blue mud prevails in large areas of the 
Pacific Ocean from the Galapagos Islands to Acapulco. In the 
Indian Ocean it covers the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Gulf, 
the Mozambique Channel and the region to the south-west of 
Madagascar. In the Atlantic it is the characteristic deposit 
of the slopes of continental shelves of western Europe and of 
New England, being largely mixed with ice-borne material to 
the south of Newfoundland. It is particularly in evidence round 
the whole of the Antarctic Shelf, where it occurs down to depths 
of 2500 fathoms. It is the chief deposit, according to Nansen, 
of the North Polar Basin and, according to Schmelck and 
Boggild, of the Norwegian Sea also, where it is largely mixed 
with the shells of the bottom-living foraminifer Biloculina. 
Max Weber states that blue mud occurs in the deep basins of 
the eastern part of the Malay Sea. In the form of volcanic 
mud it is common round the high volcanic islands of the South- 
western Pacific. 

Red mud may be classed as a variety of blue mud, from which 
it differs on account of the larger proportion of ochreous sub- 
stance and the absence of sufficient organic matter to reduce 
the whole of the ferric oxide. This variety surrounds the 
tropical parts of the continental shelves of South America, 
South Africa and eastern China. 

Green mud differs to a greater extent from the blue mud, and 
owes its characteristic nature and colour to the presence of 
glauconite, which is formed inside the cases of foraminifera, 
the spines of echini and the spicules of sponges in a manner not 
yet understood. It occurs in such abundance in certain geological 
formations as to give rise to the name of green-sand. Green mud 
abounds off the east coast of North America seawards of Cape 
Hatteras, also to the north of Cuba, and on the west off the coast 
of California. The " Challenger " expedition found it on the 
Agulhas Bank, on the eastern coasts of Australia, Japan, South 
America and on the west coast of Portugal. When the pro- 
portion of calcium carbonate in the blue mud is considerable 
there results a calcareous ooze, which when found on the con- 
tinental slope and in enclosed seas is largely composed of remains 
of deep-sea corals and bottom-living foraminifera, pelagic 
organisms including pteropods being less frequently represented. 
The floors of the Caribbean, Cayman and Mexican Basins in 
the Central American Sea are covered with a white calcareous 
ooze, which is clearly distinguished from the eupelagic pteropod 
and globigerina oozes by the presence of abundant large mineral 
particles and the remains of land plants. In this deposit the 
occurrence of calcareous concretions is very characteristic, as 
L. F. de Pourtales pointed out in 1870; they consist of remains 
of deep-sea corals, serpulae, echinoderms and mollusca united 



976 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



by a calcareous cement. Similar formations are found in the 
Mediterranean, where a dark mud predominates in the western 
part, passing into a grey, marly slime in the Tyrrhenian Basin 
and replaced by a typical calcareous ooze in the Eastern Basin. 
The bottom of the Black Sea is covered by a stiff blue mud in 
which Sir John Murray found much sulphide of iron, 1 grains 
or needles of pyrites making up nearly 50% of the deposit, 
and there are also grains of amorphous calcium carbonate 
evidently precipitated from the water. The formation of the 
blue mud is largely aided by the putrefaction of organic matter, 
and as a result the water deeper than 120 fathoms is extra- 
ordinarily deficient in dissolved oxygen and abounds in sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, the formation of which is brought about 
by a special bacterium, the only form of life found at depths 
greater than 120 fathoms in the Black Sea. 

In the Red Sea the " Pola " expedition discovered a calcareous 
ooze similar to that of the Mediterranean, and the formation 
of a stony crust by precipitation of calcium and magnesium 
carbonates may be recognized as giving origin to a recent 
dolomite. 

The terrigenous ingredients in the deposits become less and 
less abundant as one goes farther into the deep ocean and away 
from the continental margins. Still, according to Murray and 
Irvine, finely divided colloidal clay is to be found in all parts 
of the ocean however remote from land, though in very small 
amount, and there is less in tropical than in cooler waters. A 
minute fraction is always separating out of the water, and as a 
prodigious length of time may be accepted for the accomplish- 
ment of all the chemical and physical processes in the deep sea, 
we must take account of the gradual accumulation of even this 
infinitesimal precipitation. As well as the finest of terrigenous 
clay there is present in sea-water far from land a different clay 
derived from the decomposition of volcanic material. Volcanic 
dust thrown into the air settles out slowly, and some of the 
products of submarine and littoral volcanoes, like pumice-stone, 
possess a remarkable power of floating and may drift into any 
part of the ocean before they become waterlogged and sink. 
To this inconceivably slowly-growing deposit of inorganic 
material over the ocean floor there is added an overwhelmingly 
more rapid contribution of the remains of calcareous and 
siliceous planktonic and benthonic organisms, which tend to 
bury the slower accumulating material under a blanket of 
globigerina, pteropod, diatom or radiolarian ooze. When those 
deposits of organic origin are wanting or have been removed, 
the red clay composed of the mineral constituents is found alone. 
It is a remarkable geographical fact that on the rises and in the 
basins of moderate depth of the open ocean the organic oozes 
preponderate, but in the abysmal depressions below 2500 or 
3000 fathoms, whether these lie in the middle or near the edges 
of the great ocean spaces, there is found only the red clay, with 
a minimum of calcium carbonate, though sometimes with a 
considerable admixture of the siliceous remains of radiolarians. 
Thus red clay and radiolarian ooze are distinguished as abyssal 
deposits in contradistinction to the epilophic calcareous oozes. 

Globigerina ooze was recognized as an important deposit as 
soon as the first successful deep-sea soundings had been made 
in the Atlantic. It was described simultaneously in 1853 by 
Bailey of West Point and Ehrenberg in Berlin. Murray and 
Renard define globigerina ooze as containing at least 30% 
of calcium carbonate, in which the remains of pelagic (not 
benthonic) foraminifera predominate and in which remains of 
pelagic mollusca such as pteropods and heteropods, ostracodes 
and also coccoliths (minute calcareous algae) may also occur. 
Not more than 25% of the deposit may consist of bottom- 
dwelling foraminifera, echini or worm-tubes, and as a rule these 
make up only from 9 to 10%. These peculiarities, combined 
with the striking absence of mineral constituents, distinguish 
the eupelagic globigerina ooze from the hemipelagic calcareous 
mud. Out of 118 samples of globigerina ooze obtained by the 
"Challenger" expedition 84 came from depths of 1500 to 
2500 fathoms, 13 from depths of 1000 to 1500 and only 16 from 
Scot. Ceog. Mag., vol. 16 (1900), p. 695. 



depths greater than 2500 fathoms. Viewed as a whole this 
deposit may be taken as a partial precipitation of the plankton 
living in the upper waters of the open sea. A small proportion 
of organic matter including the fat globules of the plankton 
is mixed with the calcium carbonate, the amount according 
to Giimbel's analysis being about i part in 1000. Secondary 
products, such as glauconite, phosphatic concretions and man- 
ganese nodules, occur though less frequently than in the hemi- 
pelagic sediments. Globigerina ooze is the characteristic deposit 
of the Atlantic Ocean, where it covers not less than 44,000,000 
sq. km. (17,000,000 sq. statute m.). In the Indian Ocean the 
area covered is 31,000,000 sq. km. (12,000,000 sq. m.) and in 
the huge Pacific Ocean only 30,000,000 sq. km. (11,500,000 
sq. m.). 

Pteropod ooze is merely a local variety of globigerina ooze 
in which the comparatively large but very delicate spindle- 
shaped shells of pteropods happen to abound. These shells 
do not retain their individuality at depths greater than 1400 
or 1500 fathoms, and in fact pteropod ooze is only found in 
small patches on the ridges near the Azores, Antilles, Canaries, 
Sokotra, Nicobar, Fiji and the Paumotu islands, and on the 
central rise of the South Atlantic between Ascension and Tristan 
d'Acunha. 

Diatom ooze was recognized by Sir John Murray as the 
characteristic deposit in high latitudes in the Indian Ocean, 
and later it was found to be characteristic also of the correspond- 
ing parts of the Indian and Pacific covering a total area of about 
22,000,000 sq. km. (8,500,000 sq. m.). It has been found spor- 
adically near the Aleutian Islands, between the Philippines and 
Marianne Islands and to the south of the Galapagos group. 
It is made up to a large extent of the siliceous frustules of diatoms. 
It is usually yellowish-grey and often straw-coloured when wet, 
though when dried it becomes white and mealy. 

Red day was discovered and named by Sir Wyville Thomson 
on the " Challenger " in 1873 when sounding in depths of 2700 
fathoms on the way from the Canary Islands to St Thomas. 
The reddish colour comes from the presence of oxides of iron, 
and particles of manganese also occur in it, especially in the 
Pacific region, where the colour is more that of chocolate; but 
when it is mixed with globigerina ooze it is grey. Red clay is 
the deposit peculiar to the abysmal area; 70 carefully investi- 
gated samples collected by the " Challenger " came from an 
average depth of 2730 fathoms, 97 specimens collected b/ 
the " Tuscarora " came from an average depth of 2860 fathoms, 
and 26 samples obtained by the " Albatross " in the Central 
Pacific came from an average depth of 2620 fathoms. Red 
clay has not yet been found in depths less than 2200 fathoms. 
The main ingredient of the deposit is a stiff clay which is plastic 
when fresh, but dries to a stony hardness. Isolated gritty 
fragments of minerals may be felt in the generally fine-grained 
homogeneous mass. The dredge often brings up large numbers 
of nodules formed upon sharks' teeth, the ear-bones of whales 
or turtles or small fragments of pumice or other volcanic ejecta, 
and all more or less incrusted with manganese oxide until the 
nodules vary in size from that of a potato to that of a man's 
head. A very interesting feature is the small proportion of 
calcium carbonate, the amount present being usually less as the 
depth is greater; red clay from depths exceeding 3000 fathoms 
does not contain so much as i % of calcareous matter. 

Murray and Renard recognize the progressive diminution of 
carbonate of lime with increase of depth as a characteristic of 
all eupelagic deposits. The whole collection of 231 specimens 
of deep-sea deposits brought back by the " Challenger " shows 
the following general relationship: 

Proportion of Calcium Carbonate in Deep-Sea Deposits. 

68 samples from less than 2000 fathoms = 60-80 % 

68 ,, 2000-2500 46-7 % 

65 2500-3000 17-4 % 

8 ,, more than 3000 0-9 % 

In deep water there is a regular process of solution of the 
calcareous shells falling from the surface. Murray and Renard 
ascribe this to the greater abundance of carbonic acid in the 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



977 



deeper water, which aided by the increased pressure adds to 
the solvent power of the water for carbonate of lime. It is, 
however, a curious question how, considering the increase of 
carbonic acid by the decomposition of organic bodies and 
possible submarine exhalations of volcanic origin, the water 
has not in some places become saturated and a precipitate of 
amorphous calcium carbonate formed in the deepest water. 
The whole subject still requires investigation. 

Amongst the foreign material found embedded in the red 
clay are globules of meteoric iron, which are sometimes very 
abundant. Derived products in the form of crystals of phillipsite 
are not uncommon, but the most abundant of all are the in- 
crustations of manganese oxide, as to the origin of which Murray 
and Renard are not fully clear. The manganese nodules afford 
the most ample proof of the prodigious period of time which 
has elapsed since the formation of the red clay began; the 
sharks' teeth and whales' ear-bones which serve as nuclei belong 
in some cases to extinct species or even to forms derived from 
those familiar in the fossils from the seas of the Tertiary period. 
This fact, together with the extraordinarily rare occurrence 
of such remains and meteoric particles in globigerina ooze, 
although there is no reason to suppose that at any one time 
they are unequally distributed over the ocean floor, can only 
be explained on the assumption that the rate of formation of 
the epilophic deposits through the accumulation of pelagic 
shells falling from the surface is rapid enough to bury the slow- 
gathering material which remains uncovered on the spaces where 
the red clay is forming at an almost infinitely slower rate. Sir 
John Murray believes that no more than a few feet of red clay 
have accumulated in the deepest depressions since the close 
of the Tertiary period. The red clay is the characteristic deposit 
of the Pacific Ocean, where about 101 ,000,000 sq. km. (39,000,000 
sq. m.) are covered with it, while only 15,000,000 sq. km. 
(5,800,000 sq. m.) of the Indian Ocean and 14,000,000 sq. km. 
(5,400,000 sq. m.) of the Atlantic are occupied by this deposit; 
it is indeed the dominant submarine deposit of the water- 
hemisphere just as globigerina ooze is the dominant submarine 
deposit of the land-hemisphere. 

Radiolarian ooze was recognized as a distinct deposit and 
named by Sir John Murray on the " Challenger " expedition, 
but it may be viewed as red clay with an exceptionally large 
proportion of siliceous organic remains, especially those of the 
radiolarians which form part of the pelagic plankton. It does 
not occur in the Atlantic Ocean at all, and in the Indian Ocean 
it is only known round Cocos and Christmas Islands; but 
it is abundant in the Pacific, where it covers a large area between 
5 and 15 N., westward from the coast of Central America 
to 165 W., and it is also found in patches north of the Samoa 
Islands, in the Marianne Trench and west of the Galapagos 
Islands. 

The total areas occupied by the various deposits according 
to the latest measurements of Krummel are as follows: 

Area of Submarine Deposits. 



Deposit. 


Sq. km. 


Sq. st. m. 


o/ 
/o- 


I. Littoral deposits 


33,000,000 


12,700,000 


9-1 


II. Hemipelagic . . . 


55,700,000 


21,500,000 


15-4 


III. Eupelagic . . . 


272,700,000 


105,300,000 


75-5 


I. Globigerina ooze . 
2. Pteropod ooze . 


105,600,000 
i ,400,000 


40,800,000 
500,000 


(29-2} 
(0-4) 


3. Diatom ooze 


23,200,000 


8,900,000 


(6-4) 


4. Red clay . . . 
5- Radiolarian ooze 


130,300,000 

12,200,000 


50,300,000 
4,700,000 


(36-1) 
(3-4) 



Geologists are agreed that littoral and hemipelagic deposits 
similar to those now forming are to be found in all geological 
systems, but the existence in the rocks of eupelagic deposits 
and especially of the abysmal red clay, though viewed by some 
as probable, is totally denied by others. There is even some 
hesitation in accepting the continuity of the chalk with the globi- 
gerina ooze of the modern ocean. From the obvious rarity of 
true abysmal rocks in the continental area Sir John Murray 
deduces the permanence of the oceans, which he holds have 



always remained upon those portions of the earth's crust which 
they occupy now, and both J. Dana and Louis Agassiz had 
already arrived at the same conclusion. This theory accords 
well with the enormous lapse of time required in the accumulation 
of the red clay. 

Salts of Sea-water. Sea-water differs from fresh water by- 
its salt and bitter taste and by its unsuitability for the purposes 
of washing and cooking. The process of natural evaporation 
in the salines or salt gardens of the margin of warm seas made 
the composition of sea-salt familiar at a very early time, and 
common salt, Epsom salts, gypsum and magnesium chloride 
were recognized amongst its constituents. The analyses of 
modern chemists have now revealed the existence of 3 2 out of 
the 80 known elements as existing dissolved in sea-water, and 
it is scarcely too much to say that the remaining elements also 
exist in minute traces which the available methods of analysis 
as yet fail to disclose. Many of the elements such as copper, 
lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt and manganese have only been found 
in the substance of sea-weeds and corals. Silver and gold also 
exist in solution in sea-water. Malaguti and Durocher l 
estimate the silver in sea-water as i part in 100,000,000 or i 
grain in 1430 gallons. If this estimate is correct there exists 
dissolved in the ocean a quantity of silverequal to 13,300 million 
metric tons, that is to say 46,700 times as much silver as has been 
produced from all the mines in the world from the discovery 
of America down to 1902. No quantitative detennination of 
the amount of gold in solution is available. E. Sonnstadt 2 
detected gold by means of a colour test and roughly estimated 
the amount as i grain per ton of sea-water, and on this estimate 
all the projects for extracting gold from sea-water have been 
based. 

The elements in addition to oxygen which exist in largest 
amount in sea salt are chlorine, bromine, sulphur, potassium, 
sodium, calcium and magnesium. Since the earliest quzntitative 
analyses of sea-water were made by Lavoisier in 1772, Bergman 
in 1774, Vogel in 1813 and Marcet in 1819 the view has been held 
that the salts are present in sea-water in the form in which they 
are deposited when the water is evaporated. The most numerous 
analyses have been carried out by Forchhammer, who dealt 
with 150 samples, and Dittmar, who made complete analyses 
of 7 7 samples obtained on the " Challenger " expedition. Dittmar 
showed that the average proportion of the salts in ocean water 
of 35 parts salts per thousand was as follows (calculated as parts 
per thousand of the sea-water, as percentage of the total salts 
and per hundred molecules of magnesium bromide) : 

The Salts in Ocean Water. 





Per 1000 
Parts Water. 


Per cent. 
Total Salts. 


Per 100 
Molecules 
MgBr,. 


Common salt, sodium 








chloride (NaCl) . . 


27-213 


77-758 


"2,793 


Magnesium chloride 








(MgCU) . . 


3-807 


10-878 


9.690 


Magnesium sulphate 
(MgSO,). . . . 


1-658 


4-737 


3.338 


Gypsum, calcium sul- 








phate (CaSO 4 ) . . 


1-260 


3-600 


2.239 


Potassium sulphate 








(K,S0 4 ) .... 


0-863 


2-465 


1,200 


Calcium carbonate 








(CaCOi) and residue 


0-123 


0-345 


298 


Magnesium bromide 








(MgBr s ) . . , , 


0-076 


0-217 


JOO 




35-000 


IOO-OOO 





As Marcet had foreshadowed from the analysis of 14 samples 
in 1819, the larger series of exact analyses proved that the varia- 
tions in the proportion of individual salts to the total salts 
are very small, and all analyses since Dittmar's have confirmed 
this result. Although the salts have been grouped in the above 

1 Camples rendus, Acad. Sciences (Paris, 1859), 49, 463, 536. 
1 Chemical News (1870), vol. 22, pp. 25, 44; (1872) vol. 26, 
P- 159- 



978 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



table it is not to be supposed that a dilute solution like sea-water 
contains all the ingredients thus arbitrarily combined. There 
must be considerable dissociation of molecules, and as a first 
approximation it may be taken that of 10 molecules of most of 
the components about 9 (or in the case of magnesium sulphate 5) 
have been separated into their ions, and that it is only during 
slow concentration as in a natural saline that the ions combine 
to produce the various salts in the proportions set out in the above 
table. One can look on sea-water as a mixture of very dilute 
solutions of particular salts, each one of which after the lapse 
of sufficient time fills the whole space as if the other constituents 
did not exist, and this interdiffusion accounts easily for the 
uniformity of composition in the sea-water throughout the 
whole ocean, the only appreciable difference from point to point 
being the salinity or degree of concentration of the mixed 
solutions. 

The origin of the salt of the sea is attributed by some modern 
authorities entirely to the washing out of salts from the land by 
rain and rivers and the gradual concentration by evaporation 
in the oceans, and some (e.g. J. Joly) go so far as to base a calcula- 
tion of the age of the earth on the assumption that the ocean 
was originally filled with fresh water. This hypothesis, however, 
does not accord with the theory of the development of the earth 
from the state of a sphere of molten rock surrounded by an 
atmosphere of gaseous metals by which the first-formed clouds 
of aqueous vapour must have been absorbed. The great similarity 
between the salts of the ocean and the gaseous products of 
volcanic eruptions at the present time, rich in chlorides and 
sulphates of all kinds, is a strong argument for the ocean having 
been salt from the beginning. Two other facts are totally opposed 
to the origin of all the salinity of the oceans from the concentra- 
tion of the washings of the land. The proportions of the salts 
of river and sea-water are quite different, as Julius Roth shows 
thus: 





Carbonates. 


Sulphates. 


Chlorides. 


River water 


80 


13 


7 


Sea water .... 


O-2 


10 


89 



The salts of salt lakes which have been formed in the areas 
of internal drainage in the hearts of the continents by the 
evaporation of river water are entirely different in composition 
from those of the sea, as the existence of the numerous natron 
and bitter lakes shows. Magnesium sulphate amounts to 4-7% 
of the total salts of sea-water according to Dittmar, but to 23-6 % 
of the salts of the Caspian according to Lebedinzeff; in the 
ocean magnesium chloride amounts to 10-9% of the total salts, 
in the Caspian only to 4-5%; on the other hand calcium 
sulphate in the ocean amounts to 3-6%, in the Caspian to 6-9%. 
This disparity makes it extremely difficult to view ocean water 
as merely a watery extract of the salts existing in the rocks 
of the land. 

The determination of salinity was formerly carried out by 
evaporating a weighed quantity of sea-water to dryness and 
weighing the residue. Forchhammer, however, pointed out that 
this method gave inexact and variable results, as in the act 
of evaporating to dryness hydrochloric acid is given off as the 
temperature is raised to expel the last of the water, and Tornoe 
found that carbonic acid was also liberated and that the loss 
of both acids was very variable. Tornoe vainly attempted to 
apply a correction for this loss by calculation; and subsequently 
S. P. L. Sorensen and Martin Knudsen after a careful investiga- 
tion decided to abandon the old definition of salinity as the 
sum of all the dissolved solids in sea-water and to substitute for 
it the weight of the dissolved soh'ds in 1000 parts by weight 
of, sea-water on the assumption that all the bromine is replaced 
by its equivalent of chlorine, all the carbonate converted into 
oxide and the organic matter burnt. The advantage of the new 
definition lies in the fact that the estimation of the chlorine (or 
rather of the total halogen expressed as chlorine) is sufficient 



to determine the salinity by a very simple operation. According 
to Knudsen the salinity is given in weight per thousand parts 
by the expression 8 = 0-030+ 1-8050 Cl where S is the salinity 
and Cl the amount of total halogen in a sample. Such a simple 
formula is only possible because the salts of sea-water are of 
such uniform composition throughout the whole ocean that the 
chlorine bears a constant ratio to the total salinity as newly 
defined whatever the degree of concentration. This definition 
was adopted by the International Council for the Study of the 
Sea in 1902, and it has since been very widely accepted. 

Besides the determination of salinity by titration of the 
chlorides, the method of determination by the specific gravity 
of the sea-water is still often used. In the laboratory the specific 
gravity is determined in a pyknometer by actual weighing, 
and on board ship by the use of an areometer or hydrometer. 
Three types of areometer are in use: (i) the ordinary hydrometer 
of invariable weight with a direct reading scale, a set of from 
five to ten being necessary to cover the range of specific gravity 
from i -ooo to 1-031 so as to take account of sea- water of all 
possible salinities; (2) the " Challenger " type of areometer 
designed by J. Y. Buchanan, which has an arbitrary scale and 
can be varied in weight by placing small metal rings on the stem 
so as to depress the scale to any desired depth in sea-water of 
any salinity, the specific gravity being calculated for each reading 
by dividing the total weight by the immersed volume; (3) the 
total immersion areometer, which has no scale and the weight 
of which can be adjusted so that the instrument can be brought 
so exactly to the specific gravity of the water sample that it 
remains immersed, neither floating nor sinking; this has the 
advantage of eliminating the effects of surface tension and in 
Fridtjof Nansen's pattern is capable of great precision. 

In all areometer work it is necessary to ascertain the tempera- 
ture of the water sample under examination with great exactness, 
as the volume of the areometer as well as the specific gravity of 
the water varies with temperature. All determinations must 
accordingly be reduced to a standard temperature for comparison. 
Following the practice of J. Y. Buchanan on the " Challenger " 
it has been usual for British investigators to calculate specific 
gravities for sea-water at 60 F. compared with pure water at 
the maximum density point (39-2) as unity. On the continent 
of Europe it has been more usual to take both at 17-5 C. (63-5 
F.), which is expressed as " S^.'f ", but for pyknometer work 
in all countries where the sample is cooled to 32 F. before 
weighing and pure water at 39-2 taken as unity the expression 
is (o/4). On the authority of the first meeting of the Inter- 
national Conference for the Study of the Northern European 
Seas at Stockholm in 1899 Martin Knudsen, assisted by Karl 
Forch and S. P. L. Sorensen, carried out a careful investigation 
of the relation between the amount of chlorine, the total salinity 
and the specific gravity of sea-water of different strengths 
including an entirely new determination of the thermal expansion 
of sea-water. The results are published in his Hydrographical 
Tables in a convenient form for use. 

The relations between the various conditions are set forth in 
the following equations where ao signifies the specific gravity of the 
sea-water in question at o C., the standard at 4 being taken as 
1000, S the salinity and Cl the chlorine, both expressed in parts by 
weight per mille. 

(1) n = -0-093 +0-8149 8-0-000482 S 2 +o-ooooo68 S' 

(2) <TO= -0-069 + 1-4708 Cl-o-00157 Cl 2 +o-oooo398 Cl' 

(3) S = 0-030 + 1-8050 Cl. 

The temperature of maximum density of sea-water of any specific 
gravity was found by Knudsen to be given with sufficient accuracy 
for all practical purposes by the formula = 3-95-0-266^0, where 
is the temperature of maximum density in degrees centigrade. 
The temperature of maximum density is lower as the concentration 
of the sea-water is greater, as is shown in the following table : 

Maximum Density Point of Sea-Water of Different Salinities. 



Salinity per mile . 


o 


10 


20 


3 


35 


40 


Temperature C . 


3-95 


i'86 


-0-31 


- *'47 


- 3'5 


- 4'54' 


Density OQ t . . . 


o'oo 


8-18 


16-07 


34' 1 5 


28-M 


V-3* 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



979 



Further Physical Properties of Sea-water. The laws of physical 
chemistry relating to complex dilute solutions apply to sea- 
water, and hence there is a definite relation between the osmotic 
pressure, freezing-point, vapour tension and boiling-point by 
which when one of these constants is given the others can be 
calculated. 

The most easily observed is the freezing-point, and according to 
the very careful determinations of H. T. Hansen the freezing-point 
TC. varies with the degree of concentration according to the formula 

T= 0-0086 0-00^4633^0 o-oooio55<r 2 . 

According to the investigations of Svante Arrhenius the osmotic 
pressure in atmospheres may be obtained by simply multiplying the 
temp rature of freezing (T) by the factor -12-08, and it varies with 
temperature (I) according to the law which holds good for gaseous 
pressure. 

Pi = Po(i +0-003670 

and can thus be reduced to its value at o C. Sigurd Stenius has 
calculated tables of osmotic pressure for sea-water of different degrees 
of concentration. The relation of the elevation of the boiling-point 
(t) to the osmotic pressure (P) is very simply derived from the 
formula 1 = 0-02407 Fo, while the reduction of vapour pressure 
proportional to the concentration can be very easily obtained from 
the elevation of the boiling-point, or it may be obtained directly 
from tables of vapour tension. 

Physical Properties of Sea- Water. 



Salinity per mille . 


10 


20 


3 


35 


40 


Freezing-point (C.) 


-0-53 


-1-07 


-1-63 


-1-91 


-2-2O 


Osmotic pressure P 












atmospheres . 


6-4 


13-0 


19-7 


23-1 


26-6 


Elevation of boiling- 












point (C.) 


0-16 


0-31 


0-47 


0-56 


0-64 


Reduction of vapour 












pressure (mm.) . 


4-2 


8-5 


13-0 


15-2 


17-6 



The importance of the osmotic pressure of sea-water in biology 
will be easily understood from the fact that a frog placed in 
sea- water loses water by exosmosis and soon becomes 20% 
lighter than its original weight, while a true salt-water fish 
suddenly transferred to fresh water gains water by endosmosis, 
swells up and quickly succumbs. The elevation of the boiling- 
point is of little practical importance, but the reduction of 
vapour pressure means that sea-water evaporates more slowly 
than fresh water, and the more slowly the higher the salinity. 
Unfortunately no observations of evaporation from the surface 
of the open sea have been made and very few comparisons of 
the evaporation of salt and fresh water are on record. The 
fact that sea-water does evaporate more slowly than fresh water 
has been proved by the observations of Mazelle at Triest and 
of Okado in Azino (Japan). Their experiments show that in 
similar conditions the evaporation of sea-water amounts to 
from 70 to 91 % of the evaporation of fresh water, a fact of some 
importance in geophysics on account of the vast expanses of 
ocean the evaporation from which determines the rainfall and 
to a large extent the heat-transference in the atmosphere. 

The optical properties of sea-water are of immediate import- 
ance in biology, as they affect the penetration of sunlight into 
the depths. The refraction of light passing through sea-water 
is dependent on the salinity to the extent that the index of 
refraction is greater as the salinity increases. From isolated 
observations of J. Soret and E. Sarasin and longer series of 
experiments by Tornoe and Krummel this relation is shown 
to be so close that the salinity of a sample can be ascertained by 
determining the index of refraction. According to Krummel 
the following relations hold good at 18 C. for the monochro- 
matic light of the D line of the sodium spectrum in units of the 
fifth decimal place. 

Relation of Refractive Index and Salinity. 



For water of salinity (per 














mille) 





10 


20 


30 


35 


40 


Refractive index 1-33000 + 














units of 5th decimal place 


308 


502 


694 


885 


981 


1077 



The refractometer constructed by C. Pulfrich (of the firm of 
Zeiss, in Jena) has been successfully used by G. Schott and 



E. von Drygalski for the measurement of salinity at sea, and 
was found to have the same degree of accuracy as an areometer 
with the great advantage of being quite unaffected by the 
motion of the ship in a sea-way. 

The transparency of sea-water has frequently been measured 
at sea by the simple expedient of sinking white-painted disks 
and noting the depth at which they become invisible as the 
measure of the transparency of the water. For the north 
European seas disks of about 1 8 or 20 in. in diameter are sufficient 
for this purpose, but in the tropics, where the transparency is 
much greater, disks 3 ft. in diameter at least must be used or 
the angle of vision for the reflected light is too small. In shallow 
seas the transparency is always reduced in rough weather. In 
the North Sea north of the Dogger Bank, for instance, the disk 
is visible in calm weather to a depth of from 10 to 16 fathoms, 
but in rough weather only to 65 fathoms. Knipovitch occasion- 
ally observed great transparency in the cold waters of the 
Murman Sea, where he could see the disk in as much as 25 
fathoms, and a similar phenomenon has often been reported 
from Icelandic waters. The greatest transparency hitherto 
reported is in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, where 
J. Luksch found the disk visible as a rule to from 22 to 27 
fathoms, and off the Syrian coast even to 33 fathoms. In the 
open Atlantic there are great differences in transparency; 
Krummel observed a 6 ft. disk to depths of 31 and 36 fathoms 
in the Sargasso Sea, but in the cold currents of the north and 
also in the equatorial current the depth of visibility was only 
from ii to 165 fathoms. In the tropical parts of the Indian 
and the Pacific Oceans the depth of visibility increases again 
to from 20 to 27 fathoms. Some allowance should be made 
for the elevation of the sun at the time of observation. Mill 
has shown that in the North Sea off the Firth of Forth 
the average depth of visibility of a disk in the winter 
half-year was 45 fathoms and in the summer half-year 
65 fathoms, and, although the greater frequency of rough 
weather in winter might tend to obscure the effect, in- 
dividual observations made it plain that the angle of the sun 
was the main factor in increasing the depth to which the disk 
remained visible. 

There are some observations on the transparency of sea-water 
of an entirely different character. Such, for instance, were 
those of Spindler and Wrangell in the Black Sea by sinking 
an electric lamp, those of Paul Regnard by measuring the 
change of electric resistance in a selenium cell or the chemical 
action of the light on a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, by 
which he found a very rapid diminution in the intensity of 
light even in the surface layers of water. Many experiments 
have also been made by the use of photographic plates in order 
to find the greatest depth to which light penetrates. Fol and 
Sarasin detected the last traces of sunlight in the western 
Mediterranean at a depth of 254 to 260 fathoms, and Luksch 
in the eastern Mediterranean at 328 fathoms and in the Red 
Sea at 273 fathoms. The chief cause of the different depths 
to which light penetrates in sea-water is the varying turbidity 
due to the presence of mineral particles in suspension or to 
plankton. Schott gives the following as the result of measure- 
ments of transparency by means of a white disk at 23 stations 
in the open ocean, where quantitative observations of the 
plankton under i square metre of surface were made at the 
same time. 





Volume of 
Plankton. 


Depth of 
Visibility. 


Mean of 1 1 stations poor in plankton . 
Mean of 12 stations rich in plankton . 


85 cc. 
530.. 


I4i fathoms 

8J 



Any influence on transparency which may be exercised 
by the temperature or salinity of the water is quite in- 
significant. 

The colour of ocean water far from land is an almost pure 



980 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



blue, and all the variations of tint towards green are the result 
of local disturbances, the usual cause being turbidity of some 
kind, and this in the high seas is almost always due to swarms 
of plankton. The colour of sea-water as it is seen on board 
ship is most readily determined by comparison with the tints 
of Forel's xanthometer or colour scale, which consists of a series 
of glass tubes fixed like the rungs of a ladder in a frame and 
filled with a mixture of blue and yellow liquids in varying 
proportions. For this purpose the zero or pure blue is repre- 
sented by a solution of i part of copper sulphate and 9 parts 
of ammonia in 190 parts of water. The yellow solution is made 
up of i part of neutral potassium chromate in 199 parts of 
water, and to give the various degrees of the scale, i, 2, 3, 4, 
&c.,% of the yellow solution is mixed with 99, 98, 97, 96, &c.,% 
of the blue in successive tubes. Observations with the xantho- 
meter have not hitherto been numerous, but it appears that 
the purest blue (o-i on Forel's scale) is found in the Sargasso 
Sea, in the North Atlantic and in similarly situated tropical 
or subtropical regions in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The 
northern seas have an increasing tendency towards green, the 
Irminger Sea showing 5-9 Forel, while in the North Sea the- 
water is usually a pure green (10-14 Forel), the western Medi- 
terranean shows 5-9 Forel, but the eastern is as blue as the open 
ocean (0-2 Forel). A pure blue colour has been observed in 
the cold southern region, where the " Valdivia " found 0-2 Forel 
in 55 S. between 10 and 31 E., and even the water of the 
North Sea has been observed at times to be intensely blue. 
The blue of the sea-water as observed by the Forel scale has 
of course nothing to do with the blue appearance of any distant 
water surface due to the reflection of a cloudless sky. Over 
shallows even the water of the tropical oceans is always green. 
There is a distinct relationship between colour and transparency 
in the ocean; the most transparent water which is the most 
free from plankton is always the purest blue, while an increasing 
turbidity is usually associated with an increasing tint of green. 
The natural colour of pure sea-water is blue, and this is em- 
phasized in deep and very dear water, which appears almost 
black to the eye. When a quantity of a fine white powder is 
thrown in, the light reflected by the white particles as they 
sink assumes an intense blue colour, and the experiments of 
J. Aitken with clear sea-water in long tubes leave no doubt 
on the subject. 

Discoloration of the water is often observed at sea, but that is 
always due to foreign substances. Brown or even blood-red 
stripes have been observed in the North Atlantic when swarms 
of the :opepod Calanus finmarchicus were present; the brown alga 
Trichodesmium erythraeum, as its name suggests, can change the 
blue of the tropical seas to red; swarms of diatoms may produce 
olive-green patches in the ocean, while some other forms of 
minute life have at times been observed to give the colour of 
milk to large stretches of the ocean surface. 

On account of its salinity, sea-water has a smaller capacity 
for heat than pure water. According to Thoulet and Chevallier 
the specific heat diminishes as salinity increases, so that for 
10 per mille salinity it is 0-968, for 35 permille it is only 0-932, 
that of pure water being taken as unity. The thermal con- 
ductivity also diminishes as salinity increases, the conductivity 
for heat of sea- water of 35 per mille salinity being 4-2% less 
than that of pure water. This means that sea-water heats and 
cools somewhat more readily than pure water. The surface 
tension, on the other hand, is greater than that of pure water 
and increases with the salinity, according to Krummel, in the 
manner shown by the equation 0=77-09+0-0221 S at o C., 
where a is the coefficient of surface tension and S the salinity in 
parts per thousand. The internal friction or viscosity of sea- 
water has also been shown by E. Ruppin to increase with the 
salinity. Thus at o C. the viscosity of sea- water of 35 per mille 
salinity is 5-2% greater and at 25 C. 4% greater than that of 
pure water at the same temperatures; in absolute units the 
viscosity of sea- water at 25 C. is only half as great as it is at 
o C. 

The compressibility of sea-water is not yet fully investigated. 



It varies not only to a marked degree with temperature, but also 
with the degree of pressure. Thus J. Y. Buchanan found a 
mean of 20 experiments made by piezometers sunk in great 
depths on board the " Challenger " give a coefficient of com- 
pressibility K=49iXio~ 7 ; but six of these experiments made at 
depths of from 2740 to 3125 fathoms gave /c=48oXio~ 7 . The 
value usually adopted is /c=45oXio~ 7 . The compressibility 
is in itself very small, but so great in its effect on the density 
of deep water in situ that the specific gravity (o/4) at 2000 
fathoms increases by 0-017 and at 3000 fathoms by 0-026. 
In other words, water which has a specific gravity of 1-0280 at, 
the surface would at the same temperature have a specific 
gravity of 1-0450 at 2000 and 1-0540 at 3000 fathoms. If the 
whole mass of water in the ocean were relieved from pressure its 
volume would expand from 319 million cub. m. to 321-7 million 
cub. m., which for a surface of 139-5 million sq. m. means an 
increased depth of 100 ft. The rate of propagation of sound 
depends on the compressibility, and in ocean water at the tropical 
temperature of 77 F. the speed is 1482-6 metres (4860 ft.) per 
second, in Baltic water of 8 per mille salinity and a temperature 
i_ u 'jifF. it is 1448-5 metres (4750 ft.) per second, that is to say, 
45 times greater than the velocity of sound in air. This accounts 
for the great range of submarine sound signals, which can thus 
be very serviceable to navigation in foggy weather. 

The electrical conductivity of sea-water increases with the 
salinity; at 59 F. it is given according to E. Ruppin's formula 
as L=o-ooi46s 50-00000978 S 2 +o-ooooooo876 S 3 in reciprocal 
ohms. 

The radio-activity of sea- water is extraordinarily small; in- 
deed in samples taken from 50 fathoms in the Bay of Danzig 
it was imperceptible, and R. T. Strutt found that salt from 
evaporated sea-water did not contain one-third of the 
quantity of radium present in the water of the town supply in 
Cambridge. 

Dissolved Gases of Sea-water. The water of the ocean, like 
any other liquid, absorbs a certain amount of the gases with 
which it is in contact, and thus sea-water contains dissolved 
oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid absorbed from the atmo- 
sphere. As Gay-Lussac and Humboldt showed in 1805, gases 
are absorbed in less amount by a saline solution than by pure 
water. The first useful determinations of the dissolved gases 
of sea-water were made by Oskar Jacobsen in 1872. Since that 
time much work has been done, and the methods have been 
greatly improved. In the method now most generally practised, 
which was put forward by O. Pettersson in 1894, two portions of 
sea- water are collected in glass tubes which have been exhausted 
of air, coated internally with mercuric chloride to prevent the 
putrefaction of any organisms, and sealed up beforehand. The 
exhausted tube, when inserted in the water sample and the tip 
broken off, immediately fills, and is then sealed up so that the 
contents cannot change after collection. One portion is used 
for determining the oxygen and nitrogen, the other for the 
carbonic acid. The former determination is made by driving 
out the dissolved gases from solution and collecting them in a 
Torricellian vacuum, where the volume is measured after the 
carbonic acid has been removed. The oxygen is then absorbed 
by some appropriate means, and the volume of the nitrogen 
measured directly, that of the oxygen being given by difference. 
In the second portion the carbonic acid is driven out by means 
of a current of hydrogen, collected over mercury and absorbed 
by caustic potash. 

C. T. T. Fox, of the Central Laboratory of the International 
Council at Christiania, has investigated the relation of the atmospheric 
gases to sea-water by very exact experimental methods and arrived 
at the following expressions for the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen 
by sea-water of different degrees of concentration. The formulae 
show the number of cubic centimetres of gas absorbed by I litre of 
sea-water; t indicates the temperature in degrees centigrade and Cl 
the salinity as shown by the amount of chlorine per mille : 
02 = 10-291-0-2809 *+o-oo6oo9 <*-o-oooo632 /*- 

Cl(o-n6i-o-oo3922 ^+0-000063 /') 
N = 18-561-0-4282 /+0-0074527 P- 0-00005494 P 
0(0-2149-0-007117 ^+0-0000931 t*) 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



981 



In the case of ocean water with a salinity of 35 per mille, this gives 
for saturation with atmospheric gases in cc. per litre: 





at o C. 


15 C. 


25 C. 


Oxygen . 


8-03 


5-84 


4-93 


Nitrogen 


14-40 


11-12 


9-78 



The reduction of the absorption of gas by rise of temperature 
is thus seen to be considerable. As a rule the amount of both 
gases dissolved in sea-water is found to be that which is indicated 
by the temperature of the water in situ. Jacobsen on some 
occasions found water in the surface layers of the Baltic super- 
saturated with oxygen, which he ascribed to the action of the 
chlorophyll in vegetable plankton; in other cases when examin- 
ing the nearly stagnant water from deep basins he found a 
deficiency of oxygen due no doubt to the withdrawal of oxygen 
from solution, by the respiration of the animals and by the 
oxidation of the deposits on the bottom. When these processes 
continue for a long time in deep water shut off from free circula- 
tion so that it does not become aerated by contact with the 
atmosphere the water becomes unfit to support the life of fishes, 
and when the accumulation of putrefying organic matter gives 
rise to sulphuretted hydrogen as in the Black Sea below 125 
fathoms, life, other than bacterial, is impossible. The water 
from the greatest depths of the Black Sea, 1160 fathoms, 
contains 6 cc. of sulphuretted hydrogen per litre. 

The distribution of dissolved oxygen in the depths of the 
open ocean is still very imperfectly known. Dittmar's analysis 
of the " Challenger " samples indicated an excess of oxygen in 
the surface water of high southern latitudes and a deficiency at 
depths below 50 fathoms. 

The facts regarding carbonic acid in sea-water are even less 
understood, for here we have to do not only with the solution of 
the gas but also with a chemical combination. On this account 
it is very difficult to know when all the gas is driven out of a 
sample of sea-water, and a much larger proportion is present than 
the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere and its co- 
efficient of absorption would indicate. These constants would 
lead one to expect to find 0-5 cc. per litre at o C. while as a 
matter of fact the amount absorbed approaches 50 cc. The 
form of combination is unstable and apparently variable, so 
that the quantities of free carbonic acid, bicarbonate and 
normal carbonate are liable to alter. Since 1851 it has been 
known that all sea-water has an alkaline reaction, and Tornoe 
defined the alkalinity of sea-water as the amount of carbonic 
acid which is necessary to convert the excess of bases into normal 
carbonate. The alkalinity of North Atlantic water of 35 per 
mille salinity is 26-86 cc. per litre, corresponding to a total amount 
of carbonic acid of 49-07 cc. According to the researches of 
August Krogh, 1 the alkalinity is greatly increased by the ad- 
mixture of land water. This is proved by E. Ruppin's analysis 
of Baltic water, which has an alkalinity of 16 to 18 instead of 
the 5 or 6 which would be the amount proportional to the 
salinity, while the water of the Vistula and the Elbe with a 
salinity of o-i per mille has an alkalinity of 28 or more. Thus 
the alkalinity serves as an index of the admixture of river water 
with sea-water. Carbonic acid passes from the atmosphere 
into the ocean as soon as its tension in the latter is the smaller; 
hence in this respect the ocean acts as a regulator. The amount 
of carbonic acid in solution may also be increased by submarine 
exhalations in regions of volcanic disturbance, but it must be 
remembered that the critical pressure for this gas is 73 atmo- 
spheres, which is reached at a depth of 400 fathoms, so that 
carbonic acid produced at the bottom of the ocean must be in 
liquid form. The respiration of marine animals in the depths of 
deep basins in which there is no circulation adds to the carbonic 
acid at the expense of the dissolved oxygen. This is frequently 
the case in fjord basins; for instance, in the Gullmar Fjord at a 
depth of 50 fathoms with water of 34-14 per mille salinity and 
1 Meddelelser om Gronland (Copenhagen, 1904), p. 331. 



a temperature of 40-1 F., the carbonic acid amounts to 51-55 cc. 
per litre, and the oxygen only to 2-19 cc. Vegetable plankton 
in sunlight can reverse this process, assimilating the carbon of 
the carbonic acid and restoring the oxygen to solution, as was 
proved by Martin Knudsen and Ostenfeld in the case of diatoms. 
Little is known as yet of the distribution of carbonic acid in the 
oceans, but the amount present seems to increase with the 
salinity as shown by the four observations quoted: 

Water from 

Gulf of Finland of 3-2 per mille salinity = 17-2 cc. COi at4-lC. 
Western Baltic of 14-2 =37'O .1 atl-6C. 

North Atlantic of 35-0 =49-0 at about 

Eastern Mediter- ioC. 

ranean of 39-0 =53'O at26-7C. 

Unfortunately the very numerous determinations of carbonic 
acid made by J. Y. Buchanan on the " Challenger " were vitiated 
by the incompleteness of the method employed, but they are 
none the less of value in showing clearly that the waters of the 
far south of the Indian Ocean are relatively rich in carbonic acid 
and the tropical areas deficient. 

Distribution of Salinity, A great deal of material exists on 
which to base a study of the surface salinity of the oceans, and 
Schott's chart published in Petermanns Milteilungen for 1902 
incorporates the earlier work and substantially confirms the first 
trustworthy chart of the kind compiled by J. Y. Buchanan from 
the " Challenger " observations. In each of the three oceans 
there are two maxima of salinity one in the north, the other 
in the south tropical belt, separated by a zone of minimum 
salinity in the equatorial region, and giving place poleward to 
regions of still lower salinity. The three oceans differ somewhat 
between themselves. The North Atlantic maximum is the 
highest with water of 37-9 per mille salinity; the maximum 
in the South Atlantic is 37-6; in the North Indian Ocean, 
36-7; the South Indian Ocean, 36-4; the South Pacific, 36-9; 
and the North Pacific has the lowest maximum of all, only 
35-9. The comparatively fresh equatorial belt of water, has a 
salinity of 35-010 34- 5 in the Atlantic, 35-0 to 34-0 in the Indian 
Ocean, 34-5 in the Western and 33-5 in the Eastern Pacific. 
Taking each of the oceans as a whole the Atlantic has the highest 
general surface salinity with 35-37. 

The salinity of enclosed seas naturally varies much more than 
that of the open ocean. Thesaltest include the eastern Mediter- 
ranean with 39-5 per mille, the Red Sea with 41 to 43 per mille 
in the Gulf of Suez, and the Persian Gulf with 38. The fresher 
enclosed seas include the Malay and the East Asiatic fringing 
seas with 30 to 34-5 per mille, the Gulf of St Lawrence with 
30 to 31, the North Sea with 35 north of the Dogger Bank 
diminishing to 32 further south, and the Baltic, which freshens 
rapidly from between 25 to 31 in the Skagerrak to 7 or 8 east- 
ward of Bornholm and to practically fresh water at the heads of 
the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The Arctic Sea presents a 
great contrast between the salinity of the surface of the ice-free 
Norwegian Sea with 35 to 35-4 and that of the Central Polar 
Basin, which is dominated by river water and melted ice, and has 
a salinity less than 25 per mille in most parts. The average 
salinity of the whole surface of the oceans may be taken as 34-5 
per mille. 

The vertical distribution of salinity has only recently been 
investigated systematically, as the earlier expeditions were not 
equipped with altogether trustworthy apparatus for collecting 
water samples at great depths. Two main types of water-bottle 
for collecting samples have been long in use. The older, devised 
by Hooke in 1667, is provided with valves above and below, both 
opening upward, through which the water passes freely during 
descent, but which are closed by some device on hauling up. 
The newer or slip water-bottle type consists of a cylinder allowed 
to drop on to a base-plate when a sample is to be collected. The 
first form of slip water-bottle due to Meyer retained the water 
merely by the weight of the cylinder pressing on the base-plate. 
J. Y. Buchanan introduced an improved form on the " Chal- 
lenger," also remaining closed by weight, the cylinder being very 
heavy and ground to fit the bevelled base-plate very accurately. 



982 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



H. R. Mill in 1885 devised a self-locking arrangement by which 
the bottle once closed was automatically locked and rendered 
watertight; H. L. Ekman made further improvements; and, 
finally, O. Pettersson and F. Nansen perfected the instrument, 
adapting it not only for enclosing a portion of water at any 
desired depth, but by a series of concentric divisions insulating 
in the central compartment water at the temperature it had at 
the moment of collection. By means of a weight dropped along 
the line the water-bottle can be shut and a sample enclosed at any 
desired depth. The use of a sliding weight is not recommended 
in depths much exceeding 200 fathoms on account of the time 
required and the risk of the line sagging at a low angle and so 
stopping the weight. In deep water the closing mechanism is 
usually actuated by a screw propeller which begins to work when 
the line is being hauled in and can be set so as to close the water- 
bottle in a very few fathoms. A small but heavy water-bottle 
has been devised by Martin Knudsen, provided with a pressure 
gauge or bathometer, by which samples may be collected from 
any moderate depth down to about 100 fathoms, on board a 
vessel going at full speed. This has made it possible to obtain 
many samples from moderate depths along a long line in a 
very short space of time. Sigsbee's small water-bottle on the 
double valve principle actuated by a propeller requires extremely 
skilful handling to enable it to give good results. 

As yet it is only possible to speak with confidence of the vertical 
distribution of salinity in the seas surrounding Europe, where 
there is a general increase of salinity with depth. For the open 
ocean the only quite trustworthy results are those obtained by 
the prince of Monaco in the North Atlantic, and by the recent 
Antarctic expeditions in the South Atlantic and South Indian 
Oceans. The observations made on the " Challenger " and 
" Gazelle," though enabling some perfectly sound general 
conclusions to be drawn, require to be supplemented. It appears, 
as J. Y. Buchanan pointed out in 1876, that the great con- 
trasts in surface salinity between the tropical maxima and 
the equatorial minima give place at the moderate depth of 
200 fathoms to a practically uniform salinity in all parts of the 
ocean. 

In the North Atlantic a strong submarine current flowing 
outward from the Mediterranean leaves the Strait of Gibraltar 
with a salinity of 38 per mille, and can be traced as far as Madeira 
and the Bay of Biscay in depths of from 600 to 2800 fathoms, 
still with a salinity of 35-6 per mille, whereas off the Azores at 
equal depths the salinity is from 0-5 to 0-7 per mille less. In the 
tropical and subtropical belts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans 
south of the equator the salinity diminishes rapidly from the 
surface downwards, and at 500 fathoms reaches a minimum of 
34-3 or 34-4 per mille; after that it increases again to 800 fathoms, 
where it is almost 34-7 or 34-8, and this salinity holds good to the 
bottom, even to the greatest depths, as was first shown by the 
" Gauss " and afterwards by the " Planet " between Durban and 
Ceylon. 

Our knowledge of the Pacific in this respect is still very im- 
perfect, but it appears to be less salt than the other oceans at 
depths below 800 fathoms, as on the surface, the salinity at 
considerable depths being 34-6 to 34-7 in the western part of the 
ocean, and about 34-4 to 34-5 in the eastern, so that, although 
the data are by no means satisfactory, it is impossible to assign 
a mass-salinity of more than 34-7 per mille for the whole body of 
Pacific water. 

The causes of difference of salinity are mainly meteorological. 
The belt of equatorial minimum salinity corresponds with the 
excessively rainy belt of calms and of the equatorial counter- 
current, the salinity diminishing towards the east. The tropical 
maxima of salinity on the poleward side of the trade-winds 
coincide with the regions of minimum rainfall, high temperature, 
strong winds and consequently of maximum evaporation. 
Evaporation is naturally greatest in the enclosed seas of the nearly 
rainless subtropical zone such as the Mediterranean and Red Sea. 
Where the evaporation is at a minimum, the inflow of rivers from 
a large continental area and the precipitation from the atmo- 
sphere at a maximum, there is necessarily the greatest dilution 



of the sea-water, the Baltic and the Arctic Sea being conspicuous 
examples. 

Temperature of the Oceans. There is no difficulty in observing 
the temperature of the surface of the sea on board ship, the only 
precautions required being to draw the water in a bucket which 
has not been heated in the sun in summer or exposed to frost in 
winter, to draw it well forward of any discharge pipes of the 
steamer, to place it in the shade on deck, insert the thermometer 
immediately and make the reading without delay. The measure- 
ment of temperature in the depths, unless a high-speed water- 
bottle be used, involves stopping the ship and employing thermo- 
meters of special construction. Many forms have been tried, but 
only three types are in general use. The first is the slow-action 
thermometer which was originally used with good effect by 
de Saussure in the Mediterranean in 1780. He covered the bulb 
of the thermometer with layers of non-conducting material and 
left it immersed at the desired depth for a very long time to 
enable it to take the temperature of its surroundings. When 
brought up again the thermometer retained its temperature so 
long that there was ample time to take a correct reading. Since 
1870 thermometers on this principle have been in use for regular 
observations at German coast and light -ship stations. Following 
the suggestion of Cavendish, Irving made observations of deep 
temperature on Phipps's Spitsbergen voyage of 1773 with a 
valved water-bottle, insulated by non-conducting material. A 
similar instrument gave excellent results in the hands of E. von 
Lenz on Kotzebue's second voyage of circumnavigation in 1823- 
1826. The last elaboration of the insulated slip water-bottle 
by Ekman, Nansen and Pettersson has produced an instrument 
of great perfection, in which the insulation is effected by layers 
of water between a series of concentric ebonite cylinders, all of 
which are closed both above and below when the apparatus 
encloses a sample, and each of which in turn must be warmed 
considerably before there is any rise of temperature in the 
chamber within. This can be used with certainty to -02 C. for 
water down to 250 fathoms, after taking account of the slight 
disturbance produced by the expansion of the greatly compressed 
deep water. 

The second form of deep-sea thermometer is the self-registering 
maximum and minimum on James Six's principle. These 
instruments must be constructed with the greatest care, but 
when well-made in accordance with J. Y. Buchanan's large 
model they can be trusted to give a good account of the vertical 
distribution of temperature, provided the water grows cooler 
as the depth increases. They would act equally well if the water 
grew continually warmer as the depth increases, but they cannot 
give an exact account of a temperature inversion such as is 
produced when layers of warmer and colder water alternate. 

The third form is the outflow or reversing thermometer, first 
introduced by Aime, who used a very inconvenient form in the 
Mediterranean in 1841-1845, but greatly improved and simplified 
by Negretti and Zambra in 1875. The principle is to have a 
constriction in the tube above the bulb so proportioned that 
when the instrument is upright it acts in every way as an ordinary 
mercurial thermometer, but when it is inverted the thread of 
mercury breaks at the constriction, and the portion above the 
point runs down the now reversed tube and remains there as a 
measure of the temperature at the moment of turning over. 
For convenience in reading, the tube is graduated inverted, and 
when it is restored to its original position the mercury thread 
joins again and it acts as before. Various modifications of this 
form of thermometer have been made by Chabaud of Paris and 
others. It has the advantage over the thermometer on Six's 
principle that, being filled with mercury, it does not require such 
long immersion to take the temperature of the water. A cor- 
rection has, of course, to be made for the expansion or con- 
traction of the mercury thread if the temperature of reading 
differs much from that of reversing. Magnaghi introduced a 
convenient method of inverting the thermometer by means of 
a propeller actuated on beginning to heave in the line, and this 
form is used for all work at great depths. For shallow water 
greater precision and certainty are obtained by using a lever 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



983 



actuated by a weight slipped down the line to cause the reversal, 
as in the patterns of Rung, Mill and others. 

All thermometers sunk into deep water must be protected 
against the enormous pressure to which they are exposed. This 
may be done by the method suggested by Arago in 1828, intro- 
duced by Aime in 1841 and again suggested by Glaisher in 1858, 
of sealing up the whole instrument in a glass tube exhausted of 
air; or, less effectively, by surrounding the bulb alone with a 
strong outer sheath of glass. In both forms it is usual to have 
the space between the bulb and the protecting sheath partly 
filled with mercury or alcohol to act as a conductor and reduce 
the time necessary for the thermometer to acquire the tempera- 
ture of its surroundings. 

The warming of the ocean is due practically to solar radiation 
alone; such heat as may be received from the interior of the 
earth can only produce a small effect and is fairly uniformly 
distributed. On account of the high specific heat of sea-water 
the diurnal range of temperature at the surface is very small. 
According to A. Buchan's discussion of the two-hourly observa- 
tions on the " Challenger " the total range between the daily 
maximum and minimum in the warmer seas is between 0-7 
and 0-8 F., and for the colder seas still less (0-2 F.), compared 
with 3-2 F. in the overlying air. The maximum usually occurs 
between i and 2-30 P.M., the minimum shortly before sunrise. 
The temperature of the surface water is generally a little higher 
than that of the overlying air, the daily average difference being 
about 0-6 F., varying from 0-9 lower at i P.M. to 1-6 higher 
at i A.M. There are few observations available for ascertaining 
the depth to which warmth from the sun penetrates in the 
ocean. The investigations of Aim6 in 1845 and Hensen in 1889 
indicate that the amount of cloud has a great effect. Aime 
showed that on a calm bright day in the Mediterranean the 
temperature rose 0-1 C. between the early morning and noon 
at a depth of about 12 fathoms. Luksch deduced a much 
greater penetration of solar warmth from the comparison of 
observations at different hours at neighbouring stations in the 
eastern Mediterranean, but his methods were not exact enough 
to give confidence in the result. The penetration of warmth 
from the surface is effected by direct radiation, and by con- 
vection by particles rendered dense by evaporation increasing 
salinity. Conduction has practically no effect, for the coefficient 
of thermal conductivity in sea-water is so small that if a mass 
of sea-water were cooled to o C. and the surface kept at a 
temperature of 30 C., 6 months would elapse before a tempera- 
ture of 15 C. was reached at the depth of 1-3 metres, i year 
at 1-85 metres, and 10 years at 5-8 metres. Great irregular 
variations in radiation and convection sometimes produce a 
remarkably abrupt change of temperature at a certain depth in 
calm water; the layer in which this sudden change occurs has 
been termed the Sprungschicht. How closely two bodies of 
water at different temperatures may come together is shown 
by the fact that in the Baltic in August between 10 and n 
fathoms there is sometimes a fall of temperature from 57 to 
46-5 F. Such a condition of things is only possible in very 
calm weather, the action of waves having the effect of mixing 
the water to a considerable depth. After a storm the whole of 
the water in the North Sea assumes a homothermic condition, 
i.e. the temperature is the same from surface to bottom, and this 
occurs not only south of the Dogger Bank, where the condition 
is normal, but also, though less frequently, in the deeper water 
farther north. Similar effects are produced in narrow waters 
by the action of tidal currents, and the influence of a steady wind 
blowing on- or off-shore has a powerful effect in mixing the 
water. 

The warmest parts of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific 
have a mean annual temperature of 82 to 84 F., but such 
high temperatures are not found in the tropical Atlantic. In the 
Indian Ocean between 15 N. and 5 S. the surface temperature 
in May averages 84 to 86 F., and in the Bay of Bengal the 
temperature is 86, and no part of the Atlantic has so high a 
monthly mean temperature at any season. G. Schott's inves- 
tigations show that the annual range of surface temperature 





Atlantic. 


Indian. 


Pacific. 


Over 77 F. (25 C) . . . 


22-4 


38-0 


40-1 


Over 68 F. (20 C) . . . 


50-1 


51-7 


58-4 



in the open ocean is greatest in 40 N., with 18-4 F., and in 
30 S., with 9-2 F.; on the contrary, near the equator it is 
less, only 4 F. in 10 N., and in high latitudes it is also small, 
5-2 F. in 50 S. The figures quoted above are differences 
between the average surface temperatures of the warmest and 
of the coldest month. As to the absolute extremes of surface 
temperature, Sir John Murray points out that 90 F. frequently 
occurs in the western part of the tropical Pacific, while among 
seas the Persian Gulf reaches 96 F., only 2 under blood-heat, 
and the Red Sea follows closely with a maximum of 94. The 
greatest change of temperature at any place has been recorded 
to the east of Nova Scotia, a minimum of 28 F. and a maximum 
of 80, and to the north-east of Japan with a minimum of 27 F. 
and a maximum of 83. In those localities, however, it is not 
the same water which varies in temperature with the season, 
but the water of different warm and cold currents which periodic- 
ally occupy the same locality as they advance and retreat. 
The zones of surface temperature are arranged roughly parallel 
to the equator, especially in the southern hemisphere. Between 
40 N. and 40 S. the currents produce a considerable rearrange- 
ment of this simple order, the belts of warm water being wider 
on the western sides of the oceans and narrower on the eastern. 

The arrangement of the isotherms thus affords a basis for 
valuable deductions as to the direction of ocean currents. The 
surface temperature of the Atlantic is relatively lower than that 
of the other oceans when the whole area is considered. According 
to Kriimmel's calculation the proportional areas at a high 
temperature are as follows: 

Percentage of Ocean Surface with Temperature. 



This disparity results in some degree at least from the com- 
parative narrowness of the inter-tropical Atlantic, and the 
absence of a cool northern area in the Indian Ocean. Kriimmel 
calculates that the mean temperature of the whole ocean surface 
is 63-3 F., while the mean sea-level temperature of the whole 
layer of air at the surface of the earth is given by Hann as 
57-8 F. 

We are still ignorant of the depth to which the annual tempera- 
ture wave penetrates in the open ocean, but observations in the 
Mediterranean enable us to form some opinion on the matter. 
The observations of Aime in 1845 and of Semmola in the Gulf of 
Naples in 1881 show that the surface water in winter cools 
until the whole mass of water from the surface to the bottom, 
in 1600 fathoms or more, assumes the same temperature. To- 
wards the end of summer the upper layers have been warmed to 
a depth which indicates how far the influence of solar radiation 
and convection have reached. Aime estimated this depth at 
1 50-200 fathoms, while the observations of the Austrian expe- 
dition in the eastern Mediterranean found it to be from 200 
to nearly 400 fathoms. In the Red Sea, where a similar seasonal 
change occurs, the depth to which the surface layer warms up 
is about 275 fathoms. The great difference in salinity between 
the surface and the deep water excludes the possibility of 
effective convection in the seas of northern Europe, and in the 
open ocean the currents which are felt everywhere, and especially 
those with a vertical component, must exercise a very disturbing 
influence on convection. 

The vertical distribution of temperature in the open ocean 
is much better known than that of salinity. The regional 
differences of temperature at like depths become less as the 
depth increases. Thus at 300 fathoms greater differences than 
9 F. hardly ever occur between 50 N. and 50 S., in 800 fathoms 
the differences are less than 5-5 and in 1500 fathoms less than 
2. Even in the tropics the high temperature of the surface 
is confined to a very shallow layer; thus in the Central Pacific 
where the surface temperature is 82 F. the temperature at 100 



984. 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



fathoms is only 52 F. The whole ocean must thus form but 
a cold dwelling-place for the organisms of the deep sea. Sir 
John Murray calculates that at least 80% of the water in the 
ocean has a temperature always less than 40 F., and a recent 
calculation by Kriimmel gave in fact a mean temperature of 
39 F. for the whole ocean. 

The normal vertical distribution of temperature is illustrated 
in curve A of fig. i, which represents a sounding in the South 
Atlantic; and this arrangement of a rapid fall of temperature 
giving place gradually to an extremely slow but steady diminu- 
tion as depth increases is termed anathermic (dva, back, and 
Otpiws, warm). Curve B shows the typical distribution of 
temperature in an enclosed sea, in this case the Sulu Basin of 
the Malay Sea, where from the level of the barrier to the bottom 
the temperature remains uniform or homothermic. Curve C 
shows a typical summer condition in the polar seas, where 
layers of sea-water at different temperatures are superimposed, 
the arrangement from the surface to 200 fathoms is termed 




FIG. I. Diagram illustrating Distribution of Sea Temperature. 

dichathermic (Stxa, apart), from 1000 to 2000 fathoms it is termed 
katathermic (Kara, down). In autumn the enclosed seas of high 
latitudes frequently present a thermal stratification in which 
a warm middle layer is sandwiched between a cold upper layer 
and a cold mass below, the arrangement being termed meso- 
thermic (;tt<ros, middle). The nature of the change of 
temperature with depth below 2500 fathoms is entirely dependent 
on the position of the sub-oceanic elevations, for the rises and 
ridges act as true submarine watersheds. As the Arctic Basin 
is shut off from the North Atlantic by ridges rising to within 
300 fathoms of the surface and from the Pacific by the shallow 
shelf of the Bering Sea, and as the ice-laden East Greenland 
and Labrador currents consist of fresh surface water which 
cannot appreciably influence the underlying mass, the Arctic 
region has no practical effect upon the bottom temperature of 
the three great oceans, which is entirely dominated by the 
influence of the Antarctic. The existence of deep-lying and 
extensive rises or ridges in high southern latitudes has been 
indicated by the deep-sea temperature observations of Antarctic 
expeditions. Temperatures so low as 31-5 to 31-3 F. do not 
occur much beyond 50 S. The " Belgica " even found a tempera- 
ture of 33-1 F. in 61 S., 63 W., at a depth of 2018 fathoms. 
The conditions of temperature in the South Atlantic are charac- 
teristic. South of 55 S. in approximately 3000 fathoms the 
bottom temperature is 31-1 F.; in the Cape Trough it is 32-7 



in 45 S., and 33-8 to 34-3 in 35 S., while north of the Walfisch 
Ridge and east of the South Atlantic Rise bottom temperatures 
of 36 to 36-7 F. prevail right northwards across the equator 
into the Bay of Biscay, showinga steady rise of bottom tempera- 
ture as successive submarine elevations restrict communication 
with the Antarctic. On the other hand, in the more open Argen- 
tine Basin, which carries deep water far to the south, the bottom 
temperature in 40 S. is only from 32-2 to 32-7 F., and the same 
low temperature continues throughout the Brazil Basin to the 
equator; bvft in the North American Basin from the West Indies 
to the Telegraph Plateau no satisfactory bottom temperature 
lower than 35-6 F. has been reported. On the floor of the 
Indian Ocean temperatures of 33-3 to 33-6 occur south of 
35 S. in depths of 2700 fathoms or more, but north of 35 S. 
the prevailing bottom temperatures are from 34-0 to 34-3. 
In similar depths in the Pacific south of the equator temperatures 
f 33'8 to 34-5 are found, and north of the equator bottom 
temperatures at the same depth increase to 3 5 i in the neighbour- 
hood of the Aleutian Islands, again completely justifying the 
conclusion as to the Antarctic control of deep water temperature 
throughout the ocean. 

The marginal rises and continental shelves prevent this cold 
bottom water from penetrating into the depths of the enclosed 
and fringing seas. Thus in the Central American Sea below 
930 fathoms, the depth on the bar, no water is found at a tempera- 
ture lower than that prevailing in the open ocean at that depth, 
viz. 39-6 F., not even at the bottom of the great Bartlett Deep 
in 3439 fathoms. Such homothermic masses of water are 
characteristic of all deep enclosed seas. Thus in the Malay 
Sea the various minor seas or basins are homothermic below 
the depth of the rim, at the temperature prevailing at that depth 
in the open ocean: in the China Sea below 875 fathoms with 
36' 5 F.; in the Sulu Sea (depth 2550 fathoms) below 400 fathoms 
with 50-5 F.; in the Celebes Sea below 820 fathoms with 38-6 
F.; in the Banda Sea below 902 fathoms with 37-9 F. In other 
enclosed seas which are shut off from the ocean by a very shallow 
sill the rule holds good that the homothermic water below the 
level of the sill is at the lowest temperature reached by the 
surface water in the coldest season of the year, provided always 
that the stratification of salinity is such as to permit of convection 
being set up. To this group belongs the Arctic Sea; the 
Norwegian Sea is homothermic below 550 fathoms at 29-8 F., 
but this cold water does not penetrate into the Arctic Basin 
on account of the ridge between Spitsbergen and Greenland, 
and there the water below 1400 fathoms has a temperature of 
30-6 to 30-7 F. because the surf ace layers of water are too light, 
on account of the low salinity due to ice-melting, to enable 
even the cold of a polar winter to set up a downward convection 
current. The Mediterranean Sea also belongs to this group; 
its various deep basins are homothermic (at the winter surface 
temperature) below the level of their respective sills the 
Balearic Basin below 190 fathoms at 55 F.; the Eastern Basin 
below 270 fathoms at 55-9 F; the Ionian Sea at 56-3 F.; and 
at 56-7 south of Cyprus. Similarly in the Red Sea the water 
below 380 fathoms is homothermic at 70-7 F. 

An under-current flows out from the Red Sea through the Strait 
of Bab-el-Mandeb, and from the Mediterranean through the Strait 
of Gibraltar, raising the salinity as well as the temperature of the 
part of the ocean outside the gates of the respective seas. The 
action of the Red Sea water affects the whole of the Gulf of 
Aden and Arabian Sea, raising the temperature at the depth of 
550 fathoms to 52 or 53 F. or 9 Fahrenheit degrees higher than 
the water of the Bay of Bengal at the same depth. The effect of 
the Mediterranean water in the North Atlantic does not require 
such large figures to express it, but is none the less extraordinarily 
far-reaching, as first indicated by the work of the " Challenger " 
and subsequently defined by H. N. Dickson's discussion of the 
observations of Wolfenden in the little sailing yacht " Silver 
Belle." The temperature at 550 fathoms is raised to 49 or 50 
F. between Madeira and the Biscay Shelf, i.e. 5-4 F. above the 
temperature at the same depth off the Azores. 

In shallow seas such as the North Sea and the British fringing 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



985 



seas, where tidal currents run strong, there is a general mixing 
together of the surface and deeper water, thus making the arrange- 
ment of vertical temperature anathermic in summer and kata- 
thermic in winter, while at the transitional periods in spring 
and autumn it is practically homothermic. Thus at Station 
Ez of the international series at the mouth of the English 
Channel in 49 27' N., 4 42' W., the following distribution of 
temperature F. has been observed by Matthews: 





August 
1904. 


November 
1904. 


February 
1905- 


May 
1905- 


Surface 
l6J fathoms . 
52 fathoms 


63-7 
55-5 
55-4 


56-2 
56-5 
56-5 


50-7 
50-8 
50-8 


51-3 
50-5 
50-5 



It is noticeable that there is a marked vertical temperature 
gradient only at the end of summer when a warm surface layer 
is formed, though in August 1904 that was only 8 fathoms 
thick. In small nearly land-locked basins shut off from one 
another by bars rising to within a short distance of the surface 
and affected both by strong tidal currents and by a considerable 
admixture of land water, the contrasts of vertical distribution 
of temperature with the seasons are strongly marked, and there 
are also great unperiodic changes effected mainly by wind, as 
is shown by the investigations of H. R. Mill in the Clyde Sea 
Area, and of O. Pettersson, J. Hjort and Helland-Hansen in the 
Scandinavian fjords. 

Sea Ice. The freezing-point of sea-water is lower as the 
salinity increases and normal sea-water of 35 per mille salinity 
freezes at 28-6 F. Experience shows that sea-water can be 
cooled considerably below the freezing-point without freezing 
if there is no ice or snow in contact with it. Freezing takes 
place by the formation of pure ice in flat crystalline plates of 
the hexagonal system, which form in perpendicular planes 
and unite in bundles to form grains so that a thick covering 
of ice exhibits a fibrous structure. It is only the water that 
freezes; the dissolved salts are excluded in the process in a 
regular order according to temperature. At temperatures 
about 17 F. sodium sulphate is the first ingredient of the salts 
to separate out, potassium chloride follows at 12 F., sodium 
chloride at 7-4 F., magnesium chloride at 28-5 F., and, 
as O. Pettersson was the first to point out, calcium chloride 
not until 67 F. During the rapid formation of ice the still 
unfrozen brine is often imprisoned between the little plates of 
frozen water; hence without some special treatment sea-ice is 
not suitable as a source of drinking water. After long con- 
tinued frost the last of the included brine may be frozen and 
the salts driven out in crystals on the surface; these crystals 
are known to polar explorers by the Siberian name of rassol. 
Ice is a very poor conductor of heat and accordingly protects 
the surface of the water beneath from rapid cooling; hence 
new-formed pancake ice does not increase excessively in thick- 
ness in one winter, and even in the centre of the Arctic Basin 
the ice-covering only amounts to 6 or at most 9 ft. in the course 
of a year, while in the Antarctic regions the season's growth 
is only half as great; in the latter also the accumulated snow 
is an important factor in the thickness of the ice, and snow 
is an even worse conductor of heat. The influence of wind and 
tide breaks up the frozen surface of the sea, and sheets yielding 
to the pressures slide over or under one another and are worked 
together into a hummocky ice-pack, the irregularities on the 
surface of which, caused by repeated fractures and collisions, 
may be from 10 to 20 ft. high. Such formations, termed 
toross by the Russians, may extend under water, according to 
Makaroffs investigations, to at least an equal depth. Such old 
sea-ice when prevented from escaping forms the palaeocrystic 
sea of Nares; but, as a rule, it is carried southward in the East 
Greenland and Labrador currents, and melted in the warmer 
seas of lower latitudes. In the southern hemisphere the ice- 
pack forms a nearly continuous fence around the Antarctic 
continent. Pack-ice forms regularly in the inner part of the 
Baltic every winter, but not in the Norwegian fjords. Even 



in the Mediterranean sea-ice is formed annually in the northern 
part of the Black Sea, and more rarely in the Gulf of Salonica 
and at the head of the Adriatic off Triest. Hudson Bay is blocked 
by ice for a great part of the year, and the Gulf of St Lawrence 
is blocked every winter. Ice also clothes the continental shores 
of the northern fringing seas of eastern Asia. In addition to 
sea-ice, icebergs which are of land origin occur at sea. In the 
north, icebergs break off, as a rule, from the ends of the great 
glaciers of Greenland, and in the far south from the edge of the 
great Antarctic ice-barrier. The latter often gives birth to pro- 
digious icebergs and ice islands, which are carried northward 
by ocean currents, nearly as far as the tropical zone before they 
melt. Thus in December 1906, an iceberg was seen off the mouth 
of the La Plata in 38 S., and in 1840 one was seen near Cape 
Agulhas in 35 S. The Antarctic icebergs are of tabular form 
and much larger than those of Greenland, but in either case 
an iceberg rising to 200 ft. above sea-level is uncommon, and 
one exceeding 300 ft. is very rare. The Greenland icebergs 
are carried by the Labrador current across the great banks 
of Newfoundland, where they are often very numerous in the 
months from February to August, when they constitute a danger 
to shipping as far south as 40 N. No icebergs occur in the 
North Pacific, and none has ever been reported nearer the 
coasts of Europe than off the Orkney Islands, and there only 
once, in 1836. 

Oceanic Circulation. Although observations on marine 
currents were made near land or between islands even in anti- 
quity, accurate observations on the high seas have only been 
possible since chronometers furnished a practicable method of 
determining longitude, i.e. from the time of Cook, the circum- 
navigator. The difference between the position as determined 
astronomically and by dead-reckoning gives an excellent idea 
of the general direction and velocity of the surface currents. 
The first comprehensive study of the currents of the Atlantic 
was that carried out by James Rennell (1790-1830), and since 
that time Findlay in his -Directories, Heinrich Berghaus, Maury 
and the officials of the various Hydrographic Departments 
have produced increasingly accurate descriptions of the currents 
of the whole ocean, largely from material supplied by merchant 
captains. Direct observations of currents in the open sea 
are difficult, and even when the ship is anchored the veering 
and rolling of the vessel produce disturbances that greatly 
affect the result. Such current-meters as those used by Aime 
in 1841 and by Irminger since 1858 only gave the direction of 
the deeper current hy comparison with the surface current at the 
time of observation. Later apparatus, such as Pettersson's 
bifilar current-meter or his more recent electric-photographic 
apparatus, and Nansen and Ekman's propeller current-meter, 
measure both the direction and the velocity at any moderate 
depth from an anchored vessel. One of the indirect methods 
of investigating currents is by taking account of the initial 
temperature of the current and following it by the thermometer 
throughout its course; hence the familiar contrast between 
warm and cold currents, of which the Gulf Stream and the 
Labrador current are types. Benjamin Franklin in 1775 and 
Charles Blagden in 1781, by means of numerous observations of 
temperature made on board the packets plying on the Atlantic 
passage, determined the boundaries of these two currents and 
their seasonal variations with considerable precision. The 
differences of salinity support this method, and, especially in 
the northern European seas, often prove a sharper criterion of 
the boundaries than temperature itself; this is especially the 
case at the entrance to the Baltic. Evidence drawn from 
drift-wood, wrecks or special drift bottles is less distinct but 
still interesting and often useful; this method of investigation 
includes the use of icebergs as indicators of the trend of currents 
and also of plankton, the minute swimming or drifting organisms 
so abundant at the surface of the sea. 

The general lines of the currents of the oceans are fairly 
well understood, and along the most frequented ocean routes 
the larger seasonal variations have also been ascertained. The 
general scheme of ocean currents depends on the prevailing 



9 86 



OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY 



winds taken in conjunction with the configuration of the coast 
and its submarine approaches. The trade-wind regions corre- 
spond pretty closely with westward-flowing currents, while 
in the equatorial calm belts there are eastward-running counter- 
currents, these lying north of the equator in the Atlantic and 
Pacific, but south of the equator in the Indian Ocean. In the 
region of the westerly winds on the poleward side of 40 N. and 
S. the currents again flow generally eastward. A cyclonic circu- 
lation of the atmosphere is associated with a cyclonic circulation 
of the water of the ocean, as is well shown in the Norwegian Sea 
and North Atlantic between the Azores and Greenland. Where 
the trade-winds heap up the surface water against the east 
coasts of the continents the currents turn poleward. The north 
equatorial current divides into the current entering the Caribbean 
Sea and issuing thence by the Strait of Florida as the Gulf Stream, 
and the Antilles current passing to the north of the Antilles. 
Both currents unite off the coast of the United States and run 
northward, turning towards the east when they come within the 
influence of the prevailing westerly winds. In a similar manner 
the Brazil current, the Agulhas current and the East Australian 
current originate from the drift of the south-east trades, and 
in the North Pacific the Japan current arises from the north-east 
trade drift. The west-wind drifts on the poleward side carry 
back part of the water southward to reunite with the equatorial 
current, and thus there is set up an anticyclonic circulation 
of water between 10 and 40 in each hemisphere, the movement 
of the water corresponding very closely with that of the wind. 
The coincidence of wind and current direction is most marked 
in the region of alternating monsoons in the north of the Indian 
Ocean and in the Malay Sea. 

The accordance of wind and currents is so obvious that it 
was fully recognized by seafaring men in the time of the first 
circumnavigators. Modern investigations have shown, however, 
that the relationship is by no means so simple as appears at first. 
We must remember that the ocean is a continuous sheet of water 
of a certain depth, and the conditions of continuity which hold 
good for all fluids require that there should be no vacant space 
within it; hence if a single water particle is set in motion, the 
whole ocean must respond, as Varenius pointed out in 1650. 
Thus all the water carried forward by any current must have 
the place it left immediately occupied by water from another 
place, so that only a complete system of circulation can exist 
in the ocean. Further, all water particles when moving undergo 
a deviation from a straight path due to the forces set up by the 
rotation of the earth deflecting them towards the right as they 
move in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the 
southern. This deflecting force is directly proportional to the 
velocity and the mass of the particle and also to the sine of the 
latitude; hence it is zero at the equator and comes to a maximum 
at the poles. When the wind acts on the surface of the sea it 
drives before it the particles of the surface layer of water, and, 
as these cannot be parted from those immediately beneath, the 
internal friction of the fluid causes the propelling impulse to act 
through a considerable depth, and if the wind continued long 
enough it would ultimately set the whole mass of the ocean in 
motion right down to the bottom. The current set up by the 
grip of the wind sweeping over the surface is deflected by the 
earth's rotation about 45 to the right of the direction of the 
wind in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern. 
The deeper layers lag behind the upper in deflection and the 
velocity of the current rapidly diminishes in consequence. The 
older theory of the origin of drift currents enunciated by 
Zoppritz in 1878 was modified as indicated above by Nansen 
in 1901, and Walfrid Ekman subsequently went further. He 
showed that at a certain depth the direction of the current 
becomes exactly the opposite of that which has been imposed by 
deflection on the surface current, and the strength is reduced 
thereby to only one-twentieth of that at the surface. He called 
the depth at which the opposed direction is attained the drift- 
current depth, and he found it to be dependent on the velocity 
of the surface current and on the latitude. According to Ekmaa's 
calculation with a trade-wind blowing at 16 m. per hour, the 



drift-current depth in latitude 5 would be approximately 104 
fathoms, in latitude 15, 55 fathoms, and in latitude 45 only 
from 33 to 38 fathoms. A strong wind of 38 m. an hour would 
produce a drift-current depth of 82 fathoms in latitude 45, and 
a light breeze of 3 m. an hour only 22 fathoms. It follows that 
a pure trade-wind drift cannot reach to any great depth, and 
this seems to be confirmed by observation, as when tow-nets 
are sunk to depths of 50 fathoms and more in the region of the 
equatorial current they always show a strong drift away from 
the side of the ship, the ship itself following the surface current. 
Ekman shows further that in a pure drift current the mean 
direction of the whole mass of the current is perpendicular to 
the direction of the wind which sets it in motion. This produces 
a heaping-up of warm water towards the middle of the anti- 
cyclonic current circulation between 10 and 40, and on the other 
hand an updraught of deep water along the outer side of the 
cyclonic currents. The latter phenomenon is most clearly 
shown by the stripes of cold water along the west coasts of Africa 
and America, the current running along the coast tending to 
draw its water away seawards on the surface and the principle 
of continuity requiring the updraught of ihe cool deep layers 
to take its place. For this reason the up-welling coastal water 
is coldest close to the shore, and hence it only appears on the 
Somali coast during the south-west monsoon. On the flat 
coasts of Europe the influence of on-shore wind in driving in 
warm water, and of off-shore wind in producing an updraught of 
cold water, has long been familiar to bathers. In a similar way 
updraughts of cold water to the surface occur in the neighbour- 
hood of the equator, especially in the Central Atlantic and Pacific. 

When a drift-current impinges directly upon a coast there is a 
heaping up of surface water, giving rise to a counter-current in 
the depths, which maintains the level, and this counter-current, 
although subject to deflection on account of the rotation of the 
earth, is deflected much less than a pure drift-current would be. 
Such currents, due to the banking up of water, have a large 
share in setting the depths of the sea in motion, and so securing 
the vertical circulation and ventilation of the ocean. 

The difference in density which occurs between one part of 
the ocean and another, shares with the wind in the production 
of currents. Vertical movements are also produced by difference 
of temperature in the water, but these can only be feeble, as 
below 1000 fathoms the temperature differences between tropical 
and polar waters are very small. If we assign to a column of 

water at the equator the density Sj= 1-022 at the surface and 

1-028 at 1000 fathoms, or an average of 1-025, an d to a column 
of water at the polar circle a mean density of i -028, there would 
result a difference of level equal to (1-0281-025) X 1000= 
3 fathoms in a distance from the equator to the polar circle of 
some 4600 m. A gradient like this, only i in 1,350,000, could 
give rise only to an extremely feeble surface current polewards 
and an extremely feeble deep current towards the equator. 
If there were strong currents at the bottom of the ocean the 
uniform accumulation of the deposit of minute shells of globi- 
gerina and radiolarian ooze would be impossible, the rises and 
ridges would necessarily be swept clear of them, and the fact 
that this is not the case shows that from whatever cause the 
waters of the depths are set in motion, that motion must be of 
the most deliberate and gentlest kind. In exceptional cases, 
when a strong deep current does flow over a rise, as in the case 
of the Wyville Thomson Ridge, the bottom is swept clear of fine 
sediment. 

Strongly marked differences in density are produced by the 
melting of sea-ice, and this is of particular importance in the 
case of the great ice barrier round the Antarctic continent. 
O. Pettersson has made a careful study of ice melting as a motive 
power in oceanic circulation, and points out that it acts in two 
ways: on the surface it produces dilution of the water, forming 
a fresh layer and causing an outflow seaward of surface water 
with very low salinity; towards the deep water it produces a 
strong cooling effect, leading to increase of density and sinking 
of the chilled layers. Both actions result in the drawing in of 



OCEAN CITY 



987 



an intermediate layer of water from a distance which takes part 
in the double system of vertical circulation as is indicated in 
fig. 2. The actual direction of this circulation is strongly modified 
by the influence of the earth's rotation. The existence of a layer 
of water of low salinity at a depth of 500 fathoms in the tropical 
oceans of the southern hemisphere is to be referred to this 
action of the melting ice of the Antarctic regions. Pettersson's 
view that ice-melting dominates the whole circulation of the 
oceans and regulates in particular the currents of the seas round 
northern Europe must, however, be looked on as carrying the 
explanation too far. 

Differences of density between the waters of enclosed seas and 
of the ocean are brought about in some instances by concentra- 
tion of the water of the sea on account of active evaporation, and 
in other instances by dilution on account of the great influx of 
land water. A very powerful vertical circulation is thus set up 
between enclosed seas and the outer ocean. The very dense 
water of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean makes the column 
of water salter and heavier and the level lower than in the ocean 
beyond the straits. Hence a strong surface current sets inwards 
through the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Gibraltar, while an 
undercurrent flows outwards, raising the temperature and 
salinity of the ocean for a long distance beyond the straits. 




6s'S.Lat. 



'S.Lat. 



FIG. 2. Diagram of the stratification of temperature and the 
vertical components of currents in high southern latitudes. 

Through the Bosporus and Dardanelles at the entrance of the 
Black Sea, and through the sound and belts at the entrance of 
the Baltic, streams of fresh surface-water flow outwards to the 
salter Mediterranean and North Sea, while salter water enters 
in each case as an undercurrent. Wind and tide greatly alter 
the strength of these currents due to difference of density, and 
the surface outflow may either be stopped or, in the case of the 
belts, actually reversed by a strong and steady wind. Both 
outflowing and inflowing currents are subject to the deflection 
towards the right imposed by the earth's rotation. 

Modern oceanography has found means to calculate quantita- 
tively the circulatory movements produced by wind and the 
distribution of temperature and salinity not only at the surface 
but in deep water. The methods first suggested by H. Mohn 
and subsequently elaborated by V. Bjerknes have been usefully 
applied in many cases, but they cannot take the place of direct 
observations of currents and of the fundamental processes and 
conditions underlying them. The determination of the exact 
relationship of cause and effect in the origin of ocean currents 
is a matter of great practical importance. The researches of 
Pettersson, Meinardus, H. N. Dickson and others leave no doubt, 
for example, that the variations in the intensity of the Gulf 
Stream, whether these be measured by the change in the strength 
of the current or in the heat stored in the water, produce great 
variations in the character of the weather of northern Europe. 
The connexion between variations of current strength and the 
conditions of existence and distribution of plankton are no less 
important, especially as they act directly or indirectly on the 
life-conditions of food fishes. 

AUTHORITIES. General: M. F. Maury, The Physical Geography 
of the Sea and its Meteorology (New York and London, 1860); J. J. 
Wild, Thalassa: an Essay on the Depths, Temperature and Currents 
of the Ocean (London, 1877); C. D. Sigsbee, Deep-sea Sounding and 
Dredging (Washington, 1880); O. Kriimmel, Handbuch der Ozeano- 



graphie (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1907); O. Kriimmel, Der Ozean (Leipzig, 
1902); J. Thoulet, Oceanographie (2 vols., Paris), vol. i. Statique 
(1890), vol. ii. Dynamique (1896); J. Thoulet, L'Ocean, ses lots et ses 
problemes (Paris, 1904) ; J. Thoulet, Guide de I' Oceanographie pratique 
(Paris, 1895); J. Walther, Allgemeine Meereskunde (Leipzig, 1893); 
Luigi Hugues, Oceanografia (Turin, 1904); Sir J. Prestwich, " Tables 
of Temperatures of the Sea at Different Depths . . . made between 
the years 1749 and 1868," Phil. Trans, clxv. (1876), 639-670; A. 
Buchan, " Specific Gravities and Oceanic Cumulation," Trans. Roy. 
Soc. Edinburgh, xxxiv. (1896), 317-342; Sir John Murray, " Presi- 
dential Address to Section E (Geography)," British A ssociation Report 
(Dover), 1899; M. Knudsen, Hydrographical Tables (Copenhagen, 
1901); Sir John Murray, " Deep-Sea Deposits and their Distribu- 
tion in the Pacific Ocean," Geogr. Journal, 1902, 19, pp. 691-711, 
chart; " On the Depth, Temperature of the Otean Waters and 
Marine Deposits of the South Pacific Ocean," R. Geogr. Soc. of 
Australia, Queensland, 1907, pp. 71-134, maps and plates; J. 
Thoulet, Instruments et operations d' Oceanographie pratique (Paris, 
1908); Precis d' analyse des fonds sous-marins actuels et anciens 
(Paris, 1907); T. Richard, L' Oceanographie (Paris, 1907); List of 
Oceanic Depths and Serial Temperature Observations, received at the 
Admiralty in the year 1888 (et seq.) from H.M. Surveying Ships, 
Indian Marine Survey and British Submarine Telegraph Companies 
(Official). 

Important current and temperature charts of the ocean and 
occasional memoirs are published for the Admiralty by the Meteoro- 
logical Office in London, by the U.S. Hydrographic Office in 
Washington, the Deutsche Seewarte in Hamburg, and also at 
intervals by the French, Russian, Dutch and Scandinavian admir- 
alties. Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic and North Pacific are 
issued monthly by the U.S. Hydrographic Office, and of the North 
Atlantic and of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea by the British Meteoro- 
logical Office, giving a conspectus of the normal conditions of weather 
and sea. 

Reports of Important Expeditions. Sir C. Wyville Thomson, 
The Depths of the Sea (cruises of " Porcupine " and " Lightning ") 
(London, 1873); The Atlantic (cruise of "Challenger") (London, 
1877); Die Forschungsreise S.M.S. "Gazelle" in den Jahren 1874 
bis 1876 (5 vols., Berlin, 1889-1890); Report of the Scientific Results 
of the Voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger " in the years 1872-1876 (50 
vols., London, 1880-1895); A. Agassiz, Three Cruises of the. U.S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer " Blake "... from 1877 to 1880 
(2 vols., Boston, Mass., 1888); S. Makaroff, Le Vitiaz et VOctan 
Pacifique, 1886-1889 (St Petersburg, 1894) ; S. Makaroff, The Yermak 
in the Ice (in Russian) (St Petersburg, 1901); The Norwegian North 
Atlantic Expedition (on the " Voringen "), 1876-1878 (Christiania, 
18801900); Expeditions scienlifiques du " Travailleur " et du 
" Talisman," 1880-1883 (Paris, 1891 et seq.); Die Ergebnisse der 
Plankton-Expedition, 1889 (Kiel, 1892 et seq.); Rbsultats des cam- 
pagnes scientifiques accomplies sur son yacht par Albert I" Prince 
Souverain de Monaco (Monaco, from 1889); The Danish " Ingolf" 
Expedition, 1806 (Copenhagen, 1900) ; Prof. Luksch, Expeditionen 
S.M. Schiff " Pola " in das Millelmeer und in das Rote Meer, 
Kais. Akad. Wissenschaften (Vienna, 1891-1904); Die Deutsche 
" Valdivia " Tief-See Expedition, 1898-1899 (Berlin, 1900) ; M. Weber, 
"Siboga Expedition," Petermanns Mitteilungen (1900); Siboga 
Expedttie (Leiden, 1902 et seq.); F. Nansen, The Norwegian 
North Polar Expedition, 1893-1896 (Christiania and London, 1900); 
R. S. Peake, " On the Results of a Deep-sea Sounding Expedition 
in the North Atlantic Ocean during the Summer, 1899 " (Extra Publ. 
Geogr. Soc., London); Bulletin des resultats acquis pendant les 
courses p6riodiques (Conseil permanent international pour 1'explora- 
tion de la mer) (Copenhagen, 1902 seq.). 

Reports of many minor expeditions and researches have appeared 
in the Reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland; the Marine 
Biological Association at Plymouth; the Kiel Commission for the 
Investigation of the Baltic; the Berlin Institut ftir Meereskunde; 
the bluebooks of the Hydrographic Department ; the various official 
reports to the British, German, Russian, Finnish, Norwegian, 
Swedish, Danish, Belgian and Dutch governments on the respective 
work of these countries in connexion with the international co- 
operation in the North Sea; the Bulletin du musee ocfanographique 
de Monaco (1903 seq.); the Scottish Geographical Magazine; the 
Geographical Journal; Petermanns Mitleilungen ; Wagner's Geo- 
graphisches Jahrbuch ; the Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal 
Societies of London and Edinburgh; the Annalen der Hydrographie; 
and the publications of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. 

(O. K.;H. R. M.) 

OCEAN CITY, a city and seaside resort of Cape May county, 
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, about 10 m. 
S.W. of Atlantic City. Pop. (1890), 452; (1900), 1307; (1905), 
1835; (1910), 1950. It is served by the Atkntic City and the West 
Jersey & Seashore railways. The city is laid out to face both 
the ocean and Great Egg Harbor Bay, and is a popular resort 
during the summer months. Ocean City was incorporated as a 
borough in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1897. 



9 88 



OCEAN GROVE OCHILTREE 



OCEAN GROVE, a summer resort of Monmouth county, New 
Jersey, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, on the Atlantic 
coast, and 5 5 m. by rail S. of New York City. Pop. ( 1 909) , about 
2500. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Central of New 
Jersey railways. It is noted as a religious and musical seaside 
resort, and in July and August, and especially in the last ten days 
of August, during its annual camp-meeting, is visited by 
thousands of people. Ocean Grove was founded in 1869 by the 
Ocean Grove Camp-Meeting Association of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, as a place for religious worship, rest and 
recreation, free from all forms of questionable amusement, and 
is governed under a corporation charter, the corporation having 
power to place restrictions in all leases. 

OCEANIA, or OCEANICA, a name 'used to cover all the islands 
of the Pacific Ocean (q.v.) which are included in the divisions of 
Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australasia, &c. 

OCEANUS (Gr. '0/ceaws), in Greek mythology, the greatest 
of rivers and at the same time a divine personification. Never 
mingling with the sea which it encloses, according to Homer it 
has neither source nor mouth. On its southern banks, from 
east to west, dwell the " blameless Aethiopians " in perfect 
happiness, and beyond it on the west, in the realms of eternal 
night, the " Cimmerians," wrapped in fogs and darkness. Here 
are the grove of Persephone and the entrance of the underworld. 
Personified, Oceanus is in Hesiod (Theog. 133, 337-370) the 
son of Uranus and Gaea, the husband of Tethys, father of 3000 
streams and 4000 ocean nymphs. In Homer he is the origin of 
all things, even the father of the gods, and the equal in rank of 
all of them save Zeus. This conception recurs in the theory of 
Thales, who made water the first principle of all things. The 
idea of Oceanus as a river flowing unceasingly round the earth, 
which was regarded as a flat circle, was of long continuance. 
Euripides was the first among the tragic poets to speak of it as 
a sea, but Herodotus before him ridiculed the notion of Oceanus 
as a river as an invention of the poets and described it as the 
great world sea. As the geographical knowledge of the Greeks 
extended, the name was applied to the outer sea (especially the 
Atlantic). 

In art, Oceanus was represented as an old man of noble 
presence and benevolent expression, with the horns of an ox 
and sometimes crab's claws on his head. His attributes are a 
pitcher, cornucopiae (" horn of plenty"), rushes, marine animals 
and a sceptre. On the altar of Pergamum he is depicted taking 
part in the battle of the giants. 

Homer, Iliad, i. 423, xiv. 201, 24.5, xxi. 196; Odyssey, x. 508, 
xi. 14; Herodotus ii. 23, iv. 8; Euripides, Orestes, 1376; 'Caesar, 
Bell. Gall. iii. 7, iv. 10. 

OCELLUS LUCANUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, born in 
Lucania in the 5th century B.C., perhaps a pupil of Pythagoras 
himself. Stobaeus (Ed. Phys. i. 13) has preserved a fragment 
of his npi v&fiov (if he was really the author) in the Doric 
dialect, but the only one of his alleged works which is extant is a 
short treatise in four chapters in the Ionic dialect generally 
known as On the Nature of the Universe. Excerpts from this are 
given in Stobaeus (i. 20), but in Doric. It is certainly not 
authentic, and cannot be dated earlier than the ist century B.C. 
It maintains the doctrine that the universe is uncreated and 
eternal; that to its three great divisions correspond the three 
kinds of beings gods, men and daemons; and, finally, that the 
human race with all its institutions (the family, marriage and 
the like) must be eternal. It advocates an ascetic mode of life, 
with a view to the perfect reproduction of the race and its 
training in all that is noble and beautiful. 

Editions of the np2 rrjs TOV iroi>T<Js <t>vvtus, by A. F. Rudolph 
(1801, with commentary), and by F. W. Mullach in Fragmenta 
philosophorum graecorum, i. (1860); see also E. Zeller, History of 
Greek Philosophy, i. (Eng. trans.), and .]. de Heyden-Zielewicz in 
Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen, viii. 3 (1901). There is an 
English translation (1831) by Thomas Taylor, the Platonist. 

OCELOT (Mexican Flalocelotl, literally field-jaguar, from 
Flalli, field, and ocelotl, tiger, jaguar), an American member 
(Felis pardalis) of the family Felidae, ranging from Arkansas in 
the north to Paraguay. The species is subject to great racial 



variation. The fur has, however, a tawny yellow or reddish- 
grey ground colour, marked with black spots, aggregated in 
streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings enclosing areas rather 
darker than the general ground-colour. In the typical form the 
total length may reach 4 ft.; the average measurement of the 



X, 




Ocelot (Felis pardalis). 

head and body lies between 26 in. and 33 in., and of the tail be- 
tween 1 1 in. and 1 5 in. The ocelot is essentially a forest cat, and a 
ready climber; its disposition is said to be fierce and bloodthirsty 
but in confinement it becomes tame and playful. In Asia the 
group is represented by the Tibetan Felis tristis. 

OCHAKOV, a fortified town and port of Russia, in the govern- 
ment of Kherson, 41 m. E. of Odessa, on a cape of the Black 
Sea, at the entrance to the estuary of the Dnieper, and opposite 
to Kinburn. Pop. (1897), 10,784. Strong fortifications have 
been built at Ochakov and on the Kinburn promontory, to 
protect the entrance to the Dnieper. Ochakov stands close 
to the site of the old Miletan (Greek) colony of Olvia and the 
Greek colony of Alektor. The fortress of Kara-kerman or 
Ozu-kaleh was built on this spot by the khan of the Crimea, 
Mengli Girai, in 1492. At a later date it became the centre of 
a Turkish province which included Khaji-dereh (Ovidiopol), 
Khaji-bey (Odessa), and Dubossary, as well as some 150 villages. 
Russia, regarding it as the main obstacle to the possession of 
the Black Sea littoral, besieged it in 1737, when it was captured 
by Marshal Munnich, but in the following year it was abandoned, 
and in 1739 restored to Turkey. The second siege by Russia 
was begun in 1788, and lasted six months, until the fortress was 
stormed and taken, after a terrible loss of life. By the peace of 
1791 it became Russian. In 1855 it was bombarded by the 
Anglo-French fleet, and after that the Russians demolished the 
fortifications. 

OCHILTREE, a barony in the county of Ayr, Scotland, from 
which a title in the Scottish peerage was held in the i6th and 
1 7th centuries by a branch of the house of Stewart. Sir Andrew 
Stewart (d. 1488), chancellor of Scotland, a great-grandson of 
the regent Albany (d. 1420), was created Baron Avandale or 
Avondale about 1457. This peerage became extinct at his 
death, but was revived about 1499 in favour of his nephew and 
heir Andrew Stewart, who, being killed at the battle of Flodden 
in 1513, was succeeded by his son Andrew, 2nd Baron Avandale 
of this creation; and the latter obtained an act of parliament 
in 1543 empowering him to exchange the title of Lord Avandale 
for that of Lord Ochiltree, or Lord Stewart of Ochiltree. His 
son, Andrew, 2nd Lord Ochiltree (d. c. 1600), was a zealous 
supporter of the lords of the congregation, and especially of John 
Knox, in the struggle against Mary queen of Scots, and was 
wounded at the battle of Langside while fighting against the 
queen. Of his five sons, William was slain by the earl of 



OCHINO OCHRIDA 



989 



Bothwell in 1588, and James, created earl of Arran in 1581, was 
the father of Sir James Stewart of Killeith who became 4th 
Lord Ochiltree in 1615; his daughter Margaret was the second 
wife of John Knox. His brother Henry Stewart married 
Margaret Tudor, widow of James IV. of Scotland, and was 
created Baron Methven by James V. in 1528; and another 
brother, Sir James Stewart of Beath, was ancestor of the Stewart 
earls of Moray, through his son James who was created Lord 
Doune in 1581. 

The second Lord Ochiltree was succeeded in the peerage by 
his grandson Andrew, who resigned the title in 1615, and having 
been summoned by writ to the Irish House of Lords was created 
Baron Castle Stewart in the Irish peerage in 1619. The barony 
of Ochiltree which he thus resigned was conferred in 1615 on 
his cousin Sir James Stewart of Killeith (see above), son of the 
earl of Arran; and on the death without issue of his son William, 
5th Lord Ochiltree, in 1675, the title became extinct. In 1774 
Andrew Thomas Stewart successfully claimed the barony of 
Castle Stewart in the peerage of Ireland as heir male under the 
creation of 1619; but although he was permitted in 1790 to 
vote as Lord Ochiltree in an election of Scottish representative 
peers, his claim to this barony as collateral heir of the grantee 
of 1615 was disallowed by the House of Lords in 1793. 

OCHINO, BERNARDINO (1487-1564), Italian Reformer, 
was born at Siena in 1487. At an early age he entered the order 
of Observantine Friars, the strictest sect of the Franciscans, 
and rose to be its general, but, craving a yet stricter rule, trans- 
ferred himself in 1534 to the newly founded order of Capuchins, 
of which in 1538 he was elected vicar-general. In 1539, urged 
by Bembo, he visited Venice and delivered a remarkable course 
of sermons, showing a decided tendency to the doctrine of 
iustification by faith, which appears still more evidently in his 
Dialogi VII. published soon after. He was suspected and 
denounced, but nothing ensued until, at the instigation of the 
austere zealot Caraffa, the Inquisition was established at Rome, 
June 1542. Ochino was at once cited, but was deterred from 
presenting himself at Rome by the warnings of Peter Martyr 
and of Cardinal Contarini, whom he found at Bologna, dying 
of poison administered by the reactionary party. After some 
hesitation he escaped across the Alps to Geneva. He was 
cordially received by Calvin, and within two years published six 
volumes of Prediche, tracts rather than sermons, explaining and 
vindicating his change of religion. Twenty-five of these were 
published in English at Ipswich in 1548. In 1545 he became 
minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at Augsburg, 
which he was compelled to forsake when, in January 1547, 
the city was occupied by the imperial forces in the Schmalkaldic 
War. Escaping by way of Strassburg he found an asylum in 
England, where he was made a prebendary of Canterbury, 
received a pension from Edward VI. 's privy purse, and com- 
posed his chief work, A Trajedy or Dialogue of the unjust usurped 
Primacy of the Bishop of Rome (1549). This remarkable per- 
formance, originally written in Latin, is extant only in the 
translation of John Ponet, bishop of Winchester, a splendid 
specimen of nervous English. The conception is highly 
dramatic; the form is that of a series of dialogues. Lucifer, 
enraged at the spread of Christ's kingdom, convokes the fiends 
in council, and resolves to set up the pope as Antichrist. The 
state, represented by the emperor Phocas, is persuaded to 
connive at the pope's assumption of spiritual authority; the 
other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's 
projects seem fully accomplished, when Heaven raises up Henry 
VIII. and his son for their overthrow. The conception bears 
a remarkable resemblance fo that of Paradise Lost', and it is 
almost certain that Milton, whose sympathies with the Italian 
Reformation were so strong, must have been acquainted with it, 
and with some of his later works. In the Labyrinth (dedicated 
to Queen Elizabeth of England), a discussion of the freedom 
of the will, he covertly assailed the Calvinistic doctrine of 
predestination, and showed that his views were tinged with 
Socinianism. 

The accession of Mary in 1553 drove him from England, and 



he became pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich. In 
1 563 the long-gathering storm of obloquy burst upon the occasion 
of the publication of his Thirty Dialogues, in one of which his 
adversaries maintained that he had justified polygamy under 
colour of a pretended refutation. His dialogues on divorce 
and the Trinity were also obnoxious. Ochino was banished 
from Zurich, and, after being refused a shelter by other Protestant 
cities, directed his steps towards Poland, at that time the most 
tolerant state in Europe. He had not resided there long when 
the edict of the 6th of August 1564 banished all foreign dis- 
sidents. Flying from the country, he encountered the plague 
at Pinczoff; three of his four children were carried off; and 
he himself, worn out by age and misfortune, died in solitude 
and obscurity at Schlakau in Moravia, about the end of 1564. 
His reputation among Protestants was at the time so bad that 
he was charged with the authorship of the treatise De tribus 
impostoribus, as well as with having carried his alleged approval 
of polygamy into practice. It was reserved for Dr Benrath to 
justify him, and to represent him as a fervent evangelist and 
at the same time as a speculative thinker with a passion for 
free inquiry. The general tendency of his mind ran counter 
to tradition, and he is remarkable as resuming in his individual 
history all the phases of Protestant theology from Luther to 
Socinus. 

See Life by B. O. Benrath (2nd ed., Brunswick, 1892), translated 
into English by Helen Zimmern (London, 1876) . In addition to 
the books already named, he wrote Italian expositions of Romans 
(Geneva, 1545) and Galatians (Augsburg, 1546). 

OCHRES, a class of pigments varying in colour from yellow to 
red, and consisting mainly of hydrated iron oxide. The Yellow 
Ochres are native earths coloured with hydrated ferric oxide, the 
brownish yellow substance that colours, and is deposited from, 
highly ferruginous water. These ochres are of two kinds one 
having an argillaceous basis, while the other is a calcareous earth, 
the argillaceous variety being in general the richer and more pure 
in colour of the two. Both kinds are widely distributed, fine 
qualities being found in Oxfordshire, the Isle of Wight, near 
Jena and Nuremberg in Germany, and in France in the depart- 
ments of Yonne, Cher and Nievre. The original colour of these 
ochres can be modified and varied into browns and reds of more 
or less intensity by calcination. The nature of the associated 
earth also influences the colour assumed by an ochre under 
calcination, aluminous ochres developing red and violet tints, 
while the calcareous varieties take brownish-red and dark-brown 
hues. The well-known ochre Terra da Sienna which in its raw 
state is a dull-coloured ochre, becomes when burnt a fine warm 
mahogany brown hue highly valued for artistic purposes. 
Yellow ochres are also artificially prepared Mars Yellow being 
either pure hydrated ferric oxide or an intimate mixture of that 
substance with an argillaceous or calcareous earth, and such 
compounds by careful calcination can be transformed into Mars 
Orange, Violet or Red, all highly important, stable and reliable 
pigments. 

OCHRIDA (also written OKHRTOA and ACHRIDA; Turkish 
Ochri), a city of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of 
Monastir; on the north-eastern shore of Lake Ochrida, and at the 
eastern end of the Roman Via Egnatia. Pop. (1905) about 
1 1 ,000, including Albanians, Turks, Greeks and Slavs. Ochrida 
occupies the site of the ancient Lychnidos, which was added to 
the Macedonian empire by Philip II. (382-336 B.C.), and destroyed 
by the Bulgarians in A.D. 861. It is the seat of Bulgarian and 
Greek bishops. From the creation of the Bulgarian patriarchate 
of Ochrida in 893 to its abolition in 1767 the city was the ecclesi- 
astical headquarters of the Bulgarians in the west of the Balkan 
Peninsula. Lake Ochrida is 2260 ft. above sea-level, in a moun- 
tainous limestone region of Karst formation. It measures 107 
sq. m., and has a maximum depth of 938 ft. Its waters are 
supplied by subterranean streams. Its chief outlet is the river 
Black Drin, on the north. 

See Gelzer, Der Patriarchal von Achrida (Leipzig, 1902); and 
" Dr Jovan Cvijic's Researches in Macedonia, &c.," in The Geo- 
graphical Journal, vol. xvi. (London, 1900). 



990 



OCHSENFURT O'CONNELL, D, 



OCHSENFURT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 
situated on the left bank of the Main, here crossed by a stone 
bridge, 13 m. S. from Wiirzburg by the railway to Munich, 
and at the junction of a line to Rottingen. Pop. (1905) 3333. 
It contains an Evangelical and five Roman Catholic churches, 
among them that of St Michael, a fine Gothic edifice. There is 
a considerable trade in wine and agricultural produce, other 
industries being brewing and malting. 

OCHTERLONY, SIR DAVID, Bart. (1758-1825), British 
general, was born at Boston, Mass., U.S.A., on the izth of 
February 1758, and went to India as a cadet in 1777. He served 
under Lord Lake in the battles of Koil, Aligarh and Delhi, and 
was appointed resident at Delhi in 1803. In 1804, having been 
promoted to the rank of major-general, he defended the city with 
a very inadequate force against an attack by Holkar. On the 
outbreak of the Nepal War (1814-15) he was given the command 
of one of four converging columns, and his services were rewarded 
with a baronetcy in 181 5. Subsequently he was promoted to the 
command of the main force in its advance on Katmandu, and 
outmanoeuvring the Gurkhas by a flank march at the Kourea 
Ghat Pass, brought the war to a successful conclusion and 
obtained the signature of the treaty of Segauli (1816), which 
dictated the subsequent relations of the British with Nepal. 
For this success Ochterlony was created G.C.B., the first time 
that honour had been conferred on an officer of the Indian army. 
In the Pindari War (1817-18) he was in command of the Raj- 
putana column, made a separate agreement with Amir Khan, 
detaching him from the Pindaris, and then, interposing his 
own force between the two main divisions of the enemy, brought 
the war to an end without an engagement. He was appointed 
resident in Rajputana in 1818, with which the residency at 
Delhi was subsequently combined. When Durjan Sal revolted 
in 1825 against Balwant Singh, the infant Raja of Bharatpur, 
Ochterlony acting on his own responsibility supported the raja 
by proclamation and ordered out a force to support him. Lord 
Amherst, however, repudiated these proceedings. Ochterlony, 
who was bitterly chagrined by this rebuff, resigned his office, and 
retired to Delhi. The feeling that the confidence which his length 
of service merited had not been given him by the governor- 
general is said to have accelerated his death, which occurred 
at Meerut on the isth of July 1825. The Ochterlony column 
at Calcutta commemorates his name. 

See Major Ross of Bladensburg, The Marquess of Hastings 
(" Rulers of India " series) (1893). 

OCHTMAN, LEONARD (1854- ), American painter, was 
born in Zonnemaire, Zeeland, Holland, on the 2ist of October 
1854. His family removed to Albany, New York, in 1866. 
In 1882 he began to exhibit landscapes at the National 
Academy, and he became a National Academician in 1904. 
His most characteristic pictures, which recall the work 
of Inness, are scenes on Long Island Sound and on the Mianus 
river. 

OCKLEY, SIMON (1678-1720), English orientalist, was born 
at Exeter in 1678. He was educated at Queen's College, Cam- 
bridge, became fellow of Jesus College and vicar of Swavesey, 
and in 1 7 1 1 was made professor of Arabic at Cambridge. He had 
a large family, and the pecuniary embarrassments of his later 
days form the subject of a chapter in Disraeli's Calamities of 
Authors. The preface to the second volume of his History of the 
Saracens is dated from Cambridge Castle, where he was imprisoned 
for debt. Ockley maintained that a knowledge of Oriental 
literature was essential to the proper study of theology, and in 
the preface to his first book, the Introductio ad linguas orientates 
(1706), he urges the importance of the study. In 1707 he pub- 
lished a translation of Leon Modena's History of the Present 
Jews throughout the World; and in 1708 The Improvement of 
Human Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan. His 
chief work is The History of the Saracens (1708-1718), of which 
a third volume was published posthumously in 1757. Un- 
fortunately Ockley took as his main authority a MS. in the 
Bodleian of the pseudo-Wakidi's Futuh al-Sham, which is rather 
historical romance than history. He also translated from the 



Arabic the Second Book of Esdras and the Sentences of AH. 
Ockley died at Swavesey on the gth of August 1 7 20. 

O'CLERY, MICHAEL (1575-1643), Irish chronicler, grandson 
of a chief of the sept of O'CIery in Donegal, was born at Kil- 
barrow on Donegal Bay, and was baptized Tadhg (or " poet "), 
but took the name of Michael when he became a Franciscan 
friar. He was a cousin of Lughaidh O'CIery (fl. 1595-1630), 
who, with his son Cacrigcriche O'CIery (d. 1664) one of Michael's 
co-workers is also famous as an Irish historian. He had 
already gained a reputation as an antiquary and student of 
Irish history and literature, when he entered the Irish College 
of St Anthony at Louvain. In 1620, through the initiative of 
Hugh Boy Macanward (1580-1635), warden of the college, and 
himself a famous Irish historian and poet, and one of an old 
family of hereditary bards in Tyrconnell, he began to collect 
Irish manuscripts and to transcribe everything he could find of 
historical importance; he was assisted by other Irish scholars, 
and the results were his Reim Rioghroidhe (Royal List) in 1630, 
Leabhar Gabhala (Book of Invasions) in 1631, and his most 
famous work, called by John Colgan (d. 1659), the Irish bio- 
grapher, the "Annals of the Four Masters" (1636). Subsequently 
he produced his Martyrologium of Irish saints, based on various 
ancient manuscripts, an Irish glossary and other works. He 
lived in poverty, and died at Louvain. 

O'CONNELL, DANIEL (1775-1847), Irish statesman, known 
as " the Liberator," was born on the 6th of August 1775 near 
Cahirciveen, a small town in Kerry. He was sprung from a 
race the heads of which had been Celtic chiefs, had lost their 
lands in the wars of Ireland, and had felt the full weight of the 
harsh penal code which long held the Catholic Irish down. 
His ancestors in the i8th century had sent recruits to the famous 
brigade of Irish exiles in the service of France, 1 and those who 
remained at home either lived as tenants on the possessions of 
which they had once been lords, or gradually made money by 
smuggling, a very general calling in that wild region. Thus he 
inherited from his earliest years, with certain traditions of birth 
and high station, a strong dislike of British rule in Ireland and 
of the dominant owners of the soil, a firm attachment to his 
proscribed faith, and habitual skill in evading the law; and these 
influences may be traced in his subsequent career. While a boy 
he was adopted by his uncle, Maurice O'Connell of Derrynane, 
and sent to a school at Queenstown, one of the first which the 
state in those days allowed to be opened for Catholic teaching; 
and a few years afterwards he became a student, as was customary 
with Irish youths of his class, in the English colleges of St Omer 
and Douai in France. These years in France had a decided 
effect in forming his judgment on political questions of high 
moment. He was an eye-witness on more than one occasion of 
the folly and excesses of the French Revolution; and these 
scenes not only increased his love for his church, but strongly 
impressed him with that dread of anarchy, of popular movements 
ending in bloodshed, and of communistic and socialistic views 
which characterized him in after life. To these experiences, 
too, we may partly ascribe the reverence for law, for the rights 
of property, and for the monarchical form of government which 
he appears to have sincerely felt; and, demagogue as he became 
in a certain sense, they gave his mind a deep Conservative tinge. 
In 1798 he was called to the bar of Ireland, and rose before long 
to the very highest eminence among contemporary lawyers 
and advocates. This position was in the main due to a dexterity 
in conducting causes, and especially in examining witnesses, 
in which he had no rival at the Irish bar. He was, however, 
a thorough lawyer besides, inferior in scientific learning to two 
or three of his most conspicuous rivals, but well read in every 
department of law, and especially a master in all that relates 
to criminal and constitutional jurisprudence. As an advocate, 
too, he stood in the very highest rank ; in mere oratory he was 
surpassed by Plunket, and in rhetorical gifts by Bushe, the only 

1 See the account of O'Connell's uncle, Count Daniel O'Connell 
( I 745~'833), to whose property he fell heir, in Mrs O'Connell's 
Last Colonel of the Irish Brigade (1892), and O'Callaghan's Irish 
Brigade in the Service of France (1870). 



O'CONNELL, D. 



991 



speakers to be named with him in his best days at the Irish bar; 
but his style, if not of the most perfect kind, and often disfigured 
by decided faults, was marked by a peculiar subtlety and 
manly power, and produced great and striking effects. On the 
whole, in the art of winning over juries he had scarcely an equal 
in the law courts. 

To understand, however, O'Connell's greatness we must look 
to the field of Irish politics. From early manhood he had turned 
his mind to the condition of Ireland and the mass of her people. 
The worst severities of the penal code had been, in a certain 
measure, relaxed, but the Catholics were still in a state of vassal- 
age, and they were still pariahs compared with the Protestants. 
The rebellion of 1798 and the union had dashed the hopes of 
the Catholic leaders, and their prospects of success seemed very 
remote when, in the first years of the iQth century, the still 
unknown lawyer took up their cause. Up to this juncture the 
question had been in the hands of Grattan and other Protestants, 
and of a small knot of Catholic nobles and prelates; but their 
efforts had not accomplished much, and they aimed only at 
a kind of compromise, which, while conceding their principal 
claims, would have placed their church in subjection to the 
state. O'Connell inaugurated a different policy, and had soon 
given the Catholic movement an energy it had not before 
possessed. Himself a Roman Catholic of birth and genius, 
unfairly kept back in the race of life, he devoted his heart and 
soul to the cause, and his character and antecedents made him 
the champion who ultimately assured its triumph. He formed 
the bold design of combining the Irish Catholic millions, under the 
superintendence of the native priesthood, into a vast league 
against the existing order of things, and of wresting the concession 
of the Catholic claims from every opposing party in the state by 
an agitation, continually kept up, and embracing almost the 
whole of the people, but maintained within constitutional 
limits, though menacing and shaking the frame of society. He 
gradually succeeded in carrying out his purpose: the Catholic 
Association, at first small, but slowly assuming larger proportions, 
was formed; attempts of the government and of the local 
authorities to put its branches down were skilfully baffled by 
legal devices of many kinds; and at last, after a conflict of years, 
all Catholic Ireland was arrayed to a man in an organization 
of enormous power, that demanded its rights with no uncertain 
voice. O'Connell, having long before attained an undisputed 
and easy ascendancy, stood at the head of this great national 
movement; but it will be observed that, having been controlled 
from first to last by himself and the priesthood, it had little in 
common with the mob rule and violence which he had never 
ceased to regard with aversion. His election for Clare in 1828 
proved the forerunner of the inevitable change, and the Catholic 
claims were granted the next year, to the intense regret of the 
Protestant Irish, by a government avowedly hostile to the last, 
but unable to withstand the overwhelming pressure of a people 
united to insist on justice. The result, unquestionably, was 
almost wholly due to the energy and genius of a single man, 
though the Catholic question would have been settled, in all 
probability, in the course of time; and it must be added that 
O'Connell's triumph, which showed what agitation could effect 
in Ireland, was far from doing his country unmixed good. 

O'Connell joined the Whigs on entering parliament, and 
gave effective aid to the cause of reform. The agitation, however, 
on the Catholic question had quickened the sense of the wrongs 
of Ireland, and the Irish Catholics were engaged ere long in a 
crusade against tithes and the established church, the most 
offensive symbols of their inferiority in the state. It may be 
questioned whether O'Connell was not rather led than a leader 
in this; the movement, at least, passed beyond his control, 
and the country for many months was terrorized by scenes 
of appalling crime and bloodshed. Lord Grey, very properly, 
proposed measures of repression to put this anarchy down, 
and O'Connell opposed them with extreme vehemence, a 
seeming departure from his avowed principles, but natural 
in the case of a popular tribune. This caused a breach between 
him and the Whigs; but he gradually returned to his allegiance 



to them when they practically abolished Irish tithes, cut down 
the revenues of the established church and endeavoured to 
secularize the surplus. By this time O'Connell had attained 
a position of great eminence in the House of Commons: as a 
debater he stood in the very first rank, though he had entered 
St Stephen's after fifty; and his oratory, massive and strong 
in argument, although too often scurrilous and coarse, and marred 
by a bearing in which cringing flattery and rude bullying were 
strangely blended, made a powerful, if not a pleasing, impression. 
O'Connell steadily supported Lord Melbourne's government, 
gave it valuable aid in its general measures, and repeatedly 
expressed his cordial approval of its policy in advancing Irish 
Catholics to places of trust and power in the state, though 
personally he refused a high judicial office. Though a strict 
adherent of the creed of Rome, he was a Liberal, nay a Radical, 
as regards measures for the vindication of human liberty, and 
he sincerely advocated the rights of conscience, the emancipation 
of the slave and freedom of trade. But his rooted aversion to 
the democratic theories imported from France, which were 
gradually winning their way into England, only grew stronger 
with advancing age. His conservatism was most apparent 
in his antipathy to socialistic doctrines and his tenacious regard 
for the claims of property. He actually opposed the Irish Poor 
Law, as encouraging a communistic spirit; he declared a move- 
ment against rent a crime; and, though he had a strong sympathy 
with the Irish peasant, and advocated a reform of his precarious 
tenure, it is difficult to imagine that he could have approved 
the cardinal principle of the Irish Land Act of 1881, the judicial 
adjustment of rent by the state. 

O'Connell changed his policy as regards Ireland when Peel 
became minister in 1841. He declared that a Tory regime in 
his country was incompatible with good government, and he 
began an agitation for the repeal of the union. One of his motives 
in taking this course no doubt was a strong personal dislike 
of Peel, with whom he had often been in collision, and who had 
singled him out in 1829 for what must be called a marked affront. 
O'Connell, nevertheless, was sincere and even consistent in his 
conduct : he had denounced the union in early manhood as 
an obstacle to the Catholic cause; he had spoken against the 
measure in parliament; he believed that the claims of Ireland 
were set aside or slighted in what he deemed an alien assembly; 
and, though he had ceased for some years to demand repeal, 
and regarded it as rather a means than an end, he was throughout 
life an avowed repealer. It should be observed, however, that 
in his judgment the repeal of the union would not weaken the 
real bond between Great Britain and Ireland; and he had 
nothing in common with the revolutionists who, at a later period, 
openly declared for the separation of the two countries by 
physical force. The organization which had effected such 
marvellous results in 1828-1829 was recreated for the new project. 
Enormous meetings, convened by the priesthood, and directed 
or controlled by O'Connell, assembled in 1842-1843, and probably 
nine-tenths of the Irish Catholics were unanimous in the cry 
for repeal. O'Connell seems to have thought success certain; 
but he had not perceived the essential difference between his 
earlier agitation and this. The enlightened opinion of the three 
kingdoms for the most part approved the Catholic claims, and 
as certainly it condemned repeal. After some hesitation Peel 
resolved to put down the repeal movement. A vast intended 
meeting was proclaimed unlawful, and in October 1843 O'Connell 
was arrested and held to bail, with ten or twelve of his principal 
followers. He was convicted (February 1844) after the trials 
that followed, but they were not good specimens of equal justice, 
and the sentence of imprisonment for a year and a fine of 2000 
was reversed on a writ of error by the House of Lords (September 
1844), and he and his colleagues were again free. The spell, 
however, of O'Connell's power had vanished; his health had 
suffered much from a short confinement; he was verging upon 
his seventieth year; and he was alarmed and pained by the 
growth of a party in the repeal ranks who scoffed at his views, 
and advocated the revolutionary doctrines which he had always 
feared and abhorred. Before long famine had fallen on the 



992 



O'CONNOR, F. E. OCTAVE 



land, and under this visitation the repeal movement, already 
paralysed, wholly collapsed. O'Connell died on the isth of 
May 1847, at Genoa, whilst on his way to Rome. His body 
was brought back to Dublin and buried in Glasnevin cemetery. 

O'Connell was a remarkable man in every sense of the word, 
of splendid physique, and with all the attractions of a popular 
leader. Catholic Ireland calls him her " Liberator " still ; and 
history will say of him that, with some failings, he had many 
and great gifts, that he was an orator of a high order, and that, 
agitator as he was, he possessed the wisdom, the caution and 
the tact of a re'al statesman. Nevertheless he not only failed 
to accomplish the chief aim of his life, but Lecky trenchantly 
observes that " by a singular fatality the great advocate of 
repeal did more than any one else to make the Union a necessity. 
... He destroyed the sympathy between the people and their 
natural leaders; and he threw the former into the hands of 
men who have subordinated all national to ecclesiastical con- 
siderations, or into the hands of reckless, ignorant, and dishonest 
adventurers." O'Connell married in 1802 his cousin Mary 
O'Connell, by whom he had three daughters and four sons, 
Maurice, Morgan, John (1810-1858), known as the " Young 
Liberator," and Daniel, who all sat in parliament. 

His son John published a Life in 1846 and Recollections and 
Experiences in 1849. There are also biographies by W. Fagan 
(1847), M. F. Cusack (1872), J. O'Rourke and O'Keeffe (1875), 
and J. A. Hamilton (1888). See especially W. E. H. Lecky 's essay 
in the revised edition of his Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland 
vol. ii. (1903). (W. O. M.) 

O'CONNOR, FEARGUS EDWARD (1794-1855), Chartist 
leader, was a son of the Irish Nationalist politician Roger 
O'Connor (1762-1834), and nephew of Arthur O'Connor (1763- 
1852), who was the agent in France for Emmet's rebellion; 
both belonged to the " United Irishmen." He entered parlia- 
ment as member for the county of Cork in 1832. Though a 
zealous supporter of repeal, he endeavoured to supplant O'Con- 
nell as the leader of the party, an attempt which aroused against 
him the popular antipathy of the Irish. In 1835 he was un- 
seated on petition, and after standing unsuccessfully for Oldham 
he took to stumping England in favour of the new Radical 
doctrines of the day, and the use of physical force for their 
adoption. In 1837 he established the Northern Star newspaper 
at Leeds, and became a vehement advocate of the Chartist 
movement. He was imprisoned for seditious libel in 1840, and 
after his release became prominent for his attack on John 
Bright, and the anti-corn-law league. In 1847 he was returned 
for Nottingham, and in 1848 he presided at a Chartist demon- 
stration on Kennington Common, which caused great alarm 
(see CHARTISM). But the projected march on Westminster 
fizzled out when the preparations made to receive it became 
known. The eccentricity which had characterized his opinions 
from the beginning of his career gradually became more marked 
until they developed into insanity. He began to conduct 
himself in a disorderly manner in the House of Commons, and 
in 1852 he was found to be of unsound mind by a commission 
of lunacy. He died at London on the 3oth of August 1855, 
and was buried in Kensal Green cemetery. 

OCONOMOWOC, a city of Waukesha county, Wisconsin, 
U.S.A., about 33 m. W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 2729; (1900) 
2880; (1905) 3013; (1910) 3054. It is served by the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St Paul railway and by an electric railway con- 
necting with Milwaukee. Oconomowoc is one of the most 
popular summer resorts in the Middle West. Along the shore 
of Lakes Fowler and La Belle are some beautiful country estates, 
several large hotels and fine club houses, and two sanatoria. 
At Delafield and at Dousman (8 m. S. of Oconomowoc) there 
are state fish hatcheries, the former for black bass. Oconomowoc 
was settled about 1837 and incorporated in 1875; its name 
is an Indian word, said to mean " home of the beaver." 

O'CONOR, CHARLES (1804-1884), American lawyer, was 
born in the city of New York on the 22nd of January 1804, 
and was the son of Thomas O'Conor (1770-1855), who in 1801 
emigrated from Roscommon county, Ireland, to New York, 
where he devoted himself chiefly to journalism. The son 



studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1824, and soon won 
high reputation in his profession. He was United States district 
attorney for New York in 1853-1854. In politics an extreme 
States'-Rights Democrat, he opposed the coercion of the South, 
and after the Civil War became senior counsel for Jefferson 
Davis on his indictment for treason, and was one of his bonds- 
men; these facts and O'Conor's connexion with the Roman 
Catholic Church affected unfavourably his political fortunes. 
In 1872 he was nominated for the presidency by the " Bourbon " 
Democrats, who refused to support Horace Greeley, and by the 
" Labour Reformers "; he declined the nomination but received 
21,559 votes. He took a prominent part in the prosecution of 
William M. Tweed and members of the " Tweed Ring," and 
published Peculation Triumphant, Being the Record of a Five 
Years' Campaign against Official Malversation, AD. 1871-187$ 
(1875). He removed to Nantucket, Massachusetts, in 1881, 
and died there on the I2th of May 1884. 

OCONTO, a city and the county-seat of Oconto county, 
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 130 m. N. of Milwaukee, on the W. 
shore of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Oconto river. Pop. 
(1890) 5219; (1900) 5646, of whom 1544 were foreign-born; 
(i9S) 5722; (1910) 5629. It is served by the Chicago & North- 
Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The 
city lies in a good farming country, and has a considerable lake 
commerce in lumber and fish. The first settlement was made 
here in 1846, and Oconto was chartered as a city in 1882. 

OCRICULUM (mod. Otricoli), an ancient town of Umbria, 
Italy, on the Via Flaminia, near the E. bank of the Tiber, 44 m. 
N. of Rome and 12 m. S. of Narnia. It concluded an alliance 
with Rome in 308 B.C. The modern village lies higher than the 
ancient town, and excavations on the site of the latter in 1775 
and following years led to the discovery of the baths, a theatre, 
a basilica and other buildings. In the baths were found a number 
of works of ar.t, now in the Vatican, notably the mosaic pave- 
ment of the Sala della Rotonda, and the celebrated head of Zeus 
and the head of Claudius in the same room. An amphitheatre 
is still visible, but the other buildings have in the main been 
covered up again. 

OCTAHEDRON (Gr. omo, eight, fdpa, base), a solid bounded 
by eight triangular faces; it has 6 vertices and 12 edges. The 
regular octahedron has for its faces equilateral triangles; it 
is the reciprocal of the cube. Octahedra having triangular 
faces other than equilateral occur as crystal forms. See POLY- 
HEDRON and CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 

OCTAVE (from Lat. oclavus, eighth, octo, eight), a period 
or series of eight members. In ecclesiastical usage the octave 
is the eighth day after a particular church festival, the feast 
day itself and the " octave " being counted. The octave thus 
always falls on the same day of the week as the festival, and 
any event occurring during the period is said to be " in the 
octave." In music, an octave is the eighth full tone above or 
below any given note. It is produced by double or half the 
number of vibrations corresponding to the given note. In the 
interval between a note and its octave is contained the full scale, 
the octave of a note forming the starting-point of another scale 
of similar intervals to the first. The interval between a note 
and its octave is also called an octave. The name is also applied 
to an open metal stop in an organ, and to a flute (more usually 
known as the piccolo) one octave higher in pitch than the 
regular flute. It is also a term for a " parade " in fencing. 
The " law of octaves " was a term applied in 1865 to a relation- 
ship among the chemical elements enunciated by J. A. R. 
Newlands. 

In literature an octave is a form of verse consisting of eight 
iambic lines, and complete in itself. From its use by the poets 
of Sicily, the recognized type of this form is usually called the 
Sicilian Octave. It is distinguished from a single stanza of 
ottava rima, in which the rhyme-arrangement is abababcc, by 
having only two rhymes, arranged abababab. In German litera- 
ture the octave has been used not infrequently since 1820, when 
Ruckert published " Sicilianen," as they are called in German, 
for the first time. The word octave is also often used to describe 



OCTA VIA OCTOROON 



993 



the eight opening lines of a sonnet, in which the rhyme-arrange- 
ment is abbaabba, or some modification of this, but properly 
always on two rhymes only. 

OCTA VIA, the name of two princesses of the Augustan house. 

(1) Octavia, daughter of Gaius Octavius and sister of the emperor 
Augustus, was the wife of Gaius Marcellus, one of the bitterest 
enemies of Julius Caesar. In 41 B.C. her husband died, and she 
was married to Marcus Antonius, with the idea of bringing about a 
reconciliation between him and her brother. Her efforts were 
at first successful, but in 36 Antony left for the Parthian War 
and renewed his intrigue with Cleopatra. Though Octavia 
took out troops and money to him (35), he refused to see her and 
formally divorced her in 32, but she always protected his children, 
even those by Fulvia and Cleopatra. Her beauty and virtues 
are praised by all ancient authorities. By her first husband she 
was the mother of Marcus Marcellus (?..), who died in 23 B.C. 

(2) OCTAVIA, daughter of the emperor Claudius, was the wife of 
Nero, by whom she was put to death. A Latin tragedy on her 
fate is attributed, though wrongly, to Seneca. 

OCTAVO, a shortened form of Lat. in octavo, " in an eighth, 
i.e. of a sheet of paper, a term applied to a size of paper and to a 
size of a printed volume. Paper is in octavo when a whole single 
sheet is folded three times to form eight leaves; a book is techni- 
cally termed of " octavo " size when made up of sheets folded 
three times (see BIBLIOGRAPHY and PAPER). 

OCTOBER, the eighth month of the old Roman year, which 
began in March. In the Julian calendar, while retaining its 
old name, it became the tenth month, and had thirty-one days 
assigned to it. The meditrinalia, when a libation of new wine 
was made in honour of Meditrina, were celebrated on the nth, 
the faunalia on the I3th, and the equiria, when the equus October 
was sacrificed to Mars in the Campus Martius, on the isth. 
Several attempts were made to rename the month in honour 
of the emperors. Thus it was in succession temporarily known 
as Germanicus, Antoninus, Tacitus and Herculeus, the latter 
a surname of Commodus. The senate's attempt to christen it 
Faustinus in honour of Faustina, wife of Antoninus, was equally 
unsuccessful. The principal ecclesiastical feasts in October are 
those of St Luke on the i8th and of St Simon and St Jude on 
the 28th. By the Slavs it is called " yellow month," from the 
fading of the leaf; to the Anglo-Saxons it was known as Winter- 
fylleth, because at this full moon (jylleth) winter was supposed 
to begin. 

OCTODON, the generic name for a small South American 
rodent mammal (Oclodon degus) locally known as the degu. 
It is the type of the family Oclodontidae, the members of which 
collectively termed octodonts are exclusively Central and 
South American. Several of them, such as Echinomys and 
Loncheres, are rat-like creatures with spiny or bristly fur (see 
RODENTIA). 

OCTOPUS (Gr. OKTO>, eight and irow, foot), the name in 
scientific zoology belonging to a single genus of eight armed 
Cephalopoda (q.v.), one of whose distinguishing characters is that 
it has two rows of suckers on each arm. This true octopus occurs 
occasionally on the British coasts, at least the south coast, but 
is usually rare. It is more common on the southern coasts 
of Europe, including those of the Mediterranean. The usual 
species of Octopoda on the British south coast is Eledone cirrosa, 
which has only one row of suckers on each arm, and is a smaller 
animal. The celebrated account of the octopus given by Victor 
Hugo in his Travailleurs de la mer is not so fictitious as some 
critics with a knowledge of natural history have maintained. 
It is true that the great French author has made the mistake 
of using the name Cephaloptera, which belongs to a large tropical 
fish similar to a skate, instead of Cephalopoda, and that he applies 
the term devil-fish, which belongs to Cephaloptera, to the 
octopus. His description is exaggerated, imaginative and 
sensational; but it is correct in its most important particulars, 
and bears evidence that the author was to some extent personally 
acquainted with the animal and its habits, although he was not 
a scientific observer. The octopus feeds on crabs, and crabs feed 
on carrion, and, therefore, there is nothing impossible in Hugo's 



account of the skeleton of a drowned man surrounded by the 
shells of numbers of crabs which the octopus had devoured. 
Whether an octopus would attack and kill a man is another 
question, but it certainly might seize him with its arms and 
suckers while holding to the rocks by other arms, and a man 
seized in this way when in the water might be in danger of being 
drowned. 

The octopus and many of the Octopoda move about by means 
of their arms on the sea bottom, and are not free-swimming, 
though like other Cephalopods they can propel themselves 
on occasion backwards through the water by means of the funnel. 
Other Octopoda, however, are pelagic and free-swimming, and 
such habits are not confined to those forms which are provided 
with lateral fins. The Argonaut (see NAUTILUS) is one of the 
Octopoda. The separation of one of the arms of the male for 
purposes of reproduction is one of the most remarkable peculi- 
arities of the Octopoda. It does not occur, however, in octopus 
nor in many other members of the group. One arm is always 
considerably modified in structure and employed in copulation, 
but it is only in three genera, one of which is Argonauta, that the 
arm spontaneously separates. The detached arm is found still 
alive and moving in the mantle cavity of the female, and when 
first discovered in these circumstances was naturally regarded 
by the older naturalists as a parasite. Cuvier, on account of 
the numerous suckers of the detached arm, gave it the name 
Hectocotylus (hundred suckers). When the arm is not detached 
but only altered in structure it is said to be hectocotylized. 
In Octopus and Eledone it is the third right arm which is hecto- 
cotylized. The extremity of this arm is expanded and assumes 
the shape of a spoon. Whether detached or not the modified 
arm possesses a cavity into which the spermatophores are passed 
and the arm serves to convey them to the mantle cavity of the 
female. 

It has been mentioned above that the true octopus (Octopus 
vulgaris) is usually rare on the English coast. In 1899 and 1900, 
however, they became so abundant on the south coast as to 
attract general notice, and to constitute a veritable plague which 
threatened complete ruin to the shell-fish fisheries. This visita- 
tion and its effects were described by W. Garstang in the Journal 
of the Marine Biological Association. The abnormal abundance 
occurred all along the west coast of France, whence it extended 
to the Channel, and was probably due to a succession of unusually 
warm summers and mild winters, beginning with the warm 
spring and hot summer of 1893. The octopus in the years 
mentioned entered the lobster pots of the fishermen and devoured 
or killed the crabs and lobsters captured. The pots when hauled 
contained usually only living octopus and the mutilated remains 
of their victims. One fisherman took in a single week 64 specimens 
of octopus and only 15 living uninjured lobsters. The octopus 
also almost exterminated the swimming crabs (Portunus) in 
Plymouth Sound, and in the tanks of the Plymouth aquarium 
attacked and devoured all the specimens of its smaller relative 
Eledone cirrosa. 

With regard to the size which the octopus may attain, the 
dimensions of the body are not usually given in records, but it is 
stated that the arms in the largest specimens measured 3^ ft., 
and in numerous cases were 3 ft. in length. This would enable 
the eight arms to extend over a circle 6 ft. in diameter, but the 
globular body is not more than about a third of the length of an 
arm in diameter. When not in pursuit of prey the octopus 
hides itself in a hole between rocks and covers itself with stones 
and shells. Like its victims it seems to be active chiefly at night 
and to remain in its nest during the day. 

For a technical account of the Octopoda see CEPHALOPODA; also 
W. Garstang," The Plague of Octopus on the South Coast, and its 
Effect on the Crab and Lobster Fisheries," Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 
vol. vi. (1900) p. 260. (J. T. C.) 

OCTOROON, or OCTAROON (from Lat. oclo, eight, formed on 
the example of quadroon), the offspring of a quadroon and a 
white; a person having one-eighth negro blood. In rare instances 
such persons are called tercerons, as being third in descent from 
a negro ancestor. Occasionally persons are called octoroons 



994 



OCTOSTYLE OCYDROME 



when the non-white element is not negro but some other coloured 
blood. 

OCTOSTYLE (Gr. OKTW eight, and orCXos, a column), in archi- 
tecture, a portico of eight columns in front (see TEMPLE). 

OCTROI (O. Fr. oclroyer, to grant, authorize; Lat. auctor), 
a local tax collected on various articles brought into a district 
for consumption. Octroi taxes have a respectable antiquity, 
being known in Roman times as vectigalia. These vectigalia 
were either the portorium, a tax on the entry from or departure 
to the provinces (those cities which were allowed to levy the 
portorium shared the profits with the public treasury); the 
ansarium or foricarium, a duty levied at the entrance to towns; 
or the edulia, sale imports levied in markets. Vectigalia were 
levied on wine and certain articles of food, but it was seldom 
that the cities were allowed to use the whole of the profits of the 
taxes. Vectigalia were introduced into Gaul by the Romans, 
and remained after the invasion by the Franks, under the name 
of tonlieux and coulumes. They were usually levied by the 
owners of seigniories. But during the I2th and i3th centuries, 
when the towns succeeded in asserting their independence, they 
at the same time obtained the recognition of their right to 
establish local taxation, and to have control of it. The royal 
power, however, gradually asserted itself, and it became the 
rule that permission to levy local taxes should be obtained from 
the king. From the I4th century onwards, we find numerous 
charters granting (oclroyer) to French towns the right to tax 
themselves. The taxes did not remain strictly municipal, for 
an ordinance of Cardinal Mazarin (in 1647) ordered the proceeds 
of the octroi to be paid into the public treasury, and at other 
times the government claimed a certain percentage of the product, 
but this practice was finally abandoned in 1852. From an 
early time the octroi was farmed out to associations or private 
individuals, and so great were the abuses which arose from the 
system that the octroi was abolished during the Revolution. 
But such a drastic measure meant the stoppage of all municipal 
activities, and in 1798 Paris was allowed to re-establish its 
octroi. Other cities were allowed gradually to follow suit, 
and in 1809 a law was passed laying down the basis on which 
octrois might be established. Other laws have been passed 
from time to time in France dealing with the octroi, especially 
those of 1816, 1842, 1867, 18,71, 1884 and 1897. By the law 
of 1809 octroi duties were allowed on (i) beverages and liquids; 

(2) eatables; (3) fuel; (4) forage; (5) building materials. 
A scale of rates was fixed, graduated according to the population, 
and farming out was strictly regulated. A law of 1816 enacted 
that an octroi could only be established at the wish of a municipal 
council, and that only articles destined for local consumption 
could be taxed. The law of 1852 abolished the 10% of the 
gross receipts paid to the treasury. Certain indispensable 
commodities are allowed to enter free, such as grain, flour, fruit, 
vegetables and fish. 

French octroi duties are collected either by the (i) regie simple, 
i.e. by special officers under the direction of the maire; (2) by 
the bail d ferme, i.e. farming, the contractor paying yearly a 
certain agreed upon sum calculated on the estimated amount; 

(3) the regie interesse, a variation of the preceding method, 
the contractor sharing the profits with the municipality when 
they reach a given sum; and (4) the abonnement msec la regie 
des contributions indirectes, under which a department of the 
treasury undertakes to collect the duties. More than half 
the octrois are collected under (i), and the numbers tend to 
increase; (2) is steadily decreasing, while (3) has been practically 
abandoned; (4) tends to increase. The gross receipts in 1901 
amounted to 11,132,870. A law of 1897 created new sources 
of taxation, giving communes the option of (i) new duties on 
alcohol; (2) a municipal licence duty on retailers of beverages; 
(3) a special tax on wine in bottle; (4) direct taxes on horses 
and carriages, clubs, billiard tables and dogs; (5) additional 
centimes to direct taxes. 

From time to time there has been agitation in France for 
the abolition of octroi duties, but it has never been pushed very 
earnestly. In 1869 a commission was appointed to consider 



the matter, and reported in favour of their retention. In Belgium, 
on the other hand, they were abolished in 1870, being replaced 
by an increase in customs and excise duties; and in 1903 
those in Egypt were also abolished. Octroi duties exist in Italy, 
Spain, Portugal and in some of the towns of Austria. 

AUTHORITIES. A. Guignard, De la suppression des octrois (Paris) ; 
Saint Julien and Bienaimd, Histoire des droits d' octroi a Paris; 
M. Tardit and A. Ripert, Traite des octrois municipaux (Paris, 1904) ; 
L. Hourcade, Manuel encyclopedique des contributions indirectes et 
des octrois (Paris, 1905) ; much useful matter from some of the 
foregoing will be found in Report on the French Octroi System, by 
Consul-general Hearn (British Diplomatic and Consular Reports, 
1906) ; the abolition of the Belgian octrois produced a voluminous 
official report: Abolition des octrois communaux en Belgique: 
documents et discussions parlementaires. (T. A. I.) 

O'CURRY, EUGENE (1796-1862), Irish scholar, was born at 
Dunaha, county Clare, in 1 796, the son of a farmer who was a man 
of unusual intelligence. After being employed for some time in 
the topographical and historical section of the Irish ordnance 
survey, O'Curry earned his living by translating and copying Irish 
manuscripts. The catalogue of Irish manuscripts in the British 
Museum was compiled by him. On the founding of the Roman 
Catholic University of Ireland (1854) he was appointed professor 
of Irish history and archaeology. His lectures were published 
by the university in 1860, and give a better knowledge of Irish 
medieval literature than can be obtained from any other one 
source. Three other volumes of lectures were published posthum- 
ously, under the title On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient 
Irish (1873). His voluminous transcripts, notably eight huge 
volumes of ancient Irish law, testify to his unremitting industry. 
The Celtic Society, of the council of which he was a member, 
published two of his translations of medieval tales. He died in 
Dublin in 1862. 

OCYDROME, a word formed from Ocydromus, meaning 
" swift-runner," and suggested by J. Wagler in 1830 as a generic 
term for the New Zealand bird called in the then unpublished 
manuscripts of J. R. Forster Rallus troglodytes, and so designated 
in 1788 by S. G. Gmelin, who knew of it through J. Latham's 
English description. Wagler's suggestion has since been generally 
adopted, and the genus Ocydromus is accepted by most ornith- 
ologists as a valid group of Rallidae; but the number of species 
it contains is admittedly doubtful, owing to the variability in 
size and plumage which they exhibit, and their correct nomencla- 
ture must for the present be considered uncertain. Sir W. 
Buller in his Birds of New Zealand identifies the " Wood-hen," 
observed in great abundance on the shores of Dusky Bay in 
1773 by Cook and his companions on his second voyage, with the ' 
Gattirallus fuscus described and figured by Du Bus in 1847, 
and accordingly calls it O. fuscus; but it cannot be questioned 
that the species from this locality which appears to have 
a somewhat limited range in the Middle Island, 1 and never to be 
met with far from the sea-coast, where it lives wholly on crus- 
taceans and other marine animals is identical with that of the 
older authors just mentioned. In 1786 Sparrman, who had 
also been of Cook's company, figured and described as Rallus 
australis a bird which, though said by him to be that of the 
southern coast of New Zealand, differs so much from the R. 
troglodytes as to compel a belief in its specific distinctness; and 
indeed his species has generally been identified with the common 
" Weka " of the Maories of the Middle Island, which can scarcely 
be the case if his statement is absolutely true, since the latter 
does not appear to reach so far to the southward, or to affect 
the seashore. It may therefore be fairly inferred that his subject 
was obtained from some other locality. The North Island of 
New Zealand has what is allowed to be a third species, to which 
the name of Ocydromus earli is attached, and this was formerly 
very plentiful; but its numbers have rapidly decreased, and 
there is every chance of its soon being as extinct as is the species 
which tenanted Norfolk Island on its discovery by Cook in 1774, 

1 It also occurs in Stewart Island, and singularly enough on the 
more distant group known as the Snares. The GalliraUus brachy- 
pterus of Lafresnaye, of which the typical (and unique?) specimen 
from an unknown locality is in the Caen Museum, has also been 
referred to this species, but the propriety of the act may be doubted. 



ODAENATHUS ODDE 



995 



and which was doubtless distinct from all the rest, though no 
specimen of it is known to exist in any museum. 1 Another 
species, 0. syhestris, smaller and lighter in colour than any of 
the rest, was found in 1869 to linger yet in Lord Howe's Island 
(Proc. Zool. Society, 1869, p. 473, pi. xxxv.). Somewhat differing 
from Ocydromus, but apparently very nearly allied to it, is a 
little bird peculiar, it is believed, to the Chatham Islands (Ibis, 
1872, p. 247), and regarded by Captain Hutton as the type of 
a genus Cabalus under the name of C. modestus, while other 
naturalists consider it to be the young of the rare Rallus dieffen- 
bachi. So far the distribution of the Ocydromine form is wholly 
in accordance with that of most others characteristic of the New 
Zealand sub-region; but a curious exception is asserted to have 
been found in the Gattirallus lafresnayanus of New Caledonia, 
which, though presenting some structural differences, has been 
referred to the genus Ocydromus. 

The chief interest attaching to the Ocydromes is their inability 
to use in flight the wings with which they are furnished, and 
hence an extreme probability of the form becoming wholly 
extinct in a short time. Of this inability there are other instances 
among the Rallidae (see MOOR-HEN) ; but here we have coupled 
with it the curious fact thai in the skeleton the angle which the 
scapula makes with the coracoid is greater than a right angle, 
a peculiarity shared only, so far as is known, among the Carinatae 
by the dodo. The Ocydromes are birds of dull plumage, and 
mostly of retiring habits, though the common species is said to 
show great boldness towards man, and, from the accounts of 
Cook and the younger Forster, the birds seen by them displayed 
little fear. They are extremely destructive to eggs and to any 
other birds they can master. (A. N.) 

ODAENATHUS, or ODENATUS (Gr. '05aiva0os, Palm, m-m = 
" little ear "), the Latinized form of ODAINATH, the name of a 
famous prince of Palmyra, in the second half of the 3rd century 
A.D., who succeeded in recovering the Roman East from the 
Persians and restoring it to the Empire. He belonged to the 
leading family of Palmyra, which bore, in token of Roman 
citizenship, the gentilicium of Septimius; hence his full name 
was Septimius Odainath (Vogue, Syrie centrale, Nos. 23, 28 = 
Cooke, North-Semitic Inscrr. Nos. 126, 130). It is practically 
certain that he was the son of Septimius Hairan the " senator 
and chief of Tadmor," the son of Septimius Odainath " the 
senator " (N.S.I, p. 285). The year when he became chief of 
Palmyra is not known, but already in an inscription dated A.D. 
258 he is styled " the illustrious consul our lord " (N.S.I. No. 
126). He possessed the characteristic vigour and astuteness of 
the old Arab stock from which he sprang; and in his wife, the 
renowned Zenobia (q.v.), he found an able supporter of his policy. 
The defeat and captivity of the emperor Valerian (A.D. 260) 
left the eastern provinces largely at the mercy of the Persians; 
the prospect of Persian supremacy was not one which Palmyra 
or its prince had any reason to desire. At first, it seems, Odainath 
attempted to propitiate the Parthian monarch Shapur (Sapor) 
I.; but when his gifts were contemptuously rejected (Petr. 
Patricius, to) he decided to throw in his lot with the cause of 
Rome. The neutrality which had made Palmyra's fortune was 
abandoned for an active military policy which, while it added 
to Odainath's fame, in a short time brought his native city to 
its ruin. He fell upon the victorious Persians returning home 
after the sack of Antioch, and before they could cross the 
Euphrates inflicted upon them a considerable defeat. Then, 
when two usurping emperors were proclaimed in the East 
(A.D. 261), Odainath took the side of Gallienus the son and 
successor of Valerian, attacked and put to death the usurper 
Quietus at Emesa (ij8ms), and was rewarded for his loyalty 
by the grant of an exceptional position (A.D. 262). He may have 

1 The younger Forster remarked that the birds of Norfolk Island, 
though believed by the other naturalists of Cook's ship to be generally 
the same as those of New Zealand, were distinguished by their 
brighter colouring (see also NESTOR). There can be no doubt that 
all the land-biros were specifically distinct. It is possible that 
Span-man's R. australis, which cannot very confidently be referred 
to any known species of Ocydromus, may have been from Norfolk 
Island. 



assumed the title of king before; but he now became " totius 
Orientis imperator," not indeed joint-ruler, nor Augustus, 
but " independent lieutenant of the emperor for the East" 
(Mommsen, Provinces, ii. p. 103).* In a series of rapid and 
successful campaigns, during which he left Palmyra under the 
charge of Septimius Worod his deputy (N.S.I. Nos. 127-129), 
he crossed the Euphrates and relieved Edessa, recovered Nisibis 
and Carrhae, and even took the offensfve against the power of 
Persia, and twice invested Ctesiphon itself, the capital; probably 
also he brought back Armenia into the Empire. These brilliant 
successes restored the Roman rule in the East; and Gallienus 
did not disdain to hold a triumph with the captives and trophies 
which Odainath had won (A.D. 264). While observing all due 
formalities towards his overlord, there can be little doubt that 
Odainath aimed at independent empire; but during his life- 
time no breach with Rome occurred. He was about to start for 
Cappadocia against the Goths when he was assassinated, together 
with Herodes his eldest son, by his nephew Maconius; there 
is no reason to suppose that this deed of violence was in- 
stigated from Rome. After his death (A.D. 266-267) Zenobia 
succeeded to his position, and practically governed Palmyra on 
behalf of her young son Wahab-allath or Athenodorus (see 
PALMYRA). (G. A. C.*) 

ODALISQUE, a slave-woman who is a member of an oriental 
harem, especially one in the harem or seraglio of the sultan of 
Turkey. The word is the French adaptation of the Turkish 
odaliq, formed from odah, chamber or room in a harem. 

ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an 
angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the 
third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute), that which 
remains over after an equal division, the unit in excess of an even 
number; thus in numeration the word is used of a number 
either above or below a round number, an indefinite cardinal 
number, as " eighty and odd," or " eighty odd." As applied 
to individuals, the sense of " one left after a division " leads to 
that of " solitary," and thus of " uncommon " or " strange." 
In the plural, " odds " was originally used to denote inequalities 
especially in the phrase " to make odds even." The sense of a 
difference in benefit leads to such colloquialisms as " makes 
no odds," while that of variance appears in the expression 
" to be at odds." In betting " the odds " is the advantage given 
by one person to another in proportion to the supposed chances 
of success. 

ODDE, or ODDA, a village of Norway, in South Bergenhus 
ami (county), on the Sor Fjord, a head-branch of the great 
Hardanger Fjord. It is 48 m. directly S.E. of Bergen, but 123 
by water (to Eide), road (to Vossevangen) , and rail thenceforward, 
or about the same distance by water alone. It is one of the 
principal tourist-centres in southern Norway, being at the end 
of the road from Breifond (27 m.) near which the routes join from 
Stavanger by Sand, Lake Suldal, and the Bratlandsdal, and 
from the south-eastern coast towns by the Telemark. This road, 
descending from the Horrebraekke, passes through the gorge 
of Seljestadjuvet, passes the Espelandsfos and Lotefos falls, 
and skirts the Sandven lake. Odde is also a centre for several 
favourite excursions, as to the Buarbrae, one of the glaciers 
descending from the great Folgefond snowfield, situated in a 
precipitous valley (Jordat) to the west of Sandven lake; to the 
Skjaeggedalsfos, a magnificent fall (525 ft.); or across the 
Folgefond to Suldal, a station on the Mauranger branch of the 
Hardanger fjord. Touring steamers and frequent local 
steamers from Bergen call at Odde, and there are several large 
hotels. 

1 The late Roman chronicler Trebellius Pollio goes further and 
asserts " Odenatus rex Palmyrenorum optinuit totius Orientis 
imperium. . . . Gallienus Odenatum participate imperio Augustum 
vocavit," Hist. Aug. xxiii. 10 and 12. This is not borne out by the 
evidence. The highest rank claimed for him by his own people 
is recorded in an inscription dated 271 (N.S.I. No. 130) set jip by 
the two generals of the Palmyrene army; Odainath is styled king 
of kings and restorer of the whole city " ; but this does not mean that 
he ever held the title of Augustus, and the inscription was set up 
after his death and during the revolt of Palmyra'. 



99 6 



ODDFELLOWS 



ODDFELLOWS, ORDER OF, a secret benevolent and social 
society, having mystic signs of recognition, initiatory rites and 
ceremonies, and various grades of dignity and honour. Great 
antiquity has been claimed for the order of Oddfellows the 
most popular tradition ascribing it to the Jewish legion under 
Titus, who, it is asserted, received from the emperor its first 
charter written on a golden tablet. Oddfellows themselves, 
however, now generally admit that the institution cannot be 
traced back beyond the first half of the i8th century, and explain 
the name as adopted at a time when the severance into sects 
and classes was so wide that persons aiming at social union and 
mutual help were a marked exception to the general rule. 
Mention is made by Defoe of the society of Oddfellows, but the 
oldest lodge of which the name has been handed down is the 
Loyal Aristarcus, No. 9, which met in 1745 "at the Oakley 
Arms, Borough of Southwark; Globe Tavern, Hatton Garden; 
or the Boar's Head in Smithfield, as the noble master may direct." 
The earliest lodges were supported by each member and visitor 
paying a penny to the secretary on entering the lodge, and special 
sums were voted to any brother in need. If out of work he was 
supplied with a card and funds to reach the next lodge, and he 
went from lodge to lodge until he found employment. The lodges 
gradually adopted a definite common ritual and became confeder- 
ated under the name of the Patriotic Order. Towards the end of 



the century many of the lodges were broken up by State prosecu- 
tions on the suspicion that their purposes were " seditious," but 
the society continued to exist as the Union Order of Oddfellows 
until 1809. In 1813, at a convention in Manchester, was formed 
the Independent Order of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity, which 
now overshadows all the minor societies in England. Oddfellow- 
ship was introduced into the United States from the Manchester 
Unity in 1819, and the grand lodge of Maryland and the United 
States was constituted on the 22nd of February 1821. It now 
rivals in membership and influence the Manchester Unity, from 
which it severed its connexion in 1842. In 1843 it issued a dis- 
pensation for opening the Prince of Wales Lodge No. i at Montreal, 
Canada. The American society, including Canada and the United 
States, has its headquarters at Baltimore. Organizations, 
connected either with the United States or England, have been 
founded in France, Germany, Switzerland, Gibraltar and Malta, 
Australia, New Zealand, the Fiji Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, 
South Africa, South America, the West Indies and Barbados, 
and elsewhere. 

The rules of the different societies, various song-books, and a 
number of minor books on Oddfellowship have been published, but 
the most complete and trustworthy account of the institution is 
that in The Complete Manual of Oddfellowship, its History, Principles, 
Ceremonies and Symbolism, privately printed (1879). See also 
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. 



END OF NINETEENTH VOLUME 



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